title,paragraph,score
Notgeld,"Notgeld (German for 'emergency money' or 'necessity money') is money issued by an institution in a time of economic or political crisis. The issuing institution is usually one without official sanction from the central government. This usually occurs when not enough state-produced money is available from the central bank. In particular, notgeld generally refers to money produced in Germany and Austria during World War I and the Interwar period. Issuing institutions could be a town's savings banks, municipalities and private or state-owned firms. Nearly all issues contained an expiry date, after which time they were invalid. Issues without dates ordinarily had an expiry announced in a newspaper or at the place of issuance.
Notgeld was mainly issued in the form of (paper) banknotes. Sometimes other forms were also used: coins, leather, silk, linen, wood, postage stamps, aluminium foil, coal, and porcelain; there are also reports of elemental sulfur being used, as well as all sorts of re-used paper and carton material (e.g. playing cards). These pieces made from playing cards are extremely rare and are known as Spielkarten, the German word for 'playing cards'.
Notgeld was a mutually-accepted means of payment in a particular region or locality, but notes could travel widely. Some cases of Notgeld could better be defined as scrip, which were essentially coupons redeemable only at specific businesses. However, the immense volume of issues produced by innumerable municipalities, firms, businesses, and individuals across Germany blurred the definition. Collectors tend to categorize by region or era rather than issuing authority (see below). Notgeld is different from occupation money (e.g. Japanese invasion money) that is issued by an occupying army during a war.


== Germany ==
Dr Arnold Keller, historian and orientalist, classified German Notgeld into different periods. Keller edited a magazine called Das Notgeld during the ""collector phase"" of Notgeld issuance. He compiled a series of catalogs in the years afterward. Although incomplete in many cases, his work formed the foundations of the hobby.


=== Notgeld in World War I ===

Notgeld was released even before Germany entered World War I. On 31 July 1914 three notes were issued by the Bürgerliches Brauhaus GmbH of Bremen (a brewery). This was due to hoarding of coins by the population in the days before war was declared. The first period of Notgeld continued until the end of 1914, but mostly ceased once the German Reichsbank made up for the shortage with issues of small denomination paper notes and coins of cheaper metal.
As the war dragged on, acute monetary shortages could not be met by the German central bank, leading to a new period of Notgeld beginning in 1916. Additionally, the non-precious metals used to mint lower value coins were needed to produce war supplies. Dr Keller arranged this period into two catalogs: Kleingeldscheine for issues of less than 1 Mark face value and Grossgeldscheine for values 1 Mark and higher. This period of issue came to a close in 1919.


=== World War I prison camp money ===
Although camp money used by prisoners of war was different from Notgeld, collectors inevitably lumped this material into the hobby. The period covered the entire war, 1914–1918. This field of collecting may include World War II issues, though this covers only notes circulated in concentration camps, as the German Luftwaffe in charge of prisoners of war prepared a general issue of notes for all camps under their direction.


=== Collector series ===

Though the production of Notgeld was initially amateurish, with many set by typewriter or even handwritten, collectors soon appeared on the scene to take hold of the expired 1914 stock. With the next wave of issues in the latter half of the war, Notgeld production was handled by professional printers. These issues incorporated pleasing designs, and a new reason for hoarding came into being.
As the issuing bodies realized this demand, they began to issue notes in 1920, well after their economic necessity had ended. They may have been motivated by the success of Austrian collector Notgeld earlier in the year (see below). Notes were issued predominantly in 1921 and were usually extremely colorful. These depicted many subjects, such as local buildings, local scenery and folklore, as well as politics. Many were released in series of 6, 8, or more notes of the same denomination, and tell a short story, with often whimsical illustrations. Often, they were sold to collectors in special envelope packets printed with a description of the series.
Keller published information on releases in his magazine Das Notgeld. Often, he used his publication to criticize issuers for charging collectors more money for the series than their face value.
These collector-only sets, which were never intended to circulate, were known as Serienscheine (pieces issued as a part of a series). Quite often, the validity period of the note had already expired when the Notgeld was issued. As such, they are usually found in uncirculated condition, and are most favored by collectors all over the world.


=== 1922 and 1923: Hyperinflation ===

In 1922, due to uncontrolled printing of money, inflation started to get out of control in Germany, culminating in hyperinflation. Throughout the year, the value of the mark deteriorated faster and faster, and new money was issued in higher and higher denominations. The Reichsbank could not cope with the logistics of providing all these new notes, and Notgeld was again issued—this time in denominations of hundreds and then thousands of Marks.

By July 1923, the Reichsbank had totally lost control of the economy. Notgeld flooded the economy; it was issued by any city, town, business, or club that had access to a printing press, in order to meet the ever-increasing rise in prices. Even Serienscheine were being hand-stamped with large denominations to meet the demand. By September, Notgeld was denominated in the tens of millions; by October, in billions; by November, trillions.
On November 12, the Reichsbank declared the Mark to be valueless, and ceased all issuance. By now, Notgeld was being denominated in the form of commodities or other currencies: wheat, rye, oats, sugar, coal, wood, quantities of natural gas, and kilowatt-hours of electricity. These pieces were known as Wertbeständige, or notes of ""fixed value"". There were also Notgeld coins that were made of compressed coal dust. These became quite rare, as most of them were eventually traded with the coal merchant issuer for actual coal and some may have even been burned as fuel.


=== Goldmark Notgeld ===
In January 1924, the Reichsbank fixed the value of the new Rentenmark in gold. One U.S. dollar was now equivalent to 4.2 Rentenmark (or 4.2 trillion old Papiermark, which were permitted to be exchanged beginning 30 August 1924). Until that date, a few municipalities issued Notgeld with denominations of 4.2 Mark or multiples or fractions of that. After that date, Goldmarkscheine of regular denominations were briefly issued, until the Reichsbank forbade any further interference in the economy by local authorities.


=== Bausteine ===
During the Interwar period, local municipalities and civic groups capitalized on the public memories of Notgeld by issuing certificates aimed at collectors, to raise funds for various building projects. These ""Building Blocks"" (Bausteine) tended to be of relatively high face value and issued in very limited numbers.


=== Notgeld after World War II ===
The Reichsbank kept strict control of the economy during World War II, and forbade local authorities from independently meeting money shortages. After Germany's defeat, the Allied Military Control issued currencies for each of their respective areas of control, but did not alleviate coin scarcity. The dire situation after the war forced municipalities to once again issue Notgeld to help the population meet small change needs.  Finally, the Currency Reform of June 1948 created the Deutsche Mark and prohibited issuance of Notgeld. Apart from commemorative pieces issued sporadically, the era of Notgeld in Germany came to a close.


== Austria ==


=== Revolution of 1848 ===

Austrian municipalities experienced coin shortages during the revolution of 1848, especially in the Czech towns, and therefore many municipalities and industrial concerns issued Notgeld as a temporary measure. By 1850, the state finances were in such an order as to render them unnecessary, though certain parts of Hungary still experienced shortages as late as 1860, requiring Notgeld-type issues.


=== World War I ===
As in Germany, municipalities in Austria-Hungary issued Notgeld at the beginning of World War I. In most cases, small change scarcity was severest in the industrial Czech towns of Bohemia and Moravia. From the end of the war into 1919, German-speaking towns of the new Czechoslovakia issued Grossgeldscheine notes until the authorities forbade them to do so.


=== Prison camp money ===
As with Germany, collectors tended to lump Austro-Hungarian prison camp money in with Notgeld. Most issues date from 1916–1917, with the majority of camps situated in Austria proper, Hungary, and Czech territories.


=== Collector series ===
In 1920, hundreds of small towns across Upper and Lower Austria, but also many towns in Salzburg, Tyrol, and Styria, issued sets of collectible Notgeld, usually in three denominations with expiry dates of three months from issuance. Nearly all were printed on thin paper, often in runs (Auflage) of different colors or shades. Some of these notes actually circulated, but the vast majority entered private collections, and the scheme's success in raising funds for destitute town budgets convinced German towns to do the same thing (see above).
After the initial run of regular series, there were numerous releases of ""special issues"" (Sonderscheine) featuring different designs and denominations, fanciful overprints, or the same design as the general issues but in expensive metallic inks on different paper types. Many of these special issues were printed in very small quantities in order to charge premiums to collectors. Groups of rural villages issued Sonderscheine, even though some had populations of only a few dozen inhabitants.


=== Depression-era Schwundgeld ===
In a bid to increase economic activity, several depressed municipalities in the Alps regions of Austria experimented with demurrage currency features in their Notgeld during the period 1932–1934. As the notes lost value (Schwund) over time, the idea was to convince holders to spend them quickly, thereby spurring economic activity. Notes had dated spaces for demurrage coupons to be affixed to them, and each one lessened the total value as they were added. The effort was unsuccessful because the scale of the experiment was too small to show any benefit.


== In other countries ==


=== Ireland (1689–1691) ===

The forces of James II minted coins in base metal (copper, brass, pewter) during the Williamite War in Ireland, which were known as gun money, because some of the metal was sourced from melted-down cannon. It was intended that, in the event of James' victory, the coins could be exchanged for real silver coins. They were also stamped with the month of issue so that soldiers could claim interest on their wages. As James lost the war, that replacement never took place, but the coins were allowed to circulate at much reduced values before the copper coinage was resumed.


=== Sweden (1715–1719) ===
In Sweden, between 1715 and 1719, 42 million coins with the nominal value 1 daler silver were manufactured, but made in copper, with a much smaller metal value. All silver coins were collected by the government, which replaced them with the copper coins. They were called nödmynt ('emergency coins'). This was done to finance the Great Northern War. The government promised to exchange them into the correct value at a future time, a kind of bond made in metal. Only a small part of this value was ever paid.


=== Belgium (1914–1918) ===

Throughout the German occupation of Belgium during World War I there was a shortage of official coins and banknotes in circulation. As a result, around 600 communes, local governments and companies issued their own unofficial ""necessity money"" (French: monnaie de nécessité, Dutch: noodgeld) to enable the continued functioning of the local economies. These usually took the form of locally produced banknotes, but a few types of coins were also issued in towns and cities. In 2013, the Museum of the National Bank of Belgium digitized its collection of Belgian Notgeld, which is available online.


=== France (1914–1927) ===
Between 1914 and 1927, large amounts of monnaie de nécessité were issued in France and its North African colonies during the economic crisis caused by World War I. Among the issuing authorities were companies and local chambers of commerce.


=== Spain (1936-1939) ===
Emergency currency circulated in Spain during the Spanish Civil War.


=== Others ===
The concept of Notgeld as temporary payment certificates is nearly as old and widespread as paper money itself. Other countries using Notgeld-style temporary money include the following (date ranges are approximate):


== See also ==

Porcelain money
Scrip
Siege money
Token coin


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Notgeld at Wikimedia Commons
Info and pictures about German notgeld
Info about notgeld and collecting German notgeld
German and Austrian Notgeld Banknotes
High-resolution images of many German Notgeld Banknotes
Information and pictures to all Austrian Notgeld periods
Notgeld at notafilia.com.br
Annotated Directory of German Series Notes
Notgeld photographs on Flickr
Belgian emergency money from the First World War: an online collection (in French)
Catalog of German notgeld coins (Numista)
Catalog of German notgeld banknotes (Numista)
Catalog of French notgeld coins (Numista)
Catalog of French notgeld banknotes (Numista)",1.022643804550171
Haplogroup D (mtDNA),"In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup D is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
It is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup M, thought to have arisen somewhere in East Asia, between roughly 60,000 and 35,000 years ago (in the Late Pleistocene, before the Last Glacial Maximum and the settlement of the Americas).
In contemporary populations, it is found especially in Central and Northeast Asia. 
Haplogroup D (more specifically, subclade D4) is one of five main haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, B, C, and X. Among the Nepalese population, haplogroup D is the most dominant maternal lineage in Tamang (26.1%) and Magar (24.3%).


== Subclades ==
There are two principal branches, D4 and D5'6. 
D1,  D2 and D3 are subclades of D4.


=== D4 ===
D1 is a basal branch of D4 that is widespread and diverse in the Americas. 
Subclades D4b1, D4e1, and D4h are found both in Asia and in the Americas and are thus of special interest for the settlement of the Americas.
D2, which occurs with high frequency in some arctic and subarctic populations (especially Aleuts), is a subclade of D4e1 parallel to D4e1a and D4e1c, so it properly should be termed D4e1b. 
D3, which has been found mainly in some Siberian populations and in Inuit of Canada and Greenland, is a branch of D4b1c.
D4 (3010, 8414, 14668): The subclade D4 is the most frequently occurring mtDNA haplogroup among modern populations of northern East Asia, such as Japanese, Okinawans, Koreans, northern Han Chinese (e.g. from Lanzhou), and some Mongolic- or Tungusic-speaking populations of the Hulunbuir region, such as Barghuts in Hulun Buir Aimak, Mongols and Evenks in New Barag Left Banner, and Oroqens in Oroqen Autonomous Banner. D4 is also the most common haplogroup among the Oroks of Sakhalin, the Buryats and Khamnigans of the Buryat Republic, the Kalmyks of the Kalmyk Republic, the Telenghits and Kazakhs of the Altai Republic, and the Kyrgyz of Kyzylsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture. It also predominates among published samples of Paleo-Indians and individuals whose remains have been recovered from Chertovy Vorota Cave. Spread also all over China, the Himalayas, Central Asia, Siberia, and indigenous peoples of the Americas, with some cases observed in Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and Europe. Khattak and Kheshgi in Peshawar Valley, Pakistan

D4* - China, Mongol from Heilongjiang and Hebei, Korea, Japan, Thailand (Lisu from Mae Hong Son Province), USA, Russia, Georgia, Iraq, Turkey, Greece

D1 – America
D1a – Colombia
D1a1 – Brazil (Surui, Gavião)
D1a2 – Guaraní
D1b – United States (Hispanic), Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
D1c – United States (Hispanic), Mexican
D1d
D1d1 – United States (Hispanic), Mexican
D1d2 – Mexican
D1e – Brazil (Karitiana, Zoró)
D1f – Colombia (incl. Coreguaje), Ecuador (Amerindian Kichwas from the Amazonian provinces of Pastaza, Orellana, and Napo), Peru, Mexican, USA
D1f1 – Venezuela, Brazil (Karitiana), Tiriyó, Waiwai, Katuena
D1f2 – Colombia
D1f3 – Mexico, USA (Native American)
D1g – Southern Cone of South America
D1g1
D1g1a
D1g1b
D1g2
D1g2a
D1g3
D1g4
D1g5
D1g6
D1h
D1h1 – Mexican
D1h2 – Mexican
D1i – Peru, Mexican, United States (Hispanic)
D1i1 – Mexican
D1i2 – Mexican
D1j – Southern Cone of South America (incl. the Gran Chaco in Argentina)
D1j1
D1j1a
D1j1a1 – Argentina
D1j1a2
D1k – Peru, Mexican, United States (Hispanic)
D1m – Mexican
D1n – United States (Hispanic), Mexico
D1r – Peru
D1u
D1u1 – Peru

D4a – China, Mongol from Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang, Northern Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province and Lamphun Province, Phuan from Phrae Province), Laos (Lao from Luang Prabang), Japan, Korea, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan (Tajik from Ferghana), Pakistan (Saraiki), Mongolia
D4a1 – Japan, Korea, Negidal, Ulchi
D4a1a – Japan
D4a1a1 – Japan, Korea
D4a1a1a – Japan
D4a1b – Japan, Korea
D4a1b1 – Japan
D4a1c – Japan, Korea
D4a1d – Japan
D4a1e – China, Taiwan, Dirang Monpa, Mongol from Shandong, Yakut
D4a1e1 – Japan, Uyghurs
D4a1f – Japan
D4a1f1 – Japan
D4a1g – China, Bargut
D4a1h – Japan
D4a2 – Japan, Korea
D4a2a – Japan, Korea
D4a2b – Japan
D4a3 Mongol from Tongliao
D4a3a
D4a3a* – China (Henan), Korea
D4a3a1 – China (Taihang area in Henan province, Hunan Han, Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture)
D4a3a2 – Japan
D4a3b
D4a3b* – China, Mongol from Shenyang
D4a3b1 – Japan, Korea, China（Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, China）, Pakistan (Kalash)
D4a3b2 – China, Taiwan
D4a4 – Japan
D4a5 - Myanmar (Shan from Kachin State), China (Zhejiang, Chamdo, Korean from Antu County, Mongol from Tongliao)
D4a6 - China (Eastern China, Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture), Mauritius
D4a-b
D4a-b* – China (Han Chinese from Taizhou, Zhejiang)
D4a7
D4a7* – China
D4a7a
D4a7a* – Taiwan
D4a7a1 – Taiwan (Hakka Han from Neipu, Pingtung)
D4a7b
D4a7b* – Vietnam (Kinh from Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam)
D4a7b1 – China (Souther Han Chinese from Hunan), Taiwan (Minnan Han from Kaohsiung and Tsou from Alishan, Chiayi), Vietnam (Kinh from Gia Lâm District, Hanoi)  Singapore (Malaysian)
D4a8 – China
D4b – Thailand (Thai from Central Thailand)
D4b1
D4b1* – Russia (Tuvan from Tuva Republic, Tatarstan), Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz), China (Uyghur, Mongol from Beijing, etc.)
D4b1a
D4b1a* – China (Bargut from Inner Mongolia, Mongol from Heilongjiang), South Korea, Thailand (Iu Mien from Nan Province)
D4b1a1 – South Korea, Japan
D4b1a1a – South Korea, Japan, Kyrgyzstan
D4b1a2 – Yukaghir, Neolithic Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug
D4b1a2a
D4b1a2a* – Hungary, Khamnigan, Han (Beijing)
D4b1a2a1 – China (Bargut, Uyghur), Mongol, Kazakhstan, Karakalpak, Azeri, Turkey, Poland, Russia (Buryats in Buryat Republic and Irkutsk Oblast, Tubalars, Ayon, Yanranay, Karaginsky District), Inuit (Canada, Greenland), Canada, Native American (USA)
D4b1a2a2 – Buryat, Todzhins, Tuvan
D4b1b'd
D4b1b - China, Taiwan
D4b1b1 – Japan
D4b1b1a – Japan
D4b1b1a1 – Japan
D4b1b2 – Japan, China (Han from Zhanjiang)
D4b1d – China (Gelao from Daozhen)
D4b1c
D3 – Oroqen, Buryat, Barghut, Yukaghir, Even, Evenk, Yakut, Dolgan, Nganasan, Inuit
D3* – Buryat, Yakut, Yukaghir (Lower Indigirka River, Chukotka, etc.), Nganasan (Vadei from the Taimyr Peninsula), Even (Severo-Evensk district, Sebjan, Sakkyryyr, Berezovka), Evenk (Taimyr Peninsula), Oroqen, Mansi
D3a – Bargut, Buryat, Evenk (Stony Tunguska)
D3b – Oroqen
D3c
D3c* – Buryat
D3c1
D3c1* – Nganasan (Avam from the Taimyr Peninsula)
D3c1a
D3c1a1
D3c1a1a – Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug (Neolithic Transbaikal), Bargut (modern Inner Mongolia)
D3c1a1b – Italy (Roman Empire)
D3c1a2 – Ust'-Dolgoe site of Glazkovo culture (Bronze Age Cis-Baikal), Onnyos burial near Amga River (Middle Neolithic central Yakutia)
D3d – Even (Tompo District of Yakutia, Lower Indigirka River)
D3e – Even (Tompo District of Yakutia)
D4b2 – Japan, specimen from 4256–4071 cal YBP (Middle Jōmon period) Yokohama, China (Mongol from Hebei), Thailand (Hmong from Chiang Rai Province), India (Gallong)
D4b2a – Japan
D4b2a1 – Japan, China (Korean from Antu County)
D4b2a2 – Japan, Korea
D4b2a2a – Japan, Kyrgyzstan
D4b2a2a1 – Japan, South Korea, China (Han from Dandong)
D4b2a2a2 – Japan
D4b2a2b – Japan
D4b2b – China (Mongols from Northeast China and Inner Mongolia, Uyghurs, Tu, Tibet, etc.), South Korea, Japan, Thailand (Khmu from Nan Province), Saudi Arabia
D4b2b1 – Japan, Korea, Buryat, Mongol from Tongliao, Uyghur, Persian
D4b2b1a – Japan
D4b2b1b – Japan
D4b2b1c – Japan
D4b2b1d – Japan
D4b2b2 – China (Mongol from Chifeng and Heilongjiang, Tujia, Han from Lanzhou, etc.), Taiwan (Hakka)
D4b2b2a – China, Taiwan, Vietnam (Lachi)
D4b2b2a1 – Japan, Russia
D4b2b2b – Russia, China, South Korea
D4b2b2c – China, Buryat
D4b2b3 – Japan
D4b2b4 – Northeast India (Sherdukpen), China, Russia (Tuvan)
D4b2b5 – Barguts, Buryat, Tibet, Taiwan
D4b2b6 – Chinese (Shandong, Beijing, Lanzhou, Denver), Korea, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Armenian
D4b2b7 – China, Taiwan (Hakka)
D4b2b8 – Uyghur
D4b2b9
D4b2b9* – China, Xibo
D4b2b9a
D4b2b9a* – Buryat
D4b2b9a1 – China
D4b2c
D4b2d – Inner Mongolia (Bargut, Buryat)
D4c
D4c1 – Uyghur
D4c1a – Japan, Korea
D4c1a1 – Japan, Tashkurgan (Kyrgyz)
D4c1b – Japan, Inner Mongolia
D4c1b1 – Japan, Tibet
D4c1b2 – Japan
D4c2 – Turkmenistan, Mongol from Chifeng
D4c2a – Uyghur (Artux), Russian Federation
D4c2a1 – Uyghur, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan, Ulchi
D4c2b – Yakut, Buryat, Bargut, Daur, Even, Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Kazakhstan, Turk, Russian, Ukraine
D4c2c – Japan
D4d – Japan, Korea

D4e
D4e1 – Taiwan, Czech Republic (West Bohemia), Austrian, Finland, USA
D4e1a – Thailand (Mon from Nakhon Ratchasima Province), Moken, Urak Lawoi, China (Han from Lanzhou, Mongol from Inner Mongolia, etc.), Tibet, Uyghur, Korea, Japan
D4e1a1 – Japan, Chinese
D4e1a2 – Thailand, Sonowal Kachari
D4e1a2a – Japan, Korea
D4e1a3 – China (Yao from Bama, Mongol from Alxa, etc.), Thailand (Hmong, Iu Mien), Vietnam (Cờ Lao, Phù Lá)
D2 – Uyghur, Mongol from Jilin and Chaoyang
D2a'b
D2a – Aleut, Tlingit
D2a1 – Saqqaq, ancient Canada
D2a1a – Aleut
D2a1b – Siberian Eskimo
D2a2 – Chukchi, Eskimo
D2b – Yukaghir, Even (Maya River, Okhotsk Region), Mongol from Hulunbuir
D2b1 – China, Tibet, Kazakhstan, Kalmyk, Belarus (Tatar)
D2b1a – Buryat, Yakut, Khamnigan, Evenk
D2b2 – Evenk, Bargut
D2c – Buryat
D4e1c – Mexican
D4e2 – Japan, Korea, USA (African American)
D4e2a – Japan, Korea
D4e2b – Japan
D4e2c – Japan
D4e2d – Japan
D4e3 – Northeast Thailand (Black Tai, Saek), China, Mongol from Shenyang and Tongliao, Lachungpa
D4e4 – Yakut, Ulchi, Bulgaria, Poland, Russian Federation
D4e4a – Evenk, Even, Uyghur
D4e4a1 – Yukaghir, Evenk, Even, Mongol from Shenyang
D4e4b – Russian, Volga Tatar
D4e5
D4e5a - Xinjiang (Uyghur, Kyrgyz), Russia (Altai Kizhi, Buryat), Inner Mongolia (Bargut), Iran (Qashqai), Japan (Aichi)
D4e5b - Orok (Sakhalin), Even (Nelkan on the Maya River in the Okhotsk Region), Kyrgyz (Artux), Bashkortostan, Han Chinese (Lanzhou, Denver), Mongol from Fuxin and Heilongjiang
D4f – Shor
D4f1 – Japan, Korea, Mongol (Bargut, Chifeng, Chaoyang, Hebei)

D4g
D4g* – Japan, Korea
D4g1 – Japan, Korea, Uyghur, Uzbekistan
D4g1a – Japan
D4g1b – Japan, Taiwan, Mongol from Xinjiang, Belarus
D4g1c – Japan
D4g2 – China, Mongols in China (Fuxin, Hinggan, Tongliao, Xilingol)
D4g2a – Japan
D4g2a1 – China, Thailand (Mon from Lopburi Province), Mongols in China (Bargut, Beijing, Fuxin), Buryat, Khamnigan
D4g2a1a – Japan
D4g2a1b – China, Thailand (Black Tai from Kanchanaburi Province, Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province)
D4g2a1c – Thailand (Mon from Kanchanaburi Province and Ratchaburi Province), China, Wancho, Jammu and Kashmir
D4g2b – China, Buryat
D4g2b1 – Han Chinese, Ulchi
D4g2b1a – Japan

D4h
D4h* – Thailand (Khmu from Nan Province, Htin from Phayao Province, Khon Mueang from Lampang Province), Philippines
D4h1
D4h1* – China
D4h1a - Korea, China (Liaoning Han)
D4h1a1 – Japan, Korea, China (Beijing)
D4h1a2 – Japan, Korea, China (Liaoning, Jilin, Tianjin, Shandong)
D4h1b
D4h1b-G10398A - China (Hunan Han, Zhejiang), Kyrgyzstan
D4h1b-A16241G - Japan (Tokyo, Aichi)
D4h1c – China (incl. Tu), Tibet
D4h1c1 – Japan, Korea, Mongol from Shenyang
D4h1d – Bargut
D4h2 – Ulchi
D4h3 – Thailand (Tai Yuan from Ratchaburi Province)
D4h3a – South America (Peru, Ecuador, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil), Mexico, USA, and Colombia.
D4h3a1 – Chile
D4h3a1a – Chile
D4h3a1a1 – Chile
D4h3a1a2 – Chile
D4h3a2 – Chile, Argentina
D4h3a3 – Chile
D4h3a3a – Mexico, USA
D4h3a4 – Peru
D4h3a5 – Chile, Peru, Argentina
D4h3a6 – Peru, Ecuador
D4h3a7 – ancient Canada
D4h3a8 – Mexico
D4h3a9 – Peru
D4h3b – China
D4h4 – Uyghur, Tibet, Japan, Mongol (Bayannur, Hinggan)
D4h4a – Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan), Buryat, Bargut
D4i
D4i* – Japan, Uyghur, Israel (Palestinian)
D4i1 – Japan
D4i2 – Uyghur, Yakut, Dolgan, Kazakh, Volga Tatar, Buryat, Bargut, Evenk (Iengra), Even, Nanai, Yukaghir, Russia, Germany, England
D4i3
D4i3* – Nepal (Kathmandu)
D4i3a – China, Taiwan (Atayal)
D4i4 – Uyghur, Tibet (Sherpa), China (Miao), Vietnam (H'Mông)
D4i5 – Japan

D4j – Tibet, Uyghur, Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan, Tashkurgan, Artux), Altai, Teleut, Tuvan, Buryat, Mongols in China (Bargut, Chifeng, Hohhot, Tianjin, Tongliao), China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Turkey, Italy, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus
D4j1 – Thailand (Palaung from Chiang Mai Province), Uyghur
D4j1a – Bargut, Buryat, Khamnigan
D4j1a1 – Lepcha, Gallong, Lachungpa, Sherpa, Tibet, Lahu, Thailand (Lahu from Mae Hong Son Province, Mon from Ratchaburi Province, Lawa from Mae Hong Son Province, Tai Yuan from Uttaradit Province), Kyrgyz, Uyghur, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan
D4j1a1a – Gallong, Tibet
D4j1a1b – Toto
D4j1a2 – Tibet, Ladakh
D4j1b – Tibet, Wancho, Nepal, Thailand (Mon from Ratchaburi Province, Palaung and Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province), Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan)
D4j1b2 – Gallong
D4j2 – Lithuania, ancient Scythian (Chylenski), Yakut, Dolgan
D4j2a – Mansi, Ket, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin)
D4j-T16311C! – Italy, Ukraine, Lithuania
D4j3 – Russian Federation, Uyghur, Tibet, Mongol (Hulunbuir), Japan, Thailand (Mon from Ratchaburi Province)
D4j3a – China, Inner Mongolia (Mongol from Tongliao), Ulchi
D4j3a1 – Japan
D4j3b - Thailand (Lisu from Mae Hong Son Province), Tibet (Lhoba), Uyghur
D4j11 – Japan, Inner Mongolia (Mongol from Chifeng), Buryat, Hungary, Italy
D4j4 – Nganasan, Even (Maya River basin, NE Sakha Republic), Evenk (Nyukzha river basin, Iengra River basin)
D4j4a – Evenk (Okhotsk region, Sakha Republic, Iengra River basin), Even (Okhotsk region), Ulchi, Buryat, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin)
D4j5 – Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Iran (Khorasan), Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Inner Mongolia, Buryat, Yakut, Yukaghir, Even (Sakha Republic), Evenk (Sakha Republic)
D4j-T146C!
D4j6 – China, Buryat, Dirang Monpa
D4j13 – Volga Tatar, Kyrgyz (Artux), Uyghur, Sherpa (Shigatse)
D4j7 – Tubalar, Mongol (Hinggan League)
D4j7a – Buryat, Bargut
D4j8 – China, Bargut, Buryat, Evenk (Sakha Republic), Yakut, Kazakh, Kyrgyz (Artux), Uyghur, Poland, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia, Austria, Scotland, Argentina
D4j9 – Bargut, Buryat, Khamnigan, Tuvan
D4j10 – Tubalar, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan, Kazakhstan, Turk
D4j12 – Bargut, Buryat, Uyghur, Tatarstan, Belarus, Poland, Italy
D4j14 – Japan
D4j15 – China, Tibet, Mongols in China (Chifeng), Kazakhstan
D4j16 – China
D4k'o'p
D4k – Japan, Korea, China (Qinghai, Kinh, etc.), Uyghur, Kyrgyzstan
D4o – Teleut, Uyghur, Buryat
D4o1
D4o1* – Uyghur, Tubalar (Northeast Altai)
D4o1a – Japan, Buryat
D4o1b – Kyrgyz (Artux), Chelkan, Teleut, Khamnigan, Buryat (Buryat Republic), Han Chinese (N. China)
D4o2 – Bargut, Yakut, Evenk (Sakha Republic), Even (Kamchatka, Sakha Republic), Koryak, Ulchi, China (Han from Lanzhou)
D4o2* – Mongols in China (Bargut from Inner Mongolia, Mongol from Hinggan League, Mongol from Hohhot)
D4o2a – Manchu
D4o2a* – Uyghur, Yakut, Nganasan, Evenk (New Barag Left Banner), Even (Kamchatka), Koryak
D4o2a1 – Negidal, Hezhen, Uyghur, China
D4o2a2 – Yakut, Uyghur, ancient Yana River basin
D4o2a3 – Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Buryat (Zabaykalsky Krai)
D4p
D4p* – Altaian, Buryat
D4p1 – Japan
D4p2 – Buryat
D4l
D4l1
D4l1a – Japan
D4l1a1 – Japan
D4l1b – Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Uyghur
D4l2 – Evenk (Nyukzha, Iengra, Taimyr), Yakut (Central, Vilyuy), Uyghur, Kazakh
D4l2a – Even (Tompo, Sebjan), Yukaghir, Mongol (Xilingol League)
D4l2a1 – Even (Sebjan, Sakkyryyr), Evenk (Taimyr), Yakut, Yukaghir
D4l2a2 – Evenk, Negidal, Yukaghir
D4l2b – China, Tibet (Lhasa)
D4m
D4m* – Tubalar (Northeast Altai)
D4m1 – Japan
D4m2 – Mongolia, Mongols in China (Hohhot, Tongliao), South Korea
D4m2a – Nivkh, Ulchi, Yakut, Buryat, Evenk, Even, Yukaghir, South Korea
D4m2a* – Nivkh, Buryat
D4m2a1
D4m2a1* – Evenk (Central Siberia)
D4m2a1a – Evens (two from Sakkyryyr and one from Tompo), Yukaghir
D4m2a2 – Nivkh
D4m2a3 – Yakut
D4m2a4 – Nivkh
D4m2b – Tuvinian, Daur Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Mongolia, Uyghur
D4m3 – Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan,Artux), Uyghur
D4n
D4n* – Japan, Korea
D4n1
D4n1* – Japan
D4n1a – Japan
D4n2
D4n2a – China
D4n2b – Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan), Tibet, Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Buryat (Irkutsk Oblast)
D4q – Taiwan, China, Mongols in China (Fuxin), Kyrgyz, Tajiks, India (Jammu and Kashmir), Germany, Poland, Netherlands, United States
D4q1 – Toto
D4q1a – Toto
D4q2 - Kyrgyz, India (Uttar Pradesh Upper Caste Brahmin)
D4q2a - Sherdukpen
D4q3 - Uyghur
D4q4 - Lhoba
D4r – Thailand, Myanmar
D4s
D4s1
D4s1* – Vietnam (Si La, Hà Nhì)
D4s1a – Vietnam (Hà Nhì)
D4s2 – Tashkurgan (Sarikoli, Kyrgyz)
D4s3 – Tibet (Lhasa), Uyghur, Tuvinian
D4t – China, Korea, Japan
D4u
D4u*
D4u1
D4u1* – Iran (Qashqai)
D4u1a – Tashkurgan (Sarikoli)
D4v – Thailand
D4w – Japan (Tokyo), Tu
D4x – Peru (pre-Columbian Lima)
D4y – Vietnam (La Chí)
D4z – China


=== D5'6 ===
D5'6 (16189) is mainly found in East Asia and Southeast Asia, especially in China, Korea, and Japan. 
It does not appear to have participated in the migration to the Americas, and frequencies in Central, North, and South Asia are generally lower, although the D5a2a2 subclade is prevalent (57/423 = 13.48%) among the Yakuts, a Turkic-speaking group that migrated to Siberia in historical times under the pressure of the Mongol expansion.

D5 - Taiwan (Paiwan)
D5a'b (D5-A9180G) - Korean, Tai Yuan in Northern Thailand
D5a - China, Korea, Japan, Buryat, Poland
D5a1 - Japan (TMRCA 7,300 [95% CI 3,300 <-> 14,200] ybp)
D5a1a - Japan
D5a1a1 - Japan
D5a1a2 - Japan
D5a2 - Gallong, Mongols in China (Baotou), Korea (TMRCA 12,500 [95% CI 8,900 <-> 17,100] ybp)
D5a2a - Russia (Tula Oblast, Buryat), Mongols in China (Heilongjiang, Hohhot), China, Japan (TMRCA 10,400 [95% CI 7,400 <-> 14,200] ybp)
D5a2a-T16092C - China, Korea
D5a2a1 - Mongols in China (Tongliao, Beijing, Chifeng, Fuxin, Hohhot, Shandong), China (Han from Lanzhou, etc.), Tibet (Monpa, Deng), Vietnam (Hà Nhì), Korea, Japan (Gifu), Buryat, Tuvan, Kazakh
D5-C16172T! - Burusho, Tubalar, Kumandin (Turochak), Todzhi (Adir-Kezhig), Buryat (South Siberia, Inner Mongolia), Wancho, Gallong, Monpa, Myanmar (Burmese from Pakokku), Thailand (Lawa from Mae Hong Son Province), China (Han from Fujian, Miao, etc.), Taiwan
D5a2a1a - Japan (Aichi, Chiba, etc.), China
D5a2a1a1 - Japan (Aichi, etc.)
D5a2a1a1a - Japan (Chiba, etc.)
D5a2a1a1b - China (Uyghurs), Poland
D5a2a1a2 - Japan (Gifu, Tokyo, etc.)
D5a2a1b - Sonowal Kachari, Gallong, China (Han from Zhanjiang, etc.), Tibet (Lhoba, Tingri, Deng), Kyrgyz (Artux), Mongols in China (Hohhot, Tongliao)
D5a2a1b1 - China, Taiwan (Minnan)
D5a2a2 - Japan (Aichi), Bargut, Buryat, Kyrgyz (Artux), Tibet (Shannan), Yakut, Dolgan, Yukaghir, Evenk (Iengra, Nyukzha, Taimyr, Sakha Republic), Even (Sakha Republic) (TMRCA 3,500 [95% CI 2,300 <-> 5,000] ybp)
D5a2b - Thailand (Iu Mien from Nan Province), Vietnam (Si La, Hà Nhì), Tibet (Deng, Sherpa), China (TMRCA 10,400 [95% CI 7,200 <-> 14,500] ybp)
D5a3 - Tibet, Mongol (Dalian), Korea, Japan (TMRCA 11,100 [95% CI 6,300 <-> 18,100] ybp)
D5a3a - Mongol (Hinggan League), China, Tibet, Finland
D5a3a1 - China, Uyghur, Ukraine
D5a3a1a - Finland, Norway (Saami), Russia (Veliky Novgorod, etc.), Mansi
D5a3b - China, Korea (Seoul)
D5b - Uyghur, China, Mongol (Chifeng)
D5b1
D5b1* - China, Uyghur, Mongol (Hulunbuir, Jilin, Tongliao)
D5b1a
D5b1a1 - Japan, Korea, China (Hubei, etc.)
D5b1a2 - Japan
D5b1b
D5b1b* - Japan, Korea, Mongol (Baotou, Chaoyang, Heilongjiang, Nanyang, Shanxi, Tongliao)
D5b1b1 - Japan, Korea, Uzbekistan
D5b1b2
D5b1b2* - Japan, Korea, Taiwan (Minnan), Uyghur
D5b1b2a - Uyghur
D5b1b2b - Uyghur
D5b1b2c - Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan)
D5b1b3 - Japan
D5b1b4 - China
D5b1c
D5b1c* - China (Han from Kunming)
D5b1c1 - China, Mongol (Chifeng), Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam (Kinh)
D5b1c1* - Taiwan (Minnan, etc.)
D5b1c1a
D5b1c1a* - Taiwan (Amis, Puyuma, etc.), Indonesia (Manado), Chinese (Singapore)
D5b1c1a1 - Philippines (Kankanaey, Ifugao, etc.)
D5b1c1a2 - Philippines (Ibaloi)
D5b1c1b - China
D5b1c2 - Uyghur
D5b1d - Han Chinese (Beijing), Mongol (Ordos), Yakut
D5b1e - China
D5b1f - China
D5b2 - Japan
D5b3
D5b3* - Vietnam (Kinh, Tay), Thailand (Phuan), Laos (Lao), Taiwan (Minnan, etc.)
D5b3a - Taiwan (Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma)
D5b3a1 - Taiwan (Rukai, Bunun, Paiwan, etc.)
D5b3b - Thailand (Shan from Mae Hong Son Province, Black Tai from Kanchanaburi Province, Tai Yuan from Ratchaburi Province), Vietnam (Kinh)
D5b4 - Thailand (Siamese, Hmong from Chiang Rai Province), Vietnam (Tay Nung, Cờ Lao, Tay, Kinh), Taiwan (Minnan, Makatao, etc.), China (Han)
D5b5 - Uyghur
D5c
D5c1 - Japan, Han Chinese (Beijing)
D5c1a - Japan, Taiwan (Minnan, etc.), China, Mongol (Tongliao), Uyghur, Tubalar, Kumandin (Turochak, Soltonsky District), Shor (Biyka, etc.), Kyrgyzstan (TMRCA 4,500 [95% CI 3,300 <-> 6,100] ybp)
D5c-T16311C! - Vietnam (Kinh), Mongolian, China
D5c2 - China, Japan
D6
D6a - Philippines, East Timor
D6a1
D6a1* - Tibet, China, Korea, Japan
D6a1a - China, Japan
D6a2 - Taiwan (Atayal), Philippines
D6c - China (She people, Han from Zhanjiang), Taiwan (Minnan), Thailand (Phutai from Kalasin Province)
D6c1 - Philippines
D6c1a - Philippines (Maranao)


== Table of frequencies by ethnic group ==


== Famous members ==
Ruth Simmons is a member of haplogroup D1.
Comedian and actress Margaret Cho is in haplogroup D5a2a1b.


== See also ==

Genealogical DNA test
Genetic genealogy
Human mitochondrial genetics
Population genetics
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas


== References ==


== External links ==
General
Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site
Haplogroup D
Mannis van Oven's PhyloTree.org - mtDNA subtree D
YFull MTree's Haplogroup D
MITOMAP's Haplogroup D
FamilyTreeDNA's mtDNA Haplotree: Haplogroup D
FamilyTreeDNA's D mtDNA Haplogroup project
Spread of Haplogroup D, from National Geographic
Chatters, J. C.; Kennett, D. J.; Asmerom, Y.; Kemp, B. M.; Polyak, V.; Blank, A. N.; Beddows, P. A.; Reinhardt, E.; Arroyo-Cabrales, J.; Bolnick, D. A.; Malhi, R. S.; Culleton, B. J.; Erreguerena, P. L.; Rissolo, D.; Morell-Hart, S.; Stafford, T. W. (16 May 2014). ""Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans"". Science. 344 (6185): 750–754. Bibcode:2014Sci...344..750C. doi:10.1126/science.1252619. PMID 24833392. S2CID 206556297.",1.0130698680877686
History of molecular biology,"The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics.  With the hope of understanding life at its most fundamental level, numerous physicists and chemists also took an interest in what would become molecular biology.
In its modern sense, molecular biology attempts to explain the phenomena of life starting from the macromolecular properties that generate them.  Two categories of macromolecules in particular are the focus of the molecular biologist: 1) nucleic acids, among which the most famous is deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA), the constituent of genes, and 2) proteins, which are the active agents of living organisms. One definition of the scope of molecular biology therefore is to characterize the structure, function and relationships between these two types of macromolecules. This relatively limited definition allows for the estimation of a date for the so-called ""molecular revolution"", or at least to establish a chronology of its most fundamental developments.


== General overview ==
In its earliest manifestations, molecular biology—the name was coined by Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1938—was an idea of physical and chemical explanations of life, rather than a coherent discipline.  Following the advent of the Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity in the 1910s and the maturation of atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the 1920s, such explanations seemed within reach.  Weaver and others encouraged (and funded) research at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics, while prominent physicists such as Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger turned their attention to biological speculation.  However, in the 1930s and 1940s it was by no means clear which—if any—cross-disciplinary research would bear fruit; work in colloid chemistry, biophysics and radiation biology, crystallography, and other emerging fields all seemed promising.
In 1940, George Beadle and Edward Tatum demonstrated the existence of a precise relationship between genes and proteins. In the course of their experiments connecting genetics with biochemistry, they switched from the genetics mainstay Drosophila to a more appropriate model organism, the fungus Neurospora; the construction and exploitation of new model organisms would become a recurring theme in the development of molecular biology.  In 1944, Oswald Avery, working at the Rockefeller Institute of New York, demonstrated that genes are made up of DNA (see Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase confirmed that the genetic material of the bacteriophage, the virus which infects bacteria, is made up of DNA (see Hershey–Chase experiment). In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of the DNA molecule based on the discoveries made by Rosalind Franklin. In 1961, François Jacob and Jacques Monod demonstrated that the products of certain genes regulated the expression of other genes by acting upon specific sites at the edge of those genes.  They also hypothesized the existence of an intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called messenger RNA. Between 1961 and 1965, the relationship between the information contained in DNA and the structure of proteins was determined: there is a code, the genetic code, which creates a correspondence between the succession of nucleotides in the DNA sequence and a series of amino acids in proteins.
In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and ""equal player"" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery.
The chief discoveries of molecular biology took place in a period of only about twenty-five years. Another fifteen years were required before new and more sophisticated technologies, united today under the name of genetic engineering, would permit the isolation and characterization of genes, in particular those of highly complex organisms.


== The exploration of the molecular dominion ==
If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of physiological chemistry in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist Justus von Liebig and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist Eduard Buchner. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, ""the world of the ignored dimensions,"" as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. This world is populated by colloids, chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined.
The successes of molecular biology derived from the exploration of that unknown world by means of the new technologies developed by chemists and physicists: X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, ultracentrifugation, and electrophoresis. These studies revealed the structure and function of the macromolecules.
A milestone in that process was the work of Linus Pauling in 1949, which for the first time linked the specific genetic mutation in patients with sickle cell disease to a demonstrated change in an individual protein, the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes of heterozygous or homozygous individuals.


== The encounter between biochemistry and genetics ==
The development of molecular biology is also the encounter of two disciplines which made considerable progress in the course of the first thirty years of the twentieth century: biochemistry and genetics. The first studies the structure and function of the molecules which make up living things. Between 1900 and 1940, the central processes of metabolism were described: the process of digestion and the absorption of the nutritive elements derived from alimentation, such as the sugars. Every one of these processes is catalyzed by a particular enzyme. Enzymes are proteins, like the antibodies present in blood or the proteins responsible for muscular contraction. As a consequence, the study of proteins, of their structure and synthesis, became one of the principal objectives of biochemists.
The second discipline of biology which developed at the beginning of the 20th century is genetics. After the rediscovery of the laws of Mendel through the studies of Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak in 1900, this science began to take shape thanks to the adoption by Thomas Hunt Morgan, in 1910, of a model organism for genetic studies, the famous fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). Shortly after, Morgan showed that the genes are localized on chromosomes. Following this discovery, he continued working with Drosophila and, along with numerous other research groups, confirmed the importance of the gene in the life and development of organisms. Nevertheless, the chemical nature of genes and their mechanisms of action remained a mystery. Molecular biologists committed themselves to the determination of the structure, and the description of the complex relations between, genes and proteins.
The development of molecular biology was not just the fruit of some sort of intrinsic ""necessity"" in the history of ideas, but was a characteristically historical phenomenon, with all of its unknowns, imponderables and contingencies: the remarkable developments in physics at the beginning of the 20th century highlighted the relative lateness in development in biology, which became the ""new frontier"" in the search for knowledge about the empirical world. Moreover, the developments of the theory of information and cybernetics in the 1940s, in response to military exigencies, brought to the new biology a significant number of fertile ideas and, especially, metaphors.
The choice of bacteria and of its virus, the bacteriophage, as models for the study of the fundamental mechanisms of life was almost natural—they are the smallest living organisms known to exist—and at the same time the fruit of individual choices. This model owes its success, above all, to the fame and the sense of organization of Max Delbrück, a German physicist, who was able to create a dynamic research group, based in the United States, whose exclusive scope was the study of the bacteriophage: the phage group.
The phage group was an informal network of biologists that carried out basic research mainly on bacteriophage T4 and made numerous seminal contributions to microbial genetics and the origins of molecular biology in the mid-20th century. In 1961, Sydney Brenner, an early member of the phage group, collaborated with Francis Crick, Leslie Barnett and Richard Watts-Tobin at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to perform genetic experiments that demonstrated the basic nature of the genetic code for proteins. These experiments, carried out with mutants of the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4, showed, that for a gene that encodes a protein, three sequential bases of the gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. They also found that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that such a sequence is read from a fixed starting point. 
During 1962–1964 phage T4 researchers provided an opportunity to study the function of virtually all of the genes that are essential for growth of the bacteriophage under laboratory conditions. These studies were facilitated by the discovery of two classes of conditional lethal mutants. One class of such mutants is known as amber mutants. Another class of conditional lethal mutants is referred to as temperature-sensitive mutants. Studies of these two classes of mutants led to considerable insight into numerous fundamental biologic problems. Thus understanding was gained on the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair and DNA recombination.  Furthermore, understanding was gained on the processes by which viruses are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). Also, the role of chain terminating codons was elucidated. One noteworthy study used amber mutants defective in the gene encoding the major head protein of bacteriophage T4. This experiment provided strong evidence for the widely held, but prior to 1964 still unproven, ""sequence hypothesis"" that the amino acid  sequence of a protein is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene determining the protein. Thus, this study demonstrated the co-linearity of the gene with its encoded protein.
The geographic panorama of the developments of the new biology was conditioned above all by preceding work. The US, where genetics had developed the most rapidly, and the UK, where there was a coexistence of both genetics and biochemical research of highly advanced levels, were in the avant-garde. Germany, the cradle of the revolutions in physics, with the best minds and the most advanced laboratories of genetics in the world, should have had a primary role in the development of molecular biology. But history decided differently: the arrival of the Nazis in 1933—and, to a less extreme degree, the rigidification of totalitarian measures in fascist Italy—caused the emigration of a large number of Jewish and non-Jewish scientists. The majority of them fled to the US or the UK, providing an extra impulse to the scientific dynamism of those nations. These movements ultimately made molecular biology a truly international science from the very beginnings.


== History of DNA biochemistry ==

The study of DNA is a central part of molecular biology.


=== First isolation of DNA ===
Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their ""nucleic acid"" isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types—one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA.
Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered a substance he called ""nuclein"" in 1869. Somewhat later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, Richard Altmann, named it ""nucleic acid"". This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes.
In 1919 Phoebus Levene at the Rockefeller Institute identified the components (the four bases, the sugar and the phosphate chain) and he showed that the components of DNA were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base. He called each of these units a nucleotide and suggested the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups, which are the 'backbone' of the molecule. However Levene thought the chain was short and that the bases repeated in the same fixed order. Torbjörn Caspersson and Einar Hammersten showed that DNA was a polymer.


=== Chromosomes and inherited traits ===
In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov  proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a ""giant hereditary molecule"" which would be made up of ""two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template"". Max Delbrück, Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky, and Karl G. Zimmer published results in 1935 suggesting that chromosomes are very large molecules the structure of which can be changed by treatment with X-rays, and that by so changing their structure it was possible to change the heritable characteristics governed by those chromosomes. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns from DNA. He was not able to propose the correct structure but the patterns showed that DNA had a regular structure and therefore it might be possible to deduce what this structure was.
In 1943, Oswald Theodore Avery and a team of scientists discovered that traits proper to the ""smooth"" form of the Pneumococcus could be transferred to the ""rough"" form of the same bacteria merely by making the killed ""smooth"" (S) form available to the live ""rough"" (R) form. Quite unexpectedly, the living R Pneumococcus bacteria were transformed into a new strain of the S form, and the transferred S characteristics turned out to be heritable. Avery called the medium of transfer of traits the transforming principle; he identified DNA as the transforming principle, and not protein as previously thought. He essentially redid Frederick Griffith's experiment. In 1953, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did an experiment (Hershey–Chase experiment) that showed, in T2 phage, that DNA is the genetic material (Hershey shared the Nobel prize with Luria).


=== Discovery of the structure of DNA ===
In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at King's College London and was led by Maurice Wilkins and was later joined by Rosalind Franklin. Another group consisting of Francis Crick and James Watson was at Cambridge. A third group was at Caltech and was led by Linus Pauling. Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure.


=== Helix structure ===
In 1948, Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns and from attempts to physically model the structures. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical DNA structure based on Astbury's data.) Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick.


=== Complementary nucleotides ===
In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Erwin Chargaff visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides—adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine—the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions.

Using X-ray diffraction, as well as other data from Rosalind Franklin and her information that the bases were paired, James Watson and Francis Crick arrived at the first accurate model of DNA's molecular structure in 1953, which was accepted through inspection by Rosalind Franklin. The discovery was announced on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25, 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled ""Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life."" The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, ""Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution"", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953, with the headline ""Form of 'Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned."" The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Bragg's original announcement at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on April 8, 1953, went unreported by the press. In 1962 Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their determination of the structure of DNA.


=== ""Central Dogma"" ===
Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on February 21, 1953, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on February 28. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the ""central dogma of molecular biology"", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the ""sequence hypothesis."" A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Messenger RNA (mRNA) was identified as an intermediate between DNA sequences and protein synthesis by Brenner, Meselson, and Jacob in 1961. Then, work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, and Har Gobind Khorana and others deciphered the genetic code not long afterward (1966). These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.


== History of RNA tertiary structure ==


=== Pre-history: the helical structure of RNA ===
The earliest work in RNA structural biology coincided, more or less, with the work being done on DNA in the early 1950s.  In their seminal 1953 paper, Watson and Crick suggested that van der Waals crowding by the 2`OH group of ribose would preclude RNA from adopting a double helical structure identical to the model they proposed—what we now know as B-form DNA. This provoked questions about the three-dimensional structure of RNA: could this molecule form some type of helical structure, and if so, how?  As with DNA, early structural work on RNA centered around isolation of native RNA polymers for fiber diffraction analysis.  In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable.  In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules.  These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA.  These results paved the way for a series of investigations into the various properties and propensities of RNA.  Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, numerous papers were published on various topics in RNA structure, including RNA-DNA hybridization, triple stranded RNA, and even small-scale crystallography of RNA di-nucleotides—G-C, and A-U—in primitive helix-like arrangements. For a more in-depth review of the early work in RNA structural biology, see the article The Era of RNA Awakening: Structural biology of RNA in the early years by Alexander Rich.


=== The beginning: crystal structure of tRNAPHE ===
In the mid-1960s, the role of tRNA in protein synthesis was being intensively studied.  At this point, ribosomes had been implicated in protein synthesis, and it had been shown that an mRNA strand was necessary for the formation of these structures.  In a 1964 publication, Warner and Rich showed that ribosomes active in protein synthesis contained tRNA molecules bound at the A and P sites, and discussed the notion that these molecules aided in the peptidyl transferase reaction. However, despite considerable biochemical characterization, the structural basis of tRNA function remained a mystery.  In 1965, Holley et al. purified and sequenced the first tRNA molecule, initially proposing that it adopted a cloverleaf structure, based largely on the ability of certain regions of the molecule to form stem loop structures. The isolation of tRNA proved to be the first major windfall in RNA structural biology.  Following Robert W. Holley's publication, numerous investigators began work on isolation tRNA for crystallographic study, developing improved methods for isolating the molecule as they worked.  By 1968 several groups had produced tRNA crystals, but these proved to be of limited quality and did not yield data at the resolutions necessary to determine structure. In 1971, Kim et al. achieved another breakthrough, producing crystals of yeast tRNAPHE that diffracted to 2–3 Ångström resolutions by using spermine, a naturally occurring polyamine, which bound to and stabilized the tRNA.  Despite having suitable crystals, however, the structure of tRNAPHE was not immediately solved at high resolution; rather it took pioneering work in the use of heavy metal derivatives and a good deal more time to produce a high-quality density map of the entire molecule.  In 1973, Kim et al. produced a 4 Ångström map of the tRNA molecule in which they could unambiguously trace the entire backbone.  This solution would be followed by many more, as various investigators worked to refine the structure and thereby more thoroughly elucidate the details of base pairing and stacking interactions, and validate the published architecture of the molecule.
The tRNAPHE structure is notable in the field of nucleic acid structure in general, as it represented the first solution of a long-chain nucleic acid structure of any kind—RNA or DNA—preceding Richard E. Dickerson's solution of a B-form dodecamer by nearly a decade. Also, tRNAPHE demonstrated many of the tertiary interactions observed in RNA architecture which would not be categorized and more thoroughly understood for years to come, providing a foundation for all future RNA structural research.


=== The renaissance: the hammerhead ribozyme and the group I intron: P4-6 ===
For a considerable time following the first tRNA structures, the field of RNA structure did not dramatically advance.  The ability to study an RNA structure depended upon the potential to isolate the RNA target.  This proved limiting to the field for many years, in part because other known targets—i.e., the ribosome—were significantly more difficult to isolate and crystallize.  Further, because other interesting RNA targets had simply not been identified, or were not sufficiently understood to be deemed interesting, there was simply a lack of things to study structurally.  As such, for some twenty years following the original publication of the tRNAPHE structure, the structures of only a handful of other RNA targets were solved, with almost all of these belonging to the transfer RNA family.  This unfortunate lack of scope would eventually be overcome largely because of two major advancements in nucleic acid research: the identification of ribozymes, and the ability to produce them via in vitro transcription.
Subsequent to Tom Cech's publication implicating the Tetrahymena group I intron as an autocatalytic ribozyme, and Sidney Altman's report of catalysis by ribonuclease P RNA, several other catalytic RNAs were identified in the late 1980s, including the hammerhead ribozyme.  In 1994, McKay et al. published the structure of a 'hammerhead RNA-DNA ribozyme-inhibitor complex' at 2.6 Ångström resolution, in which the autocatalytic activity of the ribozyme was disrupted via binding to a DNA substrate. The conformation of the ribozyme published in this paper was eventually shown to be one of several possible states, and although this particular sample was catalytically inactive, subsequent structures have revealed its active-state architecture.  This structure was followed by Jennifer Doudna's publication of the structure of the P4-P6 domains of the Tetrahymena group I intron, a fragment of the ribozyme originally made famous by Cech. The second clause in the title of this publication—Principles of RNA Packing—concisely evinces the value of these two structures: for the first time, comparisons could be made between well described tRNA structures and those of globular RNAs outside the transfer family.  This allowed the framework of categorization to be built for RNA tertiary structure.  It was now possible to propose the conservation of motifs, folds, and various local stabilizing interactions.  For an early review of these structures and their implications, see RNA FOLDS: Insights from recent crystal structures, by Doudna and Ferre-D'Amare.
In addition to the advances being made in global structure determination via crystallography, the early 1990s also saw the implementation of NMR as a powerful technique in RNA structural biology.  Coincident with the large-scale ribozyme structures being solved crystallographically, a number of structures of small RNAs and RNAs complexed with drugs and peptides were solved using NMR. In addition, NMR was now being used to investigate and supplement crystal structures, as exemplified by the determination of an isolated tetraloop-receptor motif structure published in 1997. Investigations such as this enabled a more precise characterization of the base pairing and base stacking interactions which stabilized the global folds of large RNA molecules.  The importance of understanding RNA tertiary structural motifs was prophetically well described by Michel and Costa in their publication identifying the tetraloop motif: ""...it should not come as a surprise if self-folding RNA molecules were to make intensive use of only a relatively small set of tertiary motifs.  Identifying these motifs would greatly aid modeling enterprises, which will remain essential as long as the crystallization of large RNAs remains a difficult task"".


=== The modern era: the age of RNA structural biology ===
The resurgence of RNA structural biology in the mid-1990s has caused a veritable explosion in the field of nucleic acid structural research.  Since the publication of the hammerhead and P4-6 structures, numerous major contributions to the field have been made.  Some of the most noteworthy examples include the structures of the Group I and Group II introns, and the Ribosome solved by Nenad Ban and colleagues in the laboratory of Thomas Steitz. The first three structures were produced using in vitro transcription, and that NMR has played a role in investigating partial components of all four structures—testaments to the indispensability of both techniques for RNA research.  Most recently, the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Ada Yonath, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas Steitz for their structural work on the ribosome, demonstrating the prominent role RNA structural biology has taken in modern molecular biology.


== History of protein biochemistry ==


=== First isolation and classification ===
Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others.  Members of this class (called the ""albuminoids"", Eiweisskörper, or matières albuminoides) were recognized by their ability to coagulate or flocculate under various treatments such as heat or acid; well-known examples at the start of the nineteenth century included albumen from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and wheat gluten. The similarity between the cooking of egg whites and the curdling of milk was recognized even in ancient times; for example, the name albumen for the egg-white protein was coined by Pliny the Elder from the Latin albus ovi (egg white).
With the advice of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder carried out elemental analyses of common animal and plant proteins.  To everyone's surprise, all proteins had nearly the same empirical formula, roughly C400H620N100O120 with individual sulfur and phosphorus atoms.  Mulder published his findings in two papers (1837,1838) and hypothesized that there was one basic substance (Grundstoff) of proteins, and that it was synthesized by plants and absorbed from them by animals in digestion.  Berzelius was an early proponent of this theory and proposed the name ""protein"" for this substance in a letter dated 10 July 1838

The name protein that he propose for the organic oxide of fibrin and albumin, I wanted to derive from [the Greek word] πρωτειος, because it appears to be the primitive or principal substance of animal nutrition.
Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the  amino acid, leucine, for which he found a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 Da.


=== Purifications and measurements of mass ===
The minimum molecular weight suggested by Mulder's analyses was roughly 9 kDa, hundreds of times larger than other molecules being studied.  Hence, the chemical structure of proteins (their primary structure) was an active area of research until 1949, when Fred Sanger sequenced insulin.  The (correct) theory that proteins were linear polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds was proposed independently and simultaneously by Franz Hofmeister and Emil Fischer at the same conference in 1902.  However, some scientists were sceptical that such long macromolecules could be stable in solution.  Consequently, numerous alternative theories of the protein primary structure were proposed, e.g., the colloidal hypothesis that proteins were assemblies of small molecules, the cyclol hypothesis of Dorothy Wrinch, the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden and the pyrrol/piperidine hypothesis of Troensgard (1942).  Most of these theories had difficulties in accounting for the fact that the  digestion of proteins yielded peptides and amino acids.  
Proteins were finally shown to be macromolecules of well-defined composition (and not colloidal mixtures) by Theodor Svedberg using analytical ultracentrifugation.  The possibility that some proteins are non-covalent associations of such macromolecules was shown by Gilbert Smithson Adair (by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin) and, later, by Frederic M. Richards in his studies of ribonuclease S.  The mass spectrometry of proteins has long been a useful technique for identifying posttranslational modifications and, more recently, for probing protein structure.
Most proteins are difficult to purify in more than milligram quantities, even using the most modern methods.  Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g., those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses.  Many techniques of protein purification were developed during World War II in a project led by Edwin Joseph Cohn to purify blood proteins to help keep soldiers alive.  In the late 1950s, the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg (= one million milligrams) of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it available at low cost to scientists around the world.  This generous act made RNase A the main protein for basic research for the next few decades, resulting in several Nobel Prizes.


=== Protein folding and first structural models ===
The study of protein folding began in 1910 with a famous paper by Harriette Chick and C. J. Martin, in which they showed that the flocculation of a protein was composed of two distinct processes: the precipitation of a protein from solution was preceded by another process called denaturation, in which the protein became much less soluble, lost its enzymatic activity and became more chemically reactive.  In the mid-1920s, Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky proposed that denaturation was a reversible process, a correct hypothesis that was initially lampooned by some scientists as ""unboiling the egg"".  Anson also suggested that denaturation was a two-state (""all-or-none"") process, in which one fundamental molecular transition resulted in the drastic changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity; he further noted that the free energy changes upon denaturation were much smaller than those typically involved in chemical reactions.  In 1929, Hsien Wu hypothesized that denaturation was protein unfolding, a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino acid side chains to the solvent.  According to this (correct) hypothesis, exposure of aliphatic and reactive side chains to solvent rendered the protein less soluble and more reactive, whereas the loss of a specific conformation caused the loss of enzymatic activity.  Although considered plausible, Wu's hypothesis was not immediately accepted, since so little was known of protein structure and enzymology and other factors could account for the changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity.  In the early 1960s, Chris Anfinsen showed that the folding of ribonuclease A was fully reversible with no external cofactors needed, verifying the ""thermodynamic hypothesis"" of protein folding that the folded state represents the global minimum of free energy for the protein.
The hypothesis of protein folding was followed by research into the physical interactions that stabilize folded protein structures.  The crucial role of hydrophobic interactions was hypothesized by Dorothy Wrinch and Irving Langmuir, as a mechanism that might stabilize her cyclol structures.  Although supported by J. D. Bernal and others, this (correct) hypothesis was rejected along with the cyclol hypothesis, which was disproven in the 1930s by Linus Pauling (among others). Instead, Pauling championed the idea that protein structure was stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonds, an idea advanced initially by William Astbury (1933).  Remarkably, Pauling's incorrect theory about H-bonds resulted in his correct models for the secondary structure elements of proteins, the alpha helix and the beta sheet.  The hydrophobic interaction was restored to its correct prominence by a famous article in 1959 by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation, based partly on work by Kaj Linderstrøm-Lang.  The ionic nature of proteins was demonstrated by Bjerrum, Weber and Arne Tiselius, but Linderstrom-Lang showed that the charges were generally accessible to solvent and not bound to each other (1949).
The secondary and low-resolution tertiary structure of globular proteins was investigated initially by hydrodynamic methods, such as analytical ultracentrifugation and flow birefringence. Spectroscopic methods to probe protein structure (such as circular dichroism, fluorescence, near-ultraviolet and infrared absorbance) were developed in the 1950s.  The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were solved by X-ray crystallography in the 1960s and by NMR in the 1980s. As of 2019, the Protein Data Bank has over 150,000 atomic-resolution structures of proteins.  In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies has achieved atomic resolution, and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains is approaching atomic resolution.  


== See also ==
History of biology
History of biotechnology
History of genetics


== References ==",1.2325921058654785
Freyja,"In Norse mythology, Freyja (Old Norse ""(the) Lady"") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers. By her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi. Along with her twin brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr's sister, unnamed in sources), she is a member of the Vanir. Stemming from Old Norse Freyja, modern forms of the name include Freya, Freyia, and Freja.
Freyja rules over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those who die in battle. The other half go to the god Odin's hall, Valhalla. Within Fólkvangr lies her hall, Sessrúmnir. Freyja assists other deities by allowing them to use her feathered cloak, is invoked in matters of fertility and love, and is frequently sought after by powerful jötnar who wish to make her their wife. Freyja's husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent. She cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, Vanadís, and Valfreyja.
Freyja is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, composed by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; in several Sagas of Icelanders; in the short story ""Sörla þáttr""; in the poetry of skalds; and into the modern age in Scandinavian folklore.
Scholars have debated whether Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common among the Germanic peoples. They have connected her to the valkyries, female battlefield choosers of the slain, and analyzed her relation to other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology, including the thrice-burnt and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr, the goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa, Menglöð, and the 1st century CE ""Isis"" of the Suebi. In Scandinavia, Freyja's name frequently appears in the names of plants, especially in southern Sweden. Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization. Rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art.


== Name ==


=== Etymology ===
The name Freyja transparently means 'lady, mistress' in Old Norse. Stemming from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun *frawjōn ('lady, mistress'), it is cognate with Old Saxon frūa ('lady, mistress') or Old High German frouwa ('lady'; cf. modern German Frau). Freyja is also etymologically close to the name of the god Freyr, meaning 'lord' in Old Norse. The theonym Freyja is thus considered to have been an epithet in origin, replacing a personal name that is now unattested.


=== Alternative names ===
In addition to Freyja, Old Norse sources refer to the goddess by the following names:


== Attestations ==


=== Poetic Edda ===
In the Poetic Edda, Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Oddrúnargrátr, and Hyndluljóð.
Völuspá contains a stanza that mentions Freyja, referring to her as ""Óð's girl""; Freyja being the wife of her husband, Óðr. The stanza recounts that Freyja was once promised to an unnamed builder, later revealed to be a jötunn and subsequently killed by Thor (recounted in detail in Gylfaginning chapter 42; see Prose Edda section below). In the poem Grímnismál, Odin (disguised as Grímnir) tells the young Agnar that every day Freyja allots seats to half of those that are slain in her hall Fólkvangr, while Odin owns the other half.

In the poem Lokasenna, where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between Loki and Freyja. The introduction to the poem notes that among other gods and goddesses, Freyja attends a celebration held by Ægir. In verse, after Loki has flyted with the goddess Frigg, Freyja interjects, telling Loki that he is insane for dredging up his terrible deeds, and that Frigg knows the fate of everyone, though she does not tell it. Loki tells her to be silent, and says that he knows all about her—that Freyja is not lacking in blame, for each of the gods and elves in the hall have been her lover. Freyja objects. She says that Loki is lying, that he is just looking to blather about misdeeds, and since the gods and goddesses are furious at him, he can expect to go home defeated. Loki tells Freyja to be silent, calls her a malicious witch, and conjures a scenario where Freyja was once astride her brother when all of the gods, laughing, surprised the two. Njörðr interjects—he says that a woman having a lover other than her husband is harmless, and he points out that Loki has borne children, and calls Loki a pervert. The poem continues in turn.
The poem Þrymskviða features Loki borrowing Freyja's cloak of feathers and Thor dressing up as Freyja to fool the lusty jötunn Þrymr. In the poem, Thor wakes up to find that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor tells Loki of his missing hammer, and the two go to the beautiful court of Freyja. Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her cloak of feathers, so that he may try to find his hammer. Freyja agrees:

Loki flies away in the whirring feather cloak, arriving in the land of Jötunheimr. He spies Þrymr sitting on top of a mound. Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thor's hammer deep within the earth and that no one will ever know where the hammer is unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies back, the cloak whistling, and returns to the courts of the gods. Loki tells Thor of Þrymr's conditions.
The two go to see the beautiful Freyja. The first thing that Thor says to Freyja is that she should dress herself and put on a bride's head-dress, for they shall drive to Jötunheimr. At that, Freyja is furious—the halls of the gods shake, she snorts in anger, and from the goddess the necklace Brísingamen falls. Indignant, Freyja responds:

The gods and goddesses assemble at a thing and debate how to solve the problem. The god Heimdallr proposes to dress Thor up as a bride, complete with bridal dress, head-dress, jingling keys, jewelry, and the famous Brísingamen. Thor objects but is hushed by Loki, reminding him that the new owners of the hammer will soon be settling in the land of the gods if the hammer is not returned. Thor is dressed as planned and Loki is dressed as his maid. Thor and Loki go to Jötunheimr.
In the meantime, Thrym tells his servants to prepare for the arrival of the daughter of Njörðr. When ""Freyja"" arrives in the morning, Thrym is taken aback by her behavior; her immense appetite for food and mead is far more than what he expected, and when Thrym goes in for a kiss beneath ""Freyja's"" veil, he finds ""her"" eyes to be terrifying, and he jumps down the hall. The disguised Loki makes excuses for the bride's odd behavior, claiming that she simply has not eaten or slept for eight days. In the end, the disguises successfully fool the jötnar and, upon sight of it, Thor regains his hammer by force.
In the poem Oddrúnargrátr, Oddrún helps Borgny give birth to twins. In thanks, Borgny invokes vættir, Frigg, Freyja, and other unspecified deities.

Freyja is a main character in the poem Hyndluljóð, where she assists her faithful servant Óttar in finding information about his ancestry so that he may claim his inheritance. In doing so, Freyja turns Óttar into her boar, Hildisvíni, and, by means of flattery and threats of death by fire, Freyja successfully pries the information that Óttar needs from the jötunn Hyndla. Freyja speaks throughout the poem, and at one point praises Óttar for constructing a hörgr (an altar of stones) and frequently making blót (sacrifices) to her:


=== Prose Edda ===
Freyja appears in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál. In chapter 24 of Gylfaginning, the enthroned figure of High says that after the god Njörðr split with the goddess Skaði, he had two beautiful and mighty children (no partner is mentioned); a son, Freyr, and a daughter, Freyja. Freyr is ""the most glorious"" of the gods, and Freyja ""the most glorious"" of the goddesses. Freyja has a dwelling in the heavens, Fólkvangr, and that whenever Freyja ""rides into battle she gets half the slain, and the other half to Odin [...]"". In support, High quotes the Grímnismál stanza mentioned in the Poetic Edda section above.
High adds that Freyja has a large, beautiful hall called Sessrúmnir, and that when Freyja travels she sits in a chariot and drives two cats, and that Freyja is ""the most approachable one for people to pray to, and from her name is derived the honorific title whereby noble ladies are called fruvor [noble ladies]"". High adds that Freyja has a particular fondness for love songs, and that ""it is good to pray to her concerning love affairs"".
In chapter 29, High recounts the names and features of various goddesses, including Freyja. Regarding Freyja, High says that, next to Frigg, Freyja is highest in rank among them and that she owns the necklace Brísingamen. Freyja is married to Óðr, who goes on long travels, and the two have a very fair daughter by the name of Hnoss. While Óðr is absent, Freyja stays behind and in her sorrow she weeps tears of red gold. High notes that Freyja has many names, and explains that this is because Freyja adopted them when looking for Óðr and traveling ""among strange peoples"". These names include Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, and Vanadís.
Freyja plays a part in the events leading to the birth of Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse. In chapter 42, High recounts that, soon after the gods built the hall Valhalla, a builder (unnamed) came to them and offered to build for them in three seasons a fortification so solid that no jötunn would be able to come in over from Midgard. In exchange, the builder wants Freyja for his bride, and the sun and the moon. After some debate the gods agree, but with added conditions. In time, just as he is about to complete his work, it is revealed that the builder is, in fact, himself a jötunn, and he is killed by Thor. In the meantime, Loki, in the form of a mare, has been impregnated by the jötunn's horse, Svaðilfari, and so gives birth to Sleipnir. In support, High quotes the Völuspá stanza that mentions Freyja. In chapter 49, High recalls the funeral of Baldr and says that Freyja attended the funeral and there drove her cat-chariot, the final reference to the goddess in Gylfaginning.

At the beginning of the book Skáldskaparmál, Freyja is mentioned among eight goddesses attending a banquet held for Ægir. Chapter 56 details the abduction of the goddess Iðunn by the jötunn Þjazi in the form of an eagle. Terrified at the prospect of death and torture due to his involvement in the abduction of Iðunn, Loki asks if he may use Freyja's ""falcon shape"" to fly north to Jötunheimr and retrieve the missing goddess. Freyja allows it, and using her ""falcon shape"" and a furious chase by eagle-Þjazi, Loki successfully returns her.
In chapter 6, a means of referring to Njörðr is provided that refers to Frejya (""father of Freyr and Freyja""). In chapter 7, a means of referring to Freyr is provided that refers to the goddess (""brother of Freyja""). In chapter 8, ways of referring to the god Heimdallr are provided, including ""Loki's enemy, recoverer of Freyja's necklace"", inferring a myth involving Heimdallr recovering Freyja's necklace from Loki.
In chapter 17, the jötunn Hrungnir finds himself in Asgard, the realm of the gods, and becomes very drunk. Hrungnir boasts that he will move Valhalla to Jötunheimr, bury Asgard, and kill all of the gods—with the exception of the goddesses Freyja and Sif, who he says he will take home with him. Freyja is the only one of them that dares to bring him more to drink. Hrungnir says that he will drink all of their ale. After a while, the gods grow bored of Hrungnir's antics and invoke the name of Thor. Thor immediately enters the hall, hammer raised. Thor is furious and demands to know who is responsible for letting a jötunn in to Asgard, who guaranteed Hrungnir safety, and why Freyja ""should be serving him drink as if at the Æsir's banquet"".
In chapter 18, verses from the 10th century skald's composition Þórsdrápa are quoted. A kenning used in the poem refers to Freyja. In chapter 20, poetic ways to refer to Freyja are provided; ""daughter of Njörðr"", ""sister of Freyr"", ""wife of Óðr"", ""mother of Hnoss"", ""possessor of the fallen slain and of Sessrumnir and tom-cats"", possessor of Brísingamen, ""Van-deity"", Vanadís, and ""fair-tear deity"". In chapter 32, poetic ways to refer to gold are provided, including ""Freyja's weeping"" and ""rain or shower [...] from Freyja's eyes"".
Chapter 33 tells that once the gods journeyed to visit Ægir, one of whom was Freyja.  In chapter 49, a quote from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason employs the kenning ""Óðr's bedfellow's eye-rain"", which refers to Freyja and means ""gold"".
Chapter 36 explains again that gold can be referring to as Freyja's weeping due to her red gold tears. In support, works by the skalds Skúli Þórsteinsson and Einarr Skúlason are cited that use ""Freyja's tears"" or ""Freyja's weepings"" to represent ""gold"". The chapter features additional quotes from poetry by Einarr Skúlason that references the goddess and her child Hnoss. Freyja receives a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 75, where a list of goddesses is provided that includes Freyja.


=== Heimskringla ===

The Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga provides a euhemerized account of the origin of the gods, including Freyja. In chapter 4, Freyja is introduced as a member of the Vanir, the sister of Freyr, and the daughter of Njörðr and his sister (whose name is not provided). After the Æsir–Vanir War ends in a stalemate, Odin appoints Freyr and Njörðr as priests over sacrifices. Freyja becomes the priestess of sacrificial offerings and it was she who introduced the practice of seiðr to the Æsir, previously only practiced by the Vanir.
In chapter 10, Freyja's brother Freyr dies, and Freyja is the last survivor among the Æsir and Vanir. Freyja keeps up the sacrifices and becomes famous. The saga explains that, due to Freyja's fame, all women of rank become known by her name—frúvor (""ladies""), a woman who is the mistress of her property is referred to as freyja, and húsfreyja (""lady of the house"") for a woman who owns an estate.
The chapter adds that not only was Freyja very clever, but that she and her husband Óðr had two immensely beautiful daughters, Gersemi and Hnoss, ""who gave their names to our most precious possessions"".


=== Other ===
Freyja is mentioned in the sagas Egils saga, Njáls saga, Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, and in Sörla þáttr.

Egils saga
In Egils saga, when Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat, his daughter Þorgerðr (here anglicized as ""Thorgerd"") says she will go without food and thus starve to death, and in doing so will meet the goddess Freyja:

Thorgerd replied in a loud voice, ""I have had no evening meal, nor will I do so until I join Freyja. I know no better course of action than my father's. I do not want to live after my father and brother are dead.""

Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka
In the first chapter of the 14th century legendary saga Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, King Alrek has two wives, Geirhild and Signy, and cannot keep them both. He tells the two women that he would keep whichever of them that brews the better ale for him by the time he has returned home in the summer. The two compete and during the brewing process Signy prays to Freyja and Geirhild to Hött (""hood""), a man she had met earlier (earlier in the saga revealed to be Odin in disguise). Hött answers her prayer and spits on her yeast. Signy's brew wins the contest.

Sörla þáttr
In Sörla þáttr, a short, late 14th century narrative from a later and extended version of the Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar found in the Flateyjarbók manuscript, a euhemerized account of the gods is provided. In the account, Freyja is described as having been a concubine of Odin, who bartered sex to four dwarfs for a golden necklace. In the work, the Æsir once lived in a city called Asgard, located in a region called ""Asialand or Asiahome"". Odin was the king of the realm, and made Njörðr and Freyr temple priests. Freyja was the daughter of Njörðr, and was Odin's concubine. Odin deeply loved Freyja, and she was ""the fairest of woman of that day"". Freyja had a beautiful bower, and when the door was shut no one could enter without Freyja's permission.
Chapter 1 records that one day Freyja passed by an open stone where dwarfs lived. Four dwarfs were smithying a golden necklace, and it was nearly done. Looking at the necklace, the dwarfs thought Freyja to be most fair, and she the necklace. Freyja offered to buy the collar from them with silver and gold and other items of value. The dwarfs said that they had no lack of money, and that for the necklace the only thing she could offer them would be a night with each of them. ""Whether she liked it better or worse"", Freyja agreed to the conditions, and so spent a night with each of the four dwarfs. The conditions were fulfilled and the necklace was hers. Freyja went home to her bower as if nothing happened.
As related in chapter 2, Loki, under the service of Odin, found out about Freyja's actions and told Odin. Odin told Loki to get the necklace and bring it to him. Loki said that since no one could enter Freyja's bower against her will, this would not be an easy task, yet Odin told him not to come back until he had found a way to get the necklace. Howling, Loki turned away and went to Freyja's bower but found it locked, and that he could not enter. So Loki transformed himself into a fly, and after having trouble finding even the tiniest of entrances, he managed to find a tiny hole at the gable-top, yet even here he had to squeeze through to enter.
Having made his way into Freyja's chambers, Loki looked around to be sure that no one was awake, and found that Freyja was asleep. He landed on her bed and noticed that she was wearing the necklace, the clasp turned downward. Loki turned into a flea and jumped onto Freyja's cheek and there bit her. Freyja stirred, turning about, and then fell asleep again. Loki removed his flea's shape and undid her collar, opened the bower, and returned to Odin.
The next morning Freyja woke and saw that the doors to her bower were open, yet unbroken, and that her precious necklace was gone. Freyja had an idea of who was responsible. She got dressed and went to Odin. She told Odin of the malice he had allowed against her and of the theft of her necklace, and that he should give her back her jewelry.
Odin said that, given how she obtained it, she would never get it back. That is, with one exception: she could have it back if she could make two kings, themselves ruling twenty kings each, battle one another, and cast a spell so that each time one of their numbers falls in battle, they will again spring up and fight again. And that this must go on eternally, unless a Christian man of a particular stature goes into the battle and smites them, only then will they stay dead. Freyja agreed.


== Later Scandinavian folklore ==

Although the Christianization of Scandinavia sought to demonize the native gods, belief and reverence in the gods, including Freyja, persisted throughout the modern period and melded into Scandinavian folklore. Britt-Mari Näsström comments that Freyja became a particular target under Christianization:

Freyja's erotic qualities became an easy target for the new religion, in which an asexual virgin was the ideal woman [...] Freyja is called ""a whore"" and ""a harlot"" by the holy men and missionaries, whereas many of her functions in the everyday lives of men and women, such as protecting the vegetation and supplying assistance in childbirth were transferred to the Virgin Mary.

However, Freyja did not disappear. In Iceland, Freyja was called upon for assistance by way of Icelandic magical staves as late as the 18th century; and as late as the 19th century, Freyja is recorded as retaining elements of her role as a fertility goddess among rural Swedes.
The Old Norse poem Þrymskviða (or its source) continued into Scandinavian folk song tradition, where it was euhemerized and otherwise transformed over time. In Iceland, the poem became known as Þrylur, whereas in Denmark the poem became Thor af Havsgaard and in Sweden it became Torvisan or Hammarhämtningen. A section of the Swedish Torvisan, in which Freyja has been transformed into ""the fair"" (den väna) Frojenborg, reads as follows:

In the province of Småland, Sweden, an account is recorded connecting Freyja with sheet lightning in this respect. Writer Johan Alfred Göth recalled a Sunday in 1880 where men were walking in fields and looking at nearly ripened rye, where Måns in Karryd said: ""Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe"". Along with this, Göth recalls another mention of Freyja in the countryside:

When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days. When the sheet lightning flared at the night, Katrina said: ""Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood"" [...] I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way.

In Värend, Sweden, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake the apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake. However, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use.
Many Asatru practitioners today mostly honor Freyja as a goddess of fertility, abundance and beauty. A common rite for modern Freya worshippers is to bake foods that have some connection to love in one way or another, such as chocolate. Freyja is also called upon for protection, usually when it comes to a domestic violence situation.


== Eponyms ==

Several plants were named after Freyja, such as Freyja's tears and Freyja's hair (Polygala vulgaris), but during the process of Christianization, the name of the goddess was replaced with that of the Virgin Mary. In the pre-Christian period, the Orion constellation was called either Frigg's distaff or Freyja's distaff (Swedish Frejerock).
Place names in Norway and Sweden reflect devotion to the goddess, including the Norwegian place name Frøihov (originally *Freyjuhof, literally ""Freyja's hof"") and Swedish place names such as Frövi (from *Freyjuvé, literally ""Freyja's vé""). In a survey of toponyms in Norway, M. Olsen tallies at least 20 to 30 location names compounded with Freyja. Three of these place names appear to derive from *Freyjuhof ('Freyja's hof'), whereas the goddess's name is frequently otherwise compounded with words for 'meadow' (such as -þveit, -land) and similar land formations. These toponyms are attested most commonly on the west coast though a high frequency is found in the southeast.
Place names containing Freyja are yet more numerous and varied in Sweden, where they are widely distributed. A particular concentration is recorded in Uppland, among which a number derive from the above-mentioned *Freyjuvé and also *Freyjulundr ('Freyja's sacred grove'), place names that indicate public worship of Freyja. A variety of place names (such as Frøal and Fröale) have been seen as containing an element cognate to Gothic alhs and Old English ealh (""temple""), although these place names may be otherwise interpreted. In addition, Frejya appears as a compound element with a variety of words for geographic features such as fields, meadows, lakes and natural objects such as rocks.
The Freyja name Hörn appears in the Swedish place names Härnevi and Järnevi, stemming from the reconstructed Old Norse place name *Hörnar-vé (meaning ""Hörn's vé"").


== Archaeological record and historic depictions ==

A priestess was buried c. 1000 with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland. In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher. There was also a silver pendant, which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck. This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's necklace Brísingamen. The pendant may represent Freyja herself.
A 7th-century phalara found in a ""warrior grave"" in what is now Eschwege in northwestern Germany features a female figure with two large braids flanked by two ""cat-like"" beings and holding a staff-like object. This figure has been interpreted as Freyja. This image may be connected to various B-type bracteates, referred to as the Fürstenberg-type, that may also depict the goddess; they ""show a female figure, in a short skirt and double-looped hair, holding a stave or sceptre in her right hand and a double-cross feature in the left"".
Upon its discovery, the 10th century Oseberg ship burial was found to contain a ceremonial wagon. One side of the ornate wagon features a depiction of nine cats. Scholars have linked this depiction to Freyja's cat-led chariot and a broader associations between the Vanir and wagons.
A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.


== Theories ==


=== Relation to Frigg and other goddesses and figures ===
Due to numerous similarities, scholars have frequently connected Freyja with the goddess Frigg. The connection with Frigg and question of possible earlier identification of Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period (Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis) remains a matter of scholarly discourse. Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments, ""the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.""
Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name Freyja is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess Frigg, who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *Frijjō. Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Freyja descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to lack of evidence.
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, a figure by the name of Gullveig is burnt three times yet is three times reborn. After her third rebirth, she is known as Heiðr. This event is generally accepted as precipitating the Æsir–Vanir War. Starting with scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre, scholars such as Rudolf Simek, Andy Orchard, and John Lindow have theorized that Gullveig/Heiðr is the same figure as Freyja, and that her involvement with the Æsir somehow led to the events of the Æsir–Vanir War.
Outside of theories connecting Freyja with the goddess Frigg, some scholars, such as Hilda Ellis Davidson and Britt-Mari Näsström, have theorized that other goddesses in Norse mythology, such as Gefjon, Gerðr, and Skaði, may be forms of Freyja in different roles or ages.


=== Receiver of the slain ===
Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the slain, have been theorized as connected to the valkyries. Scholar Britt-Mari Näsström points out the description in Gylfaginning where it is said of Freyja that ""whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain"", and interprets Fólkvangr as ""the field of the Warriors"". Näsström notes that, just like Odin, Freyja receives slain heroes who have died on the battlefield, and that her house is Sessrumnir (which she translates as ""filled with many seats""), a dwelling that Näsström posits likely fills the same function as Valhalla. Näsström comments that ""still, we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse view of afterlife. It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors, where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja. These examples indicate that Freyja was a war-goddess, and she even appears as a valkyrie, literally 'the one who chooses the slain'.""
Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that ""in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death realm Fólkvangr, the goddess Freyja, however, emerges as the mythological role model for the Valkyrjar  [sic] and the dísir.""


=== The Oriental hypothesis ===
Gustav Neckel, writing in 1920, connects Freyja to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. According to Neckel, both goddesses can be interpreted as ""fertility goddesses"" and other potential resemblances have been noted. Some scholars have suggested that the image of Cybele subsequently influenced the iconography of Freyja, the lions drawing the former's chariot becoming large cats. These observations became an extremely common observation in works regarding Old Norse religion until at least the early 1990s. In her book-length study of scholarship on the topic of Freyja, Britt-Mari Näsström (1995) is highly critical of this deduction; Näsström says that ""these 'parallels' are due to sheer ignorance about the characteristics of Cybele; scholars have not troubled to look into the resemblances and differences between the two goddesses, if any, in support for their arguments for a common origin.""


== In art and literature ==

Into the modern period, Freyja was treated as a Scandinavian counterpart to the Roman Venus in, for example, Swedish literature, where the goddess may be associated with romantic love or, conversely, simply as a synonym for ""lust and potency"". In the 18th century, Swedish poet Carl Michael Bellman referred to Stockholm prostitutes in his Fredman's Epistles as ""the children of Fröja"". In the 19th century, Britt-Mari Näsström observes, Swedish Romanticism focused less on Freyja's erotic qualities and more on the image of ""the pining goddess, weeping for her husband"".
Freyja is mentioned in the first stanza (""it is called old Denmark and it is Freja's hall"") of the civil national anthem of Denmark, Der er et yndigt land, written by 19th century Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger in 1819. In addition, Oehlenschläger wrote a comedy entitled Freyjas alter (1818) and a poem Freais sal featuring the goddess.
The 19th century German composer Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen opera cycle features Freia, the goddess Freyja combined with the apple-bearing goddess Iðunn.
In late 19th century and early 20th century Northern Europe, Freyja was the subject of numerous works of art, including Freyja by H. E. Freund (statue, 1821–1822), Freja sökande sin make (painting, 1852) by Nils Blommér, Freyjas Aufnahme uner den Göttern (charcoal drawing, 1881), and Frigg; Freyja (drawing, 1883) by Carl Ehrenberg (illustrator), Freyja (1901) by Carl Emil Doepler d. J., and Freyja and the Brisingamen by J. Doyle Penrose (painting, 1862–1932). Like other Norse goddesses, her name was applied widely in Scandinavia to, for example, ""sweetmeats or to stout carthorses"".
Vanadís, one of Freyja's names, is the source of the name of the chemical element vanadium, so named because of its many colored compounds.


== In popular culture ==
Frigga (sometimes called Freyja) is a fictional character appearing in  Marvel Comics starting in 1963. The character in particular is based on the goddess Freyja of Norse mythology.
Starting in the early 1990s, derivatives of Freyja began to appear as a given name for girls. According to the Norwegian name database from the Central Statistics Bureau, around 500 women are listed with the first name Frøya (the modern Norwegian spelling of the goddess's name) in the country. There are also several similar names, such as the first element of the dithematic personal name Frøydis.
Freyja is featured in several video games including the 2002 Ensemble Studios game Age of Mythology, the 2014 third-person multiplayer online battle arena game Smite, the 2018 Santa Monica Studio game God of War, and in its 2022 sequel God of War Ragnarök.
""Freya"" is a song by American heavy metal band The Sword from their 2006 debut album Age of Winters. A playable cover version was featured in Guitar Hero II, released the same year.


== See also ==
List of Germanic deities
List of people, items and places in Norse mythology
Category:Norse underworld


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Freyja at Wikimedia Commons",0.8957657217979431
Khalq,"Khalq (Dari/Pashto: خلق, lit. 'masses'  or 'people') was a faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). Its historical de facto leaders were Nur Muhammad Taraki (1967–1979), Hafizullah Amin (1979) It was also the name of the leftist newspaper produced by the same movement. The Khalq wing was formed in 1967 after the split of the party due to bitter resentment with the rival Parcham faction which had a differing revolutionary strategy.
It was made up primarily of Pashtuns from rural backgrounds. Its leaders preferred a mass organization approach and advocated class struggle to overthrow the system to bring about political, economic and social changes. They would rule the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan that was formed as a result of the Saur Revolution in 1978. The Khalqists introduced radical reforms and carried out brutal crackdowns on dissent turning Afghanistan into a police state run by the AGSA (and later KAM). The Khalqist crackdowns encouraged the rebellion of the religious and ethnic minority segments present in the Afghan society, which led more people joining exiled Islamist parties in Pakistan. Khalqist rule would be ended following the Soviet military intervention in December 1979 overthrowing Hafizullah Amin.


== Early political history ==
The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan held its First Congress on 1 January 1965. Twenty-seven men gathered at Nur Mohammed Taraki's house in Kabul, elected Taraki PDPA Secretary General, Babrak Karmal as Deputy Secretary General, and chose a five-member Central Committee(or Politburo).
Finally, Hafizullah Amin was the only Khalqi member of the PDPA to be elected to Parliament in 1969.


=== Khalq – Parcham division of the PDPA ===
The party was weakened by bitter, and sometimes violent, internal rivalries. The Khalq faction was more tribal, whereas the Parcham had more support among the urban population and middle classes. Especially on the ideological level, Karmal and Taraki differed in their perceptions of Afghanistan's revolutionary potential:

Taraki believed that revolution could be achieved in the classical Leninist fashion by building a tightly disciplined working-class party.
Karmal felt that Afghanistan was too undeveloped for a Leninist strategy and that a national democratic front of patriotic and anti-imperialist forces had to be fostered in order to bring the country a step closer to socialist revolution.
The newspaper was highly successful, especially among students. Its first edition sold 20,000 copies, and later editions numbered around 10,000 (there were only six editions altogether).  On 23 May 1966, the authorities closed Khalq on the grounds that it was anti-Islamic, anticonstitutional, and antimonarchical.  Karmal's faction founded Parcham, a weekly magazine that he published between March 1968 and July 1969. Parcham was shut down in June 1969 on the eve of parliamentary elections.


=== The Republican coup of 1973 ===
Khalq was excluded from the new government because of its lack of good political connections and its go-it-alone policy on noncooperation. Taraki did advocate a united front briefly after former Prime Minister Mohammad Daoud Khan's takeover in an attempt to gain places in the government for his followers, but this effort was unsuccessful. The Khalqists claimed to be more leftist and more independent of the Soviet Union than Parcham, but their base of support was not strong among the masses, and much stronger in the military. Because of this, Khalq abandoned his party's traditional emphasis on working-class recruitment and sought to build his own power base within the officer corps. Khalq's influence at Kabul University was also limited.
In 1973, the Khalq faction energetically began to encourage military personnel to join them. Taraki had been in charge of Khalq activity in the military. In 1973 he passed his recruitment duties to Amin. This move was highly successful: by the time of the communist coup, in April 1978, Khalq outnumbered Parcham by a factor of two or three to one. The Moscow-sponsored union of Parcham and Khalq may have been in preparation for his peaceful passage from the scene in the near future. The merger of Parcham and Khalq rapidly became unglued. However, Mir Akbar Khyber, a prominent leftist, was killed by the government and his associates. Although the government issued a statement deploring the assassination, the PDPA leaders feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all. In this way, both Khalq and Parcham forgot their internal rivalries and worked to overthrow the government.
On the eve of the communist coup, Hafizullah Amin was the only member of the Central Committee that was not arrested. The police did not send him to immediate imprisonment, as it did with Politburo members of the PDPA on 25 April 1978. He was the last person to be arrested, his imprisonment was postponed for five hours, during which time Amin, without having the authority and while the Politburo members were in prison, instructed the Khalqi army officers to overthrow the government.
The Khalqist Army cells prepared for a massive uprising. On 27 April, the Khalqist military leaders began the revolution by proclaiming to the cells in the armed forces that the time for revolution had arrived. Khalqist Colonel Mohammad Aslam Watanjar was the Army commander on the ground during the coup, and his troops gained control of Kabul. Colonel Abdul Qadir, the leader of the Air Force squadrons, also launched a major attack on the Royal Palace, in the course of which President Mohammad Daoud Khan and most of his family, including women and children, were assassinated.


== The Saur Revolution (April 1978 – April 1992) ==
The Saur Revolution, as the new government labeled its coup d'état (after the month in the Persian calendar in which it occurred), was almost entirely the achievement of the Khalq faction of the PDPA. Khalq's victory was partially due to Daoud's miscalculation that Parcham was the more serious threat. This success gave it effective control over the armed forces, a great advantage over its Parchami rival. During the first months of the revolution, Cabinet membership was split eleven to ten, with Khalq in the majority.


=== Khalq as Government (April 1978 – December 1979) ===
Initially, the revolutionary government of Khalq had a period of acceptance from the Afghan populace partly due to its land reform program. However, its mild form of Marxism grew increasingly out of hand by late 1978, and the government became increasingly outspoken, symbolically changing the national flag to a red one.
The initial, moderate, approach to Islam taken by the PDPA was quickly abandoned as the Khalqists sought to consolidate their hold on power. Khalq dominated the Revolutionary Council, which was to serve as the ruling body of the government.  The Khalq leadership ran the country by issuing a series of eight edicts. They suspended all laws except those on civil matters and the criminal law of the Daoud period. They also embarked on a campaign of land reform  that resulted in the arrest and summary execution of tens of thousands who opposed the Khalq policy of encouraging the education of girls. By putting Afghanistan on the revolutionary road, the Khalq wing of the PDPA stirred reactionaries into revolt.

PDPA general secretary Nur Mohammad Taraki refused to tolerate any Parchamis in the military and insisted that all officers affiliate with Khalq. By June 1978 an estimated 800 Parchami military personnel quit the armed forces in a purge of Parchamis. They accomplished this performing the elimination of the opposition and removal of any restraints posed by the Parchamis. Hafizullah Amin took over as Chairman of the Ministers Council (prime minister) in March 1979, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party, Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and in control of the Army, though now he reportedly devoted a lot of his time at the Royal Palace, which had been renamed the People's Palace. Events also tended to sub-divide the protagonists. The intense rivalry between Taraki and Amin within the Khalq faction heated up. In September 1979, Taraki's followers, with Soviet complicity, had made several attempts on Amin's life. The final attempt backfired. Amin's murder of Taraki divided the Khalqis. Rival military cliques divided the Khalqis further.
In late October, Amin made a military sweep against the insurgents, victoriously driving 40,000 people – mostly non-combatants – across the border into Pakistan. At the end of 1979 there were 400,000 Afghan refugees, mostly in Pakistan. The USSR attempted to temper the Khalqis' radicalism, urging attendance at mosques, inclusion of Parchamis and non-communists in the government, and a halt to the unpopular land reform movement. Most of this advice was ignored. The last Khalq leader, Hafizullah Amin, was assassinated after Soviet intelligence forces took control of the government and installed Babrak Karmal, a Parchami, in his place.


=== The Parcham Government and Soviet invasion (December 1979 – April 1989) ===
Khalqi-Parchami differences began to rend the military as Khalqi leaders, fearful that the Parchamis retained their cellular organization within the military, mounted massive purges of Parchamis. Thanks to Amin's efforts in the 1970s, the officer corps consisted largely of Khalqis. The Army was also not immune to antigovernment sentiment. Soldiers began to desert and mutiny. Herat was the site of an uprising in March 1979 in which a portion of the town's military garrison joined. The rebels butchered Soviet citizens as well as Khalqis.
The purging of Parchamis had left the military forces so dominated by Khalqis that the Soviets had no choice but to rely upon Khalqi officers to rebuild the army. Khalq officers and men expressed bitterness over the preferential treatment given their Parcham rivals by the Parcham dominated regime. Disaffected Khalqis often assisted the Mujahideen. Khalqis in the armed forces often accused their Parchami officers of using them as cannon fodder and complained that young Parchami men were exempted from compulsory military service. A show of this was that, in 1980, at the April military parade celebrating the Saur Revolution, many Tank Corps continued to display the Red Flag of Khalq, instead of the new national flag adopted by Babrak Karmal.
There were also further differences within Khalq between the loyalists of Taraki and those of Amin. Asadullah Sarwari and Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy were part of the pro-Taraki group, calling itself the ""principled Khalqis"". They clashed heads several times with the government of Karmal.


== PDPA-Khalq (1989–present) ==


=== Najibullah Administration (1986–1992) ===
After the 40th Soviet Army left the country, PDPA General Secretary and President Mohammad Najibullah suffered, to a lesser degree, the same disadvantage that Karmal had when he was installed as General Secretary of the PDPA by the Soviets. This fact was shown by the fierceness of the resistance to Najibullah's appointment within the Parcham faction. This split persisted, forcing PDPA leader Najibullah to straddle his politics between whatever Parchami support he could maintain and alliances he could win from the Khalqists.

In December 1989, 127 Khalqist military officers were arrested for an attempted coup. Twenty-seven officers escaped and later showed up at a press conference with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in Peshawar. Former Minister of Tribal Affairs, Bacha Gul Wafadar and Minister of Civil Aviation Hasan Sharq were among the conspirators. In March 1990, once again the Mujahideen leader Gulbuddin Hekmatyar cooperated in a coup attempt, this time led by the Khalqist Defense minister Shahnawaz Tanai. Tanai was apparently also supported by those important Khalqist who remained in the Politburo, Assadullah Sarwary and Mohammad Gulabzoi, respectively their country's envoys to Aden and Moscow. They were said to have been intimately connected with the coup and with Gen. Tanai. However, Tanai had no direct control of troops inside Kabul. The plot misfired and failed because of faulty communications. Sarwary and Gulabzoi were both expelled immediately from the party.


=== Afghan Civil War (1992–2001) ===
At the end, however, the former Khalqists either joined or allied themselves with the Taliban or other Mujahideen warlords after the collapse of President Najibullah's Government in April 1992. A perfect example of this was that, once Kabul was captured, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar gained the support of the majority Pashtun Khalqist hardliners, including the Minister of Internal Affairs Raz Mohammad Paktin and then Defence Minister Mohammad Aslam Watanjar. Another example of this is the fact that Gen. Tanai (according to western diplomatic sources) provided the Taliban a skilled cadre of military officers. The Khalqis also ran the Taliban's small air force and military artillery and tanks.
In this way, the Khalqi faction were once again involved in the war, using his pilots to fly the Mig-21 and Sukhoi fighters of what was left of the Afghan Air Force, driving Soviet Tanks and using Soviet Artillery. With no central government and fighting for different groups, Khalq was merely a pawn in the Afghan Civil War between the Afghan Northern Alliance and the Taliban.


=== Karzai Administration (2002–2014) ===
After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, the presence of US forces in the province of Khost led to significant changes in the power dynamics of the region. As military units operated in the area, they sought alliances with like-minded individuals who shared their immediate goals. In a peculiar turn of events, the power vacuum created by the Taliban's defeat allowed former communists, who were once adversaries of the United States during the 1980s, to rise to power. These individuals, being staunchly anti-Taliban, became valuable allies to the US and Coalition partners in the region. This unexpected shift in power dynamics set the stage for the establishment of the Khost Protection Force (KPF), a paramilitary group that would play a significant role in the security landscape of Khost province.
Other Khalqists had developed fairly close relations with the Hamid Karzai regime after the defeat of the Taliban.

General Babrak Shinwari, former head of the youth affairs section of the PDPA under Taraki and Amin, who migrated to Peshawar in Pakistan in the winter of 1992. He later helped found the Afghanistan-Pakistan People Friendship Society and was elected member of the Loya Jirga by a council of elders from Nazyan Shinwari area of Nangarhar province.


== Prominent members ==
Hafizullah Amin
Shahnawaz Tanai
Nur Mohammad Taraki
Mohammad Aslam Watanjar
Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy
Assadullah Sarwari


== See also ==
Saur Revolution
1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt
Parcham
People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan


== References ==


== External links ==
A brief description of the Khalqist successful Coup of 1978
Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan – Khalqist Administration
About the future of the Afghan Khalqi faction",0.8073033690452576
Ebrahim Hussein,"Ebrahim Hussein (born 1943 in Lindi, Tanganyika Territory) is a Tanzanian playwright and poet. His first play, Kinjeketile (1969), written in Swahili, and based on the life of Kinjikitile Ngwale, a leader of the Maji Maji Rebellion, is considered ""a landmark of Tanzanian theatre"". 
Hussein's work stands in a literary tradition expressed in the national language Swahili following the country's independence from the United Kingdom in 1961. Since his works, with the exception of Kinjeketile  and another play, have not been translated, his work has not become well-known outside of East Africa.


== Works and importance for Swahili theatre ==
Hussein was born into a family of Arab descent in Lindi, a town of the Swahili coast on the Indian Ocean in 1943. He was educated at the Aga Khan Secondary School in Dar es Salaam and at the University College Dar es Salam of the former University of Eastern Africa, where he studied French literature and theatre arts. Hussein's work stands in a theatrical tradition that was created after the country's independence from Great Britain in 1961. The decision for Swahili as the national language of Tanzania in 1964 favoured an independent drama literature that took a middle way between the traditions of the Swahili-speaking peoples of the coast and Zanzibar and the conventions of the European theatre.
Still a student, he wrote his first short plays Wakati Ukuta (Time is a Wall) and Alikiona (Consequences) in 1967. They focus on tensions between the old and new generations and the social tensions resulting from European colonialism. Although he accepted elements of the European notions of a ""well-made play"" in the tradition of Aristotle, like the picture-frame stage, he was also interested in traditional African theatrical forms and the expectations of the audience. Some of his plays, like Alikiona, incorporate elements of kichekesho, which is a comical interlude found in the middle of many taarab performances and in other plays, Hussein used Swahili traditions of storytelling (hadithi).
In 1969, Hussein wrote his first full-length play, Kinjeketile, based on the life of Kinjikitile Ngwale, a leading figure of the Maji Maji uprising during German colonial rule in East Africa. The play was directed by the East German literary scholar Joachim Fiebach, who was a visiting professor at the University of Dar es Salaam, and became a model for the new East African theatre. Starting with Kinjeketile, Hussein used elements of epic theatre as developed by German playwright Bertolt Brecht.  During the following years, Kinjeketile became a sort of national epic, for the first time expressing anticolonial self-esteem in East African theatre. The text sold over 20,000 copies and was adopted as a textbook for secondary schools in the 1970s. Hussein himself translated Kinjeketile into English, and published by Oxford University Press in Dar es Salaam, the play became also known abroad.
During the early 1970s, Hussein studied at the Humboldt University in East Berlin and wrote his PhD dissertation ""On the development of theatre in East Africa"". Other plays include Mashetani (1971), an overtly political play, Jogoo Kijijini (1976), an experiment in dramatic performance, and Arusi (1980), in which Hussein's main character expresses disillusionment with the Tanzanian socialist practice of ujamaa. Hussein also wrote poetry in free verse, a new poetical form for Swahili literature that was also widely read in the schools and universities of East Africa. His works written in a poetic and, at the same time, modern language became a model for the socialist cultural policy of Tanzania, even if they contained ambiguous heroes, who sometimes doubt their actions. On the other hand, the ""poetic, elliptic prose"" of his later plays has been found difficult to appreciate.
In 1975 he began teaching theatre studies at the University of Daresalaam and temporarily directed their theatre group. Until his departure in 1986, he taught as a professor of theatre studies at this university. Since then, he has led a life without many contacts in his house in the district of Kariakoo.


== Works ==


== Ngao ya Jadi ==
Hussein's play for one actor, Ngao ya Judi, tells the story of Sesota, a serpent, that terrorizes a village, so a young peasant is called upon to defeat Sesota. The peasant succeeds and the village rejoices. Over time, the evil the serpent brought grows again, causing the village to become more and more depraved. Eventually, Sesota returns, with no-one to challenge him. 
This text is a retelling of a Swahili folk story in which Sesota is defeated by being trapped in a pot rather than killed and who eventually returns. In Hussein's version, Sesota represents colonialism that the ""peasant"" desperately tries to fight. Hussein speaks about how the remnants of colonialism still remain and that any amount of Western influence on African culture brings back that evil. Through this, the retelling also shows that there is no ""good vs. evil"" like in traditional stories, but that the world is rather morally grey. One significant moment is when the village is celebrating after Sesota's death; names of a variety of famous African writers and artists are listed. Here, Hussein seems to be criticizing his fellow artists, saying that their work only comes during moments of joy, rather than being used to combat oppression.


== Reception ==
Not least because of his political statement about the history of the Maji-Maji uprising, Hussein's play Kinjeketile became one of the standard Swahili texts in Tanzanian and Kenyan schools and was reprinted several times. 
German literary scholar Joachim Fiebach published a German translation of Kinjeketile in his anthology of African plays in 1974. In his study of Hussein's work, he pointed out that the play's anti-colonial message of the conflict between the colonised and the colonisers had overshadowed a second more general meaning: According to Fiebach's analysis, the colonised Africans are not glorified, but lacking strategic vision, mired in trivial disputes and impeded by personal hostilities. Referring to Hussein’s theatrical style, Fiebach described it as a “dramaturgy that seems to merge or mix adopted European models of an intimate theatre with non-Aristotelic and completely unique techniques.”
In his study on Hussein's importance for Swahili theatre, French scholar of African literature Alain Ricard wrote, ""Ebrahim Hussein is the best known Swahili playwright, and Tanzania's most complex literary personality. Known first and foremost as a dramatist, he is also a theorist whose dissertation on the theatre in Tanzania remains the standard reference work. His plays are a corpus of theatrical material with great significance to an understanding of Tanzania's political and social development in relation to the Swahili/Islamic coastal culture, of which he is a part."" Referring to the absence of Hussein's international recognition and the predicament of African literature written in African languages, Ricard wrote:

A truly innovative and creative writer, a perceptive thinker, a gifted poet, he has often suffered neglect precisely because he has remained steadfastly committed to Kiswahili. His predicament illustrates the double-bind situation that menaces African literature in African languages. An international reputation is only possible when African-language works are translated into European languages, but few African-language works are translated.
While Hussein focused on research at the Humboldt University in East Berlin for his PhD thesis from 1970 to 1973, the first scholarly study of his work, Drama and National Culture: a Marxist Study of Ebrahim Hussein, a PhD thesis was published in 1989 by the US-American literary scholar Robert M. Philipson. In his 1999 review of Alain Ricard's study on Hussein, Philipson wrote: “Ebrahim Hussein is a difficult case. After Wole Soyinka and Athol Fugard, he is the most interesting and talented dramatist that Africa has produced, but his name is rarely mentioned in European studies on African literature. [...] The reason for this is simple: Hussein writes in Swahili, and his dramatic work, with the exception of Kinjeketile, has not been translated into a Western language.”


== Ebrahim Hussein Poetry Prize ==
The Ebrahim Hussein Poetry prize is an honour awarded annually since 2014 to the winner of the poetry contest under the same name. The contest was created by Safarani Seushi in line with the wish of the late Canadian filmmaker, Gerald Belkin (1940–2012). Belkin was in the process of creating this award, to be named after ""his friend and renowned filmmaker and playwright, Professor Ebrahim Hussein"", when he died. His goal in establishing the award and prize fund was to foster the careers of Swahili literary authors. The selected poems were published as Diwani ya tunzo ya ushairi ya Ebrahim Hussein (Anthology of Ebrahim Hussein Poetry Prize) in 2017.


== Ebrahim Hussein Fellowship ==
The Ebrahim Hussein Endowment for research in African expressive cultures was established in the College of Letters and Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2003, thanks to the generosity of Robert M. Philipson, an alumnus of the college (PhD, 1989). The college awards up to $7,500 each year to one or more full-time graduate students in there to carry out research on African expressive cultures and/or archives outside of the United States. Winners of the fellowship include Vincent Ogoti, a Kenyan playwright. 


== References ==


== Further reading ==
John Githongo (8 May 2023). ""Prof. Ebrahim Hussein: Kiswahili, Poetry and Freedom - The Elephant"". Retrieved 23 December 2024.
S. O. Solanke. 2013. “Deploying Myths through Facts and Fictions in the Struggle for Tanzanians’ National Soul in Ebrahim N. Hussein’s Kinjeketile.” Venec 4 (1): 106–21.OCLC 8539661746
Affiah, Uwem, und Patience George Eni. Drama and the Revolutionary Archetype: Ebrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile and Wa Thiong’o And Mugo’s The Trial Of Dedan Kimathi. European Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics Studies 2.3 (2018).
Mwaifuge, Eliah S. German Colonialism, Memory and Ebrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile. 2014, (pdf)
Kuloba, Agnes N. Translation inadequecies in the English version of Kinjeketile. Diss. University of Nairobi, 2013.
Alamin M. Mazrui (2007), Swahili Beyond the Boundaries: Literature, Language, and Identity, Ohio University Press, pp. 34–35, ISBN 978-0-89680-252-0
Martin Banham, Errol Hill, George Woodyard (4 August 1994), The Cambridge Guide to African and Caribbean Theatre, Cambridge University Press, pp. 115–116, ISBN 978-0-521-41139-4{{citation}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Lihamba, Amandina (1992). ""Popular theatre in Africa"". Voices from Africa (4): 53–64. OCLC 1248428484.
Lihamba, Amandina (1985). Politics and theatre in Tanzania after the Arusha declaration, 1967–1984 (Thesis). Leeds. OCLC 1184537252.
Mlama, Penina Muhando (1985). Tanzania's cultural policy and its implications for the contribution of the arts to socialist development. Dar es Salaam: Utafiti. OCLC 61749373.


== External links ==
Ebrahim Hussein in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Kinjeketile – English translation and analysis",0.7533296942710876
Fannia Cohn,"Fannia Mary Cohn (April 5, 1885 – December 24, 1962) was a leading figure in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) during the first half of the 20th century. She is remembered as one of the pioneers of the workers' education movement in the United States and as a prolific author on the theme of trade union education.


== Biography ==


=== Early years ===
Fannia Mary Cohn was born on April 5, 1885, to an ethnic Jewish family in Kletsk, Belarus, then part of the Russian Empire. She was the fourth of five children of a successful owner of a flour mill and his wife. Fannia received an education in private schools, with her parents encouraging their daughter to read extensively.
Cohn was radicalized during her teenaged years in the Tsarist empire. At the age of 16 she joined the Socialist Revolutionary Party (PSR), the intellectual successor of the Narodnik movement of the 1870s. She was active in the Minsk section of the PSR, a secret revolutionary political party, for the next three years.


=== Emigration to America ===
In 1904 her brother was nearly killed in an anti-Jewish pogrom, spurring Fannia to emigrate to the United States. Arriving in New York City, Cohn soon joined the Socialist Party of America. Cohn decided against further formal education in 1905, instead taking a job as a garment worker in order to participate directly in the Yiddish-language labor movement of New York City.
In 1906 Fannia began her efforts to organize workers in the white goods trade. Organizing this particular trade was difficult because workers within it were of various nationalities and spoke different languages. During a 1908 strike of household linen makers, Cohn met Rose Schneiderman, with whom she became closely associated. Both Cohn and Schneiderman believed in the efficacy of recruiting female strike leaders from the union rank-and-file rather than relying upon a male-dominated centralized union bureaucracy for the settlement of labor disputes. They employed this outlook to bridge the ethnic gaps amongst worker in the white goods trade, finding a leader amongst the women of different ethnicities who could speak to the workers in their own language and cultivating her organizing talents. This strategy was successful and by 1909 the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) recognized the white goods' worker's union.
Fannia helped to organize Local 24 of the ILGWU in Brooklyn and was elected to the Executive Board of the local in 1909 at the young age of 24. She was elected Chair of the Executive Board in 1913 and remained in that position until 1914. During the years 1912 and 1913 Cohn played a prominent role as a leader of the strike movement of New York City's organized garment workers.
In 1914 the National Women's Trade Union League (NWTUL), an organization established in 1903, launched a training school for women organizers, a year-long program combining academics and field work. New York ILGWU leader Cohn was one of the first three chosen to attend the program in Chicago. In 1915, she was asked by the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union to organize Chicago dressmakers and in doing so founded ILGWU Local No. 59. In connection with this activity, Cohn was a key leader of a major strike of Chicago garment workers which began late in 1915 and continued into the following year, serving as a general organizer for the ILGWU.
In 1916 Cohn was elected as the first female vice president of the ILGWU. She would serve in this capacity until 1925.


=== Workers' education ===
In 1918 Cohn took the leadership of the ILGWU's Education Committee, and eventually rose to become Vice President of the union. After being elected as the first female vice president of ILGWU, Fannia Cohn continued to pioneer and promote an image of the labor movement that integrated education as well as personal growth. Cohn, soon after her promotion, lobbied for the establishment of an Education Department within the union and subsequently, served as secretary upon its launch.
In the wake of this new educational reform, women within the union began to militantly mobilize due to their growing discontent with the ILGWU leadership and in turn, jumpstarted a rebellion that consequently crippled the union’s infrastructure. As a result, Fannia Cohn would be blamed for this rebellion as well as her failure to condemn it and would thus be castigated and ostracized from all fronts – including the militants she inspired. Cut off by union leaders, Cohn later channelled her activism into education, as she fostered some of the country's prominent scholars as allies and even teachers in her workers education courses.
Cohn was instrumental in the formation of the Workers' Education Bureau of America in 1921.
Cohn was a co-founder of  Brookwood Labor College in 1924, an initiative associated with labor educator A. J. Muste. She would serve as a director of Brookwood until 1933, also sitting on the board of Brookwood's Labor Publication Society, publisher of the magazine Labor Age. In 1932 Cohn was named a vice president of Brookwood Labor College, a position in which she remained until 1937. During her time at Brookwood, Cohn served as a mentor to Floria Pinkney, the first African-American labor organizer in the ILGWU.


=== Conferences and political activity ===
Fannia Cohn was selected as an American delegate to the International Women's Conference held in Washington, D.C., in 1919. She was also a delegate to the 1st International Conference on Workers' Education, held in Brussels, Belgium in 1922. She served in a similar capacity at the 2nd International Conference on Workers' Education, held in Oxford, England, in 1924.
In 1924 Cohn became active in the Conference for Progressive Political Action (CPPA), a group envisioned as an umbrella organization of progressive political and trade union activists leading towards the establishment of a labor party in the United States. Cohn was elected a member of the National Committee of the CPPA. Despite the failure of that organization to survive beyond 1925, Cohn remained active in left wing politics at least through the 1940s as a member of the League for Industrial Democracy.


=== Death and legacy ===
Fannia Cohn retired from trade union affairs in 1961. She died in New York City on December 24, 1962. She was 77 years old at the time of her death.


== Footnotes ==


== Works ==

The Educational Work of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union: Report Submitted to the Conference of the Worker's Education Bureau of America, April 2, 1921. New York : Educational Dept., International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, [1921].
Report of First International Conference on Workers' Education held in Brussels, Belgium, August 16th and 17th, 1922. With Spencer Miller. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, n.d. [c. 1922].
Winning Workingmen to Unionism. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [1920s].
Woman's Eternal Struggle: What Workers Education Will Do for Woman. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1932].
The Uprising of the Sixty Thousand: The General Strike of the Dressmakers' Union, August 16, 1933. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [1933].
A New Era Opens for Labor Education: Discussion at the Workers' Education Bureau Conference, October 2, 1933, Washington, DC. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, n.d. [1933].
Social Responsibility. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c 1933].
Workers' Education and Labor Leadership. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1935.
Can Women Lead? New York: n.p., 1936.
Working Women in Action. New York: n.p., 1936.
We Kept Our Faith: A Memorial to Our Triangle Victims. New York: n.p., 1936.
Action Based on Knowledge is Power. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1936].
The Workers Education Bureau — An Arm of the Labor Movement. New York: Workers Education Bureau, n.d. [c. 1936].
Method and Approach in a Discussion of the Economics of the Garment Industry for Young Workers. New York: n.p., 1937.
History: Fiction or Fact: What is Workers' Education, Including Suggestions for Teachers in Workers' Classes. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1938.
Progressives Must Choose. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1938].
Why is Our Union Different? New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1939.
Workers' Education in the World Crisis: A Discussion at the Annual Conference of the American Association for Adult Education on May 21, 1940, at the Hotel Astor, New York. New York: American Association for Adult Education, 1940.
Workers' Education in War and Peace. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1943.
Facing the Future: Where Do We Go from Here? ... New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1945.
Labor Unions and the Community. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1946.
Organized Labor's Contribution to the Nation. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1946.
UNESCO: Its Objectives and How to Implement Them. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1947.
Learn - Play - Act: A Program of Progressive Workers' Education. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1947.
Philosophy of Workers' Education. n.c.: n.p., n.d. [c. 1948].
Workers' Education: The Dream and the Reality. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1948.
Adult Labor Education in a Troubled World: A Guide for Teachers. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1958.
Why Workers' Education? Los Angeles: n.p., n.d.


== Further reading ==
Ricki Carole Myers Cohen, Fannia Cohn and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. PhD dissertation. University of Southern California, 1976.
Brian Dolber, ""Sweating for Democracy: Working Class Media and the Struggle for 'Hegemonic Jewishness,' 1919-1941."" PhD dissertation. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 2011.
Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1924.
Benjamin Stolberg, Tailor's Progress: The Story of a Famous Union and the Men Who Made It. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1944.


== External links ==
New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts – Fannia M. Cohn Papers: Three groups of documents, including correspondence, writings (articles, speeches, plays, etc.) and ILGWU-related documents
ILGWU Education Department – Fannia Cohn Papers:  Documentation of her work at the ILGWU from 1918 to 1961.",0.8104292750358582
Well-formed formula,"In mathematical logic, propositional logic and predicate logic, a well-formed formula, abbreviated WFF or wff, often simply formula, is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet that is part of a formal language.
The abbreviation wff is pronounced ""woof"", or sometimes ""wiff"", ""weff"", or ""whiff"".
A formal language can be identified with the set of formulas in the language. A formula is a syntactic object that can be given a semantic meaning by means of an interpretation. Two key uses of formulas are in propositional logic and predicate logic.


== Introduction ==
A key use of formulas is in propositional logic and predicate logic such as first-order logic.  In those contexts, a formula is a string of symbols φ for which it makes sense to ask ""is φ true?"", once any free variables in φ have been instantiated.  In formal logic, proofs can be represented by sequences of formulas with certain properties, and the final formula in the sequence is what is proven.
Although the term ""formula"" may be used for written marks (for instance, on a piece of paper or chalkboard), it is more precisely understood as the sequence of symbols being expressed, with the marks being a token instance of formula. This distinction between the vague notion of ""property"" and the inductively-defined notion of well-formed formula has roots in Weyl's 1910 paper ""Uber die Definitionen der mathematischen Grundbegriffe"". Thus the same formula may be written more than once, and a formula might in principle be so long that it cannot be written at all within the physical universe.
Formulas themselves are syntactic objects. They are given meanings by interpretations. For example, in a propositional formula, each propositional variable may be interpreted as a concrete proposition, so that the overall formula expresses a relationship between these propositions. A formula need not be interpreted, however, to be considered solely as a formula.


== Propositional calculus ==

The formulas of propositional calculus, also called propositional formulas, are expressions such as 
  
    
      
        (
        A
        ∧
        (
        B
        ∨
        C
        )
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (A\land (B\lor C))}
  
. Their definition begins with the arbitrary choice of a set V of  propositional variables. The alphabet consists of the letters in V along with the symbols for the propositional connectives and parentheses ""("" and "")"", all of which are assumed to not be in V.  The formulas will be certain expressions (that is, strings of symbols) over this alphabet.
The formulas are inductively defined as follows:

Each propositional variable is, on its own, a formula.
If φ is a formula, then ¬φ is a formula.
If φ and ψ are formulas, and • is any binary connective, then ( φ • ψ) is a formula. Here • could be (but is not limited to) the usual operators ∨, ∧, →, or ↔.
This definition can also be written as a formal grammar in Backus–Naur form, provided the set of variables is finite:

Using this grammar, the sequence of symbols

(((p → q) ∧ (r → s)) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))
is a formula, because it is grammatically correct. The sequence of symbols

((p → q)→(qq))p))
is not a formula, because it does not conform to the grammar.
A complex formula may be difficult to read, owing to, for example, the proliferation of parentheses. To alleviate this last phenomenon, precedence rules (akin to the standard mathematical order of operations) are assumed among the operators, making some operators more binding than others. For example, assuming the precedence (from most binding to least binding) 1. ¬   2. →  3. ∧  4. ∨. Then the formula

(((p → q) ∧ (r → s)) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))
may be abbreviated as

p → q ∧ r → s ∨ ¬q ∧ ¬s
This is, however, only a convention used to simplify the written representation of a formula. If the precedence was assumed, for example, to be left-right associative, in following order: 1. ¬   2. ∧  3. ∨  4. →, then the same formula above (without parentheses) would be rewritten as

(p → (q ∧ r)) → (s ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))


== Predicate logic ==
The definition of a formula in first-order logic 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
            S
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {QS}}}
  
 is relative to the signature of the theory at hand. This signature specifies the constant symbols, predicate symbols, and function symbols of the theory at hand, along with the arities of the function and predicate symbols.
The definition of a formula comes in several parts. First, the set of terms is defined recursively. Terms, informally, are expressions that represent objects from the domain of discourse.

Any variable is a term.
Any constant symbol from the signature is a term
an expression of the form f(t1,...,tn), where f is an n-ary function symbol, and t1,...,tn are terms, is again a term.
The next step is to define the atomic formulas.

If t1 and t2 are terms then t1=t2 is an atomic formula
If R is an n-ary predicate symbol, and t1,...,tn are terms, then R(t1,...,tn) is an atomic formula
Finally, the set of formulas is defined to be the smallest set containing the set of atomic formulas such that the following holds:

  
    
      
        ¬
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \neg \phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula

  
    
      
        (
        ϕ
        ∧
        ψ
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (\phi \land \psi )}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        (
        ϕ
        ∨
        ψ
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (\phi \lor \psi )}
  
 are formulas when 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 and 
  
    
      
        ψ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \psi }
  
 are formulas;

  
    
      
        ∃
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \exists x\,\phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
 is a variable and 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula;

  
    
      
        ∀
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x\,\phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
 is a variable and 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula (alternatively, 
  
    
      
        ∀
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x\,\phi }
  
 could be defined as an abbreviation for 
  
    
      
        ¬
        ∃
        x
        
        ¬
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \neg \exists x\,\neg \phi }
  
).
If a formula has no occurrences of 
  
    
      
        ∃
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \exists x}
  
 or 
  
    
      
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x}
  
, for any variable 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
, then it is called quantifier-free. An existential formula is a formula starting with a sequence of existential quantification followed by a quantifier-free formula.


== Atomic and open formulas ==

An atomic formula is a formula that contains no logical connectives nor quantifiers, or equivalently a formula that has no strict subformulas.
The precise form of atomic formulas depends on the formal system under consideration; for propositional logic, for example, the atomic formulas are the propositional variables. For predicate logic, the atoms are predicate symbols together with their arguments, each argument being a term.
According to some terminology, an open formula is formed by combining atomic formulas using only logical connectives, to the exclusion of quantifiers. This is not to be confused with a formula which is not closed.


== Closed formulas ==

A closed formula, also ground formula or sentence, is a formula in which there are no free occurrences of any variable. If A is a formula of a first-order language in which the variables v1, …, vn have free occurrences, then A preceded by ∀v1 ⋯ ∀vn is a universal closure of A.


== Properties applicable to formulas ==
A formula A in a language 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
 is valid if it is true for every interpretation of 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
.
A formula A in a language 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
 is satisfiable if it is true for some interpretation of 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
.
A formula A of the language of arithmetic is decidable if it represents a decidable set, i.e. if there is an effective method which, given a substitution of the free variables of A, says that either the resulting instance of A is provable or its negation is.


== Usage of the terminology ==
In earlier works on mathematical logic (e.g. by Church), formulas referred to any strings of symbols and among these strings, well-formed formulas were the strings that followed the formation rules of (correct) formulas.
Several authors simply say formula. Modern usages (especially in the context of computer science with mathematical software such as model checkers, automated theorem provers, interactive theorem provers) tend to retain of the notion of formula only the algebraic concept and to leave the question of well-formedness, i.e. of the concrete string representation of formulas (using this or that symbol for connectives and quantifiers, using this or that parenthesizing convention, using Polish or infix notation, etc.) as a mere notational problem.
The expression ""well-formed formulas"" (WFF) also crept into popular culture. WFF is part of an esoteric pun used in the name of the academic game ""WFF 'N PROOF: The Game of Modern Logic"", by Layman Allen, developed while he was at Yale Law School (he was later a professor at the University of Michigan). The suite of games is designed to teach the principles of symbolic logic to children (in Polish notation). Its name is an echo of whiffenpoof, a nonsense word used as a cheer at Yale University made popular in The Whiffenpoof Song and The Whiffenpoofs.


== See also ==

Ground expression
Well-defined expression
Formal language
Glossary of logic
WFF 'N Proof


== Notes ==


== References ==
Allen, Layman E. (1965), ""Toward Autotelic Learning of Mathematical Logic by the WFF 'N PROOF Games"", Mathematical Learning: Report of a Conference Sponsored by the Committee on Intellective Processes Research of the Social Science Research Council, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 30 (1): 29–41
Boolos, George; Burgess, John; Jeffrey, Richard (2002), Computability and Logic (4th ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00758-0
Ehrenberg, Rachel (Spring 2002). ""He's Positively Logical"". Michigan Today. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-02-08. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
Enderton, Herbert (2001), A mathematical introduction to logic (2nd ed.), Boston, MA: Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-238452-3
Gamut, L.T.F. (1990), Logic, Language, and Meaning, Volume 1: Introduction to Logic, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-28085-3
Hodges, Wilfrid (2001), ""Classical Logic I: First-Order Logic"", in Goble, Lou (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-20692-7
Hofstadter, Douglas (1980), Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-005579-5
Kleene, Stephen Cole (2002) [1967], Mathematical logic, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-42533-7, MR 1950307
Rautenberg, Wolfgang (2010), A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic (3rd ed.), New York: Springer Science+Business Media, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1221-3, ISBN 978-1-4419-1220-6


== External links ==
Well-Formed Formula for First Order Predicate Logic - includes a short Java quiz.
Well-Formed Formula at ProvenMath",1.024387240409851
Opus number,"In music, the opus number is the ""work number"" that is assigned to a musical composition, or to a set of compositions, to indicate the chronological order of the composer's publication of that work. Opus numbers are used to distinguish among compositions with similar titles; the word is abbreviated as ""Op."" for a single work, or ""Opp."" when referring to more than one work. Opus numbers do not necessarily indicate chronological order of composition. For example, posthumous publications of a composer's juvenilia are often numbered after other works, even though they may be some of the composer's first completed works.
To indicate the specific place of a given work within a music catalogue, the opus number is paired with a cardinal number; for example, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor (1801, nicknamed Moonlight Sonata) is ""Opus 27, No. 2"", whose work-number identifies it as a companion piece to ""Opus 27, No. 1"" (Piano Sonata No. 13 in E-flat major, 1800–01), paired in same opus number, with both being subtitled Sonata quasi una Fantasia, the only two of the kind in all of Beethoven's 32 piano sonatas. Furthermore, the Piano Sonata, Op. 27 No. 2, in C-sharp minor is also catalogued as ""Sonata No. 14"", because it is the fourteenth sonata composed by Ludwig van Beethoven.
Given composers' inconsistent or non-existent assignment of opus numbers, especially during the Baroque (1600–1750) and the Classical (1750–1827) eras, musicologists have developed other catalogue-number systems; among them the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV-number) and the Köchel-Verzeichnis (K- and KV-numbers), which enumerate the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, respectively.


== Etymology ==
In the classical period, the Latin word opus (""work"", ""labour""), plural opera, was used to identify, list, and catalogue a work of art.
By the 15th and 16th centuries, the word opus was used by Italian composers to denote a specific musical composition, and by German composers for collections of music. In compositional practice, numbering musical works in chronological order dates from 17th-century Italy, especially Venice. In common usage, the word opus is used to describe the best work of an artist with the term magnum opus.
In Latin, the words opus (singular) and opera (plural) are related to the words opera (singular) and operae (plural), which gave rise to the Italian words opera (singular) and opere (plural), likewise meaning ""work"". In contemporary English, the word opera has specifically come to denote the dramatic musical genres of opera or ballet, which were developed in Italy. As a result, the plural opera of opus tends to be avoided in English. In other languages such as German, however, it remains common.


== Early usage ==
In the arts, an opus number usually denotes a work of musical composition, a practice and usage established in the seventeenth century when composers identified their works with an opus number. In the eighteenth century, publishers usually assigned opus numbers when publishing groups of like compositions, usually in sets of three, six or twelve compositions. Consequently, opus numbers are not usually in chronological order, unpublished compositions usually had no opus number, and numeration gaps and sequential duplications occurred when publishers issued contemporaneous editions of a composer's works, as in the sets of string quartets by Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827); Haydn's Op. 76, the Erdödy quartets (1796–97), comprises six discrete quartets consecutively numbered Op. 76 No. 1 – Op. 76 No. 6; whilst Beethoven's Op. 59, the Rasumovsky quartets (1805–06), comprises String Quartet No. 7, String Quartet No. 8, and String Quartet No. 9.


== 19th century to date ==
From about 1800, composers usually assigned an opus number to a work or set of works upon publication. After approximately 1900, they tended to assign an opus number to a composition whether published or not. However, practices were not always perfectly consistent or logical. For example, early in his career, Beethoven selectively numbered his compositions (some published without opus numbers), yet in later years, he published early works with high opus numbers. Likewise, some posthumously published works were given high opus numbers by publishers, even though some of them were written early in Beethoven's career. Since his death in 1827, the un-numbered compositions have been cataloged and labeled with the German acronym WoO (Werk ohne Opuszahl), meaning ""work without opus number""; the same has been done with other composers who used opus numbers. (There are also other catalogs of Beethoven's works – see Catalogues of Beethoven compositions.)
The practice of enumerating a posthumous opus (""Op. posth."") is noteworthy in the case of Felix Mendelssohn (1809–47); after his death, the heirs published many compositions with opus numbers that Mendelssohn did not assign. In life, he published two symphonies (Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 11; and Symphony No. 3 in A minor, Op. 56), furthermore he published his symphony-cantata Lobgesang, Op. 52, which was posthumously counted as his Symphony No. 2; yet, he chronologically wrote symphonies between symphonies Nos. 1 and 2, which he withdrew for personal and compositional reasons; nevertheless, the Mendelssohn heirs published (and cataloged) them as the  Italian Symphony No. 4 in A major, Op. 90, and as the  Reformation Symphony No. 5 in D major and D minor, Op. 107.
While many of the works of Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) were given opus numbers, these did not always bear a logical relationship to the order in which the works were written or published. To achieve better sales, some publishers, such as N. Simrock, preferred to present less experienced composers as being well established, by giving some relatively early works much higher opus numbers than their chronological order would merit. In other cases, Dvořák gave lower opus numbers to new works to be able to sell them to other publishers outside his contract obligations. This way it could happen that the same opus number was given to more than one of his works.  Opus number 12, for example, was assigned, successively, to five different works (an opera, a concert overture, a string quartet, and two unrelated piano works). In other cases, the same work was given as many as three different opus numbers by different publishers. The sequential numbering of his symphonies has also been confused: (a) they were initially numbered by order of publication, not composition; (b) the first four symphonies to be composed were published after the last five; and (c) the last five symphonies were not published in order of composition. The New World Symphony originally was published as No. 5, later was known as No. 8, and definitively was renumbered as No. 9 in the critical editions published in the 1950s.
Other examples of composers' historically inconsistent opus-number usages include the cases of César Franck (1822–1890), Béla Bartók (1881–1945), and Alban Berg (1885–1935), who initially numbered, but then stopped numbering their compositions. Carl Nielsen (1865–1931) and Paul Hindemith (1895–1963) were also inconsistent in their approaches. Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) was consistent and assigned an opus number to a composition before composing it; at his death, he left fragmentary and planned, but numbered, works. In revising a composition, Prokofiev occasionally assigned a new opus number to the revision; thus Symphony No. 4 is two thematically related but discrete works: Symphony No. 4, Op. 47, written in 1929; and Symphony No. 4, Op. 112, a large-scale revision written in 1947. Likewise, depending upon the edition, the original version of Piano Sonata No. 5 in C major, is cataloged both as Op. 38 and as Op. 135.
Despite being used in more or less normal fashion by a number of important early-twentieth-century composers, including Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) and Anton Webern (1883–1945), opus numbers became less common in the later part of the twentieth century.


== Other catalogues ==

To manage inconsistent opus-number usages – especially by composers of the Baroque (1600–1750) and of the Classical (1720–1830) music eras – musicologists have developed comprehensive and unambiguous catalogue number-systems for the works of composers such as:

Johann Sebastian Bach – catalogued with a BWV-number; a Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis number assigned by Wolfgang Schmieder; however, older sources occasionally use S-numbers.
Dietrich Buxtehude – catalogued with a BuxWV-number, a Buxtehude-Werke-Verzeichnis work number.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier – identified with an H-number per H.W. Hitchcock's comprehensive catalogue.
Frédéric Chopin – four catalogue systems have been applied: (i) B-numbers, by Maurice J. E. Brown; (ii) KK-numbers, by Krystyna Kobylańska; (iii) work-letters (A, C, D, E, P and S), by Józef Michał Chomiński; and (iv) WN-numbers in the Chopin National Edition. Generally, these alternative music-catalogue systems identified compositions that the composer had not numbered.
Claude Debussy – identified with an L-number, per François Lesure's comprehensive catalogue.
Antonín Dvořák – identified with a B-number, per Jarmil Burghauser's comprehensive catalogue; which resolved the problems of different and duplicate opus-numbers assigned by the publishers of Dvořák's music.
Joseph Haydn – identified with a Hob.-number, per the 1957 catalogue by Anthony van Hoboken. Although he assigned Hoboken-numbers to the string quartets, those compositions usually are known by opus numbers.
Franz Liszt – identified with an S-number, per the catalogue The Music of Liszt (1960), by Humphrey Searle.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – identified either with a K-number or with a KV-number (Köchel-Verzeichnis nummer), per the catalogue system of Ludwig Ritter von Köchel.
Niccolò Paganini – identified with an MS-number, per the 1982 Catalogo tematico, by Moretti and Sorrento.
Domenico Scarlatti – identified with three catalogue systems; (i) L-numbers, per the 1906 catalogue by Alessandro Longo; (ii) K-numbers and Kk-numbers, per the 1953 catalogue by Ralph Kirkpatrick; and (iii) P-numbers, per the 1967 catalogue by Giorgio Pestelli.
Franz Schubert – identified with a D-number, per the catalogue of Otto Erich Deutsch.
Maurice Ravel – identified with an M-number, per the 1986 catalogue by Marcel Marnat.
Henry Purcell – identified with a Z-number, per the catalogue by Franklin B. Zimmerman.
Antonio Vivaldi – identified with a RV number, per the Ryom-Verzeichnis catalogue by Peter Ryom.
Gustav Holst – identified with an H. catalogue number,  per A Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst's Music by Imogen Holst.


== See also ==
WoO


== References ==",1.0297669172286987
Botan Dōrō,"Botan Dōrō (牡丹燈籠, The Peony Lantern) is a Japanese ghost story (kaidan) and one of the most famous kaidan in Japan. The plot involves sex with the dead and the consequences of loving a ghost.
It is sometimes known as Kaidan Botan Dōrō (怪談牡丹灯籠, Tales of the Peony Lantern), based on the kabuki version of the story; this title is commonly used in translation, and refers to a Stone Lantern.


== History ==
Botan Dōrō entered Japanese literary culture in the 17th century, through a translation of a book of Chinese ghost stories called Jiandeng Xinhua (New Tales Under the Lamplight) by Qu You. The collection was didactic in nature, containing Buddhist moral lessons on karma.[1]
In 1666, author Asai Ryoi responded to the Edo period craze for kaidan, spawned largely by the popular game Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai, by adapting the more spectacular tales from Jiandeng Xinhua into his own book Otogi Boko (Hand Puppets).[2] At the time, Japan's borders were entirely closed, with very little of the outside world known by its people; as such, China was viewed as a mysterious and exotic nation. Asai removed the Buddhist moral lessons and gave the stories a Japanese setting, placing Botan Dōrō in the Nezu district of Tokyo.
Otogi Boko was immensely popular, spawning multiple imitative works such as Zoku Otogi Boko (Hand Puppets Continued) and Shin Otogi Boko (New Hand Puppets), and is considered the forerunner of the literary kaidan movement that resulted in the classic Ugetsu Monogatari.[3]
In 1884, Botan Dōrō was adapted by famous storyteller San'yūtei Enchō into a rakugo, which increased the popularity of the tale.[4] In order to achieve a greater length, the story was fleshed out considerably, adding background information on several characters as well as additional subplots. It was then adapted to the kabuki stage in July 1892, and staged at the Kabukiza under the title Kaidan Botan Dōrō.[5]
In 1899, Lafcadio Hearn, with the help of a friend, translated Botan Dōrō into English for his book In Ghostly Japan. He titled his adaptation A Passional Karma, and based it on the kabuki version of the story.[6]
A more modern version of the play was written in 1974 by the playwright Onishi Nobuyuki for the Bungakuza troupe, starring Sugimura Haruko, Kitamura Kazuo and Ninomiya Sayoko. It was so successful that it was staged again a few years later in April 1976 at the Shimbashi Embujo. A new adaptation by Kawatake Shinshichi III was staged for the first time with a full kabuki casting in June 1989, again at the Shimbashi Embujo. The Kawatake version is still occasionally revived but is less popular than the Onishi one.[7]
Much like Yotsuya Kaidan, there remains a superstition that actors who play the ghost roles in Kaidan Botan Doro will come to harm. This comes from a 1919 performance at the Imperial Theater, when the two actresses playing Otsuyu and her maid became sick and died within a week of each other.[8]


== Story ==


=== Otogi Boko version ===
On the first night of Obon, a beautiful woman and a young girl holding a peony lantern stroll by the house of the widowed samurai Ogiwara Shinnojo. Ogiwara is instantly smitten with the woman, named Otsuyu, and vows an eternal relationship. From that night onward, the woman and the girl visit at dusk, always leaving before dawn. An elderly neighbor, suspicious of the girl, peeks into his home and finds Ogiwara in bed with a skeleton. Consulting a Buddhist priest, Ogiwara finds that he is in danger unless he can resist the woman, and he places a protection charm on his house. The woman is then unable to enter his house, but calls him from outside. Finally, unable to resist, Ogiwara goes out to greet her, and is led back to her house, a grave in a temple. In the morning, Ogiwara's dead body is found entwined with the woman's skeleton.[9]


=== Rakugo version ===


=== Kabuki version ===
A young student named Saburo falls in love with a beautiful woman named Otsuyu, the daughter of his father's best friend. They meet secretly, and promise to be married. However, Saburo falls ill, and is unable to see Otsuyu for a long time.
Later, when Saburo recovers and goes to see his love, he is told that Otsuyu has died. He prays for her spirit during the Obon festival, and is surprised to hear the approaching footsteps of two women. When he sees them, they look remarkably like Otsuyu and her maid. It is revealed that her aunt, who opposed the marriage, spread the rumor that Otsuyu had died and told Otsuyu in turn that Saburo had died.
The two lovers, reunited, begin their relationship again in secret. Each night Otsuyu, accompanied by her maid who carries a peony lantern, spends the night with Saburo.
This continues blissfully until one night a servant peeks through a hole in the wall in Saburo's bedroom, and sees him having sex with a decaying skeleton, while another skeleton sits in the doorway holding a peony lantern. He reports this to the local Buddhist priest, who locates the graves of Otsuyu and her maid.  Taking Saburo there, he convinces him of the truth, and agrees to help Saburo guard his house against the spirits. The priest places ofuda around the house, and prays the nenbutsu every night.
The plan works, and Otsuyu and her maid are unable to enter, although they come every night and call out their love to Saburo. Pining for his sweetheart, Saburo's health begins to deteriorate. Saburo's servants, afraid that he will die from heartbreak and leave them without work, remove the ofuda from the house. Otsuyu enters, and again has sex with Saburo.
In the morning, the servants find Saburo dead, his body entwined with Otsuyu's skeleton, with a blissful expression on his face.[10]


=== Differences ===
The main differences between the two versions are the changing of the human lover from Ogiwara Shinnojo, an elderly widower, to Saburo, a young student, and the establishment of a pre-existing lover's relationship between Otsuyu and Saburo.
Where the Otogi Boko version was written during the isolated Edo period, the rakugo and kabuki version were written after the Meiji restoration, and was influenced by the flood of Western literature and theater that accompanied the modernization of Japan.[11]
One of these influences was adding a romantic element to the story, something that was played down in older kaidan. The Otogi Boko version makes no mention of Otsuyu's death; both the rakugo and kabuki versions create the idea of Otsuyu and Saburo's love being stronger than death, and emphasize Saburo's peaceful expression when his body is found entwined with the skeleton.[12]


== Influences and references ==
Botan Dōrō establishes the theme of a sexual encounter with the ghost of a woman as a central aspect of the story, a theme which would later go on to influence a number of later kaidan.[13] This theme follows the standard pattern of a Noh theater katsuramono play, where the female ghost hides her spectral nature until the final reveal at the end of the story.
The nature of the ghost's return to Earth is either a lingering love, or a general loneliness. The Otogi Boko version of Botan Dōrō has no prior relationship, and Otsuyu merely wishes for a companion in the afterlife. The rakugo and kabuki versions, however, have Otsuyu returning for a former lover.
The sexual ghost can be found in Kyōka Izumi's story Maya Kakushi no Rei (A Quiet Obsession) which features a sensual encounter with a female ghost in an onsen.
Botan Dōrō is famous for the onomatopoeia 'karan koron', which is the sound of Otsuyu's wooden clogs announcing her appearance on stage.[14]


== Film ==

Boton Dōrō is one of the first Japanese ghost stories to be put to film, with a silent version in 1910. Six further adaptations were made between 1911 and 1937, although all of these have been lost to time and only the titles are still known. It is second only to Yotsuya Kaidan in film adaptations, with a new version released every decade as either cinematic releases, direct-to-video releases, or television versions.[15]
Notable is Satsuo Yamamoto's 1968 version, filmed for Daiei Studios. It is variously known as Bride from Hell, Haunted Lantern, Ghost Beauty, My Bride is a Ghost, Bride from Hades, or Peony Lanterns. Yamamoto's film roughly follows the Otogi Boko version of the story, establishing protagonist Hagiwara Shinzaburo as a teacher who flees an unwanted marriage with his brother's widow and lives quietly some distance from his family. The usual encounter with Otsuyu follows, although the inevitable consequence is treated as a happy ending, or, at worst, bittersweet, since they are united beyond the grave, if not in life.[16]
In 1972, director Chūsei Sone made a pink film version for Nikkatsu's Roman Porno series, entitled Hellish Love (性談牡丹燈籠, Seidan botan doro). Following the rakugo and kabuki versions, Hellish Love places emphasis on the sexual nature of the relationship between the protagonist and Otsuyu. Otsuyu is killed by her father, who disapproves of the match with such a lowly samurai, but she promises to return on Obon to be reunited with her lover.[17]
A massive change in the story is made in Masaru Tsushima's 1996 Otsuyu: Kaidan botan dōrō (Haunted Lantern). This version has Shinzaburo dreaming of a past life, where he promised a double suicide with Otsuyu, but fails to kill himself after she dies. In his present life, he meets a girl named Tsuya who is the reincarnation of his past beloved, but Shinzaburo's father arranges a marriage for him with Tsuya's sister, Suzu. Shinzaburo's friend attempts to rape Tsuya, so that she would stop being a nuisance jealous of her younger sister. Devastated, the two sisters commit suicide together. The usual consequences follow, but the film ends with Shinzaburo and Otsuyu further reincarnated together, living happily in a future life.[18]


== See also ==
Bancho Sarayashiki
Japanese mythology
Japanese horror
Obake
Onryō


== Notes ==


== References ==
^  Reider, Noriko T. ""The Emergence of Kaidan-Shu: The Collection of Tales of the Strange and Mysterious in the Edo Period"" Journal of Folklore Studies (60)1 pg. 79, 2001
^  Reider, Noriko T. ""The Appeal of Kaidan Tales of the Strange"" Journal of Folklore Studies (59)2 pg. 265, 2000
^ Iwasaka, Michiko, Ghosts and the Japanese: Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends, USA, Utah State University Press, pg. 111 1994, ISBN 0-87421-179-4
^ ""Botan Doro"". Kabuki 21. Retrieved July 8, 2006.
^ Araki, James T., Traditional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays, USA, Columbia University Press, 1998
^ McRoy, Jay, Japanese Horror Cinema USA, University of Hawaii Press, pg. 22, 2005 ISBN 0-8248-2990-5
^ ""Botan Doro on Film"". Weird Wild Realm. Retrieved July 28, 2006.
^ Ross, Catrien, Supernatural and Mysterious Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Tuttle Publishing, 1996, ISBN 4-900737-37-2


== Further reading ==
Addiss, Steven, Japanese Ghosts and Demons, USA, George Braziller, Inc., 1986, ISBN 0-8076-1126-3
Kincaid, Zoe, Kabuki, the Popular Stage of Japan, USA, Macmillan, 1925


== External links ==
Lafcadio Hearn's translation ""A Passional Karma""
Mudan Dengji (Peony Lantern) by Qu You, a translated by Jeremy Yang. A translation of original Chinese version
The Peony Lantern
Otsuyu: Kaidan botan-dôrô (1998) at IMDb 
1990 botan-dôrô (1990) at IMDb 
Seidan botan-dôrô (1972) at IMDb 
Botan-dôrô (1968) at IMDb 
Kaidan botan-dôrô (1955) at IMDb 
Kaidan Botan-dōrō trailer",0.807248055934906
Irrigation in Bolivia,"Bolivia’s government considers irrigated agriculture as a major contributor to ""better quality of life, rural and national development."" After a period of social unrest caused by the privatization of water supply in Cochabamba and La Paz, the government of Evo Morales is undertaking a major institutional reform in the water resources management and particularly in the irrigation sector, aimed at: (i) including indigenous and rural communities in decision making, (ii) integrating technical and traditional knowledge on water resources management and irrigation, (iii) granting and registering water rights, (iv) increasing efficiency of irrigation infrastructure, (v) enhancing water quality, and (v) promoting necessary investment and financial sustainability in the sector. Bolivia is the first country in Latin America with a ministry dedicated exclusively to integrated water resources management: the Water Ministry.


== Impacts of irrigated agriculture on rural development ==
Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. In 2006 the annual income per capita reached to 1,153 dollars and almost 40% of the population lived in extreme poverty. In addition, Bolivia is one of the most unequal countries in the continent with a Gini coefficient of about 0.6 and 10% of the population obtaining over 40% of the total income and indigenous and rural populations in particular suffering the effects of social and economic marginalization. Real per capita income has barely changed over the past fifty years, while increasing in 350% in Brazil, 200% in Chile and 75% in Argentina. Poverty in rural areas stands at 83 percent, compared to 54 percent urban areas, and there is an even greater gap in terms of unsatisfied basic needs (91 percent versus 39 percent). Despite recent improvements in living conditions nationwide, benefits have continued to accrue disproportionately to urban areas.

During the 2000-2004 period agriculture contributed an average of 14% to GDP and employed 40% of the population. However, in the rural area agriculture employs up to 80% of the population. In 2001, the agricultural sector generated US$432 million and 30% of national exports. According to the Irrigation Vice-Ministry, the agricultural sector in the eastern part of Bolivia generated US$2,160 million exporting soya, sunflower and sugarcane products. The agricultural sector of the western part of Bolivia is mostly focused on subsistence agriculture and local markets.
In addition, frequent government changes over the last five years and social tensions have undermined progress in poverty reduction. The Government of President Morales—Bolivia’s first indigenous President—who came into power in January 2006, has prepared a Plan Nacional de Desarrollo: Bolivia Digna, Soberana, Productiva y Democrática para Vivir Bien (PND).
Irrigation is a major component of the PND since it ""plays a fundamental role in increasing agricultural production and diversification, rural employment, and food security in Bolivia"" . Particularly, and according to the Water Ministry, irrigation contributes to rural development since it (i) decreases climatic risks providing water for ensure production; (ii) increases food security and supply to local and national markets; (iii) increases productivity generating export capacity and agricultural revenue; (iv) intensifies land use; (v) generates income and reduces migration; (vi) allows diversification of crops including high value cops; and (vii) generates productive investment.


== Irrigation development ==


=== Irrigation infrastructure ===
Bolivia has approximately 226,500 irrigated hectares (ha) or about 11% of the total agricultural land 2,100,000 ha. There are about 5,000 irrigation systems in Bolivia, most of them located in the South and Southwestern areas (Valles and Altiplano). These irrigation systems consist of rudimentary web of canals supplied by rainfall with few regulatory schemes such as dams, which makes them very vulnerable to seasonality of rain. Overall efficiency of irrigation systems varies from 18 to 30% in traditional systems to 35-50% in improved systems.

Irrigation systems by Department, size and area

Source: Ministerio del Agua


=== Linkages with water resources ===

Irrigation accounts for 94% of water withdrawals or about 2,000 million cubic meters annually. Bolivia can be divided into three areas, which correspond to the eastern area (a tropical and subtropical region), the western area (the arid, semi arid and sub-humid dry region), and the Titicaca basin.
The hydrographic system consists of three large basins: the Amazon Basin which measures approximately 724,000 km2 and covers 66% of Bolivia’s territory; the closed (endorheic) basin, which measures 145,081 km2 or 13% of the territory; and the Rio Plata Basin, which covers 229,500 km2 or 21% of the nation’s territory.
The Amazon basin has a high flow of water and it is prone to floods. The quantity and quality of hydrological information is very poor.


=== Environmental impacts of irrigation ===
The main impacts of irrigated agriculture in Bolivia are soil erosion and pollution due to agricultural runoff. Nearly 41% of Bolivia’s national territory has lost its production capacity due to soil erosion. For example, in western regions of Oruro, Potosí and Tarija, close to 45,000 square kilometers have low soil productivity on account of erosion. The highland minifundios accelerate soil degradation processes. In the northern highlands, the production area of family agricultural production units is three to five hectares. Excess grazing and other agricultural activities have contributed to salinization and soil compression.
Agricultural runoff is one of the main contributors to water pollution in Bolivia, together with domestic municipal wastewater and dumping by industries and mines. The greatest percentage of the pollution load is due to diffuse dumping from agricultural and fishing activities and runoffs of urban areas. There are no regulations or controls over major dumping from non-specific sources, despite its volume and toxicity.


== History of the irrigation sector ==


=== Agricultural land past and present trends ===

The Spanish colonists, soon after their arrival in the central Andes in the 16th century, appropriated the best farmlands on the coasts and valleys and pushed the indigenous population to the more inhospitable highlands. The highlands had been grazing grounds for llamas and alpacas, but had not been used for agriculture because of their low productivity and high climatic risks. Under the new circumstances, the highlands became the center of Bolivia’s subsistence agriculture.
Traditionally Bolivia has been dependent on the mining sector as a source of fiscal revenue and foreign exchange, and directed few resources towards the agricultural sector. Following the 1985 economic reform, the government of Paz Estenssoro aimed at moving towards a distortion-free market economy that would attract private investment to the agricultural sector.  The World Bank considers that some of the reforms undertaken at that time were ill-informed, especially “the lack of constructive governmental intervention to provide needed public goods such as land titling, agricultural research and extension, and irrigation infrastructure.” As a result, the agricultural sector has lacked the underpinnings in both human and physical capital that facilitate development. The absence of new production and irrigation technologies left farmers with limited opportunities to raise their productivity and income discouraging investment.
In 1999 the total area equipped for irrigation added up to 128,240ha. The irrigated area has almost doubled since. More than 50% of the irrigated area is concentrated in the provinces of Cochabamba and La Paz in the center of the country.


=== Institutional development ===
During the 1990s, water management was characterized by a sectoral approach with multitude of actors and legal approaches and overlapping of responsibilities. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and Indigenous People, the National Water Authority at the time, together with the Inter-Institutional Committee, the National Office for Irrigation and Drainage, and the National Secretary for Rural Development contributed to the mosaic of institutions in charge of water resources management for irrigation at the national level.
In 1998, the government approved a Resolution establishing the Water Intendancy as the authority for granting water user rights. In 1999, two major concessions for water and sanitation were granted to the private sector in La Paz and Cochabamba. The increase of water tariffs and the consequent limitation of access to water were followed with social upraising in 2000. After what is known as the ""Water War,"" water user associations, national and municipal government, NGOs and international research organizations engaged on intense negotiations aimed at redefining public water policies. This process is known by the Project for Water Rights (Proyecto Derechos de Agua – PDA). Irrigation organizations worked with PDA in creating a national irrigation strategy combining both traditional irrigation practices with technical and scientific knowledge. This participatory process informed the 2004 Irrigation Law No.2878 among others.
Evo Morales administration is currently reforming the water institutional framework attributing competences to the newly created Environment and Water Resources Ministry as well as to municipalities and departments accordingly to the Decentralization Law No. 1654, and water users associations. The National Irrigation Plan has included as a challenge the still overlapping responsibilities of different institutions at the national and local level. (See institutional framework below)


== Legal and institutional framework ==


=== Legal framework ===
The 2004 Irrigation Law No. 2878 aims at managing irrigation water resources through a decentralized institutional framework as well as securing water user rights through registration. The Irrigation Law 2878 also transfers operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure to local farmers and establish participatory mechanisms to promote investment on irrigation systems. The previous law dated from 1906 and was considered obsolete.  through
The Irrigation Law specifically prohibits the transferring of water rights, hence the creation of water markets, and gives priority to collective users rights over individual users.
Users are granted water rights through registries or authorizations. Registries are granted to the indigenous and local families or communities and are aimed at securing water access for domestic or traditional agriculture use respectively. Authorizations are granted to other farmer organizations for agricultural or agro-forestry use for a maximum of 40 years.
The Irrigation Law recognizes the Water Ministry, previous Ministry for Agriculture and Campesino Issues, as the national water authority and created the National Irrigation Service (Servicio Nacional de Riego – SENARI) and the Local Irrigation Service (Servicio Departamental de Riego – SEDERI).


=== Institutional framework ===
The Environment and Water Resources Ministry, created in 2009, is responsible for: (i) planning, implementing, monitoring, evaluating, and funding irrigation plans and policies in close collaboration with SENARI;(ii) managing national and international funds aimed at irrigation development;(iii) promote technical assistance, capacity building and applied research and development in irrigation; and (iv) promote participative decentralization in irrigation development at the departmental, prefectural, municipal, local and river basin level as established in Law 2878. The Ministry for Rural Development, Agriculture and Environment share the same responsibilities than the Water Ministry.
The Vice-Ministry for Irrigation aims at: (i) guaranteeing sustainable water use for irrigation through a comprehensive system for granting water rights and permits (ii) promoting national and local investments, and (iii) strengthening institutional capacity through technical and financial support.
The Ministry of Development Planning, together with the Water Ministry and the Ministry for Rural Development, Agriculture and Environment aims at: (i) planning and supervising water management at the river basin level, (ii) designing and implementation of environmental standards for irrigation works, (iii) monitoring water quality and mitigating water pollution.
SENARI, under the Water Ministry, is responsible for planning and implementing water policies, granting water rights, conflict resolution, and coordinate with other water stakeholders and well as supervise SEDERI. SEDERIs, branches of SENARI at the level of departments, are responsible for proposing departmental irrigation strategies, supervising the Departmental Irrigation Service, promoting capacity building among water users, and updating the irrigation registry at the department level. There are currently seven SEDERIs in the departments of Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosi, Santa Cruz and Tarija.
There are multiple irrigation and water users associations at the local, regional, river basing and departmental level, comprising associations, cooperatives, committees and communities more or less formal. The government through the new Water Law is aiming at promoting registration of informal associations in the process of receiving water user rights. Irrigation associations are organized at the national level through the National Association of Irrigators and Local Water System, and at the Departmental level through Departmental Irrigation Units (Unidades Departamentales de Riego - UDR) and Departmental Irrigators Associations (Asociaciones Departamentales de Regantes - ADR).


=== Government strategy for the irrigation sector ===
Evo Morales’ administration is aiming at transforming the irrigation sector focusing on participatory decision-making and integrated water resources management at the river basin level with a strong emphasis on public investment.
In July 2007, Bolivia’s government approved a new National Irrigation Plan, called the ""new PRONAR"".
to be implemented from 2007 to 2030. The preceding National Irrigation program, also called PRONAR, was approved in 1996 and was implemented until 2005. The new PRONAR consist of five major components: (i)support agricultural and forestry production, (ii) support water resources management, (iii) strengthen institutional framework capacities, (iv)increase investment on irrigation and drainage infrastructure, and (v)integral technical assistance, capacity building and research. PRONAR aims at building irrigation infrastructure on 275,000 ha, benefiting 200,000 farmers, with a total investment of US$1.2 billion by 2030.


=== Key Legal Issues that Arise in Irrigation PPPs ===
There are a number of legal and commercial issues that will affect how these projects move forward and are structured.  Whilst some of the legal issues are not confined to irrigation PPPs they can take on a new dimension and complexity when applied to irrigation: Land ownership; water extraction; public sector counterpart. These will be key issues in a PPP as the private provider will want to ensure a steady revenue stream.
There are also the usual legal considerations that need to be checked when developing PPPs in any sector, such as legal restrictions on the type of PPP arrangement that can be entered into, relevant procurement rules for entering into PPPs, existence of restrictions on foreign investment, taxation and potential for tax holidays and the ability to assign rights such as security and step in rights to lenders.


== Water tariff and cost recovery ==
Farmers contribute to operational and maintenance costs of irrigation infrastructure both in cash and kind. The Water Ministry estimates that water users contribute with cash to cover maintenance costs in 45% irrigation systems. Irrigation systems such as Guadalupe and Pampa Redonda in Santa Cruz and Chiara in Cochabamba, a total of 10% of all irrigation systems, received any payment for operation costs.
For example, in Cochabamba users pay approximately US$4.1 application fee and US$9.6 registration fee. Users pay O&M costs through a day of work or a US$2.7 fine per day of work.


== Investment and financing ==
In irrigation, there is trend of increasing investment in irrigation, from 132.7 UDS millions
in 2001 invested in rural development (including irrigation) to 168.3 USD million in 2002.
A large part of these investments were made through Municipal governments building
systems and transferring them to the communities, though in most of the cases there is no
clarity about who actually finally owns those systems.
Regarding particular irrigation projects, PRONAR implemented 158 projects from 1996 to 2005, in seven out of the nine departments of Bolivia, investing US$20 million in close collaboration with the Inter American Development Bank, irrigation associations, and municipal governments.
Irrigation Investment by department and source

Source: Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios (2005)


== Possible climate change impacts on irrigated agriculture ==
Although specific impacts of Climate Change on irrigation in Bolivia are still unknown, phenomena such as a high intensity El Nino in the form of floods, droughts, frost and hail are generally expected to affect Bolivia. Natural disasters directly affect the country’s development, because it hurts its economic results, weaken its social well-being, cause capital losses, and damage the roads and energy and irrigation infrastructure. Such losses, in turn, influence economic indicators such as inflation and production, which in turn increase poverty
Floods and landslides in the rainy season affect a wide range of infrastructure. Landslides in 1997 and 1998 in the communities of Cotahuma, Mokotor, and the Kunii area, in the department of La Paz, caused 24 deaths and destroyed 264 homes. An unprecedented hail storm in 2002 also in La Paz caused 70 deaths and damage was estimated at more than US$70 million. Droughts often recur, their area of incidence is quite large, and they are a major cause of migration from the countryside to the cities.
In addition, increase of temperatures in the Andes and the melting of glaciers may increase seasonal runoff in the short term and increase agricultural dependency on annual rainfall in the medium and long term. For example, Bolivia’s Chacaltaya glacier, situated 20 km NE of the city of La Paz, has lost 82% of its surface area since 1982 and may completely melt by 2013.  (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary)


== External cooperation ==
The World Bank is currently undertaken a US 78.1 million Second Participatory Rural Investment Project with the objective of piloting the consolidation of institutional arrangements between the national, prefecture and municipal governments and civil society for sustainable management of sub-national public investment in irrigated agriculture, forestry and fishing with an emphasis on territorial development. The World Bank is also supporting with US$12.5 million the implementation of the National Plan for Sustainable Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (PRRES), thought the Bolivia Emergency Recovery and Disaster Management Project aimed at strengthening the national system for risk management and rehabilitation, reconstruction, and small mitigation works. These works will be financed in specific areas determined to have been particularly affected by El Nino in the past.
The Inter American Development Bank is currently financing a US$270,000 ""Evaluation and Design of Irrigation Project"" to evaluating the irrigation systems in operation. The IDB together with the GTZ provided technical and financial assistance to Bolivia’s government in the implementation of a National Irrigation Plan, PRONAR that finalized in 2005. This evaluation is the groundwork for further collaboration among IDB and the Bolivia’s government.


== Lessons learned from Bolivia’s PRONAR ==
The Water Ministry identified a number of lessons learned from the evaluation of PRONAR from 1996 to 2005. Some of the key aspects are:

Infrastructure With PRONAR infrastructure was designed based on irrigation water requirements and water availability. It is necessary to also incorporate social, hydrological and topographical data when designing irrigation infrastructure to avoid technical problems during implementation. It is also necessary having strong local institutions able to manage and monitor implementation of irrigations works.
Legal framework A well defined legal framework defining sectoral policy regarding public investment in private irrigation systems is crucial especially determining responsibility of operation and maintenance of public funded irrigation infrastructure.
Economic impact of irrigation investment Irrigated agriculture has a major economic impact when it is applied to high value crops and farmers have a connection with a local or national markets. The connection with local or national markets is determined by access to transportation.


== References ==",0.8836005330085754
Excommunication,"Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership in a religious community or to restrict certain rights within it, in particular those of being in communion with other members of the congregation, and of receiving the sacraments.
It is practiced by all of the ancient churches (such as the Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox churches and the Eastern Orthodox churches) as well as by other Christian denominations; however, it is also used more generally to refer to similar types of institutional religious exclusionary practices and shunning among other religious groups. The Amish have also been known to excommunicate members that were either seen or known for breaking rules, or questioning the church, a practice known as shunning. Jehovah's Witnesses use the term disfellowship to refer to their form of excommunication.
The word excommunication means putting a specific individual or group out of communion. In some denominations, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group. Excommunication may involve banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the group, the offense that caused excommunication, or the rules or norms of the religious community. The grave act is often revoked in response to manifest repentance.


== Bahá'í Faith ==

Excommunication among Bahá'ís is rare and generally not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions. Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers. Covenant-breaker is a term used by Bahá'ís to refer to a person who has been excommunicated from the Bahá'í community for breaking the 'Covenant': actively promoting schism in the religion or otherwise opposing the legitimacy of the chain of succession of leadership.
Currently, the Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker, and once identified, all Bahá'ís are expected to shun them, even if they are family members. According to 'Abdu'l Baha Covenant-breaking is a contagious disease. The Bahá'í writings forbid association with Covenant-breakers and Bahá'ís are urged to avoid their literature, thus providing an exception to the Bahá'í principle of independent investigation of truth. Most Bahá'ís are unaware of the small Bahá'í divisions that exist.


== Christianity ==
The purpose of excommunication is to exclude from the church those members who have behaviors or teachings contrary to the beliefs of a Christian community (heresy). It aims to protect members of the church from abuses and allow the offender to recognize their error and repent.


=== Catholic Church ===

Within the Catholic Church, there are differences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic Churches.


==== Latin Church ====

Excommunication can be either latae sententiae (automatic, incurred at the moment of committing the offense for which canon law imposes that penalty) or ferendae sententiae (incurred only when imposed by a legitimate superior or declared as the sentence of an ecclesiastical court).

The Catholic Church teaches in the Council of Trent that ""excommunicated persons are not members of the Church, because they have been cut off by her sentence from the number of her children and belong not to her communion until they repent"".
In the papal bull Exsurge Domine (May 16, 1520), Pope Leo X condemned Luther's twenty-third proposition according to which ""excommunications are merely external punishments, nor do they deprive a man of the common spiritual prayers of the Church"". Pope Pius VI in Auctorem Fidei (August 28, 1794) condemned the notion which maintained that the effect of excommunication is only exterior because of its own nature it excludes only from exterior communion with the Church, as if, said the pope, excommunication were not a spiritual penalty binding in heaven and affecting souls. The excommunicated person, being excluded from the society of the Church, still bears the indelible mark of Baptism and is subject to the jurisdiction of the Church. They are excluded from engaging in certain activities. These activities are listed in Canon 1331 §1, and prohibit the individual from any ministerial participation in celebrating the sacrifice of the Eucharist or any other ceremonies of worship; celebrating or receiving the sacraments; or exercising any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions.

Under current Catholic canon law, excommunicates remain bound by ecclesiastical obligations such as attending Mass, even though they are barred from receiving the Eucharist and from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, bringing the offerings, etc.). ""Excommunicates lose rights, such as the right to the sacraments, but they are still bound to the obligations of the law; their rights are restored when they are reconciled through the remission of the penalty.""
These are the only effects for those who have incurred a latae sententiae excommunication. For instance, a priest may not refuse Communion publicly to those who are under an automatic excommunication, as long as it has not been officially declared to have been incurred by them, even if the priest knows that they have incurred it—although if the person's offence was a ""manifest grave sin"", then the priest is obliged to refuse their communion by canon 915. On the other hand, if the priest knows that excommunication has been imposed on someone or that an automatic excommunication has been declared (and is no longer merely an undeclared automatic excommunication), he is forbidden to administer Holy Communion to that person.
In the Catholic Church, excommunication is normally resolved by a declaration of repentance, profession of the Creed (if the offense involved heresy) and an Act of Faith, or renewal of obedience (if that was a relevant part of the offending act, i.e., an act of schism) by the excommunicated person and the lifting of the censure (absolution) by a priest or bishop empowered to do this. ""The absolution can be in the internal (private) forum only, or also in the external (public) forum, depending on whether scandal would be given if a person were privately absolved and yet publicly considered unrepentant.""


==== Eastern Catholic Churches ====

In the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunication is imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by latae sententiae excommunication. A distinction is made between minor and major excommunication. Those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy. They can even be excluded from entering a church when divine worship is being celebrated there. The decree of excommunication must indicate the precise effect of the excommunication and, if required, its duration.
Those under major excommunication are in addition forbidden to receive not only the Eucharist but also the other sacraments, to administer sacraments or sacramentals, to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions whatsoever, and any such exercise by them is null and void. They are to be removed from participation in the Divine Liturgy and any public celebrations of divine worship. They are forbidden to make use of any privileges granted to them and cannot be given any dignity, office, ministry, or function in the church, they cannot receive any pension or emoluments associated with these dignities etc., and they are deprived of the right to vote or to be elected.


=== Eastern Orthodox Church ===
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist. It is not expulsion from the churches. This can happen for such reasons as not having confessed within that year; excommunication can also be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of restoring the member to full communion. Before an excommunication of significant duration is imposed, the bishop is usually consulted. The Eastern Orthodox do have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. As an example of this, the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, in its eleventh capitula, declared: ""If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.""


=== Lutheran churches ===
Although Lutheranism technically has an excommunication process, some denominations and congregations do not use it. In the Smalcald Articles Luther differentiates between the ""great"" and ""small"" excommunication. The ""small"" excommunication is simply barring an individual from the Lord's Supper and ""other fellowship in the church"". While the ""great"" excommunication excluded a person from both the church and political communities which he considered to be outside the authority of the church and only for civil leaders. A modern Lutheran practice is laid out in the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod's 1986 explanation to the Small Catechism, defined beginning at Questions No. 277–284, in ""The Office of Keys"".
Many Lutheran denominations operate under the premise that the entire congregation (as opposed to the pastor alone) must take appropriate steps for excommunication, and there are not always precise rules, to the point where individual congregations often set out rules for excommunicating laymen (as opposed to clergy). For example, churches may sometimes require that a vote must be taken at Sunday services; some congregations require that this vote be unanimous.
In the Church of Sweden and the Church of Denmark, excommunicated individuals are turned out from their parish in front of their congregation. They are not forbidden, however, to attend church and participate in other acts of devotion, although they are to sit in a place appointed by the priest (which was at a distance from others).
The Lutheran process, though rarely used, has created unusual situations in recent years due to its somewhat democratic excommunication process. One example was an effort to get serial killer Dennis Rader excommunicated from his denomination (the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America) by individuals who tried to ""lobby"" Rader's fellow church members into voting for his excommunication.


=== Anglican Communion ===


==== Church of England ====
The Church of England does not have any specific canons regarding how or why a member can be excommunicated, although it has a canon according to which ecclesiastical burial may be refused to someone ""declared excommunicate for some grievous and notorious crime and no man to testify to his repentance"".
The punishment of imprisonment for being excommunicated from the Church of England was removed from English law in 1963.
Historian Christopher Hill found that, in pre-revolutionary England, excommunication was common but fell into disrepute because it was applied unevenly and could be avoided on payment of fines.


==== Episcopal Church of the United States of America ====
The ECUSA is in the Anglican Communion, and shares many canons with the Church of England which would determine its policy on excommunication.


=== Reformed churches ===
In the Reformed Churches, excommunication has generally been seen as the culmination of church discipline, which is one of the three marks of the Church. The Westminster Confession of Faith sees it as the third step after ""admonition"" and ""suspension from the sacrament of the Lord's Supper for a season."" Yet, John Calvin argues in his Institutes of the Christian Religion that church censures do not ""consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and damnation"", but are designed to induce repentance, reconciliation and restoration to communion. Calvin notes, ""though ecclesiastical discipline does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church.""
At least one modern Reformed theologian argues that excommunication is not the final step in the disciplinary process. Jay E. Adams argues that in excommunication, the offender is still seen as a brother, but in the final step they become ""as the heathen and tax collector"" (Matthew 18:17). Adams writes, ""Nowhere in the Bible is excommunication (removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table, according to Adams) equated with what happens in step 5; rather, step 5 is called 'removing from the midst, handing over to Satan,' and the like.""
Former Princeton president and theologian, Jonathan Edwards, addresses the notion of excommunication as ""removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table"" in his treatise entitled ""The Nature and End of Excommunication"". Edwards argues:

""Particularly, we are forbidden such a degree of associating ourselves with (excommunicants), as there is in making them our guests at our tables, or in being their guests at their tables; as is manifest in the text, where we are commanded to have no company with them, no not to eat [...] That this respects not eating with them at the Lord's supper, but a common eating, is evident by the words, that the eating here forbidden, is one of the lowest degrees of keeping company, which are forbidden. Keep no company with such a one, saith the apostle, no not to eat – as much as to say, no not in so low a degree as to eat with him. But eating with him at the Lord's supper, is the very highest degree of visible Christian communion. Who can suppose that the apostle meant this: Take heed and have no company with a man, no not so much as in the highest degree of communion that you can have? Besides, the apostle mentions this eating as a way of keeping company which, however, they might hold with the heathen. He tells them, not to keep company with fornicators. Then he informs them, he means not with fornicators of this world, that is, the heathens; but, saith he, 'if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, etc. with such a one keep no company, no not to eat.' This makes it most apparent, that the apostle doth not mean eating at the Lord's table; for so, they might not keep company with the heathens, any more than with an excommunicated person"".


=== Methodism ===
In the Methodist Episcopal Church, individuals were able to be excommunicated following ""trial before a jury of his peers, and after having had the privilege of an appeal to a higher court"". Nevertheless, an excommunication could be lifted after sufficient penance.
John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Churches, excommunicated sixty-four members from the Newcastle Methodist society alone for the following reasons:

Two for cursing and swearing.
Two for habitual Sabbath-breaking.
Seventeen for drunkenness.
Two for retailing spiritous liquors.
Three for quarrelling and brawling.
One for beating his wife.
Three for habitual, wilful lying.
Four for railing and evil-speaking.
One for idleness and laziness. And,

Nine-and-twenty for lightness and carelessness.
The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, in its 2014 Discipline, includes ""homosexuality, lesbianism, bi-sexuality, bestiality, incest, fornication, adultery, and any attempt to alter one's gender by surgery"", as well as remarriage after divorce among its excommunicable offences.
The Evangelical Wesleyan Church, in its 2015 Discipline, states that ""Any member of our church who is accused of neglect of the means of grace or other duties required by the Word of God, the indulgence of sinful tempers, words or actions, the sowing of dissension, or any other violation of the order and discipline of the church, may, after proper labor and admonition, be censured, placed on probation, or expelled by the official board of the circuit of which he is a member. If he request a trial, however, within thirty dates of the final action of the official board, it shall be granted.""


=== Anabaptist tradition ===


==== Amish ====
Amish communities practice variations of excommunication known as ""shunning"". This practice may include isolation from community events or the cessation of all communication.


==== Mennonites ====
Mennonite communities use the ""ban"", separation and correction on baptized members that fall into sin. Separated members must be avoided or ""shunned"" until they repent and reform. Shunning must be done in the spirit of moderation and Christian charity; the aim is not to destroy but to reform the person.


==== Hutterites ====
Hutterite communities use a form of excommunication called ""the ban"" on baptized members that fall into sin repeatedly.


=== Baptists ===
For Baptists, excommunication is used as a last resort by denominations and churches for members who do not want to repent of beliefs or behavior at odds with the confession of faith of the community. The vote of community members, however, can restore a person who has been excluded.


=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) practices excommunication as a penalty for those who commit serious sins, i.e., actions that significantly impair the name or moral influence of the church or pose a threat to other people. In 2020, the church ceased using the term ""excommunication"" and instead refers to ""withdrawal of membership"". According to the church leadership General Handbook, the purposes of withdrawing membership or imposing membership restrictions are, (1) to help protect others; (2) to help a person access the redeeming power of Jesus Christ through repentance; and (3) to protect the integrity of the Church. The origins of LDS disciplinary procedures and excommunications are traced to a revelation Joseph Smith dictated on 9 February 1831, later canonized as Doctrine and Covenants, section 42 and codified in the General Handbook.
The LDS Church also practices the lesser sanctions of private counsel and caution and informal and formal membership restrictions. (Informal membership restrictions was formerly known as ""probation""; formal membership restrictions was formerly known as ""disfellowshipment"".)
Formal membership restrictions are used for serious sins that do not rise to the level of membership withdrawal. Formal membership restriction denies some privileges but does not include a loss of church membership. Once formal membership restrictions are in place, persons may not take the sacrament or enter church temples, nor may they offer public prayers or sermons. Such persons may continue to attend most church functions and are allowed to wear temple garments, pay tithes and offerings, and participate in church classes if their conduct is orderly. Formal membership restrictions typically lasts for one year, after which one may be reinstated as a member in good standing.
In the more grievous or recalcitrant cases, withdrawal of membership becomes a disciplinary option. Such an action is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious sins, including committing serious crimes such as murder, child abuse, and incest; committing adultery; involvement in or teaching of polygamy; involvement in homosexual conduct; apostasy; participation in an abortion; teaching false doctrine; or openly criticizing church leaders. The General Handbook states that formally joining another church constitutes apostasy and is worthy of membership withdrawal; however, merely attending another church does not constitute apostasy.
A withdrawal of membership can occur only after a formal church membership council. Formerly called a ""disciplinary council"" or a ""church court"", the councils were renamed to avoid focusing on guilt and instead to emphasize the availability of repentance.
The decision to withdraw the membership of a Melchizedek priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership of a stake. In such a disciplinary council, the stake presidency and, sometimes in more difficult cases, the stake high council attend. It is possible to appeal a decision of a stake membership council to the church's First Presidency.
For females and for male members not initiated into the Melchizedek priesthood, a ward membership council is held. In such cases, a bishop determines whether withdrawal of membership or a lesser sanction is warranted. He does this in consultation with his two counselors, with the bishop making the final determination after prayer. The decision of a ward membership council can be appealed to the stake president.
The following list of variables serves as a general set of guidelines for when membership withdrawal or lesser action may be warranted, beginning with those more likely to result in severe sanction:

Violation of covenants: Covenants are made in conjunction with specific ordinances in the LDS Church. Violated covenants that might result in excommunication are usually those surrounding marriage covenants, temple covenants, and priesthood covenants.
Position of trust or authority: The person's position in the church hierarchy factors into the decision. It is considered more serious when a sin is committed by an area seventy; a stake, mission, or temple president; a bishop; a patriarch; or a full-time missionary.
Repetition: Repetition of a sin is more serious than a single instance.
Magnitude: How often, how many individuals were impacted, and who is aware of the sin factor into the decision.
Age, maturity, and experience: Those who are young in age, or immature in their understanding, are typically afforded leniency.
Interests of the innocent: How the discipline will impact innocent family members may be considered.
Time between transgression and confession: If the sin was committed in the distant past, and there has not been repetition, leniency may be considered.
Voluntary confession: If a person voluntarily confesses the sin, leniency is suggested.
Evidence of repentance: Sorrow for sin, and demonstrated commitment to repentance, as well as faith in Jesus Christ all play a role in determining the severity of discipline.
Notices of withdrawal of membership may be made public, especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled. However, the specific reasons for individual withdrawal of membership are typically kept confidential and are seldom made public by church leadership.
Those who have their membership withdrawn lose the right to partake of the sacrament. Such persons are permitted to attend church meetings but participation is limited: they cannot offer public prayers, preach sermons, and cannot enter temples. Such individuals are also prohibited from wearing or purchasing temple garments and from paying tithes. A person whose membership has been withdrawn may be re-baptized after a waiting period of at least one year and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.
Some critics have charged that LDS Church leaders have used the threat of membership withdrawal to silence or punish church members and researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, who study or discuss controversial subjects, or who may be involved in disputes with local, stake leaders or general authorities; see, e.g., Brian Evenson, a former BYU professor and writer whose fiction came under criticism from BYU officials and LDS Leadership. Another notable case of excommunication from the LDS Church was the ""September Six"", a group of intellectuals and professors, five of whom were excommunicated and the sixth disfellowshipped. However, church policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for membership withdrawal, without influence from church headquarters. The church thus argues that this policy is evidence against any systematic persecution of scholars or dissenters. Data shows per-capita excommunication rates among the LDS Church have varied dramatically over the years, from a low of about 1 in 6,400 members in the early 1900s to one in 640 by the 1970s, an increase which has been speculatively attributed to ""informal guidance from above"" in enforcing the growing list of possible transgressions added to General Handbook editions over time.


=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===

Jehovah's Witnesses practice a form of excommunication, using the term ""disfellowshipping"", in cases where a member is believed to have unrepentantly committed one or more of several documented ""serious sins"".
When a member confesses to, or is accused of, a serious sin, a judicial committee of at least three elders is formed. This committee investigates the case and determines the magnitude of the sin committed. If the person is deemed guilty of a disfellowshipping offense, the committee then decides, on the basis of the person's attitude and ""works befitting repentance"".
Disfellowshipping is a severing of friendly relationships between all Jehovah's Witnesses and the disfellowshipped person. Interaction with extended family is typically restricted to a minimum, such as presence at the reading of wills and providing essential care for the elderly. Within a household, typical family contact may continue, but without spiritual fellowship such as family Bible study and religious discussions. Parents of disfellowshipped minors living in the family home may continue to attempt to convince the child about the group's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that this form of discipline encourages the disfellowshipped individual to conform to biblical standards and prevents the person from influencing other members of the congregation.
Along with breaches of the Witnesses' moral code, openly disagreeing with the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses is considered grounds for shunning. These persons are labeled as ""apostates"" and are described in Watch Tower Society literature as ""mentally diseased"". Descriptions of ""apostates"" appearing in the Witnesses literature have been the subject of investigation in the UK to determine if they violate religious hatred laws. Sociologist Andrew Holden claims many Witnesses who would otherwise defect because of disillusionment with the organization and its teachings, remain affiliated out of fear of being shunned and losing contact with friends and family members. Shunning employs what is known as relational aggression in psychological literature. When used by church members and member-spouse parents against excommunicant parents it contains elements of what psychologists call parental alienation. Extreme shunning may cause trauma to the shunned (and to their dependents) similar to what is studied in the psychology of torture.
Disassociation is a form of shunning where a member expresses verbally or in writing that they do not wish to be associated with Jehovah's Witnesses, rather than for having committed any specific 'sin'. Elders may also decide that an individual has disassociated, without any formal statement by the individual, by actions such as accepting a blood transfusion, or for joining another religious or military organization. Individuals who are deemed by the elders to have disassociated are given no right of appeal.
Each year, congregation elders are instructed to consider meeting with disfellowshipped individuals to determine changed circumstances and encourage them to pursue reinstatement. Reinstatement is not automatic after a certain time period, nor is there a minimum duration; disfellowshipped persons may talk to elders at any time but must apply in writing to be considered for reinstatement into the congregation. Elders consider each case individually, and are instructed to ensure ""that sufficient time has passed for the disfellowshipped person to prove that his profession of repentance is genuine"". A judicial committee meets with the individual to determine their repentance, and if this is established, the person is reinstated into the congregation and may participate with the congregation in their formal ministry (such as house-to-house preaching).
A Witness who has been formally reproved or reinstated cannot be appointed to any special privilege of service for at least one year. Serious sins involving child sex abuse permanently disqualify the sinner from appointment to any congregational privilege of service, regardless of whether the sinner was convicted of any secular crime.


=== Christadelphians ===
Similarly to many groups having their origins in the 1830s Restoration Movement, Christadelphians call their form of excommunication ""disfellowshipping"", though they do not practice ""shunning"". Disfellowshipping can occur for moral reasons, changing beliefs, or (in some ecclesias) for not attending communion (referred to as ""the emblems"" or ""the breaking of bread"").
In such cases, the person involved is usually required to discuss the issues. If they do not conform, the church ('meeting' or 'ecclesia') is recommended by the management committee (""Arranging Brethren"") to vote on disfellowshipping the person. These procedures were formulated 1863 onwards by early Christadelphians, and then in 1883 codified by Robert Roberts in A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (colloquially ""The Ecclesial Guide""). However Christadelphians justify and apply their practice not only from this document but also from passages such as the exclusion in 1Co.5 and recovery in 2Co.2.
Christadelphians typically avoid the term ""excommunication"" which many associate with the Catholic Church; and may feel the word carries implications they do not agree with, such as undue condemnation and punishment, as well as failing to recognise the remedial intention of the measure.

Behavioural cases. Many cases regarding moral issues tend to involve relational matters such as marriage outside the faith, divorce and remarriage (which is considered adultery in some circumstances by some ecclesias), or homosexuality. Reinstatement for moral issues is determined by the ecclesia's assessment of whether the individual has ""turned away"" from (ceased) the course of action considered immoral by the church. This can be complex when dealing with cases of divorce and subsequent remarriage, with different positions adopted by different ecclesias, but generally within the main ""Central"" grouping, such cases can be accommodated.
Doctrinal cases. Changes of belief on what Christadelphians call ""first principle"" doctrines are difficult to accommodate unless the individual agrees to not teach or spread them, since the body has a documented Statement of Faith which informally serves as a basis of ecclesial membership and interecclesial fellowship. Those who are disfellowshipped for reasons of differing belief rarely return, because they are expected to conform to an understanding with which they do not agree. Holding differing beliefs on fundamental matters is considered as error and apostasy, which can limit a person's salvation. However, in practice disfellowship for doctrinal reasons is now unusual.
In the case of adultery and divorce, the passage of time usually means a member can be restored if he or she wants to be. In the case of ongoing behaviour, cohabitation, homosexual activity, then the terms of the suspension have not been met.
The mechanics of ""refellowship"" follow the reverse of the original process; the individual makes an application to the ""ecclesia"", and the ""Arranging Brethren"" give a recommendation to the members who vote. If the ""Arranging Brethren"" judge that a vote may divide the ecclesia, or personally upset some members, they may seek to find a third party ecclesia which is willing to ""refellowship"" the member instead. According to the Ecclesial Guide a third party ecclesia may also take the initiative to ""refellowship"" another meeting's member. However this cannot be done unilaterally, as this would constitute heteronomy over the autonomy of the original ecclesia's members.


=== Society of Friends (Quakers) ===
Among many of the Society of Friends (Quakers) groups  one is read out of meeting for behaviour inconsistent with the sense of the meeting. In Britain a meeting may record a minute of disunity. However it is the responsibility of each meeting, quarterly meeting, and yearly meeting, to act with respect to their own members. For example, during the Vietnam War many Friends were concerned about Friend Richard Nixon's position on war which seemed at odds with their beliefs; however, it was the responsibility of Nixon's own meeting, the East Whittier Meeting of Whittier, California, to act if indeed that meeting felt the leading. They did not.
In 17th- and 18th-Century North America, before the founding of abolitionist societies, Friends who too forcefully tried to convince their coreligionists of the evils of slavery were read out of meeting. Benjamin Lay was read out of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting for this. During the American Revolution over 400 Friends were read out of meeting for their military participation or support.


=== Iglesia ni Cristo ===
Iglesia ni Cristo practices expulsion of members it deems to have gravely sinned or gone against the teachings and doctrines of the church. The Sanggunian, the church's council, has jurisdiction to expel members from the church. People expelled by the church are referred to as dismissed (Tagalog: tiwalag). Offenses that may be grounds for expulsion include marrying a non-member, having a romantic relationship with a non-member, becoming pregnant out of wedlock (unless the couple marries before the child is born) and most especially disagreeing with the church administration. An expelled member can be re-admitted by pledging obedience to the church administration and its rules, values and teachings.


== Unitarian Universalism ==
Unitarian Universalism, being a liberal religious group and a congregational denomination, has a wide diversity of opinions and sentiments. Nonetheless, Unitarian Universalists have had to deal with disruptive individuals. Congregations which had no policies on disruptive individuals have sometimes found themselves having to create such policies, up to (and including) expulsion.
By the late 1990s, several churches were using the West Shore UU Church's policy as a model. If someone is threatening, disruptive, or distracting from the appeal of the church to its membership, a church using this model has three recommended levels of response to the offending individual. While the first level involves dialogue between a committee or clergy member and the offender, the second and third levels involve expulsion, either from the church itself or a church activity.


== Buddhism ==

There is no direct equivalent to excommunication in Buddhism. However, in the Theravadan monastic community monks can be expelled from monasteries for heresy or other acts. In addition, monks have four vows, called the four defeats, which are abstaining from sexual intercourse, stealing, murder, and lying about spiritual gains (e.g., having special power or ability to perform miracles). If any one is broken, the monk is automatically a layman again and can never become a monk in his or her current life.
Most Japanese Buddhist sects hold ecclesiastical authority over their followers and have their own rules for expelling members of the sangha, lay or bishopric. The lay Japanese Buddhist organization Sōka Gakkai was expelled from the Nichiren Shoshu sect in 1991.


== Hinduism ==
Hinduism is too diverse to be seen as a homogenous and monolithic religion. It is often described an unorganised and syncretist religion with a conspicuous absence of any listed doctrines. There are multiple religious institutions (equivalent to Christian ecclesia) within Hinduism that teach slight variations of Dharma and Karma, hence Hinduism has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion, though a person may easily lose caste status through gramanya for a very wide variety of infringements of caste prohibitions. This may or may not be recoverable. However, some of the modern organised sects within Hinduism may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect.
In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in South Asia, excommunication from one's caste (jāti or varna) used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the untouchables or bhangi. In the 19th century, a Hindu faced excommunication for going abroad, since it was presumed he/she would be forced to break caste restrictions and, as a result, become polluted.
After excommunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentance (ritual or otherwise) or not. Such current examples of excommunication in Hinduism are often more political or social rather than religious, for example the excommunication of lower castes for refusing to work as scavengers in Tamil Nadu.
Another example of caste-related violence and discrimination occurred in the case of the Gupti Ismailis from the Hindu Kachhiya caste. Interestingly, Hindu members of this caste began prayers with the inclusion of the mantra “OM, by the command, in the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” (om farmānjī bi’smi’l-lāh al-raḥmān al-raḥīm), but never found it objectionable or Islamic. However, in the early 1930s, after some conflict with caste members due to their profession of allegiance to the Ismaili Imam, this group, known as the Guptis, were excommunicated from the caste completely as they appeared to be breaking caste solidarity. This was also significant for the Gupti community as, for the first time, they could be identified as a distinct group based on their religious persuasion. Some of the more daring Guptis also abandoned their former practice of pious circumspection (taqiyya) as Hindus, claiming that since they had been excommunicated, the caste no longer had any jurisdiction over their actions.
An earlier example of excommunication in Hinduism is that of Shastri Yagnapurushdas, who voluntarily left and was later expelled from the Vadtal Gadi of the Swaminarayan Sampraday by the then Vadtal acharya in 1906. He went on to form his own institution, Bochasanwasi Swaminarayan Sanstha or BSS (now BAPS) claiming Gunatitanand Swami was the rightful spiritual successor to Swaminarayan.


== Sikhism ==
Patit is a Sikh term which is sometimes translated into English as apostate. It refers to a person who initiated into Sikh religion, but violated the religious rules of Sikhi. The Sikh Rehat Maryada (Code of Conduct), Section Six states the transgressions which cause a person to become a patit:

Dishonouring the hair;
Eating the meat of an animal slaughtered the Kutha way;
Cohabiting with a person other than one's spouse;
Using an intoxicant (such as smoking, drinking alcohol, using recreational drugs or tobacco)
These four kurahit causes of apostasy were first listed by Guru Gobind Singh in his 52 hukams (commandments).


== Islam ==

Since there has been no universally and univocally recognized religious authority among the many Islamic denominations that have emerged throughout history, papal excommunication has no exact equivalent in Islam, at least insofar as the attitudes of any conflicting religious authorities with regard to an individual or another sect are judged to be coordinate, not subordinate to one another. Nonetheless, condemning heterodoxy and punishing heretics through shunning and ostracism is comparable with the practice in non-Catholic Christian faiths.
Islamic theologians commonly employ two terms when describing measurements to be taken against schismatics and heresy: هَجْر (hajr, ""abandoning"") and تَكْفِير (takfīr, ""making or declaring to be a nonbeliever""). The former (هَجْر, hajr) signifies the act of abandoning somewhere (such as migration, as in the Islamic prophet's journey out of Mecca, which is called al-Hijra (""the (e)migration"")) or someone (used in the Qur'an in the case of disciplining a dissonant or disobedient wife or avoiding a harmful person). The latter (تَكْفِير, takfīr) means a definitive declaration that denounces a person as a kāfir (""infidel""). However, because such a charge would entail serious consequences for the accused, who would then be deemed to be a مُرْتَدّ (murtadd, ""a backslider; an apostate), less extreme denunciations, such as an accusation of بِدْعَة (bidʽah, ""[deviant] innovation; heresy"") followed by shunning and excommunication have historically preponderated over apostasy trials.
Takfīr has often been practiced through the courts. More recently, cases have taken place where individuals have been considered nonbelievers. These decisions followed lawsuits against individuals, mainly in response to their writings that some have viewed as anti-Islamic. The most famous cases are of Salman Rushdie, Nasr Abu Zayd, Nawal El-Saadawi, and of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. The repercussions of such cases have included divorce, since under traditional interpretations of Islamic law, Muslim women are not permitted to marry non-Muslim men.


== Judaism ==
Herem is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Except for cases in the Charedi community, cherem stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the gentile nations in which they lived. A siruv order, equivalent to a contempt of court, issued by a Rabbinical court may also limit religious participation.
Rabbinical conferences of movements do expel members from time to time, but sometimes choose the lesser penalty of censuring the offending rabbi. Between 2010 and 2015, the Reform Jewish Central Conference of American Rabbis expelled six rabbis, the Orthodox Jewish Rabbinical Council of America expelled three, and the Conservative Jewish Rabbinical Assembly expelled one, suspended three, and caused one to resign without eligibility for reinstatement. While the CCAR and RCA were relatively shy about their reasons for expelling rabbis, the RA was more open about its reasons for kicking rabbis out. Reasons for expulsion from the three conferences include sexual misconduct, failure to comply with ethics investigations, setting up conversion groups without the conference's approval, stealing money from congregations, other financial misconduct, and getting arrested.
Judaism, like Unitarian Universalism, tends towards congregationalism, and so decisions to exclude from a community of worship often depend on the congregation. Congregational bylaws sometimes enable the board of a synagogue to ask individuals to leave or not to enter.


== See also ==
Banishment in the Bible
Disconnection
Excommunication of actors by the Catholic Church
Interdict
List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church


== Notes ==


== References ==
Encyclopedia of American Religions, by J. Gordon Melton ISBN 0-8103-6904-4
Ludlow, Daniel H. ed, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Macmillan Publishing, 1992. 
Esau, Alvin J., ""The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes"", Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004. 
Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenon, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights, Gruter Institute Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, 1984.
Beck, Martha N., Leaving the Saints: How I Lost the Mormons and Found My Faith, Crown, 2005. 
Stammer, Larry B., ""Mormon Author Says He's Facing Excommunication"", Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles, CA.: 9 December 2004. p. A.34.
D'anna, Lynnette, ""Post-Mennonite Women Congregate to Address Abuse"", Herizons, 3/1/93.
Anonymous, ""Atlanta Mennonite congregation penalized over gays"", The Atlanta Journal the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta, GA: 2 January 1999. p. F.01.
Garrett, Ottie, Garrett Irene, True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated, Shunned, Horse Cave KY: Nue Leben, Inc., 1998. 
Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life, Harper San Francisco, 2003. 
Hostetler, John A. (1993), Amish Society, The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. 
MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683–1790, Herald Press: Kitchener & Scottdale. 
Scott, Stephen (1996), An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania. 
Juhnke, James, Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890–1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald Press, p. 393, 1989.


== External links ==

Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance (from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online)
Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights (Amish)
Catholic Encyclopaedia on excommunication
The two sides of excommunication Archived 15 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Jehovah's Witnesses press release regarding expulsion of child molesters",0.7054689526557922
Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point,"The Anishinaabemowin language belongs to the Central Algonquian language family, and is located in Kettle and Stony Point First Nation. This name variation stems from the relation between the name of the language and the name of the people speaking it, as Anishinaabemowin is spoken by the Anishinaabe. It is also a combination of Pottawatomi and Ojibway. There is a population of 936 people living in Kettle and Stony Point, and of those 936 less than 10 people are fluent speakers of the language. Kettle and Stony Point is located in Canada, in the province of Ontario and in the municipality of Lambton County.


== Name Variations for the Language ==
This language has a multitude of different names and spelling variations. Once such variation is Potawadami that belongs to the Central Algonquian language family located in Kettle and Stony Point. This spelling and name variation for the language is used by families on the reserve when passing on the teachings of the language to others.  Another variation is Potawatomi of the Central Algonquian language family. This spelling variation was discovered on the Ethnologue website and exists as the American spelling for the language. Other name and spelling variation for the language spoken in Kettle and Stony point are Ojibway, Ojibwe or Ojibwa. All these variations refer to the same language, as Anishinaabemowin is believed to be a dialect of Ojibway in the Algonquian language family. The different spelling variations listed above, Ojibwe and Ojibwa are gendered language terms and are spelling variations left behind by French missionaries who tried to document the language. As such Ojibwe is the male gendered term, and Ojibwa is the female gendered term. Another name variation for the language is Chippewa of the Algonquian language family. This variation is often used more in the United States and stems from the name of the people that speak the language Chippewas. The last variation of the language discovered is Ojibwemowin of the Central Algonquian language family. This variation is the languages name in Ojibway.


== Causes of Endangerment ==
There are a multitude of factors that have contributed to the endangered status of the Anishinaabemowin language in Kettle and Stony Point.


=== Conquest ===
This occurs when the conqueror's language replaces the indigenous languages of the conquered. This is the case for the Indigenous languages of Canada, especially the Anishinaabemowin language. When both the French and the English colonies conquered the continent of North America, government policies were erected to deal with the “Indian problem”. These policies were created in the attempt to force assimilation of the Indigenous people into the newly established dominant culture and language. This forced assimilation required that both Indigenous children and adults be only taught and speak the dominant language of English. Drastically impacting the number of fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point.


=== Economic Pressure ===
This occurs because the dominant culture controls the economy and can require the use of the dominant language for employment by subordinate linguistic groups. Indigenous people seeking employment and economic gain in Canada experience this problem everyday and it is a contributing factor to the state of the language use in Kettle and Stony Point. The dominant language in Kettle and Stony Point and surrounding areas is the language of English. Those seeking employment in Kettle and Stony Point are required to have a good understanding of the English language and a fundamental increase in the need to understand and speak English has occurred. The increase of acceptance and use of the English language directly impacted the number of Indigenous people continuing to learn and actively use their own first language.


=== Attitude ===
This factor directly pertains to what people think about their language and with regard to whether or not it is viewed as important to their culture. It is only years later that the true impacts of negative attitudes can be recognized on a language. This is doubly true for the Indigenous languages of Canada. This is in part because of Indigenous people who were forced to attend residential school and most likely have mixed feelings about their languages. Children were often strongly and sometimes violently discouraged from speaking their language of their heritage. The violent and negative attitudes demonstrated by their teachers towards their languages, is something that could have been absorbed and ingrained into the children of these schools. These children would have grown up with a negative and sometimes fearful attitude towards the use of their own heritage languages. These residential school survivors may not have then passed on their own languages to their children, for fear of how their children would be perceived and the treatment they may get for speaking their language. Creating a drastic decline in the number of fluent speakers in the community, as future children would have been raised to not value their heritage language. Nor would they have any understanding of the cultural significance of the language if their parents chose not to pass on their teachings. This is what happened to the Indigenous people of Kettle and Stony Point, resulting in their heritage language to become endangered.


== Language Vitality ==
This language was assessed using three UNESCO factors to determine the vitality of the language.


=== UNESCO Factor 1 – Intergenerational Language Transmission ===
According the UNESCO grading scale for the language to be considered safe and to receive a grading of 5, the language must be used by all ages and transmitted from one generation to the next. The grading table for this UNESCO factor can be viewed in Table 1. The Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony point is rated a 2, Severely Endangered. This language was assessed at this rating because transgenerational transmission of the language stopped occurring in the grandparent generation, the youngest fluent speaker is in their fifties. The language is mostly used when conversing with other fluent speakers or when conducting/ participating in ceremonies. The grade of 1 was also considered for this language but after assessment was determined to be inaccurate. The grade of 1 was considered because the language is used mostly by very few speakers, as there is less than ten fluent speakers left in Kettle and Stony Point. These fluent speakers are not just of the great-grandparent generation and up, so the language was determined be inadmissible for the rating of 1. Instead the language was assigned a rating of 2 because the youngest fluent speaker was determined to be in their fifties fitting into the grandparent generation.


=== UNESCO Factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population ===
The proportion of speakers within a total population is a more significant indictor of language vitality. The UNESCO grading scale for factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population can be found in Table 2. The rating for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point in accordance with UNESCO factor 3 is 1, critically endangered. This rating was assessed based on the information provided on both the Kettle Point language website page and the 2016 Kettle Point 44, Indian Reserve Census Profile. There is less than ten fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point. This information was confirmed in the 2016 census, where only five out of the 1,011 responses indicated that their first language was an aboriginal language. This indicates that 0.49% of the population in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language. Allocating the rating of 1, critically endangered because very few people in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language.


=== UNESCO Factor 7: Governmental and Institutional Language Attitudes and Policies, including Official Status & Use ===
This factor reports the attitudes of those outside of the language community towards the relevant language. In accordance in the UNESCO scale for a language to achieve a rating of 5, equal support, the region or nation of the language would need to allow for the use of all languages in public domains. The grading scale for the seventh UNESCO factor can be located in Table 3. In accordance with this grading scale, the language of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point has been assessed with the rating of 4, differentiated support. This rating was determined based on the government policies in place to protect Indigenous languages in Canada. On June 21, 2019, The Indigenous Languages Act was passed and received Royal Assent. This bill protects indigenous people's rights to use, reclaim, revitalize, maintain and strength indigenous languages. Before this bill was passed, indigenous languages were not protected in Canada and were strongly discouraged from use. This means that while the Anishinaabemowin language is now protected by government policies, the use of the language is not considered prestigious by many. Therefore, the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point was scored a 4, as the language is protected by government policies, even though the use of the language is not prestigious, and the dominant language prevails in the public domain.


=== Overall Assessment ===
The overall assessment for the vitality of the Anishinaabemowin language at Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. This status was determined by weighing the outcomes of the factor assessments that were conducted. When analyzing the results of these assessments more weight was placed on the results of the Factor 7 valuation. This is because government policies and forced language assimilation were the main causes and consequences of endangerment for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point. With the Royal Assent of the Indigenous Language Act, indigenous languages are now being protected. Thus, allowing for language revitalizations to occur, as is the case at Kettle and Stony Point. While Factor 7 was directly related to a critical consequence of endangerment, it was not the only critical factor assessed. Factor 3 is also a critical factor, as the proportion of speakers in a population has a great importance for the continuation of a language. With less than ten fluent speakers and only .49% of the population speaking the language, the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is likely to go dormant in the next generation or two. The revitalization projects should ensure the language continuation with the establishment of more speakers. Therefore, the vitality status of the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. With the possibility of an argument being made for critically endangered status, with the chance of dormancy in the next generation if revitalization does not work.


== Language Revitalization ==
Kettle and Stony Point First Nation Reserve has both short-term and long-term plans for language revitalization of Anishinaabemowin.


=== Short-term Revitalization Programs ===
The short-term plan or “Quick Wins” are to be carried out over a short time and are cost effective. These programs are the Unity Gathering and Storytelling. The Unity Gathering is an annual event that is intended to bring the people of the community together to share, teach and celebrate their culture. The Storytelling program is composed of events that are held in the hopes of passing on the traditions of Oral History and sharing. It also provides the opportunity for those in attendance to share their stories and hear the language. These two different programs are categorized as community-based programs by Lenore Grenoble and Lindsay Whaley because the language will be shared, taught and incorporated within the culture in a community setting.


=== Long-term Revitalization Programs ===
There are several long-term language revitalization plans for Anishinaabemowin in place at Kettle and Stony Point First Nations.


==== Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care ====
The first long-term plan established was the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care. The program statement for the daycare states that it was “committed to moving forward in reclaiming of the Ojibway language and providing optimal growth in all areas of the developmental stages”. This ideology is achieved through the embracement of the “Wheel of Learning” method, where Culture/Language is a main component. The program is not a total immersion program. Instead the children are encouraged to communicate in however they feel most comfortable, whether that be non-verbal or verbal in both English or Anishinaabemowin Both English and Anishinaabemowin are sproken by the children and the workers of the daycare. The children are also instructed in the Anishinaabemowin language by the workers. Therefore, the Head Start Day Care Program is classified as Grenoble and Whaley's partial-immersion or bilingual program.


==== Language Classes ====
The second long-term Anishinaabemowin language revitalization program at Kettle and Stony Point is language classes. There are language classes that are taught at the Kettle and Stony Point elementary school Hillside. These classes are taught to children attending the school as a second language. These classes are categorized as Grenoble and Whaley's “Foreign” Language program because they can be compared to studying a major European language in a North American classroom.
There are also language classes that are held at the Four Winds and the Cultural Resource Centre. These classes are not advertised online or on paper but instead through word of mouth. The structure of these classes are normally one teacher/fluent speaker and a maximum of eight students/learners. This style of teaching and learning can be classified as the master-apprentice program by Grenoble and Whaley. This is because the community has few fluent speakers and those speakers are paired with eager community members who are wanting to learn. These lessons are unstructured and taught without expert supervision. The fluent speakers have been holding these lessons for some years now, the lessons are getting more structured as the speakers gain more experience teaching.


=== Online Language Revitalization Programs ===
There are several online revitalization programs available for Anishinaabemowin. These programs can be found on a variety of websites and vary in both format and content. There is an interactive dictionary that can be located on kspcommunityculture.ca/language.html. This interactive dictionary provides the word in Anishinaabemowin and then the English translation and description follow. There is also an interactive play button that allows for the learner to hear how the word is pronounced in the language.
There is an online pilot program that is designed for daily language learning and practice called Anishinaabemowin Everyday. This pilot program is composed of online lessons that take roughly 15 minutes each to complete. The teaching methods utilized by this program are podcasts, flashcards, multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop, and quizzes. The podcasts that are hosted by fluent speakers that discuss the language and pronounce phrases and words. The flashcards that are available contain phrases and words in the language to aid in studying. The options of multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop and quizzes help the learner to test their knowledge and skills in the language. These two examples of some of the online resources available highlight Andras Knori's argument of the importance of the web to language revitalization. These programs are geared towards aiding “digital natives” in the learning of their language, as young people have never known a world without digital media learning.


== References ==",1.036661982536316
Javanese literature,"Javanese literature is, generally speaking, literature from Java and, more specifically, from areas where Javanese is spoken. However, similar with other literary traditions, Javanese language works were and not necessarily produced only in Java, but also in Sunda, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Southern Sumatra (especially around Palembang) and Suriname. This article only deals with Javanese written literature and not with oral literature and Javanese theatre such as wayang.


== Overview ==
The Javanese language is an Austronesian language and heavily influenced principally by Sanskrit in its earliest written stage. Later on it has undergone additional influences from mainly Arabic, Dutch, and Malay/Indonesian. Beginning in the 9th century, texts in Javanese language using a Brahmic derived script were written. The oldest written text in Javanese is the so-called Inscription of Sukabumi which is dated March 25, 804. Although this is not a piece of literature, this inscription is often mentioned as the starting point of Javanese literature.
The Dutch scholar Theodore Pigeaud divides the history of Javanese literature in four major periods:


=== Pre-Islamic period ===
The first era is a pre-Islamic period of about six centuries, beginning about 900 AD, up to about 1500 AD: the traditional date of the victory of Islam over pre-Islamic belief in the East Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. Javanese texts indubitably written in the pre-Islamic period have been preserved for posterity mainly in eighteenth and nineteenth century Balinese manuscripts. The idiom is called Old Javanese. In Java the original Javanese tradition of literature was interrupted and all but cut off by the rise of Islam.
There is a relatively rich body of pre-Islamic Javanese literature (see List of Old Javanese literary works). Among Old Javanese texts, a chronological distinction can be made between works of authors living in the period of suzerainty of the Kadiri Kings (up to about 1200 AD) and their predecessors, on the one side, and books written in the subsequent Singosari Majapahit period on the other. Almost all Old Javanese texts were written in East Java, mainly in districts situated in the basin of the river Brantas. The few exceptions are some very old texts probably written in the tenth century in Central Java in the district of Mataram, in the basin of the rivers Opak and Praga. In addition, for some texts, it is doubtful whether a given text in the Old Javanese language was written in Java or in Bali.
In the pre-Islamic period Indian culture was a most important factor in the development of Javanese literature. During some centuries, perhaps up to the twelfth century, Indian literary influence was dominant in all respects. Afterwards indigenous Javanese concepts came gradually to the fore. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Javanese authors wrote some books containing ideas and mythic speculations which seem pre-eminently autochthonous Javanese. At that time an amalgamation of imported elements of Indian culture and native Javanese concepts was effected in literature.


=== Javano-Balinese period ===
The second era of the chronological scheme is a Javano-Balinese period of about fourteenth centuries, beginning about 1500 AD and lasting up to the present time. Javano-Balinese literature is written in the Javano-Balinese literary idiom. Since the thirteenth century, or even earlier, the island of Bali seems to have been brought gradually within the sphere of influence of East Javanese Kings, and in the fourteenth century the dynasty of Majapahit ruled the country. According to Javanese historical tradition, about 1500 AD the last Majapahit King, ousted from his Royal residence by Muslim insurgents, fled eastwards and found a refuge in Bali. There may be some truth in this tradition. Anyway, the Balinese rulers did not embrace Islam, and in Bali Old Javanese literature was preserved and cherished. In the course of time at the Courts of the sixteenth and seventeenth century South Balinese
Kings of Gèlgèl of Klungkung, Old Javanese letters developed into a Javano-Balinese literature with characteristic features of its own. Indigenous Balinese mythical and historical traditions were introduced, and a new style of prosody, well suited to the structure of the Balinese and Javanese languages, was cultivated.
Side by side with Javano-Balinese literature, and stimulated by it, a purely Balinese literature developed. Before the period of Javanese cultural and political domination in Bali, since the thirteenth century, an Old Balinese literary idiom had been in use at the Courts of native Balinese rulers. Like Old Javanese, Old Balinese had developed under the influence of Indian culture. After an interval of about five centuries, the period of Javanese domination, the native Balinese language was used again as a medium of literary activity. Probably this was in the seventeenth or the eighteenth century. Balinese language and literature of the second flourishing period, which endures up to the present time, are strongly influenced by Old Javanese and Javano-Balinese. In some cases it is difficult to decide whether a given text should be registered as belonging to Javano-Balinese or to Balinese literature.
It is very difficult to establish any kind of chronological order in the mass of Javano-Balinese literature, because scarcely any text is dated. In some cases older texts belonging to the Gèlgèl period can be distinguished from younger texts belonging to the subsequent eighteenth and nineteenth century Klungkung reigns by the growing prominence of Balinese forms and vocabulary in the latter texts.
Javano-Balinese literature developed out of Old Javanese letters and Balinese tradition. No foreign influence was in evidence except Islam. Though the ruling classes of Bali, the Courts and the clergy, adhered to ancestral religious concepts and ritual, somehow Javanese Islamic literature penetrated into mercantile middle-class communities in the country, and a small Muslim Javano-Balinese literature developed. Its exact chronology is unknown, but its relationship with seventeenth and eighteenth century Javanese Pasisir literature or the following era is indubitable.


=== Islamic era or Javanese Pesisir literature ===
The third era of the chronological scheme introduced in the present Synopsis is the era of Javanese Pesisir literature of about three centuries, beginning about 1500 AD. So it coincides with the first half of the era of Javano-Balinese literature. Texts belonging to the era of the scheme were written in the literary idioms of East Java, Madura and the North Coast districts. Pesisir is a Javanese word meaning 'coast' or 'costal line'.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Islam was in the ascendant in Java. Political power devolved from the inland Court of Majapahit to Muslim dynasts ruling in various maritime districts and trading centers on the North Coast. In these districts, from Surabaya and Gresik in the east up to Cirebon and Banten in the west, a rejuvenated Javanese literature developed under the influence of Islam.
In the period of Pesisir culture authors were very active in writing books on all subjects belonging to the sphere of Muslim Javanese civilization. Far from ignoring pre-Islamic literature, however, they assimilated many elements of Old Javanese culture. The result was an amalgam of Muslim and pre-Islamic culture, in several respects showing survivals of ancient indigenous Javanese concepts.
The three centres of Pesisir literature in Java were Surabaya (with Gresik), Demak (with Japara) and Cérbon (with Banten). East Javanese Pesisir texts came first, for in East Java Muslim religious influence first became an important element in civilization.
Starting from Java, Islamic Pesisir culture spread to some other islands of which the coasts are washed by the Java sea. The most important outlying cultural provinces were Lombok and Palémbang. In the island of Lombok a remarkable Islamic Javano-Balinese literature came into existence. The texts contain reminiscences of indigenous Sasak culture. The native Sasak language developed into a medium of literary activity side by side with the Javano-Balinese idiom.
Probably for centuries, even in the pre-Islamic period, the district of Palémbang in South Sumatra was ruled by dynasts of Javanese extraction. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Javanese Pesisir literature was cultivated at Court. In the nineteenth century Javanese cultural influence in Palémbang declined in consequence of the fall of the dynasty. Malay took the place of Javanese.
The important oversea expansions of Javanese Pesisir literature, both eastwards and westwards, started from East Java. Minor expansions, of Javanese Pesisir culture took their course from Banten and from Central Javanese maritime towns. The districts affected by them, Lampung in South Sumatra by Banten, and Bañjar Masin in Borneo by Central Java, did not produce Javanese literary texts of any importance, however.
In, Javanese Pesisir literature, the influence of Islamic culture was strong. Islam first reached Java by the intermediary of Malay literature, Malay being the medium of the interinsular commerce which brought Muslim traders from India to the Archipelago. Asa result, Pesisir literature contains borrowings, from Malay and from Arabic, the sacred language of Islam, but also, from other continental languages, in the first place Persian, which was the universal Islamic medium in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.


=== Renaissance of classical literature ===
The fourth era of the chronological scheme is the period of the renaissance of classical Javanese literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Literature belonging to this era was written in the Surakarta and Yogyakarta idioms. The cultural centre was the Court of the inland Central Javanese Kings in Kartasura, Surakarta and Yogyakarta. The fame of the Surakarta authors, called pujanggas, spread all over Java, and their style was much imitated. In consequence in the nineteenth century Surakarta renaissance literature was considered as the Javanese literature par excellence, and works of authors belonging to the preceding Pasisir era fell into oblivion or were disregarded. The Surakarta Court idiom with its rigid rules of class distinction in vocabulary (the so-called manners of speech, krama and ngoko etc.) was accepted almost everywhere as exemplary.
Probably in the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century Pasisir literature was already on the decline in consequence of economic and political retrogression in the mercantile towns on the North Coast where the authors and their patrons lived. One by one the maritime districts were vanquished by the forces of the despotic Kings of inland Mataram. Their over-sea trade, the source of their prosperity, receded as a result of the rise of Batavia.
The Central Javanese, renaissance culture of the nineteenth century was the successor of seventeenth and eighteenth century Pasisir civilization, which in its time formed a cultural link between maritime districts along the coasts of Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok. The differences between the two are geographical and ideological. Geographically, seventeenth and eighteenth century Javanese Pasisir culture was interinsular. But then it was mainly confined to the maritime districts of the islands. It was not in all respects unified, using different languages and idioms. Nineteenth-century Central Javanese pujangga culture, on the other hand, was national Javanese. Belonging to the interior of the country, and using the mannered Court idiom of Surakarta and Yogyakarta, it was unified to a high degree.
Ideologically the difference between Pasisir and pujangga literature consists in their origin and development. In the Pasisir literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth century, on the one hand, the principal concern was religion. It superseded the culture of the preceding non-Islamic period, in the meantime retaining several features of pre-Islamic civilization. Its origin was middle-class. In the Central Javanese civilization of the nineteenth century, on the other hand, Muslim religion was taken for granted. The pujanggas were mostly interested in the remains of pre-Islamic belletristic literature. Their books were meant to be reading-matter for gentlemen.
Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance authors were masters in adapting the products of former periods of literature, as far as known to them. Some Old Javanese epic kakawins were turned into modern Javanese poems. Historical, romantic and theatrical literature flourished. The wayang theatre became the favourite pastime at Court, and plays were composed by Kings and princes,.
Originating from the interior of the country, Surakarta renaissance literature lacked stimulating contacts with foreign cultures oversea, like its predecessor in Central Java, Pasisir literature, had. Neither international Islam nor interinsular Malay literature were appreciated at Court. Javano-Balinese letters, which in the eighteenth century were flourishing in Bali, were unknown in Central Java.
Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance literature was heavily indebted to eighteenth century Pasisir literature, especially of the Central and East Javanese maritime districts. After a long period of dynastic troubles and internal wars, which were detrimental to the mercantile towns on the seacoast, peace was finally restored in Central and East Java in the middle of the eighteenth century. Probably since that time traffic by prao on the river Bengawan was instrumental in establishing contacts between Surakarta and Gresik, the ancient centre of the decaying East Javanese Pasisir culture. It is a fact that the Surakarta scholars' knowledge of the admired Old Javanese kakawins was second-hand. Manuscripts written in Pasisir districts were intermediaries. The superior Balinese codices of Old Javanese texts were not available in Central Java.
In the nineteenth century Surakarta authors were stimulated by the presence of three European scholars: Winter, Gericke and Wilkens, who were studying Javanese language and literature in Central Java. Through their intermediary some knowledge of European culture spread at Court. The Bible was translated into Javanese.
The second half of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century were the period of development of Surakarta renaissance letters into a common Javanese belletristic literature characterized by its predilection for the wayang theatre and wayang plays. In consequence of the maintenance of peace and order in the interior of the country and an unprecedented increase of traffic by means of the railways, Surakarta (and, in a minor degree, also Yogyakarta) Court culture developed into a common spiritual sphere of the priyayi class, the gentlefolk of Java. Probably never before the nineteenth century such a sense of cultural unity was prevalent among the members of the well-educated classes in the interior of the country. Henceforth the Court culture radiating from Surakarta and Yogyakarta was considered by educated people as the only genuine Javanese civilization.
Notwithstanding the early nineteenth century contacts of Surakarta authors with Dutch scholars, the modern European novel and short story did not begin to develop in Javanese literature before the second or third decade of the twentieth century. Apparently for a long time the appeal of the well-known phantastic wayang play literature was stronger than the interest in new fiction dealing with problems of modern times.
In all periods of history conservatism and a tendency to retrospection and mythography have been characteristic features of Javanese literature. Its endurance for many centuries, adapting elements of foreign cultures, Indian and Islamic, but not superseded by them, is, remarkable. Apparently cultural conservatism upheld Javanese authors and scholars in the critical periods when foreign ideologies were introduced into their national society. It remains to be seen whether in times to come Javanese conservatism will prove strong enough to adapt and integrate foreign elements with the same success as it did in the past.
Anyway, Javanese cultural conservatism seems a valuable asset in the amalgam of modern Indonesian civilization which is developing in the twentieth century. The present Synopsis of Javanese literature up to about 1900 is not the place to discuss modern developments at any length, however.


== See also ==
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
Hinduism in Java
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan
Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian
Kunjarakarna Dharmakathana
Sumanasantaka
Bhomantaka


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
(in Dutch) Cornelis Christiaan Berg, 1928, Kidung Sundayana : (Kidung Sunda C) : voor schoolgebruik uitgegeven, en voorzien van aanteekeningen, een woordenlijstje en een inleiding tot de studie van het Oud-Javaansch. Soerakarta: De Bliksem.
(in English) George Quinn, 1992, The novel in Javanese : aspects of its social and literary character. Leiden: KITLV Press. ISBN 90-6718-033-5
(in English) The. Pigeaud, 1967-1970 Literature of Java :Catalogue raisonne of Javanese : Catalogue raisonne of Javanese manuscripts in the library of the University of Leiden and other public collections in the Netherlands The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff.
(in Javanese) Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka, 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. Djakarta: Djambatan
(in Indonesian) Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka & Tardjan Hadidjaja, 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. Djakarta: Djambatan
(in English) J.J. Ras, 1979, Javanese literature since independence. An anthology. The Hague: Uitgeverij Nijhoff, VKI 88, ISBN 90-247-2309-4
(in English) P.J. Zoetmulder, 1974, Kalangwan. A Survey of Old Javanese Literature. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-1674-8


== Further reading ==
Florida, Nancy K. (1995) Writing the past, inscribing the future: history as prophecy in colonial Java  Durham, N.C. Duke University Press,",1.2130783796310425
Northern crested newt,"The northern crested newt, great crested newt or warty newt (Triturus cristatus) is a newt species native to Great Britain, northern and central continental Europe and parts of Western Siberia. It is a large newt, with females growing up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long. Its back and sides are dark brown, while the belly is yellow to orange with dark blotches. Males develop a conspicuous jagged crest on their back and tail during the breeding season.
The northern crested newt spends most of the year on land, mainly in forested areas in lowlands. It moves to aquatic breeding sites, mainly larger fish-free ponds, in spring. Males court females with a ritualised display and deposit a spermatophore on the ground, which the female then picks up with her cloaca. After fertilisation, a female lays around 200 eggs, folding them into water plants. The larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juveniles (efts). Both larvae and land-dwelling newts mainly feed on different invertebrates.
Several of the northern crested newt's former subspecies are now recognised as separate species in the genus Triturus. Its closest relative is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus). It sometimes forms hybrids with some of its relatives, including the marbled newt (T. marmoratus). Although today the most widespread Triturus species, the northern crested newt was probably confined to small refugial areas in the Carpathians during the Last Glacial Maximum.
While the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as Least Concern species, populations of the northern crested newt have been declining. The main threat is habitat destruction, for example, through urban sprawl. The species is listed as a European Protected Species.


== Taxonomy ==
The northern crested newt was described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768. As Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque introduced the new genus name Triturus in 1815, with T. cristatus as type species.
Over 40 scientific names introduced over time are now considered as synonyms, including Lacertus aquatilis, a nomen oblitum published four years before Laurenti's species name. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus) female were mistakenly described as distinct species Triton blasii, and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti.
T. cristatus was long considered as a single species, the ""crested newt"", with several subspecies. Substantial genetic differences between these subspecies were, however, noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species, often collectively referred to as ""T. cristatus species complex"". There are now seven accepted species of crested newts, of which the northern crested newt is the most widespread.


== Description ==

The northern crested newt is a relatively large newt species. Males usually reach 13.5 cm (5.3 in) total length, while females grow up to 16 cm (6.3 in). Rare individuals of 20 cm (7.9 in) have been recorded. Other crested newt species are more stockily built; only the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus) is more slender.: 342 : 12–15  Body shape is correlated with skeletal build: The northern crested newt has 15 rib-bearing vertebrae, only the Danube crested newt has more (16–17), while the other, more stocky Triturus species have 14 or less.
The newts have rough skin, and are dark brown on the back and sides, with black spots and heavy white stippling on the flanks. The female has a yellow line running along the lower tail edge. The throat is mixed yellow–black with fine white stippling, the belly yellow to orange with dark, irregular blotches.: 342 
During the aquatic breeding season, males develop crest up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) high, which runs along the back and tail but is interrupted at the tail base. It is heavily indented on the back but smoother on the tail. Also during breeding season, the male's cloaca swells and it has a blue–white flash running along the sides of the tail. Females do not develop a crest.: 342 : 12–15 


== Range ==
The northern crested newt is the most widespread and northerly crested newt species. The northern edge of its range runs from Great Britain through southern Fennoscandia to the Republic of Karelia in Russia; the southern margin runs through central France, southwest Romania, Moldavia and Ukraine, heading from there into central Russia and through the Ural Mountains. The eastern extent of the great crested newt's range reaches into Western Siberia, running from the Perm Krai to the Kurgan Oblast.
In western France, the species co-occurs and sometimes hybridises (see section Evolution below) with the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus). In southeast Europe, its range borders that of the Italian crested newt (T. carnifex), the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus),  the Macedonian crested newt (T. macedonicus) and the Balkan crested newt (T. ivanbureschi).


== Habitat ==

Outside of the breeding season, northern crested newts are mainly forest-dwellers. They prefer deciduous woodlands or groves, but conifer woods are also accepted, especially in the far northern and southern ranges. In the absence of forests, other cover-rich habitats, as for example hedgerows, scrub, swampy meadows, or quarries, can be inhabited.: 47–48,76 
Preferred aquatic breeding sites are stagnant, mid- to large-sized, unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish (which prey on larvae). Typical examples are larger ponds, which need not be of natural origin; indeed, most ponds inhabited in the United Kingdom are human-made.: 48  Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches, channels, gravel pit lakes, or garden ponds. Other newts that can sometimes be found in the same breeding sites are the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the palmate newt (L. helveticus), the Carpathian newt (L. montadoni), the alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) and the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus).: 44–48 
The northern crested newt is generally a lowland species but has been found up to 1,750 m (5,740 ft) in the Alps.: 343 


== Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny ==


=== Hybridization ===
In certain areas of France, the northern crested newt and the marbled newt overlap, and hybrids are present. As the northern crested newt's population grows, and marbled newt population struggles, these hybrids have been shown to possess good qualities of both. They have more fecundity than the two newts however have a hard time keeping their eggs alive.


== Life cycle and behaviour ==
Like other newts, T. cristatus develops in the water as a larva and returns to the water each year for breeding. Adults spend around seven months of the year on land. After larval development in the first year, juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity; in the north and at higher elevations, this can take longer. The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts, while survival is higher in adults. Once the risky stages passed, adult newts usually have a lifespan of seven to nine years, although individuals have reached 17 years in the wild.: 98–99 
Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4–5 °C (39–41 °F), usually in March.: 44  In the aquatic phase, crested newts are mostly nocturnal and, compared to smaller newt species, usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body, where they hide under vegetation. As with other newts, they have to occasionally move to the surface to breathe air. The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction, but also offers more abundant prey, and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed.: 52–58 
During the terrestrial phase, the newts use hiding places such as logs, bark, planks, stone walls, or small mammal burrows; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time. Since the newts generally stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites, the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised.: 47–48,76  Great crested newts may also climb vegetation during their terrestrial phase, although the exact function of this behaviour is not known at present.
The juvenile efts often disperse to new breeding sites, while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year. The newts do not migrate very far: they may cover around 100 metres (110 yd) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre (0.62 mi). Over most of their range, they hibernate in winter, using mainly subterranean hiding places, where many individuals will often congregate.: 73–78 


=== Diet and predators ===
Northern crested newts feed mainly on invertebrates. During the land phase, prey include earthworms and other annelids, different insects and their larvae, woodlice, and snails and slugs. During the breeding season, they prey on various aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs [particularly small bivalves], microcrustaceans, and insects), and also tadpoles and juveniles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad, and smaller newts (including conspecifics).: 58–59  Larvae, depending on their size, eat small invertebrates and tadpoles, and also smaller larvae of their own species.
The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds, and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish. Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds, snakes such as the grass snake, and mammals such as shrews, badgers and hedgehogs.: 78  They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin, albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts (Taricha). The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger. In such a posture, the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance.: 79 


=== Courtship and reproduction ===

Northern crested newts, like their relatives in the genus Triturus, perform a complex courtship display, where the male attracts a female through specific body movements and waves pheromones to her. The males are territorial and use small patches of clear ground as leks, or courtship arenas. When successful, they guide the female over a spermatophore they deposit on the ground, which she then takes up with her cloaca.: 80–89 
The eggs are fertilised internally, and the female deposits them individually, usually folding them into leaves of aquatic plants. A female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg. They usually lay around 200 eggs per season. Embryos are usually light-coloured, 1.8–2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule, which distinguishes them from eggs of other co-existing newt species that are smaller and darker-coloured. A genetic particularity shared with other Triturus species causes 50% of the embryos to die.: 61–62 
Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending on temperature. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs develop first, followed later by the back legs. Unlike smaller newts, crested newt larvae are mostly nektonic, swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae resorb their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres (2.8 in). Metamorphosis into terrestrial efts takes place two to four months after hatching, again depending on temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4%. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts.: 64–71 


== Evolution ==

The northern crested newt sometimes hybridises with other crested newt species where their ranges meet, but overall, the different species are reproductively isolated. In a case study in the Netherlands, genes of the introduced Italian crested newt (T. carnifex) were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt. The closest relative of the northern crested newt, according to molecular phylogenetic analyses, is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus).
In western France, the northern crested newt's range overlaps with that of the marbled newt (T. marmoratus), but the two species in general prefer different habitats. When they do occur in the same breeding ponds, they can form hybrids, which have intermediate characteristics. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female are much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consist only of males. In the reverse cross, males have lower survival rates than females. Overall, viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species. Hybrids made up 3–7% of the adult populations in different studies.
Little genetic variation was found over most of the species' range, except in the Carpathians. This suggests that the Carpathians was a refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum. The northern crested newt then expanded its range north-, east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed.


== Threats and conservation ==

The northern crested newt is listed as species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are declining. It is rare in some parts of its range and listed in several national red lists.
The major reason for decline is habitat destruction through urban and agricultural development, affecting the aquatic breeding sites as well as the land habitats. Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation, i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats. Other threats include the introduction of fish and crayfish into breeding ponds, collection for the pet trade in its eastern range, warmer and wetter winters due to global warming,: 110  genetic pollution through hybridisation with other, introduced crested newt species, the use of road salt, and potentially the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans.
The northern crested newt is listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as ""strictly protected"". It is also included in Annex II (species requiring designation of special areas of conservation) and IV (species in need of strict protection) of the EU habitats and species directive, as a European Protected Species. As required by these frameworks, its capture, disturbance, killing or trade, as well as the destruction of its habitats, are prohibited in most European countries. The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas, several of which have been designated specifically to protect the northern crested newt.
Preservation of natural water bodies, reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use, control or eradication of introduced predatory fish, and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land are seen as effective conservation actions. A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations, and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby. In some cases, entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects, but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful.: 118–133 
Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects, but the species is also seen as a flagship species, whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians. Government agencies have issued specific guidelines for the mitigation of development impacts.


== References ==",1.228291392326355
Deterministic finite automaton,"In the theory of computation, a branch of theoretical computer science, a deterministic finite automaton (DFA)—also known as deterministic finite acceptor (DFA), deterministic finite-state machine (DFSM), or deterministic finite-state automaton (DFSA)—is a finite-state machine that accepts or rejects a given string of symbols, by running through a state sequence uniquely determined by the string. Deterministic refers to the uniqueness of the computation run. In search of the simplest models to capture finite-state machines, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts were among the first researchers to introduce a concept similar to finite automata in 1943.
The figure illustrates a deterministic finite automaton using a state diagram. In this example automaton, there are three states: S0, S1, and S2 (denoted graphically by circles). The automaton takes a finite sequence of 0s and 1s as input. For each state, there is a transition arrow leading out to a next state for both 0 and 1. Upon reading a symbol, a DFA jumps deterministically from one state to another by following the transition arrow. For example, if the automaton is currently in state S0 and the current input symbol is 1, then it deterministically jumps to state S1. A DFA has a start state (denoted graphically by an arrow coming in from nowhere) where computations begin, and a set of accept states (denoted graphically by a double circle) which help define when a computation is successful.
A DFA is defined as an abstract mathematical concept, but is often implemented in hardware and software for solving various specific problems such as lexical analysis and pattern matching. For example, a DFA can model software that decides whether or not online user input such as email addresses are syntactically valid.
DFAs have been generalized to nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) which may have several arrows of the same label starting from a state. Using the powerset construction method, every NFA can be translated to a DFA that recognizes the same language. DFAs, and NFAs as well, recognize exactly the set of regular languages.


== Formal definition ==
A deterministic finite automaton M is a 5-tuple, (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), consisting of

a finite set of states Q
a finite set of input symbols called the alphabet Σ
a transition function δ : Q × Σ → Q
an initial (or start) state 
  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}\in Q}
  

a set of accepting (or final) states 
  
    
      
        F
        ⊆
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle F\subseteq Q}
  

Let w = a1a2...an be a string over the alphabet Σ. The automaton M accepts the string w if a sequence of states, r0, r1, ..., rn, exists in Q with the following conditions:

r0 = q0
ri+1 = δ(ri, ai+1), for i = 0, ..., n − 1

  
    
      
        
          r
          
            n
          
        
        ∈
        F
      
    
    {\displaystyle r_{n}\in F}
  
.
In words, the first condition says that the machine starts in the start state q0. The second condition says that given each character of string w, the machine will transition from state to state according to the transition function δ. The last condition says that the machine accepts w if the last input of w causes the machine to halt in one of the accepting states. Otherwise, it is said that the automaton rejects the string. The set of strings that M accepts is the language recognized by M and this language is denoted by L(M).
A deterministic finite automaton without accept states and without a starting state is known as a transition system or semiautomaton.
For more comprehensive introduction of the formal definition see automata theory.


== Example ==
The following example is of a DFA M, with a binary alphabet, which requires that the input contains an even number of 0s.

M = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) where

Q = {S1, S2}
Σ = {0, 1}
q0 = S1
F = {S1} and
δ is defined by the following state transition table:

The state S1 represents that there has been an even number of 0s in the input so far, while S2 signifies an odd number. A 1 in the input does not change the state of the automaton. When the input ends, the state will show whether the input contained an even number of 0s or not. If the input did contain an even number of 0s, M will finish in state S1, an accepting state, so the input string will be accepted.
The language recognized by M is the regular language given by the regular expression (1*) (0 (1*) 0 (1*))*, where * is the Kleene star, e.g., 1* denotes any number (possibly zero) of consecutive ones.


== Variations ==


=== Complete and incomplete ===
According to the above definition, deterministic finite automata are always complete: they define from each state a transition for each input symbol.
While this is the most common definition, some authors use the term deterministic finite automaton for a slightly different notion: an automaton that defines at most one transition for each state and each input symbol; the transition function is allowed to be partial. When no transition is defined, such an automaton halts.


=== Local automata ===
A local automaton is a DFA, not necessarily complete, for which all edges with the same label lead to a single vertex.  Local automata accept the class of local languages, those for which membership of a word in the language is determined by a ""sliding window"" of length two on the word.
A Myhill graph over an alphabet A is a directed graph with vertex set A and subsets of vertices labelled ""start"" and ""finish"".  The language accepted by a Myhill graph is the set of directed paths from a start vertex to a finish vertex: the graph thus acts as an automaton. The class of languages accepted by Myhill graphs is the class of local languages.


=== Randomness ===
When the start state and accept states are ignored, a DFA of n states and an alphabet of size k can be seen as a digraph of n vertices in which all vertices have k out-arcs labeled 1, ..., k (a k-out digraph). It is known that when k ≥ 2 is a fixed integer, with high probability, the largest strongly connected component (SCC) in such a k-out digraph chosen uniformly at random is of linear size and it can be reached by all vertices. It has also been proven that if k is allowed to increase as n increases, then the whole digraph has a phase transition for strong connectivity similar to Erdős–Rényi model for connectivity.
In a random DFA, the maximum number of vertices reachable from one vertex is very close to the number of vertices in the largest SCC with high probability. This is also true for the largest induced sub-digraph of minimum in-degree one, which can be seen as a directed version of 1-core.


== Closure properties ==

If DFAs recognize the languages that are obtained by applying an operation on the DFA recognizable languages then DFAs are said to be closed under the operation. The DFAs are closed under the following operations.

For each operation, an optimal construction with respect to the number of states has been determined in state complexity research.
Since DFAs are equivalent to nondeterministic finite automata (NFA), these closures may also be proved using closure properties of NFA.


== As a transition monoid ==
A run of a given DFA can be seen as a sequence of compositions of a very general formulation of the transition function with itself. Here we construct that function.
For a given input symbol 
  
    
      
        a
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle a\in \Sigma }
  
, one may construct a transition function 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        :
        Q
        →
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}:Q\rightarrow Q}
  
 by defining 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        (
        q
        )
        =
        δ
        (
        q
        ,
        a
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}(q)=\delta (q,a)}
  
 for all 
  
    
      
        q
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q\in Q}
  
.  (This trick is called currying.) From this perspective, 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}}
  
 ""acts"" on a state in Q to yield another state.  One may then consider the result of function composition repeatedly applied to the various functions 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}}
  
, 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            b
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{b}}
  
, and so on.  Given a pair of letters 
  
    
      
        a
        ,
        b
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle a,b\in \Sigma }
  
, one may define a new function 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                δ
                ^
              
            
          
          
            a
            b
          
        
        =
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        ∘
        
          δ
          
            b
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}_{ab}=\delta _{a}\circ \delta _{b}}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        ∘
      
    
    {\displaystyle \circ }
  
 denotes function composition.
Clearly, this process may be recursively continued, giving the following recursive definition of 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        :
        Q
        ×
        
          Σ
          
            ⋆
          
        
        →
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}:Q\times \Sigma ^{\star }\rightarrow Q}
  
:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        ϵ
        )
        =
        q
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}(q,\epsilon )=q}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        ϵ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \epsilon }
  
 is the empty string and

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        w
        a
        )
        =
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        (
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        w
        )
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}(q,wa)=\delta _{a}({\widehat {\delta }}(q,w))}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        w
        ∈
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
        ,
        a
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle w\in \Sigma ^{*},a\in \Sigma }
  
 and 
  
    
      
        q
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q\in Q}
  
.

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
  is defined for all words 
  
    
      
        w
        ∈
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle w\in \Sigma ^{*}}
  
.  A run of the DFA is a sequence of compositions of 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
 with itself.
Repeated function composition forms a monoid. For the transition functions, this monoid is known as the transition monoid, or sometimes the transformation semigroup. The construction can also be reversed: given a 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
, one can reconstruct a 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
  
, and so the two descriptions are equivalent.


== Advantages and disadvantages ==
DFAs are one of the most practical models of computation, since there is a trivial linear time, constant-space, online algorithm to simulate a DFA on a stream of input. Also, there are efficient algorithms to find a DFA recognizing:

the complement of the language recognized by a given DFA.
the union/intersection of the languages recognized by two given DFAs.
Because DFAs can be reduced to a canonical form (minimal DFAs), there are also efficient algorithms to determine:

whether a DFA accepts any strings (Emptiness Problem)
whether a DFA accepts all strings (Universality Problem)
whether two DFAs recognize the same language (Equality Problem)
whether the language recognized by a DFA is included in the language recognized by a second DFA (Inclusion Problem)
the DFA with a minimum number of states for a particular regular language (Minimization Problem)
DFAs are equivalent in computing power to nondeterministic finite automata (NFAs). This is because, firstly any DFA is also an NFA, so an NFA can do what a DFA can do. Also, given an NFA, using the powerset construction one can build a DFA that recognizes the same language as the NFA, although the DFA could have exponentially larger number of states than the NFA. However, even though NFAs are computationally equivalent to DFAs, the above-mentioned problems are not necessarily solved efficiently also for NFAs. The non-universality problem for NFAs is PSPACE complete since there are small NFAs with shortest rejecting word in exponential size. A DFA is universal if and only if all states are final states, but this does not hold for NFAs. The Equality, Inclusion and Minimization Problems are also PSPACE complete since they require forming the complement of an NFA which results in an exponential blow up of size.
On the other hand, finite-state automata are of strictly limited power in the languages they can recognize; many simple languages, including any problem that requires more than constant space to solve, cannot be recognized by a DFA. The classic example of a simply described language that no DFA can recognize is bracket or Dyck language, i.e., the language that consists of properly paired brackets such as word ""(()())"". Intuitively, no DFA can recognize the Dyck language because DFAs are not capable of counting: a DFA-like automaton needs to have a state to represent any possible number of ""currently open"" parentheses, meaning it would need an unbounded number of states. Another simpler example is the language consisting of strings of the form anbn for some finite but arbitrary number of a's, followed by an equal number of b's.


== DFA identification from labeled words ==

Given a set of positive words 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
        ⊂
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}\subset \Sigma ^{*}}
  
 and a set of negative words 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
        ⊂
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}\subset \Sigma ^{*}}
  
 one can construct a DFA that accepts all words from 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and rejects all words from 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
: this problem is called DFA identification (synthesis, learning).
While some DFA can be constructed in linear time, the problem of identifying a DFA with the minimal number of states is NP-complete.
The first algorithm for minimal DFA identification has been proposed by Trakhtenbrot and Barzdin and is called the TB-algorithm.
However, the TB-algorithm assumes that all words from 
  
    
      
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma }
  
 up to a given length are contained in either 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
        ∪
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}\cup S^{-}}
  
.
Later, K. Lang proposed an extension of the TB-algorithm that does not use any assumptions about 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
, the Traxbar algorithm.
However, Traxbar does not guarantee the minimality of the constructed DFA.
In his work E.M. Gold also proposed a heuristic algorithm for minimal DFA identification.
Gold's algorithm assumes that 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
 contain a characteristic set of the regular language; otherwise, the constructed DFA will be inconsistent either with 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 or 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
.
Other notable DFA identification algorithms include the RPNI algorithm, the Blue-Fringe evidence-driven state-merging algorithm, 
and Windowed-EDSM.
Another research direction is the application of evolutionary algorithms: the smart state labeling evolutionary algorithm allowed to solve a modified DFA identification problem in which the training data (sets 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
) is noisy in the sense that some words are attributed to wrong classes.
Yet another step forward is due to application of SAT solvers by Marjin J. H. Heule and S. Verwer: the minimal DFA identification problem is reduced to deciding the satisfiability of a Boolean formula. The main idea is to build an augmented prefix-tree acceptor (a trie containing all input words with corresponding labels) based on the input sets and reduce the problem of finding a DFA with 
  
    
      
        C
      
    
    {\displaystyle C}
  
 states to coloring the tree vertices with 
  
    
      
        C
      
    
    {\displaystyle C}
  
 states in such a way that when vertices with one color are merged to one state, the generated automaton is deterministic and complies with 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
.
Though this approach allows finding the minimal DFA, it suffers from exponential blow-up of execution time when the size of input data increases.
Therefore, Heule and Verwer's initial algorithm has later been augmented with making several steps of the EDSM algorithm prior to SAT solver execution: the DFASAT algorithm.
This allows reducing the search space of the problem, but leads to loss of the minimality guarantee.
Another way of reducing the search space has been proposed by Ulyantsev et al. by means of new symmetry breaking predicates based on the breadth-first search algorithm:
the sought DFA's states are constrained to be numbered according to the BFS algorithm launched from the initial state. This approach reduces the search space by 
  
    
      
        C
        !
      
    
    {\displaystyle C!}
  
 by eliminating isomorphic automata.


== Equivalent models ==


=== Read-only right-moving Turing machines ===
Read-only right-moving Turing machines are a particular type of Turing machine that only moves right; these
are almost exactly equivalent to DFAs.
The definition based on a singly infinite tape is a 7-tuple

  
    
      
        M
        =
        ⟨
        Q
        ,
        Γ
        ,
        b
        ,
        Σ
        ,
        δ
        ,
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ,
        F
        ⟩
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle M=\langle Q,\Gamma ,b,\Sigma ,\delta ,q_{0},F\rangle ,}
  

where

  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  
 is a finite set of states;

  
    
      
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma }
  
 is a finite set of the tape alphabet/symbols;

  
    
      
        b
        ∈
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle b\in \Gamma }
  
 is the blank symbol (the only symbol allowed to occur on the tape infinitely often at any step during the computation);

  
    
      
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma }
  
, a subset of 
  
    
      
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma }
  
 not including b, is the set of input symbols;

  
    
      
        δ
        :
        Q
        ×
        Γ
        →
        Q
        ×
        Γ
        ×
        {
        R
        }
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta :Q\times \Gamma \to Q\times \Gamma \times \{R\}}
  
 is a function called the transition function, R is a right movement (a right shift);

  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}\in Q}
  
 is the initial state;

  
    
      
        F
        ⊆
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle F\subseteq Q}
  
 is the set of final or accepting states.
The machine always accepts a regular language. There must exist at least one element of the set F (a HALT state) for the language to be nonempty.


==== Example of a 3-state, 2-symbol read-only Turing machine ====

  
    
      
        Q
        =
        {
        A
        ,
        B
        ,
        C
        ,
        
          HALT
        
        }
        ;
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q=\{A,B,C,{\text{HALT}}\};}
  

  
    
      
        Γ
        =
        {
        0
        ,
        1
        }
        ;
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma =\{0,1\};}
  

  
    
      
        b
        =
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle b=0}
  
, ""blank"";

  
    
      
        Σ
        =
        ∅
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma =\varnothing }
  
, empty set;

  
    
      
        δ
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta =}
  
 see state-table above;

  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        =
        A
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}=A}
  
, initial state;

  
    
      
        F
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle F=}
  
 the one element set of final states: 
  
    
      
        {
        
          HALT
        
        }
      
    
    {\displaystyle \{{\text{HALT}}\}}
  
.


== See also ==


== Notes ==


== References ==
Hopcroft, John E.; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1979). Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02988-X. (accessible to patrons with print disabilities)
Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (2006) [1979]. Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-45536-3.
Lawson, Mark V. (2004). Finite automata. Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 1-58488-255-7. Zbl 1086.68074.
McCulloch, W. S.; Pitts, W. (1943). ""A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity"". Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. 5 (4): 115–133. doi:10.1007/BF02478259. PMID 2185863.
Rabin, M. O.; Scott, D. (1959). ""Finite automata and their decision problems"". IBM J. Res. Dev. 3 (2): 114–125. doi:10.1147/rd.32.0114.
Sakarovitch, Jacques (2009). Elements of automata theory. Translated from the French by Reuben Thomas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84425-3. Zbl 1188.68177.


=== Further reading ===
Sipser, Michael (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation (1st ed.). PWS Publishing. ISBN 978-0-534-94728-6. (accessible to patrons with print disabilities) — 1.1: ""Finite Automata"" pp. 31–47. 4.1: ""Decidable Languages - Decidable Problems Concerning Regular Languages""  pp. 152–155. 4.4: DFA can accept only regular language",0.9248576760292053
Refractive index,"In optics, the refractive index (or refraction index) of an optical medium is the ratio of the apparent speed of light in the air or vacuum to the speed in the medium. The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, or refracted, when entering a material. This is described by Snell's law of refraction, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2, where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction, respectively, of a ray crossing the interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2. The refractive indices also determine the amount of light that is reflected when reaching the interface, as well as the critical angle for total internal reflection, their intensity (Fresnel equations) and Brewster's angle.
The refractive index, 
  
    
      
        n
      
    
    {\displaystyle n}
  
, can be seen as the factor by which the speed and the wavelength of the radiation are reduced with respect to their vacuum values: the speed of light in a medium is v = c/n, and similarly the wavelength in that medium is λ = λ0/n, where λ0 is the wavelength of that light in vacuum. This implies that vacuum has a refractive index of 1, and assumes that the frequency (f = v/λ) of the wave is not affected by the refractive index.
The refractive index may vary with wavelength. This causes white light to split into constituent colors when refracted. This is called dispersion. This effect can be observed in prisms and rainbows, and as chromatic aberration in lenses. Light propagation in absorbing materials can be described using a complex-valued refractive index. The imaginary part then handles the attenuation, while the real part accounts for refraction. For most materials the refractive index changes with wavelength by several percent across the visible spectrum. Consequently, refractive indices for materials reported using a single value for n must specify the wavelength used in the measurement.
The concept of refractive index applies across the full electromagnetic spectrum, from X-rays to radio waves. It can also be applied to wave phenomena such as sound. In this case, the speed of sound is used instead of that of light, and a reference medium other than vacuum must be chosen. Refraction also occurs in oceans when light passes into the halocline where salinity has impacted the density of the water column.
For lenses (such as eye glasses), a lens made from a high refractive index material will be thinner, and hence lighter, than a conventional lens with a lower refractive index.  Such lenses are generally more expensive to manufacture than conventional ones.


== Definition ==
The relative refractive index of an optical medium 2 with respect to another reference medium 1 (n21) is given by the ratio of speed of light in medium 1 to that in medium 2. This can be expressed as follows:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            21
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              v
              
                1
              
            
            
              v
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{21}={\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}.}
  

If the reference medium 1 is vacuum, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with respect to vacuum. It is simply represented as n2 and is called the absolute refractive index of medium 2.
The absolute refractive index n of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c = 299792458 m/s, and the phase velocity v of light in the medium,

  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              c
            
            v
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{v}}.}
  

Since c is constant, n is inversely proportional to v:

  
    
      
        n
        ∝
        
          
            1
            v
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n\propto {\frac {1}{v}}.}
  

The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests or the phase of the wave moves, which may be different from the group velocity, the speed at which the pulse of light or the envelope of the wave moves. Historically air at a standardized pressure and temperature has been common as a reference medium.


== History ==

Thomas Young was presumably the person who first used, and invented, the name ""index of refraction"", in 1807.
At the same time he changed this value of refractive power into a single number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of different appearances. Newton, who called it the ""proportion of the sines of incidence and refraction"", wrote it as a ratio of two numbers, like ""529 to 396"" (or ""nearly 4 to 3""; for water).  Hauksbee, who called it the ""ratio of refraction"", wrote it as a ratio with a fixed numerator, like ""10000 to 7451.9"" (for urine). Hutton wrote it as a ratio with a fixed denominator, like 1.3358 to 1 (water).
Young did not use a symbol for the index of refraction, in 1807. In the later years, others started using different symbols: n, m, and µ. The symbol n gradually prevailed.


== Typical values ==

Refractive index also varies with wavelength of the light as given by Cauchy's equation.  The most general form of this equation is

  
    
      
        n
        (
        λ
        )
        =
        A
        +
        
          
            B
            
              λ
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            C
            
              λ
              
                4
              
            
          
        
        +
        ⋯
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n(\lambda )=A+{\frac {B}{\lambda ^{2}}}+{\frac {C}{\lambda ^{4}}}+\cdots ,}
  

where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, and A, B, C, etc.,  are coefficients that can be determined for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive indices at known wavelengths. The coefficients are usually quoted for λ as the vacuum wavelength in micrometres.
Usually, it is sufficient to use a two-term form of the equation:

  
    
      
        n
        (
        λ
        )
        =
        A
        +
        
          
            B
            
              λ
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n(\lambda )=A+{\frac {B}{\lambda ^{2}}},}
  

where the coefficients A and B are determined specifically for this form of the equation.

For visible light most transparent media have refractive indices between 1 and 2. A few examples are given in the adjacent table. These values are measured at the yellow doublet D-line of sodium, with a wavelength of 589 nanometers, as is conventionally done. Gases at atmospheric pressure have refractive indices close to 1 because of their low density. Almost all solids and liquids have refractive indices above 1.3, with aerogel as the clear exception. Aerogel is a very low density solid that can be produced with refractive index in the range from 1.002 to 1.265. Moissanite lies at the other end of the range with a refractive index as high as 2.65. Most plastics have refractive indices in the range from 1.3 to 1.7, but some high-refractive-index polymers can have values as high as 1.76.
For infrared light refractive indices can be considerably higher. Germanium is transparent in the wavelength region from 2 to 14 μm and has a refractive index of about 4. A type of new materials termed ""topological insulators"", was recently found which have high refractive index of up to 6 in the near to mid infrared frequency range. Moreover, topological insulators are transparent when they have nanoscale thickness. These properties are potentially important for applications in infrared optics.


=== Refractive index below unity ===
According to the theory of relativity, no information can travel faster than the speed of light in vacuum, but this does not mean that the refractive index cannot be less than 1. The refractive index measures the phase velocity of light, which does not carry information. The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests of the wave move and can be faster than the speed of light in vacuum, and thereby give a refractive index below 1. This can occur close to resonance frequencies, for absorbing media, in plasmas, and for X-rays. In the X-ray regime the refractive indices are lower than but very close to 1 (exceptions close to some resonance frequencies).
As an example, water has a refractive index of 0.99999974 = 1 − 2.6×10−7 for X-ray radiation at a photon energy of 30 keV (0.04 nm wavelength).
An example of a plasma with an index of refraction less than unity is Earth's ionosphere.  Since the refractive index of the ionosphere (a plasma), is less than unity, electromagnetic waves propagating through the plasma are bent ""away from the normal"" (see Geometric optics) allowing the radio wave to be refracted back toward earth, thus enabling long-distance radio communications.  See also Radio Propagation and Skywave.


=== Negative refractive index ===

Recent research has also demonstrated the ""existence"" of materials with a negative refractive index, which can occur if permittivity and permeability have simultaneous negative values. This can be achieved with periodically constructed metamaterials. The resulting negative refraction (i.e., a reversal of Snell's law) offers the possibility of the superlens and other new phenomena to be actively developed by means of metamaterials.


== Microscopic explanation ==

At the atomic scale, an electromagnetic wave's phase velocity is slowed in a material because the electric field creates a disturbance in the charges of each atom (primarily the electrons) proportional to the electric susceptibility of the medium. (Similarly, the magnetic field creates a disturbance proportional to the magnetic susceptibility.) As the electromagnetic fields oscillate in the wave, the charges in the material will be ""shaken"" back and forth at the same frequency.: 67  The charges thus radiate their own electromagnetic wave that is at the same frequency, but usually with a phase delay, as the charges may move out of phase with the force driving them (see sinusoidally driven harmonic oscillator). The light wave traveling in the medium is the macroscopic superposition (sum) of all such contributions in the material: the original wave plus the waves radiated by all the moving charges. This wave is typically a wave with the same frequency but shorter wavelength than the original, leading to a slowing of the wave's phase velocity. Most of the radiation from oscillating material charges will modify the incoming wave, changing its velocity. However, some net energy will be radiated in other directions or even at other frequencies (see scattering).
Depending on the relative phase of the original driving wave and the waves radiated by the charge motion, there are several possibilities:

If the electrons emit a light wave which is 90° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the total light wave to travel slower. This is the normal refraction of transparent materials like glass or water, and corresponds to a refractive index which is real and greater than 1.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the wave to travel faster. This is called ""anomalous refraction"", and is observed close to absorption lines (typically in infrared spectra), with X-rays in ordinary materials, and with radio waves in Earth's ionosphere. It corresponds to a permittivity less than 1, which causes the refractive index to be also less than unity and the phase velocity of light greater than the speed of light in vacuum c (note that the signal velocity is still less than c, as discussed above). If the response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is a negative value of permittivity and imaginary index of refraction, as observed in metals or plasma.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 180° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will destructively interfere with the original light to reduce the total light intensity. This is light absorption in opaque materials and corresponds to an imaginary refractive index.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is in phase with the light wave shaking them, it will amplify the light wave. This is rare, but occurs in lasers due to stimulated emission. It corresponds to an imaginary index of refraction, with the opposite sign to that of absorption.
For most materials at visible-light frequencies, the phase is somewhere between 90° and 180°, corresponding to a combination of both refraction and absorption.


== Dispersion ==

The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength (and frequency) of light. This is called dispersion and causes prisms and rainbows to divide white light into its constituent spectral colors. As the refractive index varies with wavelength, so will the refraction angle as light goes from one material to another. Dispersion also causes the focal length of lenses to be wavelength dependent. This is a type of chromatic aberration, which often needs to be corrected for in imaging systems. In regions of the spectrum where the material does not absorb light, the refractive index tends to decrease with increasing wavelength, and thus increase with frequency. This is called ""normal dispersion"", in contrast to ""anomalous dispersion"", where the refractive index increases with wavelength. For visible light normal dispersion means that the refractive index is higher for blue light than for red.
For optics in the visual range, the amount of dispersion of a lens material is often quantified by the Abbe number:

  
    
      
        V
        =
        
          
            
              
                n
                
                  
                    y
                    e
                    l
                    l
                    o
                    w
                  
                
              
              −
              1
            
            
              
                n
                
                  
                    b
                    l
                    u
                    e
                  
                
              
              −
              
                n
                
                  
                    r
                    e
                    d
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle V={\frac {n_{\mathrm {yellow} }-1}{n_{\mathrm {blue} }-n_{\mathrm {red} }}}.}
  

For a more accurate description of the wavelength dependence of the refractive index, the Sellmeier equation can be used. It is an empirical formula that works well in describing dispersion. Sellmeier coefficients are often quoted instead of the refractive index in tables.


=== Principal refractive index wavelength ambiguity ===
Because of dispersion, it is usually important to specify the vacuum wavelength of light for which a refractive index is measured. Typically, measurements are done at various well-defined spectral emission lines.
Manufacturers of optical glass in general define principal index of refraction at yellow spectral line of helium (587.56 nm) and alternatively at a green spectral line of mercury (546.07 nm), called d and e lines respectively. Abbe number is defined for both and denoted Vd and Ve. The spectral data provided by glass manufacturers is also often more precise for these two wavelengths.
Both, d and e spectral lines are singlets and thus are suitable to perform a very precise measurements, such as spectral goniometric method.
In practical applications, measurements of refractive index are performed on various refractometers, such as Abbe refractometer. Measurement accuracy of such typical commercial devices is in the order of 0.0002. Refractometers usually measure refractive index nD, defined for sodium doublet D (589.29 nm), which is actually a midpoint between two adjacent yellow spectral lines of sodium. Yellow spectral lines of helium (d) and sodium (D) are 1.73 nm apart, which can be considered negligible for typical refractometers, but can cause confusion and lead to errors if accuracy is critical.
All three typical principle refractive indices definitions can be found depending on application and region, so a proper subscript should be used to avoid ambiguity.


== Complex refractive index ==

When light passes through a medium, some part of it will always be absorbed. This can be conveniently taken into account by defining a complex refractive index,

  
    
      
        
          
            n
            _
          
        
        =
        n
        −
        i
        κ
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\underline {n}}=n-i\kappa .}
  

The real and imaginary part of this refractive index are not independent, and are connected through the Kramers–Kronig relations, i.e. the complex refractive index is a linear response function, ensuring causality.  Here, the real part n is the refractive index and indicates the phase velocity, while the imaginary part κ is called the extinction coefficient: 36  indicates the amount of attenuation when the electromagnetic wave propagates through the material.: 128  It is related to the absorption coefficient, 
  
    
      
        
          α
          
            abs
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{abs}}}
  
, through:: 41 

  
    
      
        
          α
          
            abs
          
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          
            
              2
              ω
              κ
              (
              ω
              )
            
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{abs}}(\omega )={\frac {2\omega \kappa (\omega )}{c}}}
  

These values depend upon the frequency of the light used in the measurement.
That κ corresponds to absorption can be seen by inserting this refractive index into the expression for electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave traveling in the x-direction. This can be done by relating the complex wave number k to the complex refractive index n through k = 2πn/λ0, with λ0 being the vacuum wavelength; this can be inserted into the plane wave expression for a wave travelling in the x-direction as:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  E
                
                (
                x
                ,
                t
                )
              
              
                
                =
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        
                          
                            k
                            _
                          
                        
                        x
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        2
                        π
                        (
                        n
                        +
                        i
                        κ
                        )
                        x
                        
                          /
                        
                        
                          λ
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  e
                  
                    −
                    2
                    π
                    κ
                    x
                    
                      /
                    
                    
                      λ
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        k
                        x
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} (x,t)&=\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i({\underline {k}}x-\omega t)}\right]\\&=\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i(2\pi (n+i\kappa )x/\lambda _{0}-\omega t)}\right]\\&=e^{-2\pi \kappa x/\lambda _{0}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i(kx-\omega t)}\right].\end{aligned}}}
  

Here we see that κ gives an exponential decay, as expected from the Beer–Lambert law. Since intensity is proportional to the square of the electric field, intensity will depend on the depth into the material as

  
    
      
        I
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          I
          
            0
          
        
        
          e
          
            −
            4
            π
            κ
            x
            
              /
            
            
              λ
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}e^{-4\pi \kappa x/\lambda _{0}}.}
  

and thus the absorption coefficient is α = 4πκ/λ0,: 128  and the penetration depth (the distance after which the intensity is reduced by a factor of 1/e) is δp = 1/α = λ0/4πκ.
Both n and κ are dependent on the frequency. In most circumstances κ > 0 (light is absorbed) or κ = 0 (light travels forever without loss). In special situations, especially in the gain medium of lasers, it is also possible that κ < 0, corresponding to an amplification of the light.
An alternative convention uses n = n + iκ instead of n = n − iκ, but where κ > 0 still corresponds to loss. Therefore, these two conventions are inconsistent and should not be confused. The difference is related to defining sinusoidal time dependence as Re[exp(−iωt)] versus Re[exp(+iωt)]. See Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
Dielectric loss and non-zero DC conductivity in materials cause absorption. Good dielectric materials such as glass have extremely low DC conductivity, and at low frequencies the dielectric loss is also negligible, resulting in almost no absorption. However, at higher frequencies (such as visible light), dielectric loss may increase absorption significantly, reducing the material's transparency to these frequencies.
The real n, and imaginary κ, parts of the complex refractive index are related through the Kramers–Kronig relations. In 1986, A.R. Forouhi and I. Bloomer deduced an equation describing κ as a function of photon energy, E, applicable to amorphous materials. Forouhi and Bloomer then applied the Kramers–Kronig relation to derive the corresponding equation for n as a function of E. The same formalism was applied to crystalline materials by Forouhi and Bloomer in 1988.
The refractive index and extinction coefficient, n and κ, are typically measured from quantities that depend on them, such as reflectance, R, or transmittance, T, or ellipsometric parameters, ψ and δ. The determination of n and κ from such measured quantities will involve developing a theoretical expression for R or T, or ψ and δ in terms of a valid physical model for n and κ. By fitting the theoretical model to the measured R or T, or ψ and δ using regression analysis, n and κ can be deduced.


=== X-ray and extreme UV ===
For X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation the complex refractive index deviates only slightly from unity and usually has a real part smaller than 1. It is therefore normally written as n = 1 − δ + iβ (or n = 1 − δ − iβ with the alternative convention mentioned above). Far above the atomic resonance frequency delta can be given by

  
    
      
        δ
        =
        
          
            
              
                r
                
                  0
                
              
              
                λ
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  
                    e
                  
                
              
            
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta ={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}n_{\mathrm {e} }}{2\pi }}}
  

where r0 is the classical electron radius, λ is the X-ray wavelength, and ne is the electron density. One may assume the electron density is simply the number of electrons per atom Z multiplied by the atomic density, but more accurate calculation of the refractive index requires replacing Z with the complex atomic form factor 
  
    
      
        f
        =
        Z
        +
        
          f
          ′
        
        +
        i
        
          f
          ″
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle f=Z+f'+if''}
  
. It follows that

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                δ
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        r
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                      
                        λ
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      2
                      π
                    
                  
                
                (
                Z
                +
                
                  f
                  ′
                
                )
                
                  n
                  
                    atom
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                β
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        r
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                      
                        λ
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      2
                      π
                    
                  
                
                
                  f
                  ″
                
                
                  n
                  
                    atom
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\delta &={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}}{2\pi }}(Z+f')n_{\text{atom}}\\\beta &={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}}{2\pi }}f''n_{\text{atom}}\end{aligned}}}
  

with δ and β typically of the order of 10−5 and 10−6.


== Relations to other quantities ==


=== Optical path length ===

Optical path length (OPL) is the product of the geometric length d of the path light follows through a system, and the index of refraction of the medium through which it propagates,

  
    
      
        OPL
      
      =
      n
      d
      .
    
    {\text{OPL}}=nd.
  

This is an important concept in optics because it determines the phase of the light and governs interference and diffraction of light as it propagates. According to Fermat's principle, light rays can be characterized as those curves that optimize the optical path length.: 68–69 


=== Refraction ===

When light moves from one medium to another, it changes direction, i.e. it is refracted. If it moves from a medium with refractive index n1 to one with refractive index n2, with an incidence angle to the surface normal of θ1, the refraction angle θ2 can be calculated from Snell's law:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            1
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          n
          
            2
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            2
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}.}
  

When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.


=== Total internal reflection ===

If there is no angle θ2 fulfilling Snell's law, i.e.,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              n
              
                1
              
            
            
              n
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            1
          
        
        >
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{n_{2}}}\sin \theta _{1}>1,}
  

the light cannot be transmitted and will instead undergo total internal reflection.: 49–50  This occurs only when going to a less optically dense material, i.e., one with lower refractive index. To get total internal reflection the angles of incidence θ1 must be larger than the critical angle

  
    
      
        
          θ
          
            
              c
            
          
        
        =
        arcsin
        
        
          (
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  1
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \theta _{\mathrm {c} }=\arcsin \!\left({\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\right)\!.}
  


=== Reflectivity ===
Apart from the transmitted light there is also a reflected part. The reflection angle is equal to the incidence angle, and the amount of light that is reflected is determined by the reflectivity of the surface. The reflectivity can be calculated from the refractive index and the incidence angle with the Fresnel equations, which for normal incidence reduces to: 44 

  
    
      
        
          R
          
            0
          
        
        =
        
          
            |
            
              
                
                  
                    n
                    
                      1
                    
                  
                  −
                  
                    n
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
                
                  
                    n
                    
                      1
                    
                  
                  +
                  
                    n
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
              
            
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{0}=\left|{\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}+n_{2}}}\right|^{2}\!.}
  

For common glass in air, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5, and thus about 4% of the incident power is reflected. At other incidence angles the reflectivity will also depend on the polarization of the incoming light. At a certain angle called Brewster's angle, p-polarized light (light with the electric field in the plane of incidence) will be totally transmitted. Brewster's angle can be calculated from the two refractive indices of the interface as : 245 

  
    
      
        
          θ
          
            
              B
            
          
        
        =
        arctan
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  1
                
              
            
          
          )
        
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \theta _{\mathsf {B}}=\arctan \left({\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\right)~.}
  


=== Lenses ===

The focal length of a lens is determined by its refractive index n and the radii of curvature R1 and R2 of its surfaces. The power of a thin lens in air is given by the simplified version of the Lensmaker's formula:

  
    
      
        
          
            1
            f
          
        
        =
        (
        n
        −
        1
        )
        
          [
          
            
              
                1
                
                  R
                  
                    1
                  
                
              
            
            −
            
              
                1
                
                  R
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
          
          ]
        
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}=(n-1)\left[{\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right]\ ,}
  

where f is the focal length of the lens.


=== Microscope resolution ===
The resolution of a good optical microscope is mainly determined by the numerical aperture (ANum) of its objective lens. The numerical aperture in turn is determined by the refractive index n of the medium filling the space between the sample and the lens and the half collection angle of light θ according to Carlsson (2007):: 6 

  
    
      
        
          A
          
            
              N
              u
              m
            
          
        
        =
        n
        sin
        ⁡
        θ
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle A_{\mathrm {Num} }=n\sin \theta ~.}
  

For this reason oil immersion is commonly used to obtain high resolution in microscopy. In this technique the objective is dipped into a drop of high refractive index immersion oil on the sample under study.: 14 


=== Relative permittivity and permeability ===
The refractive index of electromagnetic radiation equals

  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              ε
              
                
                  r
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  r
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={\sqrt {\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}},}
  

where εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative permeability.: 229  The refractive index is used for optics in Fresnel equations and Snell's law; while the relative permittivity and permeability are used in Maxwell's equations and electronics. Most naturally occurring materials are non-magnetic at optical frequencies, that is μr is very close to 1, therefore n is approximately √εr. In this particular case, the complex relative permittivity εr, with real and imaginary parts εr and ɛ̃r, and the complex refractive index n, with real and imaginary parts n and κ (the latter called the ""extinction coefficient""), follow the relation

  
    
      
        
          
            
              ε
              _
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        =
        
          ε
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        +
        i
        
          
            
              
                ε
                ~
              
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              n
              _
            
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        (
        n
        +
        i
        κ
        
          )
          
            2
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }=\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }+i{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }={\underline {n}}^{2}=(n+i\kappa )^{2},}
  

and their components are related by:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  ε
                  
                    
                      r
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  n
                  
                    2
                  
                
                −
                
                  κ
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        ε
                        ~
                      
                    
                  
                  
                    
                      r
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                2
                n
                κ
                
                ,
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }&=n^{2}-\kappa ^{2}\,,\\{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }&=2n\kappa \,,\end{aligned}}}
  

and:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                n
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          |
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              ε
                              _
                            
                          
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          |
                        
                        +
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      2
                    
                  
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                κ
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          |
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              ε
                              _
                            
                          
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          |
                        
                        −
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      2
                    
                  
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}n&={\sqrt {\frac {|{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|+\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}{2}}},\\\kappa &={\sqrt {\frac {|{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|-\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}{2}}}.\end{aligned}}}
  

where 
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        
          
            
              ε
              _
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        
          |
        
        =
        
          
            
              ε
              
                
                  r
                
              
              
                2
              
            
            +
            
              
                
                  
                    ε
                    ~
                  
                
              
              
                
                  r
                
              
              
                2
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|={\sqrt {\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }^{2}+{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }^{2}}}}
  
 is the complex modulus.


=== Wave impedance ===

The wave impedance of a plane electromagnetic wave in a non-conductive medium is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                Z
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      μ
                      ε
                    
                  
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          μ
                          
                            
                              0
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          μ
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              0
                            
                          
                        
                        
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                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        ε
                        
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        ε
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
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                    0
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                      
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                =
                
                  Z
                  
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                      μ
                      
                        
                          r
                        
                      
                    
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    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}Z&={\sqrt {\frac {\mu }{\varepsilon }}}={\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {0} }\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {0} }\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}={\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {0} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {0} }}}}{\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}\\&=Z_{0}{\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}\\&=Z_{0}{\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{n}}\end{aligned}}}
  

where Z0 is the vacuum wave impedance, μ and ε are the absolute permeability and permittivity of the medium, εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative permeability.
In non-magnetic media (that is, in materials with μr = 1), 
  
    
      
        Z
        =
        
          
            
              Z
              
                0
              
            
            n
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Z={Z_{0} \over n}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              Z
              
                0
              
            
            Z
          
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={Z_{0} \over Z}\,.}
  

Thus refractive index in a non-magnetic media is the ratio of the vacuum wave impedance to the wave impedance of the medium.
The reflectivity R0 between two media can thus be expressed both by the wave impedances and the refractive indices as

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  R
                  
                    0
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    |
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            n
                            
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                            n
                            
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                          +
                          
                            n
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    |
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    |
                    
                      
                        
                          
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                              1
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            Z
                            
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                          +
                          
                            Z
                            
                              1
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    |
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R_{0}&=\left|{\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}+n_{2}}}\right|^{2}\\&=\left|{\frac {Z_{2}-Z_{1}}{Z_{2}+Z_{1}}}\right|^{2}\,.\end{aligned}}}
  


=== Density ===

In general, it is assumed that the refractive index of a glass increases with its density. However, there does not exist an overall linear relationship between the refractive index and the density for all silicate and borosilicate glasses. A relatively high refractive index and low density can be obtained with glasses containing light metal oxides such as Li2O and MgO, while the opposite trend is observed with glasses containing PbO and BaO as seen in the diagram at the right.
Many oils (such as olive oil) and ethanol are examples of liquids that are more refractive, but less dense, than water, contrary to the general correlation between density and refractive index.
For air, n - 1 is proportional to the density of the gas as long as the chemical composition does not change. This means that it is also proportional to the pressure and inversely proportional to the temperature for ideal gases. For liquids the same observation can be made as for gases, for instance, the refractive index in alkanes increases nearly perfectly linear with the density. On the other hand, for carboxylic acids, the density decreases with increasing number of C-atoms within the homologeous series. The simple explanation of this finding is that it is not density, but the molar concentration of the chromophore that counts. In homologeous series, this is the excitation of the C-H-bonding. August Beer must have intuitively known that when he gave Hans H. Landolt in 1862 the tip to investigate the refractive index of compounds of homologeous series. While Landolt did not find this relationship, since, at this time dispersion theory was in its infancy, he had the idea of molar refractivity which can even be assigned to single atoms. Based on this concept, the refractive indices of organic materials can be calculated.


=== Bandgap ===

The optical refractive index of a semiconductor tends to increase as the bandgap energy decreases. Many attempts have been made to model this relationship beginning with T. S. Moses in 1949. Empirical models can match experimental data over a wide range of materials and yet fail for important cases like InSb, PbS, and Ge.  
This negative correlation between refractive index and bandgap energy, along with a negative correlation between bandgap and temperature, means that many semiconductors exhibit a positive correlation between refractive index and temperature. This is the opposite of most materials, where the refractive index decreases with temperature as a result of a decreasing material density.


=== Group index ===

Sometimes, a ""group velocity refractive index"", usually called the group index is defined:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              c
            
            
              v
              
                
                  g
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {g} }={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{v_{\mathrm {g} }}},}
  

where vg is the group velocity. This value should not be confused with n, which is always defined with respect to the phase velocity. When the dispersion is small, the group velocity can be linked to the phase velocity by the relation: 22 

  
    
      
        
          v
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        v
        −
        λ
        
          
            
              
                d
              
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                d
              
              λ
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {g} }=v-\lambda {\frac {\mathrm {d} v}{\mathrm {d} \lambda }},}
  

where λ is the wavelength in the medium. In this case the group index can thus be written in terms of the wavelength dependence of the refractive index as

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            n
            
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              +
              
                
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        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {g} }={\frac {n}{1+{\frac {\lambda }{n}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda }}}}.}
  

When the refractive index of a medium is known as a function of the vacuum wavelength (instead of the wavelength in the medium), the corresponding expressions for the group velocity and index are (for all values of dispersion)

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
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    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{\mathrm {g} }&=\mathrm {c} \!\left(n-\lambda _{0}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda _{0}}}\right)^{-1}\!,\\n_{\mathrm {g} }&=n-\lambda _{0}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda _{0}}},\end{aligned}}}
  

where λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum.


=== Velocity, momentum, and polarizability ===
As shown in the Fizeau experiment, when light is transmitted through a moving medium, its speed relative to an observer traveling with speed v in the same direction as the light is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                V
              
              
                
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    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{n}}+{\frac {v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)}{1+{\frac {v}{cn}}}}\\&\approx {\frac {\mathrm {c} }{n}}+v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)\,.\end{aligned}}}
  

The momentum of photons in a medium of refractive index n is a complex and controversial issue with two different values having different physical interpretations.
The refractive index of a substance can be related to its polarizability with the Lorentz–Lorenz equation or to the molar refractivities of its constituents by the Gladstone–Dale relation.


=== Refractivity ===
In atmospheric applications, refractivity is defined as  N = n – 1, often rescaled as either N = 106 (n – 1) or N = 108 (n – 1); the multiplication factors are used because the refractive index for air, n deviates from unity by at most a few parts per ten thousand.
Molar refractivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the total polarizability of a mole of a substance and can be calculated from the refractive index as

  
    
      
        A
        =
        
          
            M
            ρ
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              −
              1
            
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              2
            
          
        
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle A={\frac {M}{\rho }}\cdot {\frac {n^{2}-1}{n^{2}+2}}\ ,}
  

where ρ is the density, and M is the molar mass.: 93 


== Nonscalar, nonlinear, or nonhomogeneous refraction ==
So far, we have assumed that refraction is given by linear equations involving a spatially constant, scalar refractive index. These assumptions can break down in different ways, to be described in the following subsections.


=== Birefringence ===

In some materials, the refractive index depends on the polarization and propagation direction of the light. This is called birefringence or optical anisotropy.
In the simplest form, uniaxial birefringence, there is only one special direction in the material. This axis is known as the optical axis of the material.: 230  Light with linear polarization perpendicular to this axis will experience an ordinary refractive index no while light polarized in parallel will experience an extraordinary refractive index ne.: 236  The birefringence of the material is the difference between these indices of refraction, Δn = ne − no.: 237  Light propagating in the direction of the optical axis will not be affected by the birefringence since the refractive index will be no independent of polarization. For other propagation directions the light will split into two linearly polarized beams. For light traveling perpendicularly to the optical axis the beams will have the same direction.: 233  This can be used to change the polarization direction of linearly polarized light or to convert between linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations with waveplates.: 237 
Many crystals are naturally birefringent, but isotropic materials such as plastics and glass can also often be made birefringent by introducing a preferred direction through, e.g., an external force or electric field. This effect is called photoelasticity, and can be used to reveal stresses in structures. The birefringent material is placed between crossed polarizers. A change in birefringence alters the polarization and thereby the fraction of light that is transmitted through the second polarizer.
In the more general case of trirefringent materials described by the field of crystal optics, the dielectric constant is a rank-2 tensor (a 3 by 3 matrix). In this case the propagation of light cannot simply be described by refractive indices except for polarizations along principal axes.


=== Nonlinearity ===

The strong electric field of high intensity light (such as the output of a laser) may cause a medium's refractive index to vary as the light passes through it, giving rise to nonlinear optics.: 502  If the index varies quadratically with the field (linearly with the intensity), it is called the optical Kerr effect and causes phenomena such as self-focusing and self-phase modulation.: 264  If the index varies linearly with the field (a nontrivial linear coefficient is only possible in materials that do not possess inversion symmetry), it is known as the Pockels effect.: 265 


=== Inhomogeneity ===

If the refractive index of a medium is not constant but varies gradually with the position, the material is known as a gradient-index (GRIN) medium and is described by gradient index optics.: 273  Light traveling through such a medium can be bent or focused, and this effect can be exploited to produce lenses, some optical fibers, and other devices. Introducing GRIN elements in the design of an optical system can greatly simplify the system, reducing the number of elements by as much as a third while maintaining overall performance.: 276  The crystalline lens of the human eye is an example of a GRIN lens with a refractive index varying from about 1.406 in the inner core to approximately 1.386 at the less dense cortex.: 203  Some common mirages are caused by a spatially varying refractive index of air.


== Refractive index measurement ==


=== Homogeneous media ===

The refractive index of liquids or solids can be measured with refractometers. They typically measure some angle of refraction or the critical angle for total internal reflection. The first laboratory refractometers sold commercially were developed by Ernst Abbe in the late 19th century.
The same principles are still used today. In this instrument, a thin layer of the liquid to be measured is placed between two prisms. Light is shone through the liquid at incidence angles all the way up to 90°, i.e., light rays parallel to the surface. The second prism should have an index of refraction higher than that of the liquid, so that light only enters the prism at angles smaller than the critical angle for total reflection. This angle can then be measured either by looking through a telescope, or with a digital photodetector placed in the focal plane of a lens. The refractive index n of the liquid can then be calculated from the maximum transmission angle θ as n = nG sin θ, where nG is the refractive index of the prism.

This type of device is commonly used in chemical laboratories for identification of substances and for quality control. Handheld variants are used in agriculture by, e.g., wine makers to determine sugar content in grape juice, and inline process refractometers are used in, e.g., chemical and pharmaceutical industry for process control.
In gemology, a different type of refractometer is used to measure the index of refraction and birefringence of gemstones. The gem is placed on a high refractive index prism and illuminated from below. A high refractive index contact liquid is used to achieve optical contact between the gem and the prism. At small incidence angles most of the light will be transmitted into the gem, but at high angles total internal reflection will occur in the prism. The critical angle is normally measured by looking through a telescope.


=== Refractive index variations ===

Unstained biological structures appear mostly transparent under bright-field microscopy as most cellular structures do not attenuate appreciable quantities of light. Nevertheless, the variation in the materials that constitute these structures also corresponds to a variation in the refractive index.  The following techniques convert such variation into measurable amplitude differences:
To measure the spatial variation of the refractive index in a sample phase-contrast imaging methods are used. These methods measure the variations in phase of the light wave exiting the sample. The phase is proportional to the optical path length the light ray has traversed, and thus gives a measure of the integral of the refractive index along the ray path. The phase cannot be measured directly at optical or higher frequencies, and therefore needs to be converted into intensity by interference with a reference beam. In the visual spectrum this is done using Zernike phase-contrast microscopy, differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC), or interferometry.
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy introduces a phase shift to the low spatial frequency components of the image with a phase-shifting annulus in the Fourier plane of the sample, so that high-spatial-frequency parts of the image can interfere with the low-frequency reference beam. In DIC the illumination is split up into two beams that are given different polarizations, are phase shifted differently, and are shifted transversely with slightly different amounts. After the specimen, the two parts are made to interfere, giving an image of the derivative of the optical path length in the direction of the difference in the transverse shift. In interferometry the illumination is split up into two beams by a partially reflective mirror. One of the beams is let through the sample before they are combined to interfere and give a direct image of the phase shifts. If the optical path length variations are more than a wavelength the image will contain fringes.
There exist several phase-contrast X-ray imaging techniques to determine 2D or 3D spatial distribution of refractive index of samples in the X-ray regime.


== Applications ==
The refractive index is an important property of the components of any optical instrument. It determines the focusing power of lenses, the dispersive power of prisms, the reflectivity of lens coatings, and the light-guiding nature of optical fiber. Since the refractive index is a fundamental physical property of a substance, it is often used to identify a particular substance, confirm its purity, or measure its concentration. The refractive index is used to measure solids, liquids, and gases. It can be used, for example, to measure the concentration of a solute in an aqueous solution. It can also be used as a useful tool to differentiate between different types of gemstone, due to the unique chatoyance each individual stone displays. A refractometer is the instrument used to measure the refractive index. For a solution of sugar, the refractive index can be used to determine the sugar content (see Brix).


== See also ==


== Footnotes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

NIST calculator for determining the refractive index of air
Dielectric materials
Science World
Filmetrics' online database Free database of refractive index and absorption coefficient information
RefractiveIndex.INFO Refractive index database featuring online plotting and parameterisation of data
LUXPOP Archived 2013-09-07 at the Wayback Machine Thin film and bulk index of refraction and photonics calculations
The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 32: Refractive Index of Dense Materials",1.1995983123779297
Quid pro quo,"Quid pro quo (Latin: ""something for something"") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; ""a favor for a favor"". Phrases with similar meanings include: ""give and take"", ""tit for tat"", ""you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours"", ""this for that,"" and ""one hand washes the other"". Other languages use other phrases for the same purpose.


== Origins ==
The Latin phrase quid pro quo originally implied that something had been substituted, meaning ""something for something"" as in I gave you sugar for salt. Early usage by English speakers followed the original Latin meaning, with occurrences in the 1530s where the term referred to substituting one medicine for another, whether unintentionally or fraudulently. By the end of the same century, quid pro quo evolved into a more current use to describe equivalent exchanges. 
In 1654, the expression quid pro quo was used to generally refer to something done for personal gain or with the expectation of reciprocity in the text The Reign of King Charles: An History Disposed into Annalls, with a somewhat positive connotation. It refers to the covenant with Christ as something ""that prove not a nudum pactum, a naked contract, without quid pro quo."" Believers in Christ have to do their part in return, namely ""foresake the devil and all his works"".
Quid pro quo would go on to be used, by English speakers in legal and diplomatic contexts, as an exchange of equally valued goods or services and continues to be today.
The Latin phrase corresponding to the English usage of quid pro quo is do ut des (Latin for ""I give, so that you may give""). Other languages continue to use do ut des for this purpose, while quid pro quo (or its equivalent qui pro quo, as widely used in Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese) still keeps its original meaning of something being unwittingly mistaken, or erroneously told or understood, instead of something else.


== Legal meanings ==


=== Common law ===
In common law, quid pro quo indicates that an item or a service has been traded in return for something of value, usually when the propriety or equity of the transaction is in question. A contract must involve consideration: that is, the exchange of something of value for something else of value. For example, when buying an item of clothing or a gallon of milk, a pre-determined amount of money is exchanged for the product the customer is purchasing; therefore, they have received something but have given up something of equal value in return.


=== United Kingdom ===
In the United Kingdom, the one-sidedness of a contract is covered by the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and various revisions and amendments to it; a clause can be held void or the entire contract void if it is deemed unfair (that is to say, one-sided and not a quid pro quo); however, this is a civil law and not a common law matter.
Political donors must be resident in the UK. There are fixed limits to how much they may donate (£5000 in any single donation), and it must be recorded in the House of Commons Register of Members' Interests or at the House of Commons Library; the quid pro quo is strictly not allowed, that a donor can by his donation have some personal gain. This is overseen by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. There are also prohibitions on donations being given in the six weeks before the election for which it is being campaigned. It is also illegal for donors to support party political broadcasts, which are tightly regulated, free to air, and scheduled and allotted to the various parties according to a formula agreed by Parliament and enacted with the Communications Act 2003.


=== United States ===
In the United States, if an exchange appears excessively one sided, courts in some jurisdictions may question whether a quid pro quo did actually exist and the contract may be held void. In cases of ""quid pro quo"" business contracts, the term takes on a negative connotation because major corporations may cross ethical boundaries in order to enter into these very valuable, mutually beneficial, agreements with other major big businesses. In these deals, large sums of money are often at play and can consequently lead to  promises of exclusive partnerships indefinitely or promises of distortion of economic reports.
In the U.S., lobbyists are legally entitled to support candidates that hold positions with which the donors agree, or which will benefit the donors. Such conduct becomes bribery only when there is an identifiable exchange between the contribution and official acts, previous or subsequent, and the term quid pro quo denotes such an exchange.
In terms of criminal law, quid pro quo tends to get used as a euphemism for crimes such as extortion and bribery.


==== Sexual harassment ====
In United States labor law, workplace sexual harassment can take two forms; either ""quid pro quo"" harassment or hostile work environment harassment.  ""Quid pro quo"" harassment takes place when a supervisor requires sex, sexual favors, or sexual contact from an employee/job candidate as a condition of their employment. Only supervisors who have the authority to make tangible employment actions (i.e. hire, fire, promote, etc.), can commit ""quid pro quo"" harassment. The supervising harasser must have ""immediate (or successively higher) authority over the employee."" The power dynamic between a supervisor and subordinate/job candidate is such that a supervisor could use their position of authority to extract sexual relations based on the subordinate/job candidate's need for employment. Co-workers and non-decision making supervisors cannot engage in ""quid pro quo"" harassment with other employees, but an employer could potentially be liable for the behavior of these employees under a hostile work environment claim.  The harassing employee's status as a supervisor is significant because if the individual is found to be a supervisor then the employing company can be held vicariously liable for the actions of that supervisor.  Under Agency law, the employer is held responsible for the actions of the supervisor because they were in a position of power within the company at the time of the harassment.
To establish a prima facie case of ""quid pro quo"" harassment, the plaintiff must prove that they were subjected to ""unwelcome sexual conduct"", that submission to such conduct was explicitly or implicitly a term of their employment, and submission to or rejection of this conduct was used as a basis for an employment decision, as follows:

Unwelcome Sexual Conduct: a court will look at the employee's conduct to determine whether the supervisor's sexual advances were unwelcome.  In Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the Court opined that voluntary sex between an employee and supervisor does not establish proof that a supervisor's sexual advances were welcome. The Court also stated that evidence of the subordinate employee's provocative dress and publicly expressed sexual fantasies can be introduced as evidence if relevant.
Term of Employment: a term or condition of employment means that the subordinate/job candidate must acquiesce to the sexual advances of the supervisor in order to maintain/be hired for the job. In essence, the sexual harassment becomes a part of their job. For example, a supervisor promises an employee a raise if they go out on a date with the supervisor, or tells an employee they will be fired if the employee doesn't sleep with them.
Tangible Employment Action: a tangible employment action must take place as a result of the employee's submission or refusal of supervisor's advances. In Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth, the Court stated that tangible employment action amounted to  ""a significant change in employment status, such as hiring, firing, failing to promote, reassignment with significantly different responsibilities, or a decision causing a significant change in benefits.""  It is important to note that only supervisors can make tangible employment actions, since they have the company's authority to do so. The Court also held that unfulfilled threats by a supervisor of an adverse employment decision are not sufficient to establish a ""Quid pro quo,"" but were relevant for the purposes of a hostile work environment claim. Additionally, the Supreme Court has held that constructive dismissal can count as a tangible employment action (thus allowing a quid pro quo sexual harassment claim) if the actions taken by a supervisor created a situation where a ""reasonable person ... would have felt compelled to resign.""
Once the plaintiff has established these three factors, the employer can not assert an affirmative defense (such as the employer had a sexual harassment policy in place to prevent and properly respond to issues of sexual harassment), but can only dispute whether the unwelcome conduct did not in fact take place, the employee was not a supervisor, and that there was no tangible employment action involved.
Although these terms are popular among lawyers and scholars, neither ""hostile work environment"" nor ""quid pro quo"" are found in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of race, sex, color, national origin, and religion.  The Supreme Court noted in Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth that these terms are useful in differentiating between cases where threats of harassment are ""carried out and those where they are not or absent altogether,"" but otherwise these terms serve a limited purpose.  Therefore, sexual harassment can take place by a supervisor, and an employer can be potentially liable, even if that supervisor's behavior does not fall within the criteria of a ""Quid pro quo"" harassment claim.


==== Donald Trump impeachment inquiry ====

Quid pro quo was frequently mentioned during the first impeachment inquiry into U.S. president Donald Trump, in reference to the charge that his request for an investigation of Hunter Biden was a precondition for the delivery of congressionally authorized military aid during a call with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy.


== Other meanings ==
For languages that come from Latin, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and French, quid pro quo is used to define a misunderstanding or blunder made by the substituting of one thing for another. The Oxford English Dictionary describes this alternative definition in English as ""now rare"". The Vocabolario Treccani (an authoritative dictionary published by the Encyclopedia Treccani), under the entry ""qui pro quo"", states that the latter expression probably derives from the Latin used in late medieval pharmaceutical compilations. This can be clearly seen from the work appearing precisely under this title, ""Tractatus quid pro quo,"" (Treatise on what substitutes for what) in the medical collection headed up by Mesue cum expositione Mondini super Canones universales... (Venice: per Joannem & Gregorium de gregorijs fratres, 1497), folios 334r-335r. Some examples of what could be used in place of what in this list are: Pro uva passa dactili ('in place of raisins, [use] dates'); Pro mirto sumac ('in place of myrtle, [use] sumac'); Pro fenugreco semen lini ('in place of fenugreek, [use] flaxseed'), etc. This list was an essential resource in the medieval apothecary, especially for occasions when certain essential medicinal substances were not available.
Satirist Ambrose Bierce defined political influence as ""a visionary quo given in exchange for a substantial quid"", making a pun on quid as a form of currency.


== See also ==


== Notes ==",1.1930336952209473
Swaminarayan,"Swaminarayan (IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa; 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi and ascetic believed by followers to be a manifestation of Krishna or the highest manifestation of Purushottama, around whom the Swaminarayan Sampradaya developed.
In 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhava sampradaya by his guru, Swami Ramanand, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. Despite opposition, in 1802, Ramanand handed over the leadership of the Uddhava Sampradaya to him before his death. According to the Swaminarayan tradition, Sahajanand Swami became known as Swaminarayan, and the Uddhava Sampradaya became known as the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, after a gathering in which he taught the Swaminarayan Mantra to his followers.
He emphasized ""moral, personal, and social betterment,"" and ahimsa. He is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women and the poor, and performing large-scale non-violent yajñas (fire sacrifices).
During his lifetime, Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma and beliefs in various ways. He built six mandirs to facilitate devotional worship of God by his followers, and encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition, including the Shikshapatri, which he wrote in 1826. In 1826, through a legal document titled the Lekh, Swaminarayan created two dioceses, the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal Gadi) and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad Gadi), with a hereditary leadership of acharyas and their wives, beginning with two of his nephews whom he formally adopted, who were authorized to install statues of deities in temples and to initiate ascetics.


== Biography ==


=== Childhood as Ghanshyam ===

Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 (Chaitra Sud 9, Samvat 1837) in Chhapaiya, a village near Ayodhya, then under the Nawab of Oudh, in present-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Born into the Brahmin or priestly caste of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi). The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami, celebrating the birth of Rama. The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra (March–April), is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers.
Swaminarayan had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande. He is said to have mastered the scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata by the age of seven.


=== Travels as Nilkanth Varni ===

After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 (Ashadh Sud 10, Samvat 1849) at the age of 11. He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey.  Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram, or hermitage, that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra. To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:

What is Jiva?
What is Ishvara?
What is Maya?
What is Brahman?
What is Parabrahman?
While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga (eightfold yoga) in a span of nine months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi. In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned. Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath, Rameswaram, Nashik, Dwarka, and Pandharpur.
In 1799, after a seven-year journey, Nilkanth's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami. Muktanand Swami, who was 22 years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction. Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat. He later claimed in the Vachnamrut that during this period, he took up a severe penance to eliminate his mother's flesh and blood from his body so that the sign of his physical attachment to family, was completely removed.


=== Leadership as Sahajanand Swami ===

According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, inspired senior swamis of Ramanand Swami.
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status.
At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhava Sampradaya by Ramanand Swami, prior to his death. His sucessessional was initially opposed by some members of the group who split off, but was soon accepted as the leader of the satsang and as a manifestation of god. The Uddhava Sampradaya henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity, Krishna or Narayana. Krishna was considered by him his own ishtadevata. In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha-vallabha Sampradaya, he had a more puritanical approach, rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery. While being a worshipper of Krishna, Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty, alike to earlier Vaishnava teachers, Ramanuja and Yamunacharya.


=== Manifestation belief ===
According to Swaminarayan-tradition, Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami. He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the Swaminarayan mantra, to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan. When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into samadhi, and claimed that they could see their personal gods.
As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple and paramahamsa, Nishkulanand Swami. This work, the Yama Danda, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect. Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, in 1825.: 81 
Some of Swaminarayan's followers believe he was an incarnation of Krishna. The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect. The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna's birth from the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Most of his followers believe that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or Purushottama Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars.
The belief of many followers that their founder was the incarnation of the Supreme God has also drawn criticism. According to Professor Raymond B. Williams, Swaminarayan was criticized because he received large gifts from his followers and dressed and traveled as a Maharaja even though he had taken the vows of renunciation of the world. Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts for the emancipation of his followers.


=== Teaching ===
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots. He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples. Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals.  Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes. Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma, bhakti (devotion), gnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment). Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Adi Shankara's concept of Advaita, or monistic non-dualism. Swaminarayan's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form. Swaminarayan's philosophy asserts that Parabrahman and Aksharabrahman are two distinct eternal realities.


=== Relations with other religions and the British Government ===

Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds. Swaminarayan's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims. In Kathiawad, many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan. He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber, Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time. Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses and carrying Matchlocks and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent. As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.
Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the government of the ruling East India Company. The first temple he built, in Ahmedabad, was built on 2,000 hectares (5,000 acres) of land given by the company government. The company officers gave it a 101-gun salute when it was opened. It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of Krishna. In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a region that was considered lawless. During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gave him a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.
It has been observed that the Pax Britannica in Gujarat went hand-in-hand with the Pax Swaminarayan, as both were significant in ending the violent and chaotic period Gujarat had experienced in the years before. Many of the social reforms and values that Swaminarayan preached were highly regarded by the ruling British government.


=== Relations with local Kathi rulers ===
Swaminarayan maintained a close relationship with the Kathi rulers of Kathiawad, earning him the title ""Kathiya Bhagwan"" (the god revered by Kathis) due to his adoption of their attire, dialect, and customs. The Kathis served as key allies, offering him protection against opposition from local religious figures. Manilal Bhalaja observes that the Kathis left their homes to safeguard Swaminarayan. Additionally, they provided him with refuge during a period of concealment. The Kathis also played a significant role in resolving conflicts during Swaminarayan's temple construction, often facing interference from princely states. A notable instance occurred when Voldan Dhadhal, a Kathi chieftain of Refada, intervened to counter opposition from Thakor Wajesinhji, the ruler of Bhavnagar state, ensuring the successful completion of Gopinathji Mandir of Gadhada.


=== Temples and ascetics ===

Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and he had built six huge temples by himself and installed the idols of various deities such as Radha Krishna, Nara-Narayana, Laksmi Narayana, Gopinath, Radha Ramana, and Madanamohana. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.: 81  Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals. Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers. He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami, Holi, and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas.
The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822, with the land for construction given by the Company Government. Following a request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand to build a temple there. Construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year. A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824, a temple in Dholera in 1826, a temple in Junagadh in 1828 and a temple in Gadhada, also in 1828. By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli, Dholka and Jetalpur.
From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan sect. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life. Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramahamsas in a single night. Paramahamsa is a title of honour sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramahamsas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect. Prominent paramahamsas included Muktanand Swami, Gopalanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Premanand Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.


=== Ahmedabad and Vadtal Gadi ===
Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas or preceptors, as his successors. He established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established at Ahmedabad (Nar Narayan Dev Gadi) and the other one at Vadtal (Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi) on 21 November 1825. Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in Uttar Pradesh. He formally adopted a son each from his two brothers and appointed them  to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, the son of Swaminarayan's elder brother Rampratap, and Raghuvira, the son of his younger brother Ichcharam, were appointed acharyas of the Ahmedabad Gadi and the Vadtal (Kheda district) Gadi respectively. Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family. The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhag Lekh. Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and Gopalanand Swami who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic for the sampradaya.
The current acharya of the Ahmedabad Gadi is Koshalendraprasad Pande and Ajendraprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.


=== Death ===

In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830 (Jeth sud 10, Samvat 1886), and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham, his abode. He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada.


== Social views ==


=== Women ===
Swaminarayan insisted that education was the inherent right of all people, including women, despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who ""loathed the uplift of lower caste women"". At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase during Swaminarayan's time, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Members of the sect consider Swaminarayan a pioneer of education of females in India.
According to the author Raymond Brady Williams, ""Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women's rights without personal involvement with women"". To counter the practice of sati (self-immolation by a widow on her husband's funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God, it could be taken only by God, and that sati had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a sin. For calling a halt to these prevailing practices, Swaminarayan's ""contemporaries naturally saw in him a pioneer of a reformed and purified Hinduism, and Swaminarayan Hinduism an 'ingrazi dharma' or British religion.""
Professor David Harman observed that Swaminarayan ""criticized the popular shakta cults and 'gosai' and 'nath' ascetics for the contemptuous and instrumental way in which they viewed and treated women. These cults were often responsible for gross sexual abuse of women."" Hardiman added that Swaminarayan's view towards women was not in line with this type of misogyny and was rooted in his desire to prevent ill-treatment of women along with promoting celibacy for ascetics. Swaminarayan ""forbade all sadhus and sadhvis (that is, male and female ascetics) of his sect from having any contact whatsoever with members of the opposite sex."" This strict precept was one he likely internalized ""after travelling as an ascetic throughout India [when] he was reported to vomit if approached by even the shadow of a woman"". To help his male ascetic followers maintain their vow of celibacy, Swaminarayan taught “the woman who attracts attention is made up of bones, blood vessels, spittle, blood, mucus and feces; she is simply a collection of these things, and there is nothing to be attractive.
Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible. They are only permitted to enter special sections of the temple reserved for women or have to go to separate women's temples. As with practices of niddah in Orthodox Judaism, concepts of pollution associated with the menstrual cycle lead to the exclusion of women from the temples and daily worship during the affected time. Swaminarayan also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women.
In the case of widows, Swaminarayan directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry. For those who could, he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family. This may seem regressive, however, it gave them ""a respected and secure place in the social order"" of the time.  Swaminarayan restricted widows ""to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations.""


=== Caste system and the poor ===

After assuming the leadership of the sampradaya, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water. He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought.
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him. A political officer in Gujarat, Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had ""destroyed the yoke of caste."" He instructed his paramahamsas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status. Swaminarayan would eat along with the lower Rajput and Khati castes but not any lower. He allowed dalits and lower caste people to visit places of worship. However, Dalits - those outside of the caste system - were formally excluded from Swaminarayan temples. Members of a lower caste are prohibited from wearing a full sect mark (tilak chandlo) on their forehead. Even now, however, for the vast majority of Gujarat's lower-caste, Untouchable and tribal population, the sect is out of bounds.
Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, noted that disciples of Swaminarayan cut across all castes, and even included Muslims. He writes ""they all pray to one God with no difference of castes. They live as if they were brothers."" Furthermore, in a meeting with Swaminarayan, he noted that ""[Swaminarayan] did not regard the subject as of much importance, but that he wished not to give offense (to ancient Hindu system); that people might eat separately or together in this world, but that above ""oopur"" pointing to heaven, those distinctions would cease."" Swaminarayan worked thus to dispel the myth that moksha (salvation) was not attainable by everyone. He taught that the soul is neither male nor female, nor yoked to any specific caste.


=== Animal sacrifices and yajnas ===
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices.  To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large-scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large-scale yajnas. Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption, codifying the conduct in the Shikshapatri.


== Scriptures ==

Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts. He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority. However, there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan sect. Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut. Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the Muktanand Kavya, the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.


=== Shikshapatri ===

Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826. While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available, it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow. A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life. The oldest copy of this text is preserved at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University and it is one of the very few presented by Sahajanand Swami himself. Acharya Tejendraprasad of Ahmedabad has indicated in a letter that he is not aware of any copy from the hand of Sahajanand older than this text. Swaminarayan in various places of Shikshapatri describes Krishna as the greatest entity.


=== Vachanamrut ===

The Vachanamrut (IAST: Vacanāmṛta, lit. ""immortalising ambrosia in the form of words"") is a sacred Hindu text consisting of 273 religious discourses delivered by Swaminarayan from 1819 to 1829 CE and is considered the principal theological text within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.: 6  Compiled by four of his senior disciples, Swaminarayan edited and approved the scripture. As followers believe Swaminarayan to be Parabrahman, or God, the Vachanamrut is considered a direct revelation from God and thus the most precise interpretation of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and other important Hindu scriptures.: 13–14, 45 : 173  This scripture is read by followers regularly and discourses are conducted daily in Swaminarayan temples around the world.: 21–27 


=== Satsangi Jeevan ===

Satsangi Jeevan is the authorised biography of Swaminarayan. The book contains information on the life and teachings of Swaminarayan. It is written by Shatanand Swami and completed in Vikram Samvat 1885. Swaminarayan decided to make Gadhada his permanent residence on the insistence of Dada Khachar and his sisters. Swaminarayan instructed Shatanand Swami to write a book on his life and pastimes.
To enable Shatanand Swami to write from His childhood, Swaminarayan had blessed Shatanand Swami with Sanjay Drishti - special power to see the entire past right from His childhood.
Once written by Shatanand Swami, this book was verified and authenticated by Swaminarayan. He was much pleased to read the book. Swaminarayan then asked his disciples to do Katha of Satsangi Jeevan.


== Legacy ==


=== Schisms ===
Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession. This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905, and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan, the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s. The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the sect while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan. The current spiritual and administrative leader of BAPS is Mahant Swami Maharaj. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the successor to Swaminarayan. The current leader of this sect is Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj.


=== Growth ===

According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat. The newspaper Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan sect of Hinduism to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.


=== Reception ===
The manifestation belief and Swaminarayan's teachings were criticized by Hindu reformist leader Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883). He questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as the Supreme Being and was disapproving towards the idea that visions of Swaminarayan could form a path to attaining perfection. Accused of deviating from the Vedas, his followers were criticised for the illegal collection of wealth and the ""practice of frauds and tricks."" In the views of Dayananda, published as early as 1875, it was a ""historical fact"" that Swaminarayan decorated himself as Narayana in order to gain followers.
In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi in the letter to his nephew, expressed that Swaminarayan's values didn't align perfectly with his interpretation of Vaishnavism and the love taught by Swaminarayana was all about sentimentalism. According to Gandhi, Swaminarayan had not grasped the essence of non-violence. In 1924, Gandhi applauded efforts of Swaminaryan and added that ""what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State"".


== See also ==
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Sources ==
Printed sources

Web-sources


== Further reading ==
Heber, Reginald (1828). Narrative of a Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta To Bombay, Volume 2.
Killingley, Dermot (2003). ""Hinduism"". In Ridgeon, Lloyd V. J. (ed.). Major world religions: from their origins to the present. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-29796-7.",0.9306640028953552
Padiham,"Padiham ( PAD-i-əm) is a market town and civil parish on the River Calder, in the Borough of Burnley in Lancashire, England. It is located north west of Burnley, and north east of the towns of Clayton le Moors and Great Harwood. It is edged by the foothills of Pendle Hill to the north-west and north-east. The United Kingdom Census 2011 gave a parish population of 10,098, estimated in 2019 at 10,138.


== History ==
Early forms of the name include ""Padingham"", with the last element probably from the Old English word hām, meaning home and ing in this sense meaning ""of the"". Its first is generally thought to be a personal name: Bede listed Padda as one of the priests who assisted Bishop Wilfrid in the late 7th century.
No prehistoric or Roman sites have been found in the built-up area. Padiham, though a name of Anglo-Saxon origin, is not recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book. Padiham was never a separate manor, its lands largely being held by copyhold tenants of the Manor of Ightenhill, a part of the Honour of Clitheroe. In 1258 there was a single free tenant, one Gilbert de Padiham. The Lord of Clitheroe had established a water-powered corn mill here by 1311. It remained for centuries as a market town, where produce from Pendleside was bought and sold. The town expanded and was redeveloped during the Industrial Revolution. The centre is now a conservation area.
Padiham's population peaked around 1921 at about 14,000, declining to 10,000 in the early 1960s and 8,998 at the time of the 2001 census. This reflected how people were moving to the south of England in search of work, after the decline in the traditional cotton, coal and engineering manufacturing industries.
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip first visited Burnley, Nelson and the old Mullard valve factory at Simonstone near Padiham on their post-Coronation tour of Lancashire in 1955.


== Governance ==
Padiham, once a township in the parish of Whalley, became a civil parish in 1866. An urban district covered the town from 1894 until 1974, but over this time, some rural areas mainly to the north became a new civil parish, Northtown, as part of Burnley Rural District. The Padiham Green area, hitherto part of Hapton, joined Padiham, with another small area following in 1935. Since 1974 Padiham has formed part of the Borough of Burnley. Initially part of an unparished area, a new Padiham civil parish was formed in late 2001, covering a similar area to the old urban district. A Town Council was instituted in 2002. Further boundary changes in 2004 saw the parish gain more territory in the south from Hapton.
Councillors for Padiham on Burnley Borough Council are elected to the Gawthorpe Ward, which covers most of Padiham, but not Gawthorpe Hall, with southern and eastern areas covered by Hapton with Park Ward. The two wards each elect three councillors, John Harbour and Alun Lewis of the Labour Party and Karen Ingham (Conservative) currently serving Gawthorpe and Joanne Broughton, Alan Hosker, and Jamie McGowan, all of the Conservatives in Hapton with Park. The parish is represented on Lancashire County Council as part of the Padiham & Burnley West division, represented since 2017 by Alan Hosker. The Parliamentary Constituency, Burnley, is currently represented by Oliver Ryan for the Labour Party.


== Demography ==
According to the United Kingdom Census 2011, the parish had a population of 10,098, an increase from 8,998 in the 2001 census. The town forms part of a wider urban area, which had a population of 149,796 in 2001. A similar but larger, Burnley Built-up area defined in the 2011 census had a population of 149,422.
The racial composition of the town in 2011 was 98.1% White (96.6% White British), 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Black, 0.5% Mixed and 0.1% Other. The largest religious groups were Christian (70.0%) and Muslim (0.6%). 68.3% of adults between the ages of 16 and 74 were classed as economically active and in work.


== Economy ==
In the 19th century, Padiham's industry was based on coal-mining and weaving. Helm Mill on Factory Lane was the first mill built in 1807. By 1906 there were twenty cotton mills though the best preserved, now converted into flats, is Victoria Mill in Ightenhill Street, built in 1852–1853 and extended in 1873. Many cotton workers belonged to the Padiham Weavers' Association, whose membership peaked in 1907 at over 6,000.
Industrial development was helped by proximity to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the south. By 1848, Padiham had many coal pits around the town, including two large collieries and a number of smaller workings. Availability of coal and water nearby helped to boost the cotton industry. Industry benefited further from the arrival of the railway at Hapton in 1840 and Padiham itself in 1877. The last pit closed about 1870, although mining continued in areas outside the town into the 1950s, and open cast mining took place in the 1960s east of the town close to Gawthorpe Hall, north of the River Calder off Grove Lane.
Since the 1960s, the remaining cotton mills have continued a decline that began in the 1930s. So too has Padiham's role as a manufacturing base since the 1990s. The town's last major employer in the sector, Baxi, closed its factory in March 2007, with a loss of 500 jobs. A modern business park, Shuttleworth Mead, opened in 2001 on the western edge of the town where Padiham Power Station had stood until 1993. The business park has been supported by £2.2 million from the European Regional Development Fund and £2 million from the North West Development Agency. Tenants include Supanet, an internet service provider (ISP) and Graham & Brown, a wall coverings company.
In 2007 Fort Vale Engineering developed a new purpose-built factory, where the old Mullard/Philips site at Calder Vale Park, Simonstone had closed in 2004. Fort Vale Engineering employs some 280 local people and has brought business to other local employers.


== Landmarks ==
There are five significant mansions in the local area: Huntroyde Hall, dating from 1576, and Simonstone Hall, dating from 1660, in nearby Simonstone, are still privately owned. Gawthorpe Hall was donated to the National Trust in 1970, but is jointly managed with Lancashire County Council under a 99-year lease. Gawthorpe is in the Ightenhill district. 
The National Trust also runs an office and a tearoom in the courtyard of the property. Gawthorpe was owned by the Shuttleworth family, which held Shuttleworth Hall near Hapton from the 12th century. The current building dates from 1639 and is still a working farm. Read Hall and Park is in the nearby village of Read, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Padiham on the A671.

St Leonard's Parish Church dates from 1866 to 1869 and is a Grade II listed building. It occupies the site of earlier churches dating back to 1451 or earlier. The original churchyard was smaller in extent than today, being expanded to the northern edge in 1835.
Padiham Town Hall in Burnley Road, built in 1938 to designs by Bradshaw Gass & Hope, is a Grade II listed building.
Padiham Memorial Park at the top of Church Street, was designed by Thomas Mawson, a prolific landscape designer. It was officially opened in 1921 as a memorial to those of the town who gave their lives in the First World War. It now commemorates victims of the Second World War as well.
The park covers 12 acres (4.9 ha) on two sites divided by the River Calder. The upper section is mainly formal, dominated by Knight Hill House, currently used as an Age UK (formerly Age Concern) day centre, and has a rose garden, lawns and two memorials. The lower section, off Park Street, has two bowling greens, tennis courts, skate park and Padiham Leisure Centre. The park is a Green Flag award winner. The park still had remains of some Second World War air raid shelters in 2008.

Another locally listed building is the former Padiham Building Society headquarters. A detached building over two storeys with large underground vault on Burnley Road, constructed between 1955-1958 and officially opened in 1959. The building was recently renovated by local businessman Liam Veitch and converted into individual office spaces.
Padiham War Memorial itself is at the main park entrance in Blackburn Road. There is a second memorial at All Saints' with St John the Baptist off the A671, Padiham Road, opposite the George IV pub. A local man, Thomas Clayton, funded the park in his will; public subscription provided additional money for the park's many features.
Near the war memorial, the Air Crash Memorial recalls several local young people killed on 3 July 1970, when a Dan Air de Havilland Comet deviated from its course and crashed into the high ground of the Montseny Range in north-eastern Spain – see: Dan-Air Flight 1903. The aircraft, destroyed on impact and by subsequent ground fire, contained three flight crew, four cabin crew and 105 passengers, all of whom died. It was the airline's first fatal accident involving fare-paying passengers. The tour operator, Clarksons Holidays, was at the time Britain's largest package holiday company.
Several other buildings in the area are also of historic interest. Hargrove can be seen from a public footpath off the Padiham by-pass just north of the town and the 1950s council housing estate north of Windermere Road. For over 400 years it was the home of the Webster family of yeoman farmers. The house is probably 17th century and part of the Huntroyed estate. Coal from a local outcrop heated the house for many years. Stockbridge House in Victoria Road was occupied by the Holts, a farming family, in 1802 and has a Jacobean chimney. High Whitaker Farm is north-east of Hargrove, accessible by public footpath from Higham Road and from Grove Lane. The building is 16th century and said to have been used to hide Catholics during the reign of Henry VIII. Other houses of note are Priddy Bank Farm and Foulds House Farm, both off Sabden Road, and Arbory Lodge on Arbory Drive.


== Media ==
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter and the local relay TV transmitter located in the Forest of Pendle.
Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lancashire, Heart North West, Smooth North West, Central Radio North West, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire and Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR).
The town is served by the local newspapers, Burnley Express and Lancashire Telegraph.
Between 1994 and 1996 three series of the BBC One comedy drama series All Quiet on the Preston Front was filmed in the town as the show's fictional setting of Roker Bridge.


== Transport ==


=== Rail ===
Padiham railway station was on a branch line (known as the Great Harwood loop) of the East Lancashire Line from Burnley to Blackburn. It opened in 1877, but was closed on 2 December 1957 and the station later demolished. The line was retained for deliveries of coal to Padiham Power Station until that closed in 1993. The nearest railway station now is at Hapton, about 2 miles (3.2 km) south. The old line was converted into a footpath/bridleway/cycleway called Padiham Greenway, completed in June 2010.


=== Buses ===
The town is served by Burnley Bus Company services from Accrington, Burnley, Nelson, Colne and beyond, and by a Blackburn Bus Company service 152 from Burnley, Blackburn and Preston.


=== Road ===
Junctions 8 and 10 of the M65 are both some 2 miles (3 km) from the town centre. Junction 8 of the M65 also gives access to the A56 dual carriageway leading to the M66 and access to the Manchester motorway network.


=== Air ===
The nearest airport, Manchester, is 50 minutes' drive. The best route by public transport is via Blackburn, then train. It takes some 2¼ hours.


== Historic maps ==
The 1845 map (1) shows the town of Padiham in the early days of the Lancashire cotton industry in Victorian times, with three mills marked. Most of the town at that stage was north of the river. The top left-hand corner shows part of the Huntroyde Demesne. The River Calder, on the right of the map, flows to the north, having been diverted in the early 19th century from its original route, away from Gawthorpe Hall (shown in pink), because of pollution. In the 1960s the river was re-routed to its original course to accommodate open-cast coal mining.
The 1890 Ordnance Survey map (2) shows the cotton-industry growth of the cotton industry in the later 19th century. The 1–25,000 scale OS map (3) is a partial extract from the two maps indicated. Several historic locations shown include Read Hall (A2) and Read (B2); Martholme, just east of Martholme Viaduct (A3); Simonstone and Simonstone Hall (C3); Huntroyd and grounds (D1–D2); Padiham Power Station (D3) with the connecting line for fuel; post-war housing north of the town off Slade Lane (E2); High Whitaker (F1); the River Calder on the old course from Gawthore Hall and grounds (F2); Pendle Hall (G1); Ightenhill Manor House (G2); and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Burnley (J1). The railway line through Padiham also appears.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Notable people ==
Bill Blackadder (1899–1977), professional footballer
William Blezard (1921–2003), composer born in Padiham, who worked with Joyce Grenfell and others
Thomas Birtwistle (1833–1912), trade unionist involved in Padiham weavers' strikes in 1859
Richard Bradshaw (fl. 1900s) footballer born in Padiham, played for Blackpool F.C.
Maurice Green (1906–1987), editor of The Financial Times and The Daily Telegraph, was born in Padiham.
Cyril Harrison (1901–1980), managing director of English Sewing Cotton Company, was educated at Padiham Wesleyan School.
Harry Hastie (fl. 1920), footballer
Harry Hill (1916–2009), born in Padiham, was a bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. Too poor to get to London any other way, Hill cycled the 200 miles from Sheffield on the bike he used in the Olympics.
Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet (1804–1877), husband of Janet Kay-Shuttleworth of Gawthorpe Hall, founded teacher training and independent school inspection in England and what is now the University of St Mark & St John.
Ughtred Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baron Shuttleworth (1844–1939), Liberal politician, son of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth. Under-Secretary of State for India and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under William Gladstone in 1886 and Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty under Gladstone and Lord Rosebery in 1892–1895. He inherited Gawthorpe on his mother's death in 1872.
Charles Kay-Shuttleworth, 5th Baron Shuttleworth (born 1948), Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire for 1997
John Starkie (1830–1888), landowner at Ashton Hall, Thurnham, Lancashire
Le Gendre Starkie (1799–1865) and Le Gendre Starkie (1828–1899), landowners at Huntroyde
William Thompson (1866–1920), cricketer
Alfred Tysoe (1874–1901), Padiham-born athlete and winner of two gold medals in the 800m and 5,000m team races at the 1900 Olympic Games
Andy Payton (born 1967), professional footballer, nicknamed the Padiham Predator.


== Freedom of the Town ==
The following have received the Freedom of the Town of Padiham.


=== Individuals ===
Robert ""Bob"" Clark: 29 June 2021.


== See also ==


== References ==
Notes

Citations


== External links ==

Burnley Borough Council
Church of England Parish of Padiham and Hapton
Padiham Town Council
Visit Padiham
Padiham Urban District Council archive catalogue
Padiham Heritage Appraisal 2015

Map sources for Padiham",0.9649516344070435
Aeroelasticity,"Aeroelasticity is the branch of physics and engineering studying the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces occurring while an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. The study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields: static aeroelasticity dealing with the static or steady state response of an elastic body to a fluid flow, and dynamic aeroelasticity dealing with the body's dynamic (typically vibrational) response.
Aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight while enduring large aerodynamic loads.  Aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems:

divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the twist of a wing which further increases forces;
control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic moment that reduces, or in extreme cases reverses, the control effectiveness; and
flutter which is uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an aircraft.
Aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration tests and flight flutter trials. Flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful placement of mass balances.
The synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity.


== History ==
The second failure of Samuel Langley's prototype plane on the Potomac was attributed to aeroelastic effects (specifically, torsional divergence). An early scientific work on the subject was George Bryan's Theory of the Stability of a Rigid Aeroplane published in 1906. Problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the First World War and were solved largely by trial-and-error and ad hoc stiffening of the wing. The first recorded and documented case of flutter in an aircraft was that which occurred to a Handley Page O/400 bomber during a flight in 1916, when it suffered a violent tail oscillation, which caused extreme distortion of the rear fuselage and the elevators to move asymmetrically. Although the aircraft landed safely, in the subsequent investigation F. W. Lanchester was consulted. One of his recommendations was that left and right elevators should be rigidly connected by a stiff shaft, which was to subsequently become a design requirement. In addition, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) was asked to investigate the phenomenon theoretically, which was subsequently carried out by Leonard Bairstow and Arthur Fage.
In 1926, Hans Reissner published a theory of wing divergence, leading to much further theoretical research on the subject. The term aeroelasticity itself was coined by Harold Roxbee Cox and Alfred Pugsley at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), Farnborough in the early 1930s.
In the development of aeronautical engineering at Caltech, Theodore von Kármán started a course ""Elasticity applied to Aeronautics"". After teaching the course for one term, Kármán passed it over to Ernest Edwin Sechler, who developed aeroelasticity in that course and in publication of textbooks on the subject.
In 1947, Arthur Roderick Collar defined aeroelasticity as ""the study of the mutual interaction that takes place within the triangle of the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces acting on structural members exposed to an airstream, and the influence of this study on design"".


== Static aeroelasticity ==
In an aeroplane, two significant static aeroelastic effects may occur. Divergence is a phenomenon in which the elastic twist of the wing suddenly becomes theoretically infinite, typically causing the wing to fail. Control reversal is a phenomenon occurring only in wings with ailerons or other control surfaces, in which these control surfaces reverse their usual functionality (e.g., the rolling direction associated with a given aileron moment is reversed).


=== Divergence ===
Divergence occurs when a lifting surface deflects under aerodynamic load in a direction which further increases lift in a positive feedback loop. The increased lift deflects the structure further, which eventually brings the structure to the point of divergence. Unlike flutter, which is another aeroelastic problem, instead of irregular oscillations, divergence causes the lifting surface to move in the same direction and when it comes to point of divergence the structure deforms.


=== Control reversal ===

Control surface reversal is the loss (or reversal) of the expected response of a control surface, due to deformation of the main lifting surface. For simple models (e.g. single aileron on an Euler-Bernoulli beam), control reversal speeds can be derived analytically as for torsional divergence. Control reversal can be used to aerodynamic advantage, and forms part of the Kaman servo-flap rotor design.


== Dynamic aeroelasticity ==
Dynamic aeroelasticity studies the interactions among aerodynamic, elastic, and inertial forces. Examples of dynamic aeroelastic phenomena are:


=== Flutter ===
Flutter is a dynamic instability of an elastic structure in a fluid flow, caused by positive feedback between the body's deflection and the force exerted by the fluid flow. In a linear system, ""flutter point"" is the point at which the structure is undergoing simple harmonic motion—zero net damping—and so any further decrease in net damping will result in a self-oscillation and eventual failure. ""Net damping"" can be understood as the sum of the structure's natural positive damping and the negative damping of the aerodynamic force. Flutter can be classified into two types: hard flutter, in which the net damping decreases very suddenly, very close to the flutter point; and soft flutter, in which the net damping decreases gradually.
In water the mass ratio of the pitch inertia of the foil to that of the circumscribing cylinder of fluid is generally too low for binary flutter to occur, as shown by explicit solution of the simplest pitch and heave flutter stability determinant.

Structures exposed to aerodynamic forces—including wings and aerofoils, but also chimneys and bridges—are generally designed carefully within known parameters to avoid flutter. Blunt shapes, such as chimneys, can give off a continuous stream of vortices known as a Kármán vortex street, which can induce structural oscillations. Strakes are typically wrapped around chimneys to stop the formation of these vortices.
In complex structures where both the aerodynamics and the mechanical properties of the structure are not fully understood, flutter can be discounted only through detailed testing. Even changing the mass distribution of an aircraft or the stiffness of one component can induce flutter in an apparently unrelated aerodynamic component.  At its mildest, this can appear as a ""buzz"" in the aircraft structure, but at its most violent, it can develop uncontrollably with great speed and cause serious damage to the aircraft or lead to its destruction, as in Northwest Airlines Flight 2 in 1938, Braniff Flight 542 in 1959, or the prototypes for Finland's VL Myrsky fighter aircraft in the early 1940s. Famously, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was destroyed as a result of aeroelastic fluttering.


==== Aeroservoelasticity ====
In some cases, automatic control systems have been demonstrated to help prevent or limit flutter-related structural vibration.


==== Propeller whirl flutter ====
Propeller whirl flutter is a special case of flutter involving the aerodynamic and inertial effects of a rotating propeller and the stiffness of the supporting nacelle structure. Dynamic instability can occur involving pitch and yaw degrees of freedom of the propeller and the engine supports leading to an unstable precession of the propeller. Failure of the engine supports led to whirl flutter occurring on two Lockheed L-188 Electra aircraft, in 1959 on Braniff Flight 542 and again in 1960 on Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 710.


==== Transonic aeroelasticity ====
Flow is highly non-linear in the transonic regime, dominated by moving shock waves. Avoiding flutter is mission-critical for aircraft that fly through transonic Mach numbers. The role of shock waves was first analyzed by Holt Ashley. A phenomenon that impacts stability of aircraft known as ""transonic dip"", in which the flutter speed can get close to flight speed, was reported in May 1976 by Farmer and Hanson of the Langley Research Center.


=== Buffeting ===

Buffeting is a high-frequency instability, caused by airflow separation or shock wave oscillations from one object striking another. It is caused by a sudden impulse of load increasing. It is a random forced vibration. Generally it affects the tail unit of the aircraft structure due to air flow downstream of the wing.
The methods for buffet detection are:

Pressure coefficient diagram
Pressure divergence at trailing edge
Computing separation from trailing edge based on Mach number
Normal force fluctuating divergence


== Prediction and cure ==

In the period 1950–1970, AGARD developed the Manual on Aeroelasticity which details the processes used in solving and verifying aeroelastic problems along with standard examples that can be used to test numerical solutions.
Aeroelasticity involves not just the external aerodynamic loads and the way they change but also the structural, damping and mass characteristics of the aircraft. Prediction involves making a mathematical model of the aircraft as a series of masses connected by springs and dampers which are tuned to represent the dynamic characteristics of the aircraft structure. The model also includes details of applied aerodynamic forces and how they vary.
The model can be used to predict the flutter margin and, if necessary, test fixes to potential problems. Small carefully chosen changes to mass distribution and local structural stiffness can be very effective in solving aeroelastic problems.
Methods of predicting flutter in linear structures include the p-method, the k-method and the p-k method.
For nonlinear systems, flutter is usually interpreted as a limit cycle oscillation (LCO), and methods from the study of dynamical systems can be used to determine the speed at which flutter will occur.


== Media ==
These videos detail the Active Aeroelastic Wing two-phase NASA-Air Force flight research program to investigate the potential of aerodynamically twisting flexible wings to improve maneuverability of high-performance aircraft at transonic and supersonic speeds, with traditional control surfaces such as ailerons and leading-edge flaps used to induce the twist.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Notable aeroelastic failures ==
The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was destroyed as a result of aeroelastic flutter.
Propeller whirl flutter of the Lockheed L-188 Electra on Braniff Flight 542.
1931 Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 crash.
Body freedom flutter of the GAF Jindivik drone.


== See also ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Bisplinghoff, R. L., Ashley, H. and Halfman, H., Aeroelasticity. Dover Science, 1996, ISBN 0-486-69189-6, 880 p.
Maurice Biot & L. Arnold (1948) ""Low speed flutter and its physical interpretation"", Journal of Aeronautical Sciences 15: 232–6
Dowell, E. H., A Modern Course on Aeroelasticity. ISBN 90-286-0057-4.
Fung, Y. C., An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity. Dover, 1994, ISBN 978-0-486-67871-9.
Hodges, D. H. and Pierce, A., Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity, Cambridge, 2002, ISBN 978-0-521-80698-5.
Wright, J. R. and Cooper, J. E., Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity and Loads, Wiley 2007, ISBN 978-0-470-85840-0.
Hoque, M. E., ""Active Flutter Control"", LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8383-6851-1.
Collar, A. R., ""The first fifty years of aeroelasticity"", Aerospace, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 12–20, 1978.
Garrick, I. E. and Reed W. H., ""Historical development of aircraft flutter"", Journal of Aircraft, vol. 18, pp. 897–912, Nov. 1981.
Patrick R. Veillette (Aug 23, 2018). ""Low-Speed Buffet: High-Altitude, Transonic Training Weakness Continues"". Business & Commercial Aviation. Aviation Week Network.


== External links ==

Aeroelasticity Branch – NASA Langley Research Center
DLR Institute of Aeroelasticity
National Aerospace Laboratory
The Aeroelasticity Group – Texas A&M University
NACA Technical Reports – NASA Langley Research Center
NASA Aeroelasticity Handbook",1.002358317375183
Common buzzard,"The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a medium-to-large bird of prey which has a large range. It is a member of the genus Buteo in the family Accipitridae. The species lives in most of Europe and extends its breeding range across much of the Palearctic as far as northwestern China (Tian Shan), far western Siberia and northwestern Mongolia. Over much of its range, it is a year-round resident. However, buzzards from the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere as well as those that breed in the eastern part of their range typically migrate south for the northern winter, many journeying as far as South Africa.
The common buzzard is an opportunistic predator that can take a wide variety of prey, but it feeds mostly on small mammals, especially rodents such as voles. It typically hunts from a perch. Like most accipitrid birds of prey, it builds a nest, typically in trees in this species, and is a devoted parent to a relatively small brood of young. The common buzzard appears to be the most common diurnal raptor in Europe, as estimates of its total global population run well into the millions.


== Taxonomy ==
The first formal description of the common buzzard was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco buteo. The genus Buteo was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 by tautonymy with the specific name of this species. The word buteo is Latin for a buzzard. It should not be confused with the Turkey vulture, which is sometimes called a buzzard in American English.
The Buteoninae subfamily originated from and is most diversified in the Americas, with occasional broader radiations that led to common buzzards and other Eurasian and African buzzards. The common buzzard is a member of the genus Buteo, a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings. The Buteo species of Eurasia and Africa are usually commonly referred to as ""buzzards"" while those in the Americas are called hawks. Under current classification, the genus includes approximately 28 species, the second most diverse of all extant accipitrid genera behind only Accipiter. DNA testing shows that the common buzzard is fairly closely related to the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) of North America, which occupies a similar ecological niche to the buzzard in that continent. The two species may belong to the same species complex. Three buzzards in Africa are likely closely related to the common buzzard based on genetic materials, the Mountain buzzard (Buteo oreophilus), Forest buzzards (Buteo trizonatus) and the Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus), to the point where it has been questioned whether they are sufficiently distinct to qualify as full species. However, the distinctiveness of these African buzzards has generally been supported. Genetic studies have further indicated that the modern buzzards of Eurasia and Africa are a relatively young group, showing that they diverged at about 300,000 years ago. Nonetheless, fossils dating earlier than 5 million year old (the late Miocene period) showed Buteo species were present in Europe much earlier than that would imply, although it cannot be stated to a certainty that these would have been related to the extant buzzards.


=== Subspecies and species splits ===

Some 16 subspecies have been described in the past and up to 11 are often considered valid, although some authorities accept as few as seven. Common buzzard subspecies fall into two groups.
The western buteo group is mainly resident or short-distance migrants and includes:

B. b. buteo: Ranges in Europe from the Atlantic islands, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula (including Madeira Island, whose population was once considered a separate race, B. b. harterti) more or less continuously throughout Europe to Finland, Romania and Asia Minor. This highly individually variable race is described below. This is a relatively large and bulky race of buzzard. In males, the wing chord ranges from 350 to 418 mm (13.8 to 16.5 in) and the tail from 194 to 223 mm (7.6 to 8.8 in). In comparison, the larger female has a wing chord measuring 374 to 432 mm (14.7 to 17.0 in) and tail length of 193 to 236 mm (7.6 to 9.3 in). In both sexes, the tarsus measures 69 to 83 mm (2.7 to 3.3 in) in length. As illustrated by average body mass, sizes in the nominate race of common buzzard seem to confirm to Bergmann's rule, increasing to the north and decreasing closer to the Equator. In southern Norway, the mean weight of males was reportedly 740 g (1.63 lb), while that of females was 1,100 g (2.4 lb). British buzzards were of intermediate size, 214 males averaging 781 g (1.722 lb) and 261 females averaging 969 g (2.136 lb). Birds to the south in Spain were smaller, averaging 662 g (1.459 lb) in 22 males and 800 g (1.8 lb) in 30 females. Cramp and Simmons (1980) listed the mean body mass overall of nominate buzzards in Europe overall as 828 g (1.825 lb) in males and 1,052 g (2.319 lb) in females.

B. b. rothschildi: This proposed race is native to the Azores islands. It is generally considered a valid subspecies. This race differs from a typical intermediate of the nominate in being a darker, colder brown both above and below, closer to the darker individuals of the nominate. It averages smaller than most nominate buzzards. The wing chord of males ranges from 343 to 365 mm (13.5 to 14.4 in) while that of females ranges from 362 to 393 mm (14.3 to 15.5 in).
B. b. insularum: This race lives in the Canary Islands. Not all authorities consider this race suitably distinct, but others advocate it be retained as a full subspecies. It is typically of richer brown above and more heavily streaked below compared to nominate birds. It is similar in size to B. b. rothschildi and averages slightly smaller than the nominate race. Males have a reported wing chord of 352 to 390 mm (13.9 to 15.4 in) and females have a wing chord of 370 to 394 mm (14.6 to 15.5 in).
B. b. arrigonii: This race inhabits the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It is generally considered a valid subspecies. The upper-side of these buzzards is an intermediate brown with very heavy streaking below, often covering the belly whereas most nominate buzzards show a whitish area the middle of the belly. Like most other insular races, this one is relatively small. Males possess a wing chord of 343 to 382 mm (13.5 to 15.0 in) while females have a wing chord of 353 to 390 mm (13.9 to 15.4 in).

The eastern vulpinus group includes:

B. b. vulpinus: The steppe buzzard breeds as far west as eastern Sweden, in the southern two-thirds of Finland, eastern Estonia, much of Belarus and Ukraine, eastward to the northern Caucacus, northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, much of Russia to Altai and south-central Siberia, Tien Shan in China and western Mongolia. B. b. vulpinus is a long-distance migrant. It winters largely in much of eastern and southern Africa. Less frequently and often very discontinuously, steppe buzzards winter in the southern peninsulas of Europe, Arabia and southwestern India in addition to some parts of southeastern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. In the open country favoured on the wintering grounds, steppe buzzards are often seen perched on roadside telephone poles. It at one time was considered a separate species due to differences in size, form, colouring and behaviour (especially in regards to migratory behaviour) but is genetically indistinct from nominate buzzards. Furthermore, the steppe buzzard engages in extensive interbreeding with the nominate race, causing typical characteristics of the two races to mix. The zone of integration runs from Scandinavia through the European continent to the Black Sea, including any part of the overlapping ranges in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, western Ukraine and eastern Romania. At times, the fertile hybrids of these two races have been erroneously proposed as races such as B. b. intermedius or B. b. zimmermannae. Intergrade buzzards are commonest where the grey-brown type of pale morphs of vulpinus are predominant. Steppe buzzards are usually distinctly smaller, with relatively longer wings and tail for their size, and thus often appear swifter and more agile in flight than nominate buzzards, whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. Typically, their length is around 45 to 50 cm (18 to 20 in), while wingspan of males average 113 cm (44 in) and females average 122.7 cm (48 in). The wing chord is 335 to 377 mm (13.2 to 14.8 in) in males and 358 to 397 mm (14.1 to 15.6 in) in females. Tail length is 170 to 200 mm (6.7 to 7.9 in) in males and 175 to 209 mm (6.9 to 8.2 in) in females. Weights of birds from Russia can reportedly range from 560 to 675 g (1.235 to 1.488 lb) in males and 710 to 1,180 g (1.57 to 2.60 lb) in females. Weights of migrant birds appear to be lower than at other times of year for steppe buzzards. Two surveys of migrant buzzards during their huge spring movement in Eilat, Israel showed 420 birds averaged 579 g (1.276 lb) and 882 birds averaged 578 g (1.274 lb). In comparison, weights of wintering steppe buzzards was higher, averaging 725 g (1.598 lb) in 35 birds in the former Transvaal (South Africa) and 739 g (1.629 lb) in 160 birds in the Cape Province. Weights of birds from Zambia were similar.
B. b. menetriesi: This race is found in southern Crimea through the Caucasus to northern Iran and possibly into Turkey. This race has traditionally been listed as a resident race, but some sources consider it a migrant to eastern and southern Africa. Compared to the overlapping steppe buzzard subspecies, it is larger (roughly intermediate between the nominate race and vulpinus) and is duller in overall colour, being sandy below rather than rufous and lacking the bright rufous on the tail. Wing chord is 351 to 397 mm (13.8 to 15.6 in) in males and 372 to 413 mm (14.6 to 16.3 in) in females.
At one time, races of the common buzzard were thought to range as far in Asia as a breeding bird well into the Himalayas and as far east as northeastern China, Russia to the Sea of Okhotsk, and all the islands of the Kurile Islands and of Japan, despite both the Himalayan and eastern birds showing a natural gap in distribution from the next nearest breeding common buzzard. However, DNA testing has revealed that the buzzards of these populations probably belong to different species. Most authorities now accept these buzzards as full species: the eastern buzzard (Buteo japonicus; with three subspecies of its own) and the Himalayan buzzard (Buteo refectus). Buzzards found on the islands of Cape Verde off of the coast of western Africa, once referred to as the subspecies B. b. bannermani, and Socotra Island off of the northern peninsula of Arabia, once referred to as the rarely recognized subspecies B. b. socotrae, are now generally thought not to belong to the common buzzard. DNA testing has indicated that these insular buzzards are actually more closely related to the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus) than to the common buzzard. Subsequently, some researchers have advocated full species status for the Cape Verde population, but the placement of these buzzards is generally deemed unclear.


== Description ==

The common buzzard is a medium to large sized raptor that is highly variable in plumage. Most buzzards are distinctly round headed with a somewhat slender bill, relatively long wings that either reach or fall slightly short of the tail tip when perched, a fairly short tail, and somewhat short and mainly bare tarsi. They can appear fairly compact in overall appearance but may also appear large relative to other more common raptorial birds such as kestrels and sparrowhawks. The common buzzard measures between 40 and 58 cm (16 and 23 in) in length with a 109–140 cm (43–55 in) wingspan. Females average about 2–7% larger than males linearly and weigh about 15% more. Body mass can show considerable variation. Buzzards from Great Britain alone can vary from 427 to 1,183 g (0.941 to 2.608 lb) in males, while females there can range from 486 to 1,370 g (1.071 to 3.020 lb).

In Europe, most typical buzzards are dark brown above and on the upperside of the head and mantle, but can become paler and warmer brown with worn plumage. The flight feathers on perched European buzzards are always brown in the nominate subspecies (B. b. buteo). Usually the tail will usually be narrowly barred grey-brown and dark brown with a pale tip and a broad dark subterminal band but the tail in palest birds can show a varying amount a white and reduced subterminal band or even appear almost all white. In European buzzards, the underside coloring can be variable but most typically show a brown-streaked white throat with a somewhat darker chest. A pale U across breast is often present; followed by a pale line running down the belly which separates the dark areas on breast-side and flanks. These pale areas tend to have highly variable markings that tend to form irregular bars. Juvenile buzzards are quite similar to adult in the nominate race, being best told apart by having a paler eye, a narrower subterminal band on the tail and underside markings that appear as streaks rather than bars. Furthermore, juveniles may show variable creamy to rufous fringes to upperwing coverts but these also may not be present. Seen from below in flight, buzzards in Europe typically have a dark trailing edge to the wings. If seen from above, one of the best marks is their broad dark subterminal tail band. Flight feathers of typical European buzzards are largely greyish, the aforementioned dark wing linings at front with contrasting paler band along the median coverts. In flight, paler individuals tend to show dark carpal patches that can appears as blackish arches or commas but these may be indistinct in darker individuals or can appear light brownish or faded in paler individuals. Juvenile nominate buzzards are best told apart from adults in flight by the lack of a distinct subterminal band (instead showing fairly even barring throughout) and below by having less sharp and brownish rather than blackish trailing wing edge. Juvenile buzzards show streaking paler parts of under wing and body showing rather than barring as do adults. Beyond the typical mid-range brownish buzzard, birds in Europe can range from almost uniform black-brown above to mainly white. Extreme dark individuals may range from chocolate brown to blackish with almost no pale showing but a variable, faded U on the breast and with or without faint lighter brown throat streaks. Extreme pale birds are largely whitish with variable widely spaced streaks or arrowheads of light brown about the mid-chest and flanks and may or may not show dark feather-centres on the head, wing-coverts and sometimes all but part of mantle. Individuals can show nearly endless variation of colours and hues in between these extremes and the common buzzard is counted among the most variably plumage diurnal raptors for this reason. One study showed that this variation may actually be the result of diminished single-locus genetic diversity.

Beyond the nominate form (B. b. buteo) that occupies most of the common buzzard's European range, a second main, widely distributed subspecies is known as the steppe buzzard (B. b. vulpinus). The steppe buzzard race shows three main colour morphs, each of which can be predominant in a region of breeding range. It is more distinctly polymorphic rather than just individually very variable like the nominate race. This may be because, unlike the nominate buzzard, the steppe buzzard is highly migratory. Polymorphism has been linked with migratory behaviour. The most common type of steppe buzzard is the rufous morph which gives this subspecies its scientific name (vulpes is Latin for ""fox""). This morph comprises a majority of birds seen in passage east of the Mediterranean. Rufous morph buzzards are a paler grey-brown above than most nominate B. b. buteo. Compared to the nominate race, rufous vulpinus show a patterning not dissimilar but generally far more rufous-toned on head, the fringes to mantle wing coverts and, especially, on the tail and the underside. The head is grey-brown with rufous tinges usually while the tail is rufous and can vary from almost unmarked to thinly dark-barred with a subterminal band. The underside can be uniformly pale to dark rufous, barred heavily or lightly with rufous or with dusky barring, usually with darker individuals showing the U as in nominate but with a rufous hue. The pale morph of the steppe buzzard is commonest in the west of its subspecies range, predominantly seen in winter and migration at the various land bridge of the Mediterranean. As in the rufous morph, the pale morph vulpinus is grey-brown above but the tail is generally marked with thin dark bars and a subterminal band, only showing rufous near the tip. The underside in the pale morph is greyish-white with dark grey-brown or somewhat streaked head to chest and barred belly and chest, occasionally showing darker flanks that can be somewhat rufous. Dark morph vulpinus tend to be found in the east and southeast of the subspecies range and are easily outnumbered by rufous morph while largely using similar migration points. Dark morph individuals vary from grey-brown to much darker blackish-brown, and have a tail that is dark grey or somewhat mixed grey and rufous, is distinctly marked with dark barring and has a broad, black subterminal band. Dark morph vulpinus have a head and underside that is mostly uniform dark, from dark brown to blackish-brown to almost pure black. Rufous morph juveniles are often distinctly paler in ground colour (ranging even to creamy-grey) than adults with distinct barring below actually increased in pale morph type juvenile. Pale and rufous morph juveniles can only be distinguished from each other in extreme cases. Dark morph juveniles are more similar to adult dark morph vulpinus but often show a little whitish streaking below, and like all other races have lighter coloured eyes and more evenly barred tails than adults. Steppe buzzards tend to appear smaller and more agile in flight than nominate whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. In flight, rufous morph vulpinus have their whole body and underwing varying from uniform to patterned rufous (if patterning present, it is variable, but can be on chest and often thighs, sometimes flanks, pale band across median coverts), while the under-tail usually paler rufous than above. Whitish flight feathers are more prominent than in nominate and more marked contrast with the bold dark brown band along the trailing edges. Markings of pale vulpinus as seen in flight are similar to rufous morph (such as paler wing markings) but more greyish both on wings and body. In dark morph vulpinus the broad black trailing edges and colour of body make whitish areas of inner wing stand out further with an often bolder and blacker carpal patch than in other morphs. As in nominate, juvenile vulpinus (rufous/pale) tend to have much less distinct trailing edges, general streaking on body and along median underwing coverts. Dark morph vulpinus resemble adult in flight more so than other morphs.


=== Similar species ===

The common buzzard is often confused with other raptors especially in flight or at a distance. Inexperienced and over-enthusiastic observers have even mistaken darker birds for the far larger and differently proportioned golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and also dark birds for western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) which also flies in a dihedral but is obviously relatively much longer and slenderer winged and tailed and with far different flying methods. Also buzzards may possibly be confused with dark or light morph booted eagles (Hieraeetus pennatus), which are similar in size, but the eagle flies on level, parallel-edged wings which usually appear broader, has a longer squarer tail, with no carpal patch in pale birds and all dark flight feathers but for whitish wedge on inner primaries in dark morph ones. Pale individuals are sometimes also mistaken with pale morph short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus) which are much larger with a considerably bigger head, longer wings (which are usually held evenly in flight rather than in a dihedral) and paler underwing lacking any carpal patch or dark wing lining. More serious identification concerns lie in other Buteo species and in flight with honey buzzards, which are quite different looking when seen perched at close range. The European honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus) is thought in engage in mimicry of more powerful raptors, in particular, juveniles may mimic the plumage of the more powerful common buzzard. While less individually variable in Europe, the honey buzzard is more extensive polymorphic on underparts than even the common buzzard. The most common morph of the adult European honey buzzard is heavily and rufous barred on the underside, quite different from the common buzzard, however the brownish juvenile much more resembles an intermediate common buzzard. Honey buzzards flap with distinctively slower and more even wing beats than common buzzard. The wings are also lifted higher on each upstroke, creating a more regular and mechanical effect, furthermore their wings are held slightly arched when soaring but not in a V. On the honey buzzard, the head appears smaller, the body thinner, the tail longer and the wings narrower and more parallel edged. The steppe buzzard race is particularly often mistaken for juvenile European honey buzzards, to the point where early observers of raptor migration in Israel considered distant individuals indistinguishable. However, when compared to a steppe buzzard, the honey buzzard has distinctly darker secondaries on the underwing with fewer and broader bars and more extensive black wing-tips (whole fingers) contrasting with a less extensively pale hand. Found in the same range as the steppe buzzard in some parts of southern Siberia as well as (with wintering steppes) in southwestern India, the Oriental honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) is larger than both the European honey buzzard and the common buzzard. The oriental species is with more similar in body plan to common buzzards, being relatively broader winged, shorter tailed and more amply-headed (though the head is still relatively small) relative to the European honey buzzard, but all plumages lack carpal patches.
In much of Europe, the common buzzard is the only type of buzzard. However, the subarctic breeding rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) comes down to occupy much of the northern part of the continent during winter in the same haunts as the common buzzard. However, the rough-legged buzzard is typically larger and distinctly longer-winged with feathered legs, as well as having a white based tail with a broad subterminal band. Rough-legged buzzards have slower wing beats and hover far more frequently than do common buzzards. The carpal patch marking on the under-wing are also bolder and blacker on all paler forms of rough-legged hawk. Many pale morph rough-legged buzzards have a bold, blackish band across the belly against contrasting paler feathers, a feature which rarely appears in individual common buzzard. Usually the face also appears somewhat whitish in most pale morphs of rough-legged buzzards, which is true of only extremely pale common buzzards. Dark morph rough-legged buzzards are usually distinctly darker (ranging to almost blackish) than even extreme dark individuals of common buzzards in Europe and still have the distinct white-based tail and broad subterminal band of other roughlegs. In eastern Europe and much of the Asian range of common buzzards, the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus) may live alongside the common species. As in the steppe buzzard race, the long-legged buzzard has three main colour morphs that are more or less similar in hue. In both the steppe buzzard race and long-legged buzzard, the main colour is overall fairly rufous. More so than steppe buzzards, long-legged buzzards tend to have a distinctly paler head and neck compared to other feathers, and, more distinctly, a normally unbarred tail. Furthermore, the long-legged buzzard is usually a rather larger bird, often considered fairly eagle-like in appearance (although it does appear gracile and small-billed even compared to smaller true eagles), an effect enhanced by its longer tarsi, somewhat longer neck and relatively elongated wings. The flight style of the latter species is deeper, slower and more aquiline, with much more frequent hovering, showing a more protruding head and a slightly higher V held in a soar. The smaller North African and Arabian race of long-legged buzzard (B. r. cirtensis) is more similar in size and nearly all colour characteristics to steppe buzzard, extending to the heavily streaked juvenile plumage, in some cases such birds can be distinguished only by their proportions and flight patterns which remain unchanged. Hybridization with the latter race (B. r. cirtensis) and nominate common buzzards has been observed in the Strait of Gibraltar, a few such birds have been reported potentially in the southern Mediterranean due to mutually encroaching ranges, which are blurring possibly due to climate change.
Wintering steppe buzzards may live alongside mountain buzzards and especially with forest buzzard while wintering in Africa. The juveniles of steppe and forest buzzards are more or less indistinguishable and only told apart by proportions and flight style, the latter species being smaller, more compact, having a smaller bill, shorter legs and shorter and thinner wings than a steppe buzzard. However, size is not diagnostic unless side by side as the two buzzards overlap in this regard. Most reliable are the species wing proportions and their flight actions. Forest buzzard have more flexible wing beats interspersed with glides, additionally soaring on flatter wings and apparently never engage in hovering. Adult forest buzzards compared to the typical adult steppe buzzard (rufous morph) are also similar, but the forest typically has a whiter underside, sometimes mostly plain white, usually with heavy blotches or drop-shaped marks on abdomen, with barring on thighs, more narrow tear-shaped on chest and more spotted on leading edges of underwing, usually lacking marking on the white U across chest (which is otherwise similar but usually broader than that of vulpinus). In comparison, the mountain buzzard, which is more similar in size to the steppe buzzard and slightly larger than the forest buzzard, is usually duller brown above than a steppe buzzard and is more whitish below with distinctive heavy brown blotches from breasts to the belly, flanks and wing linings while juvenile mountain buzzard is buffy below with smaller and streakier markings. The steppe buzzard when compared to another African species, the red-necked buzzard (Buteo auguralis), which has red tail similar to vulpinus, is distinct in all other plumage aspects despite their similar size. The latter buzzard has a streaky rufous head and is white below with a contrasting bold dark chest in adult plumage and, in juvenile plumage, has heavy, dark blotches on the chest and flanks with pale wing-linings. Jackal and augur buzzards (Buteo rufofuscus & augur), also both rufous on the tail, are larger and bulkier than steppe buzzards and have several distinctive plumage characteristics, most notably both having their own striking, contrasting patterns of black-brown, rufous and cream.


== Distribution and habitat ==

The common buzzard is found throughout several islands in the eastern Atlantic islands, including the Canary Islands and Azores and almost throughout Europe. It is today found in Ireland and in nearly every part of Scotland, Wales and England. In mainland Europe, remarkably, there are no substantial gaps without breeding common buzzards from Portugal and Spain to Greece, Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine, though are present mainly only in the breeding season in much of the eastern half of the latter three countries. They are also present in all larger Mediterranean islands such as Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. Further north in Scandinavia, they are found mainly in southeastern Norway (though also some points in southwestern Norway close to the coast and one section north of Trondheim), just over the southern half of Sweden and hugging over the Gulf of Bothnia to Finland where they live as a breeding species over nearly two-thirds of the land.
The common buzzard reaches its northern limits as a breeder in far eastern Finland and over the border to European Russia, continuing as a breeder over to the narrowest straits of the White Sea and nearly to the Kola Peninsula. In these northern quarters, the common buzzard is present typically only in summer but is a year-around resident of a hearty bit of southern Sweden and some of southern Norway. Outside of Europe, it is a resident of northern Turkey (largely close to the Black Sea) otherwise occurring mainly as a passage migrant or winter visitor in the remainder of Turkey, Georgia, sporadically but not rarely in Azerbaijan and Armenia, northern Iran (largely hugging the Caspian Sea) to northern Turkmenistan. Further north though its absent from either side of the northern Caspian Sea, the common buzzard is found in much of western Russia (though exclusively as a breeder) including all of the Central Federal District and the Volga Federal District, all but the northernmost parts of the Northwestern and Ural Federal Districts and nearly the southern half of the Siberian Federal District, its farthest easterly occurrence as a breeder. It also found in northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, far northwestern China (Tien Shan) and northwestern Mongolia.
Non-breeding populations occur, either as migrants or wintering birds, in southwestern India, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt (northeastern), northern Tunisia (and far northwestern Algeria), northern Morocco, near the coasts of The Gambia, Senegal and far southwestern Mauritania and Ivory Coast (and bordering Burkina Faso). In eastern and central Africa, it is found in winter from southeastern Sudan, Eritrea, about two-thirds of Ethiopia, much of Kenya (though apparently absent from the northeast and northwest), Uganda, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and more or less the entirety of southern Africa from Angola across to Tanzania down the remainder of the continent (but for an apparent gap along the coast from southwestern Angola to northwestern South Africa).


=== Habitat ===
The common buzzard generally inhabits the interface of woodlands and open grounds; most typically the species lives in forest edge, small woods or shelterbelts with adjacent grassland, arables or other farmland. It acquits to open moorland as long as there is some trees for perch hunting and nesting use. The woods they inhabit may be coniferous, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and temperate deciduous forest with occasional preferences for the local dominant tree. It is absent from treeless tundra, as well as the Subarctic where the species almost entirely gives way to the rough-legged buzzard. The common buzzard is sporadic or rare in treeless steppe but can occasionally migrate through it (despite its name, the steppe buzzard subspecies breeds primarily in the wooded fringes of the steppe). The species may be found to some extent in both in mountainous or flat country. Although adaptable to and sometimes seen in wetlands and in coastal areas, buzzards are often considered more of an upland species and neither appear to be regularly attracted to or to strongly avoid bodies of waters in non-migratory times. Buzzards in well-wooded areas of eastern Poland largely used large, mature stands of trees that were more humid, richer and denser than prevalent in surrounding area, but showed preference for those within 30 to 90 m (98 to 295 ft) of openings. Mostly resident buzzards live in lowlands and foothills, but they can live in timbered ridges and uplands as well as rocky coasts, sometimes nesting on cliff ledges rather than trees. Buzzards may live from sea level to elevations of 2,000 m (6,600 ft), breeding mostly below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) but they can winter to an elevation of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and migrates easily to 4,500 m (14,800 ft). In the mountainous Italian Apennines, buzzard nests were at a mean elevation of 1,399 m (4,590 ft) and were, relative to the surrounding area, further from human developed areas (i.e. roads) and nearer to valley bottoms in rugged, irregularly topographed places, especially ones that faced northeast. Common buzzards are fairly adaptable to agricultural lands but will show can show regional declines in apparent response to agriculture. Changes to more extensive agricultural practices were shown to reduce buzzard populations in western France where reduction of ""hedgerows, woodlots and grasslands areas"" caused a decline of buzzards and in Hampshire, England where more extensive grazing by free-range cattle and horses led to declines of buzzards, probably largely due to the seeming reduction of small mammal populations there. On the contrary, buzzards in central Poland adapted to removal of pine trees and reduction of rodent prey by changing nest sites and prey for a time with no strong change in their local numbers. Extensive urbanization seems to negatively affect buzzards, this species being generally less adaptable to urban areas than their New World counterparts, the red-tailed hawk. Although peri-urban areas can actually increase potential prey populations in a location at times, individual buzzard mortality, nest disturbances and nest site habitat degradation rises significantly in such areas. Common buzzards are fairly adaptive to rural areas as well as suburban areas with parks and large gardens, in addition to such areas if they're near farms.


== Behaviour ==

The common buzzard is a typical Buteo in much of its behaviour. It is most often seen either soaring at varying heights or perched prominently on tree tops, bare branches, telegraph poles, fence posts, rocks or ledges, or alternately well inside tree canopies. Buzzards will also stand and forage on the ground. In resident populations, it may spend more than half of its day inactively perched. Furthermore, it has been described a ""sluggish and not very bold"" bird of prey. It is a gifted soarer once aloft and can do so for extended periods but can appear laborious and heavy in level flight, more so nominate buzzards than steppe buzzards. Particularly in migration, as was recorded in the case of steppe buzzards' movement over Israel, buzzards readily adjust their direction, tail and wing placement and flying height to adjust for the surrounding environment and wind conditions. In Israel, migrant buzzards rarely soar all that high (maximum 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) above ground) due to the lack of mountain ridges that in other areas typically produce flyways; however tail-winds are significant and allow birds to cover a mean of 9.8 metres per second (22 miles per hour).


=== Migration ===

The common buzzard is aptly described as a partial migrant. The autumn and spring movements of buzzards are subject to extensive variation, even down to the individual level, based on a region's food resources, competition (both from other buzzards and other predators), extent of human disturbance and weather conditions. Short-distance movements are the norm for juveniles and some adults in autumn and winter, but more adults in central Europe and the British Isles remain on their year-around residence than do not. Even for first year juvenile buzzards dispersal may not take them very far. In England, 96% of first-years moved in winter to less than 100 km (62 mi) from their natal site. Southwestern Poland was recorded to be a fairly important wintering grounds for central European buzzards in early spring that apparently travelled from somewhat farther north, in winter average density was a locally high 2.12 individual per square kilometer. Habitat and prey availability seemed to be the primary drivers of habitat selection in fall for European buzzards. In northern Germany, buzzards were recorded to show preferences in fall for areas fairly distant from nesting site, with a large quantity of vole-holes and more widely dispersed perches. In Bulgaria, the mean wintering density was 0.34 individual per square kilometer, and buzzards showed a preference for agricultural over forested areas. Similar habitat preferences were recorded in northeastern Romania, where buzzard density was 0.334–0.539 individuals per square kilometer. The nominate buzzards of Scandinavia are somewhat more strongly migratory than most central European populations. However, birds from Sweden show some variation in migratory behaviours. A maximum of 41,000 individuals have been recorded at one of the main migration sites within southern Sweden in Falsterbo. In southern Sweden, winter movements and migration was studied via observation of buzzard colour. White individuals were substantially more common in southern Sweden rather than further north in their Swedish range. The southern population migrates earlier than intermediate to dark buzzards, in both adults and juveniles. A larger proportion of juveniles than of adults migrate in the southern population. Especially adults in the southern population are resident to a higher degree than more northerly breeders.
The entire population of the steppe buzzard is strongly migratory, covering substantial distances during migration. In no part of the range do steppe buzzards use the same summering and wintering grounds. Steppe buzzards are slightly gregarious in migration, and travel in variously sized flocks. This race migrates in September to October often from Asia Minor to the Cape of Africa in about a month but does not cross water, following around the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria rather than crossing the several kilometer wide gulf. Similarly, they will funnel along both sides of the Black Sea. Migratory behavior of steppe buzzards mirrors those of broad-winged & Swainson's hawks (Buteo platypterus & swainsoni) in every significant way as similar long-distance migrating Buteos, including trans-equatorial movements, avoidance of large bodies of waters and flocking behaviour. Migrating steppe buzzards will rise up with the morning thermals and can cover an average of hundreds of miles a day using the available currents along mountain ridges and other topographic features. The spring migration for steppe buzzards peaks around March–April, but the latest vulpinus arrive in their breeding grounds by late April or early May. Distances covered by migrating steppe buzzards in one way flights from northern Europe (i.e. Finland or Sweden) to southern Africa have ranged over 13,000 km (8,100 mi) within a season . For the steppe buzzards from eastern and northern Europe and western Russia (which compromise a majority of all steppe buzzards), peak migratory numbers occur in differing areas in autumn, when the largest recorded movements occurs through Asia Minor such as Turkey, than in spring, when the largest recorded movement are to the south in the Middle East, especially Israel. The two migratory movements barely differ overall until they reach the Middle East and east Africa, where the largest volume of migrants in autumn occurs at the southern part of the Red Sea, around Djibouti and Yemen, while the main volume in spring is in the northernmost strait, around Egypt and Israel. In autumn, numbers of steppe buzzards recorded in migration have ranged up to 32,000 (recorded 1971) in northwestern Turkey (Bosporus) and in northeastern Turkey (Black Sea) up to 205,000 (recorded 1976). Further down in migration, autumn numbers of up to 98,000 have been recorded in passage in Djibouti. Between 150,000 and nearly 466,000 Steppe Buzzard have been recorded migrating through Israel during spring, making this not only the most abundant migratory raptor here but one of the largest raptor migrations anywhere in the world. Migratory movements of southern Africa buzzards largely occur along the major mountain ranges, such as the Drakensberg and Lebombo Mountains. Wintering steppe buzzards occur far more irregularly in Transvaal than Cape region in winter. The onset of migratory movement for steppe buzzards back to the breeding grounds in southern Africa is mainly in March, peaking in the second week. Steppe buzzard molt their feathers rapidly upon arrival at wintering grounds and seems to split their flight feather molt between breeding ground in Eurasia and wintering ground in southern Africa, the molt pausing during migration. In last 50 years, it was recorded that nominate buzzards are typically migrating shorter distances and wintering further north, possibly in response to climate change, resulting in relatively smaller numbers of them at migration sites. They are also extending their breeding range possibly reducing/supplanting steppe buzzards.


=== Vocalizations ===
Resident populations of common buzzards tend to vocalize all year around, whereas migrants tend to vocalize only during the breeding season. Both nominate buzzards and steppe buzzards (and their numerous related subspecies within their types) tend to have similar voices. The main call of the species is a plaintive, far-carrying pee-yow or peee-oo, used as both contact call and more excitedly in aerial displays. Their call is sharper, more ringing when used in aggression, tends to be more drawn-out and wavering when chasing intruders, sharper, more yelping when as warning when approaching the nest or shorter and more explosive when called in alarm. Other variations of their vocal performances include a cat-like mew, uttered repeatedly on the wing or when perched, especially in display; a repeated mah has been recorded as uttered by pairs answering each other, further chuckles and croaks have also been recorded at nests. Juveniles can usually be distinguished by the discordant nature of their calls compared to those of adults.


== Dietary biology ==

The common buzzard is a generalist predator which hunts a wide variety of prey given the opportunity. Their prey spectrum extents to a wide variety of vertebrates including mammals, birds (from any age from eggs to adult birds), reptiles, amphibians and, rarely, fish, as well as to various invertebrates, mostly insects. Young animals are often attacked, largely the nidifugous young of various vertebrates. In total well over 300 prey species are known to be taken by common buzzards. Furthermore, prey size can vary from tiny beetles, caterpillars and ants to large adult grouse and rabbits up to nearly twice their body mass. Mean body mass of vertebrate prey was estimated at 179.6 g (6.34 oz) in Belarus. At times, they will also subsist partially on carrion, usually of dead mammals or fish. However, dietary studies have shown that they mostly prey upon small mammals, largely small rodents. Like many temperate zone raptorial birds of varied lineages, voles are an essential part of the common buzzard's diet. This bird's preference for the interface between woods and open areas frequently puts them in ideal vole habitat. Hunting in relatively open areas has been found to increase hunting success whereas more complete shrub cover lowered success. A majority of prey is taken by dropping from perch, and is normally taken on ground. Alternately, prey may be hunted in a low flight. This species tends not to hunt in a spectacular stoop but generally drops gently then gradually accelerate at bottom with wings held above the back. Sometimes, the buzzard also forages by random glides or soars over open country, wood edges or clearings. Perch hunting may be done preferentially but buzzards fairly regularly also hunt from a ground position when the habitat demands it. Outside the breeding season, as many 15–30 buzzards have been recorded foraging on ground in a single large field, especially juveniles. Normally the rarest foraging type is hovering. A study from Great Britain indicated that hovering does not seem to increase hunting success.


=== Mammals ===

A high diversity of rodents may be taken given the chance, as around 60 species of rodent have been recorded in the foods of common buzzards. It seems clear that voles are the most significant prey type for European buzzards. Nearly every study from the continent makes reference to the importance, in particular, of the two most numerous and widely distributed European voles: the 28.5 g (1.01 oz) common vole (Microtus arvalis) and the somewhat more northerly ranging 40 g (1.4 oz) field vole (Microtus agrestis). In southern Scotland, field voles were the best-represented species in pellets, accounting for 32.1% of 581 pellets. In southern Norway, field voles were again the main food in years with peak vole numbers, accounting for 40.8% of 179 prey items in 1985 and 24.7% of 332 prey items in 1994. Altogether, rodents amount to 67.6% and 58.4% of the foods in these respective peak vole years. However, in low vole population years, the contribution of rodents to the diet was minor. As far west as the Netherlands, common voles were the most regular prey, amounting to 19.6% of 6624 prey items in a very large study. Common voles were the main foods recorded in central Slovakia, accounting for 26.5% of 606 prey items. The common vole, or other related vole species at times, were the main foods as well in Ukraine (17.2% of 146 prey items) ranging east to Russia in the Privolshky Steppe Nature Reserve (41.8% of 74 prey items) and in Samara (21.4% of 183 prey items). Other records from Russia and Ukraine show voles ranging from slightly secondary prey to as much as 42.2% of the diet. In Belarus, voles, including Microtus species and 18.4 g (0.65 oz) bank voles (Myodes glareolus), accounted for 34.8% of the biomass on average in 1065 prey items from different study areas over 4 years. At least 12 species of the genus Microtus are known to be hunted by common buzzards and even this is probably conservative, moreover similar species like lemmings will be taken if available.
Other rodents are taken largely opportunistically rather than by preference. Several wood mice (Apodemus ssp.) are known to be taken quite frequently but given their preference for activity in deeper woods than the field-forest interfaces preferred, they are rarely more than secondary food items. An exception was in Samara where the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis), one of the largest of its genus at 28.4 g (1.00 oz), made up 20.9%, putting it just behind the common vole in importance. Similarly, tree squirrels are readily taken but rarely important in the foods of buzzards in Europe, as buzzards apparently prefer to avoid taking prey from trees nor do they possess the agility typically necessary to capture significant quantities of tree squirrels. All four ground squirrels that range (mostly) into eastern Europe are also known to be common buzzard prey but little quantitative analysis has gone into how significant such predator-prey relations are. Rodent prey taken have ranged in size from the 7.8 g (0.28 oz) Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) to the non-native, 1,100 g (2.4 lb) muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus). Other rodents taken either seldom or in areas where the food habits of buzzards are spottily known include flying squirrels, marmots (presumably very young if taken alive), chipmunks, spiny rats, hamsters, mole-rats, gerbils, jirds and jerboas and occasionally hearty numbers of dormice, although these are nocturnal. Surprisingly little research has gone into the diets of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa, considering their numerous status there. However, it has been indicated that the main prey remains consist of rodents such as the four-striped grass mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) and Cape mole-rats (Georychus capensis).
Other than rodents, two other groups of mammals can be counted as significant to the diet of common buzzards. One of these main prey types of import in the diets of common buzzards are leporids or lagomorphs, especially the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) where it is found in numbers in a wild or feral state. In all dietary studies from Scotland, rabbits were highly important to the buzzard's diet. In southern Scotland, rabbits constituted 40.8% of remains at nests and 21.6% of pellet contents, while lagomorphs (mainly rabbits but also some young hares) were present in 99% of remains in Moray, Scotland. The nutritional richness relative to the commonest prey elsewhere, such as voles, might account for the high productivity of buzzards here. For example, clutch sizes were twice as large on average where rabbits were common (Moray) than were where they were rare (Glen Urquhart). In northern Ireland, an area of interest because it is devoid of any native vole species, rabbits were again the main prey. Here, lagomorphs constituted 22.5% of prey items by number and 43.7% by biomass. While rabbits are non-native, albeit long-established, in the British Isles, in their native area of the Iberian peninsula, rabbits are similarly significant to the buzzard's diet. In Murcia, Spain, rabbits were the most common mammal in the diet, making up 16.8% of 167 prey items. In a large study from northeastern Spain, rabbits were dominant in the buzzard's foods, making up 66.5% of 598 prey items. In the Netherlands, European rabbits were second in number (19.1% of 6624 prey items) only to common voles and the largest contributor of biomass to nests (36.7%). Outside of these (at least historically) rabbit-rich areas, leverets of the common hare species found in Europe can be important supplemental prey. European hare (Lepus europaeus) were the fourth most important prey species in central Poland and the third most significant prey species in Stavropol Krai, Russia. Buzzards normally attack the young of European rabbits and hares. Most of the rabbits taken by buzzard variously been estimated from 159 to 550 g (5.6 to 19.4 oz), and infrequently up to 700 g (1.5 lb) in weight. Similarly, in different areas and the mean weight of brown hares taken in Finland was around 500 g (1.1 lb). One young mountain hares (Lepus timidus) taken in Norway was estimated to about 1,000 g (2.2 lb). However, common buzzards are known to kill adult rabbits at times. This can be supported by remains of relatively large-sized tarsus bones of the rabbit, up to 64mm in length.
The other significant mammalian prey type is insectivores, among which more than 20 species are known to be taken by this species, including nearly all the species of shrew, mole and hedgehog found in Europe. Moles are taken particularly often among this order, since as is the case with ""vole-holes"", buzzards probably tend to watch molehills in fields for activity and dive quickly from their perch when one of the subterranean mammals pops up. The most widely found mole in the buzzard's northern range is the 98 g (3.5 oz) European mole (Talpa europaea) and this is one of the more important non-rodent prey items for the species. This species was present in 55% of 101 remains in Glen Urquhart, Scotland and was the second most common prey species (18.6%) in 606 prey items in Slovakia. In Bari, Italy, the Roman mole (Talpa romana), of similar size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet. The full-size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the 1.8 g (0.063 oz) Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus) to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the 800 g (28 oz) European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs is rarely taken. Occasionally, some weasels such as least weasel (Mustela nivalis) and stoat (Mustela erminea) are taken, and remains of young pine martens (Martes martes) and adult european polecats (Mustela putorius) was found in buzzard nest. Numerous larger mammals, including medium-sized carnivores such as dogs, cats and foxes and various ungulates, are sometimes eaten as carrion by buzzards, mainly during lean winter months. Still-borns of deer are also visited with some frequency.


=== Birds ===

When attacking birds, common buzzards chiefly prey on nestlings and fledglings of small to medium-sized birds, largely passerines but also a variety of gamebirds, but sometimes also injured, sickly or unwary but healthy adults. While capable of overpowering birds larger than itself, the common buzzard is usually considered to lack the agility necessary to capture many adult birds, even gamebirds which would presumably be weaker fliers considering their relatively heavy bodies and small wings. The amount of fledgling and younger birds preyed upon relative to adults is variable, however. For example, in the Italian Alps, 72% of birds taken were fledglings or recently fledged juveniles, 19% were nestlings and 8% were adults. On the contrary, in southern Scotland, even though the buzzards were taking relatively large bird prey, largely red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica), 87% of birds taken were reportedly adults. In total, as in many raptorial birds that are far from bird-hunting specialists, birds are the most diverse group in the buzzard's prey spectrum due to the sheer number and diversity of birds, few raptors do not hunt them at least occasionally. Nearly 150 species of bird have been identified in the common buzzard's diet. In general, despite many that are taken, birds usually take a secondary position in the diet after mammals. In northern Scotland, birds were fairly numerous in the foods of buzzards. The most often recorded avian prey and 2nd and 3rd most frequent prey species (after only field voles) in Glen Urquhart, were 23.9 g (0.84 oz) chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and 18.4 g (0.65 oz) meadow pipits (Anthus pratensis), with the buzzards taking 195 fledglings of these species against only 90 adults. This differed from Moray where the most frequent avian prey and 2nd most frequent prey species behind the rabbit was the 480 g (17 oz) common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) and the buzzards took four times as many adults relative to fledglings.
Birds were the primary food for common buzzards in the Italian Alps, where they made up 46% of the diet against mammal which accounted for 29% in 146 prey items. The leading prey species here were 103 g (3.6 oz) Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula) and 160 g (5.6 oz) Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), albeit largely fledglings were taken of both. Birds could also take the leading position in years with low vole populations in southern Norway, in particular thrushes, namely the blackbird, the 67.7 g (2.39 oz) song thrush (Turdus philomelos) and the 61 g (2.2 oz) redwing (Turdus iliacus), which were collectively 22.1% of 244 prey items in 1993. In southern Spain, birds were equal in number to mammals in the diet, both at 38.3%, but most remains were classified as ""unidentified medium-sized birds"", although the most often identified species of those that apparently could be determined were Eurasian jays and red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). Similarly, in northern Ireland, birds were roughly equal in import to mammals but most were unidentified corvids. In Seversky Donets, Ukraine, birds and mammals both made up 39.3% of the foods of buzzards. Common buzzards may hunt nearly 80 species passerines and nearly all available gamebirds. Like many other largish raptors, gamebirds are attractive to hunt for buzzards due to their ground-dwelling habits. Buzzards were the most frequent predator in a study of juvenile pheasants in England, accounting for 4.3% of 725 deaths (against 3.2% by foxes, 0.7% by owls and 0.5% by other mammals). They also prey on a wide size range of birds, ranging down to Europe's smallest bird, the 5.2 g (0.18 oz) goldcrest (Regulus regulus). Very few individual birds hunted by buzzards weigh more than 500 g (1.1 lb). However, there have been some particularly large avian kills by buzzards, including any that weigh more or 1,000 g (2.2 lb), or about the largest average size of a buzzard, have including adults of mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), common raven (Corvus corax) and some of the larger gulls if ambushed on their nests. The largest avian kill by a buzzard, and possibly largest known overall for the species, was an adult female western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) that weighed an estimated 1,985 g (4.376 lb). At times, buzzards will hunt the young of large birds such as herons and cranes. Other assorted avian prey has included a few species of waterfowl, most available pigeons and doves, cuckoos, swifts, grebes, rails, nearly 20 assorted shorebirds, tubenoses, hoopoes, bee-eaters and several types of woodpecker. Birds with more conspicuous or open nesting areas or habits are more likely to have fledglings or nestlings attacked, such as water birds, while those with more secluded or inaccessible nests, such as pigeons/doves and woodpeckers, adults are more likely to be hunted.


=== Reptiles and amphibians ===

The common buzzard may be the most regular avian predator of reptiles and amphibians in Europe apart from the sections where they are sympatric with the largely snake-eating short-toed eagle. In total, the prey spectrum of common buzzards include nearly 50 herpetological prey species. In studies from northern and southern Spain, the leading prey numerically were both reptilian, although in Biscay (northern Spain) the leading prey (19%) was classified as ""unidentified snakes"". In Murcia, the most numerous prey was the 77.2 g (2.72 oz) ocellated lizard (Timon lepidus), at 32.9%. In total, at Biscay and Murcia, reptiles accounted for 30.4% and 35.9% of the prey items, respectively. Findings were similar in a separate study from northeastern Spain, where reptiles amounted to 35.9% of prey. In Bari, Italy, reptiles were the main prey, making up almost exactly half of the biomass, led by the large green whip snake (Hierophis viridiflavus), at 24.2% of food mass. In Stavropol Krai, Russia, the 20 g (0.71 oz) sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) was the main prey at 23.7% of 55 prey items. The 16 g (0.56 oz) slowworm (Anguis fragilis), a legless lizard, became the most numerous prey for the buzzards of southern Norway in low vole years, amounting to 21.3% of 244 prey items in 1993 and were also common even in the peak vole year of 1994 (19% of 332 prey items). More or less any snake in Europe is potential prey and the buzzard has been known to be uncharacteristically bold in going after and overpowering large snakes such as rat snakes, ranging up to nearly 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in length, and healthy, large vipers despite the danger of being struck by such prey. However, in at least one case, the corpse of a female buzzard was found envenomed over the body of an adder that it had killed. In some parts of range, the common buzzard acquires the habit of taking many frogs and toads. This was the case in the Mogilev Region of Belarus where the 23 g (0.81 oz) moor frog (Rana arvalis) was the major prey (28.5%) over several years, followed by other frogs and toads amounting to 39.4% of the diet over the years. In central Scotland, the 46 g (1.6 oz) common toad (Bufo bufo) was the most numerous prey species, accounting for 21.7% of 263 prey items, while the common frog (Rana temporaria) made up a further 14.7% of the diet. Frogs made up about 10% of the diet in central Poland as well.


=== Invertebrates and other prey ===
When common buzzards feed on invertebrates, these are chiefly earthworms, beetles and caterpillars in Europe and largely seemed to be preyed on by juvenile buzzards with less refined hunting skills or in areas with mild winters and ample swarming or social insects. In most dietary studies, invertebrates are at best a minor supplemental contributor to the buzzard's diet. Nonetheless, roughly a dozen beetle species have found in the foods of buzzards from Ukraine alone. In winter in northeastern Spain, it was found that the buzzards switched largely from the vertebrate prey typically taken during spring and summer to a largely insect-based diet. Most of this prey was unidentified but the most frequently identified were European mantis (Mantis religiosa) and European mole cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa). In Ukraine, 30.8% of the food by number was found to be insects. Especially in winter quarters such as southern Africa, common buzzards are often attracted to swarming locusts and other orthopterans. In this way the steppe buzzard may mirror a similar long-distance migrant from the Americas, the Swainson's hawk, which feeds its young largely on nutritious vertebrates but switches to a largely insect-based once the reach their distant wintering grounds in South America. In Eritrea, 18 returning migrant steppe buzzards were seen to feed together on swarms of grasshoppers. For wintering steppe buzzards in Zimbabwe, one source went so far as to refer to them as primarily insectivorous, apparently being somewhat locally specialized to feeding on termites. Stomach contents in buzzards from Malawi apparently consisted largely of grasshoppers (alternately with lizards). Fish tend to be the rarest class of prey found in the common buzzard's foods. There are a couple cases of predation of fish detected in the Netherlands, while elsewhere they have been known to have fed upon eels and carp.


=== Interspecies predatory relationships ===

Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds. There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent. Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey. Some of the most similar species by diet are the common kestrel (Falco tinniculus), hen harrier (Circus cyaenus) and lesser spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer rodents such as voles in their diets. Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Poland, with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic. Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here. The only other widely found European Buteo, the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards. It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably. Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer wood mice than common buzzard. Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds. The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics. In northern Germany, the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species. Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and long-legged buzzards where they co-exist. However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as blind mole-rats, ground squirrels, hamsters and gerbils, from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.
A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks. Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant. In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks. The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard. In many cases, in Germany and Sweden, goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves. In Poland, buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10 to 80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi) against goshawk 1.63 pair per 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi). In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the red-tailed hawk (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there. Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility. Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter). Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests. Species such as the black kite (Milvus migrans), booted eagle (Hieraeetus pennatus) and the lesser spotted eagle have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves. The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual. More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to owls and falcons, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using. Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as common ravens, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards. In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards. Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as red kites (Milvus milvus) and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.

Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds. Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases. Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis) on migrating steppe buzzards in Israel. Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved golden, eastern imperial (Aquila heliaca), Bonelli's (Aquila fasciata) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Europe. Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young. These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them. Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard. Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging. Studies in Lithuania of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles. While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests. The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo). This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard. The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a ""super-predator"" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles. Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet. Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards. In the Czech Republic and in Luxembourg, the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively. The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of Germany has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards. The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family. As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the Verreaux's eagle-owl (Bubo lacteus), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa. Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as great grey owls (Strix nebulosa) and Ural owls (Strix uralensis). Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.
Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size. The buzzard is a known predator of 237 g (8.4 oz) Eurasian sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), 184 g (6.5 oz) common kestrel and 152 g (5.4 oz) lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) . Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls. Known owl prey has included 419 g (14.8 oz) Western barn owls (Tyto alba), 92 g (3.2 oz) European scops owls (Otus scops), 475 g (16.8 oz) tawny owls (Strix aluco), 169 g (6.0 oz) little owls (Athene noctua), 138 g (4.9 oz) boreal owls (Aegolius funereus), 286 g (10.1 oz) long-eared owls (Asio otus) and 355 g (12.5 oz) short-eared owls (Asio flammeus). Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls.


== Breeding ==


=== Nesting territories and density ===
Home ranges of common buzzards are generally 0.5 to 2 km2 (0.19 to 0.77 sq mi). The size of breeding territory seem to be generally correlated with food supply. In a German study, the range was 0.8 to 1.8 km2 (0.31 to 0.69 sq mi) with an average of 1.26 km2 (0.49 sq mi). Some of the lowest pair densities of common buzzards seem to come from Russia. For instance, in Kerzhenets Nature Reserve, the recorded density was 0.6 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) and the average distance of nearest neighbors was 3.8 km (2.4 mi). The Snowdonia region of northern Wales held a pair per 9.7 km2 (3.7 sq mi) with a mean nearest neighbor distance of 1.95 km (1.21 mi); in adjacent Migneint, pair occurrence was 7.2 km2 (2.8 sq mi), with a mean distance of 1.53 km (0.95 mi). In the Teno massif of the Canary Islands, the average density was estimated as 23 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), similar to that of a middling continental population. On another set of islands, on Crete the density of pairs was lower at 5.7 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi); here buzzards tend to have an irregular distribution, some in lower intensity harvest olive groves but their occurrence actually more common in agricultural than natural areas. In the Italian Alps, it was recorded in 1993–96 that there were from 28 to 30 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). In central Italy, density average was lower at 19.74 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Higher density areas are known than those above. Two areas of the Midlands of England showed occupancies of 81 and 22 territorial pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). High buzzard densities there were associated with high proportions of unimproved pasture and mature woodland within the estimated territories. Similarly high densities of common buzzards were estimated in central Slovakia using two different methods, here indicating densities of 96 to 129 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Despite claims from the study of the English midlands were the highest known territory density for the species, a number ranging from 32 to 51 pairs in wooded area of merely 22 km2 (8.5 sq mi) in Czech Republic seems to surely exceed even those densities. The Czech study hypothesized that fragmentation of forest in human management of lands for wild sheep and deer, creating exceptional concentrations of prey such as voles, and lack of appropriate habitat in surrounding regions for the exceptionally high density.
In the North-Estonian Neeruti landscape reserve (area 1250 ha), Marek Vahula found 9 populated nests in 1989 and 1990. One nest was found in 1982 and is apparently the oldest known nest that is still populated today.

Common buzzards maintain their territories through flight displays. In Europe, territorial behaviour generally starts in February. However, displays are not uncommon throughout year in resident pairs, especially by males, and can elicit similar displays by neighbors. In them, common buzzards generally engage in high circling, spiraling upward on slightly raised wings. Mutual high circling by pairs sometimes go on at length, especially during the period prior to or during breeding season. In mutual displays, a pair may follow each other at 10–50 m (33–164 ft) in level flight. During the mutual displays, the male may engage in exaggerated deep flapping or zig-zag tumbling, apparently in response to the female being too distant. Two or three pairs may circle together at times and as many as 14 individual adults have been recorded over established display sites. Sky-dancing by common buzzards have been recorded in spring and autumn, typically by male but sometimes by female, nearly always with much calling. Their sky-dances are of the rollercoaster type, with upward sweep until they start to stall, but sometimes embellished with loops or rolls at the top. Next in the sky-dance, they dive on more or less closed wings before spreading them and shooting up again, upward sweeps of up to 30 m (98 ft), with dive drops of up to at least 60 m (200 ft). These dances may be repeated in series of 10 to 20. In the climax of the sky dance, the undulations become progressive shallower, often slowing and terminating directly onto a perch. Various other aerial displays include low contour flight or weaving among trees, frequently with deep beats and exaggerated upstrokes which show underwing pattern to rivals perched below. Talon grappling and occasionally cartwheeling downward with feet interlocked has been recorded in buzzards and, as in many raptors, is likely the physical culmination of the aggressive territorial display, especially between males. Despite the highly territorial nature of buzzards and their devotion to a single mate and breeding ground each summer, there is one case of a polyandrous trio of buzzards nesting in the Canary Islands.


=== Nests ===
Common buzzards tend to build a bulky nest of sticks, twigs and often heather. Commonly, nests are up to 1 to 1.2 m (3 ft 3 in to 3 ft 11 in) across and 60 cm (24 in) deep. With reuse over years, the diameter can reach or exceed 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) and weight of nests can reach over 200 kg (440 lb). Active nests tend to be lined with greenery, most often this consists of broad-leafed foliage but sometimes also includes rush or seaweed locally. Nest height in trees is commonly 3 to 25 m (9.8 to 82.0 ft), usually by main trunk or main crutch of the tree. In Germany, trees used for nesting consisted mostly of red beeches (Fagus sylvatica) (in 337 cases), whereas a further 84 were in assorted oaks. Buzzards were recorded to nest almost exclusively in pines in Spain at a mean height of 14.5 m (48 ft). Trees are generally used for a nesting location but they will also utilize crags or bluffs if trees are unavailable. Buzzards in one English study were surprisingly partial to nesting on well-vegetated banks and due to the rich surrounding environment habitat and prey population, were actually more productive than nests located in other locations here. Furthermore, a few ground nests were recorded in high prey-level agricultural areas in the Netherlands. In the Italian Alps, 81% of 108 nests were on cliffs. The common buzzard generally lacks the propensity of its Nearctic counterpart, the red-tailed hawk, to occasionally nest on or near manmade structures (often in heavily urbanized areas) but in Spain some pairs recorded nesting along the perimeter of abandoned buildings. Pairs often have several nests but some pairs may use one over several consecutive years. Two to four alternate nests in a territory is typical for common buzzards, especially those breeding further north in their range.


=== Reproduction and eggs ===

The breeding season commences at differing times based on latitude. Common buzzard breeding seasons may fall as early as January to April but typically the breeding season is March to July in much of Palearctic. In the northern stretches of the range the breeding season may last into May–August. Mating usually occurs on or near the nest and lasts about 15 seconds, typically occurring several times a day. Eggs are usually laid in 2 to 3-day intervals. The clutch size can range from to 2 to 6, a relatively large clutch for an accipitrid. More northerly and westerly buzzard usually bear larger clutches, which average nearer 3, than those further east and south. In Spain, the average clutch size is about 2 to 2.3. From 4 locations in different parts of Europe, 43% had clutch size of 2, 41% had size of 3, clutches of 1 and 4 each constituted about 8%. Laying dates are remarkably constant throughout Great Britain. There are, however, highly significant differences in clutch size between British study areas. These do not follow any latitudinal gradient and it is likely that local factors such as habitat and prey availability are more important determinants of clutch size. The eggs are white in ground colour, rather round in shape with sporadic red to brown markings sometimes lightly showing. In the nominate race, egg size is 49.8–63.8 mm (1.96–2.51 in) in height by 39.1–48.2 mm (1.54–1.90 in) in diameter with an average of 55 mm × 44 mm (2.2 in × 1.7 in) in 600 eggs. In the race of vulpinus, egg height is 48–63 mm (1.9–2.5 in) by 39.2–47.5 mm (1.54–1.87 in) with an average of 54.2 mm × 42.8 mm (2.13 in × 1.69 in) in 303 eggs. Eggs are generally laid in late March to early April in extreme south, sometime in April in most of Europe, into May and possibly even early June in the extreme north. If eggs are lost to a predator (including humans) or fail in some other way, common buzzards do not usually lay replacement clutches but they have been recorded, even with 3 attempts of clutches by a single female. The female does most but not all of the incubating, doing so for a total of 33–35 days. The female remains at the nest brooding the young in the early stages with the male bringing all prey. At about 8–12 days, both the male and female will bring prey but the female continues to do all feeding until the young can tear up their own prey.


=== Development of young ===

Once hatching commences, it may take 48 hours for the chick to chip out. Hatching may take place over 3–7 days, with new hatchlings averaging about 45 g (1.6 oz) in body mass. Often the youngest nestling dies from starvation, especially in broods of three or more. In nestlings, the first down replaces by longer, coarser down at about 7 days of age with the first proper feathers appearing at 12 to 15 days. The young are nearly fully feathered rather than downy at about a month of age and can start to feed themselves as well. The first attempts to leave the nest are often at about 40–50 days, averaging usually 40–45 in nominate buzzards in Europe, but more quickly on average at 40–42 in vulpinus. Fledging occurs typically at 43–54 days but in extreme cases at as late 62 days. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in European fledglings, as females often scale about 1,000 g (2.2 lb) against 780 g (1.72 lb) in males. After leaving the nest, buzzards generally stay close by, but with migratory ones there is more definitive movement generally southbound. Full independence is generally sought 6 to 8 weeks after fledging. 1st year birds generally remain in wintering area for following summer but then return to near area of origin but then migrate south again without breeding. Radio-tracking suggests that most dispersal, even relatively early dispersals, by juvenile buzzards is undertaken independently rather than via exile by parents, as has been recorded in some other birds of prey. In common buzzards, generally speaking, siblings stay quite close to each other after dispersal from their parents and form something of a social group, although parents usually tolerate their presence on their territory until they are laying another clutch. However, the social group of siblings disbands at about a year of age. Juvenile buzzards are subordinate to adults during most encounters and tend to avoid direct confrontations and actively defended territories until they are of appropriate age (usually at least 2 years of age). This was the case as well for steppe buzzard juveniles wintering in southern Africa, although in some cases juveniles were able to successfully steal prey from adults there.


=== Breeding success rates ===
Numerous factors may weigh into the breeding success of common buzzards. Chiefly among these are prey populations, habitat, disturbance and persecution levels and innerspecies competition. In Germany, intra- and interspecific competition, plumage morph, laying date, precipitation levels and anthropogenic disturbances in the breeding territory, in declining order, were deemed to be the most significant bearers of breeding success. In an accompanying study, it was found that a mere 17% of adult birds of both sexes present in a German study area produced 50% of offspring, so breeding success may be lower than perceived and many adult buzzards for unknown causes may not attempt to breed at all. High breeding success was detected in Argyll, Scotland, due likely to hearty prey populations (rabbits) but also probably a lower local rate of persecution than elsewhere in the British isles. Here, the mean number of fledglings were 1.75 against 0.82–1.41 in other parts of Britain. It was found in the English Midlands that breeding success both by measure of clutch size and mean number of fledglings, was relatively high thanks again to high prey populations. Breeding success was lower farther from significant stands of trees in the Midlands and most nesting failures that could be determined occurred in the incubation stage, possibly in correlation with predation of eggs by corvids. More significant than even prey, late winter-early spring was found to be likely the primary driver of breeding success in buzzards from southern Norway. Here, even in peak vole years, nesting success could be considerably hampered by heavy snow at this crucial stage. In Norway, large clutches of 3+ were expected only in years with minimal snow cover, high vole populations and lighter rains in May–June. In the Italian Alps, the mean number of fledglings per pair was 1.07. 33.4% of nesting attempts were failures per a study in southwestern Germany, with an average of 1.06 of all nesting attempts and 1.61 for all successful attempt. In Germany, weather conditions and rodent populations seemed to be the primary drivers of nesting success. In Murcia part of Spain contrasted with Biscay to the north, higher levels of interspecific competition from booted eagles and northern goshawks did not appear to negatively affect breeding success due to more ample prey populations (rabbits again) in Murcia than in Biscay.
In the Westphalia area of Germany, it was found that intermediate colour morphs were more productive than those that were darker or lighter. For reasons that are not entirely clear, apparently fewer parasites were found to afflict broods of intermediate plumaged buzzard less so than dark and light phenotypes, in particular higher melanin levels somehow were found to be more inviting to parasitic organism that effect the health of the buzzard's offspring. The composition of habitat and its relation to human disturbance were important variables for the dark and light phenotypes but were less important to intermediate individuals. Thus selection pressures resulting from different factors did not vary much between sexes but varied between the three phenotypes in the population. Breeding success in areas with wild European rabbits was considerably effected by rabbit myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, both of which have heavily depleted wild rabbit population. Breeding success in formerly rabbit-rich areas were recorded to decrease from as much as 2.6 to as little as 0.9 young per pair. Age of first breeding in several radio-tagged buzzards showed only a single male breeding as early as his 2nd summer (at about a year of age). Significantly more buzzards were found to start breeding at the 3 summer but breeding attempts can be individually erratic given the availability of habitat, food and mates. The mean life expectancy was estimated at 6.3 years in the late 1950s, but this was at a time of high persecution when humans were causing 50–80% of buzzard deaths. In a more modern context with regionally reduced persecution rates, the lifespan expected can be higher (possibly in excess of 10 years at times) but is still widely variable due to a wide variety of factors.


== Status ==

The common buzzard is one of the most numerous birds of prey in its range. Almost certainly, it is the most numerous diurnal bird of prey throughout Europe. Conservative estimates put the total population at no fewer than 700,000 pairs in Europe, which are more than twice the total estimates for the next four birds of prey estimated as most common: the Eurasian sparrowhawk (more than 340,000 pairs), the common kestrel (more than 330,000 pairs) and the northern goshawk (more than 160,000 pairs). Ferguson-Lees et al. roughly estimated that the total population of the common buzzard ranges to nearly 5 million pairs but at time was including the now split-off species of eastern and Himalayan buzzards in those numbers. These numbers may be excessive but the total population of common buzzards is certain to total well over seven figures. More recently, the IUCN estimated the common buzzard (sans the Himalayan and eastern subspecies) to number somewhere between 2.1 and 3.7 million birds, which would put this buzzard one of the most numerous of all accipitrid family members (estimates for Eurasian sparrowhawks, red-tailed hawks and northern goshawks also may range over 2 million). In 1991, other than their absence in Iceland, after having been extent as breeder by 1910, buzzards recolonized Ireland sometime in the 1950s and has increased by the 1990s to 26 pairs. Supplemental feeding has reportedly helped the Irish buzzard population to rebound, especially where rabbits have decreased. Most other countries have at least four figures of breeding pairs. As of the 1990s, other countries such as Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Poland, Sweden, Belarus and Ukraine all numbered pairs well into five figures, while Germany had an estimated 140,000 pairs and European Russian may have held 500,000 pairs. Between 44,000 and 61,000 pairs nested in Great Britain by 2001 with numbers gradually increasing after past persecution, habitat alteration and prey reductions, making it by far the most abundant diurnal raptor there. In Westphalia, Germany, population of buzzards was shown to nearly triple over the last few decades. The Westphalian buzzards are possibly benefiting from increasingly warmer mean climate, which in turn is increasing vulnerability of voles. However, the rate of increase was significantly greater in males than in females, in part because of reintroduced Eurasian eagle-owls to the region preying on nests (including the brooding mother), which may in turn put undue pressure on the local buzzard population.
At least 238 common buzzards killed through persecution were recovered in England from 1975 to 1989, largely through poisoning. Persecution did not significantly differ at any time due this span of years nor did the persecution rates decrease, nor did it when compared to rates of last survey of this in 1981. While some persecution persists in England, it is probably slightly less common today. The buzzard was found to be the most vulnerable raptor to power-line collision fatalities in Spain probably as it is one of the most common largish birds, and together with the common raven, it accounted for nearly a third of recorded electrocutions. Given its relative abundance, the common buzzard is held as an ideal bioindicator, as they are effected by a range of pesticide and metal contamination through pollution like other raptors but are largely resilient to these at the population levels. In turn, this allows biologists to study (and harvest if needed) the buzzards intensively and their environments without affecting their overall population. The lack of affect may be due to the buzzard's adaptability as well as its relatively short, terrestrially-based food chain, which exposes them to less risk of contamination and population depletions than raptors that prey more heavily on water-based prey (such as some large eagles) or other birds (such as falcons). Common buzzards are seldom vulnerable to egg-shell thinning from DDT as are other raptors but egg-shell thinning has been recorded. Other factors that negatively effect raptors have been studied in common buzzards are helminths, avipoxvirus and assorted other viruses.


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== General sources ===
Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Collins Bird Guide. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-219728-1.
Sinclair, Ian; Hockey, Phil; Tarboton, Warwick (2002). SASOL Birds of Southern Africa. Struik. ISBN 978-1-86872-721-6.


== External links ==

Steppe Buzzard species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Madeira Birds: Buzzard. Page about the controversial subspecies harterti. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) Archived 12 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
BirdLife species factsheet for Buteo buteo
""Buteo buteo"". Avibase. 
""Eurasian buzzard media"". Internet Bird Collection.
Common buzzard photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Audio recordings of Common buzzard on Xeno-canto.",1.361944556236267
"Carterton, Oxfordshire","Carterton is a town in West Oxfordshire district in the county of Oxfordshire, England and is 4 miles (6.4 km) south-west of Witney. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 15,769.


== History ==
Much of what is now the northern part of the town was held by the Moleyns family from at least 1369, but in 1429 William Lord Moleyns was killed at the siege of Orléans and the land passed to the Hungerford family. During the medieval period the main road through Carterton was one of the most important in the country, taking trains of packhorses laden with Cotswold wool over Radcot Bridge and on to Southampton for export to the weaving centre of Europe.  In the 1770s the land was acquired by the Duke of Marlborough.
The pattern of the present settlement dates from 1894 when part of the estate was sold to Homesteads Limited whose director was William Carter. The land was divided into plots of 6 acres and sold for £20 an acre with bungalows costing from £120. Many of the settlers were retired soldiers and people moving from the towns. Carterton soon made its name in the market gardening world. Black grapes from Frenchester Nurseries and the famous Carterton tomatoes were sold at Covent Garden Market.
Carterton, which by the late 20th century was one of the largest towns in Oxfordshire, was founded soon after 1900 as a colony of smallholders, on agricultural land in the northern part of Black Bourton parish. The founder was William Carter of Branksome (Dorset), a speculator who, through his company Homesteads Ltd of London, bought estates in several counties, in order to establish smallholdings and attract people back to the land. In Oxfordshire he acquired from W. C. Arkell, in 1900, the 740-a. Rock farm north of Black Bourton village, part of an estate sold by the duke of Marlborough in 1894. By late 1902 there were 16 houses, and the following year the new settlement, already called Carterton, was included in a local trades directory.


=== Development from the Second World War ===
Carterton's later growth was closely related to the construction in 1937 of the nearby RAF Brize Norton airbase. This development profoundly altered the settlement's character as Brize Norton became the Royal Air Force's largest operating base. A small group of substantial two-storey houses for RAF personnel, called Brizewood, was built east of Swinbrook Road about 1938, and in the 1950s was expanded with uniform bungalows for American servicemen. By 1953 Carterton was a ""busy and expanding village"", and its rapid population increase was creating severe housing problems: in 1962 the plight of significant numbers of caravan dwellers prompted an article in the Lancet, though many residents took exception to the town's portrayal, and denied that the picture was typical. By then there were claimed to be more civilians than servicemen living in mobile homes, some of them single women, and the ""shack-like houses of the early settlers"", their ""meagre appearance [bearing] eloquen"" elsewhere on the ""busy village main street"". 
A few scattered ""Robin"" hangars, hastily built during the Second World War to allow aircraft to be housed away from the airfield itself, were converted to other uses during the same period, one on Alvescot Road surviving in the early 21st century as part of a motor repair garage. Rock Farm and its converted agricultural buildings, all stone-built, survived as a small group at the intersection of Lawton and Arkell Avenues, with William Wilkinson's pair of model labourers' cottages set back from the Alvescot road between modern housing.   In 1967 an ambitious scheme was launched for controlled expansion and for regeneration of the town centre, with a ring road (Upavon Way) to serve new housing, to divert traffic from the centre, and to contain future expansion. New RAF housing was to provide over 1,450 dwellings and private enterprise another 300, while local authorities were to provide shops and other much needed facilities around the central crossroads. A reduced scheme for the town centre was launched in 1975 after repeated delays and controversy, and Upavon Way was opened soon after.
By 1976 over 2,000 houses had been built since the 1960s, those on the large estates in the north-east mostly of uniform appearance with concrete exteriors, and 850 more were planned. Settlement by then spilled over the parish boundary into Brize Norton, though on the north there was no expansion beyond the parish boundary, and expansion south of Milestone Road was constrained by the airfield perimeter. A large transit hotel within the airfield precinct was built by the RAF in 1970 to serve military personnel and their families. The number of people in mobile homes still caused controversy in 1980, when there were almost 250 permanent or temporary pitches distributed among several sites, and in the early 1980s some sites were closed and replaced by council houses. Expansion in the town's eastern part, chiefly for housing, continued in the mid 1980s.  
By 1997 the town centre had been transformed: shops in a variety of styles lined the four broad main streets, interspersed with a few older buildings such as the Beehive Hotel and the former Emporium, and the crossroads was dominated by a tall domed tower built in 1996, surmounting new shops and offices. A large Co-operative Society supermarket of flamboyant design, on the site of the earlier building on Black Bourton Road, was erected in 1998, and in 2000 work began on a major expansion programme on the town's eastern edge, to include another 1,200 houses, a shopping centre, leisure facilities, and a new access road. A variety of early settlers' houses also survived scattered among the modern buildings, though by 2004 several had been recently demolished or were semiderelict and under threat from developers, prompting mounting local controversy.


== Public buildings and social provision ==

In the late 1960s a new police station was built on Burford Road for a staff of eight, together with six police houses, and the original police house was demolished. A war memorial erected at the crossroads about 1920 was moved to the new town hall on Alvescot Road which was completed in 1983. A reading room mentioned in 1917 was succeeded by a small library also in part of the former Emporium. Refreshment rooms were mentioned in 1924, the Beehive Hotel on Burford Road was opened in 1932, and the Golden Eagle (renamed the Olde Aviator in 1996) was opened in the former Emporium in 1954. 
Land for a recreation ground north of Alvescot Road was given by Carter in 1906, and football, cricket, tennis, and bowls clubs were formed around 1920, together with a choral society. From 1904 to the 1920s there was a resident physician, and in 1928 a solicitor visited once a week. Construction work on RAF Brize Norton began in 1935. Wartime saw the rapid growth of the base. An air raid destroyed 46 aircraft; the remainder were then dispersed round the village and one hangar which is now an Aldi supermarket on the Alvescot Road. From 1950 to 1965 the camp was to be the home of the USAF bomber wings. The RAF returned in 1965 and undertook a large building programme, making RAF Brize Norton its main air transport base in the country.  
Carterton Town Hall was built south of Alvescot Road in 1982–3. With the growth of the village, the small mission church at the central crossroads was replaced in 1963 by the church of St John the Evangelist. The link with the mother church of St. Mary's at Black Bourton was kept alive by the donation of one of the bells from the tower. This was made by H. Knight of Reading and is dated 1619.  
In the first decade of the 21st century, the new Shilton Park development in Northeast Carterton was built, providing a mix of housing for private ownership and social letting. The new St. John's Church of England primary school has been built at Shilton Park and construction of a local shopping centre is now complete. A new Memorial Garden has been built near the town to continue the public mourning seen at Royal Wootton Bassett as military repatriations for dead service personnel have now been routed to Brize Norton.


== Governance ==
The grandfather of Theo Walcott, Windell ""Joe"" Walcott (1926–2018), was council chairman between 2002 and 2006 and mayor of Carterton from 2000 to 2002. He was awarded an MBE in 2006 for his services to the community in Carterton and West Oxfordshire.


== Education ==
Carterton has one Secondary School:

Carterton Community College, 
Carterton has five primary schools:

Carterton Primary School,
Edith Moorhouse Primary School,
The Gateway Primary School,
St John the Evangelist Church of England Primary School and
St Joseph's Catholic Primary School.
St. John the Evangelist and St. Joseph's are voluntary controlled schools.  Carterton Community College is the town's secondary school.


== Media ==
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian. Television signals are received from the Oxford TV transmitter.  Local radio stations are BBC Radio Oxford on 95.2 FM, Heart South on 102.6 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South (formerly Jack FM) on 106.4 FM and Witney Radio, a community based station which broadcast to the town on 99.9 FM.  The town is served by the local newspapers, Oxford Times,Oxfordshire Guardian and Witney Gazette. 


== Amenities ==
Carterton has shops, four public houses. There is a public lending library in the town centre. it also has local shops as well as an Asda, Morrisons and Aldi.


=== Sport and leisure ===
Carterton has a Non-League football team Carterton F.C. who play at Kilkenny Lane. There is also a squash club, and a bowls club. There is also a leisure centre with swimming pool and numerous micro gyms


== Climate ==


== Notes ==


=== References ===


=== Further reading ===
Townley, Simon C. (ed.); Colvin, Christina; Cragoe, Carol; Ortenberg, Veronica; Peberdy, R.B.; Selwyn, Nesta; Williamson, Elizabeth (2006). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 15: Carterton, Minster Lovell and Environs: Bampton Hundred (Part Three). Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer for the Institute of Historical Research. pp. 1–7, 101–112. ISBN 978-1-90435-606-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)


== External links ==

Carterton Community Website",0.858375608921051
Tayshaneta microps,"Tayshaneta microps, synonym Neoleptoneta microps, is a rare species of spider in the family Leptonetidae known by the common name Government Canyon bat cave spider. It is endemic to Texas in the United States, where it is known to be found in two caves in Bexar County. It is one of two in its genus listed as endangered species in 2000. It is a troglobite, an animal which spends its entire life in caves. 


== Description ==
Tayshaneta microps has a hard light brown bristle bearing shell known as a carapace. Its legs are elongated and thin covered in hair-like structures called setae with few scattered spines. The abdomen is pale to yellow-brown and is also covered in setae.
The typical body length is 1.35mm(0.053 inches) which can be divided into subparts. The caraspace - hard outer shell - is typically 0.64mm (0.0252inches) long and 0.56mm (0.022 inches) wide. The abdomen of the Tayshaneta microps is approximately 0.7mm (0.0276 inches) and 0.54mm (0.0213inches) wide.


== Life history ==
Since Tayshaneta microps is a troglobite, it is difficult for scientists to capture and study them. The caves that these spiders reside in have more caves than entrances and ninety percent of them are closed off from human access. Therefore, scientists for the most part are unable to study these spiders.
According to Professor Joel Ledford of UC Davis, for the most part, there is no information currently available on Tayshaneta microps life history.


=== Development ===
Egg sacs for another related species only contained a few eggs. No information available yet on larval stage, nymph stage, adult stage.


=== Development growth rate ===
No information currently available.


=== Age and size at sexual maturity ===
No information currently available.


=== Reproductive cycle ===
No information currently available.


=== Timing of reproduction ===
No information currently available on number and size of offspring and sex ratio of offspring.


=== Offspring quality and quantity ===
No information currently available.


=== Age of dispersal ===
Tayshenata species live sedentary lives living mainly in webs for their whole life except for males who may sometimes leave upon maturity. They do not disperse far as they are known only from two caves.


=== Annual dormancy ===
No information currently available.


=== Age-specific mortality rates ===
No information currently available.


== Ecology ==


=== Diet ===
Due to the difficulty of viewing the species and their rarity the exact diet of the Government Canyon Bat Cave Spider is not known. However, it is believed that Taysheneta microps feed on the eggs, larvae, or other adult invertebrates living in the cave.


=== Behavior ===
As scientists have been unable to view many individuals in the Government Canyon Bat Cave species it has been challenging and rare to view their behavior. This is believed to be due to the species dwelling inside portions of the karst cave that are inaccessible to humans. What we do know from the few observed Government Canyon Bat Cave spiders and closely related species is the kind of webs they form and some base behavior. Taysheneta microps has been observed forming small sheet webs under material breakdown, decomposing biomass i.e. guano, and is thought to be mostly sedentary living in their webs their whole life


=== Habitat ===
Tayshenata microps lives in karst limestone caves and are an obligate species. The spiders can no longer have the ability to live in a drier environment so they have to live in the conditions the caves provide. These caves are high in humidity and maintain stable temperatures. The spiders will retreat to a deeper, more habitable portion of the cave in extreme conditions outside the cave.


=== Range ===
Taysheneta microps live two caves within Bexar County, Texas. The names of the caves are Government Canyon Bat Cave and Surprise Sink. The spiders may have been found in a third cave, the Madia cave, but the species identity was never confirmed. If these unidentified spiders were classified as Tayshenata microps, then the occupation range would extend to include the Helotes Karst cave region. Currently, the species has a range less than 100 km and global abundance has yet to be determined.


== Conservation ==


=== Population size ===
Population size estimates are currently unknown due to limited individuals and inaccessible cave locations. About ninety percent of caves in Bexar County are sealed from human entrance, preventing further research on Tayshaneta microps. Studies suggest that troglobites are neither rare nor associated with the stability issues of small populations. However, due to both the lack of information and access regarding Bexar County invertebrates, such concerns cannot be ruled out.


=== Past and current geographical distribution ===
Tayshaneta microps are known to live in two caves in the Government Canyon State Natural Area, Northern Bexar County, Texas. While the two individuals obtained from Surprise Sink share the reduced eyes of Tayshaneta microps, they have not yet been confirmed as members of the species. Lack of confirmation is due to immaturity and an absence of associated males. Despite numerous sampling efforts, no additional prior or current habitats have been identified


=== Major threats ===
The most widespread threats to Tayshaneta microps are urbanization, population growth and habitat loss. Such factors are amplified by the rapidly expanding city, San Antonio, in Bexar County, Texas. The growth of San Antonio, accompanied by its anthropogenic impacts, has posed many challenges for the species. For example, the karst topography occupied by Tayshaneta microps consists of brittle, limestone caves abundant with sinks, fractures, and fissures. Such environments remain vulnerable to slight movements, often induced by humans. Direct habitat loss often arrives in the form of rock quarrying and filling in cave entrances. These actions prompt the loss of permeability and movement routes for invertebrates. The following are examples of indirect habitat degradation: changing draining paths, displacing native plant and animal species, pollution from septic networks and run-off, and predation or competition via invasive species.
Fire ants present the most plausible nonnative threat to Tayshaneta microps. Despite no observations of the species being preyed upon, a negative correlation does exist between arthropod diversity and fire ant presence. Closely related arthropods in Travis and Williamson Counties, Texas, have been observed to fall prey to fire ants. Such evidence leads experts to believe that Bexar County invertebrates are similarly affected by fire ant competition and predation. Additionally, researchers suspect that Tayshaneta microps may exist in adjacent caves on privately owned land. Due to the regulations associated with land ownership, the preservation of potential arthropod habitats is dependent on consultations with landowners


=== Listing under the ESA ===
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) received a petition on January 16, 1992, to add Neoleptoneta microps to the List of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife. This petition included eight additional invertebrates of Bexar County. Dated January 9, 1992, the petition was submitted by the following groups: Patricia K. Cunningham of the Helotes Creek Association, the Balcones Canyonlands Conservation Coalition, the Texas Speleological Association, the Alamo Group of the Sierra Club, and the Texas Cave Management Association. All nine invertebrates were listed as endangered by the USFWS on December 26, 2000.


=== 5-year review ===
The USFWS began a 5-year status review of Neoleptoneta microps in 2021. Their endangered status has been maintained, receiving no further updates. After the Neoleptoneta genus was altered to include only seven species of central Mexico, the USFWS updated their taxonomic classification to Tayshaneta microps on November 26, 2021


=== Species status assessment ===
A species status assessment for Tayshaneta microps is not available at this time.


=== Recovery plan ===
The USFWS drafted a recovery plan for endangered karst invertebrates on September 12, 2011. The draft was later finalized on October 4, 2011. Conservation biologists developed many recommendations based on “karst faunal regions” (KFR's). KFRs are classified as distinct, protected cave areas to assist in the recovery of endangered karst invertebrates. In order to ensure a high probability of Tayshaneta microps’ long-term survival, biologists advocate for the protection of an “adequate quantity and quality” (90% chance of species survival over 100 years) of karst areas. The maintenance of KFRs calls for the elimination of the following: extensive human visitation, native plant and animal disturbance, invasive fire ants, and pollution. Additionally, the USFWS recommends the use of adaptive management actions to control both current and new threats. Due to limited information, recovery is also dependent on further research to establish new areas of Tayshaneta microps presence. Such research will work in tandem with outreach efforts to educate the public about endangered karst invertebrates. The USFWS estimates a timeframe of 20 years to accomplish the delisting of Tayshaneta microps if its recovery actions are sufficiently funded and implemented


== References ==


== External links ==

Ledford, Joel; Paquin, Pierre; Cokendolpher, James; Campbell, Josh; Griswold, Charles (23 January 2012). ""Systematics, conservation and morphology of the spider genus Tayshaneta (Araneae, Leptonetidae) in Central Texas Caves"". ZooKeys (167): 1–102. Bibcode:2012ZooK..167....1L. doi:10.3897/zookeys.167.1833. PMC 3272638. PMID 22363201.
Kulkarni, Siddharth; Hormiga, Gustavo (2021). ""Hooroo mates! Phylogenomic data suggest that the closest relatives of the iconic Tasmanian cave spider Hickmania troglodytes are in Australia and New Zealand, not in South America"". Invertebrate Systematics. 35 (8): 850–856. doi:10.1071/IS21030. S2CID 244137080.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrV8-gZUuGY",0.9226260781288147
Vermiculite,"Vermiculite is a hydrous phyllosilicate mineral which undergoes significant expansion when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is heated sufficiently; commercial furnaces can routinely produce this effect. Vermiculite forms by the weathering or hydrothermal alteration of biotite or phlogopite.
Large commercial vermiculite mines exist in the United States, Russia, South Africa, China, and Brazil.


== Occurrence ==
Vermiculite was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in Millbury, Massachusetts. Its name is from the Latin vermiculare, ""to breed worms"", for the manner in which it exfoliates when heated.
It typically occurs as an alteration product at the contact between felsic and mafic or ultramafic rocks such as pyroxenites and dunites. It also occurs in carbonatites and metamorphosed magnesium-rich limestone. Associated mineral phases include: corundum, apatite, serpentine, and talc. It occurs interlayered with chlorite, biotite and phlogopite.


== Structure ==
Vermiculite is a 2:1 clay, meaning it has two tetrahedral sheets for every one octahedral sheet. It is a limited-expansion clay with a medium shrink–swell capacity. Vermiculite has a high cation-exchange capacity (CEC) at 100–150 meq/100 g. Vermiculite clays are weathered micas in which the potassium ions between the molecular sheets are replaced by magnesium and iron ions.


== Commercial uses ==


=== Molded shapes ===
This process involves mixing exfoliated vermiculite with inorganic bonding agents such as sodium silicate, cement (specific quantities), and other compounds, such as those containing potassium, to produce an 'earth damp' mixture. This material is then hydraulically pressed into shape in a mold and then heat cured at temperatures up to 180 °C for up to 24 hours, depending upon the thickness of the moulded part. Such parts can withstand service temperatures of up to 1150 °C and are often used in the aluminium smelting industry as back-up insulation behind the carbon cathode in the pot cells which contain the molten mixture of cryolite and alumina. The moulded shapes and boards are used in:

Open fireplaces
High-temperature or refractory insulation
Acoustic panels
Fireproofing of structural steel and pipes


=== Calcium silicate boards ===
Exfoliated vermiculite is added to a calcium silicate slurry. This is then dewatered by pressing or by using one of the Fourdriner/Magnani/Hatschek processes to form a flat board which is then heat cured under pressure (typically 10–15 bar) for periods of up to 24 hours.


=== Brake linings ===
Finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite are being used in brake linings primarily for the automotive market. The properties of vermiculite that make it an appropriate choice for use in brake linings include its thermal resistance, ease of addition to other raw materials to achieve a homogeneous mix, and its shape and surface characteristics.


=== Roof and floor screeds and insulating concretes ===

Exfoliated vermiculite (typically the finer grades) can be added at site to Portland cement and other aggregates, rheological aids, and water to produce roof and floor concrete screeds (i.e. top layer screed coats) which are lightweight and insulating. In many cases, vermiculite-based roof screeds are used in conjunction with other insulation materials, such as polystyrene board, to form a total roofing system. A bituminous binder can also be used with exfoliated vermiculite to produce a dry, lightweight roof screed which has the advantages of low thermal conductivity, low moisture content, and ease of placement (by pouring from the bag and then tamping).


=== Soilless growing medium ===
Exfoliated vermiculite is combined with other materials such as peat or composted pine bark to produce soilless growing medium for the professional horticulturalist and for the home gardener. These mixes promote faster root growth and give quick anchorage to young roots. The mixture helps retain air, fertilizer, and moisture, releasing them as the plant requires them. These mixes were pioneered by Boodley and Sheldrake. Exfoliated vermiculite is also used as a growing medium for hydroponics.


=== Seed germination ===
Vermiculite, alone or mixed with soil or peat, is used to germinate seeds; very little watering is required. When vermiculite is used alone, seedlings should be fed with a weak fertilizer solution when the first true leaves appear, e.g. with one teaspoon of 5-10-5 soluble fertilizer per US gallon of water (1:768 ratio), gradually increased to one tablespoon (1:256 ratio) when transplanting.


=== Root crop storage ===
Pour vermiculite around bulbs placed in container. If clumps are dug, allow to dry for a few hours in the sun and then place in cartons or bushel baskets and cover with vermiculite. The absorptive power of vermiculite acts as a regulator that prevents mildew and moisture fluctuation during the storage period. It will not absorb moisture from the inside of stored tubers, but it does take up free water from the outside, preventing storage rot.


=== Soil conditioner ===
Where the native soil is heavy or sticky, gentle mixing of vermiculite as a soil conditioner—up to one-half the volume of the soil—is recommended. This creates air channels and allows the soil mix to breathe. Mixing vermiculite in flower and vegetable gardens or in potted plants will provide the necessary air to maintain vigorous plant growth. Where soils are sandy, mixing of vermiculite into the soil will allow the soil to hold the water and air needed for growth.


=== As loose-fill insulation ===
Exfoliated vermiculite treated with a water repellent is used to fill the pores and cavities of masonry construction and hollow blockwork to enhance fire ratings (e.g. Underwriters Laboratories Wall and Partition designs), thermal insulation, and acoustic performance. Expanded vermiculite has also been used as thermal insulation in the attics and walls of houses and in water heaters, fire safes, stoves, furnaces, and refrigerators.


=== Refractory/insulation gunning and castable mixes ===
Exfoliated vermiculite can be combined with high alumina (also known as calcium aluminate) cements and other aggregates such as expanded shale, clay, and slate or sodium silicate to produce refractory/insulation concretes and mortars. In the early days of their use, these products were batched at or very close to the place of installation. This continues to be the case in some limited circumstances; however, more and more use is being made of pre-batched, proprietary mixes. Mixes containing vermiculite are used in areas where strength and corrosion/abrasion resistance are of secondary importance, the most important factor being the insulation performance of the in-place refractory lining. These mixes are used in industries including iron/steel, cement, and hydrocarbon processing.


=== Fire protection ===

Vermiculite is used as an additive to fireproof wallboard.


=== High temperature coating ===
Vermiculite dispersions are typically either chemically or physically very finely delaminated vermiculite in a fluid medium. These dispersions can be used to make vermiculite 'paper' sheets by pouring them onto a piece of smooth, low surface-energy plastic, and allowing to dry. The resulting sheet can then be peeled off the plastic. Typical end-uses for vermiculite dispersions include inclusion in high temperature coatings or binders for construction materials, gaskets, specialty papers/textiles, oxidation-resistant coating on carbon based composites, and as barrier coatings for films.


=== Waste treatment ===
The cation exchange capacity (up to 1,000 milliequivalents per kg) of vermiculite allows it to be used in fluid purification processes for waste water, chemical processing, and the pollution-control of air in mines and gases in industrial processes. In addition to its ion exchange properties, exfoliated vermiculite can retain liquids within the inter-laminar voids of the individual particles, as well as between the particles themselves.


=== Others ===
As a packing material, valued for its high absorbency.
As a cooling substrate in blacksmithing.
As a substrate for various animals and/or a medium for incubation of eggs.
As a lightweight aggregate for plaster, proprietary concrete compounds, firestop mortar, and cementitious spray fireproofing: Exfoliated vermiculite is used in both hand and spray-applied general building plasters to improve coverage, ease of handling, adhesion to a wide variety of substrates, fire resistance, and resistance to chipping/cracking/shrinkage.
As a component of the interior fill for firestop pillows, along with graphite.
As a carrier for dry handling and slow release of agricultural chemicals.
As a hot topping: both exfoliated and crude vermiculite have been used for hot topping in the steel industry. When poured onto molten metal, crude vermiculite exfoliates immediately and forms an insulating layer, allowing the material to be transported to the next production process without losing too much heat.
Used to permit slow cooling of hot pieces in glassblowing, lampwork, steelwork, and glass beadmaking.
Used in in-ground swimming pools to provide a smooth pool base: Finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite plus Portland cement may be combined either on-site or in a factory premix to provide a base for swimming pool vinyl liners. These mixes are pumped into place using a rotor stator pump, or hand poured.
Used in commercial hand warmers.
Used in AGA cookers as insulation.
Used in explosives storage as a blast mitigant.
Used to absorb hazardous liquids for solid disposal.
Used in gas fireplaces to simulate embers.
Used as part of a substrate for cultivation of fungi.


== Commercial manufacture of exfoliated vermiculite ==

In 2014, South Africa, Brazil, the US, and China were the top producers of mined, concentrated and unexfoliated vermiculite, with about 90% world share. South Africa's production is decreasing, while Brazil's is significantly increasing.
While some end processors and exfoliators of vermiculite specialize, with proprietary products sold in a wide variety of industries, some have more varied end products, with less stringent technical requirements. Some vermiculite exfoliators blend with lower-cost perlite also. Vermiculite exfoliators have an international trade association called The Vermiculite Association to represent the industry's interests and to exchange information.


== Asbestos contamination ==
Although not all vermiculite contains asbestos, some products were made with vermiculite that contained asbestos until the early 1990s. Vermiculite mines throughout the world are now regularly tested for it and are supposed to sell products that contain no asbestos. The former vermiculite mine in Libby, Montana, did have tremolite asbestos as well as winchite and richterite (both fibrous amphiboles)—in fact, it was formed underground through essentially the same geologic processes as the contaminants.
Pure vermiculite does not contain asbestos and is non-toxic. Impure vermiculite may contain, apart from asbestos, also minor diopside or remnants of the precursor minerals biotite or phlogopite.


== Controversy over health risks ==
The largest and oldest vermiculite mine in the United States was started in the 1920s, at Libby, Montana, and the vermiculite was sold under the commercial name Zonolite. The Zonolite brand and the mine were acquired by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Mining operations at the Libby site stopped in 1990 in response to asbestos contamination. While in operation, the Libby mine may have produced 80% of the world's supply of vermiculite.
The United States government estimates that vermiculite was used in more than 35 million homes, but does not recommend its removal. Nevertheless, homes or structures containing vermiculite or vermiculite insulation dating from before the mid-1990s—and especially those known to contain the ""Zonolite"" brand—may contain asbestos, and therefore may be a health concern.
An article published in The Salt Lake Tribune on December 3, 2006, reported that vermiculite and Zonolite had been found to contain asbestos, which had led to cancers such as those found in asbestos-related cases. The article stated that there had been a cover-up by W. R. Grace and Company and others regarding the health risks associated with vermiculite and that several sites in the Salt Lake Valley had been remediated by the EPA when they were shown to be contaminated with asbestos. W. R. Grace and Company has vigorously denied these charges.
The vermiculite deposit at the mine in Libby, Montana, was (and is) heavily contaminated with asbestos. Numerous people were knowingly exposed to the harmful dust of vermiculite that contained asbestos. Unfortunately, the mine had been operating since the 1920s, and environmental and industrial controls were virtually non-existent until the mine was purchased by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Yet, knowing the human health risks, the mining company still continued to operate there until 1990. Consequently, many of the former miners and residents of Libby have been affected and continue to suffer health problems. Over 400 people in the town have died from asbestos-related disease due to contamination from vermiculite mining from nearby Zonolite Mountain, where soil samples were found to be loaded with fibrous tremolite (known to be a very hazardous form of asbestos), and countless others there who insulated their homes with Zonolite have succumbed to asbestos-related diseases, most of whom never were employed in environments where asbestos was an issue.
After a 1999 Seattle Post-Intelligencer story claimed that asbestos-related disease was common in the town, the EPA, in response to political pressure, made cleanup of the site a priority and called Libby the worst case of community-wide exposure to a toxic substance in U.S. history. The EPA has spent $120 million in Superfund money on cleanup. In October 2006, W. R. Grace and Company tried to appeal the fines ($54.5 million) levied on them from the EPA, but the Supreme Court rejected the appeal. The United States government pursued criminal charges against several former executives and managers of the mine for allegedly disregarding and covering up health risks to employees. They were also accused of wire fraud, and of obstructing the government's cleanup efforts. As of the indictment date, about 1,200 residents of the Libby area had been identified as suffering from some kind of asbestos-related abnormality. The case ended in acquittals on May 8, 2009. On June 17, 2009, the EPA issued a public health emergency in and near Libby, thereby allowing federal agencies to provide funding for health care, and for removal of contaminated insulation from affected homes.


== See also ==


== References ==


== External links ==

The Vermiculite Association
US Geological Survey Vermiculite Section
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Petition for writ of certiorari to U.S. Supreme Court (April 27, 2006)",0.9987074732780457
Background of the Winter War,"The background of the Winter War covers the period before the outbreak of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union (1939–1940), which stretches from the Finnish Declaration of Independence in 1917 to the Soviet-Finnish negotiations in 1938–1939.
Before its independence, Finland had been an autonomous grand duchy within Imperial Russia. During the ensuing Finnish Civil War, the Red Guards, supported by the Russian Bolsheviks, were defeated. Fearful of Soviet designs, in the 1920s and the 1930s, the Finns were constantly attempting to align themselves with Scandinavian neutrality, particularly regarding to Sweden. Furthermore, the Finns engaged in secret military co-operation with Estonia in the 1930s.
During the late 1920s and the early 1930s, relations with the Soviet Union had normalized to a degree, but in 1938, the Soviets feared that Finland could be used as a springboard for an invasion and so started negotiations to conclude a military agreement. Meanwhile, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's revanchism to recover the territories of the Russian Empire that had been lost during its break up as result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russian Civil War made Finland an obvious target.
The nature of the Soviet demands, which included the installation of Soviet military facilities on Finnish soil, made them go nowhere.
In August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in which Eastern Europe was divided into spheres of interest. Finland belonged to the Soviet sphere of interest. In September and October 1939, the Baltic states agreed to Soviet demands that included the establishment of Soviet military bases within those countries. Stalin then turned his sights on Finland, and was confident of control being gained without great effort.
The Soviet Union demanded territories on the Karelian Isthmus, the islands of the Gulf of Finland, a military base near the Finnish capital, and the destruction of all defensive fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Helsinki again refused, and the Red Army attacked on 30 November 1939. Simultaneously, Stalin set up a puppet government for the Finnish Democratic Republic, headed by the Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen.


== Prewar Finland ==


=== First steps of republic ===

Finland had been the eastern part of the Swedish Empire for centuries until 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars, when the Russian Empire conquered and converted it to an autonomous buffer state in Russia to protect Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. Finland enjoyed wide autonomy and its own Senate until the turn of the century, when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen central government and unify the Empire by Russification. The attempts ruined relations and increased the support of Finnish movements vying for self-determination.
The outbreak of the First World War gave Finland a window of opportunity to achieve independence. The Finns sought aid from both the German Empire and the Bolsheviks to that end, and on 6 December 1917, the Finnish Senate declared the country's independence. The new Bolshevik government was weak in Russia, and soon the Russian Civil War would break out. The Bolshevik leader, Vladimir Lenin, could spare no troops or attention for Finland, and so Soviet Russia recognised the new Finnish government just three weeks after it had declared its independence. In 1918, the Finns fought a short civil war in which the Bolshevik Red Guards were armed by 7,000 to 10,000 Russian troops stationed in Finland.
After the First World War, an intergovernmental organisation, the League of Nations, was founded, whose goals included preventing war through collective security and settling disputes between countries through negotiations and diplomacy. Finland joined the League in 1920.
In the 1920s and the 1930s, Finland was politically diverse. The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931, and the far-right Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) had won up to 14 seats in the 200-seat Finnish Parliament. The middle ground, occupied by Conservatives, Liberals, Agrarians, and the Swedish People's Party, tended to cluster with the Social Democratic Party, whose leader, Väinö Tanner, was a strong proponent of the parliamentary system.
By the late 1930s, country had its export-oriented economy growing, had solved most of its ""right-wing problem"", and was preparing for the 1940 Summer Olympics.


=== Finnish–German relations ===

During the closing stages of the First World War, German-trained Finnish Jäger troops played a key role in the Finnish Civil War. The German Baltic Sea Division also intervened late in the civil war. Jäger troops were volunteers from German-influenced circles, such as university students. That participation in the Finnish struggle for independence created close ties with Germany, but after the German defeat, Scandinavian relations became more important and the main goal of Finland's foreign policy.
Finnish–German relations cooled after the National Socialist Party rose to power in Germany in 1933. Finns admired Imperial Germany, but not the radical and antidemocratic Nazi regime. Finnish conservatives did not accept the Nazis' state violence and antireligious policies. Still, there was sympathy for German aims to revise the Treaty of Versailles, but the official Finnish policy was reserved, especially after the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. Finland even recalled its ambassador for a short period.
Finnish Nazis and ultranationalist parties such as the Patriotic People's Movement achieved only minor support in several elections, especially in the aftermath of the failed Mäntsälä rebellion in 1932.


=== Finnish–Swedish relations ===

After Finland had achieved independence and ended the civil war, the other Scandinavian countries were the best candidates for a political alliance. Swedish–Finnish cooperation represented a rich vein of shared history in the culture of both nations, and the Swedish-speaking Finns had a common language with Sweden. During the civil war, however, Sweden briefly occupied Åland and then supported the local movement that wanted to secede from Finland and join the islands to Sweden. The dispute was resolved by the League of Nations in 1921, and the Åland Islands remained Finnish but were granted autonomy. Other obstacles to closer relations were the ongoing language strife on the status of the Swedish language in Finland. Sweden had also opposed the upper-class resistance movement against Russification. As a result, young Finnish men received their military training in Germany, which generated the movement. Nevertheless, relations had considerably improved before the Winter War.
Finland sought security guarantees from the League of Nations, but did not have high expectations. Sweden was one of the founding members of the League and so framed its military policies based on the League's principles of disarmament and sanctions. In the mid-1920s, the Finns established a special planning committee, the Erich Committee, which was named after its chairman, Rafael Erich, and had top politicians and officers aiming to explore possible military collaboration of Finland with other nations. The prime goal was co-operation with the Scandinavian countries, of which Sweden was the most important prospective partner.
The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide-ranging co-operation, but it was more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland Islands than on military exercises or materiel. The Finnish objective was to commit the Swedes by establishing a military-political joint venture in the Åland Islands. If the Swedes were to undertake to assist Finland in fortifying the islands, an important and useful precedent might be set. The Government of Sweden was aware of the military co-operation, but carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy.


=== Secret military co-operation with Estonia ===

Finnish–Estonian relations were closest diplomatically after the Estonian War of Independence in the 1920s. Although they cooled afterwards, military relations remained close. The Finns considered their close relations with Estonia not to exclude the Scandinavian neutrality policy, but the military relations were top secret. The countries held joint military exercises, the central aim being to prevent the Soviet Baltic Fleet from freely using its strength in the Gulf of Finland against either country.
Estonia also sought public security guarantees and signed the Baltic Entente in 1934 with Latvia and Lithuania.


=== Relations with the United Kingdom and France ===
After the collapse of Imperial Germany in November 1918, the Finns sought new political partners. The United Kingdom had been a significant trading partner since the 18th century, and the Finns worked to improve their relations for the next two decades. In the 1930s Finland purchased Thornycroft torpedo boats from the United Kingdom and refrained from buying bomber aircraft from Germany because of British protests. They instead purchased modern Bristol Blenheims, which would serve successfully during the Winter War.
Relations with France were important after the First World War and in the 1920s as France played a leading role in the new European security arrangements. In the 1930s, France started to fear the rise of Germany and initiated a rapprochement with the Soviet Union, which strained Franco–Finnish relations. However, during the Winter War, France was one of the most important suppliers of military materiel.


=== Finnish defence plans ===
The Finnish Defence Forces called their military operation plan against the Soviet Union Venäjän keskitys (""Russian Concentration"") in the 1920s. In the last plan in 1934, the Finns saw two possible scenarios. In the VK1 scenario, the Soviets would mobilise all along their western border and deploy only limited forces against Finland. In that case, the Finns would make counterattacks across the border. The VK2 scenario envisaged a much more unfavourable situation. The main defense line would be on the Karelian Isthmus; the Finnish forces would repel Soviet attacks in favourable positions and destroy the enemy by counterattacks. In the Winter War, the VK2 scenario was flexible, with its basis proved to be correct, but the Finnish general staff badly underestimated the numerical superiority of the Red Army.
Finland had a limited defence budget after its independence, especially in the 1930s. Therefore, the Finnish Defence Forces lacked military materiel in almost all branches. Much of the military's materiel was outdated and proved to be unsuitable for the field during the Winter War. The material situation then improved but still lagged behind the more modern and well-equipped Red Army.


== Prewar Soviet Union ==
During  Stalin's Great Terror of 1937-1938 about 11 000  officers of the Red Army and Fleet, especially high-ranking, were repressed - fired for political reasons, imprisoned or executed, including execution of 2/3 of commanders of brigades, divisions, armies. At the same time, the Red Army increased in numbers from 1.5 million in 1937 to 3.3 million in 1939. This led to a situation where officers were promoted very quickly and often commanders in middle and higher-ranks positions did not have enough experience and sufficient competence. Later some of the repressed Red Army's officers were rehabilitated following the disastrous Winter War, as the Soviet leadership realised the Red Army needed skilled commanders.


== Finnish–Soviet relations ==


=== Diplomatic relations ===

The relationship between the Soviet Union and Finland had been tense from the legacy of the two periods of Russification at the turn of the century; the failed Finnish Civil War and incursions by groups of Finnish nationalists; and the Viena expedition in 1918 and the Aunus expedition of 1919 into Russian East Karelia.
On 14 October 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, which confirmed the new Finnish–Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper. In addition, Finland received Petsamo, with its ice-free harbour on the Arctic Ocean. The treaty did not prevent the Finnish government from allowing volunteers to cross the border to support the East Karelian Uprising in 1921 or expatriate Finnish communists from causing disturbances in Finland. In 1923, both countries signed the Border Peace Agreement, which normalised the border.
In 1928, the Soviet Union began collectivization in Ingria. During the collectivization and the ethnic cleansing, the Soviets captured, killed and deported Ingrian peasants, which provoked widespread criticism by the Finnish media in 1930. Two years later, the nationalist Lapua Movement attempted to overthrow the Finnish government during the Mäntsälä rebellion.
Nevertheless, in the 1930s, the diplomatic climate between Finland and the Soviet Union gradually improved. In the 1920s, the Soviet Union had offered different non-aggression pacts with Finland, but they were all rejected. The offer was renewed as part of a series of agreements with countries on the Soviets' western border. In 1932, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Finland, which was reaffirmed in 1934 for ten years.
Relations between the two countries remained largely distant, however. Foreign trade in Finland was booming, but less than 1% was with the Soviet Union. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations and later accepted other ""progressive forces"" besides communist parties. That change in Soviet attitudes, as well as Finnish internal politics, enabled a short thaw in relations in 1937.


=== Stalin and protection of Leningrad ===
After the Russian Civil War, Joseph Stalin was disappointed at the Soviet Union's inability to foment a successful revolution in Finland and at the Bolsheviks struggle against national sentiments in the Soviet Union. In 1923, Stalin proclaimed that the main danger in national relations was Great Russian chauvinism. He started the policy of korenizatsiya (indigenisation) to promote national communist cadres for every nationality.
However, in 1937, Stalin encouraged Russian chauvinism, which implied Russians to be politically and culturally superior. The Soviet diplomacy turned towards the recovery of the territories of the Russian Empire. The Soviet Union used the Communist International to announce a doctrine in which bourgeoisie equalled fascism and that communism was the natural agency of the proletariat. In practice, this meant that anything other than communism would be considered anti-Soviet and fascist. The Soviet foreign policy was a mixture of the ideology of world revolution and the traditional concerns of Russian national security.
Under Stalinism, the Soviet agriculture production collapsed, which caused famines in 1932–1933. Official output numbers of industrial production were used as propaganda to portray the Soviet Union as an economic miracle. The propaganda also used cross-border comparisons with Finland to represent it as a ""vicious and reactionary Fascist clique"". Finnish Marshal Mannerheim and the leader of the Finnish Social Democrat Party leader, Väinö Tanner, were particular hate figures in propaganda. Stalin gained nearly-absolute power in 1935–1936, which left only the army as self-governing, but even that changed when its officers became the target of the Great Purge in 1937–1938.
In the late 1930s, the Soviet Union was no longer satisfied with the status quo in its relations with Finland. This came as a result of a change in Soviet foreign policy, which now pursued the aim of recovering the provinces of the Russian Empire that had been lost during the chaos of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russian Civil War. The Soviets considered that the empire had obtained an optimal balance of security and territory, and their thoughts were shaped by a historical precedent: the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, which was intended to protect Saint Petersburg from the Swedes. They used that precedent to demand the reacquisition of Finland, which would protect the Bolsheviks in Leningrad from the rising power of Germany.
In 1938, Sweden was no longer a major threat to Russia, but the Soviets had not forgotten the role that the Finnish-controlled Åland islands had played as a base of operations for the German Expeditionary Force helping the Whites during the Finnish Civil War.


== Finnish–Soviet negotiations ==


=== From 1938 to early 1939 ===

In April 1938, a junior diplomatic official, Boris Yartsev, contacted Finnish Foreign Minister Rudolf Holsti and Prime Minister Aimo Cajander and stated that the Soviets did not trust Germany and that war was considered to be possible between the two countries in which Germany might use Finland as a base for operations against the Soviet Union. The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather ""advance to meet the enemy"".
If Finland fought against Germany, the Soviet Union would offer all possible economic and military assistance. The Soviets would also accept the fortification of Åland islands but demanded ""positive guarantees"" on Finland's position.
The Finns assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that they would resist any armed incursion. Yartsev was not satisfied with the reply because of Finland's military weakness. He suggested that Finland could either cede or lease some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad, which Finland rejected. In the mid-1930s, the Soviet ambassador in Helsinki, Eric Assmus, and the Leningrad Bolshevik Party leader Andrei Zhdanov had presented a similar proposal.
Negotiations continued in autumn 1938. The Soviets reduced their demands: a Red Army operation was no longer an option, and the focus was shifted on securing the Gulf of Finland. The Soviets wanted to be informed of key elements of the Finnish–Estonian Gulf blockade, the secret military plan against the Baltic Fleet. Furthermore, Yartsev suggested for the Finns to fortify Suursaari Island but for the Soviets would take care of the island's defence. During the negotiations, Rudolf Holsti resigned as foreign minister but not because of the negotiations, and his place was taken by Eljas Erkko. Holsti was rather anti-German and so the resignation set off rumours that he had been forced to resign by a Finnish government that was sympathetic to the Germans, which were quickly quelled by the Finnish government.
The Finns attempted to appear impartial, and the interior ministry issued an order banning the far-right IKL. The ban was reversed by the Finnish courts as being unconstitutional. Many years later, the minister then in charge, Urho Kekkonen, admitted that it had been a simple gesture to suggest to Moscow that Finland did not harbour a German fifth column.
By the winter of 1939, the Soviets further reduced their demands and sent Boris Stein to negotiate. Stein and Erkko met five times. Erkko rejected the Soviet proposals by saying the Soviet demands would mean the end of Finnish neutrality and anger the Germans. When the chairman of the Finnish Defence Council, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, was informed of the negotiations, he said Finland should give up the Suursaari Islands since their defense would be impossible, but his arguments did not persuade the majority of the Finnish government. Stein departed Helsinki empty-handed on 6 April.
The Finns had many reasons to turn down the Soviet offer since they had started negotiations for a military co-operation with Sweden. The Finns had great hopes for the joint Finnish–Swedish defence of the Ålands islands and did not want to jeopardise their negotiations. In addition, the violent collectivisation, the Great Purge, the show trials and the executions in the Soviet Union had given the country a very bad reputation. Furthermore, most Finnish communist leaders in the Soviet Union had been executed during the purge and so the Soviets did not seem to be reliable.
The Soviet envoys sent to negotiate with Finns were officially of a relatively low rank, but as Väinö Tanner stated, the Finns assumed rightly that they represented some higher state organ of state, probably the Soviet secret police, the NKVD.


=== Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact ===

On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Publicly, it was a non-aggression pact, but it included a secret protocol to divide Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania into spheres of interest, with Finland falling into the Soviet sphere.
In the immediate aftermath of the pact, the Scandinavian countries and Finland were relieved. The Germans and Soviets were now allies and so there was no German threat against the Soviet Union. However, shortly afterward, Germany invaded Poland and so Britain and France declared war against Germany. The Soviets then invaded Poland and requested for the Baltic states allow the establishment of Soviet military bases and the stationing of troops on their soil. The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum by signing the corresponding agreement in September, and Latvia and Lithuania followed suit in October.


=== Soviet demands in late 1939 ===

On 5 October, the Soviet Union invited Finland to negotiations in Moscow. The Finnish government did not hasten to comply, like the Estonian government earlier. Unlike the Baltic countries, the Finns started a gradual mobilisation under the guise of ""additional refresher training"". The Finnish government sent its ambassador in Stockholm, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, instead of its foreign minister, Eljas Erkko, to limit his powers as a negotiator. In Moscow, Paasikivi met Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and General Secretary Stalin.
The Soviets demanded for the frontier between the Soviet Union and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus to be moved westward to only 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Viipuri, Finland's second-largest city, to the line between Koivisto and Lipola. In addition, the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Finland also had to cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari, Tytärsaari and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland. In the north, the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento Peninsula. The Finns were to lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for 30 years and to permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange, the Soviets would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia, an area twice as large as the territory demanded from the Finns.
The Soviet offer divided the Finnish government. Foreign Minister Eljas Erkko and Defence Minister Juho Niukkanen rejected the offer and were backed by President Kyösti Kallio. However, Paasikivi and Mannerheim, along with Väinö Tanner, who was later appointed as one of the Finnish negotiators, wanted to accept the Soviet offer.
The Finns counted on military assistance from Sweden, and Erkko took part in the Stockholm assembly of Scandinavian leaders on 19 October. There, Erkko privately met Swedish Foreign Minister Rickard Sandler, who assured him that he would persuade the Swedish government to assist Finland during a possible war. During the actual war, however, Sandler failed in that task and so resigned.
Finland was totally isolated by a German and Soviet blockade and attempted in October to obtain arms and ammunition in absolute secrecy by enlisting the German arms dealer Josef Veltjens.
On 31 October, Molotov announced the Soviet demands in public during a session of the Supreme Soviet. The Finns made two counteroffers: one on 23 October and another on 3 November. In both offers, Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union, which was far less than the Soviets had demanded. The Finnish delegation returned home on 13 November and  took for granted that negotiations would continue later.


== Beginning of war ==


=== Military preparations ===
The Soviet Union had started an intensive rearmament near the Finnish border in 1938 and 1939. Finnish students and volunteers had spent the late summer of 1939 improving the defensive structures across the Karelian Isthmus. On the Soviet side of the border, penal labour worked hard to add some density to sparse road and rail networks. In the summer of 1939, an important phase of Soviet planning occurred as told by Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Kirill Meretskov in their memoirs. The Supreme Council of War ordered the Commander of Leningrad Military District Merestkov to draft an invasion plan, instead of Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov. The plan was adopted in July. The necessary assault troop deployments and commands were not initiated until October 1939, but operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November. Stalin, however, was certain that the Finns would change their minds under Soviet pressure and cede the demanded territories.
The invasion plans were laid down by the Soviet General Staff under Boris Shaposhnikov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky. The Soviet timetable was clearly and rigidly defined, with little or no margin for error. The key date was 21 December, Stalin's 60th birthday. By then, the Finnish capital Helsinki would be ""freed of the Fascist oppression"". Andrei Zhdanov had already commissioned a celebratory piece from Dmitri Shostakovich, Suite on Finnish Themes, to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army would parade through Helsinki.
On 26 November, the Soviets staged the shelling of Mainila, an incident in which Soviet artillery shelled an area near the Russian village of Mainila and announced that a Finnish artillery attack had killed Soviet soldiers. The Soviet Union demanded that the Finns apologise for the incident and move their forces 20–25 km from the border. The Finns denied any responsibility for the attack, rejected the demands and called for a joint Finnish–Soviet commission to examine the incident. The Soviet Union claimed that the Finnish response was hostile and used it as an excuse to withdraw from the non-aggression pact.


=== Red Army assaults ===

On 30 November, Soviet forces invaded Finland with 27 divisions, totalling 630,000 men, bombed civilian boroughs of Helsinki and quickly reached the Mannerheim Line. The shelling of Mainila was a casus belli of the Soviet Union as it had withdrawn from non-aggression pacts on 28 November. Germany had staged a similar incident to have an excuse to start war against Poland. The Soviet Union would later use the Orzeł incident to challenge the neutrality of Estonia.
Later, the Finnish statesman Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack, without a declaration of war, violated three non-aggression pacts: the Treaty of Tartu of 1920; the Non-aggression Pact between Finland and the Soviet Union, which was signed 1932 and again in 1934; and the Charter of the League of Nations. The invasion was judged illegal by the League of Nations, which expelled the Soviet Union on December 14.
After the Soviet attack, Mannerheim was appointed as commander-in-chief of the Finnish Defence Forces. Furthermore, the Finnish government changed, with Risto Ryti appointed as new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister.
On 1 December, the Soviet Union created a new government for Finland, to be called the Finnish Democratic Republic. It was a puppet regime headed by Otto Wille Kuusinen and became known as the ""Terijoki government"" since the village of Terijoki was the first place to be ""liberated"" by the Red Army. The puppet regime was unsuccessful, and it was quietly discarded during the winter of 1940.
Contrary to Soviet expectations, from the beginning of the conflict, nearly all working-class Finns stood behind the legal government. That national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the ""spirit of the Winter War"".

Also, many Soviet soldiers were repressed by the NKVD on fabricated cases ordered by the Kremlin. Repressions were carried out by shooting or the deportation to Siberia. Soldier's relatives were forbidden to mention the Stalin's terror, otherwise, according to Article 58, they had to write a denunciation on them.


== See also ==
Causes of World War II
Timeline of the Winter War
Background of the occupation and annexation of the Baltic states


== References ==


== Sources ==",1.2659456729888916
Ordos campaign (1592),"The Ordos campaign of 1592, also called the Ningxia campaign (寧夏之役), Ningxia mutiny (寧夏兵變), or Pubei rebellion (哱拜之亂), was a rebellion of the garrison in Ningxia against their regional commanders. It took place in March 1592 in Ningxia, which was one of the nine military regions on the border of Ming China with Mongolia. The rebellion was led by Chinese officer Liu Dongyang and possibly Mongol general Pubei, who was serving in the Ming army. They successfully overthrew the commanding generals and took control of the city and its surrounding fortifications. The Ming army, led by Wei Xueceng, quickly regained control of the region and laid siege to the city in mid-May. The rebels had a sizable force of 20,000–30,000 soldiers, while the city's population was 300,000. In response, the Ming government gathered 40,000 soldiers, armed with hundreds of cannons, to suppress the rebellion. The siege lasted for several months, with neither side gaining the upper hand. The rebels attempted to gain support from the Mongol khans, but were unsuccessful. The stalemate was broken when the Ming army built a dam around the city, which, when filled with water, flooded the city and destroyed its castles. The defenders' morale was further weakened by a lack of food. On 20 October 1592, the city was finally captured and the rebel leaders were either killed or captured and executed.


== Background ==
After the settlement of relations between Ming China and the Mongol Altan Khan in 1571, and the resumption of Sino-Mongol trade, the Ming state's interactions with its northern neighbors were generally peaceful. The Mongols were not seen as a serious threat, although there were occasional armed clashes, sometimes involving tens of thousands of men. Ming troops also conducted raids into Mongolia and Manchuria, burning settlements, killing rebellious leaders, and seizing livestock. These actions were organized by Zhang Juzheng, who was the head of the Ming government from 1572 to 1582, and continued in the following years with the support of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620). For example, in 1591, General Li Chengliang destroyed a Mongol camp during a raid, resulting in the deaths of 280 Mongols and the scattering of over a thousand. Despite the active defense of the empire's borders and military support from Zhang Juzheng and Wanli Emperor, the Ming armies guarding the northwest border were not in the best condition. Several minor rebellions occurred in the 1580s, mostly due to delays in the payment of wages and food.

At the end of the Jiajing Emperor's reign (r. 1521–1567), Pubei, a Mongol chieftain from Chahar, defected to the Chinese side with several hundred men from his household. His clan in Chahar had been causing unrest by constantly raiding their neighbors, leading to the execution of Pubei's father and older brother by the chieftain of their tribe. With no other choice, Pubei fled to Ming territory. Known for their exceptional skills in warfare, Pubei and his horsemen were able to cover 150–200 km on horseback in a day, ambush and disperse enemy camps, and plunder cattle. The Mongols feared his name and did not dare to attack Ming villages within a 150 km radius of Ningxia. Within ten years, Pubei became the regional military commissioner of Huamachi, a strategically important fortress in the northwestern borderlands southeast of Ningxia. He played a significant role in Ming raids against Mongol chieftains in and around Ordos. Despite some complaints from officials, Pubei was highly respected and honored by both Zhang Juzheng and the Wanli Emperor. In 1589, he was appointed regional vice commander of Ningxia, with his son Bo Cheng'en taking over his previous position. Pubei had a personal guard of 3,000 men at his disposal, a common practice among senior late Ming commanders. However, due to his advanced age (over 60 years old), Pubei wanted to step down from his new position and pass it on to his son. Grand coordinator in Ningxia, Dang Xin (党馨), protested, citing Pubei's power and potential danger.
Pubei and Bo Cheng'en's disputes with Dang Xin lasted for several years. Dang Xin consistently denied providing equipment and supplies to Pubei's soldiers, and even had Bo Cheng'en punished for kidnapping another officer's wife. He also arrested those who supported Pubei and Bo Cheng'en. Despite their complaints to Beijing, no resolution was reached. The soldiers and officers, left without resources, repeatedly protested and demanded payment for their services, as well as basic necessities such as food, clothing, and equipment. However, Dang Xin refused to comply for a long time. It was not until 1592 that he finally paid them a year's salary, but he still owed them three years' worth of payment, so the situation did not improve significantly. In February of that year, the government received yet another complaint against Dang Xin and decided to launch an investigation. Dang Xin managed to manipulate the situation by having his relative, Shi Jifang (石繼芳), appointed as the investigator.


== Rebellion ==
In late March 1592, the soldiers and officers who were owed money by Dang Xin became increasingly frustrated with his refusal to pay their salaries. Led by Chinese officer Liu Dongyang (劉東暘), they rose up and killed Dang Xin and Shi Jifang, and the military commander of the area was forced to commit suicide. Liu Dongyang was then appointed as their commander, with Pubei as chief strategist and Bo Cheng'en and Xu Chao (許朝), an experienced officer whose abilities are on par with Pubei's, as deputy commanders. Tu Wenxiu (土文秀), the son of one of Pubei's original Mongol loyalists, and Pubei's adopted son Bo Yun (継雲) served as the commander's assistants. The government believed that Pubei, due to his Mongol origins, was the mastermind behind the rebellion. The rebels successfully captured Ningxia and 47 surrounding forts, while the pro-government officers and their troops retreated in confusion. In an attempt to expand their control, Tu Wenxiu led 500 men to attack Pinglu, a city 200 km south of Ningxia, but the city was successfully defended by the local Ming commander Xiao Ruxun (蕭如薰). In late April, several thousand Mongols, led by Jorightu, joined the rebels and were welcomed in Ningxia. On 9 May, they launched another unsuccessful attack on Pinglu. The Mongols then withdrew, plundering the countryside.
The rebels demanded recognition from the government, threatening to form an alliance with the Ordos Mongols. Ningxia was a heavily fortified city with a population of 300,000 and an armed rebel force of 30,000 (or possibly 20,000). The city walls were six meters thick and nine meters high, and the rebels were skilled and experienced soldiers.
On 19 April, the Wanli Emperor was informed of the rebellion. He immediately summoned the Minister of War, Shi Xing (石星), and, upon the minister's suggestion, issued a decree to mobilize 7,000 soldiers from the garrisons in Xuanfu, Datong, and Shanxi. The Wanli Emperor also appointed several officers and officials to suppress the rebellion, including Ma Gui, a powerful general with his own guard. Additionally, Wei Xueceng (魏學曾), a military experienced official and commander-in-chief of the three border regions, was assigned to crush the rebellion. Wei Xueceng acted swiftly and effectively, securing the south bank of the Yellow River, capturing key points, and recapturing the surrounding border fortresses within a few weeks. The only remaining stronghold for the rebels was the city of Ningxia. The rebels slowed the Ming army's progress by ambushing roads and destroying government supplies. However, after reclaiming the region, Wei Xueceng declared that he did not have enough resources to take the city and took a passive approach. Despite the emperor and his advisors providing additional forces, Wei Xueceng still insisted on a peaceful resolution, citing concerns for the safety of civilians in Ningxia. This decision was criticized by some officials in Beijing, particularly Mei Guozhen (梅國楨), a censor with a military background. After discussing the situation with the supervising secretaries of the ministries and then with the ministers and censors, the emperor took a decisive stance, stating that the rebellion must be suppressed as quickly as possible, especially given the ongoing Japanese invasion of Korea.
Over the course of six weeks, the Ming forces laid siege to Ningxia while also facing occasional harassment from the Mongols. On 22 May, a group of one thousand rebels, led by Pubei's son Bo Chengchong (哱承寵), attempted to join forces with the Mongols. However, they were unable to reach their destination due to blocked roads and were forced to return to the city. The Ming's initial attack on 23 May was unsuccessful, and they tried again on 27 May, resulting in the deaths of approximately three thousand defenders, but the Ming's attempt to break through the northern gate was unsuccessful and caused heavy casualties among their own troops. After receiving news of the Mongols' arrival, the Ming forces withdrew, but resumed their attacks after three days and began constructing ramparts around the city in preparation for a prolonged siege. On 1 June, the rebels joined forces with two thousand Mongol cavalry and launched an attack on the besiegers, but were repelled by artillery fire. In mid-June, Wei Xueceng sent reinforcements to the passes north and east of the city, just in time for a group of 10,000 Mongols to appear 70 km north of Ningxia and another group of 2,000 to 3,000 to appear at Huamachi, southeast of the city. Both groups were driven back, but Wei felt that he did not have enough forces to both defend the border and launch a decisive attack on the city. When bad weather set in, he withdrew his troops from the city to nearby forts, which boosted the rebels' morale. The rebels attempted to persuade the Mongols to join forces against the Ming, but Jorightu remained skeptical of their plans to conquer the province together. In an effort to isolate the rebels, the Ming government offered gifts and trade to the Mongols, specifically to chieftain Curuke.
After the outbreak of the war in Korea in May, the emperor and government urged Wei to speed up the siege, but he continued to use delaying tactics. This caused criticism in Beijing, leading Mei Guozhen to suggest that Li Chengliang, the Count of Ningyuan, an experienced and respected veteran, be placed in charge of the counter-insurgency forces. Li Chengliang's sons, Li Rusong, Li Rubai, and Li Ruzhen, were also capable generals, and his other sons, Li Ruzhang and Li Rumei, as well as his cousin Li Ruwu, also served in the army. The family held significant influence in the northeast of the empire, specifically in Liaodong. However, they were disliked by officials due to their disregard for Confucian values and their association with Zhang Juzheng. Additionally, the position of military superintendent (tidu) was typically reserved for officials, and Li Chengliang was already retired and living in distant Liaodong. The officials viewed them as ""wolves"" who should not be trusted with such an important position. Despite this, the war party in the government supported Mei Guozhen. The emperor ultimately appointed Li Chengliang as military superintendent and Mei Guozhen as his assistant with the title of army inspecting censor for Ningxia. However, Li Chengliang declined the assignment, citing his advanced age and the Japanese invasion of Korea, which was adjacent to Liaodong. As a result, his son Li Rusong was given the positions of military superintendent of Ningxia and commander in Shaanxi.
In mid-July, Ming reinforcements led by censor Ye Mengxiong (葉夢熊) arrived at Ningxia. They brought with them four hundred cannons, ""fire carts"", and a thousand Miao warriors. The besiegers were divided into five divisions, with each division assigned to one of the major gates. There was also a mobile corps under the command of Ma Gui. Towards the end of July, the Ming army, which had approximately 40,000 troops in the city, launched an attack from all sides. However, the rebels were able to repel the attack, causing heavy losses for the Ming army. The following night, the rebels made a surprise attack through the north gate and clashed with Ma Gui's cavalry. Both sides suffered significant casualties, but the Ming artillery was able to drive the rebels back. After witnessing the rebels' failure, the Mongols refused to support them with an attack from the rear. On 30 July, Li Rusong and Mei Guozhen arrived with reinforcements from Liaodong, Xuanfu, Datong, and Shanxi. They also brought a large amount of equipment and supplies, including 30,000 uniforms. Li Rusong took command and began attacking the city day and night in early August. The rebels struggled to defend themselves and resorted to executing hostages. As the situation worsened, civilians in the city began to die from lack of food and disease. Some of the rebels started to lose their resolve. Even the Ming army was facing challenges due to a shortage of iron, wood, and skilled craftsmen needed to make and repair weapons.
Meanwhile, the Japanese were attacking Korea, and the emperor was disgusted by the pacifist stance of Wei Xueceng, who tried to appease the Mongols with titles and bribes and sought to negotiate with the rebels. In late August, he was arrested and taken to Beijing. The emperor then approved Shi Xing's plan to build ramparts around the city and flood the interior, including the city itself, with water from lakes and rivers located 15 km away. Wei Xueceng was replaced by Ye Mengxiong, who had previously written the treatise on warfare, Yunchou gangmu (運籌綱目), in 1562. In this treatise, he emphasized the importance of water in warfare. Meanwhile, in Korea, the Korean king fled to the northern border of his country at Uiju on the Yalu River and sought asylum in Ming Liaodong. In response, the Wanli Emperor sent a relief expeditionary force of 3,000 soldiers to Korea. In late August 1592, the Japanese defeated the Ming force near Pyongyang. The troops that were tied up in the northwest in Ningxia were urgently needed in the east in Korea.
Meanwhile, in Ningxia, as of 23 August, a 5.3 km long dam encircled the city. The rebels' attempt to establish contact with the Mongols failed when the Ming captured and executed Pubei's envoy, who was also his adopted son, along with 29 soldiers. However, the rebels were able to secure an alliance with the Mongol chieftain Bushugtu. Li Rusong then sent Ma Gui and Dong Yiyuan (董一元) to attack Bushugtu, and they successfully occupied the passes east of the city. The Mongols were repelled by the Ming forces. On 6 September, the water level in the city reached almost three meters, and the rebels' boat attack on the rampart failed. Inside the city, rebel officers resorted to eating horses, and civilians were forced to eat tree bark. On 7 September, a section of the dam collapsed, resulting in the execution of the responsible officer. The rebels attempted another assault but were once again repelled. The city's residents demanded the rebels' surrender, and on 17 September, Ma Gui also appealed to them to save lives. Despite this, the rebels made another attempt to break out on 22 September. On 25 September, 18,000 Mongols led by Jorightu were blocked north of the city. Li Rusong and Ma Gui launched a counterattack and successfully drove the Mongols back. The morale of the rebels began to decline. On 12 October, the water breached the northern gate, and the Ming soldiers were able to overcome the southern walls. The Ming promised the rebel leaders clemency if they killed their accomplices. As a result, before the fall of the city, Bo Cheng'en killed Liu Dongyang. The city was finally captured on 20 October 1592, and Pubei committed suicide. Bo Cheng'en surrendered and was executed, along with several other captured leaders.


== Aftermath ==
Ming commanders were promoted and honored—Li Rusong was promoted to supreme commander, while Ye Mengxiong became censor in chief of the right. A large part of the troops from Ningxia was sent to Korea, including Li Rusong, who was appointed supreme commander of the Eastern Expedition to chastise the Japanese. Wei Xueceng was (after the intervention of Li Rusong and Mei Guozhen with the emperor) released from prison and died in obscurity. On the northwestern frontier, more border markets were opened during the 1590s, and the Mongol raids subsequently lost strength and intensity.


== Notes ==


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Works cited ===",1.1245404481887817
Guadeloupe woodpecker,"The Guadeloupe woodpecker (Melanerpes herminieri) or Tapeur is a species of bird in the woodpecker family Picidae belonging to the genus Melanerpes. Endemic to the Guadeloupe archipelago in the Lesser Antilles, it is a medium-sized forest woodpecker with entirely black plumage and red-to-purple reflections on its stomach. It lives mainly in the islands' tropical rainforest areas. The woodpecker has no sexual dimorphism. The species has adapted under the pressure of urbanization to more open forest environments. 
During the breeding season, the Guadeloupe woodpecker is solitary bird that nests in holes it digs with its beak in the trunk of dead trees—mainly coconut—where the female lays three to five eggs. The eggs are incubated for fifteen days before hatching, after which the adult female feeds the chicks in the nest for about a month. Juvenile birds stay with the parents for several months before becoming independent. Guadeloupe woodpeckers are mainly insectivorous, but they also feed on small vertebrates like tree frogs and Anolis marmoratus, as well as a variety of seasonal fruits.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker was long considered ""near-threatened"" according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its endemism, predation of its eggs and nests by black rats, its relatively low numbers, and the specificities of the archipelago—island topography, habitat fragmentation, and urbanization. It was downgraded to an assessment of ""least concern"" in July 2019. While the Guadeloupe woodpecker seems relatively protected on the island Basse-Terre, the state of its populations on Grande-Terre—where there are risks of extinction—is much more of a problem. It has become an emblem of Guadeloupean fauna and is now commonly found in the Guadeloupe National Park.


== Taxonomy ==
Described in 1830 by René Primevère Lesson in the genus Picus, the Guadeloupe woodpecker was given its binomial name, Melanerpes herminieri, after the naturalist Félix Louis L'Herminier, who studied in Guadeloupe and wrote numerous works on birds. The name of the genus Melanerpes comes from the Greek melas meaning ""black"" and herpēs meaning ""climber"". In the local Guadeloupe Creole, it is called Tapeur or Tapé (""one who knocks""). It is also called Toto bwa or Toc-toc for its tapping noise.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker had been considered for some time to be in the monotypic genus Linneopicus before being classified in the genus Melanerpes. It may have evolved during the Pleistocene from the Puerto Rican woodpecker (M. portoricensis), which itself is derived phylogenetically from the red-headed woodpecker (M. erythrocephalus). The  phylogenetic position diagram of the genus Melanerpes is the least-known among the family Picidae, whose divergence into the subfamilies Jynginae, Picumninae, and Picinae—to which Melanerpes belongs—dates from 30 to 20 million years ago in the Oligocene or lower Miocene.


== Distribution and habitat ==
Since the extinction of the Guadeloupe parakeet (Psittacara labati) and the Guadeloupe amazon (Amazona violacea) in the 18th century (if they existed), the Guadeloupe woodpecker is the only bird species that is endemic to Guadeloupe, and is the only woodpecker species found in the Lesser Antilles. It, along with two species of forest bats and two species of frogs, is one of the archipelago's five endemic animal species.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is present on the main island from sea level to the upper tree line, at around 1,000 m (39,000 in) altitude, but is historically more common on island of Basse-Terre, where it has a preference for the island's east coast, than on Grande-Terre. It is absent from the dependencies of Guadeloupe (Îles des Saintes, Marie-Galante, and La Désirade).
The Guadeloupe woodpecker, an exclusively stationary species, is found in a wide variety of forest types across the islands: it is most common in the tropical rainforest areas of Basse-Terre; in 1998, these rainforests had more than 70 percent of the population of the species in Guadeloupe, 5 percent were in deciduous areas, while the deciduous forests of Grande-Terre hosted about 20 percent, and the mangrove and swamp in the center of the archipelago held the remaining 5 percent.
In 2008, a study of Guadeloupean avifauna showed the presence of the Guadeloupe woodpecker in all zones of Guadeloupe National Park, where it prefers Côte-au-vent, the ombrophile massif on the eastern coast of the island, as well as the northwestern zone towards Deshaies north of the Côte-sous-le-vent. The species also seems to have colonized the Caribbean Mountains at the southern tip of Basse-Terre between 1998 and 2007. In 2008, Basse-Terre hosted three-quarters of the population of woodpeckers in the archipelago and Grande-Terre the other quarter. 
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is a territorial bird but not particularly aggressive towards other birds, with which it seldom interacts. The species needs a territory of between two and five hectares (4.9 and 12.4 acres) per pair to live, and even ten hectares (25 acres) at the southern tip of the more-arid Grande-Terre.


== Description ==

The Guadeloupe woodpecker is a medium-sized, robust woodpecker species measuring 26–28 cm (10–11 in) in length, and with a mass of 86–97 g (3.0–3.4 oz) in males and 69–78 g (2.4–2.8 oz) in females. It is distinct in its appearance within its genus, and unlike other species of Melanerpes, males and females do not present a marked sexual dimorphism in their plumage; they are entirely black with gradual reflections ranging from dark red to burgundy on the ventral plumage, dark blue on the back, and metallic blue on the wing tips. Males have a wingspan of 42.5 cm (16.7 in) compared with 40.5 cm (15.9 in) in females). The black coloration of the Guadeloupe woodpecker may be an advantage in drying feathers by exposure to the sun and fighting against humidity, and the black feathers may be resistant to abrasion, but no definitive explanation has been advanced by the scientific community. This woodpecker is solitary animal, a social behavioral trait that is often associated with plumage monomorphism.
The legs, which terminate in four toes in a zygodactyl arrangement, are gray-green to gray-blue and powerful, with highly developed talons. The talons are curved for gripping bark with the tip of the claw; this represents an adaptation to living on trunks and branches of trees. The eyes are 6 mm (0.24 in) in diameter (pupil 2 mm (0.079 in)) with dark brown irises. The beak is entirely black and is between 15 and 20 percent longer and more robust in males; this is the main criterion for recognizing the sex of individuals. The size of the female's beak is equal to that of her head while that of the male is distinctly longer.
As with all woodpeckers that are adapted to piercing wood, the nostrils on the culmen have small feathers to protect respiration and mucous glands to trap dust. The pterygoid protractor muscle, which is highly developed in woodpeckers, is important for adapting to shock absorption by uncoupling the beak, which can move laterally, from the skull to minimize the transmission of kinetic energy to the brain and eyes. There is also a specific pterygoid bone in Picidae compared to other birds. They have a specific cancellous tissue between the skull and the beak, with a displacement of the attachment of the greater horn of the hyoid bone to the quadrate bone, as well as a reinforced sternum and keel. These elements maximize energy dissipation and shock absorption for the bird during impact. The specific, long tongue of the Picidae is cylindrical and is about twice the size of its bill. The tongue is the result of an evolution of the hyoid apparatus with two parts; one bony at the end is equipped with small hooks, the other cartilaginous lengthens under the action of a branchiomandibular muscle that attaches to the branch of the mandible, split, anchoring on the anterior part at the base of the culmen, surrounding the skull from behind with its two branches, descending on either side of the spine, esophagus and larynx, which pushes the hyoid horns and tongue out of the beak.
Juvenile birds are similar to adults but have duller, dark brown plumage. The life expectancy of individuals is greater than five years and estimated to be between eight and ten years.


== Behavior ==


=== Food ===
The adult Guadeloupe woodpecker feeds mainly on termites, ants, larvae, myriapods, and arthropods—90 percent of which are collected when piercing dead wood— and fruits. Due to the difference in the size of their beaks, males preferentially seek their prey on large branches and dead trunks while females more frequently attach themselves to branches, especially those with small cross-sections. Scientific studies of a captive woodpecker have shown the tip of the bird's long tongue has horny, backward-facing, saliva-coated hooks that allow it to grasp and extract insects from deep holes in wood rather than ""harpooning"" them. 
It has been reported the Guadeloupe woodpecker may occasionally and opportunistically feed on a small lizards (Anolis marmoratus), which are also endemic to the archipelago. Female woodpeckers may occasionally consume crab carcasses during the breeding season to obtain the calcium necessary for the production of their eggshells. 
No precise studies of woodpecker feeding, such as identification and quantity of insects consumed, in adults could be made because of the speed of their prey consumption. During the nesting period, however, studies have shown the typical diet of nestlings—brought by the parents at a rate of five times per hour—mainly consists of large prey ranging from 20–40 mm (0.79–1.57 in) with an average of 20 mm (0.79 in). Although the Guadalupe woodpecker feeds its brood half as frequently as the Jamaican woodpecker, the prey brought in is two-to-four times larger because the species—unlike its Jamaican cousin, whose beak size is identical—does not swallow or regurgitate them but carries them in its beak. The chicks' diet mainly consists of insects of the class Orthoptera (44 percent, mainly grasshoppers of the species Tapalisca and cockroaches of the species Pelmatosilpha purpurascens), larvae (20 percent, mainly beetles—including Scarabaeidae and Buprestidae—and Diptera), tree frogs Eleutherodactylus martinicensis (11 percent), adult beetles (10.5 percent, from the families Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, and Scarabaeidae), Lepidoptera (6.5 percent), and gastropods (3.2 percent), as well as fruits, mainly from the genera Clusia (70 percent), Eugenia, and Myrcia (16 percent), as well as pieces of mango (Mangifera indica). Adults do not feed ants or termites to their chicks.
The birds' water intake comes from  sixteen species of seasonal fruits, the seeds and pits of which they spit out after eating the pulp, violently shaking their heads like all woodpeckers, they have rarely been observed drinking. Guadeloupe woodpeckers use anvils for cutting up large prey such as frogs and anolis, skinning insects, and cracking open seeds and hard fruits. These anvils are usually the tops of palmless coconut trees, which also provide food storage areas.


=== Breeding ===

The Guadaloupe woodpecker is solitary and does not congregate in colonies. It is an exclusive monogamist whose breeding season runs from January to August, with a peak from April to June - indicating a lack of competition in the bird's ecological niche. The breeding season is variable from pair to pair, and from year to year,  the determining factor being access to optimal food, which in Guadeloupe is dependent on rainfall. Studies have shown only 6–8 percent of nestling paternities are the result of relationships outside the established pair.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker generally nests 2–20 m (79–787 in) above the ground in holes in the trunks of trees the two parents dig together. They prefer to nest in dead coconut trees and less frequently in dead branches of deciduous trees. Nesting sites are chosen after several trials and tests according to the condition of the wood; the elaboration of a nest in a living tree is exceptional because it is more difficult to achieve. Digging a 30 cm (12 in) deep nest takes the parents about ten days but the nest is often used for over two years, depending on the condition of the wood.
The female lays three to five pure white, elliptical eggs that are on average 24.6 mm × 18.5 mm (0.97 in × 0.73 in) in size and weigh about 3.5 grams (0.12 oz). The pair takes turns incubating the eggs during the 15 days of incubation, which starts with the laying of the first egg and leads to asynchronous hatching. Only the male is responsible during the nights and when the chicks are small. A pair raises up to three young, and later-hatching  chicks usually do not survive to adulthood. In the darkness of the nest, the parents are assisted in feeding the chicks by a white triangle that is formed by the egg tooth and two white, greasy buttons at the corners of the chicks' bills.
Young birds leave the nest between 33 and 37 days after hatching, and live with their parents for several months, forming families that sometimes include birds from two successive nestings. It appears juvenile Guadeloupe woodpeckers stay with their parents longer than those of temperate zone woodpeckers because of the lack of a winter season that forces accelerated learning. This longer learning period increases the chances of a chick's survival but only about 10 percent of eggs will result in a young adult. The effective reproduction rate of the Guadeloupe woodpecker is unknown.


=== Flight and locomotion ===
The flight of the Guadeloupe woodpecker is straight, without undulations.  The species is unusual because it does not fly over water, which limits its movements between the two main islands of Guadeloupe and explains its endemism to the archipelago and its absence from the dependencies of Guadeloupe, where it has never been observed, heard, or identified by its nests.
Unlike some Caribbean woodpecker species, such as the Jamaican woodpecker and the Hispaniolan woodpecker, the Guadeloupe woodpecker does not practice flight hunting. Another characteristic of woodpeckers, in particular the Guadeloupe woodpecker, is its absence of location on or near the ground. It is most often found in the canopy, where it moves only between trees using its climbing-adapted zygodactyl toes, the second of which towards the rear is capable of moving to a lateral position to stabilize the grip on the trunk when climbing. Like all woodpeckers, it uses its short, powerful tail as a fulcrum on the trunk for upward propulsion.


=== Vocalizations and sounds ===

The Guadeloupe woodpecker makes eight vocalized and two unvocalized sounds:

Although they are identical in form, the female's sound is higher pitched. This dimorphism in the calls is one of the characteristics of the species; the other sounds cannot be used to distinguish between males and females;
""rarrrrr"", in a series of between three and eight notes; this is a sound of excitement of adults or juveniles;
""tsii"", along with a buzzing sound, is made by nestlings to beg for food;
""tsi-sii"" is emitted by chicks just before feeding;
""kay-kay-kay"" is emitted during territorial conflicts between adults;
""tra-tra-tra-tra"" informs of the arrival of an adult at the nest so the other will give way;
""tray-tray-tray-tray"" is made by adults calling the chicks or juveniles to locate them;
a mutual drumming sound is made by the pair near their nest;
the high-frequency drumming is the most perceptible and recognizable sound of the woodpecker; only males perform this medium-to-powerful roll of at least eleven beats performed in 1.3 s. This parade and territoriality drumming is very distinct from that resulting from predatory and nest-burrowing activities, which is both sexes perform six times more slowly.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is the most-drumming species among the Caribbean and island Picidae. Its calls are the most raucous of those produced by members of the genus Melanerpes.


== Conservation ==


=== Status and threats ===

The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies the Guadeloupe woodpecker with a conservation status of least concern since the last assessment of the species in July 2019. Betweek 2004 and 2019, it was previously classified as near-threatened due to its uniqueness to the Guadeloupe archipelago and its relatively small population: about 10,330±1,000 pairs estimated in 1998, a number re-evaluated to 19,527±3,769 in 2007 due to a better counting methodology and definition of ecological units. The 2007 reassessment does not indicate a real increase in their population, which, according to the authors of the two studies, remained stable over the period under consideration. The reduction and fragmentation of its habitat due to human expansion and infrastructure are affecting the balance of its population, especially on Grande-Terre, where it is at risk of extinction. This is particularly the case in urbanized areas of Pointe-à-Pitre, Jarry, Grands Fonds and North Basse-Terre, which are expanding, allowing less movement of individuals between Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre through vegetation corridors. The species does not fly over non-wooded areas or bodies of water; this trait is increasingly splitting the population into two distinct groups with a moderate degree of genetic differentiation. The further reduction of island endemic bird populations may eventually lead to a bottleneck in their genetic diversity and a decline of the species due to excessive inbreeding  or even its disappearance from a territory.
The removal of dead wood, which is essential to the survival of the species' nesting and feeding, is an aggravating factor. On Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe woodpeckers are forced to nest in wooden poles of telephone and electricity lines, or in living coconut trees, both of which are difficult to excavate; the species has a less-than-20 percent success rate. The passage of hurricanes over the archipelago has a strong negative impact on bird populations, in particular that of the Guadeloupe woodpecker, which is strongly dependent on coconut trees. In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused a decrease in numbers, especially juveniles.


=== Predators ===
Another major threat to Guadeloupe woodpeckers is predation of their eggs by black rats, the only rodents with arboreal habits, which have a major negative impact on nesting - and competition for the same nesting sites. To a lesser extent, there is predation of adults by feral and domestic cats, and very occasionally by raccoons.  Mongooses do not appear to prey upon the woodpecker or its eggs.


=== Protection ===
Hunting of the Guadeloupe woodpecker has been banned since April 30, 1954. A ministerial decree of February 17, 1989, which was consolidated in 2013 and 2018, fully protected the Guadeloupe woodpecker  throughout the archipelago. Following the last studies on the species' population and habitat in 2007, ornithologists recommended the creation and maintenance of essential vegetation corridors in the center of the island and the installation of dead-coconut-tree sections on the Grande-Terre as artificial nesting boxes.


== Footnotes ==


== References ==


== Bibliography ==",1.2879799604415894
Nocton Hall,"Nocton Hall is a historic Grade II listed building in the village of Nocton, in Lincolnshire, England. The plaque on the north face of the Hall (see below) indicates that the original building dates back to about 1530 but since then there have been two notable reconstructions. Several prominent people have been residents of the house the most notable being Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for a short time.
During the First World War, the house was used as a convalescent home for wounded American Officers. In the Second World War, the British Army used the house after which it was taken over by the RAF and an extensive hospital developed in the grounds. It reverted to private use in the 1980s. In 2004 there was a major fire that left the building in a derelict state. Options are currently being considered regarding the future of the building.


== Early history ==

The historic grounds upon which Nocton Hall stands previously contained both a house and priory. Nocton Priory was built in the 12th century and the house was constructed in the 16th century and coexisted with the priory. The remains of the priory still exist as earthworks and are located at least 0.6 miles (1 km) from the house. The house was called Nocton Manor and was the property of Thomas Wimbishe and subsequently the Towneley family. In the 1670s while Nocton belonged to Sir Charles Stanhope, his niece Elizabeth Delavel Livingston put on a performance of Il pastor fido for 300 people, an important example of country house drama performed by amateurs for a large audience.
This house was reconstructed by Sir William Ellis in the latter part of the 17th century by extending parts of the existing Towneley manor and was called Nocton Old Hall. In 1834 Nocton Old Hall was engulfed by fire and the current building was erected in 1841 by the 1st Earl of Ripon.
In 1996 before the recent fire, an examination of the house was made and some evidence was found that the 1841 building contained some parts of Nocton Old Hall. There is a plaque on the northern elevation of the building, near the front door (shown on the right) which indicates that the Earl and Countess of Ripon who reconstructed the current building in 1841 believed that it was founded in about 1530. The inscription is in Latin, but reads in translation:

This house was founded in about 1530 during the reign of Henry VIII. Enlarged in 1680 by Sir William Ellis. Then George Buckingham finally received it in 1780. Robert Earl of Buckingham's daughter married Frederick John, Earl of Ripon. Fire destroyed the house in about 1830 and another was built in the same place in 1841.
Nocton Hall, then the property of Thomas Wimbishe, was visited by Henry VIII and Catherine Howard in 1541 during the King's northern progress. Henry's fifth wife, Catherine, reputedly planted the great chestnut tree in the grounds at Nocton on 13 October 1541. The tree still stands today.


== Frederick and Sarah Robinson, 1st Earl and Countess of Ripon ==

Frederick John Robinson was born in 1782. His parents were Thomas Robinson, 2nd Baron Grantham and Lady Mary, daughter of the 2nd Earl of Hardwicke. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge University and was regarded as a very bright student.
Sarah, his wife was born in 1793 and was eleven years his junior. She was the only child of Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire who owned Nocton Old Hall. On his death in 1816 she inherited his property.
Frederick became Tory M.P. for Carlow borough in 1806 and for Ripon in 1807–27. He was secretary of state for the colonies in 1809, Lord of the Admiralty 1810–12, Privy Councillor in 1812, a Lord of the Treasury in 1812, Paymaster-General of the forces in 1812–17, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1823–27.
In 1827 he became Prime Minister after the death of Canning. He was appointed by the King who thought that because of his previous experience and competent performance he would be suitable. However, this was not the case and only five months later with his Government in chaos, he was asked to resign.
History has judged Frederick harshly because of this episode but there were very severe pressures on him at the time. There was a high level of discord between members of his own party which he found difficult to control. There was also a great deal of domestic pressure on him at the time which he found unbearable. His wife Sarah had proved to be an unsuitable partner for a high-ranking politician as she was prone to outburst of hysteria and hypochondria. There exist letters written by Sarah's step aunt Emily Eden which frequently describes her niece's strange behaviour. In 1826 she said:

I will not say anything about Sarah; she is too bad if she knows what she is about. Poor Mr. Robinson (Frederick) was summoned back from Wrest Park yesterday, where he had been amusing himself for three days. She sent him word she was dying, and when he arrived in the greatest haste yesterday, she was gone out airing. He was very cross, but too late.
The aunt also felt that Frederick had a nervous disposition and was completely dominated by the hysterical behaviour of his wife. It is these character traits that may have made him such an unsuitable Prime Minister even though he was a competent politician in lower offices. After he resigned as Prime Minister, one of his colleagues remarked that he was ""quite another man who sleeps at nights now, and laughs and talks as usual"".
The couple had only one child who survived to adulthood. This was George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon. On Frederick's death in 1859 he inherited Nocton Hall.


== George and Henrietta Robinson, 1st Marquess and Marchioness of Ripon ==

George Frederick Samuel Robinson was born in 1827 in 10 Downing Street when his father was Prime Minister. A large part of his childhood was spent at Nocton Hall where he obtained much of his education. He was a prolific reader which helped him obtain the knowledge he required.
In 1851 he married Henrietta Vyner who was his first cousin once removed. Henrietta was the daughter of Captain Henry Vyner of Newby Hall near Ripon.
In 1859 after his father's death he succeeded the title of Earl of Ripon. In November of the same year, he gained the title of his uncle, Earl de Grey as his uncle had no male heirs. He also inherited from Earl de Grey his ancestral home of Studley Royal in Yorkshire.
He was undersecretary for war in 1859–61 and for India in 1861–63. He became Prime Minister Lord Palmerston's secretary for war in 1863, and in 1866 was appointed secretary of state for India.
One of his most important position was as Viceroy of India in 1880 where he is said to have introduced liberal reforms. According to one historical account:
“He lit the torch that led ultimately to the political autonomy of the country"". According to the Quarterly Review Ripon had industriously scattered the germs of independence in India with the doctrine that ""the natives were entitled to rule, the English nothing more than interlopers; the time had arrived when India was entitled to ‘Home Rule’.
After he returned from India he spent more of his time at his other home Studley Royal and he decided to sell Nocton Hall in 1889. The buyer was a close friend of his George Hodgson, a very wealthy industrialist.


== Residents of Nocton Hall after the Robinsons ==

George Hodgson, a wealthy spinner from Bradford moved into the Hall in 1889 and remained there until his death in 1895. His son John inherited the property and in 1902 upon John's death, his grandson Norman took control of the Estate.
In 1917 after the United States' entry into the War the Hodgson family moved into Embsay House in the village so that the Hall could be turned into a convalescent home for American officers wounded in the War. The last of these officers left in 1919.
In 1919 the Hall was sold to William Dennis of the firm Messrs W.H. Dennis and Sons, Kirton. On his death in 1925 his son James Herbert Dennis came to live at the property. James was a farmer and he converted a large part of the Estate to growing potatoes. He even had a special steam locomotive manufactured for the haulage of his potatoes.
In 1940 with the outbreak of the Second World War it was taken over by the Army and was the home of 21st Casualty Clearing Station (CCS) Royal Army Medical Corps until it was deployed in North Africa in June 1942. Some time after this, it was taken over by the Air Ministry, the Hall and grounds remaining as the site of RAF Hospital Nocton Hall until its closure in 1983.
In the mid-1980s Torrie Richardson bought Nocton Hall, the surrounding wood, woodland, grassland, and cottages. Selling the cottages for redevelopment allowed him to develop Nocton Hall as a Residential Home. Nocton Hall Residential home ran a summer fête for the village on their lawn and employed many local people. Torrie's son, Gary, took control of the business in the early 1990s. The home ran into difficulty and closed in the mid-1990s, and was sold by the receivers to new owners, Leda Properties of Oxford. Leda also bought the RAF Hospital site from the Ministry of Defence.

While vacant there were many break-ins; fireplaces and the stair bannisters were stolen. It burnt down for a second time in the early hours of 24 October 2004, the fire reducing it to a shell. The investigation into the fire established that multiple fires had been set, but to date, no one has been charged with arson. Due to the extensive structural damage, it will now likely need to be rebuilt if the site is not redeveloped for another purpose. An adjacent geriatric nursing care two-storey building has also been severely damaged by vandals since it was left vacant.
In October 2009 Nocton Hall was included in the Victorian Society's list of the top ten endangered buildings in England and Wales. An investigation for BBC Look North established that Leda Properties intended to put forward new development plans in ""the near future"" for both the Hall and its associated gardens. As the Hall is Grade II listed and retains its major structural integrity the Society argued there was still a viable future for the building.


== Legacy ==
The local Nocton Social Club has been in continuous existence since 1946, incorporated within various generations of Nocton village halls.  In  2020, the most recent Village Hall was rebuilt Nocton Hub and the decision was made to re-brand the Nocton Social Club as a Community Pub, named the Ripon Arms, after the 1st Earl of Ripon.  The logo of the Ripon Arms, uses a stylised version of the 1st Earl's coat of arms and maintains the heritage link back to the Ripon's of Nocton Hall. 


== RAF Hospital Nocton Hall ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Urban Lincs Nocton Hall Forgotten Treasures gallery
Nocton Hall fire
BBC News: Fire hits grounds of stately home, 18 September 2005
BBC News: Stately home 'needs protection', 4 October 2005
Leda Properties, who own the Nocton Hall site
The Cottage Nursing Home (requires Flash) is nearby.
Historic England. ""Details from listed building database (1360561)"". National Heritage List for England.
Nocton Hall Site, The Hall on Google Earth",0.7939886450767517
Supyire language,"Supyire, or Suppire, is a Senufo language spoken in the Sikasso Region of southeastern Mali and in adjoining regions of Ivory Coast. In their native language, the noun sùpyìré means both ""the people"" and ""the language spoken by the people"".


== Background ==
 The early existence of Supyire is unclear. During the time period in which the language developed, it has been hypothesized that there was little conflict in the region which resulted in a significant amount of separation between the ancestors of the Supyire and other cultures of the area. If individuals speaking a single language migrated to the region of present-day Mali and then broke off into small groups that had little connection, it would be expected that the languages would develop different characteristics over time. Recently, close contact with other tribes has resulted in a dictionary full of loan words that have been assimilated into everyday language. Education has affected cultural language in this area. Although few are literate, many children attend primary school where a mixture of languages can be presented. There is ongoing controversy over the use of ""mother tongues"" in schools. Current law states that primary schools educate in the mother tongue whereas secondary schools emphasize the use of a common language.
The language group of Senufo can be divided into northern, central, and southern branches, with Supyire being classified as the southernmost northern Senufo language. The Senufo language group, with approximately 2. 2 million speakers, extends from the southwest corner of Mali and covers a significant portion of the northern Ivory Coast. There are also isolated pockets of this language group in Burkina Faso and Ghana.  As a group, the Senufo people are considered to be one of the oldest ethnic groups of the Ivory Coast, having settled there in the early 17th century. It is hypothesized that the Senufo descended from the Kenedugu people, who ruled over Mali and Burkina Faso during the 17th century. It was this culture that established the village of Sikasso, which now stands as the cultural center for the Supyire people. Sikasso was the last city to fall into French control during their invasion of Mali in 1888. Mali existed under French Colonial rule as the nation of French Sudan. In 1958, French Sudan claimed autonomy and was renamed the Sudanese Republic. In 1960 the Sudanese Republic became the independent country of Mali.
As a group of people, the Supyire survive by cultivating the landscape. Individuals make a living off of the land, primarily by cultivating yams, millet, and sorghum, a tradition that has perpetuated through their ancestral history. With the integration of agricultural processes from neighboring cultures, bananas and manioc have also been successfully cultivated. Care of livestock, including chickens, sheep, goats, and guinea fowl, provides a significant source of nutrition. In this culture, wealth is correlated to the number and quality of livestock as opposed to money. Both hunting and fishing are also important, although to a much smaller degree. Although the Supyire have risen above the level of hunter-gatherer, their traditional mode of organization has not risen above the village level. In Supyire culture it is rare that any single person holds excessive power and there are only two traditional classes- the laborers and the farmers.
As a culture, the Supyire, and most Senufo groups, are most known for their artwork. Artisans in these communities are regarded to the highest degree. Most artwork consists of sculptures used to bring deities to life. Animal figures such as zebras, crocodiles, and giraffes are very common. Storytelling also plays a significant role in this culture and one of the first written documents of the Supyire was a story entitled ""Warthog’s Laughter Teeth"". The Senufo practice of female circumcision has made this culture recognizable on a worldwide level. The practice of female circumcision, done for cultural or religious reasons, is meant to mark a rite of passage as girls become women. In these cultures, men are also expected to go through various rites of passage. The predominant religion of the region is Muslim, although most ""bushmen"" tend to instead place their faith in human-like gods. Worshipping of deceased ancestors is also common.


== Phonology ==


=== Consonants ===

Supyire has a voicing distinction and contains a glottal stop, a common characteristic in African languages. However, it does not have labial–velar consonants.
Voiceless stops have particular limitations and are only used in three environments: word initial, such as tàcwɔ̀ (""fiancée""); medially in a stressed syllable, as in nupéé; or following a nasal, such as in kàntugo (""behind""). Moreover, almost every word-initial /ɡ/ is found in loanwords from either French or Bambara.
Although both voiceless and voiced fricatives are found, voiceless fricatives such as /f/ and /s/ are much more common than the voiced fricatives /v/, /z/, and /ʒ/.
There is no labial approximant.
In speech, /w/ does not come after a short stressed syllable.: p. 17 
Although Supyire contains nasal consonants, there is considerable debate over their phonemic status. According to a well-formulated hypothesis, the predecessor of Supyire had no nasal consonants but nasalized vowels did exist. Some linguists thus categorize nasal consonants as simple variants of the approximants that occur before nasal vowels.
Supyire is reported to have the rare uvular flap as an allophone of /ɡ/ in unstressed syllables.: p. 10  This parallels /d/ surfacing as [ɾ] in the same environment.: p. 10 


=== Vowels ===

Supyire has 12 vowels in total, with seven oral vowels and five nasal vowels (which are indicated by an n after the vowel). Two oral vowels, /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are not as well-established as the other five because the difference between /ɛ/ and /a/ is neutralized and, when speaking quickly, it is very difficult to distinguish between /ɑ/, a variant of /ɔ/, and /a/. It does appear that some speakers preferentially choose one pronunciation over the other, although some do use both pronunciations and some use a variant somewhere in the middle.
Vowel harmony is also important in the Supyire language. This is done by harmonizing unstressed vowels with the initial stressed vowel if they both belong to the same root or have the same suffix.


=== Syllables ===
Supyire has a noticeable syllable structure that includes no closed syllables. In Supyire, syllables are most often either CV or CVV although the pronouns u and uru both begin with a vowel. Supyire words also tend to have only one stressed syllable in every root. Stress is most often placed on the initial syllable of a root although many roots exist with no stress on the first syllable. Affixes and other grammatical sounds, such as those that indicate pronouns, do not have stress.


=== Tone ===
Supyire is tonal (common in African languages).
The language has four basic tones: high, low, strong mid, and weak mid. While the high and low tones are unremarkable, the two mid tones are only differentiated by differences in their behavior when referencing tone rules, and not by their pitch. These unusual mid tones are found in all northern Senufo languages but not in central Senufo languages, which only have three tones. 

high tone is indicated by an acute accent: á é ɛ́ í ó ɔ́ ú;
mid tone is indicated by no diacritic : a e ɛ i o ɔ u;
low tone is indicated by a grave accent : à è ɛ̀ ì ò ɔ̀ ù;
the other mid (high-low) is indicated by a circumflex : â ê ɛ̂ î ô ɔ̂ û.
Most vowels in the Supyire language contain a single tone although vowels may have two, or in extremely rare cases three, tones. Further, nasals that come before stops can only have one tone. Basic noun gender suffixes, imperfective verb suffixes, the causative verb suffix –g followed by a vowel, and the intransitive verb prefix N- are considered toneless.
It was noted that boys who spent their days herding cows communicated with each other strictly through whistled language, which only elaborated vowel length and pitch. These small pieces of information were enough to have conversations of considerable detail.


== Morphology ==


=== Class system ===
The noun class system of Supyire is similar to that of other languages in the Niger–Congo family. This system includes eight noun classes that are grouped into five noun genders. While there is noun class agreement between pronouns and their head nouns, there is no verb agreement. However, there is agreement between quantifiers (such as determiners and independent adjectives) and the head noun.
The gender system of Supyire does differ slightly from the gender systems of other similar languages. Bantu, also a subgroup of Niger–Congo languages, places different forms of the same word into varying gender classes. For example, the Swahili word for friend is rafiki and it is a class 9 noun. However, the plural form marafiki belongs to noun class 6. This confusion over noun class distinction does not occur in any Senufo language, Supyire included.
In Supyire, gender 1 is categorized as the ""human"" gender. Instead of classifying loan words by their definition, those who speak Supyire tend to classify loan words by their suffixes and thus most loan words, regardless of meaning, are placed into gender 1. More than half of the dictionary of gender one nouns is loan words. Nouns found in this category range from general human terms such as ceewe (""woman"") and pyà (""child"") to terms that describe relationships such as nafentu (""wife's father""). Also found in this category are terms that describe people such as ŋaŋa (""twin"") or cevoo (""friend""). Gender 1 also contains class terms and occupational terms such as ciiwe (""leather-worker""), tunntun (""blacksmith"") and sòròlashí (""soldier""). Supernatural entities are also categorized into the human gender. The word for god, kile, is categorized as a gender 1 noun. This gender also contains some ""higher"" animals and mass nouns such as dust and sand.
Gender 2 is typically described as the category that contains nouns that are ""big things"" while gender 3 contains nouns of ""small things"". Thus, gender 2 includes, for example, trees and tree parts such as cige (""tree""), logo (""shea tree""), and weŋe (""leaf""). Also included in gender 2 are large, immovable objects such as baga (""house, building""), caanga (""market"") and kacige (""bridge"") and most large animals. Gender 2 contains nouns that describe desires such as katege (""hunger"") and byaga (""thirst""). Gender 3 contains small animals such as lùpààn (""mosquito""). Gender 4 is known as the ""collectives"" category and contains mass nouns and abstract nouns. Some examples of mass nouns are pworo (""adobe"") and kyara (""meat""). Abstracts are used to convey emotional states and include words such as sícyere (""insanity"") and wyere (""cold""). The final category of noun gender 5 contains nouns for liquids. For example, this is the gender of sìnmε (""beer"") and jirimε (""milk""). 
In Supyire, gender is marked by suffixes. Basic gender suffixes in Supyire most often have the form –CV, seen in six of the eight classes. Suffixes in this instance are toneless. The first three gender systems include both singular and plural forms while gender 4 and 5 do not. For example, singular gender 1 nouns employ the suffix –wV, singular gender 2 nouns use –gV normally, singular gender 3 nouns employ –lV, gender 4 nouns use the basic suffix –rV, and gender 5 uses –mV as a suffix. Plural gender 1 nouns do not adhere so strictly to the rules and can vary in consonant usage. However, all end in –ii or –íí.


=== Verb morphology ===
Although Niger–Congo languages tend to have complicated verb morphology systems, Supyire does not follow this trend. There are only four types of affixes seen in the Supyire language- verb prefixes, imperfective aspect suffixes, the causative suffix, and the plural or intensive suffix. The language of Supyire also uses verb compounding, although the system is very basic. Supyire is both a prefixing and suffixing language. There are two verb prefixes used in Supyire- an intransitive prefix and a future prefix. The perfect and recent past do not have prefixes. The intransitive prefix is marked only by a toneless nasal, and only exists with verbs that begin with voiceless stops. The prefix depends on the location of the direct object in a sentence (see below, examples C and D). This is exemplified by the following:

Pi màha shya aní

Alternatively, the future prefix is used with verbs that apply a future time reference. In conjunction with certain verb prefixes, the auxiliaries sí and cáá are also used. It also differs from the first prefix in that it uses a distinct tone and it appears on all verbs, not just those beginning with voiceless stops. Just as with the intransitive prefix, the future prefix uses a nasal attached to a verb that is not preceded by a direct object. As an example:


=== Adjectives ===
Supyire does not include many adjectives, since most adjectives can be represented by the use of stative verbs instead. However, a small group of adjectives do exist. Adjectives are created in two ways in Supyire: either by compounding or by using derived adjectives.  The following are examples of adjectival roots and root compounding:

a. Root: -fu- (""hot"")
b. kafee-fu-go  (""hot wind"")


== Syntax ==


=== Sentence structure ===
Although almost all Niger–Congo languages have a sentence structure that follows the subject–verb–object pattern, Supyire and other Senufo languages do not follow in this way. Instead, these languages are verb-final and most often are subject–object–verb. The following examples provide evidence for this sentence structure:


== Number system ==
The number system of the Supyire people has short words (monomorphemic forms) for the numbers 1 through 5, 10, 20, 80, and 400.: p. 167  The numbers 6 through 9 are formed by combining the prefix baa–, meaning ""five,"" with the words for 1 through 4, or shortened versions of them.: p. 167  For example, the word for ""six"" is baa-nì, ""five and one."" The word for 80, ŋ`kùù, is formally and etymologically identical to the word for ""chicken""; this identity is inexplicable to native speakers of the language but may relate to a historical price for a chicken.: p. 167 
All Supyire numbers use gender 1, except for ""four hundred,"" which uses gender 3.: pp. 167–169 
As their traditional numbers are complex, the Supyire increasingly use the decimal system of the neighboring Bambara people. As is true in other languages in the region, numerals that refer to money (in this instance, the CFA franc) are counted in groups of five.: p. 169 


== See also ==
Senufo languages
Sucite language
Cebaara language


== Sources ==
Carlson, Robert. (1991). Of postpositions and word order in Senufo languages. Approaches to Grammaticalization, 2, 201-223.
Carlson, Robert. (1994). A grammar of Supyire. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
Comrie, Bernard, Matthews, Stephen, & Polinsky, Maria. (2003). Chapter 4: Africa and the Middle East. In The Atlas of Languages (pp. 72–89). London: Piers Spence.
Garber-Kompaore, Anne. (1987). A Tonal Analysis of Senufo: Sucite dialect . Dissertation Abstracts, 1. Retrieved December 1, 2008, from University of Illinois Web site:
Nurse, Derek, & Heine, Bernd. (2000).  African Languages. London: Cambridge University Press.
Pike, Kenneth. (1964). Tone Languages: A Technique . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Trudell, Barbara. (2007, September). Local community perspectives and language education in sub-Saharan African communities. International Journal of Educational Development, 27(5), 552-563.


== References ==


== External links ==
""Genitive focus in Supyire"" (PDF). (324 KB)
""Interroɡative pronouns in Supyire"" (PDF). (121 KB)
Resources in Supyiré from SIL Mali",1.3262442350387573
Acrylic paint,"Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted with water, or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor, a gouache, or an oil painting, or it may have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media.
Water-based acrylic paints are used as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, PVA, and others), filler, pigment, and water. Exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, because of its elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is even cheaper, so paint companies make many different combinations of them to match the market.


== History ==
German chemist Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which led to the development of acrylic paint. In 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, and patented by Rohm and Haas. The synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, displaying some properties of both oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint. These were mineral spirit-based paints.
Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints.
Soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, both individual artists and companies began to explore the new binders. Mexican mural painters like Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco were among the first to experiment with acrylic paint, impressed with its durability. Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors, water based acrylics useful for mural painting, started being produced and distributed in Mexico in 1953 by both individuals and companies. These acrylic paints began to phase out oil paint in mural art and abstract expressionism. 
Over the 1960s Lancelot Ribeiro pioneered the use of acrylic paints for art in the UK because of his ""increasing impatience"" of the time it took for oil paints to dry, as also its ""lack of brilliance in its colour potential."" He took to the new synthetic plastic bases that commercial paints were beginning to use and soon got help from manufacturers like ICI, Courtaulds, and Geigy. The companies supplied him samples of their latest paints in quantities that he was using three decades later, according to the paper. Initially, the firms thought the PVA compounds would not be needed in commercially viable quantities. But they quickly recognised the potential demand and ""so Ribeiro became the godfather of generations of artists using acrylics as an alternative to oils.""
In 1956, José L. Gutiérrez produced Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico, and Henry Levison of Cincinnati-based Permanent Pigments Co. produced Liquitex colors. These two product lines were the first acrylic emulsion artists' paints, with modern high-viscosity paints becoming available in the early 1960s.


== Painting with acrylics ==
Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface by using acrylic medium or simply by adding water. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to modify their binding characteristics. Acrylics can be used on paper, canvas, and a range of other materials; however, their use on engineered woods such as medium-density fiberboard can be problematic because of the porous nature of those surfaces. In these cases, it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. The process of sealing acrylic painting is called varnishing. Artists use removable varnishes over isolation coat to protect paintings from dust, UV, scratches, etc. This process is similar to varnishing an oil painting.
Acrylics can be applied in thin layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors and other water-based mediums. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint — gel and molding paste are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features. Acrylic paints are also used in hobbies such as trains, cars, houses, DIY projects, and human models. People who make such models use acrylic paint to build facial features on dolls  or raised details on other types of models. Wet acrylic paint is easily removed from paintbrushes and skin with water, whereas oil paints require the use of a hydrocarbon.
Acrylics are the most common paints used in grattage, a surrealist technique that began to be used with the advent of this type of paint. Acrylics are used for this purpose because they easily scrape or peel from a surface.


=== Painting techniques ===

Acrylic artists' paints may be thinned with water or acrylic medium and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but unlike watercolor the washes are not rehydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to the color lifting techniques of gum arabic-based watercolor paints. Instead, the paint is applied in layers, sometimes diluting with water or acrylic medium to allow layers underneath to partially show through. Using an acrylic medium gives the paint more of a rich and glossy appearance, whereas using water makes the paint look more like watercolor and have a matte finish.

Acrylic paints with gloss or matte finishes are common, although a satin (semi-matte) sheen is most common. Some brands exhibit a range of finishes (e.g. heavy-body paints from Golden, Liquitex, Winsor & Newton and Daler-Rowney); Politec acrylics are fully matte. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size or shape can affect the paint sheen. Matting agents can also be added during manufacture to dull the finish. If desired, the artist can mix different media with their paints and use topcoats or varnishes to alter or unify sheen.
When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable from a solid surface if it adheres to the surface. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint may result in removal of all of the paint layers (acrylic gesso, et cetera). Oils and warm, soapy water can remove acrylic paint from skin. Acrylic paint can be removed from nonporous plastic surfaces such as miniatures or models using cleaning products such as Dettol (containing chloroxylenol 4.8% v/w).
An acrylic sizing should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic paints, to prevent Support Induced Discoloration (SID). Acrylic paint contains surfactants that can pull up discoloration from a raw canvas, especially in transparent glazed or translucent gelled areas. Gesso alone will not stop SID; a sizing must be applied before using a gesso.
The viscosity of acrylic can be successfully reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to slow drying and extend workability time, and flow releases to increase color-blending ability.


== Properties ==


=== Grades ===
Commercial acrylic paints come in two grades by manufacturers:

Artist acrylics (professional acrylics) are created and designed to resist chemical reactions from exposure to water, ultraviolet light, and oxygen. Professional-grade acrylics have the most pigment, which allows for more medium manipulation and limits the color shift when mixed with other colors or after drying.
Student acrylics have working characteristics similar to artist acrylics, but with lower pigment concentrations, less-expensive formulas, and fewer available colors. More expensive pigments are generally replicated by hues. Colors are designed to be mixed even though color strength is lower. Hues may not have exactly the same mixing characteristics as full-strength colors.


=== Varieties ===
Heavy body acrylics are typically found in the Artist and Student Grade paints. ""Heavy Body"" refers to the viscosity or thickness of the paint. They are the best choice for impasto or heavier paint applications and will hold a brush or knife stroke and even a medium stiff peak. Gel Mediums (""pigment-less paints"") are also available in various viscosities and used to thicken or thin paints, as well as extend paints and add transparency.
Medium viscosity acrylics – Fluid acrylics, Soft body acrylics, or High Flow acrylics – have a lower viscosity but generally the same pigmentation as the Heavy Body acrylics. Available in either Artist quality or Craft quality, the cost and quality vary accordingly. These paints are good for watercolor techniques, airbrush application, or when smooth coverage is desired. Fluid acrylics can be mixed with any medium to thicken them for impasto work, or to thin them for glazing applications.
Open acrylics were created to address the one major difference between oil and acrylic paints: the shortened time it takes acrylic paints to dry. Designed by Golden Artist Colors, Inc. with a hydrophilic acrylic resin, these paints can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days, or even weeks, to dry completely, depending on paint thickness, support characteristics, temperature, and humidity.
Iridescent, pearl and interference acrylic colors combine conventional pigments with powdered mica (aluminium silicate) or powdered bronze to achieve complex visual effects. Colors have shimmering or reflective characteristics, depending on the coarseness or fineness of the powder. Iridescent colors are used in fine arts and crafts.
Acrylic gouache is like traditional gouache because it dries to a matte, opaque finish. However, unlike traditional gouache, the acrylic binder makes it water-resistant once it dries. Like craft paint, it will adhere to a variety of surfaces, not only canvas and paper. This paint is typically used by water-colorists, cartoonists, or illustrators, and for decorative or folk art applications.
Craft acrylics can be used on surfaces besides canvas, such as wood, metal, fabrics, and ceramics. They are used in decorative painting techniques and faux finishes to decorate objects of ordinary life. Although colors can be mixed, pigments are often not specified. Each color line is formulated instead to achieve a wide range of premixed colors. Craft paints usually employ vinyl or PVA resins to increase adhesion and lower cost.
Interactive acrylics are all-purpose acrylic artists' colors which have the characteristic fast-drying nature of artists' acrylics, but are formulated to allow artists to delay drying when they need more working time, or re-wet their work when they want to do more wet blending.
Exterior acrylics are paints that can withstand outdoor conditions. Like craft acrylics, they adhere to many surfaces. They are more resistant to both water and ultraviolet light. This makes them the acrylic of choice for architectural murals, outdoor signs, and many faux-finishing techniques.
Acrylic glass paint is water-based and semi-permanent, making it a suitable paint for temporary displays on glass windows.
Acrylic enamel paint creates a smooth, hard shell. It can be oven-baked or air dried. It can be permanent if kept away from harsh conditions such as dishwashing.


=== Differences between acrylic and oil paint ===

The vehicle and binder of oil paints is linseed oil (or another drying oil), whereas acrylic paint has water as the vehicle for an emulsion (suspension) of acrylic polymer, which serves as the binder. Thus, oil paint is said to be ""oil-based"", whereas acrylic paint is ""water-based"" (or sometimes ""water-borne"").

The main practical difference between most acrylics and oil paints is the inherent drying time. Oils allow for more time to blend colors and apply even glazes over underpaintings. This slow-drying aspect of oil can be seen as an advantage for certain techniques, but it impedes an artist trying to work quickly. The fast evaporation of water from regular acrylic paint films can be slowed with the use of acrylic retarders. Retarders are generally glycol or glycerin-based additives. The addition of a retarder slows the evaporation rate of the water.
Oil paints may require the use of solvents such as mineral spirits or turpentine to thin the paint and clean up. These solvents generally have some level of toxicity and can be found objectionable. Relatively recently, water-miscible oil paints have been developed for artists' use. Oil paint films can gradually yellow and lose their flexibility over time creating cracks in the paint film; the ""fat over lean"" rule must be observed to ensure its durability.
Oil paint has a higher pigment load than acrylic paint. As linseed oil contains a smaller molecule than acrylic paint, oil paint is able to absorb substantially more pigment. Oil provides a refractive index that is less clear than acrylic dispersions, which imparts a unique ""look and feel"" to the resultant paint film. Not all the pigments of oil paints are available in acrylics and vice versa, as each medium has different chemical sensitivities. Some historical pigments are alkali sensitive, and therefore cannot be made in an acrylic emulsion; others are just too difficult to formulate. Approximate ""hue"" color formulations, that do not contain the historical pigments, are typically offered as substitutes.
Because of acrylic paint's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between layers, an artist does not have to follow the same rules of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. It usually takes 10–20 minutes for one to two layers of acrylic paint to dry, depending on the brand, quality, and humidity levels of the surrounding environment. Some professional grades of acrylic paint can take 20–30 minutes or even more than an hour. Although canvas needs to be properly primed before painting with oils to prevent the paint medium from eventually rotting the canvas, acrylic can be safely applied straight to the canvas. The rapid drying of acrylic paint tends to discourage blending of color and use of wet-in-wet technique as in oil painting. Even though acrylic retarders can slow drying time to several hours, it remains a relatively fast-drying medium and adding too much acrylic retarder can prevent the paint from ever drying properly.
Meanwhile, acrylic paint is very elastic, which prevents cracking from occurring. Acrylic paint's binder is acrylic polymer emulsion – as this binder dries, the paint remains flexible.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints. Acrylics are very useful in mixed media, allowing the use of pastel (oil and chalk), charcoal and pen (among others) on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible—sand, rice, and even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student grade acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of premixed tints straight from the tube or tin, and thereby presenting the painter with a vast color range at their disposal. This versatility is also illustrated by the variety of additional artistic uses for acrylics. Specialized acrylics have been manufactured and used for linoblock printing, face painting, airbrushing, watercolor-like techniques, and fabric screen printing.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paint is the cleanup. Acrylic paint can be cleaned out of a brush with any soap, while oil paint needs a specific type to be sure to get all the oil out of the brushes. Also, it is easier to let a palette with oil paint dry and then scrape the paint off, whereas one can easily clean wet acrylic paint with water.


=== Difference between acrylic and watercolor paint ===
The biggest difference is that acrylic paint is opaque, whereas watercolor paint is translucent in nature. Watercolors take about 5 to 15 minutes to dry while acrylics take about 10 to 20 minutes. In order to change the tone or shade of a watercolor pigment, one changes the percentage of water mixed in to the color. For brighter colors, one adds more water. For darker colors, one adds less water. In order to create lighter or darker colors with acrylic paints, one adds white or black.
Another difference is that watercolors must be painted onto a porous surface, primarily watercolor paper. Acrylic paints can be used on many different surfaces.
Both acrylic and watercolor are easy to clean up with water. Acrylic paint should be cleaned with soap and water immediately following use. Watercolor paint can be cleaned with just water.


== See also ==
 Visual arts portal


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

Handling and Care Tips for paintings",0.971187174320221
Affordable Care Act,"The Affordable Care Act (ACA), formally known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and informally as Obamacare, is a landmark U.S. federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with amendments made to it by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. Most of the act remains in effect.
The ACA's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 to 24 million additional people covered. The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After it came into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans.
The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and changes to individual insurance markets. Both received new spending, funded by a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports stated that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing ACA would increase the deficit, and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1% to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40% of the income distribution.
The act largely retained the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled. Insurers were made to accept all applicants without charging based on preexisting conditions or demographic status (except age). To combat the resultant adverse selection, the act mandated that individuals buy insurance (or pay a monetary penalty) and that insurers cover a list of ""essential health benefits"". Young people were allowed to stay on their parents' insurance plans until they were 26 years old.
Before and after its enactment the ACA faced strong political opposition, calls for repeal, and legal challenges. In the Sebelius decision, the Supreme Court ruled that states could choose not to participate in the law's Medicaid expansion, but otherwise upheld the law. This led Republican-controlled states not to participate in Medicaid expansion. Polls initially found that a plurality of Americans opposed the act, although its individual provisions were generally more popular. By 2017, the law had majority support. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019.


== Provisions ==

ACA amended the Public Health Service Act of 1944 and inserted new provisions on affordable care into Title 42 of the United States Code. The individual insurance market was radically overhauled, and many of the law's regulations applied specifically to this market, while the structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market were largely retained. Some regulations applied to the employer market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system.


=== Insurance regulations: individual policies ===
All new individual major medical health insurance policies sold to individuals and families faced new requirements. The requirements took effect on January 1, 2014. They include:

Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals because of preexisting conditions.
States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families.
A partial community rating allows premiums to vary only by age and location, regardless of preexisting conditions. Premiums for older applicants can be no more than three times those for the youngest.
Essential health benefits must be provided. The National Academy of Medicine defines the law's ""essential health benefits"" as ""ambulatory patient services; emergency services; hospitalization; maternity and newborn care; mental health and substance use disorder services, including behavioral health treatment; prescription drugs; rehabilitative and habilitative services and devices; laboratory services; preventive and wellness services and chronic disease management; and pediatric services, including oral and vision care"" and others rated Level A or B by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. In determining essential benefits, the law required that standard benefits should offer at least that of a ""typical employer plan"". States may require additional services.
Preventive care and screenings for women. ""[A]ll Food and Drug Administration approved contraceptive methods, sterilization procedures, and patient education and counseling for all women with reproductive capacity"". This mandate applies to all employers and educational institutions except for religious organizations. These regulations were included on the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine.

Annual and lifetime coverage caps on essential benefits were banned.
Insurers are forbidden from dropping policyholders when they become ill.
All policies must provide an annual maximum out-of-pocket (MOOP) payment cap for an individual's or family's medical expenses (excluding premiums). After the MOOP payment is reached, all remaining costs must be paid by the insurer.
Preventive care, vaccinations and medical screenings cannot be subject to co-payments, co-insurance or deductibles. Specific examples of covered services include: mammograms and colonoscopies, wellness visits, gestational diabetes screening, HPV testing, STI counseling, HIV screening and counseling, contraceptive methods, breastfeeding support/supplies and domestic violence screening and counseling.
The law established four tiers of coverage: bronze, silver, gold and platinum. All categories offer essential health benefits. The categories vary in their division of premiums and out-of-pocket costs: bronze plans have the lowest monthly premiums and highest out-of-pocket costs, while platinum plans are the reverse. The percentages of health care costs that plans are expected to cover through premiums (as opposed to out-of-pocket costs) are, on average: 60% (bronze), 70% (silver), 80% (gold), and 90% (platinum).
Insurers are required to implement an appeals process for coverage determination and claims on all new plans.
Insurers must spend at least 80–85% of premium dollars on health costs; rebates must be issued if this is violated.


=== Individual mandate ===
The individual mandate required everyone to have insurance or pay a penalty. The mandate and limits on open enrollment were designed to avoid the insurance death spiral, minimize the free rider problem and prevent the healthcare system from succumbing to adverse selection.
The mandate was intended to increase the size and diversity of the insured population, including more young and healthy participants to broaden the risk pool, spreading costs.
Among the groups who were not subject to the individual mandate are:

Illegal immigrants. Estimated at 8 million, roughly a third of the 23 million projection, they are ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid. They remain eligible for emergency services.
Medicaid-eligible citizens not enrolled in Medicaid.
Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8% of household income.
Citizens who live in states that opt-out of Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, set to $0 the penalty for not complying with the individual mandate, starting in 2019.


=== Exchanges ===

ACA mandated that health insurance exchanges be provided for each state. The exchanges are regulated, largely online marketplaces, administered by either federal or state governments, where individuals, families and small businesses can purchase private insurance plans. Exchanges first offered insurance for 2014. Some exchanges also provide access to Medicaid.
States that set up their own exchanges have some discretion on standards and prices. For example, states approve plans for sale, and thereby influence (through negotiations) prices. They can impose additional coverage requirements—such as abortion. Alternatively, states can make the federal government responsible for operating their exchanges.


=== Premium subsidies ===
Individuals whose household incomes are between 100% and 400% of the federal poverty level (FPL) are eligible to receive federal subsidies for premiums for policies purchased on an ACA exchange, provided they are not eligible for Medicare, Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program, or other forms of public assistance health coverage, and do not have access to affordable coverage (no more than 9.86% of income for the employee's coverage) through their own or a family member's employer. Households below the federal poverty level are not eligible to receive these subsidies. Lawful Residents and some other legally present immigrants whose household income is below 100% FPL and are not otherwise eligible for Medicaid are eligible for subsidies if they meet all other eligibility requirements. Married people must file taxes jointly to receive subsidies. Enrollees must have U.S. citizenship or proof of legal residency to obtain a subsidy.
The subsidies for an ACA plan purchased on an exchange stop at 400% of the federal poverty level (FPL). According to the Kaiser Foundation, this results in a sharp ""discontinuity of treatment"" at 400% FPL, which is sometimes called the ""subsidy cliff"". After-subsidy premiums for the second lowest cost silver plan (SCLSP) just below the cliff are 9.86% of income in 2019.
Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credit.
The amount of subsidy is sufficient to reduce the premium for the second-lowest-cost silver plan (SCLSP) on an exchange to a sliding-scale percentage of income. The percentage is based on the percent of federal poverty level (FPL) for the household, and varies slightly from year to year. In 2019, it ranged from 2.08% of income (100%-133% FPL) to 9.86% of income (300%-400% FPL). The subsidy can be used for any plan available on the exchange, but not catastrophic plans. The subsidy may not exceed the premium for the purchased plan.
(In this section, the term ""income"" refers to modified adjusted gross income.)
Small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace. 


=== Cost-sharing reduction subsidies ===

As written, ACA mandated that insurers reduce copayments and deductibles for ACA exchange enrollees earning less than 250% of the FPL. Medicaid recipients were not eligible for the reductions.
So-called cost-sharing reduction (CSR) subsidies were to be paid to insurance companies to fund the reductions. During 2017, approximately $7 billion in CSR subsidies were to be paid, versus $34 billion for premium tax credits.
The latter was defined as mandatory spending that does not require an annual Congressional appropriation. CSR payments were not explicitly defined as mandatory. This led to litigation and disruption later.


=== Risk management ===
ACA implemented multiple approaches to helping mitigate the disruptions to insurers that came with its many changes.


==== Risk corridors ====
The risk-corridor program was a temporary risk management device.: 1  It was intended to encourage reluctant insurers into ACA insurance market from 2014 to 2016. For those years the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) would cover some of the losses for insurers whose plans performed worse than they expected. Loss-making insurers would receive payments paid for in part by profit-making insurers. Similar risk corridors had been established for the Medicare prescription drug benefit.
While many insurers initially offered exchange plans, the program did not pay for itself as planned, losing up to $8.3 billion for 2014 and 2015. Authorization had to be given so DHHS could pay insurers from ""general government revenues"". However, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547) stated that no funds ""could be used for risk-corridor payments"". leaving the government in a potential breach of contract with insurers who offered qualified health plans.
Several insurers sued the government at the United States Court of Federal Claims to recover the funds believed owed to them under the Risk Corridors program. While several were summarily closed, in the case of Moda Health v the United States, Moda Health won a $214-million judgment in February 2017. Federal Claims judge Thomas C. Wheeler stated, ""the Government made a promise in the risk corridors program that it has yet to fulfill. Today, the court directs the Government to fulfill that promise. After all, to say to [Moda], 'The joke is on you. You shouldn't have trusted us,' is hardly worthy of our great government."" Moda Health's case was appealed by the government to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit along with the appeals of the other insurers; here, the Federal Circuit reversed the Moda Health ruling and ruled across all the cases in favor of the government, that the appropriations riders ceded the government from paying out remain money due to the insurers. The Supreme Court reversed this ruling in the consolidated case, Maine Community Health Options v. United States, reaffirming as with Judge Wheeler that the government had a responsibility to pay those funds under the ACA and the use of riders to de-obligate its from those payments was illegal.


==== Reinsurance ====
The temporary reinsurance program is meant to stabilize premiums by reducing the incentive for insurers to raise premiums due to concerns about higher-risk enrollees. Reinsurance was based on retrospective costs rather than prospective risk evaluations. Reinsurance was available from 2014 through 2016.


==== Risk adjustment ====
Risk adjustment involves transferring funds from plans with lower-risk enrollees to plans with higher-risk enrollees. It was intended to encourage insurers to compete based on value and efficiency rather than by attracting healthier enrollees. Of the three risk management programs, only risk adjustment was permanent. Plans with low actuarial risk compensate plans with high actuarial risk.


=== Medicaid expansion ===

ACA revised and expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014. All U.S. citizens and legal residents with income up to 133% of the poverty line would qualify for coverage in any state that participated in the Medicaid program. Previously, states could set various lower thresholds for certain groups and were not required to cover adults without dependent children. The federal government was to pay 100% of the increased cost in 2014, 2015 and 2016; 95% in 2017, 94% in 2018, 93% in 2019, and 90% in 2020 and all subsequent years. A 5% ""income disregard"" made the effective income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138% of the poverty level. However, the Supreme Court ruled in NFIB v. Sebelius that this provision of ACA was coercive, and that states could choose to continue at pre-ACA eligibility levels.


=== Medicare savings ===
Medicare reimbursements were reduced to insurers and drug companies for private Medicare Advantage policies that the Government Accountability Office and Medicare Payment Advisory Commission found to be excessively costly relative to standard Medicare; and to hospitals that failed standards of efficiency and care.


=== Taxes ===


==== Medicare taxes ====
Income from self-employment and wages of single individuals in excess of $200,000 annually are subjected to an additional tax of 0.9%. The threshold amount is $250,000 for a married couple filing jointly (threshold applies to their total compensation), or $125,000 for a married person filing separately.
In ACA's companion legislation, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, an additional tax of 3.8% was applied to unearned income, specifically the lesser of net investment income and the amount by which adjusted gross income exceeds the above income limits.


==== Excise taxes ====
ACA included an excise tax of 40% (""Cadillac tax"") on total employer premium spending in excess of specified dollar amounts (initially $10,200 for single coverage and $27,500 for family coverage) indexed to inflation. This tax was originally scheduled to take effect in 2018, but was delayed until 2020 by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 and again to 2022. The excise tax on high-cost health plans was completely repealed as part of H.R.1865 - Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020.
Excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs. An excise tax of 2.3% on medical devices and a 10% excise tax on indoor tanning services were applied as well. The tax was repealed in late 2019.


=== SCHIP ===
The State Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP) enrollment process was simplified.


=== Dependents ===
Beginning September 23, 2010, dependents were permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer lived with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.


=== Employer mandate ===
Businesses that employ fifty or more people but do not offer health insurance to their full-time employees are assessed additional tax if the government has subsidized a full-time employee's healthcare through tax deductions or other means. This is commonly known as the employer mandate. This provision was included to encourage employers to continue providing insurance once the exchanges began operating.


=== Delivery system reforms ===
The act includes delivery system reforms intended to constrain costs and improve quality. These include Medicare payment changes to discourage hospital-acquired conditions and readmissions, bundled payment initiatives, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation, the Independent Payment Advisory Board, and accountable care organizations.


==== Hospital quality ====
Health care cost/quality initiatives included incentives to reduce hospital infections, adopt electronic medical records, and to coordinate care and prioritize quality over quantity.


==== Bundled payments ====
Medicare switched from fee-for-service to bundled payments. A single payment was to be paid to a hospital and a physician group for a defined episode of care (such as a hip replacement) rather than separate payments to individual service providers.


==== Accountable care organizations ====

The Medicare Shared Savings Program (MSSP) was established by section 3022 of the Affordable Care Act. It is the program by which an accountable care organization interacts with the federal government, and by which accountable care organizations can be created. It is a fee-for-service model.
The Act allowed the creation of accountable care organizations (ACOs), which are groups of doctors, hospitals and other providers that commit to give coordinated care to Medicare patients. ACOs were allowed to continue using fee-for-service billing. They receive bonus payments from the government for minimizing costs while achieving quality benchmarks that emphasize prevention and mitigation of chronic disease. Missing cost or quality benchmarks subjected them to penalties.
Unlike health maintenance organizations, ACO patients are not required to obtain all care from the ACO. Also, unlike HMOs, ACOs must achieve quality-of-care goals.


=== Medicare drug benefit (Part D) ===
Medicare Part D participants received a 50% discount on brand name drugs purchased after exhausting their initial coverage and before reaching the catastrophic-coverage threshold. By 2020, the ""doughnut hole"" would be completely filled.


=== State waivers ===
From 2017 onwards, states can apply for a ""waiver for state innovation"" which allows them to conduct experiments that meet certain criteria. To obtain a waiver, a state must pass legislation setting up an alternative health system that provides insurance at least as comprehensive and as affordable as ACA, covers at least as many residents and does not increase the federal deficit. These states can escape some of ACA's central requirements, including the individual and employer mandates and the provision of an insurance exchange. The state would receive compensation equal to the aggregate amount of any federal subsidies and tax credits for which its residents and employers would have been eligible under ACA, if they cannot be paid under the state plan.


=== Other insurance provisions ===
The Community Living Assistance Services and Supports Act (or CLASS Act) established a voluntary and public long-term care insurance option for employees, The program was abolished as impractical without ever having taken effect.
Consumer Operated and Oriented Plans (CO-OP), member-governed non-profit insurers, could start providing health care coverage, based on a 5-year federal loan. As of 2017, only four of the original 23 co-ops were still in operation.


=== Nutrition labeling requirements ===
Nutrition labeling requirements officially took effect in 2010, but implementation was delayed, and they actually took effect on May 7, 2018.


== Legislative history ==

ACA followed a long series of unsuccessful attempts by one party or the other to pass major insurance reforms. Innovations were limited to health savings accounts (2003), medical savings accounts (1996) or flexible spending accounts, which increased insurance options, but did not materially expand coverage. Health care was a major factor in multiple elections, but until 2009, neither party had the votes to overcome the other's opposition.


=== Individual mandate ===
The concept of an individual mandate goes back to at least 1989, when The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank, proposed an individual mandate as an alternative to single-payer health care. It was championed for a time by conservative economists and Republican senators as a market-based approach to healthcare reform on the basis of individual responsibility and avoidance of free rider problems. Specifically, because the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) requires any hospital participating in Medicare (nearly all do) to provide emergency care to anyone who needs it, the government often indirectly bore the cost of those without the ability to pay.
President Bill Clinton proposed a major healthcare reform bill in 1993 that ultimately failed. Clinton negotiated a compromise with the 105th Congress to instead enact the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 1997. The failed Clinton plan included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations. Republican senators proposed an alternative that would have required individuals, but not employers, to buy insurance.

The 1993 Republican Health Equity and Access Reform Today (HEART) Act, contained a ""universal coverage"" requirement with a penalty for noncompliance—an individual mandate—as well as subsidies to be used in state-based 'purchasing groups'. Advocates included prominent Republican senators such as John Chafee, Orrin Hatch, Chuck Grassley, Bob Bennett and Kit Bond. The 1994 Republican Consumer Choice Health Security Act, initially contained an individual mandate with a penalty provision; however, author Don Nickles subsequently removed the mandate, stating, ""government should not compel people to buy health insurance"". At the time of these proposals, Republicans did not raise constitutional issues; Mark Pauly, who helped develop a proposal that included an individual mandate for George H. W. Bush, remarked, ""I don't remember that being raised at all. The way it was viewed by the Congressional Budget Office in 1994 was, effectively, as a tax.""

In 2006, an insurance expansion bill was enacted at the state level in Massachusetts. The bill contained both an individual mandate and an insurance exchange. Republican Governor Mitt Romney used a line-item veto on some provisions, and the Democratic legislature overrode some of his changes (including the mandate). Romney's implementation of the 'Health Connector' exchange and individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans. During Romney's 2008 presidential campaign, Senator Jim DeMint praised Romney's ability to ""take some good conservative ideas, like private health insurance, and apply them to the need to have everyone insured"". Romney said of the individual mandate: ""I'm proud of what we've done. If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it, then that will be the model for the nation.""
In 2007 Republican Senator Bob Bennett and Democratic Senator Ron Wyden introduced the Healthy Americans Act, which featured an individual mandate and state-based, regulated insurance markets called ""State Health Help Agencies"". The bill attracted bipartisan support, but died in committee. Many of its sponsors and co-sponsors remained in Congress during the 2008 healthcare debate.
By 2008 many Democrats were considering this approach as the basis for healthcare reform. Experts said the legislation that eventually emerged from Congress in 2009 and 2010 bore similarities to the 2007 bill and that it took ideas from the Massachusetts reforms.


=== Academic foundation ===
A driving force behind Obama's healthcare reform was Peter Orszag, Director of the Office of Management and Budget. Obama called Orszag his ""healthcare czar"" because of his knowledge of healthcare reform. Orszag had previously been director of the Congressional Budget Office, and under his leadership the agency had focused on using cost analysis to create an affordable and effective approach to health care reform. Orszag claimed that healthcare reform became Obama's top agenda item because he wanted it to be his legacy. According to an article by Ryan Lizza in The New Yorker, the core of ""the Obama budget is Orszag's belief [in]...a government empowered with research on the most effective medical treatments"". Obama bet ""his presidency on Orszag's thesis of comparative effectiveness."" Orszag's policies were influenced by an article in The Annals of Internal Medicine co-authored by Elliott S. Fisher, David Wennberg and others. The article presented strong evidence based on the co-authors' research that numerous procedures, therapies and tests were being delivered with scant evidence of their medical value. If those procedures and tests could be eliminated, this evidence suggested, medical costs might provide the savings to give healthcare to the uninsured population. After reading a New Yorker article that used the ""Dartmouth findings"" to compare two counties in Texas with enormous variations in Medicare costs using hard data, Obama directed that his entire staff read it. More than anything else, the Dartmouth data intrigued Obama since it gave him an academic rationale for reshaping medicine.
The concept of comparing the effectiveness of healthcare options based on hard data (""comparative effectiveness"" and ""evidence-based medicine"") was pioneered by John E. Wennberg, founder of The Dartmouth Institute, co-founder of The Foundation for Informed Medical Decision Making and senior advisor to Health Dialog Inc., a venture that he and his researchers created to help insurers implement the Dartmouth findings.


=== Healthcare debate, 2008–10 ===

Healthcare reform was a major topic during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries. As the race narrowed, attention focused on the plans presented by the two leading candidates, Hillary Clinton and the eventual nominee, Barack Obama. Each candidate proposed a plan to cover the approximately 45 million Americans estimated to not have health insurance at some point each year. Clinton's proposal would have required all Americans to obtain coverage (in effect, an individual mandate), while Obama's proposal provided a subsidy without a mandate.
During the general election, Obama said fixing healthcare would be one of his top four priorities as president. Obama and his opponent, Senator John McCain, both proposed health insurance reforms, though their plans differed. McCain proposed tax credits for health insurance purchased in the individual market, which was estimated to reduce the number of uninsured people by about 2 million by 2018. Obama proposed private and public group insurance, income-based subsidies, consumer protections, and expansions of Medicaid and SCHIP, which was estimated at the time to reduce the number of uninsured people by 33.9 million by 2018 at a higher cost.

Obama announced to a joint session of Congress in February 2009 his intent to work with Congress to construct a plan for healthcare reform. By July, a series of bills were approved by committees within the House of Representatives. On the Senate side, from June to September, the Senate Finance Committee held a series of 31 meetings to develop a proposal. This group—in particular, Democrats Max Baucus, Jeff Bingaman and Kent Conrad, along with Republicans Mike Enzi, Chuck Grassley and Olympia Snowe—met for more than 60 hours, and the principles they discussed, in conjunction with the other committees, became the foundation of a Senate bill.
Congressional Democrats and health policy experts, such as MIT economics professor Jonathan Gruber and David Cutler, argued that guaranteed issue would require both community rating and an individual mandate to ensure that adverse selection or ""free riding"" would not result in an insurance ""death spiral"". They chose this approach after concluding that filibuster-proof support in the Senate was not present for more progressive plans such as single-payer. By deliberately drawing on bipartisan ideas—the same basic outline was supported by former Senate Majority Leaders Howard Baker, Bob Dole, Tom Daschle and George J. Mitchell—the bill's drafters hoped to garner the necessary votes.
However, following the incorporation of an individual mandate into the proposal, Republicans threatened to filibuster any bill that contained it. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, who led the Republican response, concluded Republicans should not support the bill.
Republican senators, including those who had supported earlier proposals with a similar mandate, began to describe the mandate as ""unconstitutional"". Journalist Ezra Klein wrote in The New Yorker, ""a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition.""
The reform attracted attention from lobbyists, including deals between lobby groups and the advocates to win the support of groups who had opposed past proposals.

During the August 2009 summer congressional recess, many members went back to their districts and held town hall meetings on the proposals. The nascent Tea Party movement organized protests and many conservative groups and individuals attended the meetings to oppose the proposed reforms. Threats were made against members of Congress over the course of the debate.
In September 2009 Obama delivered another speech to a joint session of Congress supporting the negotiations. On November 7, the House of Representatives passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220–215 vote and forwarded it to the Senate for passage.


==== Senate ====
The Senate began work on its own proposals while the House was still working. The United States Constitution requires all revenue-related bills to originate in the House. To formally comply with this requirement, the Senate repurposed H.R. 3590, a bill regarding housing tax changes for service members. It had been passed by the House as a revenue-related modification to the Internal Revenue Code. The bill became the Senate's vehicle for its healthcare reform proposal, discarding the bill's original content. The bill ultimately incorporated elements of proposals that were reported favorably by the Senate Health and Finance committees. With the Republican Senate minority vowing to filibuster, 60 votes would be necessary to pass the Senate. At the start of the 111th Congress, Democrats had 58 votes. The Minnesota Senate election was ultimately won by Democrat Al Franken, making 59. Arlen Specter switched to the Democratic party in April 2009, giving them 60 seats, enough to end a filibuster.
Negotiations were undertaken attempting to satisfy moderate Democrats and to bring Republican senators aboard; particular attention was given to Republicans Bennett, Enzi, Grassley and Snowe.
After the Finance Committee vote on October 15, negotiations turned to moderate Democrats. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid focused on satisfying centrists. The holdouts came down to Joe Lieberman of Connecticut, an independent who caucused with Democrats, and conservative Nebraska Democrat Ben Nelson. Lieberman's demand that the bill not include a public option was met, although supporters won various concessions, including allowing state-based public options such as Vermont's failed Green Mountain Care.

The White House and Reid addressed Nelson's concerns during a 13-hour negotiation with two concessions: a compromise on abortion, modifying the language of the bill ""to give states the right to prohibit coverage of abortion within their own insurance exchanges"", which would require consumers to pay for the procedure out of pocket if the state so decided; and an amendment to offer a higher rate of Medicaid reimbursement for Nebraska. The latter half of the compromise was derisively termed the ""Cornhusker Kickback"" and was later removed.
On December 23, the Senate voted 60–39 to end debate on the bill: a cloture vote to end the filibuster. The bill then passed, also 60–39, on December 24, 2009, with all Democrats and two independents voting for it, and all Republicans against (except Jim Bunning, who did not vote). The bill was endorsed by the American Medical Association and AARP.
On January 19, 2010, Massachusetts Republican Scott Brown was elected to the Senate in a special election to replace the recently deceased Ted Kennedy, having campaigned on giving the Republican minority the 41st vote needed to sustain Republican filibusters. Additionally, the symbolic importance of losing Kennedy's traditionally Democratic Massachusetts seat made many Congressional Democrats concerned about the political cost of the bill.


==== House ====

With Democrats no longer able to get the 60 votes to break a filibuster in the Senate, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel argued that Democrats should scale back to a less ambitious bill, but House Speaker Nancy Pelosi pushed back, dismissing more moderate reform as ""Kiddie Care"".
Obama remained insistent on comprehensive reform. The news that Anthem in California intended to raise premium rates for its patients by as much as 39% gave him new evidence of the need for reform. On February 22, he laid out a ""Senate-leaning"" proposal to consolidate the bills. He held a meeting with both parties' leaders on February 25. The Democrats decided the House would pass the Senate's bill, to avoid another Senate vote.
House Democrats had expected to be able to negotiate changes in a House–Senate conference before passing a final bill. Since any bill that emerged from conference that differed from the Senate bill would have to pass the Senate over another Republican filibuster, most House Democrats agreed to pass the Senate bill on condition that it be amended by a subsequent bill. They drafted the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which could be passed by the reconciliation process.
Per the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, reconciliation cannot be subject to a filibuster. But reconciliation is limited to budget changes, which is why the procedure was not used to pass ACA in the first place; the bill had inherently non-budgetary regulations. Although the already-passed Senate bill could not have been passed by reconciliation, most of House Democrats' demands were budgetary: ""these changes—higher subsidy levels, different kinds of taxes to pay for them, nixing the Nebraska Medicaid deal—mainly involve taxes and spending. In other words, they're exactly the kinds of policies that are well-suited for reconciliation.""
The remaining obstacle was a pivotal group of pro-life Democrats led by Bart Stupak who were initially reluctant to support the bill. The group found the possibility of federal funding for abortion significant enough to warrant opposition. The Senate bill had not included language that satisfied their concerns, but they could not address abortion in the reconciliation bill as it would be non-budgetary. Instead, Obama issued Executive Order 13535, reaffirming the principles in the Hyde Amendment to continue banning the use of federal funds for abortion. This won the support of Stupak and members of his group and assured the bill's passage. The House passed the Senate bill with a 219–212 vote on March 21, 2010, with 34 Democrats and all 178 Republicans voting against it. It passed the second bill, by 220–211, the same day (with the Senate passing this bill via reconciliation by 56-43 a few days later). The day after the passage of ACA, March 22, Republicans introduced legislation to repeal it. Obama signed ACA into law on March 23, 2010.


=== Post-enactment ===
Since passage, Republicans have voted to repeal all or parts of the Affordable Care Act more than sixty times.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 eliminated the fine for violating the individual mandate, starting in 2019. (The requirement itself is still in effect.) In 2019 Congress repealed the so-called ""Cadillac"" tax on health insurance benefits, an excise tax on medical devices, and the Health Insurance Tax.
The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, expanded subsidies for marketplace health plans. A continuation of these subsidies was introduced as part of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022.


== Impact ==


=== Coverage ===

The law caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance. The CDC reported that the percentage of people without health insurance fell from 16.0% in 2010 to 8.9% from January to June 2016. The uninsured rate dropped in every congressional district in the U.S. from 2013 to 2015. The Congressional Budget Office reported in March 2016 that approximately 12 million people were covered by the exchanges (10 million of whom received subsidies) and 11 million added to Medicaid. Another million were covered by ACA's ""Basic Health Program"", for a total of 24 million. CBO estimated that ACA would reduce the net number of uninsured by 22 million in 2016, using a slightly different computation for the above figures totaling ACA coverage of 26 million, less 4 million for reductions in ""employment-based coverage"" and ""non-group and other coverage"".
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimated that 20.0 million adults (aged 18–64) gained healthcare coverage via ACA as of February 2016; similarly, the Urban Institute found in 2016 that 19.2 million non-elderly Americans gained health insurance coverage from 2010 to 2015. In 2016, CBO estimated the uninsured at approximately 27 million people, or around 10% of the population or 7–8% excluding unauthorized immigrants.
States that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3% uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not had a 14.1% uninsured rate, among adults aged 18–64. As of December 2016 32 states (including Washington DC) had adopted the Medicaid extension.
A 2017 study found that the ACA reduced socioeconomic disparities in health care access.
The Affordable Care Act reduced the percent of Americans between 18 and 64 who were uninsured from 22.3 percent in 2010 to 12.4 percent in 2016. About 21 million more people have coverage ten years after the enactment of the ACA. Ten years after its enactment studies showed that the ACA also had a positive effect on health and caused a reduction in mortality.


=== Taxes ===

Excise taxes from the Affordable Care Act raised $16.3 billion in fiscal year 2015. $11.3 billion came from an excise tax placed directly on health insurers based on their market share. Annual excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs.
The Individual mandate tax was $695 per individual or $2,085 per family at a minimum, reaching as high as 2.5% of household income (whichever was higher). The tax was set to $0 beginning in 2019.
In the fiscal year 2018, the individual and employer mandates yielded $4 billion each. Excise taxes on insurers and drug makers added $18 billion. Income tax surcharges produced 437 billion.
ACA reduced income inequality measured after taxes, due to the income tax surcharges and subsidies. CBO estimated that subsidies paid under the law in 2016 averaged $4,240 per person for 10 million individuals receiving them, roughly $42 billion. The tax subsidy for the employer market, was approximately $1,700 per person in 2016, or $266 billion total.


=== Insurance exchanges ===

As of August 2016, 15 states operated their own health insurance marketplace. Other states either used the federal exchange, or operated in partnership with or supported by the federal government. By 2019, 12 states and Washington DC operated their own exchanges.


=== Medicaid expansion in practice ===

As of December 2019, 37 states (including Washington DC) had adopted the Medicaid extension. Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3% uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while the others had a 14.1% uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. Following the Supreme Court ruling in 2012, which held that states would not lose Medicaid funding if they did not expand Medicaid under ACA, several states rejected the option. Over half the national uninsured population lived in those states.
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) estimated that the cost of expansion was $6,366 per person for 2015, about 49 percent above previous estimates. An estimated 9 to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low-income adults. The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated in October 2015 that 3.1 million additional people were not covered because of states that rejected the Medicaid expansion.
In many states income thresholds were significantly below 133% of the poverty line. Many states did not make Medicaid available to childless adults at any income level. Because subsidies on exchange insurance plans were not available to those below the poverty line, such individuals had no new options. For example, in Kansas, where only non-disabled adults with children and with an income below 32% of the poverty line were eligible for Medicaid, those with incomes from 32% to 100% of the poverty level ($6,250 to $19,530 for a family of three) were ineligible for both Medicaid and federal subsidies to buy insurance. Absent children, non-disabled adults were not eligible for Medicaid there.
Studies of the impact of Medicaid expansion rejections calculated that up to 6.4 million people would have too much income for Medicaid but not qualify for exchange subsidies. Several states argued that they could not afford the 10% contribution in 2020. Some studies suggested rejecting the expansion would cost more due to increased spending on uncompensated emergency care that otherwise would have been partially paid for by Medicaid coverage,
A 2016 study found that residents of Kentucky and Arkansas, which both expanded Medicaid, were more likely to receive health care services and less likely to incur emergency room costs or have trouble paying their medical bills. Residents of Texas, which did not accept the Medicaid expansion, did not see a similar improvement during the same period. Kentucky opted for increased managed care, while Arkansas subsidized private insurance. Later Arkansas and Kentucky governors proposed reducing or modifying their programs. From 2013 to 2015, the uninsured rate dropped from 42% to 14% in Arkansas and from 40% to 9% in Kentucky, compared with 39% to 32% in Texas.
A 2016 DHHS study found that states that expanded Medicaid had lower premiums on exchange policies, because they had fewer low-income enrollees, whose health on average is worse than that of those with higher income.
In September 2019, the Census Bureau reported that states that expanded Medicaid under the ACA had considerably lower uninsured rates than states that did not. For example, for adults between 100% and 399% of poverty level, the uninsured rate in 2018 was 12.7% in expansion states and 21.2% in non-expansion states. Of the 14 states with uninsured rates of 10% or greater, 11 had not expanded Medicaid. The drop in uninsured rates due to expanded Medicaid has broadened access to care among low-income adults, with post-ACA studies indicating an improvement in affordability, access to doctors, and usual sources of care.
A study using national data from the Health Reform Monitoring Survey determined that unmet need due to cost and inability to pay medical bills significantly decreased among low-income (up to 138% FPL) and moderate-income (139-199% FPL) adults, with unmet need due to cost decreasing by approximately 11 percentage points among low-income adults by the second enrollment period. Importantly, issues with cost-related unmet medical needs, skipped medications, paying medical bills, and annual out-of-pocket spending have been significantly reduced among low-income adults in Medicaid expansion states compared to non-expansion states.
As well, expanded Medicaid has led to a 6.6% increase in physician visits by low-income adults, as well as increased usage of preventative care such as dental visits and cancer screenings among childless, low-income adults. Improved health care coverage due to Medicaid expansion has been found in a variety of patient populations, such as adults with mental and substance use disorders, trauma patients, cancer patients, and people living with HIV. Compared to 2011–13, in 2014 there was a 5.4 percentage point reduction in the uninsured rate of adults with mental disorders (from 21.3% to 15.9%) and a 5.1 percentage point reduction in the uninsured rate of adults with substance use disorders (from 25.9% to 20.8%); with increases in coverage occurring primarily through Medicaid. Use of mental health treatment increased by 2.1 percentage points, from 43% to 45.1%.
Among trauma patients nationwide, the uninsured rate has decreased by approximately 50%. Adult trauma patients in expansion states experienced a 13.7 percentage point reduction in uninsured rates compared to adult trauma patients in non-expansion states, and an accompanying 7.4 percentage point increase in discharge to rehabilitation. Following Medicaid expansion and dependent coverage expansion, young adults hospitalized for acute traumatic injury in Maryland experienced a 60% increase in rehabilitation, 25% reduction in mortality, and a 29.8% reduction in failure-to-rescue. Medicaid expansion's swift impact on cancer patients was demonstrated in a study using the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program that evaluated more than 850,000 patients diagnosed with breast, lung, colorectal, prostate cancer, or thyroid cancer from 2010 to 2014. The study found that a cancer diagnosis in 2014 was associated with a 1.9 percentage-point absolute and 33.5% relative decrease in uninsured rates compared to a diagnosis made between 2010 and 2013. Another study, using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program data from 2010 to 2014, found that Medicaid expansion was associated with a 6.4% net increase in early stage (in situ, local, or regional) diagnoses of all cancers combined.
Data from the Centers for Disease and Prevention's (CDC) Medical Monitoring Project demonstrated that between 2009 and 2012, approximately 18% of people living with HIV (PLWH) who were actively receiving HIV treatment were uninsured and that at least 40% of HIV-infected adults receiving treatment were insured through Medicaid or Medicare, programs they qualified for only once their disease was advanced enough to be covered as a disability under Social Security. Expanded Medicaid coverage of PLWH has been positively associated with health outcomes such as viral suppression, retention of care, hospitalization rates, and morbidity at the time of hospitalization. An analysis of Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) survey data found a 2.8% annual increase in viral suppression rates among all PLWH from 2010 to 2015 due to Medicaid expansion. In Nebraska, PLWH newly covered by Medicaid expansion in 2013-14 were four times more likely to be virally suppressed than PLWH who were eligible but remained uninsured. As an early adopter of Medicaid expansion, Massachusetts found a 65% rate of viral suppression among all PLWH and an 85% rate among those retained in healthcare in 2014, both substantially higher than the national average.
An analysis of hospital discharge data from 2012 to 2014 in four Medicaid expansion states and two non-expansion states revealed hospitalizations of uninsured PLWH fell from 13.7% to 5.5% in the four expansion states and rose from 14.5% to 15.7% in the two non-expansion states. Importantly, uninsured PLWH were 40% more likely to die in the hospital than insured PLWH. Other notable health outcomes associated with Medicaid expansion include improved glucose monitoring rates for patients with diabetes, better hypertension control, and reduced rates of major post-operative morbidity.
A July 2019 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) indicated that states enacting Medicaid expansion exhibited statistically significant reductions in mortality rates. From that study, states that took Medicaid expansion ""saved the lives of at least 19,200 adults aged 55 to 64 over the four-year period from 2014 to 2017."" Further, 15,600 older adults died prematurely in the states that did not enact Medicaid expansion in those years according to the NBER research. ""The lifesaving impacts of Medicaid expansion are large: an estimated 39 to 64 percent reduction in annual mortality rates for older adults gaining coverage.""
Due to many states' failure to expand, many Democrats co-sponsored the proposed 2021 Cover Now Act that would allow county and municipal governments to fund Medicaid expansion.


==== Gaps in expansion ====
Despite the significant increase in access to insurance coverage and healthcare services across the board, the ACA's Medicaid expansion has not fully addressed problems of economic equity. Critics argue that Medicaid expansion has not reduced cost-sharing by a significant margin, as the amount households paid out of pocket for healthcare over the past ten years (in the form of deductibles, co-payments, etc.) rose by 77%. Additionally, 30% of providers deny Medicaid patients, which affects the accessibility of quality care. This increase in denial may be in part because providers receive 62 cents from Medicaid for every dollar received from private insurers. Studies on insurance rates show that economic inequality still persists: a significantly higher proportion of those with income greater than 100% but less than 200% of the federal poverty level were uninsured from 2010 to 2015 than of those with income greater than 200% of the federal poverty level. This is exacerbated by the 2012 Supreme Court decision allowing states to opt out of Medicaid, since many of the states that have opted out have more vulnerable populations, with large numbers of minorities or low-income people.
Medicaid patients have also reported receiving ""second-class"" treatment compared to privately insured patients, with longer wait times and lower quality of care.


==== Medicaid expansion by state ====


=== Insurance costs ===

National health care expenditures rose faster than national income both before (2009–2013: 3.73%) and after (2014–2018: 4.82%) ACA's major provisions took effect. Premium prices rose considerably before and after. For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40-year-old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all these costs were offset by tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Family Foundation reported that for the second-lowest cost ""Silver plan"", a 40-year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208/month) after the tax credit, despite a large increase in the list price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the premium price, fully offsetting the increases for subsidy-eligible enrollees.
Premium cost increases in the employer market moderated after 2009. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only 27% from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3% increase from 2015 to 2016. From 2008 to 2010 (before passage of ACA) health insurance premiums rose by an average of 10% per year.
Several studies found that the 2008 financial crisis and accompanying Great Recession could not account for the entirety of the slowdown and that structural changes likely shared at least partial credit. A 2013 study estimated that changes to the health system had been responsible for about a quarter of the recent reduction in inflation. Paul Krawzak claimed that even if cost controls succeed in reducing the amount spent on healthcare, such efforts on their own may be insufficient to outweigh the long-term burden placed by demographic changes, particularly the growth of the population on Medicare.
In a 2016 review, Barack Obama claimed that from 2010 through 2014 mean annual growth in real per-enrollee Medicare spending was negative, down from a mean of 4.7% per year from 2000 through 2005 and 2.4% per year from 2006 to 2010; similarly, mean real per-enrollee growth in private insurance spending was 1.1% per year over the period, compared with a mean of 6.5% from 2000 through 2005 and 3.4% from 2005 to 2010.


==== Deductibles and co-payments ====
A contributing factor to premium cost moderation was that the insured faced higher deductibles, copayments and out-of-pocket maximums. In addition, many employees chose to combine a health savings account with higher deductible plans, making the net impact of ACA difficult to determine precisely.
For the group market (employer insurance), a 2016 survey found that:

Deductibles grew 63% from 2011 to 2016, while premiums increased 19% and worker earnings grew by 11%.
In 2016, 4 in 5 workers had an insurance deductible, which averaged $1,478. For firms with less than 200 employees, the deductible averaged $2,069.
The percentage of workers with a deductible of at least $1,000 grew from 10% in 2006 to 51% in 2016. The 2016 figure dropped to 38% after taking employer contributions into account.
For the non-group market, of which two-thirds are covered by ACA exchanges, a survey of 2015 data found that:

49% had individual deductibles of at least $1,500 ($3,000 for family), up from 36% in 2014.
Many exchange enrollees qualify for cost-sharing subsidies that reduce their net deductible.
While about 75% of enrollees were ""very satisfied"" or ""somewhat satisfied"" with their choice of doctors and hospitals, only 50% had such satisfaction with their annual deductible.
While 52% of those covered by ACA exchanges felt ""well protected"" by their insurance, in the group market 63% felt that way.


=== Health outcomes ===
According to a 2014 study, ACA likely prevented an estimated 50,000 preventable patient deaths from 2010 to 2013. Himmelstein and Woolhandler wrote in January 2017 that a rollback of ACA's Medicaid expansion alone would cause an estimated 43,956 deaths annually.
According to the Kaiser Foundation, expanding Medicaid in the remaining states would cover up to 4.5 million persons. A 2021 study found a significant decline in mortality rates in the states that opted in to the Medicaid expansion program compared with those states that did not do so. The study reported that states decisions' not to expand Medicaid resulted in approximately 15,600 excess deaths from 2014 through 2017.
Dependent Coverage Expansion (DCE) under the ACA has had a demonstrable effect on various health metrics of young adults, a group with a historically low level of insurance coverage and utilization of care. Numerous studies have shown the target age group gained private health insurance relative to an older group after the policy was implemented, with an accompanying improvement in having a usual source of care, reduction in out-of-pocket costs of high-end medical expenditures, reduction in frequency of Emergency Department visits, 3.5% increase in hospitalizations and 9% increase in hospitalizations with a psychiatric diagnosis, 5.3% increase in utilizing specialty mental health care by those with a probable mental illness, 4% increase in reporting excellent mental health, and a 1.5-6.2% increase in reporting excellent physical health. Studies have also found that DCE was associated with improvements in cancer prevention, detection, and treatment among young adult patients. A study of 10,010 women aged 18–26 identified through the 2008-12 National Health Interview Survey found that the likelihood of HPV vaccination initiation and completion increased by 7.7 and 5.8 percentage points respectively when comparing before and after October 1, 2010. Another study using National Cancer Database (NCDB) data from 2007 to 2012 found a 5.5 percentage point decrease in late-stage (stages III/IV) cervical cancer diagnosis for women aged 21–25 after DCE, and an overall decrease of 7.3 percentage points in late-stage diagnosis compared to those aged 26–34. A study using SEER Program data from 2007 to 2012 found a 2.7 percentage point increase in diagnosis at stage I disease for patients aged 19–25 compared with those aged 26–34 for all cancers combined. Studies focusing on cancer treatment after DCE found a 12.8 percentage point increase in the receipt of fertility-sparing treatment among cervical cancer patients aged 21–25 and an overall increase of 13.4 percentage points compared to those aged 26–34, as well as an increased likelihood that patients aged 19–25 with stage IIB-IIIC colorectal cancer receive timely adjuvant chemotherapy compared to those aged 27–34.
Two 2018 JAMA studies found the Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP) was associated with increased post-discharge mortality for patients hospitalized for heart failure and pneumonia. A 2019 JAMA study found that ACA decreased emergency department and hospital use by uninsured individuals. Several studies have indicated that increased 30-day, 90-day, and 1-year post-discharge mortality of heart failure patients can be attributed to ""gaming the system"" through inappropriate triage systems in emergency departments, use of observation stays when admissions are warranted, and delay of readmission beyond the 30th day post-discharge, strategies that can reduce readmission rates at the expense of quality of care and patient survival. The HRRP was also shown to disproportionately penalize safety-net hospitals that predominately serve low-income patients. A 2020 study by Treasury Department economists in the Quarterly Journal of Economics using a randomized controlled trial (the IRS sent letters to some taxpayers noting that they had paid a fine for not signing up for health insurance but not to other taxpayers) found that over two years, obtaining health insurance reduced mortality by 12 percent. The study concluded that the letters, sent to 3.9 million people, may have saved 700 lives.
A 2020 JAMA study found that Medicare expansion under the ACA was associated with reduced incidence of advanced-stage breast cancer, indicating that Medicaid accessibility led to early detection of breast cancer and higher survival rates. Recent studies have also attributed to Medicaid expansion an increase in use of smoking cessation medications, cervical cancer screening, and colonoscopy, as well as an increase in the percentage of early-stage diagnosis of all cancers and the rate of cancer surgery for low-income patients. These studies include a 2.1% increase in the probability of smoking cessation in Medicaid expansion states compared to non-expansion states, a 24% increase in smoking cessation medication use due to increased Medicaid-financed smoking cessation prescriptions, a 27.7% increase in the rate of colorectal cancer screening in Kentucky following Medicaid expansion with an accompanying improvement in colorectal cancer survival, and a 3.4% increase in cancer incidence following Medicaid expansion that was attributed to an increase in early-stage diagnoses.
Transition-of-care interventions and Alternative Payment Models under the ACA have also shown promise in improving health outcomes. Post-discharge provider appointment and telephone follow-up interventions have been shown to reduce 30-day readmission rates among general medical-surgical inpatients. Reductions in 60, 90, and 180 post-discharge day readmission rates due to transition-of-care interventions have also been demonstrated, and a reduction in 30-day mortality has been suggested. Total joint arthroplasty bundles as part of the Bundled Payments for Care Improvement initiative have been shown to reduce discharge to inpatient rehabilitation facilities and post-acute care facilities, decrease hospital length of stay by 18% without sacrificing quality of care, and reduce the rate of total joint arthroplasty readmissions, half of which were due to surgical complications. The Hospital Value-Based Purchasing Program in Medicaid has also shown the potential to improve health outcomes, with early studies reporting positive and significant effects on total patient experience score, 30-day readmission rates, incidences of pneumonia and pressure ulcers, and 30-day mortality rates for pneumonia. The patient-centered medical home (PCMH) payment and care model, a team-based approach to population health management that risk-stratifies patients and provides focused care management and outreach to high-risk patients, has been shown to improve diabetes outcomes. A widespread PCMH demonstration program focusing on diabetes, known as the Chronic Care Initiative in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, found statistically significant improvements in A1C testing, LDL-C testing, nephropathy screening and monitoring, and eye examinations, with an accompanying reduction in all-cause emergency department visits, ambulatory care-sensitive emergency department visits, ambulatory visits to specialists, and a higher rate of ambulatory visits to primary care providers. The ACA overall has improved coverage and care of diabetes, with a significant portion of the 3.5 million uninsured US adults aged 18–64 with diabetes in 2009-10 likely gaining coverage and benefits such as closure of the Medicaid Part D coverage gap for insulin. 2.3 million of the approximately 4.6 million people aged 18–64 with undiagnosed diabetes in 2009–2010 may also have gained access to zero-cost preventative care due to section 2713 of the ACA, which prohibits cost sharing for United States Preventive Services Taskforce grade A or B recommended services, such as diabetes screenings.


=== Distributional impact ===

In March 2018, the CBO reported that ACA had reduced income inequality in 2014, saying the law led the lowest and second quintiles (the bottom 40%) to receive an average of an additional $690 and $560 respectively while causing households in the top 1% to pay an additional $21,000 due mostly to the net investment income tax and the additional Medicare tax. The law placed relatively little burden on households in the top quintile (top 20%) outside of the top 1%.


=== Federal deficit ===


==== CBO estimates of revenue and impact on deficit ====

The CBO reported in multiple studies that ACA would reduce the deficit, and repealing it would increase the deficit, primarily because of the elimination of Medicare reimbursement cuts. The 2011 comprehensive CBO estimate projected a net deficit reduction of more than $200 billion during the 2012–2021 period: it calculated the law would result in $604 billion in total outlays offset by $813 billion in total receipts, resulting in a $210 billion net deficit reduction. The CBO separately predicted that while most of the spending provisions do not begin until 2014, revenue would exceed spending in those subsequent years. The CBO claimed the bill would ""substantially reduce the growth of Medicare's payment rates for most services; impose an excise tax on insurance plans with relatively high premiums; and make various other changes to the federal tax code, Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs""—ultimately extending the solvency of the Medicare trust fund by eight years.
This estimate was made prior to the Supreme Court's ruling that enabled states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion, thereby forgoing the related federal funding. The CBO and JCT subsequently updated the budget projection, estimating the impact of the ruling would reduce the cost estimate of the insurance coverage provisions by $84 billion.
The CBO in June 2015 forecast that repeal of ACA would increase the deficit between $137 billion and $353 billion over the 2016–2025 period, depending on the impact of macroeconomic feedback effects. The CBO also forecast that repeal of ACA would likely cause an increase in GDP by an average of 0.7% in the period from 2021 to 2025, mainly by boosting the supply of labor.
Although the CBO generally does not provide cost estimates beyond the 10-year budget projection period because of the degree of uncertainty involved in the projection, it decided to do so in this case at the request of lawmakers, and estimated a second decade deficit reduction of $1.2 trillion. CBO predicted deficit reduction around a broad range of one-half percent of GDP over the 2020s while cautioning that ""a wide range of changes could occur"".
In 2017 CBO estimated that repealing the individual mandate alone would reduce the 10-year deficit by $338 billion.


==== Opinions on CBO projections ====
The CBO cost estimates were criticized because they excluded the effects of potential legislation that would increase Medicare payments by more than $200 billion from 2010 to 2019. However, the so-called ""doc fix"" is a separate issue that would have existed with or without ACA. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities objected that Congress had a good record of implementing Medicare savings. According to their study, Congress followed through on the implementation of the vast majority of provisions enacted in the past 20 years to produce Medicare savings, although not the doc fix. The doc fix became obsolete in 2015 when the savings provision was eliminated, permanently removing that spending restraint.
Health economist Uwe Reinhardt, wrote, ""The rigid, artificial rules under which the Congressional Budget Office must score proposed legislation unfortunately cannot produce the best unbiased forecasts of the likely fiscal impact of any legislation."" Douglas Holtz-Eakin alleged that the bill would increase the deficit by $562 billion because, he argued, it front-loaded revenue and back-loaded benefits.
Scheiber and Cohn rejected critical assessments of the law's deficit impact, arguing that predictions were biased towards underestimating deficit reduction. They noted, for example, it is easier to account for the cost of definite levels of subsidies to specified numbers of people than to account for savings from preventive healthcare, and that the CBO had a track record of overestimating costs and underestimating savings of health legislation; stating, ""innovations in the delivery of medical care, like greater use of electronic medical records and financial incentives for more coordination of care among doctors, would produce substantial savings while also slowing the relentless climb of medical expenses ... But the CBO would not consider such savings in its calculations, because the innovations hadn't really been tried on such large scale or in concert with one another—and that meant there wasn't much hard data to prove the savings would materialize.""
In 2010 David Walker said the CBO estimates were not likely to be accurate, because they were based on the assumption that the law would not change.


=== Employer mandate and part-time work ===

The employer mandate applies to employers of more than fifty where health insurance is provided only to the full-time workers. Critics claimed it created a perverse incentive to hire part-timers instead. However, between March 2010 and 2014, the number of part-time jobs declined by 230,000 while the number of full-time jobs increased by two million. In the public sector full-time jobs turned into part-time jobs much more than in the private sector. A 2016 study found only limited evidence that ACA had increased part-time employment.
Several businesses and the state of Virginia added a 29-hour-a-week cap for their part-time employees, to reflect the 30-hour-or-more definition for full-time worker. As of 2013, few companies had shifted their workforce towards more part-time hours (4% in a survey from the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis). Trends in working hours and the recovery from the Great Recession correlate with the shift from part-time to full-time work. Other confounding impacts include that health insurance helps attract and retain employees, increases productivity and reduces absenteeism; and lowers corresponding training and administration costs from a smaller, more stable workforce. Relatively few firms employ over 50 employees and more than 90% of them already offered insurance.
Most policy analysts (both right and left) were critical of the employer mandate provision. They argued that the perverse incentives regarding part-time hours, even if they did not change existing plans, were real and harmful; that the raised marginal cost of the 50th worker for businesses could limit companies' growth; that the costs of reporting and administration were not worth the costs of maintaining employer plans; and noted that the employer mandate was not essential to maintain adequate risk pools. The provision generated vocal opposition from business interests and some unions who were not granted exemptions.


=== Hospitals ===
From the start of 2010 to November 2014, 43 hospitals in rural areas closed. Critics claimed the new law had caused these closures. Many rural hospitals were built using funds from the 1946 Hill–Burton Act. Some of these hospitals reopened as other medical facilities, but only a small number operated emergency rooms (ER) or urgent care centers.
Between January 2010 and 2015, a quarter of ER doctors said they had seen a major surge in patients, while nearly half had seen a smaller increase. Seven in ten ER doctors claimed they lacked the resources to deal with large increases in the number of patients. The biggest factor in the increased number of ER patients was insufficient primary care providers to handle the larger number of insured. Michael Lee Jr. and Michael C. Monuteaux at Boston Children's Hospital analyzed national emergency department visits among children aged 0 to 17 from 2009 to 2016 using the American Community Survey (ACS) and Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS). They found no immediate change in pediatric emergency department visit rates the year after the ACA took full effect in 2014, but the rate of change from 2014 to 2016 was significantly higher than previous rate trends, almost 10%.
Several large insurers formed ACOs. Many hospitals merged and purchased physician practices, amounting to a significant consolidation of the provider industry. The increased market share gave them more leverage with insurers and reduced patient care options.


=== Economic consequences ===

CBO estimated in June 2015 that repealing ACA would:

Decrease GDP in the short-term, as government spending (on subsidies) was only partially replaced by spending by recipients.
Increase the supply of labor and aggregate compensation by about 0.8 and 0.9 percent over the 2021–2025 period. CBO cited ACA's expanded eligibility for Medicaid and subsidies and tax credits that rise with income as disincentives to work, so repealing ACA would remove those disincentives, encouraging workers to supply more labor, increasing the total number of hours worked by about 1.5% over the 2021–2025 period.
Remove the higher tax rates on capital income, thereby encouraging investment, raising the capital stock and output in the long-run.
In 2015 the progressive Center for Economic and Policy Research found no evidence that companies were reducing worker hours to avoid ACA requirements for employees working more than 30 hours per week.
CBO estimated that ACA would slightly reduce the size of the labor force and number of hours worked, as some would no longer be tethered to employers for their insurance. Jonathan Cohn claimed that ACA's primary employment effect was to alleviate job lock and the reform's only significant employment impact was the retirement of those who were working only to stay insured.


== Public opinion ==

Public views became increasingly negative in reaction to specific plans discussed during the legislative debate over 2009 and 2010. Approval varied by party, race and age. Some elements were more widely favored (preexisting conditions) or opposed (individual mandate).
In a 2010 poll, 62% of respondents said they thought ACA would ""increase the amount of money they personally spend on health care"", 56% said the bill ""gives the government too much involvement in health care"", and 19% said they thought they and their families would be better off with the legislation. Other polls found that people were concerned the law would cost more than projected and would not do enough to control costs.
In a 2012 poll 44% supported the law, with 56% against. By 75% of Democrats, 27% of Independents and 14% of Republicans favored the law. 82% favored banning insurance companies from denying coverage to people with preexisting conditions, 61% favored allowing children to stay on their parents' insurance until age 26, 72% supported requiring companies with more than 50 employees to provide insurance for their employees, and 39% supported the individual mandate to own insurance or pay a penalty. By party affiliation, 19% of Republicans, 27% of Independents, and 59% of Democrats favored the mandate. Other polls showed additional provisions receiving majority support, including the exchanges, pooling small businesses and the uninsured with other consumers and providing subsidies.
Some opponents believed the reform did not go far enough: a 2012 poll indicated that 71% of Republican opponents rejected it overall, while 29% believed it did not go far enough; independent opponents were divided 67% to 33%; and among the much smaller group of Democratic opponents, 49% rejected it overall and 51% wanted more.
In June 2013, a majority of the public (52–34%) indicated a desire for ""Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it"". After the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate, a 2012 poll held that ""most Americans (56%) want to see critics of President Obama's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues"".
As of October 2013, approximately 40% were in favor while 51% were against. About 29% of whites approved of the law, compared with 61% of Hispanics and 91% of African Americans. A solid majority of seniors opposed the idea and a solid majority of those under forty were in favor.
A 2014 poll reported that 26% of Americans support ACA. A later 2014 poll reported that 48.9% of respondents had an unfavorable view of ACA versus 38.3% who had a favorable view (of more than 5,500 individuals). Another held that 8% of respondents agreed the Affordable Care Act ""is working well the way it is"". In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30%, Leave as is: 13%, Improve: 52%.
In 2015, a poll reported that 47% of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time a major poll indicated that more respondents approved than disapproved. A December 2016 poll reported that: a) 30% wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26% wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19% wanted to move forward with implementing the law as it is; and d) 17% wanted to scale back what the law does, with the remainder undecided.
Separate polls from Fox News and NBC/WSJ, both taken during January 2017, indicated more people viewed the law favorably than did not for the first time. One of the reasons for the improving popularity of the law is that Democrats who had once opposed it (many still prefer ""Medicare for all"") shifted their positions because ACA was under threat of repeal. Another January 2017 poll reported that 35% of respondents believed ""Obamacare"" and the ""Affordable Care Act"" were different or did not know. (About 45% were unsure whether ""repeal of Obamacare"" also meant ""repeal of the Affordable Care Act"".) 39% did not know that ""many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the ACA were repealed and no replacement enacted"", with Democrats far more likely (79%) to know that fact than Republicans (47%). A 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs led to greater support for the ACA, most prominently among Republicans and low-information voters.
By the end of 2023, a Morning Consult poll of registered voters found that 57% approved of the Affordable Care Act, while 30% disapproved of it. 85% of Democrats, 56% of independents, and 28% of Republicans supported the law.


== Political aspects ==


=== ""Obamacare"" ===
The term ""Obamacare"" was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. The term officially emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott wrote, ""We will soon see a 'Giuliani-care' and 'Obama-care' to go along with 'McCain-care', 'Edwards-care', and a totally revamped and remodeled 'Hillary-care' from the 1990s"".
In May 2007, Mitt Romney introduced it to political discourse, saying, ""How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare?' And let me tell you, if we don't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it'll be government-managed care. It'll be what's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it.""
By mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used both by supporters and opponents. Obama eventually endorsed the nickname, saying, ""I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care.""
The use of ""Obamacare"" became increasingly rare, and at the 2024 Democratic National Convention, Obama said, ""I noticed, by the way, since it became popular, they don't call it 'Obamacare' no more.""


=== Common misconceptions ===


==== ""Death panels"" ====

On August 7, 2009, Sarah Palin created the term ""death panels"" to describe groups who would decide whether sick patients were ""worthy"" of medical care. ""Death panel"" referred to two claims about early drafts.
One was that under the law, seniors could be denied care due to their age and the other that the government would advise seniors to end their lives instead of receiving care. The ostensible basis of these claims was the provision for an Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). IPAB was given the authority to recommend cost-saving changes to Medicare by facilitating the adoption of cost-effective treatments and cost-recovering measures when statutory expenditure levels were exceeded within any given three-year period. In fact, the Board was prohibited from recommending changes that would reduce payments before 2020, and was prohibited from recommending changes in premiums, benefits, eligibility and taxes, or other changes that would result in rationing.
The other related issue concerned advance-care planning consultation: a section of the House reform proposal would have reimbursed physicians for providing patient-requested consultations for Medicare recipients on end-of-life health planning (which is covered by many private plans), enabling patients to specify, on request, the kind of care they wished to receive. The provision was not included in ACA.
In 2010, the Pew Research Center reported that 85% of Americans were familiar with the claim, and 30% believed it was true, backed by three contemporaneous polls. The allegation was named PolitiFact's 2009 ""Lie of the Year"", one of FactCheck.org's ""whoppers"" and the most outrageous term by the American Dialect Society. AARP described such rumors as ""rife with gross—and even cruel—distortions"".


==== Members of Congress ====
ACA requires members of Congress and their staffs to obtain health insurance either through an exchange or some other program approved by the law (such as Medicare), instead of using the insurance offered to federal employees (the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program).


==== Illegal immigrants ====
ACA explicitly denies insurance subsidies to ""unauthorized (illegal) aliens"".


==== Exchange ""death spiral"" ====

Opponents claimed that combining immediate coverage with no provision for preexisting conditions would lead people to wait to get insured until they got sick. The individual mandate was designed to push people to get insured without waiting. This has been called a ""death spiral"". In the years after 2013, many insurers did leave specific marketplaces, claiming the risk pools were too small.
The median number of insurers per state was 4.0 in 2014, 5.0 in 2015, 4.0 in 2016 and 3.0 in 2017. Five states had one insurer in 2017, 13 had two, 11 had three; the remainder had four or more.


==== ""If you like your plan"" ====
At various times during and after ACA debate Obama said, ""If you like your health care plan, you'll be able to keep your health care plan."" However, in fall 2013 millions of Americans with individual policies received notices that their insurance plans were terminated, and several million more risked seeing their current plans canceled.
Obama's previous unambiguous assurance that consumers could keep their own plans became a focal point for critics, who challenged his truthfulness. Various bills were introduced in Congress to allow people to keep their plans.
PolitiFact initially cited various estimates that only about 2% of the total insured population (4 million out of 262 million) received such notices, but readers later voted Obama's claims as the 2013 ""Lie of the Year"".


== Criticism and opposition ==
Opposition and efforts to repeal the legislation have drawn support from sources that include labor unions, conservative advocacy groups, Republicans, small business organizations and the Tea Party movement. These groups claimed the law would disrupt existing health plans, increase costs from new insurance standards, and increase the deficit. Some opposed the idea of universal healthcare, viewing insurance as similar to other unsubsidized goods. President Donald Trump repeatedly promised to ""repeal and replace"" it.
As of 2013 unions that expressed concerns included the AFL–CIO, which called ACA ""highly disruptive"" to union health care plans, claiming it would drive up costs of union-sponsored plans; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, and UNITE-HERE, whose leaders sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi arguing, ""PPACA will shatter not only our hard-earned health benefits, but destroy the foundation of the 40-hour work week that is the backbone of the American middle class."" In January 2014, Terry O'Sullivan, president of the Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA) and D. Taylor, president of Unite Here sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi stating, ""ACA, as implemented, undermines fair marketplace competition in the health care industry.""
In October 2016, Mark Dayton, the governor of Minnesota and a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, said ACA had ""many good features"" but it was ""no longer affordable for increasing numbers of people""; he called on the state legislature to provide emergency relief to policyholders. Dayton later said he regretted his remarks after they were seized on by Republicans seeking to repeal the law.


=== Socialism debate ===
Many economically conservative opponents called the ACA ""socialist"" or ""socialized medicine"", pointing to the government redistribution of wealth via subsidies for low-income purchasers of private insurance, expansion of Medicaid, government requirements as to what products can be sold on the exchanges, and the individual mandate, which reduces freedom of consumer choice to be uninsured.
Other observers considered the law a relatively capitalist or ""regulated free-market"" means of paying for near-universal health care, because it creates new marketplaces with choices for consumers, largely relies on private employers and private health insurance companies, maintains private ownership of hospitals and doctor's offices, and was originally advocated by economic conservatives as a capitalist alternative to single-payer health care. Some pointed out that the previous system also had socialist aspects. Even for-profit private health insurance companies socialize risk and redistribute wealth from people who have it (all premium payers) to those who need it (by paying for medically necessary healthcare). The requirement to provide emergency care also forced redistribution from people who pay insurance premiums to those who choose to be uninsured, when they visit the emergency room.
Some Obamacare supporters accused conservatives of using the term ""socialism"" as a scare tactic for Obamacare as it was for Medicare and Medicaid, and some embraced the label ""socialism"" as desirable, distinguishing democratic socialism as desirable for education and health care and communism as undesirable. Milos Forman opined that critics ""falsely equate Western European-style socialism, and its government provision of social insurance and health care, with Marxist–Leninist totalitarianism"".


=== Legal challenges ===


==== National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius ====

Opponents challenged ACA's constitutionality in multiple lawsuits on multiple grounds. The Supreme Court ruled, 5–4, that the individual mandate was constitutional when viewed as a tax, although not under the Commerce Clause.
The Court further determined that states could not be forced to expand Medicaid. ACA withheld all Medicaid funding from states declining to participate in the expansion. The Court ruled that this was unconstitutionally coercive and that individual states had the right to opt out without losing preexisting Medicaid funding.


==== Contraception mandate ====

In March 2012, the Roman Catholic Church, while supportive of ACA's objectives, voiced concern through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops that aspects of the mandate covering contraception and sterilization and HHS's narrow definition of a religious organization violated the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion and conscience. Various lawsuits addressed these concerns, including Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., which looked at private corporations and their duties under the ACA.
In Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 on July 8, 2020, that employers with religious or moral objections to contraceptives can exclude such coverage from an employee's insurance plan. Writing for the majority, Justice Clarence Thomas said, ""No language in the statute itself even hints that Congress intended that contraception should or must be covered. It was Congress, not the [administration], that declined to expressly require contraceptive coverage in the ACA itself."" Justices Roberts, Alito, Gorsuch, and Kavanaugh joined Thomas's opinion. Justice Elena Kagan filed a concurring opinion in the judgment, in which Stephen Breyer joined. Justices Ginsburg and Sotomayor dissented, saying the court's ruling ""leaves women workers to fend for themselves.""
In a later lawsuit brought by private health insurance buyers and businesses, Judge Reed O'Connor of the Federal District Court for the Northern District of Texas ruled in March 2023 that the ACA's provision of contraceptives, HIV testing, and screenings for cancer, diabetes, and mental health violated the plaintiffs' freedom of religious exercise, and placed an injunction on that portion of the ACA. The Biden administration planned to seek a hold on O'Connor's decision.


==== King v Burwell ====

On June 25, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, 6–3, that federal subsidies for health insurance premiums could be used in the 34 states that did not set up their own insurance exchanges.


==== House v. Price ====

House Republicans sued the Obama administration in 2014, alleging that cost-sharing reduction subsidy payments to insurers were unlawful because Congress had not appropriated funds to pay for them. The argument classified the CSR subsidy as discretionary spending subject to annual appropriation. In May 2016, a federal judge ruled for the plaintiffs, but the Obama administration appealed. Later, President Trump ended the payments. This led to further litigation.


==== United States House of Representatives v. Azar ====

The House sued the administration, alleging that the money for CSRs to insurers had not been appropriated, as required for any federal government spending. The ACA subsidy that helps customers pay premiums was not part of the suit.
Without the CSRs, the government estimated that premiums would increase by 20% to 30% for silver plans. In 2017, the uncertainty about whether the payments would continue caused Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Carolina to try to raise premiums by 22.9% the next year, as opposed to an increase of 8.8% that it would have sought if the payments were assured.
U.S. District Judge Rosemary M. Collyer ruled that the cost-sharing program was unconstitutional for spending money that has not been specifically provided by an act of Congress, but concluded that Congress had in fact authorized that program to be created. The judge also found that Congress had provided authority to cover the spending for the tax credits to consumers who use them to help afford health coverage. Collyer enjoined further cost-sharing payments, but stayed the order pending appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The case ended in a settlement before the Circuit Court.


==== California v. Texas ====

Texas and 19 other states filed a civil suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas in February 2018, arguing that with the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which eliminated the tax for not having health insurance, the individual mandate no longer had a constitutional basis and thus the entire ACA was no longer constitutional. The Department of Justice said it would no longer defend the ACA in court, but 17 states led by California stepped in to do so.
District Judge Reed O'Connor of Texas ruled for the plaintiffs on December 14, 2018, writing that the ""Individual Mandate can no longer be fairly read as an exercise of Congress's Tax Power and is still impermissible under the Interstate Commerce Clause—meaning the Individual Mandate is unconstitutional."" He then further reasoned that the individual mandate is an essential part of the entire law, and thus was not severable, making the entire law unconstitutional. O'Connor's decision regarding severability turned on several passages from the Congressional debate that focused on the importance of the mandate. While he ruled the law unconstitutional, he did not overturn the law.
The intervening states appealed the decision to the Fifth Circuit. These states argued that Congress's change in the tax was only reducing the amount of the tax, and that Congress had the power to write a stronger law to this end. O'Connor stayed his decision pending the appeal. The Fifth Circuit heard the appeal on July 9, 2019; in the interim, the U.S. Department of Justice joined with Republican states to argue that the ACA was unconstitutional, while the Democratic states were joined by the Democrat-controlled U.S. House of Representatives. An additional question was addressed, as the Republican plaintiffs challenged the Democratic states' standing to defend the ACA.
In December 2019, the Fifth Circuit agreed the individual mandate was unconstitutional, but did not agree that the entire law should be voided. Instead, it remanded the case to the District Court for reconsideration of that question. The Supreme Court accepted the case in March 2020, to be heard in the 2020–2021 term, with the ruling likely falling after the 2020 elections.
Democrats pointed out that the effect of invalidating the entire law would be to remove popular provisions such as the protection for preexisting conditions, and that the Republicans had still not offered any replacement plan—important issues in the 2020 elections.
On June 17, 2021, the Court rejected the challenge in a 7–2 decision, ruling that Texas and the other plaintiff states did not have standing to challenge the provision, leaving the full ACA intact.


==== Risk corridors ====

The Supreme Court ruled that promised risk corridor payments must be made even in the absence of specific appropriation of money by Congress.


==== Non-cooperation ====
Officials in Texas, Florida, Alabama, Wyoming, Arizona, Oklahoma and Missouri opposed those elements over which they had discretion. For example, Missouri declined to expand Medicaid or establish a health insurance marketplace engaging in active non-cooperation, enacting a statute forbidding any state or local official to render any aid not specifically required by federal law. Other Republicans discouraged efforts to advertise the law's benefits. Some conservative political groups launched ad campaigns to discourage enrollment.


=== Repeal and modification efforts ===

ACA was the subject of many unsuccessful repeal efforts by Republicans in the 111th, 112th, and 113th Congresses: Representatives Steve King and Michele Bachmann introduced bills in the House to repeal the ACA the day after it was signed, as did Senator Jim DeMint in the Senate. In 2011, after Republicans gained control of the House, one of the first votes held was on a bill titled ""Repealing the Job-Killing Health Care Law Act"" (H.R. 2), which the House passed 245–189. All Republicans and three Democrats voted for repeal. In the Senate, the bill was offered as an amendment to an unrelated bill, but was voted down. President Obama said he would veto the bill had it passed.

On February 3, 2015, the House of Representatives added its 67th repeal vote to the record (239 to 186). This attempt also failed.


==== 2013 federal government shutdown ====
Strong partisan disagreement in Congress prevented adjustments to the Act's provisions. But at least one change, a proposed repeal of a tax on medical devices, received bipartisan support. Some Congressional Republicans argued against improvements to the law on the grounds that they would weaken the arguments for repeal.
Republicans attempted to defund the ACA's implementation, and in October 2013 House Republicans refused to fund the federal government unless it came with an implementation delay, after Obama unilaterally deferred the employer mandate by one year, which critics claimed he had no power to do. The House passed three versions of a bill funding the government while submitting various versions that would repeal or delay the ACA, with the last version delaying enforcement of the individual mandate. The Democratic Senate leadership said the Senate would pass only a bill without any restrictions on ACA. The government shutdown lasted from October 1 to October 17.


==== 2017 repeal effort ====

During a midnight congressional session starting January 11, the Senate of the 115th Congress of the United States voted to approve a ""budget blueprint"" that would allow Republicans to repeal parts of the law ""without threat of a Democratic filibuster"". The plan, which passed 51–48, was named by Senate Republicans the ""Obamacare 'repeal resolution.'"" Democrats opposing the resolution staged a protest during the vote.
House Republicans announced their replacement, the American Health Care Act, on March 6. On March 24, the AHCA failed amid a revolt among Republican representatives.
On May 4 the House voted to pass the AHCA by a margin of 217 to 213. The Senate Republican leadership announced that Senate Republicans would write their own version of the bill instead of voting on the House version.
Leader McConnell named a group of 13 Republicans to draft the substitute version in private, raising bipartisan concerns about lack of transparency. On June 22, Republicans released the first discussion draft, which renamed it the ""Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017"" (BCRA). On July 25, although no amendment proposal had garnered majority support, Republicans voted to advance the bill to the floor and begin formal consideration of amendments. Senators Susan Collins and Lisa Murkowski were the only two dissenting Republicans, making the vote a 50–50 tie. Vice President Mike Pence then cast the tie-breaking vote in the affirmative.
The revised BCRA failed, 43–57. A subsequent ""Obamacare Repeal and Reconciliation Act"" abandoned the ""repeal and replace"" approach in favor of a straight repeal, but that too failed, 45–55. Finally, the ""Health Care Freedom Act"", nicknamed ""skinny repeal"" because it would have made the least change to ACA, failed by 49–51, with Collins, Murkowski, and McCain joining all Democrats and independents in voting against it.


==== Proposed changes in 2024 ====
Donald Trump, who has historically opposed the ACA, has said during the 2024 United States presidential debates that he plans to modify or scrap sections it, saying he has ""proposals."" JD Vance has said that Trump intends to allow insurance companies to discriminate against people with preexisting conditions or disability, with subsidized insurance replaced with private insurance. Kamala Harris said she would ""maintain and grow"" the ACA.


=== Actions to hinder implementation ===

Under both the ACA (current law) and the AHCA, the CBO reported that the health exchange marketplaces would remain stable. But Republican politicians took a variety of steps to undermine it, creating uncertainty that adversely impacted enrollment and insurer participation while increasing premiums. Concern about the exchanges became another argument for reforms. Past and ongoing Republican attempts to weaken the law have included:

Lawsuits such as King v. Burwell and House v. Price.
President Trump ended the payment of cost-sharing reduction subsidies to insurers on October 12, 2017. CBO estimated in September 2017 that discontinuing the payments would add an average of 15–20 percentage points to health insurance costs on the exchanges in 2018 while increasing the budget deficit nearly $200 billion over a decade. In response, insurers sued the government for reimbursement. Various cases are under appeal as of 2019. Several insurers and actuarial groups estimated this resulted in a 20 percentage point or more increase in premiums for the 2018 plan year. In other words, premium increases expected to be 10% or less in 2018 became 28–40% instead. The insurers would need to make up the $7 billion they had previously received in cost-sharing reductions (CSRs) by raising premiums. Since most premiums are subsidized, the federal government would cover most of the increases. CBO also estimated that initially up to one million fewer people would have health insurance coverage, although rising subsidies might eventually offset this. The 85% of enrollees who received subsidies would be unaffected. CBO expected the exchanges to remain stable (i.e., no ""death spiral"" before or after Trump's action) as the premiums would increase and prices would stabilize at the higher (non-CSR) level. Several insurance companies who sued the United States for failure to pay CSRs won cases in 2018 and 2019. The judiciary decided the insurance companies are entitled to unpaid CSRs.
The 2015 appropriations bill had a rider that ended the payment of risk corridor funds. This was repeated in later years. This resulted in the bankruptcy of many co-ops. This action was attributed to Senator Marco Rubio. The cutoff generated some 50 lawsuits. The Supreme Court granted certiorari in 2019 in the case Maine Community Health Options v. United States.
Trump weakened the individual mandate with his first executive order, which limited enforcement of the tax. For example, tax returns without indications of health insurance (""silent returns"") will still be processed, overriding Obama's instructions to reject them.
Trump reduced funding for advertising for exchange enrollment by up to 90%, with other reductions to support resources used to answer questions and help people sign-up for coverage. The CBO said the reductions would reduce ACA enrollment.
Trump reduced the enrollment period for 2018 by half, to 45 days.
Trump made public statements that the exchanges were unstable or in a death spiral.


=== Perceived inadequacies ===
In December 2009, former DNC chairman and former Vermont governor Howard Dean called the ACA ""a bigger bailout for the insurance industry than AIG"" and ""an insurance company's dream"". He viewed the bill's end form as a death of the health care reform effort.
In his 2011 book Remedy and Reaction, Paul Starr, the former senior advisor for Bill Clinton's health care reform plan, notes that the ACA did not make health insurance a right and did not make medical care free at the point of service. He criticizies the ACA on the grounds that some lower-income individuals still cannot afford treatment and go without care ""if health care and insurance are treated as ordinary commodities"".
The ACA's critics often cite its inability to control costs and lower deductibles, the difficulty for average people to compare plans, lack of a strong public option, and inadequate regulations on or alternatives (such as co-operatives) to large corporate health care companies.


== Implementation ==

In 2010 small business tax credits took effect. Then Pre-Existing Condition Insurance Plan (PCIP) took effect to offer insurance to those who had been denied coverage by private insurance companies because of a preexisting condition. By 2011, insurers had stopped marketing child-only policies in 17 states, as they sought to escape this requirement. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius the Supreme Court allowed states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion.
In 2013, the Internal Revenue Service ruled that the cost of covering only the individual employee would be considered in determining whether the cost of coverage exceeded 9.5% of income. Family plans would not be considered even if the cost was above the 9.5% income threshold. On July 2 Obama delayed the employer mandate until 2015. The launch for both the state and federal exchanges was beset by management and technical failings. HealthCare.gov, the website that offers insurance through the exchanges operated by the federal government, crashed on opening and suffered many problems. Operations stabilized in 2014, although not all planned features were complete.
The Government Accountability Office released a non-partisan study in 2014 that concluded the administration had not provided ""effective planning or oversight practices"" in developing the exchanges. In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Supreme Court exempted closely held corporations with religious convictions from the contraception rule. At the beginning of the 2015, 11.7 million had signed up (ex-Medicaid). By the end of the year about 8.8 million consumers had stayed in the program. Congress repeatedly delayed the onset of the ""Cadillac tax"" on expensive insurance plans first until 2020 and later until 2022 and repealed it in late 2019.
An estimated 9 to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage in 2016, mostly low-income adults. The five major national insurers expected to lose money on ACA policies in 2016, in part because the enrollees were lower income, older and sicker than expected.
More than 9.2 million people (3.0 million new customers and 6.2 million returning) enrolled on the national exchange in 2017, down some 400,000 from 2016. This decline was due primarily to the election of President Trump. The eleven states that run their own exchanges signed up about 3 million more. The IRS announced that it would not require that tax returns indicate a person has health insurance, reducing the effectiveness of the individual mandate, in response to Trump's executive order. The CBO reported in March that the healthcare exchanges were expected to be stable. In May the House voted to repeal the ACA using the American Health Care Act (AHCA), but the AHCA was defeated in the Senate. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019. The CBO estimated that the change would cause 13 million fewer people to have health insurance in 2027.
The 2017 Individual Market Stabilization Bill was proposed to fund cost cost-sharing reductions, provide more flexibility for state waivers, allow a new ""Copper Plan"" offering only catastrophic coverage, allow interstate insurance compacts, and redirect consumer fees to states for outreach. The bill failed.
By 2019, 35 states and the District of Columbia had either expanded coverage via traditional Medicaid or via an alternative program.


== In popular culture ==
SNL presented a sketch in October 2009 about the legislation's gridlock, with Dwayne Johnson playing an angry President Obama confronting three senators opposing the plan.
The show aired another sketch in September 2013 with Jay Pharoah as President Obama rolling out the plan to the public, and Aaron Paul and other cast members playing ordinary Americans helping him in advocating for the legislation.


== See also ==

Broccoli mandate
Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States
Individual shared responsibility provision
Massachusetts health care reform (sometimes called ""Romneycare"")
Medicaid
Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015 (Reform to the American Health Care system signed into law by President Obama)
Single-payer health care
Universal health care
Universal health coverage by country
U.S. health care compared with eight other countries (tabular form)


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Altman, Stuart, and David Shactman. Power, Politics, and Universal Health Care: The Inside Story of a Century-Long Battle (2011) online
Barr, Donald A. (2011). Introduction to U.S. Health Policy: The Organization, Financing, and Delivery of Health Care in America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0218-5.
Blumenthal,  David, Melinda Abrams, and Rachel Nuzum. ""The affordable care act at 5 years."" New England Journal of Medicine 372.25 (2015): 2451-2458. online
Bossaler, Jenny S. (April 2016). ""Access to affordable care through public libraries"". The Library Quarterly. 86 (2). University of Chicago Press: 193–212. doi:10.1086/685400. ISSN 0024-2519. JSTOR 26561661. OCLC 01755858. S2CID 147627006.
Campbell, Andrea Louise, and Lara Shore-Sheppard. ""The social, political, and economic effects of the Affordable Care Act: Introduction to the issue."" RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 6.2 (2020): 1-40 online.
CCH's Law, Explanation and Analysis of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Including Reconciliation Act Impact. Chicago, IL: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. 2010. ISBN 978-0-8080-2287-9. Two volumes: This book contains an editorially enhanced version of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act that integrates in place changes made to it by the Reconciliation Act of 2010. ... A website, www.mediregs.com/cchhealthreform, has been created to expand access to key legislative materials.
Fang, Hanming; Krueger, Dirk (2022). ""The Affordable Care Act After a Decade: Its Impact on the Labor Market and the Macro Economy"". Annual Review of Economics. 14 (1). Cambridge MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w29240. ISSN 1941-1391. LCCN 2008214322. OCLC 190859329.
Feldman, Arthur M. (2012) [2011]. Understanding Health Care Reform: Bridging the Gap Between Myth and Reality. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-7948-1. Archived from the original on June 16, 2022.
Jacobs, Lawrence R.; Skocpol, Theda (2010). Health Care Reform and American Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978142-3.
McDonough, John E. (August 2, 2011). Inside National Health Reform. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27019-0.
Brill, Steven (January 5, 2015). America's Bitter Pill: Money, Politics, Back-Room Deals, and the Fight to Fix Our Broken Healthcare System. Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-9695-1.
""Letter to the Honorable John Boehner providing an estimate for H.R. 6079, the Repeal of Obamacare Act"". United States. Congressional Budget Office. July 24, 2012. Archived from the original (Cost estimate) on July 27, 2012. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
Elmendorf, Douglas W. (November 30, 2009). ""An Analysis of Health Insurance Premiums Under the Patient Protection and Affordable Health Care Act"" (PDF). United States. Congressional Budget Office. Archived from the original on December 5, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
""Analysis Of A Permanent Prohibition On Implementing The Major Health Care Legislation Enacted In March 2010"". United States. Congressional Budget Office. May 26, 2011. Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012.
Glied, Sherry; Ma, Stephanie (December 2013). ""How States Stand to Gain or Lose Federal Funds by Opting In or Out of the Medicaid Expansion"" (PDF). Issue Brief. 32. The Commonwealth Fund: 1–12. PMID 24344468. Retrieved February 20, 2016.
Jost, Timothy (February 24, 2014). ""Implementing Health Reform: Medicaid Asset Rules And The Affordable Care Act"". Health Affairs. Washington, DC: Project HOPE. doi:10.1377/forefront.20140224.037390. ISSN 1544-5208. OCLC 07760874.
Riley, Trish; Thorpe, Jane Hyatt (2012). ""Multi-state plans under the Affordable Care Act"" (PDF). Department of Health Policy. The George Washington University: School of Public Health and Health Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2013.
""Following The Affordable Care Act"". Health Affairs. ISSN 1544-5208. OCLC 07760874. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
""Pre-Affordable Care Act (2011 Archived) Health Insurance Consumer Guides for the Fifty States From Georgetown University Health Policy Institute (Can be used to explore the pre-ACA health insurance system)"". Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved April 29, 2011.
Mettler, Suzanne (2011). The Submerged State: How Invisible Government Policies Undermine American Democracy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226521664. OCLC 928901062.
Mettler, Suzanne (April 17, 2012). ""The Submerged State"". Office Hours podcast. Society Pages. Identifier 1000365943260
Jacobs, Lawrence R.; Mettler, Suzanne (2020). ""What Health Reform Tells Us about American Politics"". Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. 45 (4): 581–593. doi:10.1215/03616878-8255505. ISSN 0361-6878. LCCN 76646971. OCLC 2115780. PMID 32186336. S2CID 212752729.


=== Preliminary CBO documents ===
Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act, Incorporating The Manager's Amendment. United States. Congressional Budget Office December 19, 2009. (Cost estimate)
Effects Of The Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act On The Federal Budget And The Balance In The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (December 23, 2009)
Estimated Effect Of The Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act (Incorporating The Manager's Amendment) On The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (December 23, 2009)
Base Analysis—H.R. 3590, Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, United States. Congressional Budget Office. November 18, 2009. (Cost estimate)(The additional and related CBO reporting that follows can be accessed from the above link)
Estimated Distribution Of Individual Mandate Penalties (November 20, 2009)
Estimated Effects On Medicare Advantage Enrollment And Benefits Not Covered By Medicare (November 21, 2009)
Estimated Effects On The Status Of The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (November 21, 2009)
Estimated Average Premiums Under Current Law (December 5, 2009)
Additional Information About Employment-Based Coverage (December 7, 2009)
Budgetary Treatment Of Proposals To Regulate Medical Loss Ratios (December 13, 2009)


=== CMS Estimates of the impact of P.L. 111-148 ===
Estimated Financial Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"", as Amended. April 22, 2010.
Estimated Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"", as Amended, on the Year of Exhaustion for the Part A Trust Fund, Part B Premiums, and Part A and Part B Coinsurance Amounts. April 22, 2010.


=== CMS Estimates of the impact of H.R. 3590 ===
Estimated Financial Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2009"", as Proposed by the Senate Majority Leader on November 18, 2009. December 10, 2009.
Estimated Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"" on the Year of Exhaustion for the Part A Trust Fund, Part B Premiums, and Part A and Part B Coinsurance Amounts. December 10, 2009.


=== Senate Finance Committee meetings ===
Senate Finance Committee Hearings for the 111th Congress recorded by C-SPAN; also available from Finance.Senate.Gov (accessed April 1, 2012).


== External links ==


=== ACA text ===
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
Full text, summary, background, provisions and more, via Democratic Policy Committee (Senate.gov)",0.7682080268859863
Malt,"Malt is any cereal grain that has been made to germinate by soaking in water and then stopped from germinating further by drying with hot air, a process known as ""malting"".
Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections such as Maltesers and Whoppers, flavored drinks such as Horlicks, Ovaltine, and Milo, and some baked goods, such as malt loaf, bagels, and Rich Tea biscuits. Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as ""sweet meal"". 
Malting grain develops the enzymes (α-amylase, β-amylase) required for modifying the grains' starches into various types of sugar, including monosaccharide glucose, disaccharide maltose, trisaccharide maltotriose, and higher sugars called maltodextrines. It also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, that break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. The point at which the malting process is stopped affects the starch-to-enzyme ratio, and partly converted starch becomes fermentable sugars.
Malt also contains small amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose, which are not products of starch modification, but which are already in the grain. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process.

Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common. A high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast bread and other baked goods.
The term ""malt"" refers to several products of the process: the grains to which this process has been applied, for example, malted barley; the sugar, heavy in maltose, derived from such grains, such as the baker's malt used in various breakfast cereals; single malt whisky, often called simply ""single malt""; or a product based on malted milk, similar to a malted milkshake (i.e. ""malts"").


== History and traditional usage ==

Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt (Ancient Egyptian cuisine), Sumer, and China.
In Persian countries, a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called samanū (Persian: سمنو) in Iran, samanak (Persian: سمنک) in Afghanistan, (Tajik: суманак); (Uzbek Latin: sumalak) or sümölök (Kyrgyz: сүмөлөк), which is prepared for Nowruz (Persian new year celebration) in a large pot (like a kazan). A plate or bowl of samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women have a special party to prepare it during the night, and cook it from late in the evening until the daylight, singing related songs. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan, they sing: Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm – Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm (meaning: ""Samanak is boiling and we are stirring it, others are asleep and we are playing daf""). In modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire.
Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and flour, mämmi has a great resemblance (in the recipe, color, and taste) to samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter. A (nonrepresentative) survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland.


== Malting ==

Malting is the process of converting barley or other cereal grains into malt for use in brewing, distilling, or foods, and takes place in a maltings, sometimes called a malthouse, or a malting floor. The cereal is spread out on the malting floor in a layer of 8 to 12 centimetres (3 to 4+1⁄2 inches) depth. 

Drying
The malting process starts with drying the grains to a moisture content below 14% and then storing for around six weeks to overcome seed dormancy.
Steeping
When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times for two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout.
Germination
When the grain has a moisture content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor, where it is constantly turned over for about four to six days while it is air-dried.
Pre-toasting
The grain at this point, called ""green malt"", is then dried and toasted in an oven (or kiln) to the desired color and specification. Malts range in color from very pale through crystal and amber to chocolate or black malts.
Smoking
The sprouted grain is then further dried and smoked by spreading it on a perforated wooden floor. Smoke coming from an oasting fireplace (via smoke channels) is then used to heat the wooden floor and the sprouted grains. The temperature is usually around 55 °C (131 °F).
A ""maltings"" is typically a long, single-storey building with a floor that slopes slightly from one end of the building to the other. Floor maltings began to be phased out in the 1940s in favor of ""pneumatic plants"", where large industrial fans are used to blow air through the germinating grain beds and to pass hot air through the malt being kilned. Like floor maltings, these pneumatic plants use batch processes, but of considerably greater size, typically 100-ton batches compared with 20-ton batches floor maltings.
As of 2014, the largest malting operation in the world was Malteurop, which operates in 14 countries.


== Production ==
Barley is the most commonly malted grain, in part because of its high content of enzymes, though wheat, rye, oats, rice, and corn are also used. Also very important is the retention of the grain's husk, even after threshing, unlike the bare seeds of threshed wheat or rye. This protects the growing acrospire (developing plant embryo) from damage during malting, which can easily lead to mold growth; it also allows the mash of converted grain to create a filter bed during lautering.


== Malts ==


=== Diastatic and nondiastatic ===
As all grains sprout, natural enzymes within the grain break down the starch of which the grain is composed into simpler sugars, which taste sweet and are easier for yeast to use as food. Malt with active enzymes is called ""diastatic malt"". Malt with inactive enzymes is called ""nondiastatic malt"". The enzymes are deactivated by heating the malt.


=== Base and specialty ===

Malt is often divided into two categories by brewers: base malts and specialty malts.
Base malts have enough diastatic power to convert their own starch and usually, that of some amount of starch from unmalted grain, called adjuncts.
Specialty malts have little diastatic power, but provide flavor, color, or ""body"" (viscosity) to the finished beer. Specialty caramel or crystal malts have been subjected to heat treatment to convert their starches to sugars nonenzymatically. Within these categories is a variety of types distinguished largely by the kilning temperature.


=== Two-row and six-row ===
In addition, barley malts are distinguished by the two major cultivar types of barley used for malting, two-row, and six-row.


== Malt extract ==

Malt extract, also known as extract of malt, is a sweet, treacle-like substance used as a dietary supplement. It was popular in the first half of the 20th century as a nutritional enhancer for the children of the British urban working class, whose diet was often deficient in vitamins and minerals. Children were given cod liver oil for the same reason, but it proved so unpalatable that it was combined with extract of malt to produce ""Malt and Cod-Liver Oil.""
The 1907 British Pharmaceutical Codex's instructions for making a nutritional extract of malt do not include a mashout at the end of extraction and include the use of lower mash temperatures than is typical with modern beer-brewing practices. The Codex indicates that diastatic activity is to be preserved by the use of temperatures not exceeding 55 °C (131 °F).


=== Malt extract production ===
Malt extract is frequently used in the brewing of beer. Its production begins by germinating barley grain in a process known as malting, which consists of immersing the barley in water to encourage it to sprout, then drying it to halt the progress when the sprouting begins. The drying step stops the sprouting, but the enzymes remain active due to the low temperatures used in base malt production. In one before-and-after comparison, malting decreased barley's extractable starch content by about 7% on a dry matter basis and turned that portion into various other carbohydrates.

In the next step, brewers use a process called mashing to extract the sugars. Brewers warm cracked malt in temperature-modulated water, activating the enzymes, which cleave more of the malt's remaining starch into various sugars, the largest percentage of which is maltose. Modern beer-mashing practices typically include high enough temperatures at mash-out to deactivate remaining enzymes, thus it is no longer diastatic. The liquid produced from this, wort, is then concentrated by using heat or a vacuum procedure to evaporate water from the mixture. The concentrated wort is called malt extract.


=== Malt extract types ===
Two forms of malt extract are used by brewers: liquid malt extract (LME), containing about 20% water, and dry malt extract (DME), dehydrated to 2% water. LME is a thick syrup that typically gives off more pleasant flavors than its counterpart, while DME provides better consistency in color. When using large amounts of extract, LME is typically used because its ability to dissolve in boiling temperatures, whereas DME can clump up and become difficult to liquefy. LME is also sold in jars as a consumer product.


== Research ==
Scientists aim to discover what happens inside barley grains as they become malted to help plant breeders produce better malting barley for food and beverage products. The United States Agricultural Research Service scientists are interested in specialized enzymes called serine-class proteases that digest beta-amylases, which convert carbohydrates into ""simple sugars"" during the sprouting process. The enzyme also breaks down stored proteins into their amino-acid derivatives. The balance of proteins and carbohydrates broken down by the enzyme affects the malt's flavor.


=== Enzyme-rich malt extract ===
Enzyme-rich malt extract (ERME) is a specialised form of barley malt extract (marketed by Ateria Health), that has undergone preparation to activate the natural amylase and glucanase enzymes in the grain. Initially researched as an equine food supplement, pilot studies using ERME as a human food supplement have suggested that it could potentially improve the symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) and chronic constipation, due to the way it can break down carbohydrates in the small intestine that IBS has been found to hinder. However further research is ongoing to fully prove this link.


== See also ==

Malt beer
Malt beverage
Malta (soft drink)
Radio Malt
Sprouted bread
Wheatgrass


== References ==


== Further reading ==
D. E. Briggs, Malts and Malting, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers (30 September 1998), ISBN 0-412-29800-7
Clark, Christine, The British Malting Industry Since 1830, Hambledon Continuum (1 July 1998), ISBN 1-85285-170-8


== External links ==

A Complete Guide to Malted Barley",1.0388413667678833
"Goochland County, Virginia","Goochland County is a county located in the Piedmont of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Its southern border is formed by the James River. As of the 2020 census, the population was 24,727. Its county seat is Goochland.
Goochland County is included in the Greater Richmond Region.


== History ==


=== Native Americans ===
See Native American tribes in Virginia
Long before the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century, all of the territory of Virginia, including the Piedmont area, was populated by various tribes of Native Americans. They were the historic tribes descended from thousands of years of succeeding and varied indigenous cultures. Among the historic tribes in the Piedmont were the Monacan, who were Siouan-speaking and were recorded as having several villages west of what the colonists later called Manakin Town on the James River.
They and other Siouan tribes traditionally competed with and were in conflict with the members of the Powhatan Confederacy, Algonquian-speaking tribes who generally inhabited the coastal Tidewater area along the Atlantic and the rivers feeding it. They also were subject to raids by Iroquois nations from the north, who were based south of the Great Lakes in present-day New York and Pennsylvania.
By the end of the 17th century, the Monacan had been decimated by warfare and infectious diseases carried by the mostly English colonists and traders; their survivors were absorbed into other Siouan tribes.
Portions of the historic Three Chopt Trail, a Native American trail, run through a large portion of the county. The trail was marked by three hatchet chops in trees to show the way. The modern-day U.S. Route 250 roughly follows this route from Richmond to Charlottesville.


=== Henrico Shire ===
In 1634, the colonial government organized the territory of Virginia into eight shires, to be governed as shires in England. Henrico was one of these shires.


=== Formation of Goochland County ===
Among the earliest European settlers in this area of the Piedmont were several hundred French Huguenot religious refugees, who were given land in 1700 and 1701 by the Crown and colonial authorities about 20 miles above the falls of the James River. They settled the villages collectively known as Manakin-Sabot in this area. Soon they moved out to farms and plantations they developed. In neighboring Powhatan County, to the south across the James, they settled Manakin Town, but by 1750 had mostly moved out to farms.
Goochland was founded in 1728 as the first county formed from Henrico shire, followed by Chesterfield County in 1749. Goochland originally included all of the land from Tuckahoe Creek, on both sides of the James River, west as far as the Blue Ridge Mountains. In its original form, Goochland contained the modern counties of Goochland, Powhatan, Cumberland, Fluvanna, Buckingham, Nelson, and Amherst, in their entireties. In addition, the northern sections of Appomattox, Campbell, and Bedford, and the southern two-thirds of Albemarle County were also within Goochland's original boundaries.   The creation of Albemarle County in 1744 and Cumberland County in 1749 removed most of Goochland's southern and western territory, reducing it to its modern size and boundaries.
The county was named for Sir William Gooch, 1st Baronet, the royal lieutenant governor from 1727 to 1749. The nominal governor, the Earl of Albemarle, had remained in England. As acting royal governor, Gooch promoted settlement of the Virginia backcountry as a means to insulate the Virginia colony from Native American and New France settlements in the Ohio Country.
As the colonists moved into the Piedmont west of Richmond, they first developed tobacco plantations like those of the Tidewater. After the Revolution, tobacco did not yield as high profits as markets changed. In Goochland, as in other areas of Virginia, many planters switched to growing wheat and mixed crops. This reduced their need for labor. In the early nineteenth century, some planters sold slaves in the domestic slave trade, as demand was high in the developing Deep South where cotton plantations were developed.


=== Goochland Courthouse ===
The first court was held in May 1728. The exact location of this first court is unknown, but researchers believe that the first courthouse was constructed in Goochland County between 1730 and 1737. A new courthouse was built in 1763 in Beaverdam, a short distance from the first, on the land of Alexander Baine. In the early 19th century, the courthouse was moved to its current location along Rt. 6 in central Goochland. The Goochland County Court Square was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.


=== Revolutionary War ===
During the early part of 1781, Lord Cornwallis marched his sizable army through the boundaries of Goochland. They occupied and thoroughly destroyed Elkhill, a small estate of Thomas Jefferson, slaughtering the livestock for food, burning barns and fences, and finally burning down the house.   They took 27 slaves as prisoners of war, and 24 died of disease in the camp.
One point along the James River came to be known as Cornwallis Hill. It is said that the British general, who paused here on his way to Yorktown, where he would be defeated and surrender, remarked that this spot with its magnificent vista of the James River Valley would make an ideal site for a house.
General Lafayette, a French hero of the Revolution, returned to the United States for a grand tour in 1824 and 1825. On November 2, 1824, General Lafayette ""left Richmond on his way to Monticello to visit Mr. Jefferson."" On the way, Gen. Lafayette stopped at Powell's Tavern in Goochland. (""I spent some time at the Tavern and there was much celebration at his arrival."") While there, the general met with American officers and many citizens of the county.


=== Civil War ===

The county was a site of a battle late in the war. When the war broke out, James Pleasants, a native of Goochland County and descendant of the 22nd governor of the state, insisted he replace his uncle in the Goochland Light Dragoons (known during the war as Co. F, 4th Virginia Cavalry). In 1861, he was allowed to take his uncle's place. In the winter of 1864, any troops who were close to home were allowed to return to recruit more soldiers.
At the same time, the young Union Colonel Ulric Dahlgren had a plan to infiltrate central Virginia, break out nearly 12,000 Union prisoners from Belle Isle in Richmond, the Confederate capital, and destroy the city. On March 1, 1864, Dahlgren's forces reached the plantations of Sabot Hill, Dover, and Eastwood in eastern Goochland.
On Pleasants's first night home, Dahlgren's raiders stole his horses but did not search the property. When Pleasants found out what happened, he grabbed his carbine and started off on foot after the raiders. Hearing a noise, he hid in the woods, and ordered a single Union cavalryman to surrender. Pleasants mounted the man's horse and forced the soldier to walk in front of him to search for more soldiers. Within a short amount of time, Pleasants had captured several Union prisoners and took them as prisoners back to Bowles' store. In all, he captured 15 Union soldiers, recovered 16 horses, and shot one officer who refused to surrender to him.
Eastwood was occupied by Plumer Hobson and his wife, the daughter of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, the last governor of Virginia before the war. On the previous night General Wise had arrived at Eastwood. When a Union detail arrived at Eastwood looking for him, his daughter said that he was in Charleston, South Carolina. Instead, he was already riding rapidly southeast to Richmond to warn the troops of the Union raiders.  Dahlgren went to Sabot Hill, the home of James Seddon and his wife. She answered the door and invited the officer in for some wine and Southern hospitality; she knew that Wise was on his way to Richmond and wanted to delay Dahlgren. Ultimately, due to the quick thinking by the families in Goochland, Wise was able to warn forces in Richmond, who defeated Dahlgren's raid.


=== Convict lease program ===
After Reconstruction, Goochland County leased convicts as laborers to build roads in 1878. The state's practice of convict leasing was effectively a means of keeping African Americans in near-slavery conditions. The legislature passed a variety of minor nuisance laws, with penalties of fees, which they knew the cash-poor sharecroppers could not readily pay. When convicted of minor offenses and unable to pay the fine, black men were jailed and leased out as convicts. They suffered frequent abuse under this system, as the state exercised little supervision of conditions.


=== Monument ===
As part of their effort at commemoration after the war, the Daughters of the Confederacy commissioned a monument to the Confederate dead, to be erected on the green of the Goochland Courthouse. It was unveiled on June 22, 1918. Among those in attendance was Robert E. Lee, a grandson of General Robert E. Lee.


=== Churches ===
In 1720, there were two parishes in Henrico County, St. James and Henrico. When Goochland County was formed, St. James Parish fell within the boundaries on both sides of the James River and westward. When Albemarle County was formed from Goochland in 1744, the Parish was divided into three. St. Anne's Parish covered Albemarle, St. James Southam Parish covered the south side of the river (now Powhatan County), and St. James Northam Parish covered the rest of Goochland.
In St. James Northam Parish there were three early churches, all Anglican (and Episcopal after the church was disestablished after the Revolution): Dover Episcopal, Beaverdam Episcopal, and Lickinghole Episcopal. Dover was the first, being built in 1724; it closed sometime after the Revolutionary War. Its location and closing date are unknown. Beaverdam was located near what is now Whitehall Road, but its exact location is also unknown.
One notable church is Byrd Presbyterian Church. The congregation has some members descended from the original worshippers who were organized in 1748 at Tucker Woodson's farm by Samuel Davies, a theologian. He later served as president of Princeton University. By 1759 the group had constructed its own building on Byrd Creek. In 1838 descendants of the original congregation built a new church and began worshiping here; this church is still in use. It retains many of its original architectural features, including its slate roof and interior window valances. The cemetery has been preserved since it was established in 1838.
One of the first independent black congregations founded after the Civil War was what is now called Second Union Baptist Church, founded in 1865 near Fife/Bula northwest of Richmond. Most freedmen left white Baptist churches to form their own, and soon set up state associations with the aid of organizers from free states. Today the numerous churches in the county include several Episcopal, Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and non-denominational Christian churches.


=== Historic homes ===
Tuckahoe Plantation – One of the older James River plantation mansions in the county, it has grounds that include a private schoolhouse where Thomas Jefferson and his Randolph cousins were educated.
Sabot Hill – Built in 1855, it was owned by James A. Seddon, the Secretary of War for the Confederate States of America (CSA) during the Civil War. The large home was damaged in Dahlgren's Raid.
Woodlawn – This is a Georgian Colonial-style home built prior to 1760 by Josiah Leake. In 1834 it was purchased by Colonel Thomas Taylor, a hero of the Mexican–American War.
Clover Forest Plantation – The land was first patented in 1714. The central core of the home was not built until 1807–1811, by Captain Thomas Pemberton of the Continental Dragoons. He was later a member of the Society of the Cincinnati. It has had several owners since then.
Other historic homes and mansions in Goochland can be found through the Goochland County Historical Society (see links below).


== School buses ==
In 1973, Wayne Corporation of Richmond, Indiana introduced a safer design in school bus construction, the Lifeguard. Shortly afterward, the manufacturer held a nationwide contest to gain ideas to improve school bus safety, with the grand prize to be the award of a new Lifeguard school bus. Pearl P. Randolph, the first black member of the Goochland County School Board, created the winning entry.
As a result, the Goochland County Public Schools received the new school bus. Her idea was to install sound baffles in the ceilings of school bus bodies to help reduce driver distraction. Compact forms of such equipment were later developed in the 1980s by Wayne and other bus manufacturers when diesel engines (and their greater noise) became commonplace.


== Government ==


=== Board of Supervisors ===
District 1: Susan F. Lascolette
District 2: Neil Spoonhower
District 3: John Lumpkins Jr.
District 4: Don Sharpe
District 5: Ken C. Peterson


=== Constitutional officers ===
Clerk of the Circuit Court: Amanda S. Adams (R)
Commissioner of the Revenue: Jennifer Brown (I)
Commonwealth's Attorney: D. Michael Caudill (R)
Sheriff: Steven N. Creasey (I)
Treasurer: Pamela Duncan (R)
Goochland is represented by Republicans Tom Garrett and David Owen in the House of Delegates, Democrats Timothy M. Kaine and Mark Warner in the U.S. Senate, and Republican John McGuire in the U.S. House of Representatives.


=== Education ===
The Goochland County Public Schools system provides public school from K-12 for the county at five schools for 2,500 students.[1] In 2020 the all-boys Benedictine College Preparatory and all-girls Saint Gertrude High School moved from their separate campuses in downtown Richmond to a combined campus in Goochland under the Benedictine Schools of Richmond.


== Economy ==


=== West Creek Business Park ===
Contributors to Goochland's increased growth in the early 2000s was the construction of the West Creek Business Park, as well as the completion of Richmond's semi-circumferential State Route 288. The latter connected the county to the major travel corridors of I-64 and I-95. The industrial park began attracting many businesses, including the corporate headquarters for Farm Bureau of Virginia and Performance Food Group (PFG), as well as Hallmark Youth Care, and CarMax.


=== Top employers ===
According to the county's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the county are:


== Geography ==
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 290 square miles (750 km2), of which 281 square miles (730 km2) is land and 8 square miles (21 km2) (2.9%) is water. Goochland County is drained by the James River. 


=== Adjacent counties ===
Louisa County – north
Hanover County – northeast
Henrico County – east
Powhatan County – south
Cumberland County – southwest
Fluvanna County – west


=== Major highways ===
 I-64 - Skirts the northern county line with Louisa County
 US 250 - Runs parallel to I-64, also skirting the Louisa County line
 US 522 - Runs through the county, intersecting with SR 6 as well as both US-250 and I-64 in Louisa County
 SR 6 - Runs along the James River in the southern part of the county
 SR 45 - Runs north from Cartersville in Cumberland County to SR 6
 SR 271 - Runs from Henrico County to Hanover County across the north east corner of the county
 SR 288 - Runs along the eastern county line from I-64 to Powhatan County


== Demographics ==


=== 2020 census ===


=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 16,863 people, 6,158 households, and 4,710 families residing in the county. The population density was 59 people per square mile (23 people/km2). There were 6,555 housing units at an average density of 23 units per square mile (8.9 units/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 72.71% White, 25.64% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.47% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. 0.85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
The largest ethnic/ancestry groups in Goochland County are: ""English"" (16.3%), American (13.0%), German (11.8%), Irish (9.3%), Scots-Irish (4.0%) and Scottish (3.9%).
There were 6,158 households, out of which 29.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.60% were married couples living together, 8.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.50% were non-families. 19.90% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.88.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 21.30% under the age of 18, 5.30% from 18 to 24, 32.10% from 25 to 44, 28.90% from 45 to 64, and 12.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.30 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $56,307, and the median income for a family was $64,685. Males had a median income of $41,663 versus $29,519 for females. The per capita income for the county was $29,105. 6.90% of the population and 4.30% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 7.70% are under the age of 18 and 8.10% are 65 or older.


== Notable people ==
Thomas Jefferson lived at Shadwell, then within the boundaries of the county.
Thomas Mann Randolph Jr., 21st Governor of Virginia
James Pleasants, 22nd Governor of Virginia
Edward Bates served as the 26th United States Attorney General under President Abraham Lincoln.
James Seddon served as the Confederate Secretary of War under Jefferson Davis.
John Berry Meachum, businessman, educator and founder of the oldest black church in Missouri
Josephine Turpin Washington, (1861–1949), educator and writer (distant cousin of Thomas Jefferson)
Justin Verlander, Houston Astros starting pitcher, was raised in the county.
John Hicks, catcher and first baseman for the Detroit Tigers
Giles Beecher Jackson (1853–1924), African-American lawyer, newspaper publisher, entrepreneur, and civil rights activist
Zachariah Eastin (1777–1852) War of 1812 officer, born in Goochland County.


== Communities ==
No incorporated communities are located in Goochland County. Unincorporated communities include the following:


=== Census-designated place ===
Goochland


=== Other unincorporated communities ===


== See also ==
National Register of Historic Places listings in Goochland County, Virginia


== References ==
Specific

General
History of Goochland County, Virginia
Dover Mill – Account of an Excavation


== External links ==
Information Site for Goochland County, Virginia
Goochland County Historical Society
Tuckahoe Plantation
Goochland County Public Schools
Goochland County Chamber of Commerce
Goochland Yellow Pages
The Goochland Gazette``",1.2807117700576782
Historicity of the Iliad,"The historicity of the Iliad or the Homeric Question has been a topic of scholarly debate for centuries.
While researchers of the 18th century had largely rejected the story of the Trojan War as fable, the discoveries made by Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik reopened the question. The subsequent excavation of Troy VIIa and the discovery of the toponym ""Wilusa"" in cuneiform Hittite correspondence has made it plausible that the Trojan War cycle was at least remotely based on a historical conflict of the 12th century BC, even if the poems of Homer remembered the event only through the distortion of four centuries of oral tradition.


== History ==


=== Pre-modern views ===
In Ancient Greece, the Trojan War was generally regarded as a historical event, though the details of the story were matters of debate. For instance, Herodotus argued that Homer had exaggerated the story and that the Trojans had been unable to return Helen because she was in Egypt. When sixth century Athenians cited Homer to justify their side in a territorial dispute with Megara, the Megarans responded by accusing the Athenians of falsifying the text.
The Trojan War continued to be regarded as essentially historical during the Roman Empire, even after its Christianization. In the time of Strabo, geographic writings discussed the identity of sites mentioned by Homer. Eusebius of Caesarea's influential Chronicon gave Troy the same historical weight as Abraham in his universal history of humankind. Jerome's Chronicon followed Eusebius, and all the medieval chroniclers began with summaries of this universal history.
Medieval Europeans continued to accept the Trojan War as historical, with dynasties often claiming descent from Trojan heroes. Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-genealogy traced a Trojan origin for royal Britons in Historia Regum Britanniae, and Fredegar gave a similar origin myth for the Merovingians in which they were descended from a legendary King Francio, who had built a new Troy at Treves.


=== Early modern views ===
In the early modern era, attitudes towards the legends grew more skeptical. Blaise Pascal characterized the story as merely a ""romance"", commenting that ""nobody supposes that Troy and Agamemnon existed any more than the apples of the Hesperides. [Homer] had no intention to write history, but only to amuse us."" During the 19th century the stories of Troy were devalued as fables by George Grote.


=== Modern scholarship ===
In the 1870s, Heinrich Schliemann reopened the question with his archaeological excavations at Hisarlik. This site had been previously identified as Classical Ilion, where ancients had believed the legendary war to have occurred. Underneath the classical city, Schliemann found the remains of numerous earlier settlements, one of which he declared to be that of the city of Homeric legend. Subsequent excavations have shown that this city was in fact a millennium too early to have coexisted with Mycenaean palaces.
Since Schliemann, the site has been further excavated and reappraised numerous times, with particular attention to the layers which did coexist with the Mycenaeans, known collectively as Late Bronze Age Troy. Additional lines of research have included excavations at other sites such as Mycenae, examination of potential references to Troy in Hittite records, and philological study of the Iliad and Odyssey themselves. Despite these achievements, there remains no consensus for or against a real Trojan War, and some scholars regard the question as unanswerable.


== Status of the Iliad ==
The more that is known about Bronze Age history, the clearer it becomes that it is not a straight forward question, but one of assessing of how much historical knowledge is present in Homer, and of what historical period. Finley concludes that it represents memories of Dark Age Greece, while the dominant view, expressed in A Companion to Homer by Wace and Stebbings (1962), believes that Homer has preserved memories of Mycenaean Greece.
The narrative focus of the Iliad is not the strategy of the war, but the psychology of the warriors, assuming common knowledge of the Trojan War as a back-story. No scholars now hold that the specific events of the tale (many involving divine intervention) are historical fact; however, few claim that the story is entirely devoid of memories of Mycenaean times.
Martin L. West has mentioned that such an approach ""misconceives"" the problem, and that Troy probably fell to a much smaller group of attackers in a much shorter time.


== The Iliad as essentially legendary ==

Some archaeologists and historians, most notably, until his death in 1986, Moses I. Finley, maintain that none of the events in Homer's works are historical. Others accept that there may be a foundation of historical events in the Homeric narrative, but say that, in the absence of independent evidence, it is not possible to separate fact from myth.
In The World of Odysseus, Finley presents a picture of the society represented by the Iliad and the Odyssey, avoiding the question as ""beside the point that the narrative is a collection of fictions from beginning to end"".: 9  Finley was in a minority when his World of Odysseus first appeared in 1954. With the understanding that war was the normal state of affairs, Finley observed that a ten-year war was out of the question, indicating Nestor's recall of a cattle-raid in Elis as a norm, and identifying the scene in which Helen points out to Priam the Achaean leaders in the battlefield as ""an illustration of the way in which one traditional piece of the story was retained after the war had ballooned into ten years and the piece had become rationally incongruous"".: 46 
Finley, for whom the Trojan War is ""a timeless event floating in a timeless world"",: 172  analyzes the question of historicity, aside from invented narrative details, into five essential elements: 1. Troy was destroyed by a war; 2. the destroyers were a coalition from mainland Greece; 3. the leader of the coalition was a king named Agamemnon; 4. Agamemnon's overlordship was recognized by the other chieftains; 5. Troy, too, headed a coalition of allies. Finley does not find any evidence for any of these elements.: 175ff. 
Aside from narrative detail, Finley pointed out that, aside from some correlation of Homeric placenames and Mycenaean sites, there is also the fact that the heroes lived at home in palaces (oikoi) unknown in Homer's day; far from a nostalgic recall of the Mycenaean age, Finley asserts that ""the catalog of his errors is very long"".

His arms bear a resemblance to the armour of his time, quite unlike the Mycenaean, although he persistently casts them in antiquated bronze, not iron. His gods had temples, and the Mycenaeans built none, whereas the latter constructed great vaulted tombs to bury their chieftains in and the poet cremates his. A neat little touch is provided by the battle chariots. Homer had heard of them, but he did not really visualize what one did with chariots in a war. So his heroes normally drove from their tents a mile or less away, carefully dismounted, and then proceeded to battle on foot.: 45 

What the poet believed he was singing about was the heroic past of his own Greek world, Finley concludes.
During the early twenty-first century, Fred Woudhuizen and Frank Kolb suggested that the Homeric stories represented a synthesis of many old Greek stories of various Bronze Age sieges and expeditions, fused together in the Greek memory during the ""dark ages"" which followed the end of the Mycenean civilization. In this view, no historical city of Troy existed anywhere: the name perhaps derives from a people called the Troies, who probably lived in central Greece. The identification of the hill at Hisarlık as Troy is, in this view, a late development, following the Greek colonisation of Asia Minor during the 8th century BC.
It is also worth comparing the details of the Iliadic story to those of older Mesopotamian literature—most notably, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Names, set scenes, and even major parts of the story, are strikingly similar according to some scholars. Some academics believe that writing first came to Greece from the east, via traders, and these older poems were used to demonstrate the uses of writing, thus heavily influencing early Greek literature.


== The Iliad as essentially historical ==

Another opinion is that Homer was heir to an unbroken tradition of oral epic poetry reaching back some 500 years into Mycenaean times. The case is set out in The Singer of Tales by Albert B. Lord, citing earlier work by folklorist and mythographer Milman Parry. In this view, the poem's core could represent a historical campaign that took place at the eve of the Mycenaean era. Much legendary material may have been added, but in this view it is meaningful to ask for archaeological and textual evidence corresponding to events referred to in the Iliad. Such a historical background would explain the geographical knowledge of Hisarlık and the surrounding area, which could alternatively have been obtained, in Homer's time, by visiting the site. Some verses of the Iliad have been argued to predate Homer's time, and could conceivably date back to the Mycenaean era. Such verses only fit the poem's meter if certain words are pronounced with a /w/ sound, which had vanished from most dialects of Greece by the 7th century BC.


== The Iliad as partly historical ==
As mentioned above, though, it is most likely that the Homeric tradition contains elements of historical fact and elements of fiction interwoven. Homer describes a location, presumably in the Bronze Age, with a city. This city was near Mount Ida in northwest Turkey. Such a city did exist, at the mound of Hisarlık.


=== Hittite evidence ===

Hittite texts provide evidence that Late Bronze Age Troy was indeed a regionally important city, that it was already known by variants of its later names, and that it was of political interest to Mycenaean Greeks (Ahhiyawans). Some stray details appearing in these records have been speculatively linked to mythic characters and events. However, the texts provide no concrete evidence for the Trojan War having occurred or for any particular historical kernel in the myths.
The Hittite placenames Wilusa and Taruisa occurring in these texts are generally regarded as corresponding to the later Greek terms (W)ilios and Troia. These correspondences were first proposed by the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer on the basis of linguistic similarities, but are now supported by geographical evidence as well. Notably, a treaty was drawn up about 1280 BCE between the Hittite king Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa (Alexander of Ilios), guaranteed by the Wilusan patron deity Apaliunas (Apollo). From the texts, one can infer Wilusa's location relative to other identified places such as the Seha River, and combining these data points places Wilusa in the Troad—a region in which Hisarlik is the only major Bronze Age city attested in the archaeological record. However, despite the strength of this argument, it is still grounded in circumstantial evidence, and scholars do not regard it as beyond question.: 395 
A number of Hittite documents attest to ongoing political turmoil in Western Anatolia which affected Wilusa on occasion. Notable among these documents are the Manapa-Tarhunda letter and Tawagalawa letter, which concern the anti-Hittite activities of a warlord named Piyamaradu. Since Piyamaradu appears to have been supported by the Ahhiyawa and these letters also mention Wilusa, these events have sometimes been interpreted as a historical basis for the Trojan War, particularly in popular literature. Although this interpretation remains a viable hypothesis, it is not favored by current scholarship. For instance, a section divider in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter seems to suggest that Piyamaradu's activities were not related to Wilusa. Similarly, although the Tawagalawa letter alludes to a previous disagreement between the Hittites and Ahhiyawa concerning Wilusa, it gives no indication that tensions escalated beyond strongly worded cuneiform tablets. Noted Hittiteologist Trevor Bryce cautions that our current understanding of Wilusa's history does not provide evidence for there having been an actual Trojan War since ""the less material one has, the more easily it can be manipulated to fit whatever conclusion one wishes to come up with"".


=== Homeric evidence ===

Also, the Catalogue of Ships mentions a great variety of cities, some of which, including Athens, were inhabited both in the Bronze Age and in Homer's time, and some of which, such as Pylos, were not rebuilt after the Bronze Age. This suggests that the names of no-longer-existing towns were remembered from an older time, because it is unlikely that Homer would have managed to name successfully a diverse list of important Bronze Age cities that were, in his time, only a few blocks of rubble on the surface, often without even names. Furthermore, the cities enumerated in the Catalogue are given in geographical clusters, this revealing a sound knowledge of Aegean topography. Some evidence is equivocal: locating the Bronze Age palace of Sparta, the traditional home of Menelaus, under the modern city has been challenging, though archaeologists have discovered at least one Mycenaean era site about 7.5 miles outside of Sparta.


=== Mycenaean evidence ===
Likewise, in the Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets, some Homeric names appear, including Achilles (Linear B: 𐀀𐀑𐀩𐀄, a-ki-re-u), a name which was also common in the classical period, noted on tablets from both Knossos and Pylos. The Achilles of the Linear B tablet is a shepherd, not a king or warrior, but the very fact that the name is an authentic Bronze Age name is significant. These names in the Homeric poems presumably remember, if not necessarily specific people, at least an older time when people's names were not the same as they were when the Homeric epics were written down. Some story elements from the tablets appear in the Iliad.


=== Geological evidence ===
In November 2001, geologist John C. Kraft from the University of Delaware presented the results  of investigations into the geology of the region that had started in 1977. The geologists compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographia. Their conclusion was that there is regularly a consistency between the location of Troy as Hisarlik (and other locations such as the Greek camp), the geological evidence, and descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad.


== See also ==

Historical Troy uncovered
Homeric Question
Geography of the Odyssey
Sources and parallels of the Exodus


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
(Dartmouth College) Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean: 27. Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
The Greek Age of Bronze ""Trojan War""
Hawkins, J.D., ""Evidence from Hittite Records"", Archaeology, Vol. 57, Number 3, May/June 2004",1.1634083986282349
Fusilier,"Fusilier is a name given to various kinds of soldiers; its meaning depends on the historical context. While fusilier is derived from the 17th-century French word fusil – meaning a type of flintlock musket – the term has been used in contrasting ways in different countries and at different times, including soldiers guarding artillery, various elite units, ordinary line infantry and other uses.


== Derivation of the word ==
The word fusil, which was the name of the type of musket carried by a fusilier, is itself derived from the Old French and Latin foisil, meaning a piece of flint.


== History ==

Flintlock small arms were first used militarily during the early 17th century. Flintlocks, at the time, were more reliable and safer to use than matchlock muskets, which required a match to be lit near the breech before the weapon could be triggered. By contrast, flintlocks were fired using a piece of flint. By the time of the English Civil War (1642–1652), one flintlock musket, the snaphance, was in common use in Britain.
The term fusiliers was first used officially by the French Army in 1670, when four fusiliers were distributed among each company of infantry. The following year the Fusiliers du Roi (""King's Fusiliers""), the first regiment composed primarily of soldiers with flintlocks, was formed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban.
Guarding and escorting artillery pieces was the first task assigned to the Fusiliers du Roi: flintlocks were especially useful around field artillery, as they were less likely than matchlocks to accidentally ignite open barrels of gunpowder, required at the time to load cannon. At the time, artillery units also required guards to maintain discipline amongst civilian draymen. Hence the term fusilier became strongly associated with the role of guarding artillery in Britain and the English-speaking world, especially after the formation of the first official ""Fusilier"" units, during the 1680s. As late as the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763, the Austrian Army maintained an Artillery Fusilier Regiment for the exclusive roles of providing support for field batteries on the battlefield and of protecting the artillery when on the march and in camp.
During the 18th century, as flintlocks became the main weapon used by infantry, the term fusilier gradually ceased to have this meaning and was applied to various units.


== Fusiliers by country ==


=== Belgium ===
The Belgian Army has no specific regiment called fusiliers, but the general denomination for infantry soldiers is storm fusilier (Dutch: stormfuselier; French: fusilier d'assaut).
The Belgian Navy used to have a regiment of marine infantry composed of marine fusiliers in charge of the protection of the naval bases. However this unit was disbanded in the 1990s reforms.


=== Brazil ===
Adopting a number of practices from the Portuguese military in the 19th century, the Brazilian Army uses the term fuzileiros (fusiliers) to designate the regular line infantry, as opposed to the grenadiers (granadeiros) and the light infantry (caçadores and atiradores). In addition, the Brazilian Marine Corps is called Fuzileiros Navais (Naval Fusiliers).


=== Canada ===
There are five fusilier regiments, patterned on the British tradition, in the Canadian Army. The Royal 22nd Regiment, although not fusiliers, wears fusilier ceremonial uniform with scarlet plumes, because of its alliance with the Royal Welch Fusiliers.
The five current Canadian fusilier regiments are:

The Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada (which wears Highland uniform, but with white fusilier hackles on balmoral bonnets)
Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent, white plume
Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal, white plume
The Princess Louise Fusiliers (which wear a grey hackle as a token of their alliance with the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, now part of the Royal Irish Regiment)
Les Fusiliers de Sherbrooke, white plume
Former Canadian Army fusilier regiments include the following:

The Irish Fusiliers of Canada (The Vancouver Regiment) existed in Vancouver, British Columbia, and served in the Canadian Army from 1913 until 1965 when it was reduced to nil strength and placed on the Supplementary Order of Battle. In 2002, it was taken off the Supplementary Order of Battle and amalgamated with the British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own).
The Canadian Grenadier Guards in Montreal were known as the 1st Regiment ""Prince of Wales' Fusiliers"" before 1911.
The Canadian Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) existed in London, Ontario, from 1866 until 1954 when they were amalgamated with The Oxford Rifles and became the London and Oxford Fusiliers (3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment) – now the 4th Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment.
The Essex Scottish Regiment of Windsor, Ontario were first known as the Essex Fusiliers from 1887 until 1927. In 1954, they were amalgamated with The Kent Regiment to form The Essex and Kent Scottish.
The Northern Pioneers when first raised in Parry Sound, Ontario in 1903 were first known as the 23rd Regiment ""Northern Fusiliers"" until they were renamed a year later. They now form part of The Algonquin Regiment (Northern Pioneers).
The Saint John Fusiliers existed in Saint John, New Brunswick, from 1872 until 1946 when they were amalgamated with The New Brunswick Rangers to become The New Brunswick Scottish. They now form part of The Royal New Brunswick Regiment.
The 88th Regiment (Victoria Fusiliers) existed in Victoria, British Columbia, from 1912 until 1920 when they amalgamated with the 50th Regiment (Gordon Highlanders of Canada) to become The Canadian Scottish Regiment (Princess Mary's).
The 105th Regiment (Saskatoon Fusiliers) existed in Saskatoon from 1912 until 1920 when they were amalgamated with the 52nd Regiment Prince Albert Volunteers to form The North Saskatchewan Regiment (1920–1924). In 1924, The North Saskatchewan Regiment was later reorganised into four separate regiments: The Yorkton Regiment (now the 64th Field Battery, RCA), The Saskatoon Light Infantry, The Prince Albert Volunteers and The Battleford Light Infantry. They now form part of The North Saskatchewan Regiment.
The Scots Fusiliers of Canada existed in Kitchener, Ontario, from 1914 until 1965 when they amalgamated with the Highland Light Infantry of Canada to form The Highland Fusiliers of Canada – later renamed as the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada (see above).


=== France ===

By the mid-18th century, the French Army used the term fusiliers to designate ordinary line infantry, as opposed to specialist or élite infantry, such as grenadiers, voltigeurs, carabiniers or chasseurs.
The modern French Army no longer uses the term fusiliers, although a number of its infantry regiments descend from fusilier regiments.
The term fusiliers is still used in the navy and air force. They provide protection detachments, performing security and policing duties on land bases and installations as well as on ships. The commandos are selected from their ranks. The commandos are special forces units. They are:

French Navy: Force maritime des fusiliers marins et commandos (FORFUSCO)
French Air Force: Fusiliers Commandos de l'Air


=== Germany ===

Prussia made early use of the title Füsilier for various types of infantry. In 1705, the Foot Guards (Leibgarde zu Fuß) were designated as Fusilier Guards. By 1837, low-quality infantry raised from garrison companies also were named fusiliers. These latter units were dressed in blue with low mitre caps. Between 1740 and 1743 Frederick the Great raised 14 separate Fusilier Regiments (numbers 33–40, 41–43 and 45–48). Except for the mitre caps, these new regiments were identical in appearance, training and role to the existing line infantry (musketeers).
Subsequently, Prussia and several other German states used the designation Füsilier to denote a type of light infantry, usually dressed in green and acting as skirmishers. In the Prussian Army, they had been formed in 1787 as independent battalions, with many of the officers having had experience in the American Revolutionary War. The Prussian reforms of 1808 absorbed the fusiliers into the third battalion of each line infantry regiment. Now wearing the same Prussian blue uniforms as standard musketeers, they were distinguished by black leather belts, and a slightly different arrangement of cartridge pouches.
In the Prussian Army of 1870, Infantry Regiments 33 to 40 plus Regiments 73 (Hanover), 80 (Hesse-Kassel) and 86 (Schleswig-Holstein) were all designated as fusiliers, as was the Guard Fusilier Regiment. In addition, the third battalions of all guard, grenadier and line infantry regiments retained the designation 'Fusilier Battalion'. They were armed with a slightly shorter version of the Dreyse rifle (Füsiliergewehr), that took a sword bayonet (Füsilier-Seitengewehr) rather than the standard socket bayonet. Although still theoretically skirmishers, in practice they differed little from their compatriots, as all Prussian infantry fought in a style that formed a dense 'firing' or 'skirmish' line.
By the 1880s, the title was honorific and, while implying 'specialist' or 'elite', did not have any tactical significance. In a sense, all infantry were becoming fusiliers, as weapons, tactics and equipment took on the fusilier characteristics – that is: skirmish line, shorter rifles, sword bayonets, black leather equipment, and the use of bugles (rather than drums) to relay commands. Nonetheless, these titular units remained in existence until the end of the German Imperial Army in 1918, as follows:

Guard Fusilier Regiment
Fusilier Regiment Count Roon (East Prussian) No. 33
Fusilier Regiment Queen Victoria of Sweden (Pomeranian) No. 34
Fusilier Regiment Prince Henry of Prussia (Brandenburg) No. 35
Fusilier Regiment General Field Marshal Count Blumenthal (Magdeburg) No. 36
Fusilier Regiment von Steinmetz (West Prussian) No. 37
Fusilier Regiment Field Marshal Count Moltke (Silesian) No. 38
Lower Rhineland Fusilier Regiment No. 39
Fusilier Regiment Prince Charles Anton of Hohenzollern No. 40
Fusilier Regiment Field Marshal Prince Albert of Prussia (Hanoverian) No. 73
Fusilier Regiment von Gerdsdorff (Electoral Hessian) No. 80
Fusilier Regiment Queen (Schleswig-Holstein) No. 86
Grand-Ducal Mecklenburg Fusilier Regiment No. 90
Fusilier Regiment Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria King of Hungary (4th Royal) Württemberg No. 122
In addition, there was the following regiment:

Royal Saxon Schützen (Fusilier) Regiment Prince George No. 108
This was a special case, as it was also classed as Schützen (sharpshooter): this designation originally signified a type of Jäger (rifleman, literally 'hunter'), and thus the regiment wore the Jäger-style dark green uniform.
The various Fusilier regiments and battalions in the German Imperial Army of 1914 did not have any single distinctions of dress or equipment to distinguish them as fusiliers. Individual regiments did, however, have special features worn with the dark blue full dress. Some of these features were maintained on the field grey dress of the trenches right up to 1918. As examples in full dress, the Guard Fusiliers had nickel buttons and yellow shoulder straps, and the 80th Fusiliers special braiding on collars and cuffs (deriving from their origin as the Elector of Hesse's Guards). When a regiment was permitted the distinction of a horse-hair plume on the pickelhaube, for fusiliers it was always black. This included the third (Fusilier) Battalion of those regiments normally distinguished by a white horse-hair plume.
In World War II, the elite German Division Großdeutschland contained a regiment titled Panzerfüsiliere ('Armoured Fusiliers'), to maintain the old German traditions. This was again titular, as in organisation, appearance and tactical use they were essentially Panzergrenadiere. The modern German Army has no fusiliers.


=== Mexico ===
On 1 January 1969, the Mexican Army created the Parachute Fusilier Brigade (Brigada de Fusileros Paracaidistas) with two infantry battalions and a training battalion. The brigade's role is that of a strategic reserve, based in Mexico City.


=== Netherlands ===
In the Royal Netherlands Army, one of the two foot guards regiments, the Garderegiment Fuseliers Prinses Irene, is a regiment of fusiliers.


=== Portugal ===

From the 18th to the 19th centuries, the term fuzileiros (fusiliers) was used in the Portuguese Army, to designate the regular line infantry, as opposed to the grenadiers (granadeiros) and the light infantry (caçadores and atiradores). The Portuguese Army discontinued the use of the term in the 1860s.
The term fuzileiros marinheiros (fusilier sailors) has been used in the Portuguese Navy, since the late 18th century, to designate the naval infantry. The modern Portuguese Marine Corps is called Fuzileiros Navais (Naval Fusiliers).


=== Switzerland ===

Line infantry soldiers of the lowest rank in the Swiss Army have historically been designated as fusiliers. Because the modern Swiss infantry soldier is trained in a much broader variety of tasks than his earlier counterpart, and because of some supposedly negative connotations attached to the term Füsiliere, modern infantry battalions of the Swiss army have been renamed Infanteriebataillone or ""Inf Bat"". The individual soldiers are officially called Infanteristen, not Füsiliere, but colloquially they are still referred to as Füsiliere or Füsle. This meaning is retained in the name of the 1938 Swiss film Fusilier Wipf.


=== United Kingdom ===
The original fusiliers in the British Army were the 7th Foot, Royal Regiment of Fuzileers raised in 1685. This subsequently became The Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment). The original purpose of this unit was to act as escort to artillery guns, as well as keeping discipline amongst the civilian drivers. Both Scots (21st Foot) and Welsh (23rd Foot) regiments also became fusiliers in the period up to and including 1702 and all three regiments were distinguished by the wearing of a slightly shorter version of the mitred cap worn by grenadier companies of all other infantry regiments. A number of additional infantry regiments were subsequently designated as fusiliers during the 19th century, but this was simply a historic distinction without any relationship to special weapons or roles.
In 1865, a distinctive head-dress was authorised for British Army fusilier regiments. Originally a sealskin cap for other ranks, this was replaced by a black raccoon skin cap of 9 inches (23 cm) in height, according to the 1874 Dress Regulations. However, fusilier officers wore a taller bearskin like their counterparts in the foot guards. The badge for each regiment was placed at the front of the bear or raccoon skin headdress, and consisted of a stylized flaming grenade, with different emblems placed on the ball of the grenade. These continue to be worn to the present day by the band of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and also by colour parties, pioneers and drum majors in the Royal Welsh.

Attached to the various types of fusilier headdress, including the modern beret, is the hackle. This is a short cut feather plume, the colours of which vary according to the regiment. Initially, the only regiment authorised to wear a plume or hackle were the 5th of Foot (Northumberland Fusiliers). The regiment had originally worn a white feather distinction, authorised in 1824 to commemorate the victory of St Lucia in 1778 when men of the Fifth Regiment were supposed to have taken white feathers from the hats of dead French soldiers. When, in 1829, a white plume was ordered for all line infantry regiments, to preserve the Fifth (Northumberland) Regiment's emblem, they were authorised to wear a white plume with a red tip, allegedly to indicate a distinction won in battle. The Fifth were designated fusiliers in 1836.
Following the Second Boer War, plumes were added to the headgear of all fusilier regiments in recognition of their service in South Africa.
The following fusilier regiments existed prior to the outbreak of World War I:

The nine regiments of fusiliers that existed in 1914 have since been reduced to one by a series of disbandments and mergers:

In 1920, the Royal Welsh Fusiliers was renamed as the ""Royal Welch Fusiliers"".
Due to the creation of the Irish Free State, the Royal Munster Fusiliers and Royal Dublin Fusiliers were disbanded on 31 July 1922.
In 1935, the Northumberland Fusiliers was awarded the title ""Royal"".
Under the Defence Review of 1957, the number of infantry regiments was reduced. The Royal Scots Fusiliers was amalgamated with the Highland Light Infantry on 20 January 1959 to form the Royal Highland Fusiliers. The new regiment wore the white hackle of the RSF, with a flaming grenade badge bearing the monogram of the HLI.
Under the same review, the three English fusilier regiments were grouped as the Fusilier Brigade in 1958. While retaining their individual identities, a single cap badge was adopted. This was flaming grenade bearing St George and the Dragon within a laurel wreath the whole ensigned by a crown. This combined elements of the badges of the three regiments, who continued to be distinguished by their coloured hackles: red over white for the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers, white for the Royal Fusiliers and primrose yellow for the Lancashire Fusiliers.
Also in 1958 the North Irish Brigade was formed, consisting of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Royal Ulster Rifles. All regiments adopted a harp and crown badge on the caubeen, worn with a hackle: grey for the Inniskillings, green for the Royal Irish Fusiliers and black for the Rifles.
On 1 May 1963, the Royal Warwickshire Regiment was redesignated as the Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers and joined the Fusilier Brigade. An old gold and blue hackle was adopted.
On 23 April 1968 (St George's Day), the four regiments of the Fusilier Brigade were amalgamated to form The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The RRF is now the only English fusilier regiment and wear the red over white hackle of the 5th Foot with the badge adopted in 1958 for the Fusilier Brigade.
On 1 July 1968, the three regiments of the North Irish Brigade were amalgamated to form the Royal Irish Rangers and ceased to be a fusilier regiment. The green hackle of the Royal Irish Fusiliers continued in use. Following a further merger in 1992, the lineage is now continued by the Royal Irish Regiment.
On 1 March 2006 (St David's Day), the Royal Welch Fusiliers was amalgamated with the Royal Regiment of Wales to form the Royal Welsh. The white hackle of the RWF is worn with the cap badge of the RRW. Elements of the regimental band wear fusilier full dress.
On 28 March 2006, the Scottish infantry regiments were merged into the Royal Regiment of Scotland. The individual battalions of the regiment retain the titles of the predecessor units, and The Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland continues to wear the white hackle of the Royal Scots Fusiliers.
In addition, the Scots Guards were known as the Scots Fusilier Guards from 1831 to 1877.


== See also ==
Musketeer
Rifleman
Grenadier


== References and notes ==


== Further reading ==
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). ""Fusilier"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 369.
Hoffschröer, Peter (1984). Prussian Light Infantry 1792–1815 (Men-at-Arms Series #149). illustrated by Bryan Fosten. Osprey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85045-540-5.


== External links ==
French Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars",1.2803236246109009
History of the Jews in Baltimore,"Few Jews arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, in its early years. As an immigrant port of entry and border town between North and South and as a manufacturing center in its own right, Baltimore has been well-positioned to reflect developments in American Jewish life. Yet, the Jewish community of Baltimore has maintained its own distinctive character as well.


== Earliest Jews in Baltimore ==
The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia states:It can not be determined when Jews first settled in Baltimore. There were none among the buyers of lots when Baltimore Town was laid out in 1729–30; but as Jews are known to have been resident in Maryland in the middle of the seventeenth century, it is not hazardous to suppose that the quickly growing town attracted some of their descendants early in its history. Family traditions, not yet verified, seem to point to the presence of Jews in Baltimore in the middle of the eighteenth century. In his ""The Hebrews in America"" (p. 93), Isaac Markens mentions Jacob Myers as the earliest Jew in Baltimore, probably basing his assertion upon the following passage from Griffith's ""Annals of Baltimore"" (1824), p. 37:""In 1758 Mr. Jacob Myers took the southeast corner of Gay and Baltimore streets and built an inn."" There is reason to believe, however, that Myers was not a Jew. ""The Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser"" – the earliest paper published in Baltimore – the first issue of which appeared in 1773, shows by its advertisements for that year that Jews were then settled in Baltimore as traders, especially in West Indian products. The most substantial of these merchants apparently was Benjamin Levy, probably the same mentioned in the ""Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society"" (i. 21).
In 1781 Jacob Hart, father-in-law of Haym Salomon, headed a subscription of £2,000 ($10,000) loaned to Lafayette for the relief of the detachment under his command.


== Jewish cemetery in 1786 ==
The existence of a Jewish cemetery in 1786 indicates a Jewish community of some size. How long previous to that year the cemetery had been established is not known. The earliest mention of it occurs in a document (which was in the possession of Mr. Mendes Cohen of Baltimore), dated July 12, 1786, headed ""Mr. Carroll's [i.e. Charles Carroll of Carrollton's] claims"". It is a ""list of the names of the Persons who occupy the ground (supposed to be about 2 acres) on the east side of Jones's Falls, . . . with an account of the improvements"". One of the items is ""The Jews burying-ground, 1 small lot enclosed"", situated in Ensor's Town, near East Monument street. A deed dated Dec. 26, 1801, conveys this same burying-ground from Charles Carroll to Levi Solomon and Solomon Etting, for a consideration of five shillings; and another, dated Dec. 29, 1801, for a consideration of $80, conveys it to the same parties from Wm. McMechen and John Leggett. Interment has been made in it as late as 1832, the same year in which the oldest Jewish cemetery now in use was established. No indications can be discovered of the removal of remains buried in it when the cemetery was abandoned.

According to the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia:On the testimony of a resident close by, the last tombstone was removed, surreptitiously, presumably for building purposes, as recently as from forty to fifty years ago.


== The Etting family ==
With the advent of the Etting family, the history of the Jewish community in Baltimore becomes better documented. It is uncertain when the Etting brothers, Reuben and Solomon, together with Levi Solomon, their uncle, came to Baltimore from York, Pa. On Jan. 4, 1796, Solomon Etting's name appears in the ""Advertiser"" as one of five persons authorized ""to receive proposals in writing for a house or suitable lot"" for a bank to be established in Baltimore Town. But there are indirect indications that the family settled in Baltimore before 1787. In the list of stockholders of the same bank, published at the end of 1796, appear the following names: Solomon, Kitty, Reuben, Shinah, and Hetty Etting; Jacob F., Philadelphia, Benjamin, and Hetty Levy; and Levy and Myer Solomon. In the first directory of ""Baltimore Town and Fell's Point"", also published in 1796 – the year of the incorporation of Baltimore as a city – there are, in addition to the above, two Harts, three Jacobs, Philip Itzchkin, – Kahn, Benjamin Lyon, Solomon Raphael, and Isaac Solomon; and in the lists of letters remaining at the post-office occur the names of Hhym Levenstene and Benjamin Myers. Accordingly, the Jewish Encyclopedia estimates the Jewish population of Baltimore in 1796 at fifteen families.


== Jews elected to City Council ==
In 1798, the Collmus family arrived from Bohemia; and in 1808 the six sons of Israel J. Cohen came, with their mother, from Richmond, Va. The Cohens and the Ettings played a prominent part in the history of Baltimore Jewry, and in that of the city also. Both families acquired an enviable reputation for integrity and business tact; and their members were honored with offices of trust, by corporations and in the city government. Their names figure most prominently in the emancipation struggle of 1818–26, during which time the ""Jew Bill"" was debated in the legislature of Maryland. This bill proposed ""to consider the justice and expediency of extending to those persons professing the Jewish religion the same privileges that are enjoyed by Christians"". Immediately upon its passage, and its ratification in the legislative session of 1825–26, it was applied practically in the election of Solomon Etting and Jacob I. Cohen, JR., to seats in the city council of Baltimore.
In more recent times, the 5th District has been represented by two Jews, first by Rochelle ""Rikki"" Spector from 1977 to 2016, and then by Isaac ""Yitzy"" Schleifer since 2016, who is the second openly Orthodox Jew to hold office in Baltimore City.


== Organization of Religious worship ==
After 1826, the recorded history of the Jews of Baltimore ceases to be the history of prominent individuals, and becomes that of a community. Almost coincidentally with the removal of civil disabilities occurs the first of a series of regular meetings for religious services, whose continuity has been uninterrupted. According to the recollections of one participant, this meeting took place in Holliday street, near Pleasant street, at the house of Zalma Rehiné, a former resident of Richmond, Va., and an uncle of Isaac Leeser. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, this may possibly have been the beginning of the congregation Nidche Israel, later known as the ""Baltimore Hebrew Congregation,"" or as the ""Stadt-Schul"", probably because almost simultaneously with its origin another settlement of Jews, at Fell's Point – an outlying and at first separate district – began to crystallize into a congregation, called the ""Fell's Point Hebrew Friendship Congregation"", and regularly organized since 1838. The Nidche Israel soon found it necessary to rent rooms on North Exeter street, near what is now Lexington street. Thence the congregation moved to a one-story dwelling off High street, near the bend between Fayette and Gay streets, or near what is now Lexington street, the entrance being through a narrow alley. In 1837 a three-story brick building was bought, at the southwest corner of Harrison street and Ætna lane. In 1845 the congregation removed to Lloyd and Watson streets, the new synagogue being dedicated by the Rev. S. M. Isaacs of New York and the Rev. Isaac Leeser of Philadelphia, together with the ministers of the congregation, A. Rice and A. Ansell (Anshel). Here it worshiped until April 6, 1889, when a new building was erected on Madison avenue and Robert street. The date of the congregational charter is Jan. 29, 1830 (supplementary act, 1851). The incorporators were Moses Millem (Mulheim), Joseph Osterman, John M. Dyer, Louis Silver, and Levi Benjamin.
The first rabbi of the congregation was the above-mentioned Abraham Rice (Reiss), whose piety and character have left a lasting impress upon the community, especially through his influence upon the youths he taught, some of them later becoming its leaders. Rice established a school for instruction in Hebrew in 1845, and he officiated as the rabbi of the congregation from 1840 to 1849, and again from the spring of 1862 to Oct. 29 of the same year, the date of his death. Other rabbis of the congregation have been: Julius Spiro, in conjunction with Mr. Rice (1846–47); Henry Hochheimer (1849–59); B. Illoway (1859–61); Abraham Hofman (1868–73); Maurice Fluegel (1881–84); A. S. Bettelheim (1886–90); and Adolf Guttmacher (1891). The burial-ground belonging to the congregation was bought in 1832, at which time it covered three acres.
Rabbis of the Fell's Point Congregation, later worshiping on Eden street, have been: Aaron Günzburg (1848–56); Henry Hochheimer (1859–92); W. Willner (1892–94); Clifton H. Levy (1894–96): and M. Rosenstein (1896). This congregation, as well as the one or two chebrot of which records up to 1842 have been preserved, had separated from, or organized themselves independently of, the mother congregation, Nidche Israel, only for reasons of convenience, on account of the extended space over which the community was scattered.
In 1842 the desire for a radical change in the liturgy resulted in the formation of the Har Sinai Verein, whose rabbis have been: Max Sutro (about 1842); Moritz Brown (about 1849–55); David Einhorn (1855–61); S. Deutsch (1862–73); Jacob Mayer (1874–76); Emil G. Hirsch (1877–78); S. Sale (1878–83); David Philipson (1884–88); Tobias Shanfarber (1888–98); and Charles A. Rubenstein (1898). The congregation later erected a new house of worship on Bolton and Wilson streets. In 1873, a new charter was granted and the name was changed from Har Sinai Verein to Har Sinai Congregation.


== ""Oheb Shalom"" Congregation ==

A similar desire for a revised liturgy, but along more conservative lines, led to the formation of the Oheb Shalom Congregation in September of 1853, on the part of a number of dissidents from the original body. Rabbis of this congregation, whose new synagogue on Eutaw place and Lanvale street was considered one of the most beautiful structures in the city, have included the following: – Salomon (1854); S. M. Landsberg (1856–57); Benjamin Szold; and William Rosenau (1892). Alois Kaiser, known as a composer of synagogue music, was the cantor of this congregation.
This was followed by the formation of three Orthodox congregations, the earliest of which was the Bikur Cholim Congregation, incorporated in 1865. The Chizuk Emoonah Congregation was formed in 1871 by dissidents from the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, which had begun to introduce innovations into the synagogue service. The rabbi of the Chizuk Emoonah was Henry W. Schneeberger, who occupied the rabbinate beginning in 1876. A new synagogue was later built by the congregation at McCulloh and Mosher streets. In 1878, the Shearith Israel Congregation was formed by the consolidation of two small congregations. Schepschel Schaffer was its rabbi from 1893 to 1928.
Since then, in the organization of twenty other congregations in Baltimore – only eight of which having a house of worship of their own – the determining factor, in a few cases, has been convenience of locality, but more frequently the bond of national affiliation brought from European countries and reinforced by conservatism in religious sentiment.
An attempt was made in 1856–59 to hold services according to the liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Sephardim, of which Solomon Nunes Carvalho was the chief promoter. The congregation was regularly organized in 1857, under the name ""Beth Israel"", with Jacob M. De Solla as minister.
Of the eight large cemeteries in the city, one, called ""Rosedale"", was used by seven congregations and three societies; another, on the Philadelphia road, by eight congregations and two societies; and a third, on the Washington road, by three congregations and one society. Each of five congregations, the Baltimore Hebrew, the Fell's Point, the Har Sinai, the Oheb Shalom, and the B'nai Israel, had a cemetery of its own. Besides, there was a small cemetery, now disused, on the Philadelphia road, which was formerly maintained by what was called, for unknown reasons, ""Die Irische Ḥebra"". The Cohen family and the Etting family owned private cemeteries.


== Charitable societies ==
The first charitable association was the Hebrew Assistance Society (1843?), incorporated in 1856 as the ""Hebrew Benevolent Society of Baltimore"". In the latter year was founded also the Hebrew Ladies' Sewing Society, which, though an independent body, has always adapted its activities to those of the general organization. The building of the Hebrew Hospital and Asylum Association – a society for the care of the sick and the shelter of the aged – was dedicated in 1868, the first steps toward this end having been taken in 1859; and in 1872 the Hebrew Orphan Asylum was established. Both these institutions had active auxiliary organizations. The other charitable institutions with permanent homes were the Hebrew Friendly Inn and Aged Home, established in 1891, and the Working Girls' Home, founded in 1899 by the Daughters in Israel, and supported by that association.
There were, besides, two Hebrew free burial societies, a Hebrew free loan association, the Daughters in Israel of Baltimore City (a personal service sisterhood with various activities), and a number of mutual benefit and relief associations. The Baron de Hirsch Fund from the first established a local committee in Baltimore whose affairs have been administered by Dr. A. Friedenwald. In 1955, Kappa Guild, a charity run largely by Jewish women began raising funds to support children's health and welfare, providing medical equipment and resources to pediatric hospitals and programs across Maryland.


== Educational establishments ==
Congregational schools, at which daily instruction was given in Hebrew and German, and later in English, flourished until after 1870. The most successful were conducted by Joseph Sachs and Jonas Goldsmith. The Society for Educating Poor and Orphan Hebrew Children (later named ""Hebrew Education Society of Baltimore"") was founded in 1852, and incorporated in 1860. In 1901, it had two schools, a daily Hebrew school, and a weekly mission school for religious instruction, whose work was supplemented by that of the Frank Free Sabbath School, established and supported by Mrs. S. L. Frank. The first Sunday school, patterned after the one founded by Miss Rebecca Gratz in Philadelphia, was opened in 1856. In it a large number of children were taught during the years preceding the establishment of congregational religious schools. The Talmud Torah School, with a building of its own, was established in 1889, and the Hebrew Free Kindergarten and Day Nursery in 1895. The organization known as ""The Maccabeans"" maintained an evening class and a library for the use of boys and young men; continuing in a measure the work begun by the Night School, existing from 1889 to 1899 under the auspices of the Isaac bar Levison Hebrew Literary Society, and supported in part by the Baron de Hirsch Fund, for the purpose of teaching English to immigrants.
At three different times short-lived attempts have been made to maintain Young Men's Hebrew associations, the first of which existed from 1854 to 1860.
In 1941, Rabbi Samuel Rosenblatt founded the Beth Tfiloh Community School. In 2000, Beth Tfiloh Community School was named a 2000-2001 National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence and was one of 12 schools nationally to also receive an award for Special Emphasis in Technology.   
There were three Zionist societies; a branch of the Alliance Israélite Universelle; a section and a junior section of the Council of Jewish Women; six lodges of the Independent Order B'nai B'rith; three of the Independent Order B'rith Abraham; one of the Independent Order Free Sons of Israel; three of the Independent Order Free Sons of Judah; four of the Independent Order Sons of Benjamin; five of the Order Ahawas Israel; seven of the Order B'rith Abraham; and one of the Order Kesher Shel Barzel.
Chabad continues the legacy of Jewish education in Baltimore.


== Newspapers ==
The Jewish newspapers published in Baltimore have been: ""Sinai"" (a German periodical devoted to interests of radical reform, edited by Dr. David Einhorn, 1856–61, and one year in Philadelphia); ""The Jewish Chronicle"" (1875–77); ""Der Fortschritt"" (Yiddish, June–July, 1890); ""Der Baltimore Israelit"" (Yiddish, 1891–93); ""Ha-Pisgah"" (Hebrew, 1891–93, continued in Chicago); ""Jewish Comment"" (1895); ""Der Wegweiser"" (Yiddish, 1896); and the Baltimore Jewish Times.


== Public and professional life ==

The Jews of Baltimore have participated fully in the civic life of the town and the state, and have taken some part in national affairs. In the city, Jews have filled numerous minor offices, notably as councilmen, justices of the peace, supervisors of elections, and in the city law department, as well as on boards and special commissions. Myer Block was judge of the Orphans' Court in Baltimore; Jacob H. Hollander was secretary to the International Bimetallic Commission, and the first treasurer of Porto Rico under American jurisdiction. Isidor Rayner served as representative in the fiftieth, the fifty-second, and the fifty-third congresses, after having sat in the House of Delegates and the Senate of the state; later he was attorney-general of the state. Among the state senators have been Jacob M. Moses and Lewis Putzel; and among the delegates: Mendes I. Cohen, Martin Emerich, Harry A. Fuld, M. S. Hess, Emanuel H. Jacobi, Martin Lehmayer, Lewis Putzel, and Charles J. Wiener. In the business world the Jews of Baltimore have occupied an important position. To a great extent they controlled the manufacture of wearing apparel for men. Several of the largest department stores were conducted by Jews; and as financiers they bore an enviable reputation for probity and for a spirit of far-sighted and cautious enterprise.
Baltimore Jews have had prominent representatives in all the professions. Jewish physicians, men and women, have occupied positions as professors in the medical colleges, including: A. B. Arnold, Joshua I. Cohen, Aaron Friedenwald, Harry Friedenwald, and Julius Friedenwald. Jews have devoted themselves to the writing of medical and legal works. There were Jewish journalists on the editorial staffs of several of the daily newspapers. The following Jews have been connected with Johns Hopkins University in the capacity of professors and instructors: J. J. Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, Abraham Cohen, Maurice Bloomfield, Cyrus Adler, J. H. Hollander, Simon Flexner, Caspar Levias, William Rosenau and Rabbi Samuel Rosenblatt. In the public schools upward of sixty Jewish teachers were employed. Ephraim Keyser has won reputation as a sculptor, and Mendes Cohen as a civil engineer.
The wider educational life has found promoters among the Jews. Jacob I. Cohen, JR., was active in the establishment of the public-school system of Baltimore; and his nephews were instrumental in placing in the Johns Hopkins University the ""Cohen Collection of Egyptian Antiquities"", collected by his brother, Col. Mendes I. Cohen, in Egypt. At the same university Leopold Strouse established a rabbinical library, to which he made annual additions; Mrs. S. L. Frank and Albert W. Rayner have founded a Semitic fellowship in memory of their father, William S. Rayner; and Henry and Mrs. Sonneborn have presented the university with a collection of Jewish ceremonial objects. At the Cohen residence was a library valuable to Bible students, collected by Dr. Joshua I. Cohen (a catalogue of this library, compiled by Cyrus Adler, was privately printed in 1887).


== Military services ==
Jews enlisted from Baltimore for service in each of the national wars. Nathaniel Levy fought under Lafayette in the campaign of 1781; and Reuben Etting (not the one mentioned above) was taken prisoner by the British at Charlestown. Among the defenders of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore, during the War of 1812, were the brothers Mendes I. and Philip I. Cohen. In the Mexican war, Moritz Henry Weil served as a private in Company A, Third Regiment, United States Artillery, and Louis Hamburger as a private in Company C, Baltimore Battalion. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, ""[a] company of militia composed entirely of Jews was formed, with Levi Benjamin as first lieutenant; but it is not probable that it saw active service"". In the Civil war there were as many Baltimore Jews in the Confederate as in the Federal army. Leopold Blumenberg served as brevet brigadier-general, United States Volunteers, Fifth Maryland Infantry (see S. Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, pp. 199, 200, 412). To the Spanish–American War, Baltimore Jewry sent its due quota of soldiers (see American Jewish Year Book 5661, pp. 563–565).
A few street names reveal the early presence of Jews: According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, there were two alleys, each called ""Jew alley"", one in the eastern section of the city, on which the old burying-ground is situated; and the other in the western section, probably deriving its name from residences of Jews on Eutaw street; Abraham street, in close proximity to the old burying-ground; Cohen alley, so named from the residence of one of the Cohen brothers on Mulberry street; and Etting street, of obvious derivation.


== Statistics ==
In 1825, while the ""Jew Bill"" was under discussion, Solomon Etting computed the number of Jews in Maryland to be 150. A directory of 1835 gives the names of 40 householders in Baltimore, identified as Jews by a Jewish resident whose memory goes back to that year. To these can be added at least 15 more names culled from the records of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, making a Jewish population of about 300 souls, bearing such names as Cohen, Dyer, Friedenwald, Horwitz, Kayton, Keyser, Preiss, and Rosenstock, whose descendants continued to be prominent in Baltimore and other cities. In the ""Occident"" of Dec., 1856, an anonymous correspondent put the number of Jews then residing in the city at 8,000 – an exaggerated estimate according to the Jewish Encyclopedia. In 1901 estimates of the Jewish population varied from 35,000 to 40,000, in a total population of 508,957.
According to a survey conducted by the Associated Jewish Federation of Baltimore, around 8,000 Jews of color lived in Baltimore, constituting 8% of the Jewish population. Baltimore Jews of color include African-American Jews, Asian Jews, Latino Jews, and others. The majority of the city's Jewish population are white and Ashkenazi. Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in Baltimore may or may not identify as or be considered Jews of color by society. 39% of Jewish adults in the city identified as secular Jews or as ""just Jewish"", rather than belonging to a movement such as Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Orthodox. 21% of Baltimore's Jewish community was Orthodox. 10% of Jewish households included a member who identified as LGBT.


== Notable Jews from Baltimore ==


=== Deceased ===


==== Faculty of Johns Hopkins University ====
Cyrus Adler
Maurice Bloomfield
Simon Flexner
Frederick Jelinek
James Joseph Sylvester


==== Rabbis ====


===== Conservative =====
Jacob B. Agus
Moshe Cotel
Arthur Hertzberg


===== Orthodox =====
Mordechai Gifter
Avigdor Miller
Abraham Rice
Yaakov Yitzchok Ruderman


===== Reform =====
David Einhorn
Emil G. Hirsch
Jacob Mayer
William Rosenau
Benjamin Szold


=== Living ===


==== Rabbis ====


===== Jewish Renewal =====
Arthur Waskow


===== Orthodox =====
Aharon Feldman
Yissocher Frand
Yaakov Menken
Shlomo Porter
Jonathan Rosenblatt


== Fictional Jews from Baltimore ==
Jay Landsman, a fictional character on the HBO drama The Wire, played by actor Delaney Williams.
Maurice Levy, a fictional character on the HBO drama The Wire, played by actor Michael Kostroff.
John Munch, a fictional character played by actor Richard Belzer first appearing on the NBC crime drama television series Homicide: Life on the Street.


== Notable Jewish buildings and structures in Baltimore ==
Baltimore Hebrew University
Jewish Museum of Maryland
Sinai Hospital
Yeshivas Ner Yisroel
Young Men's and Young Women's Hebrew Association Building


=== Notable Synagogues in Baltimore ===


==== Conservative ====
Beth Am
Beth El Congregation
Chizuk Amuno Congregation


==== Orthodox ====
Congregation Arugas Habosem
B'nai Israel Synagogue
Beth Tfiloh Congregation
Shaarei Tfiloh Synagogue
Shearith Israel
Congregation Shomrei Emunah
Congregation Tiferes Yisroel


==== Reform ====
Baltimore Hebrew Congregation
Temple Oheb Shalom


==== No longer active as Synagogues ====
Baltimore Hebrew Congregation Synagogue
Lloyd Street Synagogue


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Fein, Isaac M. The making of an American Jewish community; the history of Baltimore Jewry from 1773 to 1920, Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1971.


== External links ==

Baltimore Jewish Council website
Guide to the Etting Family of Baltimore and Philadelphia Collection at the American Jewish Historical Society.
The Jewish Community of Baltimore, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot",0.982653796672821
NcRNA therapy,"A majority of the human genome is made up  of non-protein coding DNA. It infers that such sequences are not commonly employed to encode for a protein. However, even though these regions do not code for protein, they have other functions and carry necessary regulatory information.They can be classified based on the size of the ncRNA. Small noncoding RNA is usually categorized as being under 200 bp in length, whereas long noncoding RNA is greater than 200bp. In addition, they can be categorized by their function within the cell; Infrastructural and Regulatory ncRNAs. Infrastructural ncRNAs seem to have a housekeeping role in translation and splicing and include species such as rRNA, tRNA, snRNA.Regulatory ncRNAs are involved in the modification of other RNAs.


== RNA Classification ==


=== Long non-coding RNA ===
Long non-coding RNA (LncRNA) are a type of RNA which is usually defined as transcripts which are greater than 200 base-pairs in length and not translated into proteins. This limitation distinguishes lncRNA from small non-coding RNAs which encompasses microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), and other short RNAs.  Long non-coding RNAs include lincRNAs, intronic ncRNAs, circular and linear ncRNA.


==== Long intergenic Non-coding RNA ====
Long intergenic Non-coding RNA (LincRNA) is defined as RNA transcripts that are longer than 200 nucleotides.  These RNAs must not have open reading frames that encode proteins. The term “intergenic” refers to the identification of these transcripts from regions of the genome that do not contain protein-encoding genes.  LncRNAs also contain promoter - or enhancer-associated RNAs that are gene proximal and can be either in the sense or antisense orientation.


==== Circular RNA ====
Circular RNA (CircRNA) are a novel class of endogenous noncoding RNAs and are characterized by their covalently closed loop structures. This class of ncRNA does not have a 5’ cap or 3’ Poly A tail. It has been hypothesized that cirRNAs may function as potential molecular markers for disease diagnosis and treatment and play an important role in the initiation and progression of human diseases.


=== Small non-coding RNA ===
Small non-coding RNA (sncRNA) are a type of RNA. which is usually defined as transcripts which are lesser than 200 base-pairs in length and not translated into proteins. This limitation distinguishes sncRNA from lncRNA. This class includes but is not limited to microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), and other short RNAs.


==== microRNA ====
microRNA (miRNA) plays an important role in regulating gene expression. Majority of miRNAs are transcribed from DNA sequences into primary miRNAs. These primary miRNAs are further processed into precursor miRNAs, and finally into mature miRNAs. The miRNAs in most cases interact with the 3’ UTR region of target to induce mRNA degradation and translational repression. Interactions of miRNAs with other regions, including the 5’ UTR, coding sequence, and gene promoters have also been reported. Under certain conditions, miRNAs are also able to activate translation or regulate transcription, but this is dependent on factors such as location of the effect. This process of interaction is very dynamic and dependent on multiple factors.


==== Ribosomal RNA ====
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) includes non-coding RNAs that play essential roles in rRNA regulation. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) takes part in protein synthesis. Occasional RNA molecules act catalytically, as RNA enzymes (ribozymes) or take part in protein export. The most important ribozyme is the major rRNA of the large subunit of the ribosome (28s rRNA in eukaryotes). It is now accepted that 28S rRNA catalyzes the critical step in polypeptide synthesis in addition to playing a major structural role.


==== Small nuclear RNA and small nucleolar RNA ====
Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) are widely known to guide the nucleotide modifications and processing of rRNA.  Both snRNA and snoRNA are categorized into a class of small RNA molecules that are present in the nucleus. However, they vary a lot by function. snRNA are 80-350nucletides long while snoRNA are 80-1000 nucleotides long in yeast. snRNA plays a critical role in regulating the pre-mRNA silencing. On the other hand, snoRNAs are involved in mRNA editing, modification of the rRNA and tRNA, and genome imprinting. Major function of snoRNA includes the maturation of rRNA during ribosomal formation. Small nuclear and small nucleolar RNAs are critical components of snRNPs and snoRNPs and play an essential role in the maturation of, respectively, mRNAs and rRNAs within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Both snRNA and snoRNA are involved in modifying RNA just after transcription. snRNA can be found in splicing speckles and Cajal bodies of the nucleus of the cell.snRNA and snoRNA requires a phosphorylated adaptor for nuclear export (PHAX) to get transported to the site of action within the nucleus.


==== Transfer RNA ====
Transfer RNA (tRNA) helps decode a messenger RNA sequence into a protein. They function at specific sites within the ribosome during translation (the process going from code to protein). Within the mRNA molecule we have three nucleotides in length codons. These codons all have a unique universal code which represents a particular amino acid. tRNAs can be classified as an adaptor molecule, being typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length.


== History ==


=== Non-coding RNA ===
DNA purification in 1869 by Dr. Friedrich Miescher’s, from salmon sperm and pus cells guided the scientists towards the presence of additional molecules in the cell except for proteins. Miescher identified the presence of a highly acidic molecule that he isolated from the pus cells and labeled it “nuclein”. The term was coined as the DNA isolated by Miescher was not protein and was derived from the nucleus of the cell. It wasn’t until 1944, when Oswald Avery proposed the DNA as a genetic carrier of information that the Miescher discovery was brought back to light.
Following the X-ray crystallography, by Rosalind Franklin and the determination of DNA double helix by Watson and Crick in 1953, further enhanced the understanding of DNA structure and allowed for the establishment of central dogma of molecular biology. However, one of the flaws with central dogma was the postulation that information flow proceeds from DNA to RNA to protein, which hinders the understanding of different regulatory mechanisms.
In 1955, George Palade identified the first ncRNA as a part of the large ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP). The second class of ncRNA to be discovered was transfer RNA (tRNA) in 1957. However, the first regulatory ncRNA was a microRNA discovered in 1988 from E.coli and was labeled as micF. On other hand, the first eukaryotic microRNA was discovered in C.elegans in 1993. It was derived from gene lin-4 and was identified as a small RNA molecule (as compared to longer mRNA molecules) forming stem-loop structures. This structure gets further modified to generate a shorter RNA that is complementary to the 3’UTR region of lin-14 transcript. This pathway allowed for a better understanding of different post translational gene silencing pathways. Since then, many other miRNAs have been discovered.
Detailed understanding of the mechanism behind this post translational silencing pathway was established in 2001 by Thomas Tuschl. It was discovered that the double stranded RNA gets processed into a shorter 25 nucleotides long fragment which is then modified into a short hairpin like structure by Drosha complex. The molecule is then diced by dicer enzymes into a functional double stranded RNA (dsRNA). These are then loaded onto the RISC complex which then finds and cleaves the targeted mRNA of interest in the cytoplasm.
It wasn’t until 1989 that the imprinting genes were discovered and the genome imprinting was established. The first two genomic imprinting genes were paternally expressed Igf2r and H19. These were both discovered independently in mice and were localized to chromosome 7. H19 is peculiar as it functions as a lncRNA but undergoes modifications similar to that of pre-mRNA processing such as splicing, 3’ polyadenylation and is transcribed by RNA polymerase II.  This lncRNA plays a significant role in mice embryonic development and can be lethal if expressed during prenatal stages. More lncRNAs have been discovered in eukaryotes overtime. One such discovery that allowed for better understanding between H19 functions was a lncRNA called XIST (X inactive-specific transcript).


=== ncRNA drugs and therapy ===
The first ncRNA therapeutic drug approved by food and drug administration (FDA) (1998) and the European medicine agency (EMA) (1999) is called Fomivirsen or Vitravene. The target organ is the eye and works against the cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in immunocompromised patients. The drug functions as an antisense oligonucleotide and binds to the complementary sequence of the mRNA that inhibits the replication of human cytomegalovirus. This therapy can also be categorized as Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapy.
There have been many ASO RNA therapeutics that have been approved by FDA and/or EMA over the years, but it wasn’t until 2018 that the EMA approved the drug called Patisiran/Onpattro. The drug uses ds-siRNA as a mechanism of action and is deemed effective against hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. The mechanism specifically targets the Transthyretin (TTR) mRNA.
RNA therapeutic targets are not limited to mature mRNA but have been used to target mRNA at different stages of maturation. One such example is Nusinersen (Spinaraza), it functions as an ASO and targets pre-mRNA before splicing that corresponds to Survival of motor neuron 2 gene (SMN 2). This drug therapy was approved by FDA and EMA in 2016 and 2017 respectively.
There are some drugs that have been approved by FDA and not by EMA. This can be seen in the case of an ASO type therapeutics called Eteplirsen (Exondys51) which has been approved by FDA in 2016 but not by EMA. It targets pre-mRNA corresponding to Dystrophin (DMD) and works against Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
There are many additional therapeutics that have been developed and are either in phase I or II of the clinical trials. Current RNA therapeutics in clinical trials range from a variety of target organs and diseases ranging from skin (potential treatment for disease such as keloid) to tumors (squamous cell lung cancer).
To date, for both the FDA and the EMA, ncRNAs are considered as ""simple"" medical products because of their production by chemical synthesis. When some of them, produced biologically (known as bioengineered ncRNA agents: BERAs), will be put on the market, the status of biological medical products will be applied, which could lead to inconsistencies in the legislation.


== Applications ==


=== Antisense oligonucleotides ===

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are single-stranded DNA molecules with full complementarity to one select target mRNA and may act by blocking protein translation (via steric hindrance), causing mRNA degradation (via RNase H-cleavage) or changing pre-mRNA splicing. These short oligonucleotides have already been approved by the FDA for ten genetic disorders and many are currently in the pipeline to be approved/tested. Using oligonucleotide technology, we are now able to control protein expression via RNA interference, and are able to affect previously defined “undruggable” proteins. Even though this therapy has a lot of promise and potential, it comes with many limitations.
Compared to siRNA and microRNA, ASOs are more versatile in reducing protein expression, they have the ability to also enhance target translation. ASOs can also be customized with ease and accuracy, allowing for the targeting of virtually any mutated gene. This allows for a greater level of application in the field of precision and personalized medicine.
The main challenge of ASO therapies to specific tissues and cellular uptake is what poses a great challenge and limitation. Liposomal delivery is one such way to overcome such issues. Liposomal delivery system comes with its own share of limitations. Serum proteins in the bloodstream destabilize the lipoprotein. This destabilization leads to the depletion of protein and exposing cargo to the unstable environment. This hindrance can be overcome by using PEGs (poly(ethylene glycol) . However, PEGs are not biodegradable causing them to accumulate within the body leading to adverse effects and causing hypersensitivity. In addition, multiple rounds of therapy with PEGs can lead to the formation of PEG antibodies, which can lead to lack of efficiency in preventing the rupture of the liposome that it is attached to.
Using immunoliposomes it has been shown that targeting can be more specific as by using antibody’s specific to the protein of expression in that area, it results in the ASO drug directly impact the target site and nowhere else. Moreover, immunoliposomes are slow to dissociate leading to precise release of the ASO drug which they encapsulate.


=== LncRNA as a therapeutic approach ===
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are large transcripts (more than 200 nucleotides long) that have similar mechanism of synthesis as that of mRNAs but unlike mRNAs, lncRNAs are not translated to a protein. lncRNA contains interactor elements and structural elements. Interactor elements directly interact with other nucleic acids or proteins while the structural elements indicate the ability of some lncRNAs to form secondary and/or tertiary structures. This ability of the lncRNAs to interact with nucleic acids using its interactor elements and its ability to interact with protein using its secondary structures allows it to function in a more diverse manner than other ncRNAs such as miRNA (microRNA). LncRNA has been established to play a role in gene regulation by influencing the ability of specific regions of the gene to bind to transcriptional elements and different epigenetic modifications. One such example can be seen in the case X inactive specific transcript (XIST). In humans, 46,XX females carry an extra X chromosome (155Mb of DNA) compared to 46,XY males. To overcome this dosage imbalance, one X chromosome is randomly inactivated in human females at around the 2-8 cell stage of embryo development. This inactivation is very stable across cell divisions due to epigenetic contributions both during the initial silencing and the subsequent maintenance of the inactive X chromosome (Xi). This inactivation is carried by the lncRNA, XIST. XIST is produced in cis and inactivates the X-chromosome that it has been generated from. The inactive X chromosome can be observed as a condensed heterochromatin structure called “Barr Body”.
A study in 2013 utilized this ability of XIST as a potential therapeutic approach for treatment of trisomy 21. Trisomy 21 is commonly known as down syndrome and is caused due to presence of an additional copy of chromosome 21. The study was one of its kind as no other studies have been able to incorporate the XIST gene into a chromosome due to its large size. The study incorporated the XIST into one of the chromosomes 21 in the cells gathered from patients with down syndrome. The study was able to observe the inactivation of one of chromosome 21 in the form of a condensed heterochromatin and labeled it as a chromosome 21 barr body. Such experiments have shown to work in cells in the lab setting although no lncRNA based therapeutics are in clinical trials. The implications of such work can bring trisomy 21 and other chromosomal disorders in the realm of consideration for future gene therapy research.


== Challenges ==
One of the major issues that hinders the ncRNA therapy is the stability of the single stranded RNA molecule. RNA is typically single stranded therefore slightly unstable as compared to dsDNA molecules. This however can be overcome by fabricating the single stranded RNA to double stranded RNA(dsRNA). This is quite effective as the dsRNA is more stable at room temperature and has a longer shelf life.
Second major issue is the cell/tissue/organ specific targeting of the RNA molecules. Generally, this is overcome by containing the dsRNA in a lipid nanoparticle and using that as a ligand to bind to a receptor on the surface of the target cell. The lipid particles are taken into the liver cells through their specific receptors and this mechanism seems to be effective at targeting the liver cells/cancer.
Another organ with a relatively easy delivery mechanism is the eye. This requires an invasive technique of directly injecting the ncRNA of interest directly into the eye. These techniques are not only invasive but also don’t ensure if all the cells in the target organ are being targeted by the ncRNA of interest.
Additional issues arise once the RNA molecule enters the cell. One of the issues being the immune system. Our immune system can recognize RNA using the intracellular pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) receptors and extracellular toll-like receptors (TLR). Activation of the receptors leads to a cytokine (IFNy-Interferon gamma) mediated immune response. Common applications to overcome the immune response include second generation chemical modifications. This process includes the introduction of small one at a time chemical modifications to avoid the immune response. However, there are some reports of adverse immune responses in clinical trials employing such modified reagents. There’s no fixed answer to  issues with immunogenicity and ncRNA therapy.
Modified adenovirus vectors have been used extensively in many clinical trials as a ncRNA delivery mechanism. In particular, adenovirus vector is considered an efficient delivery system due to its stability within live cells and non-pathogenicity. Even though viral transfections have achieved significant results in basic research, one of the issues is the non-specificity leading to off target transfections. Further research needs to be done to improve the accuracy of viral transfections for future tests and clinical trials.


== ASO Guidelines ==
In December 2021, the FDA came up with a draft guidance for the use of ASO drug products. This draft guidance was directed towards sponsor-investigators who are developing individualized investigational antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) drug products for severely debilitating or life threatening diseases. Severely debilitating corresponds to a disease or condition that causes major irreversible morbidity. However, life-threatening is defined as the disease or condition has a likelihood of death unless the course of treatment leads to an endpoint of survival. Usually individuals that have a severely debilitating life threatening disease don't have any alternative treatment options, and their diseases will be rapidly progressing, leading to an early death and/or devastating  or irreversible morbidity within a short time frame without treatment.
Drug development is usually targeted for a large number of individuals, in this case that is not possible because of the specificity of the mechanism of action of the ASO combined with the rarity of the treatment-amenable patient population. Under FDA regulations, a protocol under which an individual ASO product is administered to a human subject must be reviewed and approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before it can be administered to human subjects. When the individual is a child, additional safeguards need to be identified in order to prevent any developmental issues from occurring that may affect the life of the individual. The sponsor-investigator needs to get informed consent from the individual or from the person who is responsible for the individual. The consent needs to include a description of reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts as part of the use of the ASO drug. The sponsor also needs to get individuals clinical and genetic diagnosis to confirm that the ASO will be beneficial. The analysis may be through gene sequencing, enzymatic analysis, biochemical testing, imaging evaluations. All results need to be included in the application. Also the sponsor needs to include evidence that establishes the role of the gene variant targeted by the ASO drug. The sponsor/investigator need to also provide evidence that the identified gene variant or variants are unique to the individual.
The guidance suggests that the starting dose should be based on available non-clinical data that has been collected from model organisms or in vitro studies and should be in correlation with other ASO drug product dosing information that is available. At the starting dose, pharmacological effects are expected. Furthermore, It is advised that a dosing escalation method be utilized. This includes the step of escalating the dodge from its initial dose based on pharmacodynamic effects and/or trial participants' response to the ASO.
In addition, protocols submitted to the FDA need to have a clear dosing plan and justification for selecting the starting dose, dosing interval, and plan for dose escalation or dose reduction based on clinical pharmacodynamic effects of the drug on the individual. Also all anticipated outcomes should be included in the drug plan when submitted to the FDA. It is extremely important for the investigators to monitor the patient closely during dose escalation. During the escalation period, adequate time should be provided in order to see therapeutic results. It is advised that the investigator not make concurrent changes to the dosing interval along with the dose without justification. The submitted plan should include a de-escalation/discontinuation plan if toxicity is observed. All drug administration needs to take place in an inpatient setting just to get a grasp of the adverse effects the drug may have. Once drug toxicity, beneficiancy and adverse effects are identified, the drug can be administered in an outpatient manner as long as the same concentration of drug is administered.


== See also ==
RNA therapeutics
Messenger RNA
RNA editing


== References ==",0.9113784432411194
"Arroyo Seco, Querétaro","Arroyo Seco is a town in Arroyo Seco Municipality located in the far north of the Mexican state of Querétaro. Its territory is part of the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro. The municipality is centered on the small town of Arroyo Seco, which was established as a military outpost then given town status in 1833 under the name of Villa de Guadalupe before changing to its current name. The town gained municipal status in 1931. The area is very rural with most people living in communities of under 100 people, with significant Pame communities. It has a traditional economy based on agriculture, livestock and forestry but it is also one of the poorest in Mexico, with high rates of emigration, especially sending migrant workers to the United States. It is estimated that one in four households in the municipality receives money from family members in this country. The municipality is also home to one of five Franciscan mission complexes built under the tenure of Junípero Serra, located in the community of Concá.


== The town ==
Arroyo Seco is a small town of about three hundred homes centered on a plaza named after Mariano Escobedo. The town originated as a military outpost called the Presido de Arroyo Seco. It became the seat of the municipality of the same name in 1931.
The houses are painted in various colors and its streets are quiet. The town is home to all municipal services and has the most developed infrastructure and social services in the area.  This includes the Casa de Cultura cultural center, an auditorium and a library. The Mariano Escobedo plaza has an “oriental” style kiosk surrounded by large trees. On one side the main parish church called the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe dominates. This church was begun in 1904 and was supposed to be much larger than it is, but construction was suspended due to the Mexican Revolution. It has an austere facade and the interior has black pews. The most important yearly event in the municipal seat is the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe on 12 December.
Handcrafts such as saddles, leather goods and wooden barrels for water storage can be found in the town.


== Geography ==

The municipality is part of the Sierra Gorda region, which is centered on northern Querétaro state. This region is a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental, consisting of mountain chains that parallel the Gulf of Mexico. This land was sea bed 100 million years ago, which formed ancient sedimentary rock, mostly limestone, which easily erodes. This makes the area part of the Huasteca Karst Arroyo Seco is completely within the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro, which was established in 1997.
Most of the territory is mountainous, with gradients of over 25%. Altitudes in the territory range from 560 to 1340 masl with an average of 980masl. The mountain formations are subdivided into two parts. The first is a corridor along the border with Jalpan which is over forty km long and five km wide. This area has some very low valleys of only 700 masl. The second area is more rugged with canyons of up to 600 meters deep and peaks which reach over 2000 masl. There are a number of flat areas and valleys which are mostly along the Ayutla and Concá rivers. The principal elevations are Santo Domingo, Cantera, Cofradía, Soledad and Pitorreal.
The terrain is composed of sedimentary rock, mostly layers of limestone, which present on the surface with medium or fine grain and sometimes as clay. It, like most of the Sierra Gorda, is on former sea bed from 150 million years ago. Recently, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities of the Sierra Gorda have reported numerous small earthquakes.  According to seismologists, these are caused by the movement of water through sedimentary rock. Erosion causes gaps and then the gaps settle onto themselves, causing the small quakes. One thing scientists are checking for is to see if any areas stand over underground cavities which may give way.
The area's location over the Huasteca Karst and the erosion of limestone has given rise to numerous pit caves. The largest of these in the Sierra Gorda is located in Arroyo Seco, called the Sótano de Barro, located in the Santa María de los Cocos community. The Sótano del  Barro is one of the largest cavities of the world by volume, measuring 15 million cubic metres, surpassed only the Sima Mayor de Sarisariñama in Venezuela. In comparison, the Sótano de Las Golondrinas has a volume of only five million meters cubed. Its widest diameter measures 420 meters and its average width is 200 meters. It has a total depth of 455 meters with a direct drop of 410 meters. Its perimeter is surrounded by dense vegetation, which is a sanctuary for green macaws. It requires a walk or mule ride of about two hours through dense forest to reach. The walls of the pit cave are mostly vertical and partially covered by vegetation. At the bottom of the cave there is a small forest on a floor which was sea bed 100 million years ago, which measures 220 meters long and 100 meters wide. Despite its depth, the bottom of the pit cave receives an abundance of sunlight allowing for the growth of trees and other vegetation, making it an isolated mini forest.  The bottom also has a number of small caves, with the largest fifty meters long. This pit cave has been classified as the deepest in the world although this has recently been challenged by those who wish to include those pit caves which are not continuous such as the Stary Swistak in Austria, which has a total depth of 480 meters.


=== Hydrography ===
Principal river systems include the Santa María, the Ayutla River and the Jalpan River with their tributaries such as the Concá River in the south of the municipality. The Santa María enters the municipality from San Luis Potosí and flows along a 400 meter deep canyon until it merges with the Ayutla River. This river flows northeast, forming another canyon then merges with the Jalpan River. There are about 100 accessible sources of water in the municipality with most located in the communities of Salitrillo, Concá and Ayutla.  The municipality is home to the junction of two of the major rivers of the Sierra Gorda, the Santa María and the Ayutla River at a location called Las Adjuntas. The Santa María River here flows warm to hot in the summer and the Ayutla River remains cold.  Although the two rivers have different water colors and temperatures, both are regulated by the surrounding environment.  The Santa María River has a number of beaches which are open to camping. There is also sports fishing of native catfish. The northern border of the municipality is partially formed by the Verde River. The Concá Waterfall is located just south of the town of the same name. This waterfall is fed by a fresh water spring and falls into the Santa María River.  Despite the name (which means dry stream or dry arroyo), most of the arroyos in the area have water in them most of the year. The municipality has ten easily accessible sources of surface water. However, the over extraction of water has led to dropping water tables and many of the area's fresh water springs are flowing at slower rates or have dried up.


=== Climate ===
The municipality divides into two climate regions. The north is semi arid with an average temperature of 22C and an annual rainfall of between five and 10.5mm per falling mostly in the summer. The other is semi hot with average temperatures varying from 18 to 22C with rains in the summer.  In the winter, the area is vulnerable to cold spells, brought in by cold fronts that arrive from the north and west. The cold spells do not usually reach freezing as the municipality does not have the high peaks that neighbors such as Pinal de Amoles does, but snow mixed with rain fell in 2006 and in 2010, freezing temperatures did reach communities such as La Florida and San Juan Buenaventura. Very cold temperatures can prompt emergency services such as the provision of blankets by the municipality's civil protection service or evacuation to shelters. Communities which are most vulnerable to severe cold include La Sanguijuela, La Escondida de Guadalupe, La Cantera, Río del Carrizal and El Durazno. The area has had problems with droughts over the past decade, especially in 2009, which have been draining reserves and aquifers. The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside.


=== Flora and fauna ===
Vegetation on the limestone and other sedimentary soils ranges from lowland rainforest to grasslands to scrub brush in more arid areas. In forested areas, the trees include oaks, pines, white cedar, strawberry trees and oyamels. In the drier areas, there are also mesquite trees with some other desert plants including cactus. In the lowest elevations there are tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, Montezuma cypress and a tree called the “parota.” Wildlife mostly consists of birds and mammals such as doves, quails, chachalacas, eagles, roadrunners, and some waterfowl. Mammals include squirrels, rabbits, armadillos, white-tailed deer, foxes, coyotes, wild boar, pumas, raccoons, skunks, and opossums. There are some reptiles such as rattlesnakes and coral snakes.


== Culture ==
The most popular traditional music is Huapango, especially Huapango arribeño.  It is most often played in “topadas” a type of musical duel between two musicians competing on improvisation of lyrics and melodies. Many of the songs are about history, arte and current events. In 2006, Guadalupe Reyes Reyes from El Refugio won the Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes in the Popular Arts category. He won the award for his contributions to Huapango arribeño. Reyes formed the band, Los Reyes de El Refugio and their work mostly focuses on rural life in the Sierra Gorda. He was born 1931, but had to work at farming early, learning to read and write mostly on his own. He was taught guitar and found he had musical ability, becoming a cantor at the local church when he was 14.
Typical dishes include jerky, cecina, “Serrano” style enchiladas and pit cooked barbacoa. Sweets include “chancaquillas” which is made with piloncillo and squash seeds. Beverages include aguamiel and pulque along with atole with sunflower seeds.
The various communities have festivals in honor of local patron saints, but the most important festival in the municipality is that honoring the Archangel Michael on 29 September. It is celebrated with street fairs and crafts exhibitions.


== The mission church of Concá ==

The mission complex at Concá is one of five Franciscan missions which were built under the direction of Junípero Serra in the mid-to-late 18th century. The missions were the last in a long line of evangelization efforts in the Sierra Gorda, which were resisted by the indigenous peoples, especially the Chichimeca Jonaz for about two centuries. This resistance was militarily broken at the Battle of Media Luna in 1748. To consolidate Spanish dominance, the Franciscans under Serra had these churches with elaborate Baroque facades built in the heart of the Sierra Gorda. In addition to Concá, churches were built in Jalpan, Tancoyol, Landa and Tilaco. The facades are notable not only for their profuse decoration, but also for the appearance of a number of indigenous elements.
The Concá mission is the smallest of the five, but between 1754 and 1758 by José Antonio de Murguía and Joaquin Fernández Osorio. It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, with the theme of the facade being “The Victory of the Faith.” It is considered to have the most indigenous elements,  with many of its elements showing the more brusque work characteristic of indigenous decoration. More obvious is an image of the Holy Trinity at the crest, which is accompanied by a rabbit and a two-headed eagle, which are Pame symbols.  Also prominent are the coat of arms of the Franciscan order, grapevines, two headed eagles, with the Virgin of Guadalupe and Our Lady of the Pillar, the patronesses of Mexico and Spain respectively.
After the missions were turned over to secular clergy, many indigenous abandoned them, a process that would continue with the Mexican War of Independence and Mexican Revolution, when the churches all suffered deterioration and sacking. Restoration of the churches began starting in 1979 until the 2000s. The five where inscribed together as a World Heritage Site in 2003.


== History ==
The town was originally known as the Presidio de Arroyo Seco, a military outpost.  In 1833, missionary Francisco Cano Santander gave it the ecclesiastical name of Villa de Guadalupe which was the town's formal name until 1840, which it was changed to the current one. Its coat of arms has three parts. The first represents the Cross of the Holy Trinity with hands representing the indigenous peoples and the evangelizers. The second is the rabbit which appears on the facade of the mission church of Concá. This rabbit is the only one to appear on the five mission churches. The third is an arroyo from which the name comes.

Arroyo Seco is part of the heart of the Sierra Gorda. This region has been occupied for about 6000 years. In the Pre Classic and Classic periods, the Sierra Gorda had a number of small cities as the climate at that time was wetter than it is now. Most of the larger cities were south of the current municipalities due to mining activities and major trade routes, but there were cities and trade routes through here as well, connecting the area mostly with Huasteca areas to the east and other areas to the north. As the climate of the Sierra Gorda dried out in the early Post Classic period, cities were abandoned for simpler hunter gatherer communities and there were migrations of Chichimecas, mostly Pames and Chichimeca Jonaz from the north. Arroyo Seco would become Pame territory. In the late pre Hispanic period, the Sierra Gorda had incursions from both the Purépecha and Aztecs from as early as 1400, attracted by the area's mineral deposits, but neither had true dominance as the Chichimecas fiercely opposed them. In the 15th century, the area was marginally dominated by the Oxitipa dominion, which was conquered by Moctezuma Ilhuicama and the Pames. This officially converted the area into an Aztec tributary state, but the Aztecs never truly had control.
The Spanish made incursions into the Sierra Gorda early in the colonial period, but the Chichimeca, especially the Jonaz just to the south, put up fierce resistance to their intrusions. This would keep the Spanish from fully dominating the area for two hundred years.
In 1532, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán entered the Sierra Gorda and conquered it but did not hold it. From that time until the 18th century, there had been a number of missions established by the Franciscans and the Augustinians, but these missions were either destroyed by the Chichimecas or the population would flee from them and move into more inaccessible mountains and canyons. The first Spanish population in the Arroyo Seco area was in San Nicolás Concá, established as an encomienda under Pedro Guzmán between 1533 and 1538. This territory extended over much of the Sierra Gorda and into what is now San Luis Potosí. In 1587, Concá and Jalpan had missions established in them by the Augustinians from Xilitla.  In 1601, friar Lucas de los Ángeles from the Xichú monastery preached in the area with limited success. In 1609, viceroy Luis de Velasco ordered that the Franciscans leave missionary work to the Augustinians, including the Arroyo Seco area. However, Franciscans from Michoacán stayed and worked with the Augustinians. Those who lasted longest in the area were those who learned the Pame language and learned to live with Pame customs.
The Spanish would break Chichimeca resistance in the Sierra Gorda in the 1740s, with the expeditions of José de Escandón, culminating in the Battle of Media Luna. To solidify these military gains, Franciscans founded new missions in this and other areas of northern Querétaro, the heart of the Sierra Gorda. These missions were taken over by Junípero Serra starting in 1750, who decided to have elaborate mission complexes built in five locations, one of which is in the municipality at Concá. In addition to evangelization, the missions worked to group the semi nomadic Pames into permanent communities centered on churches.
There was one battle here during the Mexican Revolution when forces under General Saturnino Cedillo and Coronel Marcial Cevallos took over the Concá Hacienda in 1918. The town of Arroyo Seco itself was also attacked by General Cedillo, who killed many non-combatants, sacked and burned the town. In retaliation, forces loyal to Venustiano Carranza recruited soldiers from Arroyo Seco and defeated Cedillo at the Laguna de Concá.
The town gained municipal status in 1933. At first the new municipality was governed by a committee headed by Antonio Rubio Chávez but the first municipal president, C. Angel Torres Montes, was elected in 1935.
In 1994, the municipality decided to build a garbage dump near the archeological zone of San Rafael without informing the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Since 2006, it has been known that the dump sits on the southern part of the site proper and that the digging of the dump site is estimated to have destroyed between eight and ten pyramids.  More vestiges of the site lie 300 meters below the dump. The municipality promised for years to move the facility and from 2006, state and federal authorities have promised to replace it with a new one farther away. However, as of 2009, the dump is still operating taking on as much as forty tons of trash per week, as the new facility was not yet finished. In 2007, a smaller, above ground dump appeared in the same area, within sight of visible ruins. During this time, acids and other substances produced by the pit have probably caused damage to the limestone of the site, eating away at structures made of the substance. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí .
In 1998, forests in the municipality were among those in five states destroyed by wildfires. In total, 180 hectares (440 acres) were burned. The fires were due to freezing conditions in the prior winter which dried out grasslands.
In the latter 2000s, the municipality has been struggling with water shortages due to drought conditions.  The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside. As of 2007, sixteen out of forty six communities in the municipality have significant problems with water shortages. The government states that this is because a number of wells are drying up and there is insufficient distribution. In the second largest community of Purísima de Arista, about half of the residents experience water shortages. In 2009, the municipality had number of cases of cattle dying due to bites from “vampire” bats which were transmitting a type of paralytic rabies. The bats were coming from caves located in neighboring Guanajuato.
From the latter 2000s to the present, Arroyo Seco and the rest of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro have been experiencing numerous small earthquakes, with most registering from 2.5 to 3.5 on the Richter scale, generally imperceptible to humans. Seismologists say that while the number has been unusual, such activity is not and is due to the settling of the sedimentary rock which is below most of the Sierra Gorda region. However, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities have seismographs installed to monitor the situation.
The municipality's recent history also includes the mass migration out by many of its working aged people due to lack of economic opportunity. Most have gone to the United States with as much as forty percent of the municipality's population living in the country alone. The money that these workers send back home have significantly changed the local economy, as it is larger than the locally generated economy and larger than annual municipal budget.  The migration has caused municipality schools, especially primary schools to lose students as they leave for the United States with their parents.
In 2006, the municipality elected its first non-PRI municipal president since the Mexican Revolution, a former migrant worker by the name of Mariano Palacios Trejo, from the PRD .
Construction of a military base was begun in early 2011 at a 3-hectare (7.4-acre) site. The base is one of three being built to work against drug trafficking and other crimes along the Querétaro/San Luis Potosí border. This base is part of the 17th Military Zone to patrol the Querétaro-San Luis Potosí border. The military is there to countering drug trafficking in the area as the region does not have the resources for local police forces.


== Economy and tourism ==
The municipality is one of the most economically marginalized in the state, with the Secretaría de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) cataloging it as one of the 200 most socioeconomically marginalized in the country. This is the main reason why Arroyo Seco and other municipalities in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro have high rates of emigration. It is not known exactly how many have left or how many come back at the end of the year to visit family, but Arroyo Seco estimates that about forty percent of its population is living somewhere in the United States. The amount sent back in remittances is also not known, but it has been estimated at between 50,000 and US$100,000 per day or about US$18 million per year to the Sierra Gorda alone, based on money exchanges made in the main city of Jalpan de Serra. This amount supersedes the annual municipal budget of Arroyo Seco and other area municipalities and generally superseded money generated by municipal economies. In Arroyo Seco, one in four homes is supported by dollars sent home by family in the United States. These migrants not only provide remittances directly to their families, they have also formed clubs with the purpose of promoting infrastructure projects in their home communities. The Club de Migrantes de la Sierra Gorda is an association of twenty seven of these clubs from various municipalities, with three from Arroyo Seco. Most of the projects are related paving, water distribution and sewerage/drainage. These dollars are often matched through a program sponsored by the Mexican federal government.  Many businesses in the municipality and the rest of the Sierra Gorda  take the dollar as currency, especially at the end of the year when many come to the area to visit family. Arroyo Seco has one of the highest rates of emigration in Querétaro. Arroyo Seco is one of the sponsors of the Día del Paisano to honor returning migrant workers in Jalpan de Serra. This events includes parades and raffles.
Because of this emigration, only 23.36% of the total population is economically active, mostly employed in traditional economic activities, such as agriculture, livestock, forestry and general commerce. About twenty percent of the total population works at home for no pay. Women make up only 22% of the paid workforce. Most of those who are not economically active are students and housewives.
Most of the territory is used for pasture and forestry, with total about ninety percent. The rest is used for agriculture, most of which is done only during the rainy season. Just over 43% of the economically active are working agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing.  Thirty of the municipality's communities engage in agriculture to some degree with most of the production for self consumption. The soil is fertile although it is sometimes hard with some drainage problems. These problems are greatest where the topsoil is less than ten centimeters. One problem with agriculture here is that the soil erodes easily.  Fruit trees include mango, oranges, limes, bananas, guavas, avocados and papaya. Other crops such as sugar cane, corn, beans, green chili peppers, cascabel chili peppers, tomatoes, watermelon, squash, chickpeas, sorghum, barley  and pitahaya. Most livestock is raised in the communities of El Refugio, San Juan Buenaventura, La Florida, San José de la Flores, Río de Carrizal, Ayutla, Salitrillo and Tepame. Most livestock is cattle with some sheep and goats.
The forests of the municipality make up about sixteen percent of the state's forest resources and cover 54% of the municipality. Over eighty percent of the forest is made up solely of broad-leafed trees with most of the rest a mix of broad-leafed and conifers. Logging is limited because of the tropical hardwoods here and conservation efforts related to the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve, but it still makes up over 15% of the state's total. About 19% of the forested lands are used for grazing. Fish farming is a growing segment of the economy, especially in communities near rivers such as Río del Carrizal, Concá, Vegas Cuatas and Ayutla. 
About 25% are working in mining, construction, utilities and manufacturing.
Commerce, transportation and services employ about eighteen percent. There are about 140 people dedicated to commerce, most of which is small grocery stores. Supermarkets and other similar stores are located in neighboring San Luis Potosí in Río Verde and San Ciro. Tourism is a small percentage of the economy, mostly based on the mission church at Concá and some resort hotels opened in recent years. People also visit to see the 1000-year-old Montezuma Bald Cypress (Taxodium mucronatum), called the Árbol Milenario or Millennium Tree. Its trunk has the second largest diameter in Mexico after the Tule tree in Oaxaca, requiring twenty two children linking hands to surround it. From its roots flows one of the fresh water springs of the community. During the colonial period, there were several haciendas in the municipality. One of these was San Nicolás de Concá, which still has abundant vegetation, a large fresh water spring and hiking trails. The main house has been converted into a hotel, conserving part of the original structure made of adobe, with rustic stairs, wooden roof beams and gardens. The San Nicolas Conca hotel has fifty rooms and is owned by an American by the name of Sharpton. The hacienda was originally dedicated to sugar cane and dates from the 18th century.
The El Abanico water park has two swimming pools, a wading pool, restaurant and gardens and areas for camping. It is located next to the Concá Hacienda.
The Hotel Ayutla water park has two swimming pools, three wading pools, sports fields, picnic areas, restaurant, gardens and areas to camp.


== Archeology ==
The San Rafael site was first documented in 1939 by the Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. Some work was done on the site by archeologists such as Dominique Michelet for about a decade. This work determined that the site was occupied from 200 to 900 CE as a Mesoamerican city with temples, plazas, patios and residences located around four Mesoamerican ball courts. The city was a regional seat of government with strong Huasteca influence. It had a total of 250 buildings even larger than the better known sites of Las Ranas and Toluquilla .
Eight to ten structures are considered destroyed and more may have suffered irreversible damage by acids eating way the limestone blocks. As of 2006, the limits of the sites have still not been defined. The vestiges of the site lie about three hundred meters below the dump. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí.


== References ==",0.7722719311714172
Transport in France,"Transportation in France relies on one of the densest networks in the world with 146 km of road and 6.2 km of rail lines per 100 km2. It is built as a web with Paris at its center. Rail, road, air and water are all widely developed forms of transportation in France.


== History ==
The first important human improvements were the Roman roads linking major settlements and providing quick passage for marching armies.
All through the Middle Ages improvements were few and second rate. Transport became slow and awkward to use. The early modern period saw great improvements. There was a very quick production of canals connecting rivers. It also saw great changes in oceanic shipping. Rather than expensive galleys, wind powered ships that were much faster and had more room for cargo became popular for coastal trade. Transatlantic shipping with the New World turned cities such as Nantes, Bordeaux, Cherbourg-Octeville and Le Havre into major ports.


== Railways ==

There is a total of 29,901 kilometres (18,580 mi) of railway in France, mostly operated by SNCF (Société nationale des chemins de fer français), the French national railway company. Like the road system, the French railways are subsidised by the state, receiving €13.2 billion in 2013. The railway system is a small portion of total travel, accounting for less than 10% of passenger travel.
From 1981 onwards, a newly constructed set of high-speed Lignes à Grande Vitesse (LGV) lines linked France's most populous areas with the capital, starting with Paris-Lyon. In 1994, the Channel Tunnel opened, connecting France and Great Britain by rail under the English Channel. The TGV has set many world speed records, the most recent on 3 April 2007, when a new version of the TGV dubbed the V150 with larger wheels than the usual TGV, and a stronger 25,000 hp (18,600 kW) engine, broke the world speed record for conventional rail trains, reaching 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph).
Trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left (except in Alsace-Moselle). Metro and tramway services are not thought of as trains and usually follow road traffic in driving on the right (except the Lyon Metro).
France was ranked 7th among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index for intensity of use, quality of service and safety performance, a decrease from previous years.

The French non-TGV intercity service (TET) is in decline, with old infrastructure and trains. It is likely to be hit further as the French government is planning to remove the monopoly that rail currently has on long-distance journeys by letting coach operators compete. Travel to the UK through the Channel Tunnel has grown in recent years, and from May 2015 passengers have been able to travel direct to Marseille, Avignon and Lyon. Eurostar is also introducing new Class 374 trains and refurbishing the current Class 373s.

The French government are making plans to privatise the French railway network, following a similar model Great Britain used from the 1990s until the 2020s.


=== Rapid transit ===

Six cities in France currently have a rapid transit service (frequently known as a 'metro'). Full metro systems are in operation in Paris (16 lines), Lyon (4 lines) and Marseille (2 lines). Light metro (VAL-type) systems are in use in Lille (2 lines), Toulouse (2 lines) and Rennes (2 lines).


=== Trams ===

In spite of the closure of most of France's first generation tram systems in earlier years, a fast-growing number of France's major cities have modern tram or light rail networks, including Paris, Lyon (Lyon having the biggest one), Toulouse, Montpellier, Saint-Étienne, Strasbourg and Nantes. Recently the tram has seen a very big revival with many experiments such as ground level power supply in Bordeaux, or trolleybuses pretending to be trams in Nancy.
This way of travelling started disappearing in France at the end of the 1930s. Only Lille, Marseille and Saint-Étienne have never given up their tram systems. Since the 1980s, several cities have re-introduced it.

The following French towns and cities run light rail or tram systems:

Angers - since 2011;
Besançon - since 2014;
Bordeaux - since 2003;
Brest - since 2012;
Caen - since 2002 as a 'trams on tyres' system, replaced 2019 by conventional trams;
Clermont-Ferrand - since 2006, 'trams on tyres';
Grenoble - since 1987;
Île-de-France (Paris metropolitan area) - since 1992
Lille, Roubaix and Tourcoing - non-stop since 1909;
Lyon - since 2001;
Le Mans - since 2007;
Marseille - since 2007;
Montpellier - since 2000;
Mulhouse - since 2006
Nancy - since 2000, 'trams on tyres' system featuring a single guide rail while running on tyres;
Nice - since 2007;
Nantes - since 1985;
Orléans - since 2000;
Reims - since 2011;
Rouen - since 1994;
Saint-Étienne - non-stop since 1881;
Strasbourg - since 1994
Toulouse - since 2010 (previously existed from 1906 to 1952)
Valenciennes - since 2006
Dijon - since 2012
Le Havre - since 2012
Tram systems are planned or under construction in Tours, and Fort-de-France.
The revival of tram networks in France has brought about a number of technical developments both in the traction systems and in the styling of the cars:

APS third rail: The Alstom APS system uses a third rail placed between the running rails, divided electrically into eight-metre segments with three metre neutral sections between. Each tram has two power collection skates, next to which are antennas that send radio signals to energise the power rail segments as the tram passes over them. At any one time no more than two consecutive segments under the tram should actually be live. Alstrom  developed the system primarily to avoid intrusive power supply cables in sensitive area of the old city of Bordeaux.
Modern styling: The Eurotram, used in Strasbourg has a modern design that makes it look almost as much like a train as a tram, and has large windows along its entire length.
Modular design: The Citadis tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages providing more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km. Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.
Prominent bi-articulated ""tram-like"" Van Hool vehicles (Mettis) are used in Metz since 2013. They work as classic trams but without needing rails and catenaries, and can transport up to 155 passengers while being ecological thanks to a diesel-electric hybrid engine. 
In the starting up, batteries feed the engine of the bus, which can then roll 150 meters before the diesel engine takes over.


== Roads ==

There are ~950,000 km (590,000 mi) of roads in France. The French motorway network or autoroute system consists largely of toll roads, except around large cities, in Brittany, in parts of Normandy, in the Ardennes and in Alsace. It is a network totalling 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of motorways operated by private companies such as Sanef (Société des autoroutes du Nord et de l'Est de la France). It has the 8th largest highway network in the world, trailing only the United States, China, India, Russia, Japan, Canada, Spain and Germany.
France currently counts 30,500 km of major trunk roads or routes nationales and state-owned motorways. By way of comparison, the routes départementales cover a total distance of 365,000 km. The main trunk road network reflects the centralising tradition of France: the majority of them leave the gates of Paris. Indeed, trunk roads begin on the parvis of Notre-Dame of Paris at Kilometre Zero. To ensure an effective road network, new roads not serving Paris were created.
In 2022, France safety rate is near but not better than the OECD median, with rates of 49.8 per million population (or 4.98 / 100 000) and 5.2 per billion vehicle kilometers traveled (0.52 / 100 million VKT).
France is believed to be the most car-dependent country in Europe. In 2005, 937 billion vehicle kilometres were travelled in France (85% by car). While the traveled distance did not change, from 2012 to 2022, it is counted as 730 billion vehicle kilometers. Car makes 80% of the 1000 billion vehicle kilometers traveled each year. Traveled distance is reduced in 2020, but is counted in 2019 as 615 billion vehicle kilometer traveled including 448 car with a French registration plate according to the Union routière de France.
In order to overcome this dependence, in France and many more countries the long-distance coaches' market has been liberalised. Since 2015, with the law Macron, the market has exploded: the increasing demand lead to a higher supply of bus services and coach companies.
Black Saturday refers, in France, to the day of the year when road traffic is most dense due to the many departures on holiday. (Traffic problems are exacerbated by France's extreme centralisation, with Paris being the hub of the entire national highway network.) This Saturday is usually at the end of July, though in 2007 both the last Saturday of July and the first Saturday of August are designated as Black Saturdays. The Autoroute du Soleil, the highway to the south of France and Spain, is usually particularly busy. In 2004 there was more than 700 kilometres (430 mi) in accumulated traffic congestion. The black colour is the qualification with which the French government web site Bison Futé designates a day with extrêmement dense (extremely busy) traffic. The French newspapers call this day samedi noir after Bison Futé's designation. Usually, the French call these days les jours de grands départs (days of great departures). In Dutch, this French phenomenon was known as zwarte zaterdag long before the French adopted the term samedi noir, both meaning (literally) Black Saturday.
The term Black Saturday may also refer to Saturday July 31, 1982, when the worst road accident in French history happened. Around 1:45 AM, a coach collided into passenger cars near Beaune in dense holiday traffic during rainfall. The collision and subsequent fire killed 53 people, among which 46 were children. After this crash, a regulation was enforced to prohibit the transportation of groups of children during this part of the year.


=== Electric roads ===

France plans to invest 30 to 40 billion euro by 2035 in an electric road system spanning 8,800 kilometers that recharges electric cars, buses and trucks while driving. Two projects for assessment of electric road technologies were announced in 2023. Three technologies are being considered: ground-level power supply, inductive charging, and overhead lines. Ground-level power supply technologies, provided by Alstom, Elonroad, and others, are considered the most likely candidate for electric roads. Inductive charging is not considered a mature technology as it delivers the least power, loses 20%-25% of the supplied power when installed on trucks, and its health effects have yet to be documented. Overhead lines is the most mature technology, but the catenaries and overhead wires pose safety and maintenance issues, and motorway companies find overhead lines too expensive.
A working group of the French Ministry of Ecology recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others. A standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been published in late 2022. A standard encompassing full interoperability and a ""unified and interoperable solution"" for ground-level power supply electric road systems, detailing complete specifications for ""communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road"" is specified in CENELEC technical standard 50740 in accordance with European Union directive 2023/1804. The standard was approved in 2025.


==== Trials ====
Alstom has developed a ground-level power supply (alimentation par le sol - APS) system for use with buses and other vehicles. The system has been tested for safety when the road is cleared by snowplows, under exposure to snow, ice, salting, and saturated brine, and for skid and road adherence safety for vehicles, including motorcycles. Alstom will trial its electric road system (ERS) on the public road RN205 in the Rhône-Alpes region between 2024 and 2027. The system is expected to supply 500 kW of power for electric heavy trucks, as well as power for road utility vehicles and electric cars.
Vinci will test two electric road systems (ERS) from 2023 to 2027. Both technologies will initially be tested in laboratory conditions, and upon meeting the test requirements they will be installed along 2 kilometers each on the A10 autoroute south of Paris. Wireless ERS by Electreon will be tested for durability under highway traffic, and will attempt to reach 200 kW of power delivery per truck using multiple receivers. Rail ERS by Elonroad, which supplies 350 kW of power per receiver, will be tested for skid effects on motorcycles. Both systems will be interoperable with cars, buses, and trucks.


=== Bus transport in France ===

In most, if not all, French cities, urban bus services are provided at a flat-rate charge for individual journeys.  Many cities have bus services that operate well out into the suburbs or even the country. Fares are normally cheap, but rural services can be limited, especially on weekends.
Trains have long had a monopoly on inter-regional buses, but in 2015 the French government introduced reforms to allow bus operators to travel these routes.


== Waterways and canals ==

The French natural and man-made waterways network is the largest in Europe extending to over 8,500 kilometres (5,300 mi) of which (VNF, English: Navigable Waterways of France), the French navigation authority, manages the navigable sections. Some of the navigable rivers include the Loire, Seine and Rhône. The assets managed by VNF comprise 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) of waterways, made up of 3,800 kilometres (2,400 mi) of canals and 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) of navigable rivers, 494 dams, 1595 locks, 74 navigable aqueducts, 65 reservoirs, 35 tunnels and a land area of 800 km2 (310 sq mi). Two significant waterways not under VNF's control are the navigable sections of the River Somme and the Brittany Canals, which are both under local management.
Approximately 20% of the network is suitable for commercial boats of over 1000 tonnes and the VNF has an ongoing programme of maintenance and modernisation to increase depth of waterways, widths of locks and headroom under bridges to support France's strategy of encouraging freight onto water.


== Marine transport ==

France has an extensive merchant marine, including 55 ships of size Gross register tonnage 1,000 and above. The country also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in Iles Kerguelen (French Southern and Antarctic Lands).
French companies operate over 1,400 ships of which 700 are registered in France. France's 110 shipping firms employ 12,500 personnel at sea and 15,500 on shore. Each year, 305 million tonnes of goods and 15 million passengers are transported by sea. Marine transport is responsible for 72% of France's imports and exports.
France also boasts a number of seaports and harbours, including  Bayonne, Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Brest,  Calais, Cherbourg-Octeville, Dunkerque, Fos-sur-Mer, La Pallice, Le Havre, Lorient, Marseille, Nantes, Nice, Paris, Port-la-Nouvelle, Port-Vendres, Roscoff, Rouen, Saint-Nazaire, Saint-Malo, Sète, Strasbourg and Toulon.


== Air travel ==

There are approximately 478 airports in France (1999 est.) and by a 2005 estimate, there are three heliports. 288 of the airports have paved runways, with the remaining 199 being unpaved.
Among the airspace governance authorities active in France, one is Aéroports de Paris, which has authority over the Paris region, managing 14 airports including the two busiest in France, Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport.  The former, located in Roissy near Paris, is the fifth busiest airport in the world with 60 million passenger movements in 2008, and France's primary international airport, serving over 100 airlines.
The national carrier of France is Air France, a full service global airline which flies to 20 domestic destinations and 150 international destinations in 83 countries (including Overseas departments and territories of France) across all 6 major continents.


== See also ==
Rail transport in France
Black Saturday, a day of extreme road congestion in France
Réseau Ferré National


== References ==",0.9268451929092407
Wuhua dialect,"The Wuhua dialect (simplified Chinese: 五华话; traditional Chinese: 五華話; pinyin: Wǔhuáhuà, Hakka: ŋ̍˧˩ fa˧˥ fa˥˩, Kak-ka-fa (-va), Kak-fa (-va) is a major dialect of Hakka Chinese spoken in Wuhua County, Jiexi County, Shenzhen, eastern Dongguan, Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan, Sichuan Province, and Tonggu County in Jiangxi Province.
Overall, the Wuhua dialect is very similar to the prestige dialect of Hakka, the Meixian dialect.


== Characteristics ==
The Wuhua dialect is characterized by the pronunciation of several voiced Middle Chinese qu-sheng (fourth tone) syllables of Moiyen dialect in the Shang-sheng (third tone). The tone-level of the yang-ping is a rising /13/, /35/ or /24/ instead of the low-level /11/ usually found in Meixian. In Wuhua-concentrated areas of Northern Bao'an and Eastern Dongguan, the same Meixian dialect tone level of the yang-ping is found. Two sets of fricatives and affricates (z, c, s, zh, ch, sh, s / ts’ / s, [ts], [tsh], [s] and [ts], [tsh], [s] and [tʃ ], [tʃh], [ ʃ ]) appear, similar to Mandarin Chinese. The distinctive ""y"" final is found in the Yuebei (Northern Guangdong) Hakka group and Sichuan group. Retroflexed initials in 知 (Zhi series) “Knowledge”, 曉/晓 (Xiao group) “Dawn”, and part of 溪 (Xi) “Brook”, and poor usage of medials in Grade III and closed finals. Wuhua dialect exhibits “latter-word” tone sandhi. Phonologically, Wuhua showcases a north–south separation while lexically depicting an east- and middle-Guangdong separation, showing similarities to inland and coastal Hakka dialects. Lexically it shows east–west separation in Wuhua, which is quite different from the phonological point of view. Outwardly, lexicons in Wuhua show that the Wuhua dialect is on the diglossia that separates east and middle Guangdong. This way, the lexicons distinguish coast-side dialects from inland ones. The Wuhua dialect is transitional, no matter how it is seen historically or geographically. Overall, the Wuhua Hakka dialect is very similar to the prestige of the Moiyen (Meixian) Hakka dialect.
In the Wuhua Hakka dialect group, Qusheng consists of only QingQu syllables, Shangsheng is a combination of Qingshang and Zhuoqu Characters.
The rounded vowel [y] is common in Yuebei and Sichuan.
According to the Hakka classification of Hashimoto Mantaro, the Wuhua accent falls into Hakka dialects with a high rising staccato and high level tone, a falling tone contour for tone 4 and a rising feature for tone 2.


== Background ==
Most varieties of Jiaying subdialect (Yue-Tai) belong to the Meixian patois, but those in northern Guangdong and Sichuan and some dialects in western Guangdong belong to the Wuhua patois, the Wuhua patoi merges Yangqu with the Shang tone instead, so that voiced characters of MC departing tones have the Shang tone, not Qu. Besides, the Meixian group has a Yingping tone value of 11, but Wuhua has the value of 35 or 24.


== Location ==
Wuhua County is located in the upper reaches of the Han River. The southeast border of the county is adjacent to Fengshun, Jiexi, and Lufeng. Heyuan and Zijin are located on the southwest borders. The northwest border is connected to Longchuan and the northeast to Xingning. Due to the resulting language contact, Wuhua is affected by the dialectal assimilation of the surrounding areas.
The Wuhua dialect can be found in Wuhua County, Jiexi County, Northern Bao'An (formerly Xin'An (Sin-On), presently called Shenzhen), and Eastern Dongguan, in Guangdong Province, It can also be observed in Yuebei or Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan, as well as in Sichuan Province, and Tonggu County in Jiangxi Province.
Taiwan is also home to the Wuhua Hakka people who migrated from South Wuhua County during the Qing dynasty. Taiwanese Wuhua has observed many changes in its initials, finals, and lexicons. As a result, it shares characteristics with the neighboring Sixian (四縣) and Hailu (海陸) Dialects. The tones remained the same. Minority languages tend to assimilate with their superiors as observed in the Wuhua dialect of Taiwan. The Changle dialect originates in its eponym, the county of Changle (now Wuhua). Currently, speakers of the Yongding and Changle dialects have left their own families. Due to this, there are fewer dialects that are used in present-day Taiwan, including but not limited to prominent Sixian and Hailu dialects.


== Internal variation and related dialects ==
The internal variation within Wuhua County is minimal and is mostly seen in the phonology. The Wuhua dialect spoken in Wuhua County is traditionally categorized into three subgroups:

the northern subgroup, traditionally known as the Changle accent or Huacheng Dialect 華城話 / 华城话 (长乐声; 長樂聲; Chánglè shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Huacheng; Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Huacheng, and Qiling. [Huacheng dialect [華城話], [The water villages (Shuizhai) distributed in the county and its vicinity, that is, to the north of Anliu], distributed in the four towns of Huacheng, Xinqiao, Qiling and Shuangtou near Xingning in the north.]
the central subgroup, traditionally known as the Xiace accent or Shuizhai Dialect 水寨話 / 水寨话 (下侧声; 下側聲; Xiàcè shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Shuizhai; Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Shuizhai, Hedong, Guotian, Hengbei, Zhuangshui, and Tanxia. [Shuizhai dialect [水寨話], distributed in the county seat and its vicinity, that is, Shuizhai, Daba, Hedong, Yóutián, Pingnan, Hengpi, Xikeng, Xiaodu, Guotian, Zhuanshui, Tanxia, and Changbu in the north of Anliu, Datian, Zhoujiang, Zhongxing, Wenkui [文葵], Dadu, Shuanghua and other places.]
the southern subgroup, traditionally known as the Shangshan accent or Anliu Dialect 安流話 / 安流话 (上山声; 上山聲; Shàngshān shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Anliu. The Hakka dialect in the south of Wuhua ""Anliu Dialect"" is influenced by the Hailu accent of its neighbors, so the tone is relatively hard. Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Anliu, Zhoujiang, Shuanghua, Huayang, Meilin, Mianyang, and Longcun. [Shangshan dialect [上山聲], similar to Hakka dialects of Jiexi and Hailufeng, is distributed in Mianyang, Qiaojiang, Meilin, Huayang, Longcun, Xiāofāng, Dengshe, etc. south of Anliu. Shuizhai [水寨話] dialect and Huacheng [華城話] dialect are collectively called Xiashan dialect [下山聲/話]. The original Hakka dialect is Cantonese and Taiwanese [Yuetai] dialect Family, while Shangshan dialect belongs to Hakka dialect Zhangchao dialect Family [客家話漳潮片].]
A western subgroup, which only includes the dialect spoken in Changbu (长布; 長布; Chángbù) 長佈話 / 长布话, may be added.
New Wuhua speech, Due to its proximity to Xingning City, the spoken language of young people in Wuhua County has been deeply affected by the Xingning dialect, especially in northern towns. Also, due to modern schooling, and mass movement, more modern vocabulary is entering the dialect. Wuhua dialect ending consonants have changed from -m to -ng[ŋ] and from -p to -k
Changle accent, On the Island of Taiwan, the Hakka people who use Changle accent mainly live in the area of Taozhu Miao, and a small number of them are scattered in Taipei and Taichung. Most of their ancestors are from Anliu Town and Meilin Town in Wuhua County. Features of Wuhua Dialect. Changle accent is gradually declining in Taiwan and tends to merge with the four-counties accent (Sixian accent) .
In more detailed analysis:

In Zijin County, the Nanlu accent (南路腔; Nánlù qiāng) spoken in the towns of Longwo, as well as some villages in Shuidun Township, Nanling, Yangtou, Su District, and other villages, This Accent is similar to the Wuhua dialect due to the area's proximity to Wuhua County. The Villagers speak with a Wuhua Accent, Zijin County's Prestige accent, Zicheng's Qusheng Tone is spoken in Wuhua County's Shangsheng Tone, Related to Yuencheng, Dongyuen, Longchuan, Heping, Lianping.
The Yuebei group; [粵北] is the most dominant dialect in the rural area of Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan. (c. 2 million speakers), The Speech spoken in Xinfeng, Qujiang and Ruyuan
Jiexihua [揭西话; 揭西話] is spoken by the inhabitants of Jiexi County in Guangdong Province. The Hakka accent of Wuyun Town is relatively close to the Hakka accent of Wuhua County (c. 500,000 speakers)
Dongguan Hakka [东莞话; 東莞話] is spoken by Hakka inhabitants, in the Eastern part of Dongguan County and North of Bao’an county. This accent has the Yangping as a level tone of value 11, Like Meixian Dialect. (c. 60T speakers)
The Sichuan Hakka group or “Tu-Guangdonghua” (四川客家話; 四川客家话) is spoken by the migrants from Wuhua County, Meizhou, Guangdong to Sichuan Province (c. 1-2 million speakers)
Tongguhua (銅鼓話; 铜鼓话) is spoken by the people in and around Tonggu County, Jiangxi Province. (c. 1 million speakers)
The Changle accent (长乐腔; 長樂腔) was once used in Taiwan as one of the seven major Hakka accents. There are other accents such as Sixian, Hoiliuk, Yongding, Changle/Wuhua, Dabu, Raoping, and Chao'An. It was introduced to the territory by settlers from Changle County (present-day Wuhua) in Jiaying (present-day Meizhou) and immigrants from Yong'an County, Present-day Zijin County (Huizhou Prefecture). Its language is akin to the accents adjacent to the Qin River near Anliu and its surrounding area, in the south of Wuhua County located in present-day mainland China. However, in the Qu Lao Keng area in Yangmei District (specifically Taoyuan City) on Taiwan, there are still many families who utilize the Changle Accent., In Taiwan, the Hakka people who use Changle accent mainly live in the area of Taozhumiao, and a small number of them are scattered in Taipei and Taichung. Most of their ancestral homes are Anliu Town and Meilin Town in Wuhua County. They belong to the Shangshan Accent, and some of the Characteristics of earlier days are preserved. The characteristics of Wuhua dialect. Changle accent is gradually declining in Taiwan and tends to merge with the Sixian accent., ""Most of the Wuhua Hakka immigrants in Taiwan came from the vicinity of Anliu. During the Qing Dynasty, they followed Hailufeng to immigrate to the Hailufeng immigration area in Taoyuan and Hsinchu. Therefore, Taiwan's Wuhua Hakka has almost integrated into Hailuke. The Changle dialect has disappeared in Taiwan.""
Other areas Related to the Wuhua Hakka Accent:
Meizhou: Fengshun,
Qingyuan: Yingde, Qingxing, Qingcheng, Lianzhou, Lianshan and Liannan,
Guangzhou: Conghua, and other places on the Pearl River Delta,
Guangxi: Hezhou (贺州), in Liantang (莲塘), Shatian (沙田), Gonghui (公会), Guiling (桂岭), Huangtian (黄田)


== Phonology ==


=== Consonant inventory ===


==== Finals ====
Most finals are the same with Meixian / Moiyen dialect, except for:


=== Vowel inventory ===


=== Tones ===

In Wuhua, Shaoguan (and most dialects around it), and Sichuan, the Yangping is usually 35 instead of 11.


== Wuhua Romanization and IPA ==

Romanization with an asterisk (*) always precedes an [i].


== Notes ==


== References ==",0.8218806385993958
Leading activity,"In the framework of the Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) the leading activity is the activity, or cooperative human action, which plays the most essential role in child development during a given developmental period. Although many activities may play a role in a child's development at any given time, the leading activity is theorized to be the type of social interaction that is most beneficial in terms of producing major developmental accomplishments, and preparing the child for the next period of development. Through engaging in leading activities, a child develops a wide range of capabilities, including emotional connection with others, motivation to engage in more complex social activities, the creation of new cognitive abilities, and the restructuring of old ones (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 98).
The term ""leading activity"" was first used by Lev Vygotsky (1967: 15–17) in describing sociodramatic play as the leading activity and source of development of preschoolers, but it was not systematically incorporated into Vygotsky's theory of child development. Later, however, Alexei Leontiev and other ""neo-Vygotskians"" such as Alexander Zaporozhets and Daniel Elkonin (Zaporozhets 1997; Zaporozhets & Elkonin 1971) made the concept a fundamental element of their activity theory of child development. The concept has now been extended to several stages or periods in human development.
The notion of a
the leading activity is part of a broader theory of activity that attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and social aspects of development. Despite many detailed descriptive accounts of the developmental forms of memory, perception, and cognition in various phases of childhood (e.g. Piaget's work), often missing is an explanation for how or why the child develops these psychological processes (Karpov 2003: 138). The exploration of leading activities seeks to illuminate these questions. Rather than biological maturation or stimulus-response learning, specific types of social activity are seen as generating human development. Because of its attention to causal dynamics, the neo-Vygotskian theory has been called ""the most comprehensive approach to the problem of determinants and mechanisms of child development (Karpov 2003: 138).""


== Nature ==
A leading activity is conceptualized as joint, social action with adults and/or peers that is oriented toward the external world. In the course of the leading activity, children develop new mental processes and motivations, which ""outgrow"" their current activity and provide the basis for the transition to a new leading activity (Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller 2003: 7). In most cases, the emergence of an activity can be seen long before it becomes the leading activity in a child's life (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99). Adults and more capable peers who instruct or assist children in engaging in the leading activity are said to be providing mediation of the activity, and creating a zone of proximal development, which allows children to perform activities at a higher level than they could perform independently. Mediation of leading activities is theorized to help children develop by acquiring the use of cultural or psychological ""tools,"" which transform children's mental processes.


== Sequence ==
The activity considered leading for any given age or period of development depends on the type of society in which a child develops, and on the particular historical and cultural expectations for children of that age (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Neo-Vygotskians have proposed a sequence of children's optimal leading activities in modern industrialized societies (though leading activities may differ in agrarian or hunter-gatherer societies). Of course, not all children within a particular culture will engage equally in leading activities (or in equal ""quality"" of activities), which leads to different developmental trajectories and outcomes. For example, children who lack opportunities to engage in rich, well-developed sociodramatic play during their preschool years appear to have greater difficulty with self-regulation and impulse control, characteristics associated with the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99)
The proposed sequence of leading activities is not strictly determined by biological age, but rather by the typical age-related forms of adult and peer interaction in a given society (Chaiklin 2003: 48). As a result of their historical and cultural specificity, leading activities are subject to change. Different leading activities may develop and be found more beneficial for development within particular societies, leading to a revision or reconceptualization of the most effective leading activities. Karpov (2005) reviews recent empirical findings of Western researchers, which are highly consistent with the neo-Vygotskian analysis of child development through engagement in leading activities.


=== Infancy: emotional communication with caregivers ===
During the first year of life, emotional communication with caregivers is seen as the leading activity and context in which the developmental achievements of infancy occur. Vygotsky saw these interactions as the social foundation that would lead to learning and development in a uniquely human way (Karpov 2005). Primary caregivers establish an emotional dialogue with infants that goes beyond mere diapering and feeding routines. Development of this active, two-way emotional relationship results in what Bowlby (1969) called attachment. This shared activity is the blueprint for future relationships the child will develop, and creates motivation for the child to engage in later forms of shared activity (Leontiev 1978).
Infants' emotional exchanges with caregivers begin with purely emotional exchanges, such as smiling or cooing back and forth, or more physical interactions such as when a baby happily responds to hugging, bouncing, or tickling (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Caregivers generally take the initiative in establishing emotional rapport with infants, and infants move from being relatively passive participants to taking increasingly active roles in these dialogues. It has been found that around the beginning of the second month of life, infants begin smiling in response to their caregivers' smile and voice (Zaporozhets & Markova 1983).
In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the animation complex and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007). From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called interactional synchrony (Tronick 1989). Parents often use ""baby-talk"" or ""child-directed speech"" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g. babbling), and it has been shown that infants respond by modifying their babbling in accordance with the phonological structure present in their caregivers' utterances (Goldstein & Schwade 2008). This sort of vocalized emotional interaction, or what John Locke (2001) has referred to as vocal communion, appears to be linked to attachment and later lexical learning, thus playing a formative role in language development.
During the second half of the first year of life, infant-caregiver interactions expand to include emotional exchanges around objects, and actions on those objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). For instance, a father may now smile and shake a rattle in response to the baby's smile. Around this time, parents may begin to label objects and talk about the actions they are performing. For infants, these objects become interesting as they are presented through emotional interaction with adults (Karpov 2005). While Piaget believed that infants' sensorimotor manipulation of objects came through spontaneous body movements and exploratory actions, evidence suggests otherwise. Children who were severely deprived of emotional contact did not engage in much object manipulation, even though objects were accessible to them in their cribs (Lisina 1974; Spitz 1946). This supports the Vygotskian assertion of a link between emotional interactions with caregivers and the development of object manipulation and exploratory behavior.
In this new context of emotional communication around objects, infants develop more sophisticated communication tools of gestures and words. Vygotsky (1988) describes how an infant's unsuccessful grasping for an object is assigned social meaning when an adult hands the object to the child. The grasping motion then transforms into pointing, an instrumental gesture communicating to an adult the baby's desire, and perhaps prompting the adult to act on the infant's behalf (Vygotsky 1988). Like gestures, a child's first words are treated as meaningful by the adults, and only later are used by infants to signify objects, people, and actions (Bodrova 2007: 104). A baby may make a random ""da da"" sound in her father's presence, and happy parents assign these sounds the meaning ""Daddy,"" a meaning which the baby then learns from the parents.  Language thus emerges in shared form, with adults initially providing most of the verbal interaction, and children eventually beginning to appropriate and use the tool of language themselves (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 104).
In summary, a positive emotional attitude toward adults is crucial for infants' development, as it leads to a vital interest in what the adult presents to the infant and does in their presence, such as using language and manipulating cultural objects, such as toys (as opposed to mere ""natural"" objects, such as rocks). As Yuri Karpov (2003: 142) put it, ""Figuratively speaking, infants become interested in the external world because it has been presented to them by loved adults."" Infants accept adults as mediators of their relations with the world, and show increasing interest in the actions they can perform with cultural tools and objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). This leads to infants' transition to a new leading activity.


=== Toddlerhood: object-centered joint activity ===
Although infants begin to engage in object manipulations during the first year of life, the nature of these manipulations changes qualitatively during the second year of life, when object-centered joint activity with adults becomes toddlers' leading activity. Though for much of infancy children have been involved with ""dyadic"" interactions with caregivers, or independent interactions with objects around them, around this time toddlers become centrally engaged in actions that are ""triadic"" in the sense that they involve the child, the adult, and some object or entity to which they share attention (Tomasello 1999). While working with objects toddlers look where their caregivers look (gaze following), use adults as social reference points (social referencing), and act on objects the way adults act on them (imitative learning) (Tomasello 1999). Toddlers tune into the ways adults are using objects, and use communicative gestures to get adults to tune into them, as well as objects in which they are interested.
Most often in recent Western psychology, the term ""joint attention"" has been used to describe these various triadic social skills and interactions (Moore & Dunham 1995). This concept appears consistent with Russian psychologists' use of the term ""object-centered joint activity"" to describe the leading activity for this age period. Although infants are able to independently manipulate objects according to their physical, surface characteristics (e.g. banging a spoon to produce a sound), through adult-child joint activity, children can begin to learn to use objects according to their social, or cultural logic (e.g. using a spoon for eating). In addition, toddlers' more advanced motor ability (e.g. transitioning from crawling to walking) allows them to explore new places and objects, and their hands are more free to handle cultural objects in more complex ways. Through a series of adult demonstrations and joint activities with objects, toddlers come to learn the uses of those objects, for instance that a fork is used to eat, mittens are to put on hands, and a brush is used to brush hair (Bodrova & Leong 2007).
Like Piaget (1963), Vygotsky believed that young children develop sensory-motor thinking, in which they solve problems with objects by using motoric actions and perceptions. Unlike Piaget, however, Vygotsky saw sensorimotor thinking as mediated by other people through shared language and object-activity, rather than the mere maturation of sensorimotor schemas, as Piaget maintained (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Toddlers learn the words for objects and actions that are performed with them, and eventually become capable of generalizing from object to object and from one situation to another. For instance, toddlers learn that different objects can serve the same function (e.g. that one can ""drink"" from a cup, mug, or bottle) (Bodrova & Leong 2007). In addition, toddlers begin to restructure their perception of the important characteristics of objects. Vygotsky's students Zaporozhet and Venger proposed the concept of ""sensory standards"" to refer to acquired patterns of perception based in objects' socially important characteristics (Venger 1988). Perceiving culturally designated colors, shapes, and basic tastes are early examples of sensory standards that toddlers' learn through object interactions with adults (e.g. ""Hand me the orange block"").
An important aspect of toddlers' sensorimotor thinking is that, through joint object-activity with adults, it becomes infused with speech. As psychologist Karl Buhler put it, language is a tool or means for ""one to inform the other about the things"" (Bühler 1934, as cited in Müller & Carpendale 2000). Vygotsky thought that in toddlerhood, nonverbal sensorimotor thought begins to merge with spoken language, which ultimately leads to the development of verbal thinking (Vygotsky 1962). This language acquisition, in turn, is thought to restructure and develop children's other mental processes during the second and third years of life, including perception, attention, memory, and thinking. Tamis-LeMonda et al. (1996) found that maternal responsiveness to children's vocalizations at 13 months of age were predictive of later language development as well as children's later expression of symbolic play at 20 months. Especially beneficial were those interactions in which the mother directly imitated or expanded on children's verbalizations.
As adult-child object activity moves into the third year of a child's life, children develop the ability to make ""object substitutions"" (e.g. using a stick to represent a horse, or a banana to represent a telephone); this generally occurs after adults model naming a substitute object after a missing one during joint object activity (Karpov 2005). These object substitutions are theorized to play a role in the development of symbolic thought (Bodrova & Leong 2007). In the course of object-oriented activity with adults, toddlers shift from imitations of actions with objects to imitations of the social roles and relationships behind the actions (e.g. shifting from feeding the doll with a spoon, to imitating the relationship of a mother-daughter, and the care and love associated with it). As adults help toddlers to discover the social roles behind the object actions they engage in (e.g. ""You're feeding the baby just like a mommy would""), toddlers gain an increasing interest in adult social relations, which motivates them to take up the next leading activity (Karpov 2005).


=== Early childhood: sociodramatic play ===
From approximately age three to six years, sociodramatic play (or role play) is proposed to be children's leading developmental activity. Sociodramatic play is the exact opposite of what is normally thought of as ""free play"" when children do whatever they want, free of any rules or social pressure (Karpov 2003: 146). Because of children's interest in the social world of adults, and their inability to take on these complex roles directly (e.g. being a doctor or firefighter), they imitate and explore adult social relations through sociodramatic play (Karpov 2003). In some historical or present traditional societies, however, role play may not be the leading activity during this age period, and children may engage more directly in apprenticeship and adult forms of work (Elkonin 2005a)
Contrary to popular belief, adult mediation is critical in helping to children to achieve what Elkonin (2005b) called ""mature"" sociodramatic play. This type of play provides the maximum developmental benefit for children, and is characterized by: symbolic representation and symbolic actions; language use to create a pretend scenario; complex interwoven themes; rich multifaceted roles; and an extended time frame (often over several days). Bodrova & Leong (2007: 144–153) detail several ways that adults can enrich children's sociodramatic play, including providing ideas and themes, and helping children plan, coordinate, and monitor their play. It is important that children be exposed to various social roles, situations, and institutions in their schooling and life experiences, in order to have rich material for play. In addition, the importance of ""sticking to one's role"" in the particular play situation facilitates the play interaction, and allows fertile ground for the development of planning, self-regulation, impulse control, and perspective taking (Bodrova & Leong 2007).
Researchers have cited numerous important developmental achievements generated by sociodramatic play (see summary in Bodrova & Leong 2007). They include: inhibition of impulses and self-regulation through adhering to playing a sociodramatic role; the overcoming of ""cognitive egocentrism"" by learning to take other points of view through playing various social roles; the development of imagination through voluntarily entering the imaginary situations involved in play; the ability to act on an internal mental plane; the integration of emotions and cognition; further development of object substitutions and symbolic thought; and development of the ""learning motive"" to continue to grow toward adulthood, which helps to propel children's next leading activity of learning in school (Karpov 2005).
As one illustration of the benefits of play, dramatic role play encourages children to use language to regulate their own behavior and those of other children (to make sure everyone sticks to their dramatic role), and this use of language generalizes to other non-play tasks (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Children talk to themselves aloud while carrying out a task or activity; this is what Piaget called ""egocentric speech"" (1926), but has more recently come to be known as ""private speech."" To guide themselves, children often use speech or phrases that they have heard during collaborative action with peers or adults, and sometimes even imitate their caregiver's voice (Luria 1961). There is evidence that the proportion of private speech that children use increases when the task they are engaging in is more difficult or novel; in addition, private speech tends to precede action in these cases, thereby playing a planning function for children (Duncan & Pratt 1997). Vygotsky's experimental data supported the idea that children's private speech originates in social interaction, and later becomes internalized as inner (nonvocal) speech, a tool for verbal thinking, planning, and self-regulation. (Vygotsky 1962)


=== Middle childhood: learning activity in educational settings ===
Learning activity in educational settings is proposed as the leading activity for the period of middle childhood (roughly age 6-12), but authors caution that schooling must be properly organized to have the maximum developmental benefit. For instance, rather than passively waiting for children to reach an appropriate developmental level before teaching certain concepts, as he interpreted Piaget's viewpoint, Vygotsky (1962) proposed that schooling should ""march ahead of development and lead it."" Furthermore, learning activity should promote the development of ""scientific concepts,"" as opposed to the ""spontaneous concepts"" of preschoolers developed in everyday life (ibid.). For Vygotsky, scientific concepts (which include the arts, humanities, and social sciences) represent the most advanced and systematic generalizations of human activity, as opposed to more superficial impressions about the world based merely on everyday personal experience (Karpov 2005). An example of a child's spontaneous concept might be that ""coins sink in water because they are metal."" The scientific concept would be that coins sink in water because their density (mass/volume) is greater than the density of water.
Karpov (2005) emphasizes that children should also learn procedures for when and how to apply scientific knowledge to problem solving and everyday situations, and he gives some examples of this. In predicting whether a piece of wood will float, children can learn to measure the density of the wood and compare this to water's density; they can also learn a second problem-solving strategy of calculating the weight of water the wood displaces, and comparing this to the weight of the wood. Instead of jumping to the conclusion that a whale is a fish because it has fins and lives in the water (spontaneous concept based on superficial observation), they can learn to apply taxonomic principles of biology to see that below the ""surface,"" whales share the criteria of the class ""mammals"" (air-breathing vertebrates with hair, mammary glands, etc.). Learning scientific concepts has the effect of restructuring children's way of thinking about the world, and leads to what Piaget called ""formal-logical thought"" (Inhelder & Piaget 1958). This includes the essential developmental ability to solve problems using abstract, theoretical information that goes beyond mere personal experience (Karpov 2003).
For an overview of different types of instruction and their outcomes, from the point of view of neo-Vygotskians, see Arievitch & Stetsenko (2002). A so-called ""theoretical learning"" approach, based in Vygtosky's cultural-historical theory, has shown promise in promoting formal-logical thought, theoretical reasoning, and other higher mental functions (tool-mediated, intentional, conscious processes) (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2002). These theoretical reasoning capabilities are thought to be crucially important in children's transition to the next leading activity, interaction with peers (Bodrova & Leong 2007; Karpov 2005).


=== Adolescence: interaction with peers ===
Interaction with peers is suggested as the leading activity for adolescents. Although peer interaction has certainly played an important role in children's development up until this point, in the period of adolescence it is theorized to become the leading activity in terms of its motivational importance, and its power in generating adolescent development. Authors point out that adults are still important mediators of adolescents' activity during this period, only less directly than when children were younger (Karpov 2005).
The activity of peer interaction provides opportunities for adolescents to use adult and societal norms, models, and relations in analyzing the behavior of their peers. As they test, master, internalize, and perhaps challenge these social standards, adolescents also come to use them for reflective self-analysis (Karpov 2005). This leads to self-awareness and the formation of what Erik Erikson (1968) called personal identity, a major developmental accomplishment of adolescence that prepares adolescents for the transition to adulthood. This further contributes to the development of formal-logical thinking in adolescents, making them capable of analysis of their feelings, goals and ambitions, morality, history, and their place in society, the existence of which they have just ""discovered"" (Karpov 2003: 150).
Although Karpov (2005) reviews the ways in which the neo-Vygotskian view of adolescence is highly consistent with recent findings and ideas of Western researchers, there is some controversy over the motive that propels peer interaction as the leading activity of adolescence. This motive has not been clearly defined in the literature, whether it has to do with cognitive advances, a desire to take on more adult roles, or sexual attraction to peers based in the reproductive developments of adolescence (Karpov 2005).


== Extensions ==
The concept of leading activity has been extended conceptually and chronologically (into adulthood) by certain authors, such as Anna Stetsenko and Igor Arievitch, who argue that the self can be understood as a leading activity (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004). They emphasize that the self is a process of real-life activity that is connected to, and positioned within ongoing societal activities. Rather than residing in the depths of a human ""soul,"" the self is constantly re-enacted and reconstructed. The self engages in practical life tasks and collaborative transformative practices, and contributes to purposefully ""changing something in and about the world (including in oneself as part of the world)"" (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004: 494).


== See also ==
Active learning
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
Aleksei N. Leontiev
Situated cognition
Social constructivism (learning theory)
Lev Vygotsky


== References ==

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2009). Tools of the mind: A Vygotskian-based early childhood curriculum. Early Childhood Services: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Effectiveness, 3(3), 245–262.
Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 39–64). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Duncan, R. M., & Pratt, M. W. (1997). Microgenetic change in the quantity and quality of preschoolers' private speech. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(2), 367–383. doi:10.1080/016502597385388
Elkonin, D. B. (2005a). On the Historical Origin of Role Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 49–89.
Elkonin, D. B. (2005b). The Subject of Our Research: The Developed Form of Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 22–48.
Erikson, E. h. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Identity: youth and crisis. Oxford England: Norton & Co.
Goldstein, M. H., & Schwade, J. A. (2008). Social feedback to infants' babbling facilitates rapid phonological learning. Psychological Science, 19(5), 515–523. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02117.x
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking. The growth of logical thinking:  From childhood to adolescence., An essay on the construction of formal operational structures (pp. 334–350). New York, NY US: Basic Books.
Karpov, Y. V. (2003). Development through the lifespan: A neo-Vygotskian approach. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 138–155). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Karpov, Y. V. (2005). The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V. S., & Miller, S. M. (2003). Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. (A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller, Eds.)Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Locke, J. L. (2001). First communication: The emergence of vocal relationships. Social Development, 10(3), 294–308. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00167
Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. Oxford England: Liveright.
Müller, U., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2000). The role of social interaction in Piaget's theory: Language for social cooperation and social cooperation for language. New Ideas in Psychology, 18(2-3), 139–156. doi:10.1016/S0732-118X(00)00004-0
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. The language and thought of the child. Oxford England: Harcourt, Brace.
Piaget, Jean. (1963). The origins of intelligence in children. The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY US: W W Norton & Co.
Stetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. (2002). Teaching, learning, and development: A post-Vygotskian perspective. In G. Wells & G. Claxton (Eds.), Learning for life in the 21st century:  Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education. (pp. 84–96). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Stetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. M. (2004). The self in cultural-historical activity theory: Reclaiming the unity of social and individual dimensions of human development. Theory & Psychology, 14(4), 475–503. doi:10.1177/0959354304044921
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bornstein, M. H., Baumwell, L., & Damast, A. M. (1996). Responsive parenting in the second year: Specific influences on children's language and play. Early Development & Parenting, 5(4), 173–183. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0917(199612)5:4<173::AID-EDP131>3.0.CO;2-V
Tomasello, M. (1999). The human adaptation for culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 509–529. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509
Tronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), 112–119. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.112
Venger, L. A. (1988). The origin and development of cognitive abilities in preschool children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(2), 147–153.
Vygotsky, L., Hanfmann, E., & Vakar, G. (1962). Thought and language. (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds.)Thought and language. Cambridge, MA US: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology, 5(3), 6–18.
Zaporozhets, A. V. (1997). Principal problems in the ontogeny of the mind. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 35(1), 53–94. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405350153
Zaporozhets, A. V., & Elkonin, D. B. (1971). The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. Oxford England: Massachusetts Inst. of Technology",1.1062148809432983
Baramulla district,"Baramulla district (or Varmul, in Kashmiri) is one of the 20 districts in the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) in the disputed Kashmir region. Baramulla town is the administrative headquarters of this district. The district covered an area of 4,588 km2 (1,771 sq mi) in 2001, but it was reduced to 4,243 km2 (1,638 sq mi) at the time of 2011 census.  In 2016, the district administration said that the area was 4,190 km2 (1,620 sq mi). Muslims constitute about 98% of the population.


== Etymology ==
The name Baramulla, meaning ""Boar's Molar Place,"" is derived from two Sanskrit words Varaha (Boar) and Mula. According to Hindu texts, the Kashmir Valley was once a lake called Satisaras, the lake of Parvati (consort of Shiva). Hindu texts state that the lake was occupied by a demon, Jalodbhava, until Vishnu assumed the form of a boar and struck the mountain with his molar at Baramulla (ancient Varahamula). He bored an opening in it where the lake water flowed out.


== History ==


=== Ancient and medieval ===
The city of Baramulla, from which the district derives its name, was founded by Raja Bhimsina in 2306 BCE. A number of prominent visitors have travelled to Baramulla. These include the Chinese visitor Heiun T'Sang and the British historian, Moorcraft. Mughal emperors had a special fascination for Baramulla. As the gateway of the Kashmir Valley, Baramulla was a stopping place for them during their visits to the valley. Jahangir also stayed at Baramulla during his visit to Kashmir in 1620 CE.
From the very beginning, Baramulla has been a religious center. The construction of Hindu Teerth and Buddhist Vihars made the city sacred to people of both religions. In the 15th century, the noted Muslim saint, Syed Janbaz Wali, visited the valley along with his companions in 1421 CE. He chose Baramulla as the centre of his mission and was buried here after death. His shrine attracts pilgrims from all over the Valley. In 1620, the sixth Sikh Guru Shri Hargobind visited the city. Baramulla thus became an abode of Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists and Sikhs.
It was the oldest and the most important town in the north of princely state of Kashmir and Jammu. In the later centuries, until 27 October 1947, it was the 'Gateway of Kashmir Valley' by the Rawalpindi-Murree-Muzaffarabad-Baramulla Road. It became a part of Union of India when the Maharaja, under duress of invasion by Pakistani tribal forces, signed the instrument of accession on 26 October 1947, which was accepted by India the next day.
Actual area of district Baramulla according to 2018 survey by the centre for remote sensing and gis is 2204.06 km2.


=== Pakistani tribal invasion (1947) ===

After the Partition of India in 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh chose to remain independent, not joining either India or Pakistan. A large number of tribals from Pakistan attacked Kashmir under the code name ""Operation Gulmarg,"" intending to seize Kashmir. The invading tribals started moving along Rawalpindi-Murree-Muzaffarabad-Baramulla Road on 22 October 1947 with Pakistani army men in plain clothes. Muzaffarabad fell on 24 October 1947. They reached and captured Baramulla on 25 October. There they stayed for several days looting, raping, and killing residents; burning and plundering homes and businesses; and desecrating and vandalising shrines and temples. They could have reached Srinagar, just 50 km away, and captured its airfield, which was not defended at all. They raped and killed European nuns (only one survived) at Baramulla's St. Joseph convent and Christian nurses at the missionary hospital. This looting, raping, murder and abduction of girls continued for several days. It is said that the suffering of Baramulla saved the rest of Kashmir, because aeroplanes carrying Indian troops airlifted from Delhi on the morning of 27 October could land at Srinagar airfield while the invaders were still at Baramulla.
Charles Chevenix Trench writes in his The Frontier Scouts (1985):

In October 1947... tribal lashkars hastened in lorries - undoubtedly with official logistic support - into Kashmir... at least one British Officer, Harvey-Kelly took part in the campaign. It seemed that nothing could stop these hordes of tribesmen taking Srinagar with its vital airfield. Indeed nothing did, but their own greed. The Mahsuds in particular stopped to loot, rape and murder; Indian troops were flown in and the lashkars pushed out of the Vale of Kashmir into the mountains. The Mahsuds returned home in a savage mood, having muffed an easy chance, lost the loot of Srinagar and made fools of themselves.
Tom Cooper of Air Combat Information Group wrote:

...the Pathans appeared foremost interested in looting, killing, ransacking and other crimes against the inhabitants instead of a serious military action.
Biju Patnaik (who later became Chief Minister of Odisha) piloted the first plane to land at Srinagar airport that morning. He brought 17 soldiers of 1-Sikh regiment commanded by Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit Rai.

""...The pilot flew low on the airstrip twice to ensure that no raiders were around... Instructions from PM Nehru’s office were clear: If the airport was taken over by the enemy, you are not to land. Taking a full circle the DC-3 flew ground level. Anxious eye-balls peered from inside the aircraft – only to find the airstrip empty. Nary a soul was in sight. The raiders were busy distributing the war booty amongst them in Baramulla.""
In the words of Gen Mohammad Akbar Khan (Brigadier-in-Charge, Pakistan, in his book War for Kashmir in 1947): ""The uncouth raiders delayed in Baramulla for two (whole) days for some unknown reason.""
It took two weeks for the Indian army to evict the raiders from Baramulla. Joined by Pakistani regular troops, they had become well-entrenched.
Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah spoke in the UN Security Council on 5 February 1948 thus: ""...the raiders came to our land, massacred thousands of people — mostly Hindus and Sikhs, but Muslims, too — abducted thousands of girls, Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims alike, looted our property and almost reached the gates of our summer capital, Srinagar...""


=== Recent years ===
Roads have been improved and road network has grown considerably in Baramulla town since 1947. New schools and colleges have started and better facilities for education have been created. More bridges on Jhelum river have been constructed or planned to connect the old town on the north bank of the river with the new town on the south bank. Decongestion of the old town has been attempted by moving some residents to houses in the new town.
The most recent development has been creation of railway connectivity with Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund and the planned connectivity with Banihal and Jammu.


== Administration ==
Baramulla district comprises sixteen tehsils: Pattan, Uri, Kreeri, Boniyar, Tangmarg, Sopore, Watergam Rafiabad, Rohama, Dangiwacha, Bomai, Dangerpora, Khoie(Panzipora), Wagoora, Kunzer, Kwarhama and Baramulla.
This district consists of 26 blocks: Uri, Rohama, Rafiabad, Zaingeer, Sopore, Boniyar, Baramulla, Tangmarg, Singhpora, Pattan, Wagoora, Kunzer, Paranpillian, Bijhama, Norkhah, Narwav, Nadihal, Kandi Rafiabad, Hardchanum, Tujjar Sharief, Sangrama, Sherabad Khore, Lalpora, Wailoo, Khaipora and Chandil Wanigam. Pattan tehsil is the largest tehsil of District Baramulla and was later split to form a separate Kreeri tehsil.
Pattan Town is situated in the centre of the district between Srinagar and Baramulla cities and is surrounded by villages like Palhalan, Nihalpora Hanjiwera Zangam, Sherpora, Sonium and Yall. Each block consists of a number of panchayats.


== Politics ==
Baramullah district has seven assembly constituencies: Uri, Rafiabad, Sopore, Wagoora-Kreeri, Baramulla, Gulmarg and Pattan.


== Demographics ==

According to the 2011 census Baramulla district had a population of 1,008,039, or 1,015,503, roughly equal to the nation of Cyprus or the US state of Montana. This gives it a ranking of 443rd in India (out of a total of 640). Of the total population, 542,171 (53.4%) were males and 473,332 (46.6%) were females, the sex ratio being 885 females for every 1,000 males (this varies with religion), a decrease from 905 in 2001 census, and much lower than the national average of 940. The sex ratio for children in 0 to 6 year age group was even less at 866.
The district has a population density of 305 inhabitants per square kilometre (790/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 20.34%.  Baramula has a literacy rate of 66.93%. with male literacy 77.35% and female literacy 55.01%. Total literate in Baramula district were 571,348 of which males and females were 352,289 and 219,059 respectively.
Baramulla town is the largest town in the district and the fourth most-populous town in the state, with a population of 167,986 as per 2011 census.

The most widely spoken language is Kashmiri (82.11% of the population according to the 2011 census), but there are also speakers of Pahari (9.88%), Gujari (3.45%), Hindi (1.58%) and Punjabi (1.26%).


== Geography and climate ==
The district is spread from Srinagar district and Ganderbal district in the east to the line of control in the west, and from Kupwara district in the north and Bandipore district in the northwest to Poonch district in the south and Badgam district in the southwest. Baramulla has cool climate under Köppen climate classification. In winter, generally between December and February, snowfall occurs. Gulmurg is popular destination for tourist all over world.
Baramulla city is located on the banks of Jhelum river at the highest point of the river. The old town lies on the north (right) bank of the river and the new town lies on the south (left) bank. They are connected by five bridges, including a suspension bridge connecting Gulnar park with Dewan Bagh.


== Healthcare ==
Baramulla has a district civil hospital and a district veterinary hospital with facilities such as radiology (x-ray) and ultrasonography. The hospital has been shifted to a new building with 300 beds in Kanthbagh in March 2013, ( In the Land of Ushkara Baramulla) which was in construction for two decades. St.Joseph's Hospital & Nursing School run by Christian Missionary Nuns Baramulla district hospital is also the associated hospital of the Government Medical College, Baramulla. There are smaller hospitals in other towns of the district and primary health centres at villages in the district. Primary Health Center Ushkara near Jamia Masjid Ushkara under Block Sheeri.


== Tehsils ==
Source:

Baramulla
Boniyar
Dangerpora
Dangiwacha
Kawarhama
Khoie (Panzipora)
Kreeri
Kunzer
Narwav
Pattan
Rohama
Singh
Sopore
Tangmarg
Uri
Wagoora
Watergam
Zaingeer (Bomai)


== References ==


== External links ==

Baramulla district official website",1.0475891828536987
Los Bañales,"Los Bañales is a Roman archaeological site located in the municipality of Uncastillo, in the northwestern part of the province of Zaragoza, Spain. It is located in the region of the Cinco Villas, with extensive occupation before, during, and after the Roman period. The site is a case study for the archaeological study of urbanization, cultural change, imperialism, trade and exchange, landscape, and social history.
The site consists of a city whose name remains unconfirmed, although it is likely to have been Tarraca. It occupies an area of more than twenty hectares (49 acres), bounded on the north by a monumental residential space, on the south by two sizeable hills, on the east by the elevated remains of a Roman aqueduct, and on the west by a necropolis. Large monumental thermal baths were constructed at the end of the 1st century CE and an aqueduct transported water to the city from a nearby reservoir. The current name of the site comes from the hermitage of Our Lady of The Baths (Nuestra Señora de Los Bañales), which was built within what is now the archaeological area.
In the early years of work at the site, only the extensive hydraulic system was studied in detail. Since 2008 research has resumed and new architectural spaces and material culture have been uncovered, including domestic, commercial, and possibly religious structures and artefacts as well as evidence for Roman, late antique, and medieval occupation. At present the project has the support of the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage of the Government of Aragon, the District of the Cinco Villas and the municipalities of Uncastillo, Sádaba, Layana and Biota.


== Historical background ==
Los Bañales lies in a territory that ancient sources such as Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, Livy, and Strabo attribute to the Vascones, a people that occupied the territories of present-day Navarre and the Cinco Villas from Aragon to the River Gállego. As such, in the Roman period it would have belonged to the jurisdiction of Caesaraugusta, present-day Zaragoza. Communication was maintained by means of a road network that linked the ports of Tarraco (Tarragona) and Oiasso (Irún) through Caesaraugusta and Pompelo (Pamplona). Before arriving at Los Bañales, that same route passed through the Roman city in Ejea de los Caballeros, perhaps the Segia of ancient sources. Part of this route probably led through Los Bañales as far as Aquitania through the old Roman cities located in Cabezo Ladrero (Sofuentes) and Campo Real / Fillera (Sos del Rey Católico-Sangüesa). The existence of such a highly interconnected social and economic network might help explain the monumentality of Los Bañales and other nearby cities.
The Romans arrived in the area around 195 BCE. We do not know the name that the indigenous inhabitants had for the city at that time. Many names have been proposed - Clarina, Muscaria, Atiliana - but what is currently considered more plausible is Tarraca, the Terracha listed in the Ravenate (IV 43 - 311,11) which is a ciuitas foederata according to the lists of Pliny (Nat. 3, 24) concerning the legal convent of Caesaraugusta, the Tarraga vascona cited by Ptolemy (U 6, 66), in the way of Caesaraugusta to Pompelo, although this route is not mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. Only the future appearance of a public inscription in which the name of the city appears would resolve the question.
According to the latest known data, the city had - at least in its lower and most monumental part – an initial and almost complete abandonment around the third century CE. This resulted in a transfer of its local elites to rural estates, which they had exploited since the first century BCE, and a retraction of its settlement towards the central hill of El Pueyo, where settlement seems to survive until the 9th century CE.


== History of archaeological activity ==
In June 1931, the Gaceta de Madrid, predecessor of the Official State Gazette, included Los Bañales de Uncastillo and other monuments in the area, such as the Mausoleum of the Atilii and the Sádaba Synagogue in the National Artistic Treasury. Seventy years later, in March 2003, these sites were declared to be of cultural interest by the Directorate General of Heritage of the Government of Aragon.1 From 1931 to 2003, the site was the scene of archaeological actions on three occasions:
Between 1942 and 1947 directed by José Galiay. This team excavated the baths, El Pueyo, the area of the two columns and the northwest corner of the forum, which Galiay interpreted as a temple.
Between 1972 and 1979 directed by Antonio Beltrán. This team excavated the thermal baths in their totality -including its reconstruction- a quarter in El Pueyo, already excavated by Galiay. They carried out complete studies on the aqueduct and the hydraulic system, and in the last campaigns, they re-excavated the zone of the two columns, erroneously treated as a macellum - market-place -.
Between 1998 and 2001 directed by José María Viladés and Miguel Ángel Zapater. They excavated an area east of the baths.
Currently and without interruption since 2008, the site is the subject of a Research Plan commissioned by the Directorate General of Heritage of the Government of Aragon to the Uncastillo Foundation and directed by the archaeologist Juan José Bienes and the historian Javier Andreu.
Since 2015, Los Bañales has had a constantly growing Virtual Museum hosted on the Sketchfab platform which is one of the platforms most commonly used by heritage projects and institutions. The museum collects 3D digitalizations of all types of archaeological material - from structures to objects of material culture - not only from Los Bañales but also from other archaeological sites in the District of Las Cinco Villas. On September 30, 2016, the Los Bañales archaeological project was awarded the Local / Regional prize in the First Edition of the Sísifo Awards for research, defense and dissemination of the Archaeological Heritage, promoted by the Sisyphus Research Group of the University of Córdoba through its project of Scientific Culture - Arqueología Somos Todos (We are all Archaeology)- highlighting the commitment to the dissemination and socialization of heritage that, since 2008, has been developing in Los Bañales. The award ceremony took place at the University of Córdoba on October 27, 2016.


== Urban center ==
To the south of the municipality of Uncastillo lies a broad area known as Los Bañales. The area contains the remains of a large Roman city whose name is still debated. Study of the site enables us to understand the principle difficulties that Rome faced in establishing urban centers in such locations. Nonetheless, it is one of the most prosperous and monumental urban centers in the Ebro valley. While study of the site is ongoing, the site has already yielded magnificent examples of Roman public and private architecture, and hydraulic engineering


=== El Pueyo ===
Archaeological examination of the city has calculated that the city of Los Bañales occupied an area of approximately 24 hectares, between the southern slope of the hill of El Pueyo and the mound of El Huso and La Rueca (503m), all the way to the bottom of the valley, where two large round stones in a vertical position were raised in the Roman era and bear (images/inscriptions) of old legends of giants and Sasones, possibly one of the city's boundary markers along the passing road.
The hill of El Pueyo, a small promontory 567 meters in height and a little less than a hundred on the surrounding land, is possibly the original location of the pre-Roman settlement. The settlement became culturally acculturated to a different extent in each of the three terraces on which it is built. According to the latest known evidence, the hill was most likely occupied until the 9th c CE.,  A gradual process of abandonment processes over the previous centuries and the hill's inhabitants scattered throughout the nearby territory.
Each terrace had a different domestic character. Thus, in the area closest to the forum, a central street -partially excavated by José Galiay and still visible today- served as the axis around which houses were located radially. Protecting the second terrace remains of a wall made with large ashlars. At the highest point of the hill vestiges of a monumental building, perhaps a Roman temple continuing its pre-Roman use. The entire valley is visually dominated from the summit of the hill, and this may explain the location of the possible temple.
Excavations in the last few years have produced a notable crop of ceramic material from the 8th and 9th centuries CE, as well as the discovery of a unique bone scapula with Arabic text.


=== The forum ===
The first terrace of El Pueyo could have been reserved for public purposes. This is evidenced by the remains of the building that José Galiay called a temple in his excavations in the 1940s, consisting of an important concentration of pedestals and molding elements of remarkable size next to a wall closing at an angle towards the hill and that they had not returned to be a reason for study until the beginning of the current Research Plan, revealing without a doubt that it is in fact a monumental forum until now only part of its north and west sides are known.
The actions carried out in the last excavation campaigns - since 2008 - have revealed that the forum was based on large foundation boxes seated on the rock itself and made with large ashlar stones, which suggests that the upper spaces were of an imposing majesty. This together with its elevated and terraced situation in a wide area between the hermitage of Nuestra Senora de Los Bañales and the way up to El Pueyo suggests that the forum would be ostensibly visible from the road, on its way to the south of the city crossing the valley.
Recent summer excavation campaigns in the forum have continued to produce new results:
Season III (2011) - Exedra in the western portico with four in situ monumental inscriptions of a votive and salutary nature dedicated by one Pompeia Paulla to four deities.
Season IV (2012) - Edicum in the Western Portico -contiguous to the previous one- with a monumental podium with remains of statue bases and with five texts. The texts refer to M. Fabius Nouus and Porcia Fauentina whose statues -judging by the cartels with their names - would occupy the left side of the building, leaving the center reserved for a statue to Victoria Augusta offered by both and the sides for individual tributes by each of them to L. Fabius Placidus, uncle of M Fabius Nouus, and Porcia Germulla, perhaps Porcia's sister.  The two epigraphic sets, by decision of the Government of Aragon, were protected by sandstone replicas made by the Stonemasonry Workshop School.
Season V (2013) - A remarkable lot of more than 40 pieces of Roman sculptural material discarded, surely, for conversion into lime. The lot contains pieces in imported white marble as well as remnants of different decorative programs composed of toga and battleship statues.  The remains of a shell of an armored statue - Thoracatus - decorated with reliefs alluding to an imperial victory as well as the remains of two legs that allow partial reconstruction of the original sculpture. The Paleorama company works on the Princeps Resurgens project, which aims at the virtual reconstruction by photogrammetric means of this thoracatus.
Season VI (2014) - The complete perimeter of the forum was defined, in the process discovering the western side that was missing. A new batch of more than thirty pieces of white marble of statuary of the forum was also discovered, highlighting among them a new fragment of the breastplate of the thoracatus -complementary to that discovered in the campaign of 2013-and several fragments of imperial portraits of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Season VII (2015) – During excavation of the eastern cryptoporticus of the forum, a pedestal appeared, dedicated by the cavalry officer Quintus Sempronius Vitulus to the Emperor Tiberius, in his fifth consulate (31/32 AD). A second pedestal, found in the same area as the first, was dedicated to Lucius Caesar,  adopted son of the Emperor Augustus. It can be dated to between 5 BC and 2 AD. A third pedestal in the same area, dedicated by a freedman to the same Quintus Sempronius Vitulus, described his military career as an officer in the Taurian wing and subprefect of a cohort in the cohors Germanorum.  A fourth pedestal practically identical to the previous one was also found, although on this occasion the name of the dedicator of the monument was complete, the freedman Aesopus  and, unlike the previous one, which was made by Vitulus himself in his will, this was erected by Aesopus on his own initiative.
Season VIII (2016) - The perimeter of the public square was completely defined, with the tabernae on the western side and the street on the way up to El Pueyo on the eastern side.

In 2014, Pablo Serrano Basterra, a fellow of the Research Plan of the Uncastillo Foundation in Los Bañales, with the advice of the project team, used the virtual 3D software Blender in the Forum Renascens to recreate the forum digitally. In early 2018 an application for Android phones and tablets was released which presents the site through a series of multimedia materials such as audio guides, virtual recreations, and 3D videos. This site was the first in Aragón to make an application of this type available to the public. In its first edition it focused on the forum of the Roman city, while it left the rest of the parts of the site for further extensions.


=== The baths ===

The baths are undoubtedly the most representative monument of the site of Los Bañales and possibly an inspiring element of the current name of the area, related to the baths. To a great extent, its current excellent state of preservation is due to its use for years as a dwelling. It was described in 1610 by Juan Bautista Labaña, a Portuguese geographer, author of a map and an itinerary of the Kingdom of Aragón.
They were excavated by the teams of both José Galiay and later by Antonio Beltrán, who restored it to the state it is in today. It measures about 530 m2 and had a capacity for approximately sixty people. Given the estimated size of the city's population, this is not large enough, and this suggests that they would not be the only baths available.
The building was accessed from two small lobbies with benches, which allowed control of the entry and exits, from there to a locker room -apodyterium- in which the niches are preserved as wardrobe -loculi-. Through two doors you can access the cold room -frigidarium- in which there is a small pool -natatio-, or the warm room -tepidarium- and from this to the hot room -caldarium- where there was also a hot water tub, in a room that functioned as a sauna -sudity-. There were latrines accessible from the frigidarium and from the lobby on the east side of the baths.


== Water supply ==
Located in an immense plain in the center of the fluvial basins of the rivers Riguel and Arba de Luesia, from its beginnings the city of Los Bañales had to solve, by means of cisterns and springs now mostly vanished, how to obtain a water supply. But its growth or the loss of the original aquifers led to the construction of a hydraulic system, unparalleled in the Roman world, which would provide the volume of water necessary to cover all the city's needs. Judging by the marks attested in some of the ashlars of the pillars of the aqueduct alluding to the Legio IIII Macedonica that participated in the construction between 9 and 5 a. C of the road between Caesaraugusta and Pompelo -together with Legio VI Victrix and Legio X Gemina-, one could date the construction of the aqueduct on those same dates, coinciding with what would be the first monumental takeoff of the city. In April 2015, within the program of the First Roman Weekend in Los Bañales, two new audiovisuals dedicated to the hydraulic system of the city were presented. The first one was a report directed by the young Aragonese filmmaker Álvaro Bonet y el segundo, una recreación infográfica realizada en Blender por Pablo Serrano and the second one, an infographic recreation made in Blender by Pablo Serrano, of which fragments also appear in the first of the audiovisuals.


=== The elevated section of the aqueduct: the great pillars ===
The aqueduct is one of the most outstanding elements of the archaeological site of Los Bañales. It is a work, which, despite its apparent coarseness, is a key example of Roman aqueducts in Spain due to its constructive system.
It extends from Puy Foradado - a name suggesting that it was drilled for the passage of water - saving a small depression of about 350 m, resting on a rocky ridge, partly elevated on pillars and in others points for a channel carved into the rock itself -specus-, to access the city of Los Bañales at some point yet to be determined.
In this elevated part of the aqueduct, 32 of the more than 70 pillars that it was supposed to have are conserved, built with sandstone ashlars from the area, in variable number and thickness in each pillar, depending on the necessary height, placed dry one on another and ingeniously supported on the stratum of sandstones that emerges in the area and in which the foundation boxes needed to balance each pillar on the ground were worked.
The upper ashlar of each pillar has a ""U"" -shaped recess that would serve to support the lintel that would hold the channel -or pipe- that would transport the water and about 90 cm from the crowning of each pillar a horizontal perforation appears from side to side that would allow there to be a system of propping for the support of the lintel in the center of the span between each two pillars.
The elevated section of this aqueduct was complemented by sections of specimens carved into the rock itself - some meters of this system have been found-, taking advantage of the slope of some hills, maintaining the necessary level and with the appropriate slope for the continuity of the water transit. Taking into account the dimensions to which the different elements of the route are located, it has been calculated that the entire aqueduct maintained a constant slope of less than 0.1% -a meter of difference for each kilometer of travel-, which makes a difference of height between pillars of a few millimeters.
There is a local legend that attributes the construction of the aqueduct to the Devil.

A young woman who supposedly lived in Los Bañales, tired of hauling water from the river, makes a pact with the Devil to build an aqueduct that brings water to her home before the rooster crows the next day contributing her soul to change, but when next to the dawn of the next day the Devil is placing the last stone of his work, the girl brings a lamp to the rooster, who believing that it is already day, sings and makes the Devil give up thinking that he could not get his task, getting the girl in that way and after placing the last stone, his precious aqueduct without loss of his soul.


=== The dam ===
The oral tradition attributes the origin of the water that arrived at Los Bañales, based exclusively on the collective memory, to the Fountain of the Devil of Malpica de Arba, but until now this data has not been confirmed and the measurements of height made in the most of 9 km. -in a straight line- of travel between this place and the Roman city make it hardly viable, which suggests that the source of supply -caput aquae- lies elsewhere.
For this reason, and taking into account some notes of previous archaeological campaigns that cited a possible dam in the place called Cubalmena, recent work has shown its existence, which would little more than 2 km. from the center of the current site, although it is already in the municipality of Biota.
The structure discovered is most likely a Roman dam, although it currently serves as a separation wall between two plots of culture at different heights. But excavation along the entirety of what would be its front downstream reveals a wall 53m in length. It is in the form of an arch and was made with blocks placed in staggered courses and supported on its two ends on two rocky outcrops where it would prop up to resist the thrust of the body of water. Work has been carried out on the upper part of the dike that confirms that it was built on a bed of clays that, in addition to support, served to waterproof it.
Taking into account the size of the dike, an approximate height of 3m. and the extension of the water canvas according to the orography of the superior farm, it has been calculated that it could contain some 30,000 m3 of water. It would be the water coming from a spring that has now disappeared - but which still persists in the memory of the people and which makes the current land especially fertile - as well as the rain water that would be collected from the nearby hills by the small ravines that converge on that same plot.
From this dam and surrounding - or horadando- the hill of Puy Foradado, the water outlet would look for the valley in the direction of the city and would link with the elevated section of the aqueduct, although at the moment the starting point is not known nor the route that would link these two structures.


== Residential, craft and commercial areas ==
There are several areas in the city of Los Bañales, with structures that are identified as residential and / or commercial areas, both in Roman times and at other times in their history.


=== Domestic craft area ===
Next to the thermal baths, a plot that had not been previously unexplored was excavated between 2009 and 2012. This work yielded an artisanal and industrial space, built using other monumental-looking spaces possibly for public use, and reusing architectural materials of other constructions.
They observed in this space, both residential type buildings and well as others that seemed to be industrial. Ovens or storage areas suggested that this area may contain houses with craft workshops. This is backed by the fact that the team found a lot of objects made of bone. It is possible that it was a store -tabernae- dedicated to the manufacture and sale of such products.


=== The arcaded street ===
The first thing that is found by the visitor who comes to Los Bañales through the town of Layana are two colossal Tuscan columns. For decades this was mistakenly considered to be a possible access to the forum of the city or part of a market -macellum-, but, in reality, these two columns - and others of which only its base is conserved - formed part of a portico located at the crossroads of two streets. In fact, part of the sidewalks are conserved - in one of whose angles a monumental dwelling was located, which probably belonged to the local elite. This house has a central peristyle to which the main rooms were opened, of which parts of the stone plinth are preserved, on which the different walls would be supported.
Alongside this area, the remains of a staircase that would lead to another area located on a lower terrace, currently a growing area, are also preserved. All this area was excavated for the last time and very partially, in the 70s of the twentieth century, and partially again in 2017.


=== The houses of El Pueyo ===
El Pueyo was completely occupied by houses of pre-Roman era, and today you can intuit, observing from a high point, the different blocks of houses -insulae -. In the facades of these houses, which in some cases had to have low commercial -tabernae-, you can see well squared and large blocks located in key areas of the building, while the dividing sockets of the interior were made with hewn stones and perpendicular orthostats to give greater consistency to the wall. Its atypical structure for the Roman model suggests that they are houses adapted to the different periods of survival of the population in this area of the city, from centuries before acculturation with Rome and until centuries after the dismantling of the public structures of the Roman city.
Excavated by José Galiay and documented again by Antonio Beltrán, a part of the second mentioned terrace, is currently under study again, since in recent excavations a section of the wall that surrounded this terrace was discovered, with the base of one of its towers and even the doorway of a wall.


== The necropolis ==

Like any Roman city, Los Bañales had its own necropolis. Its remains have been identified to the southwest of what would have been the urban nucleus.
As a result of the archaeological surveys – excavation has not yet taken place – the necropolis has yielded quadrangular and triangular-headed steles, funerary altars, pedestals and especially cupae.
The cupae -in Latin, singular cupa, plural cupae- is a peculiar type of funerary monument of an elongated plant with cylindrical cover, imitating a tumbled barrel -in fact, cupa means tonel in Latin-, which were used in some regions of the Roman Empire between the 1st and 3rd centuries and which was exceptionally frequent in this area.  Under their barrel shape they had a hole in which an urn was inserted with the ashes of the deceased. They also had a side holes so that the relatives could make offerings and libations and on one of the sides a commemorative inscription would have been carved.
The cupae were not only frequent in the necropolis of Los Bañales but also in the villas of the elite. The findings have been increasing in recent years, since the beginning of the revision of the rural territory in 2009. The most recent occurred in the summer of 2015.


== Funerary monuments ==
Under the protection of the city of Los Bañales and not far from the passing road, some of the estates of the local elite had their own funerary areas in the surroundings of their luxurious homes.

Mausoleum of the Atilii - popularly called the altar of the Moors
Its inscriptions indicate that a woman named Atilia Festa built it, in life, for her grandfather Gaius Atilius Genialis, for her father Lucius Atilius Festus and for herself. This facade is one of the ornamental jewels of Roman funerary art in the Iberian Peninsula.
In January 2016, Pablo Serrano, infographics artist of the Los Bañales project, carried out a 3D reconstruction of the monument based on detailed photogrammetric documentation and comparison with similar monuments and Roman funerary culture. This reconstruction is hosted on the Los Bañales video channel.
Mausoleum of the Sádaba Synagogue A Roman mausoleum made of opus mixtum, with rigging made of ashlar and brick, a cruciform plan with two exedras appended to the sides, and unequal arms. The monument follows architectural parallels from the Constantinian era, 4th century CE., similar to Sant Miquel de Egara (Tarrasa) or Centcelles (Constantí, Tarragona). It was likely associated with a sumptuous villa, of which some remains are preserved a few meters from the mausoleum.
On April 17, 2015 the Geometric Documentation of Heritage Laboratory (LDGP) of the University of the Basque Country, presented an exhaustive work on the remains of this mausoleum, documenting its state of conservation at that time and making its results public for future studies or restoration work.


== Rural settlement ==
In spite of the intense urbanization that the area registered in Roman times, the region's ancient cities survived, above all, on agrarian activity. Cereal, oil, wine, esparto, wood, livestock products and, also, sandstone must have been the primary products of this territory. The area was very well irrigated by the waters of the rivers Riguel and Arba de Luesia and was crossed, in addition, by a road that connected the Ebro Valley with the Bay of Biscay and the Pyrenees and an extensive network of secondary roads.
The local elite, which had large farms, maintained an active relationship with the city, using it as a market for its products and as a source of workers. There were large rural districts annexed to the city -uici- where different groups of artisans were located. Somewhat more distant and strategically located were the villas, sumptuous farms that took advantage of the resources of their surrounding area and in some cases had important facilities such as baths or cemeteries.
In the summer of 2013, the City Council of Layana, with the advice of the Uncastillo Foundation, inaugurated an innovative Interpretation Center on the rural Roman landscape called De Agri Cultura. This interpretive space is located in the medieval tower of the 11th century that presides over the hamlet of the municipality. It is a space that allows visitors to get an idea of the productive systems, economic life and peasant society of the Roman era in the vicinity of Los Bañales.


== See also ==
List of Bienes de Interés Cultural in the Province of Zaragoza


== References ==",1.0491598844528198
Surface acoustic wave,"A surface acoustic wave (SAW) is an acoustic wave traveling along the surface of a material exhibiting elasticity, with an amplitude that typically decays exponentially with depth into the material, such that they are confined to a depth of about one wavelength.


== Discovery ==
SAWs were first explained in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh, who described the surface acoustic mode of propagation and predicted its properties in his classic paper. Named after their discoverer, Rayleigh waves have a longitudinal and a vertical shear component that can couple with any media like additional layers in contact with the surface. This coupling strongly affects the amplitude and velocity of the wave, allowing SAW sensors to directly sense mass and mechanical properties. The term 'Rayleigh waves' is often used synonymously with 'SAWs', although strictly speaking there are multiple types of surface acoustic waves, such as Love waves, which are polarised in the plane of the surface, rather than longitudinal and vertical.
SAWs such as Love and Rayleigh waves tend to propagate for much longer than bulk waves, as they only have to travel in two dimensions, rather than in three. Furthermore, in general they have a lower velocity than their bulk counterparts.


== SAW devices ==
Surface acoustic wave devices provide wide-range of applications with the use of electronic system, including delay lines, filters, correlators and DC to DC converters. The possibilities of these SAW device could provide potential field in radar system, communication systems.


=== Application in electronic components ===
This kind of wave is commonly used in devices called SAW devices in electronic circuits. SAW devices are used as filters, oscillators and transformers, devices that are based on the transduction of acoustic waves.  The transduction from electric energy to mechanical energy (in the form of SAWs) is accomplished by the use of piezoelectric materials.

Electronic devices employing SAWs normally use one or more interdigital transducers (IDTs) to convert acoustic waves to electrical signals and vice versa by exploiting the piezoelectric effect of certain materials, like quartz, lithium niobate, lithium tantalate, lanthanum gallium silicate, etc.  These devices are fabricated by substrate cleaning/treatments like polishing, metallisation, photolithography, and passivation/protection (dielectric) layer manufacturing. These are typical process steps used in manufacturing of semiconductors like silicon integrated circuits.
All parts of the device (substrate, its surface, metallisation material type, thickness of metallisation, its edges formed by photolithography, layers - like passivation coating the metallisation) have effect on the performance of the SAW devices because propagation of Rayleigh waves is highly dependent on the substrate material surface, its quality and all layers in contact with the substrate. For example in SAW filters the sampling frequency is dependent on the  width of the IDT fingers, the power handling capability is related to the thickness and materials of the IDT fingers, and the temperature stability depends not only of the temperature behavior of the substrate but also on the metals selected for the IDT electrodes and the possible dielectric layers coating the substrate and the electrodes.
SAW filters are now used in mobile telephones, and provide technical advantages in performance, cost, and size over other filter technologies such as quartz crystals (based on bulk waves), LC filters, and waveguide filters specifically at frequencies below 1.5-2.5 GHz depending on the RF power needed to be filtered. Complementing technology to SAW for frequencies above 1.5-2.5 GHz is based on thin-film bulk acoustic resonators (TFBAR, or FBAR).
Much research has been done in the last 20 years in the area of surface acoustic wave sensors.
Sensor applications include all areas of sensing (such as chemical, optical, thermal, pressure, acceleration, torque and biological).  SAW sensors have seen relatively modest commercial success to date, but are commonly commercially available for some applications such as touchscreen displays. They have been successfully applied to torque sensing in motorsport powertrains and high performance aerospace applications as well as temperature sensing in harsh environments such as high voltage electrical power transmission and the combined sensing of torque and temperature on the rotor of electric motors


=== SAW device applications in radio and television ===
SAW resonators are used in many of the same applications in which quartz crystals are used, because they can operate at higher frequency.  They are often used in radio transmitters where tunability is not required.  They are often used in applications such as garage door opener remote controls, short range radio frequency links for computer peripherals, and other devices where channelization is not required.   Where a radio link might use several channels, quartz crystal oscillators are more commonly used to drive a phase locked loop.  Since the resonant frequency of a SAW device is set by the mechanical properties of the crystal, it does not drift as much as a simple LC oscillator, where conditions such as capacitor performance and battery voltage will vary substantially with temperature and age.
SAW filters are also often used in radio receivers, as they can have precisely determined and narrow passbands.  This is helpful in applications where a single antenna must be shared between a transmitter and a receiver operating at closely spaced frequencies.  SAW filters are also frequently used in television receivers, for extracting subcarriers from the signal;  until the analog switchoff, the extraction of digital audio subcarriers from the intermediate frequency strip of a television receiver or video recorder was one of the main markets for SAW filters.
Early pioneer Jeffery Collins incorporated surface acoustic wave devices in a Skynet receiver he developed in the 1970s. It synchronised signals faster than existing technology.
They are also often used in digital receivers, and are well suited to superhet applications.  This is because the intermediate frequency signal is always at a fixed frequency after the local oscillator has been mixed with the received signal, and so a filter with a fixed frequency and high Q provides excellent removal of unwanted or interference signals.
In these applications, SAW filters are almost always used with a phase locked loop synthesized local oscillator, or a varicap driven oscillator.


== SAW in geophysics ==
In seismology surface acoustic waves could become the most destructive type of seismic wave produced by earthquakes, which propagate in more complex media, such as ocean bottom, rocks, etc. so that it need to be noticed and monitored by people to protect living environment.


== SAW in quantum acoustics ==
SAWs play a key role in the field of quantum acoustics (QA) where, in contrast to quantum optics (QO) which studies the interaction between matter and light, the interaction between quantum systems (phonons, (quasi-)particles and artificial qubits) and acoustic waves is analysed.  The propagation speed of the respective waves of QA is five orders of magnitude slower than that of QO. As a result, QA offers a different perspective of the quantum regime in terms of wavelengths which QO has not covered. One example of these additions is the quantum optical investigation of qubits and quantum dots fabricated in such a way as to emulate essential aspects of natural atoms, e.g. energy-level structures and coupling to an electromagnetic field. These artificial atoms are arranged into a circuit dubbed ‘giant atoms’, due to its size reaching 10−4–10−3 m. Quantum optical experiments generally made use of microwave fields for matter-light interaction, but because of the difference of wavelength between the giant atoms and microwave fields, the latter of which has a wavelength ranging between 10−2–10−1 m, SAWs were used instead for their more suitable wavelength (10−6 m).
Within the fields of magnonics and spintronics, a resonant coupling between spin waves and surface acoustic waves with equal wave-vector and frequency allows for the transfer of energy from one form to another, in either direction. This can for example be useful in the construction of magnetic field sensors, which are sensitive to both the intensity and direction of external magnetic fields. These sensors, constructed using a structure of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric layers have the benefit of operating without batteries and wires, as well as having a broad range of operating conditions, such as high temperatures or rotating systems.


=== Single electron control ===

Even at the smallest scales of current semiconductor technology, each operation is carried out by huge streams of electrons. Reducing the number of electrons involved in these processes, with the ultimate goal of achieving single electron control is a serious challenge. This is due to the electrons being highly interactive with each other and their surroundings, making it difficult to separate just one from the rest. The use of SAWs can help with achieving this goal. When SAWs are generated on a piezoelectric surface, the strain wave generates an electromagnetic potential. The potential minima can then trap single electrons, allowing them to be individually transported. Although this technique was first thought of as a way to accurately define a standard unit of current, it turned out to be more useful in the field of quantum information. Usually, qubits are stationary, making the transfer of information between them difficult. The single electrons, carried by the SAWs, can be used as so called flying qubits, able to transport information from one place to another. To realise this a single electron source is needed, as well as a receiver between which the electron can be transported. Quantum dots (QD) are typically used for these stationary electron confinements. This potential minimum is sometimes called a SAW QD. The process, as seen in the GIF on the right, is typically as follows. First SAWs are generated with an interdigital transducer with specific dimensions between the electrodes to get the favorable wavelengths. Then from the stationary QD the electron quantum tunnels to the potential minimum, or SAW QD. The SAWs transfer some kinetic energy to the electron, driving it forward. It is then carried through a one dimensional channel on a surface of piezoelectric semiconductor material like GaAs. Finally, the electron tunnels out of the SAW QD and into the receiver QD, after which the transfer is complete. This process can also be repeated in both directions.


== SAW and 2D materials ==
As acoustic vibrations can interact with the moving charges in a piezoelectric semiconductor through the strain-induced piezoelectric field in bulk materials, this acoustoelectric (AE) coupling is also important in 2D materials, such as graphene. In these 2D materials the two-dimensional electron gas has band gap energies generally much higher than the energy of the SAW phonons traveling through the material. Therefore the SAW phonons are typically absorbed via intra-band electronic transitions. In graphene these transitions are the only way, as the linear dispersion relation of its electrons prevents momentum/energy conservation when it would absorb a SAW for an inter-band transition.
Often the interaction between moving charges and SAWs results in the diminishing of the SAW intensity as it moves through the 2D electron gas, as well as re-normalizing the SAW velocity. The charges take over kinetic energy from the SAW and lose this energy again through carrier scattering.
Aside from SAW intensity attenuation, there are specific situations in which the wave can be amplified as well. By applying a voltage over the material, the charge carriers may obtain a higher drift speed than the SAW. Then they pass on a part of their kinetic energy to the SAW, causing it to amplify its intensity and velocity. The converse works as well. If the SAW is moving faster than the carriers, it may transfer kinetic energy to them, and thereby losing some velocity and intensity.


== SAW in microfluidics ==
In recent years, attention has been drawn to using SAWs to drive microfluidic actuation and a variety of other processes. Owing to the mismatch of sound velocities in the SAW substrate and fluid, SAWs can be efficiently transferred into the fluid, creating significant inertial forces and fluid velocities. This mechanism can be exploited to drive fluid actions such as pumping, mixing, and jetting.[8] To drive these processes, there is a change of mode of the wave at the liquid-substrate interface. In the substrate, the SAW wave is a transverse wave and upon entering the droplet the wave becomes a longitudinal wave.[9]  It is this longitudinal wave that creates the flow of fluid within the microfluidic droplet, allowing mixing to take place. This technique can be used as an alternative to microchannels and microvalves for manipulation of substrates, allowing for an open system.
This mechanism has also been used in droplet-based microfluidics for droplet manipulation. Notably, using SAW as an actuation mechanism, droplets were pushed towards two or more outlets for sorting. Moreover, SAWs were used for droplet size modulation, splitting, trapping, tweezing, and nanofluidic pipetting. Droplet impact on flat and inclined surfaces has been manipulated and controlled using SAW.
PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) is a material that can be used to create microchannels and microfluidic chips. It has many uses, including in experiments where living cells are to be tested or processed. If living organisms need to be kept alive, it is important to monitor and control their environment, such as heat and pH levels; however, if these elements are not regulated, the cells may die or it may result in unwanted reactions. PDMS has been found to absorb acoustic energy, causing the PDMS to heat up quickly (exceeding 2000 Kelvin/second). The use of SAW as a way to heat these PDMS devices, along with liquids inside microchannels, is now a technique that can be done in a controlled manner with the ability to manipulate the temperature to within 0.1 °C.
The development of Flexible Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) devices has been a significant driver in the advancement of wearable technology and microfluidic systems. These devices are typically fabricated on polymer substrates, such as Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) and polyimide, and utilize sputtering deposition of materials like AlN and ZnO. This combination of flexibility and advanced materials has expanded their application potential across various fields.


== SAW in flow measurement ==
Surface acoustic waves can be used for flow measurement. SAW relies on the propagation of a wave front, which appears similar to seismic activities. The waves are generated at the excitation centre and spread out along the surface of a solid material. An electric pulse induces them to generate SAWs that propagate like the waves of an earthquake. Interdigital transducer acts as sender and as receiver. When one is in sender mode, the two most distant ones act as receivers. The SAWs travel along the surface of the measuring tube, but a portion will couple out to the liquid. The decoupling angle depends on the liquid respectively the propagation velocity of the wave which is specific to the liquid. On the other side of the measuring tube, portions of the wave will couple into the tube and continue their way along its surface to the next interdigital transducer. Another portion will be coupled out again and travels back to the other side of the measuring tube where the effect repeats itself and the transducer on this side detects the wave. That means excitation of any one transducer here will lead to a sequence of input signals on two other transducers in the distance. Two of the transducers send their signals in the direction of flow, two in the other direction.


== See also ==
Linear elasticity
Love wave
Phonon
Picosecond ultrasonics
Rayleigh wave
Surface plasmon polariton
Ultrasound


== References ==


== External links ==
History of SAW Devices
SAW Sensor
Watching ripples on crystals",1.0923246145248413
Underwater diving in Guam,"Underwater diving encompasses a variety of economically and culturally significant forms of diving on the U.S. island territory of Guam. Scuba diving tourism is a significant component of the island's tourist activity, in particular for visitors from Japan and South Korea. Recreational diving by Guam residents has a lesser but still substantial economic impact. Marine biologists have raised concerns about the effect of diving upon the health of some of Guam's reefs. Recreational dive sites on Guam include submerged shipwrecks, such as the double wrecks of SMS Cormoran and Tokai Maru, and natural features, such as Blue Hole.
Freedive spearfishing is a culturally and economically important activity for Guam residents, with a history extending to the pre-Spanish CHamoru people. Guam is well represented in local and regional spearfishing competitions. Scuba spearfishing was banned by law in March 2020, after over ten years of resistance from local fishing groups.


== Recreational diving ==

Scuba diving tourism is a subset of tourism that is dependent on a healthy marine ecosystem. In 2006, the Guam Economic Development Authority (GEDA) estimated that 30% of the island's economy was tourism, while 65% comprised the economic impact of the U.S. military. In 2001, a study by the Guam Visitors Bureau identified 13 dive companies operating on Guam, which employed 13 dive boats and 99 certified instructors. Authorities also believe there to be a large number of ""fly-by-nighters"" who operate out of vans and can handle small groups of tourists. According to the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), the largest diver certification agency, there were just over 10,000 PADI certifications issued on Guam in 2003, compared to about than 5,000 in 1990. The vast majority – 88% –  of PADI certifications issued from 1980 to 2003 on Guam were to Japanese, with 9% to local divers and 3% to ""other"".

In a 2007 study published by the University of Guam (UOG) Marine Lab, researchers attempted to estimate the number of dives and divers being conducted on Guam. The first method was to use 2002 numbers and tourist segment studies published by the Guam Visitors Bureau. Using this method, UOG study calculated that 6.3% of the 976,351 visitors in 2002 were divers, or 61,746 people. Since this study, number of Koreans tourists surged, eventually outnumbering Japanese tourists in 2017. Doing a similar calculation for fiscal year 2019, there were 734,339 arrivals from South Korea. Exit interviews by the Guam Visitors Bureau in FY2019 found that 27% of Korean visitors reported participation in scuba diving activities. This corresponds to about 198,271 Korean visitors diving at least once during the year. For the same time period, there were 674,345 arrivals from Japan, of whom 7% reported scuba diving, corresponding to about 74,204 divers. For context, the population of Guam in July 2021 is estimated at 168,801.
The 2007 UOG study estimated the annual number of dives by locals to be between 64,00 and 128,000. Combined with the visitors numbers for 2002, this yielded an estimated total number of annual dives on Guam of 190,000 to 375,000. This was comparable to the second method used by the researchers; using reported daily tank fill numbers, they alternately estimated that there were 256,00 to 340,000 dives annually. The study used 300,000 as its approximation of the number of dives per year on Guam, with one-third being made by locals and two-thirds by international visitors. After estimating the various costs of dives and certifications, the 2007 UOG study estimated that the direct economic value of visitor diving was $4 million, the most valuable water sport activity on Guam that is dependent on a healthy ecosystem. Diving by locals was valued at $1.2 million, third-place after dolphin watching.
PADI reports that there are 15 PADI dive shops on Guam, of which seven are 5 Star Instructor Development Centers/Resorts and four are PADI 5 Star Dive Centers/Resorts. The majority of PADI shops were located in central Guam, with the exceptions of dive shops catering to Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air Force Base.
Naval Base Guam has operated the U.S. Navy's busiest recompression chamber in the Pacific region since 1971. It is the only chamber, also called a dive locker, in the Micronesia region and treats both civilian and military divers suffering from decompression sickness. In 2016, the dive locker treated one person per week on average, down from three per week before the widespread use of dive computers. Most patients were tourists or local scuba spearfishermen.


=== Environmental impact of recreational diving ===

A number of recreational diving activities may have harmful environmental impacts, including touching or breaking coral, kicking sand or silt over living coral, and feeding or harassing wildlife. A small number of protected sites on Guam receive a disproportionately large percentage of inexperienced divers and students receiving open water instruction, who are the most likely to engage in harmful behaviors. These sites are Tumon Bay Marine Preserve, located in the tourist center of Tumon, and Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, along the coast of Piti. The number of divers at Piti Bomb Holes increased dramatically after access to a third location, Outhouse Beach on Apra Harbor, was restricted in 2001. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Outhouse Beach was deemed too close to critical infrastructure around the Port of Guam. An estimated 50 to 200 dives occurred daily within a 0.25 hectares (0.62 acres) section of Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, putting the number of annual dives at over 18,000. The threshold at which coral damage can rapidly accumulate is 4,000 to 6,000 dives, putting Piti Bomb Holes at severe risk.
The International Coastal Cleanup is a popular event on Guam, which routinely ranks in the top 25 countries for pounds collected. The event typically includes cleanup scuba dives near the Agat World War II Amtrac site off Agat Cemetery and at Asan Cut, which are dive sites particularly prone to accumulating trash washed out by nearby rivers.


== Spearfishing ==

Breath-hold spearfishing is both a cultural and economic activity on Guam. The ancient CHamoru people used a barbed spear known as a fisga. The 8-foot wooden shaft was tipped with either wood or bone, and used for both surface and subsurface spearfishing. Spearfishing by skin divers was called etokcha' in the CHamoru language. Fishermen would swim with their eyes open and use an underhand thrust for small prey or an overhead thrust for larger prey. Irritated eyes were treated with drops from Scaevola taccada, known as nanasu.
Spearfishing continues to be widespread on Guam. Most spearfishing occurs from 5 to 60 feet (1.5 to 18.3 m), with the favored prey fish being parrotfish and unicornfish. Speared fish are often sold through the Guam Fisherman's Cooperative. A 2017 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council meeting noted that the Marianas Underwater Fishing Federation was taking the lead in teaching spearfishermen to enter their catch in NOAA's Marine Recreational Information Program website/mobile app. The Federation noted, ""they are trying hard to legitimize spearfishing as a sport, [but] there are many others who are pillaging the resources by spearing fish that are too small or taking more than what is needed."" It was also noted that much of the catch recorded thus far was for personal use.

A 2010 study found that the establishment of Guam's marine preserves had more than doubled the death rate by drowning of CHamoru fisherman, including spear fishermen, with the hypothesis being that they were pushed into more hazardous areas. Prior to the establishment of the preserves in 1997, residents of Guam fished primarily on the western coast, which is leeward of the trade winds, and in the reefs along Cocos Lagoon in the south. Non-CHamoru fishermen who were resident on Guam were primarily recreational fishermen, while CHamoru residents were more likely subsistence fishermen. With the enforcement of marine preserves in the historical fishing grounds in the west and south, non-CHamoru recreational fishermen reduced their fishing activity, while CHamoru subsistence fishermen began more heavily fishing the windward eastern coast, which has more hazardous conditions that increase the risk of drowning. Comparing the pre-preserve period of 1986–2009 and post-period of 2001–2009, the study found that the drowning rate of CHamoru fishermen increased 225%; the proportion of drowning deaths on the east coast increased from 20% to 63%; and the drowning death rates of non-CHamoru fishermen fell by about 50%. Deaths of spearfishermen remain common.


=== Competitive spearfishing ===

Guam athletes participate in competitive spearfishing. Guam took gold in both the individual and team events at the quadrennial 2018 Micronesian Games, with one sports site commenting, ""Guam has a very experienced and well-equipped crew that has a great deal of international spearfishing experience."" Guam also took team gold and individual silver at the 2014 Games, as well as team gold and individual bronze at the 2010 Games.
In 2008, Guam made its first appearance at the Inter-Pacific Spearfishing Competition as a social competitor. It was voted in as a core member in 2014 and hosted for the first time in 2017. Guam placed third in the 2018 games. Guam representatives also competed at the inaugural Freshwater World Spearfishing Championships resulted in silver in individual men's in 2017. At the 2019 games, Guam won silver and bronze in mixed pairs. The Marianas Underwater Fishing Federation also sponsors an Annual Marianas Spearfishing Challenge in Hagåtña.


== Commercial, military, and scientific diving ==

Apra Harbor is the focus of much commercial diving, in particular for inspection, repair, and construction of wharves and mooring systems for the Port of Guam and Naval Base Guam.
Naval Base Guam has about 180 personnel who dive as part of their duties. This includes personnel from Naval Special Warfare Group One's Special Warfare Unit 1 of the Navy SEALs, elements from Marine Forces Special Operations Command, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Unit (EODMU) 5, and the submarine tenders USS Emory S. Land and USS Frank Cable. In August 1974, the hulk of RMS Caribia, a decommissioned passenger ship, ran aground at the tip of the Glass Breakwater and broke apart in Typhoon Mary. The ship salvage to clear the port entrance was complicated by the discovery of a Korean War-era LCU wreck next to Caribia with 50 tons of unexploded ordnance.  This prompted the biggest EOD project ever conducted on Guam, requiring 952 dives over 388 hours.


== References ==",0.7038325071334839
Indians in Saint Kitts and Nevis,"The Indian community in Saint Kitts and Nevis is made up of Indo-Kittitians, Indo-Nevisians, non-resident Indians and persons of Indian origin. Indo-Kittitians and Indo-Nevisians are nationals of Saint Kitts and Nevis whose ancestry lies within the country of India. The community originated from the Indian indentured workers brought to Saint Kitts and Nevis by the British in 1861 and 1874 respectively. By 1884, most of the community had emigrated to Caribbean nations with larger Indian populations such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.
In recent years, the Indian population of Saint Kitts and Nevis has witnessed a gradual increase, as a result of immigration by Indo-Caribbeans particularly Indo-Guyanese. Some Indian Sindhi businessmen have also moved to the country recently. According to the 2001 Census of Saint Kitts and Nevis, the population of Indian people in the country rose from 0.7% in 1991 to 1.5% in 2001. They were the third largest ethnic group in country, after Africans (92.4%) and people of mixed race (3%). The 2001 Census recorded 443 East Indian males and 266 East Indian females in the country.


== Indenture ==
Following the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies on 1 August 1838, plantation owners in the region sought to find an alternative to African slave labour. The British began transporting indentured workers from India to work on plantation estates in Saint Kitts and Nevis, which had become British colony in 1713. Saint Kitts and Nevis were the last among British and French colonies to introduce Indian indentured labour. Nevis received 315 Indian indentured workers, the smallest among all the colonies that employed indentured labour. Saint Kitts received the third smallest number (337 workers), after the Dutch colony of St. Croix which received 321 Indian workers. Limited information exists on indentured workers in Saint Kitts. A register that kept records of indentured workers was lost in a fire at the Court House in Saint Kitts in 1982. Some documents related to indentured workers are held at the National Archives in Saint Kitts.


=== Saint Kitts ===
The only ship that carried indentured workers from India to Saint Kitts, the Dartmouth, departed from Calcutta on 26 February 1861 and arrived in Saint Kitts on 3 June 1861. The details of the passengers on the ship at the time of departure were recorded in an entry made in the report by Captain Eales, the Protector of Emigrants in the Protector's Office at Fort William in Calcutta, India. The entry, dated 28 May 1861, records that the ship had departed with 361 Indians on board - 192 men, 113 women, 17 boys, 24 girls and 13 infants under the age of two. The report also notes that four Indians died of cholera around the time of departure. However, it does not account for two passengers. The St. Christopher Advertiser and Weekly Intelligencer reported that the Dartmouth docked at St. Kitts on 3 June 1861 with 337 Indians on board - 186 men, 103 women, 13 boys, 10 girls and 10 male and 15 female infants. The difference between the figures indicates that 20 Indians died during the voyage.
Eales' report provides information about the origin and age of the passengers. According to the report, the passengers came from the areas of Sahebgunge or Gya Jharkhand (85 immigrants), Ranchi Jharkhand (84), Pooroolea Bengal (40), Hazareebaugh Jharkhand (33), Arrah or Shahabad Bihar (25), and Patna, Azimabad, Jellasore or Monghyr Bihar (22). The report records that 139 passenger were aged between 20–30 years, 71 were aged between 30–40 years, and the remaining 151 immigrants were either below the age of 20 or above the age of 40.
Upon arriving in Saint Kitts, the indentured workers were assigned to estates except for six who were directly admitted at the Colonial Hospital. Five of the admitted workers died at the hospital. The largest group of workers, around 29, were sent to Dewar Estate, and the smallest group of four workers was assigned to Mansion Estate. The West Farm, Dupuys, and Golden Rock estates received more female Indian workers than males. West Farm received 10 females and 8 males, Dupuys got 6 females and 5 males, and Golden Rock received 4 females and 3 males. On average, the 25 estates received an average of 13 indentured Indian labourers each. Shortly after the assignments, around 7 Indian workers died - 2 adults from Con Phipps estate, 1 person from Stone Castle estate, 1 child from Needsmust estate, and 1 child and 1 infant from Dewar. An infant that had been born during the voyage, and assigned to Helden estate, also died. During the same period, four Indian children were born on the island.
There were some reported instances of Indian indentured labourers refusing to work. The Masters and Servants Act of 1849 mandated that indentured labourers were required work from the moment they agreed to work for a plantation owner, but did not require the agreement to be in writing. An article in the St. Christopher Advertiser and Weekly Intelligencer published on 5 November 1861 states, ""Bramandat (a coolie) was charged by Mr Solomon Shelford with breach of his contract as a labourer. It appeared from the evidence that the defendant refused to do the work ordered, had not worked for a week. Defendant said that he would not do the work ordered (weed canes) but would do other work. He was committed to goal there to be kept to hard labour for 30 days."" On 12 November 1861, the same newspaper reported that two workers named Dheajan and Shampod were charged with breach of contract by S.H. Richardson for refusing to work and were ordered to pay a fine of 5 shillings each (equivalent to £71 in 2023).
Within four years of arriving in Saint Kitts, most of the workers converted from Hinduism and Islam to Christianity. They also began adopting Christian names. The Colonial Report, St. Kitts, 1868, FCOL states that only a ""handful"" of Indians were indentured in St. Kitts in 1868. The estimated 10 Indians who were still indentured are presumed to have re-indentured, as the original indenture period was five years. The report also emphasizes the ""great exodus"" of Indians from Saint Kitts to Guyana and Trinidad. Twenty-two Indians died during their indenture period in Saint Kitts. Sixty-three Indians emigrated to Trinidad and Guyana after completing their indenture periods.
In the 1860s, the decade that Indians arrived in Saint Kitts, they accounted for about 5% of the island's total population. By 1887, the Indian population in Saint Kitts had declined by 82% and there were only 61 Indians still residing in Saint Kitts, or 0.2% of the island's total population. According to the 1921 Census of Saint Kitts, there were 21 India-born people in the country indicating that most of the Indian immigrants had left Saint Kitts. The Census did not provide figures for ethnic makeup of the population, but only noted the birth place of respondents. Therefore, it provides no information on the total Indian population of Saint Kitts in 1921, which would include Indians born on the island.


=== Nevis ===
The only ship that carried indentured workers from India to Nevis, the Syria, departed from Calcutta and arrived in Nevis on 30 March 1874 with 315 Indians on board. The Government of Nevis enacted Acts on 24 March and 9 April 1874 to raise funds to import the workers. In 1874, £4,993 (equivalent to £585,530 in 2023) of the government's total annual expenditure of £11,149 (equivalent to £1,307,444 in 2023) was allocated for facilitating the immigration of Indian labour. Upon arriving, Indian indentured labourers were assigned to estates across Nevis. According to a written reply to an enquiry from the Guiana Emigration Agency at 8 Garden Reach, Calcutta, which was responsible for emigration of Indians to Nevis, acting President John Kemys Spencer-Churchill declared that all Indian immigrants were freed from indentureship in April 1879. Some Indian labourers broke their contracts before the five-year indenture period ended so that they could migrate to Trinidad. Others emigrated after completing their contracts. No Indian workers in Nevis chose to re-indenture after completing their initial five-year contract, however, many chose to remain in Nevis as free workers.
Indians faced many legal issues in Nevis in the years following their arrival. Court records from 1874 and 1875 show that over 120 Indians were convicted of various offences, most often for breaching their contract. However, convictions of Indians reduced to 27 in 1880 suggesting that they had begun to assimilate and integrate with Nevisian society.
Around 20% of Indian immigrants to Nevis returned to India by 1890.


== Present day ==
Historians regard the Indians of Saint Kitts and Nevis as a ""lost"" population, as little is known about the descendants of the Indian indentured workers who arrived in the country. This can be attributed to the small number of Indians brought to Saint Kitts and Nevis as compared to other colonies in the Caribbean. Historian Kumar Mahabir states, ""The small number of Indians in St. Kitts was a major contributor to their disappearance, physiologically and culturally."" This is a common phenomenon among Indo-Caribbeans in nations with small Indian populations. Indo-Caribbeans in countries with larger populations such as Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname maintain Indian cultural and religious practices even today.
The small number of immigrants, inter-marriages, mass exodus of Indians from Saint Kitts and Nevis to other Caribbean nations, and subsequent integration with the Indian community in those nations resulted in the ""disappearance"" of the Indo-Kittitian and Indo-Nevisian communities. Although Nevis received slightly less Indian immigrants than Saint Kitts, the former bears comparatively more traces of Indian heritage. Historian Bonham C. Richardson wrote in 1983, ""Today in the late 20th century, the only noticeable vestige of this immigration on the two islands [Saint Kitts and Nevis] is a few Indian families in the Cotton Ground village area of Nevis north of Charlestown.""
In recent years, the Indian population of Saint Kitts and Nevis has witnessed a gradual increase, as a result of immigration by Indo-Caribbeans to the country particularly Indo-Guyanese. Some Indian Sindhi businessmen have also moved to the country recently. According to the 2001 Census of Saint Kitts and Nevis, the population of East Indian people in the country rose from 0.7% in 1991 to 1.5% in 2001. They were the third largest ethnic group in country, after Africans (92.4%) and people of mixed race (3%). The 2001 Census recorded 443 East Indian males and 266 East Indian females in the country. Indian cuisine has had a significant influence on Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Indian food such roti, goat curry, pork curry, mutton curry and vegetable curries are a common part of Kittitian and Nevisian cuisines.


== References ==


== See also ==
India–Saint Kitts and Nevis relations",1.033643364906311
Map,"A map is a symbolic depiction of interrelationships, commonly spatial, between things within a space. A map may be annotated with text and graphics. Like any graphic, a map may be fixed to paper or other durable media, or may be displayed on a transitory medium such as a computer screen. Some maps change interactively. Although maps are commonly used to depict geographic elements, they may represent any space, real or fictional. The subject being mapped may be two-dimensional such as Earth's surface, three-dimensional such as Earth's interior, or from an abstract space of any dimension.
Maps of geographic territory have a very long tradition and have existed from ancient times. The word ""map"" comes from the medieval Latin: Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant 'napkin' or 'cloth' and mundi 'of the world'. Thus, ""map"" became a shortened term referring to a flat representation of Earth's surface.


== History ==

Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way through the world. The earliest surviving maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone. Later came extensive maps produced in ancient Babylon, Greece and Rome, China, and India. In their simplest forms, maps are two-dimensional constructs. Since the Classical Greek period, however, maps also have been projected onto globes. The Mercator Projection, developed by Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator, was widely used as the standard for two-dimensional world maps until the late 20th century, when more accurate projections were more widely used. Mercator also was the first to use and popularize the concept of the atlas: a collection of maps.


== Geography ==

Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and one who makes maps is called a cartographer or mapmaker.
Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today. They are a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies.  Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey: a civilian government agency, internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work.
The location information showed by maps may include contour lines, indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc.


== Orientation ==

The orientation of a map is the geographical direction toward the top of the map. In the Middle Ages many Eurasian maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top (meaning that the direction ""up"" on the map is eastward). The word ""orient"" is derived from Latin oriens, meaning east. The modern cartographic convention is to put north at the top of a map. This convention is only a few hundred years old.
As no direction is inherently ""up"" on a spheroidal planet, a variety of orientations have been used on maps both historically and in the present day. Different factors may influence the preferred orientation of a map, depending both on its expected use and cultural factors affecting the perception of each direction. For instance, north and west had historically not been placed at the top of maps made in the Northern Hemisphere as these were the directions where the sun disappeared.
Many maps were oriented to place a particularly significant or holy site at the top. Early Islamic maps often placed south at the top because this was the direction of Mecca relative to the map-makers. Similarly, European Christian maps like the T-O map placed east at the top as this was the direction of the Garden of Eden. Early Chinese maps placed north at the top (despite most Chinese compasses pointing south) due to the location of the imperial capital.

Other examples of maps with non-north orientations include:

Portolan charts are oriented to the shores they describe.
Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top.
Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.
Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centered on the pole; the direction North would be toward or away from the center of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian toward the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian toward the top of the page.
South-up maps invert the North is up convention by having south at the top. Ancient Africans including in Ancient Egypt used this orientation, as some maps in Brazil do today.
Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron. The resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation.
Orienteering maps are oriented to magnetic north.


== Scale and accuracy ==

Many maps are drawn to a scale expressed as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement can be accurate when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, such as a city map. Mapping larger regions, where the curvature cannot be ignored, requires projections to map from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane without distortion means that the map cannot have a constant scale. Rather, on most projections, the best that can be attained is an accurate scale along one or two paths on the projection. Because scale differs everywhere, it can only be measured meaningfully as point scale per location. Most maps strive to keep point scale variation within narrow bounds. Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for most purposes unless the map covers a large fraction of the Earth. At the scope of a world map, scale as a single number is practically meaningless throughout most of the map. Instead, it usually refers to the scale along the equator.

Some maps, called cartograms, have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance. For example, this map (at the left) of Europe has been distorted to show population distribution, while the rough shape of the continent is still discernible.
Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The geographic structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations. Near the center of the map, stations are spaced out more than near the edges of the map.
Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely to enhance the clarity of the map. For example, a road map may not show railroads, smaller waterways, or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g. dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the main roads. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy. Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF, and AUTO as needed. In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed.


== Projection ==

Geographic maps use a projection to translate the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Projection always distorts the surface. There are many ways to apportion the distortion, and so there are many map projections. Which projection to use depends on the purpose of the map.


== Symbols ==

The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. Those signs are usually explained in a map legend on the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.
Some cartographers prefer to make the map cover practically the entire screen or sheet of paper, leaving no room ""outside"" the map for information about the map as a whole. These cartographers typically place such information in an otherwise ""blank"" region ""inside"" the map—cartouche, map legend, title, compass rose, bar scale, etc.
In particular, some maps contain smaller maps inset into otherwise blank areas of the map: for example:

a map at a much smaller scale showing the whole globe and the position of the main map on that globe, or
showing ""regions of interest"" (such as cities) at a larger scale to show details that would not otherwise fit, or
showing places that do not fit on the main map, such as Alaska and Hawaii on maps of the United States, or the Shetland and Orkney Islands on maps of Britain.


== Design ==

The design and production of maps is a craft that has developed over thousands of years, from clay tablets to geographic information systems. As a form of design, particularly closely related to graphic design, map making incorporates scientific knowledge about how maps are used, integrated with principles of artistic expression, to create an aesthetically attractive product, carries an aura of authority, and functionally serves a particular purpose for an intended audience.
Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions. The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices. That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt.

Map projections: The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the Earth. All projections distort this surface, but the cartographer can be strategic about how and where distortion occurs.
Generalization: All maps must be drawn at a smaller scale than reality, requiring that the information included on a map be a very small sample of the wealth of information about a place. Generalization is the process of adjusting the level of detail in geographic information to be appropriate for the scale and purpose of a map, through procedures such as selection, simplification, and classification.
Symbology: Any map visually represents the location and properties of geographic features using map symbols, graphical depictions composed of several visual variables, such as size, shape, color, and pattern.
Composition: As all of the symbols are brought together, their interactions have major effects on map reading, such as grouping and Visual hierarchy.
Typography or Labeling: Text serves a number of purposes on the map, especially aiding the recognition of features, but labels must be designed and positioned well to be effective.
Layout: The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on. Each of these elements has its own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of Graphic design.
Map type-specific design: Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices.


== Types ==

Maps of the world or large areas are often either ""political"" or ""physical"". The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders and administrative regions; the purpose of the physical map is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type, or land use including infrastructures such as roads, railroads, and buildings. 

Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading. 
Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures.


=== Electronic ===

From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by geographic information systems (GIS). The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographic maps. Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making. In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to identify the location of an outbreak of cholera. Today, it is used by agencies around the world, as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries.

Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps.
Interactive, computerized maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point. In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerized maps with route planning and advice facilities that monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or more of:

replacing the map by a more detailed one
enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version
enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the user's vision, possibly more detail can be seen. If a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separately, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode-ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation.

For example:

Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics. The increase in detail is limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles, or splines.
(2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.
(1) may apply to the text as needed (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image.  Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.
The map may also have layers that are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics.  For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies.


=== Climatic ===

The maps that reflect the territorial distribution of climatic conditions based on the results of long-term observations are called climatic maps. These maps can be compiled both for individual climatic features (temperature, precipitation, humidity) and for combinations of them at the earth's surface and in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Climatic maps show climatic features across a large region and permit values of climatic features to be compared in different parts of the region. When generating the map, spatial interpolation can be used to synthesize values where there are no measurements, under the assumption that conditions change smoothly.
Climatic maps generally apply to individual months and the year as a whole, sometimes to the four seasons, to the growing period, and so forth. On maps compiled from the observations of ground meteorological stations, atmospheric pressure is converted to sea level. Air temperature maps are compiled both from the actual values observed on the surface of the Earth and from values converted to sea level. The pressure field in the free atmosphere is represented either by maps of the distribution of pressure at different standard altitudes—for example, at every kilometer above sea level—or by maps of baric topography on which altitudes (more precisely geopotentials) of the main isobaric surfaces (for example, 900, 800, and 700 millibars) counted off from sea level are plotted. The temperature, humidity, and wind on aero climatic maps may apply either to standard altitudes or to the main isobaric surfaces.
Isolines are drawn on maps of such climatic features as the long-term mean values (of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, total precipitation, and so forth) to connect points with equal values of the feature in question—for example, isobars for pressure, isotherms for temperature, and isohyets for precipitation. Isoamplitudes are drawn on maps of amplitudes (for example, annual amplitudes of air temperature—that is, the differences between the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest month). Isanomals are drawn on maps of anomalies (for example, deviations of the mean temperature of each place from the mean temperature of the entire latitudinal zone). Isolines of frequency are drawn on maps showing the frequency of a particular phenomenon (for example, the annual number of days with a thunderstorm or snow cover). Isochrones are drawn on maps showing the dates of onset of a given phenomenon (for example, the first frost and appearance or disappearance of the snow cover) or the date of a particular value of a meteorological element in the course of a year (for example, passing of the mean daily air temperature through zero). Isolines of the mean numerical value of wind velocity or isotachs are drawn on wind maps (charts); the wind resultants and directions of prevailing winds are indicated by arrows of different lengths or arrows with different plumes; lines of flow are often drawn. Maps of the zonal and meridional components of wind are frequently compiled for the free atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure and wind are usually combined on climatic maps. Wind roses, curves showing the distribution of other meteorological elements, diagrams of the annual course of elements at individual stations, and the like are also plotted on climatic maps.
Maps of climatic regionalization, that is, division of the earth's surface into climatic zones and regions according to some classification of climates, are a special kind of climatic map.
Climatic maps are often incorporated into climatic atlases of varying geographic ranges (globe, hemispheres, continents, countries, oceans) or included in comprehensive atlases. Besides general climatic maps, applied climatic maps and atlases have great practical value. Aero climatic maps, aero climatic atlases, and agro climatic maps are the most numerous.


=== Extraterrestrial ===
Maps exist of the Solar System, and other cosmological features such as star maps. In addition maps of other bodies such as the Moon and other planets are technically not geographical maps.
Floor maps are also spatial but not necessarily geospatial.


=== Topological ===

Diagrams such as schematic diagrams and Gantt charts and tree maps display logical relationships between items, rather than geographic relationships. Topological in nature, only the connectivity is significant. The London Underground map and similar subway maps around the world are a common example of these maps.


=== General ===
General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map. Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks. These maps give a broad understanding of the location and features of an area.  The reader may gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.


=== Extremely large maps ===


==== The Great Polish Map of Scotland ====

Polish general Stanisław Maczek had once been shown an impressive outdoor map of land and water in the Netherlands demonstrating the working of the waterways (which had been an obstacle to the Polish forces progress in 1944). This had inspired Maczek and his companions to create Great Polish Map of Scotland as a 70-ton permanent three-dimensional reminder of Scotland's hospitality to his compatriots. In 1974, the coastline and relief of Scotland were laid out by Kazimierz Trafas, a Polish student geographer-planner, based on existing Bartholomew Half-Inch map sheets. Engineering infrastructure was put in place to surround it with a sea of water and at the General's request some of the main rivers were even arranged to flow from headwaters pumped into the mountains. The map was finished in 1979, but had to be restored between 2013 and 2017.


==== Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia ====
The Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia is a hand-built topographic map of the province, 80 feet by 76 feet. Built by George Challenger and his family from 1947 to 1954, it features all of B.C.'s mountains, lakes, rivers and valleys in exact-scaled topographical detail. Residing in the British Columbia Pavilion at the Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) in Vancouver from 1954 to 1997 it was viewed by millions of visitors. The Guinness Book of Records cites the Challenger Map as the largest of its kind in the world. The map in its entirety occupies 6,080 square feet (1,850 square metres) of space. It was disassembled in 1997; there is a project to restore it in a new location.


==== Relief map of Guatemala ====

The Relief map of Guatemala was made by Francisco Vela in 1905 and still exists. This map (horizontal scale 1:10,000; vertical scale 1:2,000) measures 1,800 m2, and was created to educate children in the scape of their country.


=== List ===


== Legal regulation ==
Some countries required that all published maps represent their national claims regarding border disputes. For example:

Within Russia, Google Maps shows Crimea as part of Russia.
Both the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China require that all maps show areas subject to the Sino-Indian border dispute in their own favor.
In 2010, the People's Republic of China began requiring that all online maps served from within China be hosted there, making them subject to Chinese laws.
In 2017, Turkey banned the terms ""Kurdistan"" and ""Kurdish regions"". In 2018, the government had a user-generated map of Kurdistan, which it deemed ""terrorist propaganda"", removed from Google Maps.
In Pakistan, the Surveying and Mapping (Amendment) Act, 2020 made printing, displaying, or using any unofficial or ""incorrect"" map of Pakistan a crime punishable by 5 years in jail and a fine of 5 million rupees. It asserts that India is illegally occupying some Pakistani territory along the northern India–Pakistan border.


== See also ==


=== General ===


=== Map designing and types ===


=== Map history ===


=== Related topics ===


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Bibliography ===
David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-07987-2
Denis E. Cosgrove (ed.) Mappings. Reaktion Books, 1999 ISBN 1-86189-021-4
Freeman, Herbert, Automated Cartographic Text Placement. White paper.
Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., ""A program for automatic name placement,"" Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444–455.
Freeman, H., ""Computer Name Placement,"" ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460.
Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, ISBN 0-226-53421-9
O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, The History of Cartography. Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002.


== External links ==
International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the U.S. Library of Congress.
The History of Cartography Project at the University of Wisconsin, a comprehensive research project in the history of maps and mapping",1.43946373462677
Pelagic thresher,"The pelagic thresher (Alopias pelagicus) is a species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae; this group of sharks is characterized by the greatly elongated upper lobes of their caudal fins. The pelagic thresher occurs in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, usually far from shore, but occasionally entering coastal habitats. It is often confused with the common thresher (A. vulpinus), even in professional publications, but can be distinguished by the dark, rather than white, color over the bases of its pectoral fins. The smallest of the three thresher species, the pelagic thresher typically measures 3 m (10 ft) long.
The diet of the pelagic thresher consists mainly of small midwater fishes, which are stunned with whip-like strikes of its tail. Along with all other mackerel sharks, the pelagic thresher exhibits ovoviviparity and usually gives birth to litters of two. The developing embryos are oophagous, feeding on unfertilized eggs produced by the mother. The young are born unusually large, up to 43% the length of the mother. Pelagic threshers are valued by commercial fisheries for their meat, skin, liver oil, and fins, and are also pursued by sport fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature assessed this species as endangered in 2019.


== Taxonomy and phylogeny ==
The pelagic thresher was originally described by Japanese ichthyologist Hiroshi Nakamura on the basis of three large specimens, none of which was designated a holotype. He illustrated one of the three specimens in his paper, ""On the two species of the thresher shark from Formosan waters"", published in August 1935. Nakamura also separately illustrated and described a fetus, that Leonard Compagno later concluded was probably of a common thresher. Several authors, including Gohar and Mazhar (1964, Red Sea), Kato, Springer and Wagner (1967, Eastern Pacific), Fourmanoir and Laboute (1976, New Caledonia), Johnson (1978, Tahiti), and Faughnan (1980, Hawaiian Islands) have published illustrations of ""common threshers"" that were in fact pelagic threshers.
An allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the pelagic thresher is the bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus), with which it forms a clade. The specific epithet pelagicus is from the Greek pelagios, meaning ""of the sea"". Another common name is the smalltooth thresher.


== Distribution and habitat ==
Due to confusion with the common thresher, the distribution of the pelagic thresher may be wider than is currently known. It ranges extensively in the Indo-Pacific, with scattered records from South Africa, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea (off Somalia, between Oman and India, and off Pakistan), to China, southeastern Japan, northwestern Australia, New Caledonia, and Tahiti, to the Hawaiian Islands, California, and the Galapagos Islands. The North Pacific population shifts northward during warm El Nino years. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown extensive gene flow within the eastern and western Pacific pelagic thresher populations, but little flow between them.
The pelagic thresher primarily inhabits the open ocean, occurring from the surface to a depth of at least 150 m (490 ft). However, it occasionally comes close to shore in regions with a narrow continental shelf, and has been observed near coral reef dropoffs or seamounts in the Red Sea and the Gulf of California, and off Indonesia and Micronesia. It has also been known to enter large lagoons in the Tuamotu Islands.


== Description ==
The pelagic thresher is the smallest of the thresher sharks, typically 3 m (10 ft) in length and 69.5 kg (153.2 lb) in weight, and usually not exceeding 3.3 m (11 ft) and 88.4 kg (195 lb). Males and females attain known maximum lengths of 3.5 m (11 ft) and 3.8 m (12 ft), respectively. A record of 5 m (16 ft) is dubious and may have resulted from confusion with other thresher species. This species has a fusiform body (wide in the middle and tapered at the ends) and a very slender upper caudal fin lobe nearly as long as the rest of the shark. The pectoral fins are long and straight with broad, rounded tips. The first dorsal fin is placed halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins, and is of comparable size to the pelvic fins. The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny.
The head is narrow with a short, conical snout and a distinctive ""pinched"" profile when viewed from below. The eyes are very large in juveniles and decrease in relative size with age. No furrows occur at the corners of the mouth. The teeth are very small, numbering 21–22 rows on each side with a symphysial (central) row in the upper jaw and 21 on each side without a symphysial row in the lower jaw. Five to 11 rows of posterior teeth are present. The teeth are smooth-edged, with oblique cusps and lateral cusplets on the outside margins. The body is covered with very small, smooth dermal denticles with flat crowns and cusps with parallel ridges. The coloration is an intense dark blue above and white below; the white does not extend to above the pectoral fins. The color rapidly fades to gray after death. The dark pigment above the pectoral fins, the rounded pectoral fin tips, and the absence of labial furrows separate this shark from the common thresher.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Biology and ecology ==

The pelagic thresher is an active, strong swimmer and has been known to leap clear of the water (five times in a row on one documented occasion). Predators of the pelagic thresher include larger fishes (including other sharks) and toothed whales. Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Litobothrium amplifica, L. daileyi, and L. nickoli, which inhabit the shark's spiral valve intestine, and copepods of the genus Echthrogaleus, which infest the skin. At Malapascua Island in the Philippines, pelagic threshers have been observed regularly visiting cleaning stations occupied by cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus and Thalassoma lunare), during which they exhibit characteristic behaviors to facilitate the cleaning interaction. These visits occur more frequently early in the morning, and may be why these normally oceanic sharks are sometimes encountered in shallow water.


=== Feeding ===
Little information is available on the feeding ecology of the pelagic thresher. Its very slender tail and fine dentition suggest an exclusive diet of small, pelagic prey. Analysis of stomach contents reveals that pelagic threshers feed mainly on barracudinas, lightfishes, and escolars, all inhabitants of the mesopelagic zone. Therefore, little competition occurs between the pelagic thresher and other large oceanic piscivores such as billfishes, tunas, and dolphinfishes, which tend to feed near the surface. As in other threshers, pelagic threshers may swim in circles to drive schooling prey into a compact mass, before striking them sharply with the upper lobe of their tails to stun them. Because of this behavior, pelagic threshers are often hooked on longlines by their tails.


=== Life history ===
Like the rest of the mackerel sharks, the pelagic thresher is ovoviviparous. It gives birth to two pups at a time (rarely just one), one per uterus. With no defined breeding season, most adult females are pregnant throughout the year; the gestation period is uncertain, but has been suggested to be less than one year as in the common thresher. The developing embryos are sustained by a yolk sac until they are 12 cm (4.7 in) long, after which they are oophagous and feed on egg capsules produced by the mother. Each capsule measures about 55 mm (2.2 in) long and 12 mm (0.5 in) across, and contains 20–30 ova. Early-stage embryos have specialized teeth for opening the capsules, while later-stage embryos have their teeth hidden and swallow the capsules whole, their teeth not becoming functional again until just after birth. No evidence of sibling cannibalism has been found as in the sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus). Young pelagic threshers are born unusually large, up to 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long or 43% the length of the mother, which likely reduces predation on the newborns.
The growth rate of pelagic threshers slows with age: 

9 cm/year for ages 0–1,
8 cm/year for ages 2–3,
6 cm/year for ages 5–6,
4 cm/year for ages 7–10,
3 cm/year for ages 10–12,
and 2 cm/year for ages 13 and greater.
Females reach maturity at 2.8–2.9 m (9.2–9.5 ft) long and eight to nine years old, while males mature at 2.7–2.8 m (8.9–9.2 ft) long and seven to eight years old. The oldest confirmed ages for females and males are 16 and 14 years, respectively. Extrapolating the growth curves to the largest known individuals suggests that females may have a lifespan exceeding 28 years, and males 17 years. A single female produces about 40 young over her entire life.


=== Thermoregulation ===
Anatomical examination indicates that the pelagic thresher is unlikely to be warm-bodied like the common thresher; it lacks a rete mirabile, a blood vessel countercurrent exchange system that prevents metabolic heat from being dissipated into the water, inside its trunk. Furthermore, its aerobic red muscles, responsible for generating heat in the common thresher, are positioned in two lateral strips just beneath the skin rather than at the core of the body. A rete system is present around the pelagic thresher's brain and eyes, albeit less developed than in the bigeye thresher, which may serve to buffer those organs against temperature changes.


== Human interactions ==

The pelagic thresher has never been implicated in an attack on humans; it has small jaws and teeth for its size and tends to flee from divers. This shark is taken by commercial fisheries in the central Pacific and western Indian Oceans, as well as off California and Mexico. Abundant off northeastern Taiwan, it comprises over 12% (about 3,100 fish, 220 metric tons) of the annual Taiwanese shark landings. The meat is sold for human consumption, the skin is made into leather, and the fins are used for shark fin soup in Asia. The squalene oil in the liver of the pelagic thresher can comprise 10% of its weight, and is used in the manufacture of cosmetics, health foods, and high-grade machine oil.
Though rarely caught, pelagic threshers are also valued by sport fishers and are listed as game fish by the International Game Fish Association. The largest overall records are from New Zealand, while the light tackle records are from California. Pelagic threshers are frequently taken as bycatch on longlines and in driftnets meant for other species such as tuna, and also rarely in gillnets and antishark nets.


== References ==


== External links ==

Species Description of Alopias pelagicus at www.shark-references.com
Photos of Pelagic thresher on Sealife Collection",1.1789592504501343
Kazakh art,"The art of Kazakhstan covers all forms of art created throughout history by the peoples living on the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan. Throughout most periods, much of the population of Kazakhstan was nomadic, or at least moved regularly across the vast country. The great majority of the art of Kazakhstan is applied art: the decoration of practical objects, including household utensils and patterned harnesses, through art forms such as carpet-weaving, pottery, and leatherwork. The art of Kazakhstan also includes architecture, fine arts, and sculpture.
Although modern Kazakhs are often keen to assert its national character, Kazakh art has at most times been intimately connected with wider artistic styles, in particular the Scythian art of the first millennium BC, and Islamic art from the 8th century AD onwards. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Russian art was the dominant influence.


== History ==


=== Prehistory ===
Prehistoric rock engravings and paintings occupy a prominent place among Kazakhstan's monuments. Rock engravings, or petroglyphs, embossed in the rock with stone or metal tools, are particularly common, and the geology and landforms of the country's mountain ranges lent themselves to the proliferation of this art form. The absence of anthropogenic impact across most of the country has resulted in preservation of many of monuments, providing rich material for study.
The earliest examples of art in Kazakhstan are Paleolithic. Found in the Hantau and Karatau Mountains, they take the form of animal images carved into the rocks. 
Neolithic and Bronze Age petroglyphs found in the Bayanaulsky cave (Pavlodar region), and in the Tanbaly gorge (Almaty region) (where the images include an elk, a lion, a hunter with a bow, an ox harnessed to a cart, and a cow) and on the northern shores of Lake Balkhash (a duel between two men with sabers, next to which stands a girl, and others) give an idea of the main occupations and customs of the ancient tribes inhabiting the territory of modern Kazakhstan.
The petroglyphs of the Tamgaly archaeological complex, one of the most ancient and vivid rock art monuments of the ""Seven Rivers"" (Zhetysu, or Semirechye) area near Lake Balkhash, lie 170 km north-west of the city of Almaty in the Anrakai Mountains. The rock paintings and engravings were discovered in 1957 by an archaeological expedition of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences, under the direction of A. G. Maximova. Study of the sanctuary there, with its many cave paintings, began in the 1970s and 1980s. There are some 2000 petroglyphs, most of which are located in the lower part of the main gorge and on the side of the adjacent gorge to the west.
The themes of the drawings are diverse, and include human figures, animals, horsemen, people and predatory animals hunting, scenes of daily life, ritual dances, sun-headed deities, and multi-figure compositions depicting scenes of people and animals, of hunting animals and of bull sacrifice. The most common images are of horses; deer, which symbolize power and beauty in Kazakh art; and eagles, representing immortality and the sky.
In the Bronze Age, the territory of modern Kazakhstan was inhabited by people of the Andronovo culture, and the Begazy–Dandybai culture in the south. The Andronovo culture processed metal ores, including gold, copper, and probably silver. In some areas this was a large-scale industry.  Although significant survivals are rare, it is clear that textiles, mostly woolen, were in general use for clothing, along with leather and fur. Clothing was often richly decorated with metal and stone jewellery. Greek descriptions of Iron Age steppe nomad dress survive, along with Greek and Persian depictions of related steppe-dwelling peoples.


=== Protohistory ===

In the first millennium BC, the territory of present-day Kazakhstan in the Ili River area was occupied by the Saka tribes, whose works of art formed part of the wider tradition of Scythian art across the Eurasian Steppe. Most artifacts found have come from kurgan burial mounds.  The most famous Saka-era discovery was made in the Issyk kurgan in south-eastern Kazakhstan, near Almaty city, in 1969. Known as the ""Golden Man"", this wealthy Saka man or woman was costumed in armor, boots and hat decorated with many gold plates, so that the burial resembled a statue in precious metals. Most of the jewelry found was of gold, made by casting, stamping, embossing, and engraving in the form of circular sculpture, high relief and bas-relief.
The ""Golden Man"" wears a high-peaked turban decorated with golden plates depicting horses, snow leopards, birds, and trees with spreading crowns, and a necklace in the form of a golden hoop with a tiger head at each extremity. In the lobe of the left ear is a gold earring with a turquoise ornament. A sword in a sheath covered with red leather hangs from the belt to the right, and to the left is an iron dagger in a sheath with gold overlays depicting a galloping moose and a horse. On gold plates on both sides of the dagger are carved animal figures, among them the wolf, fox, mountain sheep, fallow deer, fox, and snake.  The tall hat compares with the tall saukele head-dress that is today part of the traditional wedding costume for Kazakh women.
The treasures of the Issyk mound, including an exact copy of the ""Golden Man"", were originally exhibited at the Kazakh Museum of Archeology in Almaty, and are now at the State Museum of Gold and Precious Metals of the Republic of Kazakhstan in Astana.
The ""golden man"" on the winged leopard has become one of the main symbols of Kazakhstan.
Many ""balbals"" or kurgan stelae, monoliths shaped like human figures, have been found topping kurgans, or surrounding them in groups.


=== Islamic period ===

In the Middle Ages, various states succeeded each other across the territory of modern Kazakhstan. Active trade along the Great Silk Road enriched the culture of the people who lived there, bringing new art techniques and influencing the creativity of local artists.
On the Silk Road, the cities of Isfijab, Yangikent, Suyab, Kayalyk Mirki, and Kulan in the valleys of the rivers Syr Darya, Talas, Chu, and Ili were centers of culture, religion, and trade, providing a connection between agricultural oases and nomadic steppe, between East and West.
The medieval centers of culture, science, and art were the cities of Otrar, Taraz, Balasagun, Sygnak, and Sauran, among many others. The mausoleums of Babaji-Khatun (10th–11th centuries), Aisha-Bibi (11th–12th centuries), Alash-khan (12th–14th centuries), Dzhuchi-khan (13th century), Kozy-Korpesh, and Bayan-Slu (8th–10th centuries), and the tower of Tamerlane (14th century) are considered unique examples of the architecture of this time. The Khoja Ahmed Yassavi Mausoleum complex, in the city of Turkistan, stands out as one of the largest architectural monuments not only of Kazakhstan but of Central Asia. Built by order of Timur (14th century) in honor of the preacher Yassavi, the mausoleum was constructed of fired brick, set inside and out with multi-colored blue and white tiles, and decorated with carved elements, tiled Arabic inscriptions, mosaic work and painted majolica. The central hall contains a huge cauldron cast from an alloy of seven metals, which was exhibited in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia, between 1935 and its return in 1989.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, great progress was made in the use of architectural elements such as arches, vaults, and domes. The medieval builders attached great importance to their building materials, and already at that time brick and glazes of notable quality were made. Particular attention was paid to the quality of the bricks, most of which were square in shape with one side painted blue, white or green. Such bricks were laid simultaneously with the building of external walls. Polychrome majolica tiles were also used in wall decoration. In the interiors, murals and relief ornaments began to appear. Applied art featured widely in the construction of the mausoleums of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, Kok-Kesen and Alash Khan. 
In the Middle Ages, among other applied arts, carpet-weaving and pottery became widespread in Kazakhstan. Richly patterned carpets were used both in the home, as decoration, and worn, as protection against the elements.
Common patterns ornamenting carpets, household items and kitchen utensils included floral motifs, hunting scenes, folk games, animals, and birds. The image of the horse as a central motif is found throughout Kazakhstan, personifying beauty and power. Horses were of great cultural significance as a means of transport, especially in wartime, and were sacrificed to the gods and interred alongside warriors in burial mounds.
Pottery items were often decorated with inscriptions in different languages, such as Turkic, Uighur, and Sogdian. Examples include the ceramic inscriptions found in the archaeological city of Aktobe, located in the middle reaches of the Chu River. Many inscriptions found on these ceramics date back to the 9th–11th centuries.


=== Modern period ===

In Kazakhstan, fine art in the classical sense has its origins in the 19th century and the influence of Russian artists Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who travelled in Central Asia and portrayed what they saw. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed. Among other influential painters of that period Kazakh scholars mention Sergei Kalmykov.
The Kazakh school of art was fully formed by the 1940s, and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters S. Aitbaev, S. Mambayev, O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, and M. Telzhanov, graphic artists A. Duzelkhanov and E. Sidorkina, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.
An avant-garde movement formed in Kazakhstan in the late 1980s, aiming to find fresh ideas and protest against established forms and images in art. Various principles of plastic art began to appear, for example in B. Tulkeev's highly complex psychological compositions, A. Sydykhanov's mystical graphic compositions, A. Akanaeva's Picasso-like improvised compositions, and D. Aliyev's chaotic figurative pieces. K. Duisenbaev used principles of plastic art in expressive formalism to convey the inner forces of nature and the soul. K. Akhmetzhanov's canvases optically assemble colored pieces to produce a picture of the world that reflects surrounding realities. The works of A. Menlibayev and E. Ghazaryan exemplify a revival of interest in the folklore and ornamental style of a range of historical, regional and cultural tradition. 
Since Kazakhstan's declaration of independence, on 16 December 1991, there have been cardinal changes in all spheres: political, economic, social and art. The monument to Ablai Khan in Astana (sculptor N. Dalbai, architect Sh. Valikhanov) made a considerable contribution to approval of the idea of independence of Kazakhstan. 
Other landmarks of modern monumental sculpture of this time are the equestrian monument to Isatay Taimanov and Makhambet Utemisov in Atyrau (sculptor B. Abishev and E. Sergebaev), and the monument to Sultan Baybars in Atyrau (sculptor K. Kakimov).
The Independence Monument in Almaty (sculptors: A. Zhumabaev and N. Dalbai, architect Sh. Valihanov) is a particularly well-known modern sculptural and architectural complex of this era. Located on Almaty's main square, the Independence Monument combines Kazakh cultural heritage and tradition with universal elements, and has become a symbol of statehood, and of Kazakhstan's past, present and future. The granite stele is crowned with the statue of a young warrior, styled after the ""Golden Man"", with a mythical winged leopard his feet.
The Kazakh national school of painting experienced difficult times in the 1990s, as the state significantly reduced its budget on the cultural programs and commissioned less works from the painters. However, by the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, the situation improved as major private and public companies have begun providing their patronage to established and young painters by funding numerous art exhibitions and commissioning painting works. At the beginning of the 20th century, several painters  received wide recognition and organized their art exhibitions around Kazakhstan, including Akzhana Abdalieva, Akmaral Abulkhair, Maksim Vedernikov,  Dinara Dukenbayeva, Erbolat Tolepbai, Zeinelkhan Mukhamedjan, Carmine Barbaro and many others. 
Mythological symbolism is significant in Kazakhstan's modern art of the 21st century. It is expressed, for example, in the visual searching of artists Gulnara Kasmalieva and Muratbek Djumaliev's ""TransSiberian Amazons"" (2005) and multi-channel video art ""A New Silk Road: Algorithm of Survival and Hope” (2007), and in the performance and photography of Victor and Elena Vorobievs' “(Non)Silk Road” (2006).


== Museums of Kazakhstan ==

There are more than 170 museums in Kazakhstan. The oldest, the Semipalatinsk Museum of History and Local Lore, was built in 1883.

Central State Museum of Kazakhstan
National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
A. Kasteyev State Museum of Arts


== Kazakh artists ==
Carmine Barbaro
Agimsaly Duzelkhanov
Aisha Galimbaeva
Abilkhan Kasteev
Leyla Mahat
Marina Reshetnikova


== See also ==
Music of Kazakhstan
Kazakh literature


== References ==",1.2548280954360962
Epiglottitis,"Epiglottitis is the inflammation of the epiglottis—the flap at the base of the tongue that prevents food entering the trachea (windpipe). Symptoms are usually rapid in onset and include trouble swallowing which can result in drooling, changes to the voice, fever, and an increased breathing rate. As the epiglottis is in the upper airway, swelling can interfere with breathing. People may lean forward in an effort to open the airway. As the condition worsens, stridor and bluish skin may occur.
Epiglottitis was historically mostly caused by infection by H. influenzae type b (commonly referred to as ""Hib""). Following the introduction of the Hib vaccine, pediatric cases of epiglottitis fell from 3.47 cases per 100,000 children in 1980 to 0.63 cases in 1990 such that it is now more often caused by other bacteria, most commonly Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, or Staphylococcus aureus. Predisposing factors include burns and trauma to the area. The most accurate way to make the diagnosis is to look directly at the epiglottis. X-rays of the neck from the side may show a ""thumbprint sign"" but the lack of this sign does not mean the condition is absent.
An effective vaccine, the Hib vaccine, has been available since the 1980s. The antibiotic rifampicin may also be used to prevent the disease among those who have been exposed to the disease and are at high risk. The most important part of treatment involves securing the airway, which is often done by endotracheal intubation. Intravenous antibiotics such as ceftriaxone and possibly vancomycin or clindamycin is then given. Corticosteroids are also typically used. With appropriate treatment, the risk of death among children with the condition is about one percent and among adults is seven percent.
With the use of the Hib vaccine, the number of cases of epiglottitis has decreased by more than 95%. Historically, young children were mostly affected, but it is now more common among older children and adults. In the United States, pediatric cases of epiglottitis fell from 3.47 cases per 100,000 children in 1980 to 0.63 cases in 1990 following the introduction of the Hib vaccinae, and it now affects about 1.3 per 100,000 children a year. In adults, between 1 and 4 per 100,000 are affected a year. It occurs more commonly in the developing world. In children the risk of death is about 6%; however, if they are intubated early, it is less than 1%.


== Signs and symptoms ==
Epiglottitis is associated with fever, throat pain, difficulty in swallowing, drooling, hoarseness of voice, and stridor. Onset is typically over a day. The throat itself may appear normal.

Stridor is a sign of upper airway obstruction and is a surgical emergency. The child often appears acutely ill, anxious, and will have very quiet shallow breathing often keeping the head held forward and insisting on sitting up in bed, commonly called the ""tripod position."" The early symptoms are usually insidious but rapidly progressive, and swelling of the throat may lead to cyanosis and asphyxiation.
Adults commonly present with less dramatic breathing symptoms than children due to them having wider airways to begin with, so their main symptoms are usually a severe sore throat and difficulty swallowing. The back of the throat appears normal in 90% of adult patients, so epiglottitis should considered when there is pain out of proportion to exam or when pain is caused by pressing on the external windpipe. Adult epiglottitis is often referred to as supraglottitis. In contrast to children, the symptoms are non-specific, sub-acute and can be unpredictable. 


== Causes ==
Epiglottitis is primarily caused by an acquired bacterial infection of the epiglottis. Historically it was most often caused by Haemophilus influenzae type B, but with the availability of immunization this is no longer the case. H. influenzae type B contains a capsule which helps it avoid being destroyed by macrophages and also contains surface proteins that allow it to stick to the lining of the upper respiratory tract. Presently, the bacteria most often causing infection are other encapsulated organisms including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. These bacteria spread in respiratory droplets or aerosols produced from coughing and sneezing. While the overall incidence of epiglottitis has decreased, the incidence of cases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae has increased in adults. The exact strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae are often those that are covered by the PPV-23 vaccine, but there is no evidence that this vaccine prevents epiglottitis.
There have been many cases of epiglottitis reported in immunocompromised patients, including those undergoing cancer treatment and those who are HIV positive. While a variety of different bacteria can cause disease in these patients, cases often involve the Candida species of fungus, though it is unknown if the fungus causes significant disease on its own.
Alternate risk factors and causes associated with infection include burns and other trauma to the area. Medical research has also identified a link between epiglottitis and crack cocaine usage.  Underlying disorders of the immune system, such as graft-versus-host disease and lymphoproliferative disorders, have also been identified as contributors of increased risk for developing the infection .


== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis may be confirmed by direct inspection using a laryngoscope, although this may provoke airway spasm. If epiglottitis is suspected, attempts to visualize the epiglottis using a tongue depressor are discouraged for this reason; therefore, diagnosis is made on basis of indirect fiberoptic laryngoscopy carried out in a controlled environment like an operating room. An infected epiglottis appears swollen and is described as having a ""cherry-red"" appearance. Imaging is rarely useful, and treatment should not be delayed for this test to be carried out.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Imaging ===
On lateral C-spine X-ray, the thumbprint sign describes a swollen, enlarged epiglottis. A normal X-ray, however, does not exclude the diagnosis. An ultrasound may be helpful if specific changes are present, but its use (as of 2018) is in the early stages of study.
On CT imaging, the ""Halloween sign"" describes an epiglottis of normal thickness. It can safely exclude the acute epiglottitis. Furthermore, CT imaging can help to diagnose other conditions such as peritonsillar abscess or retropharyngeal abscess which have similar clinical features.


=== Necrotizing Epiglottitis ===
If there is visual or radiologic evidence that the infection has caused tissue destruction, the disease is called ""necrotizing epiglottitis"" (NE). The feared complication of NE is the bacteria spreading to the surrounding neck muscles and causing cervical necrotizing fasciitis which is a surgical emergency.


=== Differential Diagnosis ===
The differential diagnosis includes other infectious causes of acute airway obstruction, as well as acute or subacute mechanical causes. It includes, but is not limited to, the conditions below.

Retropharyngeal abscess
Peritonsillar abscess
Croup
Infectious mononucleosis
Diphtheria
Pertussis
Bacterial tracheitis
Ludwig's angina
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Foreign body obstruction
Obstructing tumor
Allergic reaction, including angioedema
Inhalation injury
Laryngospasm
Congenital structural defects in pediatric patients, including laryngomalacia


== Prevention ==
An effective vaccine, the Hib vaccine, has been available since the 1980s. Modern Hib vaccines are mainly conjugate vaccines, with the key component being the polysaccharide found in the bacteria's capsule which is its primary virulence factor. Currently, the CDC recommends that children receive a two or three-dose primary series with an additional booster dose. The countries of the world who have included the Hib vaccine in their immunization schedules typically begin the series at the age of two or three months with subsequent doses administered at four or eight week intervals. Routine vaccination in these nations has led to a dramatic decrease in the incidence of invasive diseases caused by H. influenzae type b such as epiglottitis, meningitis and pneumonia. It has been reported that epiglottitis cases have decreased by 95% since the 1980s following the introduction of the first Hib vaccine.
The antibiotic rifampicin may also be used to prevent the disease among those who have been exposed to the disease and are at high risk.


== Management ==
The most important part of treatment involves securing the airway. Nebulized epinephrine may be useful to improve the situation temporarily. Corticosteroids are also typically used. However, there is poor evidence for whether steroids actually improve patient outcomes. Epiglottitis may require urgent tracheal intubation to protect the airway. Tracheal intubation can be difficult due to distorted anatomy and profuse secretions. Spontaneous respiration is ideally maintained until tracheal intubation is successful. A surgical airway opening (cricothyrotomy) may be required if intubation is not possible. The management of epiglottitis is different in adults compared to children. Emergent tracheal intubation with general anesthesia (inhalational induction to preserve spontaneous ventilation) in the operating theater is standard. However only 10% of adults require airway intervention, which means a selective approach is required. Tracheal intubation is a high risk scenario with a 1 in 25 failure rate in adults. Multiple airway management techniques have described for adults and include: awake tracheostomy, awake fibreoptic intubation, general anesthesia with spontaneous breathing preserved or ablated with paralysis. The optimal technique is controversial and likely determined by contextual factors such as the severity of epiglottitis and the clinical location (ie emergency department or intensive care or the operating room). Ideally airway intervention should occur in the operating room with an otolaryngology surgeon present to perform an emergency tracheostomy in the event of complete airway obstruction or failed intubation.
Intravenous antibiotics such as ceftriaxone and possibly vancomycin or clindamycin are given once the airway is secure. A third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone is usually sufficient since it is usually effective against H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae. If S. aureus is suspected to be causing the disease, then the treatment should include ceftaroline or clindamycin as these would provide coverage against antibiotic resistant strains of that bacteria (MRSA). Vancomycin can also be considered for its MRSA coverage, but it may be less safe than ceftaroline in children older than two months. If the patient has a penicillin allergy, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, clindamycin, or levofloxacin may be appropriate choices.
Necrotizing epiglottitis is treated similarly to uncomplicated epiglottitis, but usually requires intubation in addition to standard IV antibiotic therapy. If the tissue damage continues to spread and necrotizing fasciitis of the neck is suspected, patients are taken to the operating room for emergency debridement.


== Prognosis ==
With appropriate treatment, the risk of death among children with the condition is about one percent and among adults is seven percent. Elsewhere, it has been reported that only one percent of adults diagnosed with epiglottitis die from the disease. Some people may develop pneumonia, lymphadenopathy, or septic arthritis.
Between 1998 and 2006, there were an average of 36 deaths per year in the United States attributed to epiglottitis, giving a case-fatality rate of 0.89% during that time period.
Patients who recover from necrotizing epiglottitis often regain their ability to swallow foods and liquids despite the tissue damage.


== Epidemiology ==
While, historically, young children were mostly affected, it is now more common among older children and adults. Before Haemophilus influenzae (Hib) immunization children of two to four were most commonly affected. With immunization about 1.3 per 100,000 children are affected a year. It has been reported that only 0.5 per 100,000 American children are diagnosed every year, while the incidence in American adults is about 1 to 4 per 100,000. A 2010 retrospective study revealed the average age of patients admitted to American hospitals for epiglottitis was about 45, but patients under the age of 1 and over the age of 85 are also particularly vulnerable.


== Notable cases ==
Bill Bixby's 6-year-old son Christopher died of the condition in 1981.
Jeannie Mai spent some time in an ICU with epiglottitis.
Sarah Silverman spent a week in the ICU at Cedars Sinai Hospital with epiglottitis.
George Washington is thought to have died of epiglottitis. The treatments given to Washington, such as severe bloodletting, an enema, vinegar, sage, molasses, butter, blistering his throat with Spanish fly, requiring him to swallow mercurous chloride and antimony potassium tartrate, and applying wheat poultices to various parts of the body, are no longer used.
Jin of BTS announced in a 2022 video that he had been diagnosed with epiglottitis.
Wes Moore's father died of epiglottitis when Moore was four years old.


== References ==


== External links ==

Medscape",1.193170428276062
Eynsham,"Eynsham   is a village and civil parish in the West Oxfordshire district, in Oxfordshire, England, about 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Oxford and east of Witney. The 2011 Census recorded a parish population of 4,648. It was estimated at 5,087 in 2020.


== Etymology ==
Eynsham's name is first attested in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took its present form in the later ninth century, as Egonesham. (The Chronicle portrays the settlement as one of four captured by a West Saxon named Cuthwulf in 571 CE following the Battle of Bedcanford. The historicity of the battle is, however, in doubt.) The name is thought to derive from the Old English personal name Ægen, in its genitive form Ægenes, combined with the word hamm (""river-meadow""). Thus the name once meant ""Ægen's river-meadow"".


== History ==

Eynsham grew up near the historically important ford of Swinford on the River Thames flood plain. Excavations have shown that the site was used in the Bronze Age (3000–300 BCE) for a rectilinear enclosure edging a gravel terrace. Evidence has been found of 6th–7th-century Saxon buildings at New Wintles Farm, about three-quarters of a mile (1 km) from the present parish church. There is evidence that Eynsham had an early minster, probably founded in the 7th or 8th centuries. In the reign of the early ninth-century Mercian king Cenwulf, Eynsham was the site of a royal manor of three-hundred hides.: 32 
In 1005 Aethelmar, kinsman of Aethelred II founded a Benedictine abbey on the site of the earlier minster. The first abbot was Ælfric of Eynsham, a prolific writer in Old English. The Domesday Book of 1086 includes a paragraph on the settlement, then known as Eglesham.  By 1302 Eynsham had a wharf handling cargo that included hay, straw, malt, grain and timber, beside the later Talbot Inn on Wharf Stream, a tributary of the Thames. By the medieval period Eynsham Abbey was among the largest in the area. It succumbed to the Reformation in 1538 and few remains can be seen today. After the dissolution, its estates were granted to Sir George Darcy.
By 1790 a newly completed Oxford Canal was trading with Eynsham Wharf, mainly to sell coal from the Midlands. From 1792 the Oxford Canal employed a wharfinger at Eynsham and in 1800 bought the lease of the wharf. It consolidated its position by buying the Talbot Inn in 1845 and the freehold of Eynsham Wharf in 1849, perhaps in response to the railway mania that was taking traffic from canals and navigations. Eynsham Lock, on the Thames just above the confluence with Wharf Stream, was the last flash lock on the Thames, not rebuilt as a pound lock until 1928. The village suffered several fires in its history. Among the worst were a Whit Monday morning one in 1629, which destroyed 12 houses and another in 1681 that destroyed 20. By the early 19th century the parish had its own fire engine in a parish fire station on the ground floor of the early 18th-century Bartholomew Room, where it remained up to 1949.
The Bartholomew Room was built in 1703 from an endowment of John Liam Bartholomew in 1701 to found a parish charity school. Its lower storey was arcaded, presumably as market premises, but the arcades were walled up in the later 19th century. While some parts of the ground floor continued to serve as the fire station; others were turned into a village gaol. From 1928, a local Roman Catholic congregation used the upper room for its services. In 1983 the parish council bought and restored the building.


=== Roads ===

By the mid-18th century, Swinford had a ferry, but the main road was in poor condition. Heavier road traffic between Oxford and Witney preferred to pass further north via Bladon, where the better-maintained Oxford–Woodstock and Witney–Woodstock roads met. When the latter became a turnpike in 1751, the road via Eynsham and Swinford ferry was included as a branch. In 1769 the Earl of Abingdon opened Swinford Toll Bridge to replace the ferry. The Witney–Woodstock road ceased to be a turnpike in 1869, but the Witney–Oxford road remained one until 1877. Eynsham was a major coaching stop on the London–Fishguard road. Since 1922 this has been numbered as the A40. There is a planned expansion of the A40 between Eynsham and Witney into a dual carriage way, with work expected to commence in 2023 should planning permission be granted. In 1936 a bypass for the main road was built north of the village and the road over Swinford bridge renumbered as B4044.


=== Rail ===
The Witney Railway between Witney and Yarnton opened through Eynsham parish in 1861. The station was on the south side of the village. The Great Western Railway took over the line in 1890 and enlarged Eynsham station in 1944. British Railways closed the line to passenger trains in 1962 and in 1970 to goods traffic. The track was dismantled. The station has since been demolished and a business park built there. In February 2015 the Witney Oxford Transport Group proposed reopening the station as an alternative to improving the A40 road as proposed by Oxfordshire County Council. The case centred on the severe traffic congestion on the roads to and from Oxford.


=== Industry ===
Local industries include gravel extraction and a factory for superconducting magnets, Siemens Magnet Technology Ltd.


== Churches ==


=== Church of England ===
The Church of England parish church, St Leonard's, was built the 13th century. In the 15th, the nave was rebuilt, a clerestory and north aisle were added and a west tower was built. There are Mass dials on the south wall. The building was restored three times: by William Wilkinson in 1856, Harry Drinkwater in 1892 and over eight years in the 1980s.  The west tower has a ring of six bells. James Keene of Woodstock cast the third in 1653. Richard Keene cast the fifth in 1673. John Taylor & Co of Loughborough cast or recast the treble, second, fourth and tenor bells in 1895. The church also has a Sanctus bell that Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry cast in 1924.  St Leonard's is a Grade II* listed building.


=== Baptist ===
The Baptist church in Lombard Street was opened in either 1808 or 1818.


=== Roman Catholic ===
In 1895 Herbert May founded a Roman Catholic mission at his home, Newland Lodge. The lodge burnt down in 1897, after which Mass was said at the Railway Inn until May had a new house built for him. The mission closed when May moved to Oxford. In 1928 the Roman Catholic parish of Witney leased the upper storey of the Bartholomew Room, making it St Peter's Chapel. Building of a new Roman Catholic church began in the 1930s but was delayed by the Second World War and completed only in 1967.


== Amenities ==
Eynsham Primary School is a community primary school. Eynsham's Bartholomew School is the county secondary school for the district. As a specialist technology college, it draws pupils mainly from primaries at Eynsham, Standlake, Stanton Harcourt, Freeland, Cassington and Hanborough.
Eynsham Football Club plays in the Oxfordshire Senior League Division One. Eynsham Sports and Social Club plays in Witney and District Football League Division Three and its reserve team in Division Four. Eynsham Cricket Club plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division Three.
Eynsham has a Women's Institute and a Morris dancing troupe.


== Notable residents ==
In order of birth:

Dida of Eynsham (late 7th century), a Mercian noble
Ælfric of Eynsham (c. 955 – c. 1010), a monk, abbot and religious writer
Adam of Eynsham (early 13th century), a monk, abbot and writer
Anthony Kitchin (1471–1563) became Abbot of Eynsham, then Bishop of Llandaff.
Thomas Jordan (c. 1612–1685), child actor and poet, may have been born in Eynsham, where his family had land.
John Deval (1710–1774), Master Mason to the King
E. K. Chambers (1866–1954), Shakespeare scholar and local historian, retired to Eynsham and died there.
Eric Gordon (1905–1992), Bishop of Sodor and Man, retired to Eynsham and died there.
Mollie Harris (1913–1995), actress and author, lived in Eynsham and wrote a book about it: From Acre End, 1982.
Kingsley Amis (1922-1995), author, lived in Eynsham with his wife Hilary Amis in 1948 where she gave birth to their first child, Philip.
Tommy Vance (1940–2005) was a BBC Radio 1 and Virgin Radio disc jockey born in Eynsham.
Anthony J. Batten (born 1940), Canadian visual artist, was born at Eynsham Hall.
Marc Hudson (born 1987), singer for power metal band DragonForce


== See also ==
Crossings of the River Thames
Locks on the River Thames
Tilgarsley


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Aston, Michael; Bond, James (1976). The Landscape of Towns. Archaeology in the Field Series. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. pp. 81–83, 97–98. ISBN 0-460-04194-0.
Blair, John (1994). Anglo Saxon Oxfordshire. Stroud: Alan Sutton Publishing. p. 63. ISBN 0-7509-0147-0.
Chambers, Sir Edmund (1936). Eynsham Under the Monks. Vol. XVIII. Oxfordshire Record Society.
Compton, Hugh J (1976). The Oxford Canal. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. pp. 58–59. ISBN 0-7153-7238-6.
Crossley, Alan; Elrington, C.R, eds. (1990). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 12: Wootton Hundred (South) including Woodstock. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Historical Research. pp. 98–158. ISBN 978-0-19722-774-9.
Emery, Frank (1974). The Oxfordshire Landscape. The Making of the English Landscape. London: Hodder & Stoughton. pp. 40, 42, 53, 55, 56, 111, 118, 148, 150, 163, 164, 167, 191, 192, 209. ISBN 0-340-04301-6.
Keevil, G.D. (1995). In Harvey's House and God's House. Thames Valley Landscape Series. Vol. 6. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. ISBN 0-904220-10-9.
Page, WH, ed. (1907). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 2: Ecclesiastical History, etc. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. p. 156.
Rowley, Trevor (1978). Villages in the Landscape. Archaeology in the Field Series. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. p. 137. ISBN 0-460-04166-5.
Sherwood, Jennifer; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1974). Oxfordshire. The Buildings of England. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. pp. 600–603. ISBN 0-14-071045-0.


== External links ==

Eynsham Online",1.038326382637024
Crowd psychology,"Crowd psychology (or mob psychology) is a subfield of social psychology which examines how the psychology of a group of people differs from the psychology of any one person within the group. The study of crowd psychology looks into the actions and thought processes of both the individual members of the crowd and of the crowd as a collective social entity. The behavior of a crowd is much influenced by deindividuation (seen as a person's loss of responsibility)
and by the person's impression of the universality of behavior, both of which conditions increase in magnitude with size of the crowd. Notable theorists in crowd psychology include Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Many of these theories are today tested or used to simulate crowd behaviors in normal or emergency situations. One of the main focuses in these simulation works aims to prevent crowd crushes and stampedes.


== Origins ==
According to his biological theory of criminology, which suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone “born criminal” could be identified by the way they look, Enrico Ferri expressed his view of crime as a degeneration more profound than insanity, for in most insane persons the primitive moral sense survives the wreck of their intelligence. Along similar lines were the remarks of Benedickt, Sergi and Marro. A response from the French, who put forward an environmental theory of human psychology, M. Anguilli called attention to the importance of the influence of the social environment upon crime. Professor Alexandre Lacassagne thought that the atavistic and degenerative theories as held by the Italian school were exaggerations and false interpretations of the facts, and that the important factor was the social environment.""
In Paris during 10–17 August 1889, the Italian school received a stronger rebuke of their biological theories during the 2nd International Congress of Criminal Anthropology. A radical divergence in the views between the Italian and the French schools was reflected in the proceedings.

""Professor Lombroso laid stress upon epilepsy in connection with his theory of the 'born criminal'. Professor Léonce Pierre Manouvrier characterized Lombroso's theory as nothing but the exploded science of phrenology. The anomalies observed by Lombroso were met with in honest men as well as criminals, Manouvrier claimed, and there is no physical difference between them. Baron Raffaele Garofalo, Drill, Alexandre Lacassagne and Benedikt opposed Lombroso's theories in whole or in part. Pugliese found the cause of crime in the failure of the criminal to adapt himself to his social surroundings, and Benedikt, with whom Tarde agreed, held that physical defects were not marks of the criminal qua criminal."" It is in this context that you have a debate between Scipio Sighele, an Italian lawyer and Gabriel Tarde, a French magistrate on how to determine criminal responsibility in the crowd and hence who to arrest. (Sighele, 1892; Tarde, 1890, 1892, 1901) Both thinkers had published early studies on this matter (Sighele wrote ""The Criminal Crowd"", and Tarde ""La criminalité comparée"".)
Earlier, literature on crowds and crowd behavior had appeared as early as 1841, with the publication of Charles Mackay's book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. The attitude towards crowds underwent an adjustment with the publication of Hippolyte Taine's six-volume The Origins of Contemporary France (1875). In particular Taine's work helped to change the opinions of his contemporaries on the actions taken by the crowds during the 1789 Revolution. Many Europeans held him in great esteem. While it is difficult to directly link his works to crowd behavior, it may be said that his thoughts stimulated further study of crowd behavior. However, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that scientific interest in the field gained momentum. French physician and anthropologist Gustave Le Bon became its most-influential theorist.


== Types of crowds ==
There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967) and Berlonghi (1995) focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive, and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering.
Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and active. A group of people who just so happen to be at the same location at the same time is known as a casual crowd. This kind of mob lacks any true identity, long-term goal, or shared connection. A group of individuals who come together for a particular reason is known as a conventional crowd. They could be going to a theater, concert, movie, or lecture. According to Erich Goode, conventional crowds behave in a very conventional and hence somewhat structured manner; as their name suggests, they do not truly act out collective behavior. A group of people who come together solely to show their excitement and feelings is known as an expressive crowd. A political candidate's rally, a religious revival, and celebrations like Mardi Gras are a few examples.  An active crowd behaves violently or in other damaging ways, such looting, going above and beyond an expressive crowd. One of the main examples of an acting crowd is a mob, which is an extremely emotional group that either commits or is prepared to do violence. A crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time, and therefore, can be classed in any one of the four types.
Generally, researchers in crowd psychology have focused on the negative aspects of crowds, but not all crowds are volatile or negative in nature. For example, in the beginning of the socialist movement crowds were asked to put on their Sunday dress and march silently down the street. A more-modern example involves the sit-ins during the Civil Rights movement. Crowds can reflect and challenge the held ideologies of their sociocultural environment. They can also serve integrative social functions, creating temporary communities.
Crowds can be defined as active (""mobs"") or passive (""audiences""). Active crowds can be further divided into aggressive, escapist, acquisitive, or expressive mobs. Aggressive mobs are often violent and outwardly focused. Examples are football riots, the Los Angeles riots of 1992, and the 2011 English riots. Escapist mobs are characterized by a large number of people trying to get out of a dangerous situation like the November 2021 Astroworld Festival. Incidents involving crowds are often reported by media as the results of ""panic"", but some experts have criticized the media's implication that panic is a main cause of crowd disasters, noting that actual panic is relatively rare in fire situations, and that the major factors in dangerous crowd incidents are infrastructure design, crowd density and breakdowns in communication. Acquisitive mobs occur when large numbers of people are fighting for limited resources. An expressive mob is any other large group of people gathering for an active purpose. Civil disobedience, rock concerts, and religious revivals all fall under this category.


== Theoretical perspectives ==


=== Le Bon ===
Gustave Le Bon held that crowds existed in three stages: submergence, contagion, and suggestion. During submergence, the individuals in the crowd lose their sense of individual self and personal responsibility. This is quite heavily induced by the anonymity of the crowd. Contagion refers to the propensity for individuals in a crowd to unquestioningly follow the predominant ideas and emotions of the crowd. In Le Bon's view, this effect is capable of spreading between ""submerged"" individuals much like a disease. Suggestion refers to the period in which the ideas and emotions of the crowd are primarily drawn from a shared unconscious ideology. Crowd members become susceptible to any passing idea or emotion. This behavior comes from an archaic shared unconscious and is therefore uncivilized in nature. It is limited by the moral and cognitive abilities of the least capable members. Le Bon believed that crowds could be a powerful force only for destruction. Additionally, Le Bon and others have indicated that crowd members feel a lessened sense of legal culpability, due to the difficulty in prosecuting individual members of a mob. In short, the individual submerged in the crowd loses self control as the ""collective mind"" takes over and makes the crowd member capable of violating personal or social norms.
Le Bon's idea that crowds foster anonymity and generate emotion has been contested by some critics. Clark McPhail points out studies which show that ""the madding crowd"" does not take on a life of its own, apart from the thoughts and intentions of members. Norris Johnson, after investigating a panic at a 1979 The Who concert concluded that the crowd was composed of many small groups of people mostly trying to help each other. Additionally, Le Bon's theory ignores the socio-cultural context of the crowd, which some theorists argue can disempower social change. R. Brown disputes the assumption that crowds are homogenous, suggesting instead that participants exist on a continuum, differing in their ability to deviate from social norms.


=== Freudian theory ===
Sigmund Freud's crowd behavior theory primarily consists of the idea that becoming a member of a crowd serves to unlock the unconscious mind. This occurs because the super-ego, or moral center of consciousness, is displaced by the larger crowd, to be replaced by a charismatic crowd leader. McDougall argues similarly to Freud, saying that simplistic emotions are widespread, and complex emotions are rarer. In a crowd, the overall shared emotional experience reverts to the least common denominator (LCD), leading to primitive levels of emotional expression. This organizational structure is that of the ""primal horde""—pre-civilized society—and Freud states that one must rebel against the leader (re-instate the individual morality) in order to escape from it.
Theodor Adorno criticized the belief in a spontaneity of the masses: according to him, the masses were an artificial product of ""administrated"" modern life. The Ego of the bourgeois subject dissolved itself, giving way to the Id and the ""de-psychologized"" subject. Furthermore, Adorno stated the bond linking the masses to the leader through the spectacle is feigned:

""When the leaders become conscious of mass psychology and take it into their own hands, it ceases to exist in a certain sense. ... Just as little as people believe in the depth of their hearts that the Jews are the devil, do they completely believe in their leader. They do not really identify themselves with him but act this identification, perform their own enthusiasm, and thus participate in their leader's performance. ... It is probably the suspicion of this fictitiousness of their own 'group psychology' which makes fascist crowds so merciless and unapproachable. If they would stop to reason for a second, the whole performance would go to pieces, and they would be left to panic.""


=== Deindividuation theory ===
Deindividuation theory is largely based on the ideas of Gustave Le Bon and argues that in typical crowd situations, factors such as anonymity, group unity, and arousal can weaken personal controls (e.g. guilt, shame, self-evaluating behavior) by distancing people from their personal identities and reducing their concern for social evaluation. This lack of restraint increases individual sensitivity to the environment and lessens rational forethought, which can lead to antisocial behavior. More recent theories have stated that deindividuation hinges upon a person being unable, due to situation, to have strong awareness of their self as an object of attention.  This lack of attention frees the individual from the necessity of normal social behavior.
American social psychologist Leon Festinger and colleagues first elaborated the concept of deindividuation in 1952. It was further refined by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo, who detailed why mental input and output became blurred by such factors as anonymity, lack of social constraints, and sensory overload. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment has been presented as a strong argument for the power of deindividuation, although it was later criticised as unscientific. Further experimentation has had mixed results when it comes to aggressive behaviors, and has instead shown that the normative expectations surrounding the situations of deindividuation influence behavior (i.e. if one is deindividuated as a KKK member, aggression increases, but if it is as a nurse, aggression does not increase).
A further distinction has been proposed between public and private deindividuation. When private aspects of self are weakened, one becomes more subject to crowd impulses, but not necessarily in a negative way. It is when one no longer attends to the public reaction and judgement of individual behavior that antisocial behavior is elicited. Philip Zimbardo also did not view deindividuation exclusively as a group phenomenon, and applied the concept to suicide, murder, and interpersonal hostility.


=== Convergence theory ===
Convergence theory holds that crowd behavior is not a product of the crowd, but rather the crowd is a product of the coming together of like-minded individuals. Floyd Allport argued that ""An individual in a crowd behaves just as he would behave alone, only more so."" Convergence theory holds that crowds form from people of similar dispositions, whose actions are then reinforced and intensified by the crowd.
Convergence theory claims that crowd behavior is not irrational; rather, people in crowds express existing beliefs and values so that the mob reaction is the rational product of widespread popular feeling. However, this theory is questioned by certain research which found that people involved in the 1970s riots were less likely than nonparticipant peers to have previous convictions.
Critics of this theory report that it still excludes the social determination of self and action, in that it argues that all actions of the crowd are born from the individuals' intents.


=== Emergent norm theory ===
Ralph H. Turner and Lewis Killian put forth the idea that norms emerge from within the crowd. Emergent norm theory states that crowds have little unity at their outset, but during a period of milling about, key members suggest appropriate actions, and following members fall in line, forming the basis for the crowd's norms.
Key members are identified through distinctive personalities or behaviors. These garner attention, and the lack of negative response elicited from the crowd as a whole stands as tacit agreement to their legitimacy. The followers form the majority of the mob, as people tend to be creatures of conformity who are heavily influenced by the opinions of others. This has been shown in the conformity studies conducted by Sherif and Asch. Crowd members are further convinced by the universality phenomenon, described by Allport as the persuasive tendency of the idea that if everyone in the mob is acting in such-and-such a way, then it cannot be wrong.
Emergent norm theory allows for both positive and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members.
A major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of emergent norms fails to take into account the presence of existent sociocultural norms. Additionally, the theory fails to explain why certain suggestions or individuals rise to normative status while others do not.


=== Social identity theory ===
The social identity theory posits that the self is a complex system made up primarily of the concept of membership or non-membership in various social groups. These groups have various moral and behavioral values and norms, and the individual's actions depend on which group membership (or non-membership) is most personally salient at the time of action.
This influence is evidenced by findings that when the stated purpose and values of a group changes, the values and motives of its members also change.
Crowds are an amalgam of individuals, all of whom belong to various overlapping groups. However, if the crowd is primarily related to some identifiable group (such as Christians or Hindus or Muslims or civil-rights activists), then the values of that group will dictate the crowd's action.
In crowds which are more ambiguous, individuals will assume a new social identity as a member of the crowd. This group membership is made more salient by confrontation with other groups – a relatively common occurrence for crowds.
The group identity serves to create a set of standards for behavior; for certain groups violence is legitimate, for others it is unacceptable. This standard is formed from stated values, but also from the actions of others in the crowd, and sometimes from a few in leadership-type positions.
A concern with this theory is that while it explains how crowds reflect social ideas and prevailing attitudes, it does not explain the mechanisms by which crowds enact to drive social change.


== See also ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Borch, Christian. The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. Cambridge University Press 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-62546-4
Buford, Bill. Among the Thugs: The Experience, and the Seduction, of Crowd Violence. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. (1990)
Canetti, Elias (1960). Crowds and Power. Viking Adult. ISBN 0-670-24999-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Challenger, R., Clegg, C. W., & Robinson, M. A. (2009). Understanding crowd behaviours. Multi-volume report for the UK Government's Cabinet Office. London: Cabinet Office. http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/resource-library/understanding-crowd-behaviours-documents
Johnson, Norris R. ""Panic at 'The Who Concert Stampede': An Empirical Assessment."" Social Problems. Vol. 34, No. 4 (October 1987): 362–373.
Le Bon, Gustave (1895) Psychology of Crowds. [Improved edition www.sparklingbooks.com.]
Le Bon, Gustave (1895). ""The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind"". Retrieved 15 November 2005.
Mackay, Charles (1841). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-85326-349-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Martin, Everett Dean, The Behavior of Crowds, A Psychological Study, Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York, 1920.
Mc Phail, Clark, The Myth of the Madding Crowd, New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1991.
Moscovici, Serge
(in French) Psychologie des minorités actives, P.U.F., 1979
(in French) L'Age des foules: un traité historique de psychologie des masses, Fayard, 1981 (about Gustave Le Bon's invention of crowd psychology and Gabriel Tarde)
Rheingold, Howard, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, 2003
Surowiecki, James, The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations, 2004.
van Ginneken, Jaap, Crowds, psychology and politics 1871–1899, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
van Ginneken, Jaap, Kurt Baschwitz – A Pioneer of Communication Studies and Social Psychology. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2017.


== External links ==

Dr. J. P van de Sande, On Crowds (in English and Dutch)
""Crowd Disasters"" by Prof. Dr. G. Keith Still (archived 20 April 2012)
Understanding crowd behaviours – gov.uk",0.9779565930366516
Educational game,"Educational games are games explicitly designed with educational purposes, or which have incidental or secondary educational value. All types of games may be used in an educational environment, however educational games are games that are designed to help people learn about certain subjects, expand concepts, reinforce development, understand a historical event or culture, or assist them in learning a skill as they play. Game types include board, card, and video games.
As educators, governments, and parents realize the psychological need and benefits that gaming has on learning, this educational tool has become mainstream. Games are interactive play that teach goals, rules, adaptation, problem solving, interaction, all represented as a story. They satisfy a fundamental need to learn by providing enjoyment, passionate involvement, structure, motivation, ego gratification, adrenaline, creativity, social interaction and emotion in the game itself while the learning takes place.


== Video games ==

With the increase and availability of technological devices, there has been a shift in what types of games people play. Video or electronic gaming has become more widely used than traditional board games. Barab (2009) defines conceptual play as ""a state of engagement that involves (a) projection into the role of character who, (b) engaged in a partly fictional problem context, (c) must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of, and ultimately, transform the context"".  The goal of such play spaces is to have the ""gamer"" engage in the narrative while learning cognitive and social skills. The ability to immerse oneself in the gaming process facilitates ""empathetic embodiment"" which occurs when a player learns to identify with the character they have chosen for the game and the virtual environment of the game (Barab, 2009).
Educational video games have been divided into two major categories. ""Edutainment"" games are those that are typically based on drilling fundamental lessons in a linear progression, with added entertainment value. ""Educational video games"" are ones that encourage creative thinking and problem solving.


== Game-based learning ==
Game-based learning (GBL) is a type of game play that has defined learning outcomes. Generally, game-based learning is designed to balance subject matter with gameplay and the ability of the player to retain, and apply said subject matter to the real world. Children tend to spend hours playing hide and seek, learning the steps of digital games, such as chess, and engaging in creative games. Therefore, it can be said that play and learning are synonymous, leading to cognitive and emotional development inside a social and cultural context. For instance, the game of hide and seek: Good hiders need visual and spatial perspective to define the best hiding places, while seekers must be skilled at searching for cues from the surroundings and choosing the most probable location for the hider among various possible places. A systematic review investigated the effects of educational games for mental health students:


== Origins ==
Educational games have historical roots dating back to early civilizations, though their systematic development as teaching tools emerged more recently. As Cheung and Ng (2021) note, educational games gained recognition when ""educators identified the unique capacity of structured play to engage learners in ways traditional instruction could not.""
Educational games evolved alongside advances in learning theories and technologies. According to Li et al. (2024), this evolution reflects ""the growing understanding that effective learning experiences can be both enjoyable and intellectually stimulating when properly designed.""


=== Theory ===
According to Richard N. Van Eck, there are three main approaches to creating software that stimulates cognitive growth in the gamer. These three approaches are: building games from scratch created by educators and programmers; integrate commercial off-the-shelf (COTS); and creating games from scratch by the students. The most time- and cost-effective approach to designing these educational games is to incorporate COTS games into the classroom with the understanding of the learning outcomes the instructor has for the course. This requires the teacher to buy into the positive results of using digital games for education. It also requires teachers to have adequate self-efficacy concerning the use of these games and their technology. The students usually have high amounts of self-efficacy in usage of digital games, while the lack of confidence teachers have in incorporating the digital games usually results in less effective educational use of the games. However, Gerber and Price (2013) have found that teachers' inexperience with digital games does not preclude them from the desire to incorporate them in class instruction, but districts must have in place support through regular professional development, supportive learning communities with their colleagues, and adequate financial support to implement game-based learning in their class instruction.
Games often have a fantasy element that engages players in a learning activity through narrative or storylines. Educational video games can motivate children and allow them to develop an awareness of consequentiality. Children are allowed to express themselves as individuals while learning and engaging in social issues. Today's games are more social, with most teens playing games with others at least some of the time and can incorporate many aspects of civic and political life. In classrooms, social game-based learning platforms are increasing in popularity, as they purport to enable students to reinforce knowledge and develop social and leadership skills.
The success of game-based learning (GBL) strategies owes to active participation and interaction being at the center of the experience, and signals that current educational methods are not engaging students enough. Experience with and affinity for games as learning tools is an increasingly universal characteristic among those entering higher education and the workforce. Game-based learning is an expansive category, ranging from simple paper-and-pencil games like word searches all the way up to complex, massively multiplayer online (MMO) and role-playing games.  The use of collaborative game-based role-play for learning provides an opportunity
for learners to apply acquired knowledge and to experiment and get feedback in the form of consequences or rewards, thus getting the experiences in the ""safe virtual world"".
The built-in learning process of games is what makes a game enjoyable. The progress a player makes in a game is through learning. It is the process of the human mind grasping and coming to understand a new system. The progress of understanding a new concept through gaming makes an individual feel a sense of reward whether the game is considered entertainment (Call of Duty) or serious (FAA-approved flight simulator). Well-designed games that motivate players are what make them ideal learning environments. Real-world challenges are easier faced within a game containing effective, interactive experiences that actively engage people in the learning process. In a successful game-based learning environment, choosing actions, experiencing consequences, and working toward goals allows players to make mistakes through experimentation in a risk-free environment. Games have rules and structure and goals that inspire motivation. Games are interactive and provide outcomes and feedback. Most games also have problem solving situations that spark creativity.
Identification with the character within the video game is an important factor in the learning potential of the gamer. Some of the electronic games allow the gamer to create an avatar that is designed and “owned” by the gamer. This character is an expression of the human creating the virtual character. This has opened a new set of scientific possibilities. The virtual world can be used as a laboratory. The relationships and space within the games can simulate complex societies and relationships without having to truly participate. This application of an avatar in not limited to simulation exercises. According to Bainbridge, interviews and ethnographic research could be conducted within the reality of the game space. This could include experiments in social psychology and cognitive science. The fact that game creators and gamers are wanting new experiences within the games, the introduction of “experiments” could increase the level of play and engagement.


=== Application ===

Traditionally, technology used in school operates usually to solve problems in a fun way, particularly in mathematics. They usually make up case studies designed to introduce students to certain technologies in an effort to prepare them for a future major assignment that requires the aforementioned technology. They have also been developed to work in the virtual world. More recently educational games have been developed for Higher Education students, combining real-world case studies in a virtual environment for students to have a consistent, 24/7 educational 'virtual' experience. In some public schools implementing Common Core Standards, game-based learning programs are utilized by educators to supplement their teaching programs. According to a recent case study by an ed tech-based nonprofit organization, teachers find some digital learning games help address issues with alignment in Common Core.
In the future, technology and games are expected to be used in simulation environments to simulate real world issues. In the professional sector, such as flight training, simulations are already used in an effort to prepare pilots for training before actually going out into planes. These training sessions are used to replicate real life stresses without the risk factor associated with flying. Simulation-games are used in other professional areas as well; a spy-themed learning game has been used to improve sales skills at Avaya and a 3D simulation game has been used to train New York City emergency responders.
Before deciding how to use game-based learning, the trainer must first determine what they would like the trainees to learn. A trainer that fails to focus training around a central idea runs the risk of using a game that fails to connect with the learners. To prevent this, tailor the material to the demographic (age group, familiarity, educational pre-text) so that the material is neither too difficult for, nor too familiar to the learner. Gathering ideas from children early in the design process has yielded useful insights into what children want in technology in general or in a specific type of application. Children's early involvement in requirements gathering has revealed clues about gender differences in preferences related to technology, children's navigation skills, ways of presenting textual information, application-specific content-related preferences, the variety of elements to be included in user interfaces and their structures, and children's desire to personalize their applications. Multiplayer role playing games (MMO's) provide opportunities for players to improve such skills as, “complex learning, thinking, and social practices”. MMO's also provide a social network which can favor collaborative gaming and learning and contribute to the formation of teams, communication within a group and help strengthen individual and communal identities.


== See also ==


== Footnotes ==


== References ==
Shatz, Itamar (2015). Using Gamification and Gaming in Order to Promote Risk Taking in the Language Learning Process (PDF). MEITAL National Conference. Haifa, Israel: Technion. pp. 227–232. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
""Video games 'stimulate learning'"". BBC News. March 18, 2002.
Dostál, J. (2009). ""Educational software and computer games - tools of modern education"". Journal of Technology and Information Education. 1 (1). Palacký University, Olomouc: 24–28. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.164.4054. doi:10.5507/jtie.2009.003. ISSN 1803-537X.
Lin, G. H. C.; Kung, T. W. T.; Chien, S. C. (2011). Computer Games Functioning as Motivation Stimulants (PDF). International Conference on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL).


== Further reading ==
James Paul Gee (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6169-3.",1.0850529670715332
"Gilman, Taylor County, Wisconsin","Gilman is a village in Taylor County, Wisconsin, United States, located between the towns of Aurora and Ford. Its population was 378 at the 2020 census. 


== Geography ==
The village is in southwest Taylor County adjacent to the intersection of highways 64 and 73. It also lies on the Yellow River and the Canadian National rail line. The Chequamegon–Nicolet National Forest lies three miles to the east.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.34 square miles (6.06 km2), all of it land.


== History ==
Before logging and settlers, the land around Gilman was covered with a mosaic of forest and swamps, drained by the Yellow River. Native Americans travelled along the river, at times portaging over to the Big Rib River to reach the Wisconsin River valley. By 1800, the area around Gilman was dominated by Ojibwe people, but Dakota, Ho-Chunk and Menominee were not far away. In 1837 the U.S. forced the Ojibwe to cede much of northern Wisconsin, including the area that would become Gilman, in the White Pine Treaty. Government surveyors came through in 1847 and again in 1854, marking section lines and assessing timber and mill sites.
Some time after that, the river-transport phase of logging began, in which loggers felled pine trees within a few miles of the Yellow River and its streams, skidded them to the stream banks, and floated the logs downriver past the future site of Gilman in spring log drives.: 18–19  By 1880 a ""Winter Road"" followed the river through the vicinity of what would become Gilman, heading for logging operations upstream. No one lived at Gilman itself until 1902 or 1903, though settlers had spread up the river west of Gilman as near as four miles by 1888.
In 1902 and 1903 the rails of the Stanley, Merrill and Phillips Railway crossed the Yellow River into what would become Gilman, heading for Jump River and beyond. The SM&P was a subsidiary of the Northwestern Lumber Company, constructing its railroad primarily to haul logs from Northwestern's timber lands to its big mill in Stanley. This began the railroad-transport phase of logging, in which pine more than a few miles from streams was hauled out by rail, as well as hardwoods which didn't float well. The SM&P built a section house and water tower where the line crossed the river, and that was the start of Gilman. It was initially named Moorhouse for the superintendent of the SM&P, but was renamed Gilman for Sally Gilman, the wife of the president of Northwestern Lumber.: 16  The SM&P ran generally north through town, passing east of the current school. It carried some passengers and freight, but mainly transported logs. Around 1905, the Wisconsin Central Railway built a separate line northwest through town, heading from Owen to Ladysmith and eventually Superior. This line later became the Soo Line Railroad and was eventually acquired by the Canadian National Railway, which still operates on the track.
The stump-ridden little community where the railroad crossed the river grew fast. In 1904 Northwestern Lumber platted a few blocks of village lots east of what is now 8th Avenue.: 6  That year a small school was established. The following year a bigger four-room school was built, and Mrs. Case started a boarding house to serve railroad workers, lumberjacks, and new arrivals. Also established in that first ten years: a small jail, a livery house, saloons, the McSloy Hotel, Crum's general store, a barber, a post office, a feed and flour store, a warehouse, a hardware store,: 12–13  and Kapszukiewicz's Market. The Wisconsin Central Railroad built its own depot on the west side of town. In 1907 Roy Heagle and others started a stave and heading mill called Gilman Manufacturing Company on the south side of town near the river. It made barrels from local basswood and by 1912 it employed as many as sixty men. Heagle also ran a planing mill and a lath mill in Gilman. Another mill made hubs for wagon wheels.: 12–13 
Gilman incorporated as a village in 1914.: 13  Early priorities of the village board included liquor licenses, street lights, organizing a volunteer fire department, and an ordinance to ban cattle, horses and pigs from running loose in the village. Also in 1914, Gilman's first Bank was established, which would evolve into the State Bank of Gilman.: 46  In 1915 the park was started, with the swinging bridge and a dance pavilion. That same year the Catholic Church was organized. Other denominations followed shortly. 1915 also added a new sawmill, a potato warehouse, and a physician - Dr. Slinker. In 1916 three gas lights lit the streets at night - the only street lights between Owen and Ladysmith at the time. A high school was started in 1917 with 31 students.: 13-14 
During World War I the  stave and heading mill ran around the clock making barrels for ammunition. After the war, in 1919, construction began on a new high school. Timber in the area was beginning to dwindle, but still it is said that in 1921 two million feet of logs were brought in to be processed by the Gilman mills. As the timber was cut off, the lumber companies began selling the cut-over forties in the surrounding country to settler families who gradually wrestled small farms out of the stumplands, and Gilman began to shift to serving those farmers.: 14 
In Easter Sunday of 1922 a fire destroyed much of Gilman's business district. Some of the businesses rebuilt and others were replaced by new businesses - some choosing masonry construction over wood. Around 1926 Gilman gained electrical service, largely driven by the Gilman Booster Club. As markets changed, Gilman's mills gradually closed. The stave and heading mill ran until 1935, then tried making toys for a few years, then closed during the Great Depression. In the late 1930s the municipal water system was installed, financed by the New Deal WPA. The first part of the sewer system was installed in 1946. A new village hall, library and fire department building were built around 1947.: 14–15 
Two miles to the south, the village of Polley had grown through much of this same time, also on the SM&P railroad. It had its own school, a hotel-saloon, a general store, a forty-man sawmill, a barber, a cheese factory, a millinery shop, and a newspaper. But the SM&P shut down in the 1930s and Polley gradually declined until today only a bar and some homes and farms remain. The Polley cheese factory closed too and in 1932 its owner bought the cheese factory in Gilman - eventually called Drangle's and Gilman Cheese - which has been a major employer for many years since the mills closed.
In the 1950s Gilman High became the central high school for all of western Taylor County, leading to additions to the complex in years that followed.: 15  Since then the primary schools have been centralized at Gilman too.
Today Gilman is smaller than it once was, but it has a hardware store, a few cafes, a bank, and other services. Major employers in town are the school and Gilman Cheese. The major events each year are the Fall Fest and Snieg (Polish for snow) Fest in February, which features snow sculpting and a frying pan toss.


== Demographics ==


=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 410 people, 187 households, and 97 families residing in the village. The population density was 175.2 inhabitants per square mile (67.6/km2). There were 218 housing units at an average density of 93.2 per square mile (36.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99.5% White, 0.2% from other races, and 0.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.5% of the population.
There were 187 households, of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.9% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.1% were non-families. 43.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.89.
The median age in the village was 47.8 years. 21.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19.5% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 27.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.


=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 474 people, 185 households, and 110 families residing in the village. The population density was 202.8 people per square mile (78.2/km2). There were 209 housing units at an average density of 89.4/sq mi (34.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 97.89% White, 0.42% Asian, 1.48% from other races, and 0.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.69% of the population.
There were 185 households, out of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.5% were non-families. 36.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.97.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 19.8% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 28.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $32,708, and the median income for a family was $50,833. Males had a median income of $29,875 versus $22,083 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,075. About 7.8% of families and 14.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 30.8% of those age 65 or over.


== Landmarks ==
The historic Gilman swinging bridge is a landmark of the community


== See also ==
List of villages in Wisconsin


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Plat map of Gilman from 1914",1.0057073831558228
"American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees","The American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) is the largest trade union of public employees in the United States. It represents 1.3 million public sector employees and retirees, including health care workers, corrections officers, sanitation workers, police officers, firefighters, and childcare providers. Founded in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1932, AFSCME is part of the AFL–CIO, one of the two main labor federations in the United States. AFSCME has had four presidents since its founding.
The union is known for its involvement in political campaigns, almost exclusively with the Democratic Party. AFSCME was one of the first groups to take advantage of the 2010 Citizens United decision, which allowed unions and corporations to directly finance ads that expressly call for the election or defeat of a candidate. Major political issues for AFSCME include single-payer health care, protecting pension benefits, increasing the minimum wage, preventing the privatization of government jobs, and expanding unemployment benefits.
AFSCME is divided into approximately 3,400 local unions in 46 U.S. states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.


== History ==

AFSCME was formed out of the Wisconsin State Employees Association (WSEA), which was founded in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1932 to represent approximately 50 Wisconsin civil service employees. The WSEA was launched amid fears of politically based firings within the state, the possible elimination of the civil service and a return to patronage jobs. Arnold Zander, Wisconsin's state personnel administrator, emerged as one of the early leaders of the union. Soon after its formation, WSEA was granted an American Federation of Labor charter as Federal Labor Union 18213.
One of its first projects was to protect civil service jobs in Wisconsin after a newly elected Democratic legislature revealed its intention to eliminate Republicans from the civil service. The group succeeded, with assistance from the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
AFSCME's history is documented through its archives at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit, Michigan.


=== Arnold Zander presidency (1936–1964) ===
In 1935, after meetings between Zander and AFL President William Green, AFSCME became a chapter within the American Federation of Government Employees. AFSCME received a separate charter from the AFL in 1936.
In the 1930s, AFSCME was primarily a union for white-collar civil service workers, including librarians, social workers and clerical staff. These workers were legally without the right to collectively bargain, let alone strike—rights which Zander did not support.

The union grew slowly over the next several decades, gradually changing from an association formed to protect civil service systems to a union interested in collective bargaining.
In August 1936, AFSCME had 119 locals with just under 4,000 members, expanding to 9,737 by the end of 1936. By 1940, AFSCME had nearly 30,000 members. AFSCME innovated the revival of police unionism in the late 1930s, organizing police officers and employees at correctional facilities.


=== Jerry Wurf presidency (1964–1981) ===
In 1964, Jerry Wurf defeated Zander as the union's international president. AFSCME was racially integrated in the 1960s under Wurf and began to grow more quickly. Under Wurf, who initiated the most aggressive unionizing campaign in the organization's history, AFSCME broke from earlier patterns of civil service reform and initiated a more militant form of unionization designed to achieve parity with private sector workers.  During Wurf's tenure, AFSCME became known as a pioneer in aggressively recruiting women and black workers.
In 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated while in Memphis, Tennessee to support a strike by the African-American sanitation workers' union, AFSCME Local 1733.
By 1969, AFSCME was unionizing 1,000 new workers each day. The organization saw its greatest period of growth in the 1970s. In 1973, AFSCME concluded a three-year organizing campaign of 75,000 Pennsylvania employees. It was the largest organizing campaign in U.S. labor history. During Wurf's presidency, AFSCME's membership grew from 200,000 to approximately one million. The union eclipsed the one-million-member mark in 1978.
AFSCME set up its first political action committee in 1971. AFSCME supported George McGovern's 1972 presidential bid as well as Jimmy Carter's successful presidential bid in 1976.


=== Gerald McEntee presidency (1981–2012) ===
Gerald McEntee was elected president of AFSCME following Wurf's death in 1981. AFSCME continued to grow in the 1980s, unionizing university employees and nursing home staff and merging with other unions. In 1982, the union voted to endorse the passage of federal, state, and local legislation to extend civil rights to gay and lesbian citizens. In 1989, a third of the locals and the headquarters of the dissolving National Union of Hospital and Health Care Employees (NUHHCE) joined AFSCME. In 1992, AFSCME was the first national union to back Bill Clinton in his presidential bid. AFSCME led an effort to oppose Clinton's signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement. In the late 1990s, AFSCME expanded its membership into Puerto Rico and Panama. The union was an early supporter of Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign.
In 2011, McEntee announced his intention to retire from the union, declining to run for another term as president in 2012. McEntee was paid a gross salary of $1,020,751 in 2012, his last year on the job. McEntee's use of $325,000 in union money to charter private jets in 2010 and 2011 became an issue in the campaign to succeed him.


=== Lee Saunders presidency (since 2012) ===
At the 2012 AFSCME Convention in Los Angeles, Lee Saunders was elected president of AFSCME. Laura Reyes was elected secretary-treasurer. Saunders defeated Civil Service Employees Association president Danny Donohue with 54% of the votes and was re-elected without opposition in July 2016. Previously, Saunders had been elected as secretary-treasurer in 2010 after Bill Lucy retired. During Saunders' tenure, the union has increased its membership and its political involvement.
Reyes stepped down as secretary-treasurer in 2017. AFSCME's International Executive Board elected Elissa McBride to the position in March 2017.


== Leadership and operations ==
According to AFSCME, the union has approximately 3,400 local unions and 58 councils and affiliates in 46 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Every local union writes its own constitution, designs its own structure, elects its own officers and sets its own dues. The Washington, D.C.–based AFSCME headquarters coordinates the union's actions on national political and policy issues. AFSCME holds a biennial International Convention at which basic union policies are decided.
Every four years, AFSCME elects a union president, secretary-treasurer and 35 regional vice presidents.
Notable Secretary-Treasurers include Gordon Chapman (1937–1944, 1948–1961, 1962–1966), Joseph Ames (1966–1972) and William Lucy (1972–2010).


== Union organizing campaigns ==

Starting in the 2000s, AFSCME began campaigns to organize home-based family child care providers. In 2005, when Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich signed an executive order allowing home child care providers to collectively bargain with the state, a turf war broke out between AFSCME and the Service Employees International Union for the exclusive right to organize them. SEIU filed charges with the AFL–CIO against AFSCME, resulting in SEIU winning the right to unionize Illinois's home healthcare workers and AFSCME dropping its bid to do so.
AFSCME represents 24,000 custodians, food workers, gardeners, and other campus service workers in the University of California system. In 2007, AFSCME resolved a two-year dispute with the University of California that raised pay for the system's lowest paid workers.


== Political activity ==
Since the late 1960s, AFSCME has become one of the most politicized unions in the AFL–CIO. Since 1972, AFSCME has been a primary force within the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, playing a major role in setting the legislative agenda and in choosing Democratic presidential candidates. In the 1990s, AFSCME was the top U.S. donor to Bill Clinton.

According to OpenSecrets, AFSCME is the United States' fifth largest organizational contributor to federal campaigns and parties, having donated more than $126 million since the 1990 election cycle. The organization contributes almost exclusively to Democratic Party campaigns; since 1990 the ratio of Democratic to Republican contributions by the AFSCME has exceeded 99:1. In addition to combating privatization of public sector jobs, key political objectives for the group include raising the minimum wage and opposing the substitution of vacation time for overtime pay due workers. In June 2008, AFSCME, along with MoveOn.org, spent over US$500,000 on a television advertisement, Not Alex, critical of the presumptive Republican presidential nominee John McCain.
Until the 2010 Citizens United decision, funding for political campaigns came from voluntary contributions to a political action committee called AFSCME PEOPLE (""Public Employees Organized to Promote Legislative Equality""). With the loosening of restrictions by this Supreme Court case, AFSCME has widened its political funding base through the use of member dues. AFSCME is not required to publicly disclose the identity of its donors, or the size of their contributions.
AFSCME was the biggest outside spender in the 2010 midterm elections, spending a total of $87.5 million in support of Democratic Party candidates. AFSCME led the failed 2012 recall effort against Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker.
In 2014, AFSCME cut ties with the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) after UNCF accepted a $25 million contribution from Charles and David Koch. Starting in 2003, AFSCME had supported UNCF with annual donations of $50,000–60,000.
In 2012, AFSCME, SEIU, and the American Federation of Teachers agreed on a politics-only alliance for the 2012 national election campaign. In 2016, AFSCME and SEIU announced an extension of that agreement, leading to speculation about a possible future merger.


== See also ==

American Federation of Government Employees


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Official AFSCME Historic Archives
Find your AFSCME Local",0.8595435619354248
Spanish March,"The Spanish March or Hispanic March was a march or military buffer zone established c. 795 by Charlemagne in the eastern Pyrenees and nearby areas, to protect the new territories of the Christian Carolingian Empire—the Duchy of Gascony, the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Septimania—from the Muslim Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus.
In its broader meaning,  the Spanish March sometimes refers to a group of early Iberian and trans-Pyrenean lordships or counts coming under Frankish rule. As time passed, these lordships merged or gained independence from Frankish imperial rule.


== Geographical context ==
The area of the Spanish March broadly corresponds to the eastern regions between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. The local population of the march was diverse. It included Basques in its northwestern valleys, the Jews of Occitania, and a large Occitano-Romance-speaking population governed by the Visigothic Code, all of them under the influence of al-Andalus since their lords had vowed allegiance to the Umayyad Córdoban rulers in 719, until King Pepin the Short of Francia conquered Septimania in 759. The Pyrenean valleys started to switch loyalties after 785 (Girona, Ribagorza, etc.).
The territory of the Spanish March changed with the fortunes of the empires and the feudal ambitions of those, whether counts or walis, who were appointed to administer the counties. Though owing loyalty to the Carolingian monarch, the counts became largely autonomous. Out of the welter of counties in the march, many would be absorbed by more powerful counties, leading to the predominance of the County of Barcelona, from which, along with its vassal counties, would emerge the Principality of Catalonia centuries later. Other Spanish March counties would later be absorbed into the kingdoms of Aragon or France. Only Andorra, between modern France and Spain, retained its independence. 
Counties that at various times formed part of the Spanish March included Ribagorza (initially including Pallars), Urgell, Cerdanya, Peralada, Empúries, Besalú, Osona, Barcelona, and Girona. The Gothic March included Conflent, Roussillon, Vallespir and Fenouillet. 
The nominal boundaries attributed to the Spanish and Gothic marches vary in time and not without confusion. Also, Navarre and Aragon have sometimes been depicted as being within the Spanish March, but formally they were not. However, they came under Carolingian overlordship between 794 and 806 as part of the Duchy of Vasconia (Gascony).


== History ==

By 716, under the pressure of the Umayyad Caliphate from the south, the Kingdom of the Visigoths had been rapidly reduced to the province of Narbonensis (Septimania), a region which corresponds approximately to the modern Languedoc-Roussillon. With the exception of the Visigothic province of Septimania and some territories in the mountains of northern Hispania, the Umayyad conquest of the Visgothic Kingdom of Hispania was largely complete by 718. In 719, the Umayyad forces of al-Samh ibn Malik bypassed the Pyrenees by marching along the Mediterranean coast to conquer Septimania and established a fortified base at the city of Narbonne. Umayyad control of this frontier province was secured by offering the local population generous terms, intermarriage between ruling families, and treaties. Further Umayyad expansion northward was halted by al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlanis defeat at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. Wālis were installed in Girona and Barcelona.
In 725, his successor, Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi, besieged the city of Carcassonne, which had to agree to cede half of its territory, pay tribute, and make an offensive and defensive alliance with Muslim forces. Nîmes and all the other main Septimanian cities fell too under the sway of the Umayyads. In the 720s the savage fighting, the massacres and destruction particularly affecting the Ebro valley and Septimania unleashed a flow of refugees who mainly found shelter in southern Aquitaine across the Pyrenees, and Provence. Peace was signed in 730 between the victor at Toulouse, the Duke of Aquitaine, and Munuza, a Berber rebel Muslim lord based in Cerdanya (in current-day Catalonia), a region that could act as a buffer zone against Umayyad expansionism. The peace treaty was sealed with the marriage of the Duke’s daughter to Munuza. However, Munuza was defeated by an Umayyad military expedition in 731 during another Umayyad expansion.
The Spanish March was to be the result of the southward expansion of the Frankish realm from its heartland in Neustria and Austrasia starting with Charles Martel in 732 after various decades of fighting between the Franks and Umayyads or ""Saracens"".
The Dukes of Aquitaine (including Vasconia) pledged formal allegiance to the kings of the Franks several times, Odo the Great in 732 and Hunald I in 736 after being defeated, but remained independent. In 737, Charles Martel led an expedition to the lower Rhône and Septimania, possibly seeing that the Umayyad thrust was threatening his grip on Burgundy, which had just been subdued in 736, but he failed to keep the region.
Both Aquitaine and Septimania were still out of Frankish control after Charles's death, but Pepin the Short was determined to subdue southern Gaul. In 759, after conquering Septimania from the Umayyads, the Carolingian king focused all his might in crushing Aquitanian resistance to central Frankish power. After a ruthless war of eight years, Aquitainian independence came to an end. Toulouse was now under the grip of the new Carolingian king, Charlemagne, and access to al-Andalus was open to him despite sporadic rebellions in Vasconia over the next two decades (Basques subdued in 790 by Charlemagne's new loyal strongman in Toulouse, William of Gellone).
The first county to be established by the Franks from the territory taken from the Muslims was Roussillon (with Vallespir) circa 760. In 785 the county of Girona (with Besalú) to the south of the Pyrenees was taken. Ribagorza and Pallars were linked to Toulouse and were added to this county circa 790. Urgell and Cerdanya were added in 798. The first records of the county of Empúries (with Perelada) are from 812 but the county was probably under Frankish control before 800.
Pepin's son, Charlemagne, fulfilled the Carolingian goal of extending the defensive boundaries of the empire beyond Septimania, creating a strong barrier between the Umayyad Caliphate and Francia, besides tightening control over the Duchy of Vasconia by establishing the Kingdom of Aquitaine, ruled by his son Louis the Pious in 781.
After a series of struggles the County of Barcelona (with Ausona) was taken by Frankish forces in 801. A number of castles were established in Aragon between 798 and 802 (appointment by Count Aureolus). After subduing the Basques to the north of the Pyrenees (790), Frankish overlordship expanded to the upper Ebro (794) and Pamplona (798), when Alfonso II of Asturias also came under Charlemagne's influence. Sobrarbe was not incorporated into the march, as it appears later in history and was probably within the area of influence of the County of Aragon.
The death of Charlemagne (814) was followed by a scene of open revolt and Carolingian setbacks around the Pyrenees. After being defeated by the Moors in the 816 Battle of Pancorbo, Pamplona, now led by the Basque lord Iñigo Arista broke away from the Spanish March, with the County of Aragon following suit shortly thereafter in 820. The counties to the south, which were used by the Moors to enter and overrun Visigothic Septimania in 719, became, at this point, a natural extension of the March of Gothia ruled by local counts under the Carolingian Empire.


== Structure ==
The local population of the Spanish March was diverse. The majority were Hispano-Romans (Goths) and Basques but there were also Muslims, and Jews from Septimania who repopulated the Frankish conquered easternmost territories of present-day northern Spain and a small portion of southern France. The area changed with the fortunes of the empires and the feudal ambitions of the counts appointed to administer the counties. As Frankish imperial power waned, the rulers of the March of Hispania became independent fiefs. Most of the region would later become part of Catalonia.
Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious took Barcelona from its Moorish ruler in 801, thus securing Frankish power in the borderland between the Franks and the Moors. The Counts of Barcelona then became the principal representatives of Frankish authority in the Spanish March. The march included various outlying smaller territories, each ruled by a lesser miles with his armed retainers and who theoretically owed allegiance through the count to the emperor.
The rulers of the counties were called counts and when they governed several counties they often took the title of duke (Dux Gothiae). When the county formed the border with the Muslim Kingdom, the Frankish title marquis (Marquis de Gothie) was chosen. Besides, certain counts aspired to the Frankish title ""Prince of Gothia"". A margrave or Marcgravi is a Graf (""duke"") of the March. The later Toulousain and Catalan lords, such as Bernard of Septimania, Humfrid, Bernard of Gothia, Borrell II, and Ramon Borrell, inherited these titles.
In the early 9th century, Charlemagne began issuing a new kind of land grant, the aprisio, which reallocated land previously held by the imperial crown fisc in deserted or abandoned areas. This included special rights and immunities that allowed considerable independence from the imperial control. Historians have interpreted the aprisio both as an early form of feudalism and in economic and military terms as a mechanism to entice settlers to a depopulated border region. Such self-sufficient landholders would aid the counts in providing armed men to defend the Frankish frontier. Aprisio grants (the first ones were in Septimania) were given personally by the Carolingian king, so that they reinforced loyalty to central power, to counterbalance the local power exercised by the march's counts.
However poor communications and a distant central power allowed these basic feudal, heavily agrarian entities to be self-sufficient. Each was ruled by a small hereditary military elite. For example, the first Count of Barcelona Bera was appointed by the King in 801, however subsequently strong heirs were able to inherit the title such as Sunifred, fl. 844–848. This gradually became custom until countship became hereditary (for Wifred the Hairy in 897). The County of Barcelona became de facto independent under count Borrell II, when he ceased to request royal charters after the kings Lothair and Hugh Capet failed to assist him in the defense of the county against Muslim leader al-Mansur, although the change of dynasty may have played a part in that decision; meanwhile other counties maintained links with the Frankish crown for a longer time. 
The early history of Andorra in the Pyrenees provides a fairly typical example of a lordship of the region, as Andorra is the only part of the Spanish March that was never incorporated into either France or Spain, a feat mentioned in its national anthem, El Gran Carlemany.


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Chandler., Cullen J. (2019). ""Creating the Spanish March, 778–840"". Carolingian Catalonia: Politics, Culture, and Identity in an Imperial Province, 778–987. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–110. doi:10.1017/9781108565745.004. ISBN 9781108565745.
Freedman, Paul (2003). ""Spanish March"". In Gerli, E. Michael (ed.). Medieval Iberia : an encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93918-6. OCLC 50404104.


== External links ==
Ian Meadows, ""The Arabs in Occitania""
Archibald R. Lewis, ""The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050""",1.2153204679489136
Food extrusion,"Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces the mix through the die is an extruder, and the mix is known as the extrudate. The extruder is typically a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, at the end of which is the die. In some cases, ""extrusion"" is taken as synonymous with extrusion cooking, which cooks the food with heat as it is squeezed through the die.
Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product. Products made through extrusion (without simultaneous cooking) include pasta, breads (croutons, bread sticks, and flat breads), pre-made cookie dough, and sausages. Products made through extrusion cooking include many breakfast cereals and ready-to-eat snacks, confectionery, some baby foods, full-fat soy flour, textured vegetable protein, some beverages, and dry and semi-moist pet foods. Food products manufactured using extrusion usually have a high starch content.


== Process ==


=== Extrusion cooking ===
In the extrusion cooking process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size, usually the consistency of coarse flour. The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients are added depending on the target product; these may be liquid sugar, fats, dyes, meats or water. Steam is injected to start the cooking process, and the preconditioned mix (extrudate) is then passed through an extruder. The extruder is a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, at the end of which is the die. The extruder's rotating screw forces the extrudate towards and through the die. The extrudate is in the extruder for the residence time.
Many extruded products puff and change texture as they are extruded because of the reduction of forces and release of moisture and heat. The extent to which it does so is known as the expansion ratio. The extrudate is cut to the desired length by blades at the output of the extruder, which rotate about the die openings at a specific speed. The product is then cooled and dried, becoming rigid while maintaining porosity.
Cooking takes place within the extruder, where the product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (10–20 bar). The process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization under some conditions.
Many food extrusion processes involve a high temperature for a short time. Important factors of the extrusion process are the composition of the extrudate, screw length and rotating speed, barrel temperature and moisture, die shape, and rotating speed of the blades. These are controlled based on the desired product to ensure uniformity of the output.
Moisture is the most important of these factors, and affects the mix viscosity, acting to plasticize the extrudate. Increasing moisture will decrease viscosity, torque, and product temperature, and increase bulk density. This will also reduce the pressure at the die. Most extrusion processes for food processing are carried out at low to intermediate moisture (moisture level below 40%). High-moisture extrusion is known as wet extrusion, but it was not used much before the introduction of twin screw extruders (TSE), which have a more efficient conveying capability. The most important rheological factor in the wet extrusion of high-starch extrudate is temperature.
The amount of salt in the extrudate may determine the colour and texture of some extruded products. The expansion ratio and airiness of the product depend on the salt concentration in the extrudate, possibly as a result of a chemical reaction between the salt and the starches in the extrudate. Colour changes as a result of salt concentration may be caused by ""the ability of salt to change the water activity of the extrudate and thus change the rate of browning reactions"". Salt is also used to distribute minor ingredients, such as food colours and flavours, after extrusion; these are more evenly distributed over the product's surface after being mixed with salt.


== History ==

The first extruder was designed to manufacture sausages in the 1870s. Dry pasta has been produced by extrusion since the 1930s, and the method has been applied to tater tots (first extruded potato product: Ore-Ida in 1953). Some domestic kitchen appliances such as meat grinders and some types of pasta makers use extrusion. Pastry bags (piping bags), squeezed by hand, operate by extrusion.
The first extrusion cooking machine was the expanding pelleting machine from Wenger Mixer Manufacturing from 1954. Its first mentioned use seems to be with Purina in 1957, which developed extruded food for dogs, monkeys, and fish. In 1963, the USDA and UNICEF tested a full fat soy flour produced from extrusion-cooked soybeans as a source of nutrients for children. Milk substitutes were later developed from this flour. In 1966, the US government started providing a CSM (Corn-Soya-Milk) formula to protein-deficient children in the Third World. The later Meals for Millions project also prominently featured soy flour in its Multi-Purpose Food (MPF), a high-protein food supplement that could be made for just three cents per meal.
The idea of using extrusion cooking to produce breakfast cereal has been mentioned since the Wegner patent of 1960. In 1970, the Israeli Shefa Protein Industries introduced a line of breakfast cereal called Krunch, made from cereal flour and full-fat soy flour. It's unclear whether there has been an earlier breakfast cereal made from extruded products. Meat analogues have been made through extrusion since 1969.


== Effects ==
Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product. This is achieved by controlling various aspects of the extrusion process. It has also enabled the production of new processed food products and ""revolutionized many conventional snack manufacturing processes"".


=== Chemical changes with cooking ===
Extrusion cooking results in ""chemical reactions that occur within the extruder barrel and at the die"" like most other forms of cooking. Extrusion enables mass production of some food, and will ""denature antinutritional factors"" while destroying toxins or killing microorganisms. It may also improve protein quality and digestibility and affects the product's shape, texture, colour, and flavour. Changes associated with extrusion include:

Destruction of certain naturally occurring toxins and antinutrients (including trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins, tannins and phytates)
All four listed antinutrients reduce the absorption of protein. Phytate and tannins also reduce the absorption of minerals.
Reduction in the level of microorganisms in the final product.
Partial destruction of heat-liable vitamins (A, B, C, and E).
Moderate increase in protein digestibility, due to protein protein denaturation and the inactivation of antinutrients.
Maillard reactions, which reduce the available amounts of certain amino acids, including the essential amino acid lysine. Lysine loss can be reduced by using wetter mixtures.
Breakdown of complex carbohydrates (starches and non-starch polysaccharides) into simpler components. Part of this action is caused by amylase from the cereal themselves.
This increases glycemic index and creates starches more likely to cause and insulin resistance. The ""extrusion process significantly increased the availability of carbohydrates for digestion"".
This may also lead to higher tooth decay.
On the other hand, this breakdown converts insoluble fibers into soluble fibers.
Binding and volatization of flavor compounds.
Gelatinization of starch.
An increase in iron content due to the wearing of machine components. No significant change in zinc absorption.
As of 1998, little is known about the stability or bioavailability of phytochemicals involved in extrusion. Phenols appear to be decreased.
Overall, the effects of ""extrusion cooking on nutritional quality are ambiguous"", as extrusion may change carbohydrates, dietary fibre, the protein and amino acid profile, vitamins, and mineral content of the extrudate in a manner that is beneficial or harmful. Nutritional quality has been found to improve with moderate conditions (short duration, high moisture, low temperature), whereas a negative effect on nutritional quality of the extrudate occurs with a high temperature (at least 200 °C), low moisture (less than 15%), or improper components in the mix. High-temperature extrusion for a short duration ""minimizes losses in vitamins and amino acids"". 
A 2012 research paper indicates that use of non-traditional cereal flours, such as amaranth, buckwheat or millet, may be used to reduce the glycemic index of breakfast cereals produced by extrusion. The extrudate using these cereal flours exhibits a higher bulk and product density, has a similar expansion ratio, and has ""a significant reduction in readily digestible carbohydrates and slowly digestible carbohydrates"". A 2008 paper states that replacing 5% to 15% of the wheat flour and white flour with dietary fibre in the extrudate breakfast cereal mix significantly reduces ""the rate and extent of carbohydrate hydrolysis of the extruded products"", which increased the level of slowly digested carbohydrates and reduced the level of quickly digested carbohydrates.


=== Texture ===
The material of which an extrusion die is made can affect the final product. Rough bronze dies on pasta extruders produce a rougher surface than smooth stainless steel dies, considered to make more liquid pasta sauces adhere better; pasta made this way is labelled ""bronze die"" pasta to indicate a premium product.
	Pasta dies
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Products ==
Extrusion has enabled the production of new processed food products and ""revolutionized many conventional snack manufacturing processes"".

The various types of food products manufactured by extrusion typically have a high starch content.  Directly expanded types include breakfast cereals and corn curls, and are made in high-temperature, low-moisture conditions under high shear. Unexpanded products include pasta, which is produced at intermediate moisture (about 40%) and low temperature. Texturized products include meat analogues, which are made using plant proteins (""textured vegetable protein"") and a long die to ""impart a fibrous, meat-like structure to the extrudate"", and fish paste. 
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
Some processed cheeses and cheese analogues are also made by extrusion. Processed cheeses extruded with low moisture and temperature ""might be better suited for manufacturing using extrusion technology"" than those at high moisture or temperature. Lower moisture cheeses are firmer and chewier, and cheddar cheese with low moisture and an extrusion temperature of 80 °C was preferred by subjects in a study to other extruded cheddar cheese produced under different conditions. An extrudate mean residence time of about 100 seconds can produce ""processed cheeses or cheese analogues of varying texture (spreadable to sliceable)"".
Confectionery made via extrusion includes chewing gum, liquorice, and toffee.  Other food products often produced by extrusion include some breads (croutons, bread sticks, and flat breads), various ready-to-eat snacks, pre-made cookie dough, some baby foods, some beverages, and dry and semi-moist pet foods. Specific examples include cheese curls, macaroni, Fig Newtons, jelly beans, sevai, and some french fries.
Extrusion is also used to modify starch and to pellet animal feed.


== See also ==
Flash pasteurization


== References ==


== Further reading ==

Edwin van Onna; Brigitte van Mechelen; Matthew Stewart; Shonquis Moreno; Chris Scott; Sarah Martin Pearson; Joeri Bruyninckx; Masaaki Takahashi (1993). The technology of Extrusion Cooking. Springer. ISBN 9780834213401.
Guy, R. C. E. (2003). ""EXTRUSION COOKING/Principles and Practice"". Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. pp. 2222–2227. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00434-X. ISBN 9780122270550.",0.9020087718963623
Single combat,"Single combat is a duel between two single combatants which takes place in the context of a battle between two armies.
Instances of single combat are known from Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The champions were often combatants who represented larger, spectator groups. Such representative contests and stories thereof are known worldwide.
Typically, it takes place in the no-man's-land between the opposing armies, with other warriors watching and themselves refraining from fighting until one of the two single combatants has won. Often, it is champion warfare, with the two considered the champions of their respective sides.
Single combat could also take place within a larger battle. Neither ancient nor medieval warfare always relied on the line or phalanx formation. The Iliad notably describes the battles of the Trojan war as a series of single encounters on the field, and the medieval code of chivalry, partly inspired by this, encouraged the single combat between individual knights on the battlefield, in which the loser was not usually killed but taken captive for ransom. However, the use of the longbow and the pike square against mounted knights (as at the battles of Crécy and Laupen) ended this tradition in the 14th century, although it was continued away from the battlefield, with the pas d'armes and the early modern duel.


== Antiquity ==

An important episode in ""The Tale of Sinuhe"", one of the most well-known works of Ancient Egyptian literature, concerns the protagonist – an Egyptian exile in Upper Retjenu (Canaan) – defeating a powerful opponent in single combat.
Duels between individual warriors are depicted in the Iliad, including those between Menelaus and Paris and later between Achilles and Hector. The Hebrew Bible also includes a few accounts of single combat, the most famous being David versus Goliath.
Single combat is mentioned quite frequently in the history of ancient Rome – Romulus defeated Acro, king of Caenina for the spolia opima; the Horatii's defeat of the Alba Longan Curiatii in the 7th century BC is reported by Livy to have settled a war in Rome's favor and subjected Alba Longa to Rome; Aulus Cornelius Cossus defeated Lars Tolumnius, king of the Veientes in single combat and took the spolia opima. In the 3rd century BC; Marcus Claudius Marcellus took the spolia opima from Viridomarus, king of the Gaesatae, at the Battle of Clastidium (222 BC); and Marcus Licinius Crassus from Deldo, king of the Bastarnae (29 BC).
Depictions of single combat also appear in the Hindu epics of the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana. Single combats are often preludes to battles in the Chinese epic Romance of the Three Kingdoms and are featured prominently throughout the epic.


== Middle Ages ==
According to the Byzantine historians Nikephoros and Theophanes the Confessor, during the Battle of Nineveh - climactic battle of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 - the Persian general Rhahzadh challenged the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius to single combat with the hope of forcing the Romans to flee. Heraclius accepted the challenge and spurred his horse forward and with a single blow struck off Rhahzadh's head, taking from the dead Persian his shield of 120 gold plates and gold breastplate as trophies. With Rhahzadh's death perished the Persians' hopes of victory: seeing their brave commander and many other high-ranking officers being slain by Heraclius and his household troops, the Persian troops lost heart and were slaughtered suffering around 6,000 casualties. 
In The Cattle Raid of Cooley, a famous episode of Irish mythology, all the warriors of Ulster but Cúchulainn are made sick by a curse and unable to fight the invading army of Queen Maeb, leaving Cúchulainn to fight a whole series of single combats by himself until they recover. The Welsh mythological tale, the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, depicts a single combat between the southern prince Pryderi and the northern magician Gwydion, to determine the victor of a war between the two kingdoms.
Many battles depicted in the medieval Chanson de Roland consist of a series of single combats, as are battles in the early Russian epic poem The Tale of Igor's Campaign (the basis of Borodin's Opera Prince Igor) and the battles depicted in various tales of the Arabian Nights.
Guy of Warwick, the legendary English Romance hero, is depicted as defeating in single combat the Viking giant Colbrand; the story is set in the time of Athelstan of England, but actually reflects the society of the late Middle Ages.
An important episode in Geoffrey of Monmouth's legendary History of the Kings of Britain  is the single combat between prince Nennius of Britain and Julius Caesar.
Single combat was also a prelude to battles in pre-Islamic Arabia and early Islamic battles. For example, the Battle of Badr, one of the most important in the early history of Islam, was opened by three champions of the Islamic side (Ali, Ubaydah, and Hamzah) stepping forward, engaging and defeating three of the then-Pagan Meccans, although Ubaydah was mortally wounded. This result of the three single combats was considered to have substantially contributed to the Muslim victory in the overall battle which followed. Duels were also part of other battles at the time of Muhammad, such as the battle of Uhud, battle of the Trench and the battle of Khaybar.
In the early Muslim conquest the Muslim commander would often duel with the enemy commander, for example, Khalid ibn al-Walid and Hormozd in the battle of the chains.
Single combats were characteristic of the Samurai fighting tradition and known as Ikki-uchi. As each samurai commanded his unit of retainers, successfully challenging and defeating the opposing samurai by a single combat can force the entire unit to retreat minimizing casualties and changing the course of battle. Those seeking a suitable opponent, frequently used Nanori to issue a challenge by announcing his name and bravery as well as ridiculing opponents to boost morale of his side as well as enrage the opponent to force the combat. As this is a high-risk-low-return strategy for the winning side, already defeated side, or ill-matched opponent (difference of personal standing or martial reputation) it was acceptable to decline or elude the single combat. An example of single-combat with the tragic result for the victor is told in Heike Monogatari as Kumagai Naozane defeated Taira no Atsumori at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani. It could be banned by the overall commander as needed and notably during Mongol invasions of Japan, particularly during the second invasion in 1281, samurai fought as massed mounted archer/warrior with the annihilation of enemy as the goal. This tradition declines and disappears during the Sengoku period as each side prepared trained armies in thousands or even tens of thousands making the single combat have a limited, if any, effect on the outcome of the battle.
In Russia, single combat is known as  bash na bash (an old Russian expression meaning ""one-on-one""), substituting a fight between champions for a full-scale battle was a traditional way to avoid the bloodshed of an internecine war. The leaders of the opposing druzhinas or other armed groups either rode towards the centre of the battlefield or sent messengers to negotiate whether the two most skilled fighters or the leaders themselves would engage in single combat, usually to the death. The outcome of the champions' fight would then be taken as a sign of which side the higher powers favoured, and could have political consequences similar to the result of a full battle.
The oldest written account of such a fight is found in Nestor's Primary Chronicle; it describes a duel between a Kievan champion and the Pechenegs' best fighter. The most well-known fight, however, was that between Prince Mstislav the Brave of Tmutarakan and the Kasog Prince Rededia in 1022, in which Mstislav defeated Rededia and killed him with a dagger. According to the Primary Chronicle, Mstislav's victory allowed him to take tribute from the Kasogs and to have a church built; he also took Rededia's wife and two sons and had them baptised into Christianity, upon which he had his daughter married to Rededia's son according to the tradition of the times. Although Rededia had been killed, he was honoured by Mstislav, and his family joined the ranks of the Russian nobility.
The semi-legendary Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan includes an extensive account of the  combat between the Russian hero Evpaty Kolovrat and the Tatar warrior Hostovrul. Kolovrat splits his opponent in half with his sword and wins the duel. However, Kolovrat is then attacked and killed from a distance by Tatar stone throwers. The Mongol ruler Batu Khan, impressed with his bravery, honours his body.

Sometimes however, such single combat would merely initiate a battle rather than prevent it. The most famous example of this was the duel between Russian monk Alexander Peresvet and the Golden Horde champion Chelubey or Temir-Murza at the beginning of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The champions killed each other in the first run, though according to Russian legend, Peresvet did not fall from the saddle, while Temir-Murza did.
In the 16th century Horn of Africa, during a confrontation between the armies of the Ethiopian Empire and those of the Adal Sultanate, emir Mahfuz of the Adal Sultanate sent a challenge into the Ethiopian Christian camp, offering to fight any warrior from among the Christians in single combat. This was to be done provided that the victory should be accounted to belong to the army whose champion was victorious, and that both sides should withdraw their troops without further confrontation. The challenge was accepted by the enemy. Gabriel Andreas, a soldier of tried valour was chosen as the champion of the Christians by general consensus. The two champions met and the fight began. During the ensuing combat, Gabriel struck Mahfuz between his neck and shoulders, nearly cleaving his body in two. The Emir thus fell dead on the ground. Gabriel then cut Mahfuz's head off and took it to the Christian army's ranks. As he threw the severed head at the emperor’s feet, he exclaimed ""There is the Goliath of the infidels."", thereby signalling his brothers-in-arms to charge into the Adalite lines. The charging Christinas defeated their enemies and launched a massive raid into Adalite territory.
In Kerala, India, duelling between warriors was used to settle conflicts between local rulers.
The prime martial caste of Kerala, Nairs, and some prominent Ezhava families made up the Chekavars (which literally means ""those who are prepared to die"" in the   Malayalam language). Some prominent warriors who took part in such ankam (duels) were Thacholi Othenan, Unniarcha, Aromal Chekavar, whose legends are described in the Vadukkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads). The Mamankam Festival held by the Zamorin ruler in the kingdom of modern-day Kozhikode, was a ritual which glorified the martial traditions of warrior families in the Malabar. The ritual ended after the Zamorin was overthrown. The Kerala practice was discontinued in the 19th century under the British Raj.
In Southeast Asia, formal elephant duels were sometimes contested between opposing army leaders to determine the outcome of a conflict, in lieu of full-on fighting by their armies.


== Modern examples ==

Captain John Smith of Jamestown is reputed in his earlier career as a mercenary in Eastern Europe to have defeated, killed and beheaded Turkish commanders in three single combats, for which he was knighted by the Transylvanian Prince Sigismund Báthory and given a horse and coat of arms showing three Turks' heads.
Dramatist Ben Jonson, in conversations with the poet William Drummond, recounted that when serving in the Low Countries as a volunteer with the regiments of Francis Vere, he had defeated an opponent in single combat ""in view of both armies"" and stripped him of his weapons.
In more recent times, single combats have become iconic – though often apocryphal – elements of aerial dogfights, with the idea, if not the practice, of single combat in the skies particularly prevalent during the First World War with the air forces' emphasis on a sort of individualism and chivalry. Manfred von Richthofen, the infamous ""Red Baron"", is recorded as writing ""If I am alone with an opponent ... only a jammed gun or an engine problem can prevent me from shooting him down.""


== See also ==
Duel
Hand-to-hand combat
History of fencing
Mard o mard
Trial by combat


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003), Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-81459-6
Norwich, John Julius (1997), A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage, ISBN 978-0-679-77269-9


== External links ==
 Media related to Single combat at Wikimedia Commons
Champions and Tradition: Single Combat in the Late Roman World",0.947101891040802
Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war,"The origins of the Sri Lankan civil war lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Sri Lankan Tamils. The war has been described by social anthropologist Jonathan Spencer as an outcome of how modern ethnic identities have been made and re-made since the colonial period, with the political struggle between minority Tamils and the Sinhalese-dominant government accompanied by rhetorical wars over archeological sites and place name etymologies, and the political use of the national past.


== Colonial period ==
The roots of the conflict have been traced back to Sri Lanka's colonial era. Some observers claim that British colonial rule used ""divide and rule"" strategy and its policies exacerbated ethnic tensions. Tamils were overrepresented in the civil service jobs due to the advantage of English language educational resources being allegedly disproportionately allocated to them. However, English language schools were established in the Tamil-majority Jaffna by American missionaries since the British wanted to prevent conflict with the English missions in the south. Since Jaffna soil was economically unproductive unlike the south, Tamils there invested more heavily in education to secure government jobs. A small section of the Jaffna society benefited from this while most of the Tamil areas remained backward. The British selected their candidates for the civil service on a merit basis through civil service examination without an ethnic quota. Therefore, historian E. F. C. Ludowyk explained the Tamil overrepresentation in civil service in terms of ""their greater industry and thrift"". S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, the fourth Prime Minister of the Dominion of Ceylon, stated that the Tamils gained a ""dominant position in the public services"" due to their hard work and merit in passing the qualifying examinations. Upon independence, the ruling Sinhalese elite would vilify Tamils as having been favoured by the British to justify discriminatory policies against them. Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism sparked by the grievances of the majority against the domination of a Westernized elite would lead to ethnic polarization.


== Lead up to armed struggle ==
A primary contributor to the development of political awareness amongst Tamils during the European colonial rule was the advent of Protestant missionaries on a large scale from 1814. Missionary activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Methodists and Anglican churches led to a revival amongst Hindu Tamils who built their own schools, temples, societies and published literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led the Tamils to think confidently of themselves as a community and prepared the way for self-consciousness as a cultural, religious and linguistic community in the mid-19th century.
Great Britain, which had come to control the whole of the island in 1815, instituted a legislative council in 1833 with three Europeans and one each for Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils and Burghers. This council's primary requirement was to play an advisory role to the Governor. These positions eventually came to be elected. From the introduction of the advisory council to the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 until the Soulbury Commission in 1947, the main dispute between the Sinhalese and Tamils elites was over the question of representation and not on the structure of the government. The issue of power sharing was used by the nationalists of both communities to create an escalating inter-ethnic rivalry which has continually gained momentum ever since.
There was initially little tension amongst Sri Lanka's two largest ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was appointed representative of the Sinhalese as well the Tamils in the national legislative council. However, the British Governor William Manning actively encouraged the concept of ""communal representation"" and created the Colombo seat which alternated between the Tamils and the Sinhalese. 
Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission strongly rejected communal representation, and brought in universal franchise. The decision was strongly opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament, according to the proportion of the population they make up. G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil community, proposed to the Soulbury Commission that there should be 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese, 50% for all other ethnic groups, including Tamils) in the proposed independent Ceylon – a proposal that was rejected. In 1936, a Pan-Sinhala Board of Ministers was created which excluded non-Sinhala members, and further divided the Sinhala and Tamil elites. The Second World War served as an interregnum where the adroit politics of D. S. Senanayake successfully balancing the polarising tendencies of the Sinhalese as well as Tamil nationalists. Following independence in 1948, G. G. Ponnambalam and the party he founded, the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (Tamil Congress), joined D. S. Senanayake's moderate, Western-oriented, United National Party Government. This Government pass the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, which denied citizenship to Sri Lankans of Indian origin and resulted in Sri Lanka becoming a majoritanian state.  Sri Lanka's government represented only the majority community, the Sinhalese community, and had marginalized the minorities, causing a ""severe degree of alienation"" among the minority communities. When this Act was passed, the Tamil Congress was strongly criticized by the opposition Marxist groups and the newly formed Sri Lankan Tamil nationalist Federal Party (FP). S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, the leader of this new party, contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, and then in the Privy council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities, but he did not prevail in overturning it. The FP took two seats in the 1952 election, against the Tamil Congress' four, but in the 1956 election, it became the dominant party in the Tamil districts and remained so for two decades. The FP's came to be known for its uncompromising stand on Tamil rights. In response to the parliamentary act that made Sinhala the sole official language in 1956, Federal MPs staged a non violent sit in (satyagraha) protest, but it was broken up by a nationalist mob. The police and other state authorities present at the location failed to take action to stop the violence. The FP was cast as scapegoats and were briefly banned after the 1958 riots, in which many were killed and thousands of Tamils forced to flee their homes.
Another point of conflict between the communities was state sponsored colonization schemes that had the effect of changing the demographic balance in the Eastern province in favor of majority Sinhalese that the Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland. It has been perhaps the most immediate cause of inter-communal violence.
In the 1970s, importing Tamil-language films, books, magazines, journals, etc. from the cultural hub of Tamil Nadu, India was banned. Sri Lanka also banned local groups affiliated with groups such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and the Tamil Youth League. Foreign exchange for the long established practice of Tamil students going to India for university education was stopped.  Equally, examinations for external degrees from the University of London were abolished. This had the effect of culturally cutting off the links between Tamil Sri Lankans and Tamils from India. The then government insisted that these measures were part of a general program of economic self-sufficiency as part of its socialist agenda and not targeted against the Tamil minority.
The policy of standardization was a policy implemented by the Sri Lankan government in 1971 to curtail the number of Tamil students selected for certain faculties in the universities.
In 1973, the Federal Party decided to demand for a separate state. To further their nationalistic cause they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) in 1975. On 1976, after the first National convention of the Tamil United Liberation Front, the Ceylon Tamils moved towards a morphed nationalism which meant that they were now unwilling to live within a confined single island entity. Chelvanayakam and the Federal Party had always campaigned for a united country and thought that partitioning of the country would be “suicidal” up until 1973. However policies by the various governments that was considered to be discriminatory by Tamil leadership modified the stand to Tamil independence.


== Rise of militancy ==

Since 1948, when Sri Lanka became independent, successive governments have adopted policies that had the effect of net preference to the majority Sinhalese at the expense of the minority Sri Lankan Tamils. The governments adopted these policies in order to assist the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment. But these policies severely curtailed the middle class Tamil youth, who found it more difficult during the 1970s and 1980s to enter a university or secure employment. These individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as ""the boys"" formed many militant organizations. The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was the Black July pogrom which was perceived have been an organized event in which over 1000 Sri Lankan Tamil civilians were killed  prompting many youth to prefer the armed path of resistance.
By the end of 1987, they had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces but also the Indian Peace Keeping Force. They also fought among each other, as well, with equal if not greater brutality. The main group: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a rebel group, decimated most of the others. They represented intergenerational tensions as well as caste and ideological differences. Except the LTTE, many of the remaining organizations have morphed into minor political parties within the Tamil National Alliance or as standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.


== Denial of citizenship to Indian Tamils ==

There is a sizable population of Tamils in the Central Province, plantation laborers brought down from India by the British colonial authorities in the 19th and 20th centuries. These Indian Tamils (or Estate Tamils), as they are called, still work mainly in Sri Lanka's tea plantations. They have been locked in poverty for generations and continue to experience poor living conditions. Although they speak dialects of the same language, they are usually considered a separate community from the Sri Lankan Tamils of the North and East.
The government of D.S. Senanayake passed legislation stripping the estate Tamils of their citizenship in 1949, leaving them stateless.
The effect was to tilt the island's political balance away from the Tamils. In 1948, at independence, the Tamils had 33% of the voting power in Parliament.. Upon the disenfranchisement of the estate Tamils, however, this proportion dropped to 20%. The Sinhalese could and did obtain more than a 2/3 majority in Parliament, making it impossible for Tamils to exercise an effective opposition to Sinhalese policies affecting them. The main reason for the imbalance was that several multi-member constituencies elected a Tamil member of Parliament in a majority Sinhalese electorate. The idea in having multi-member constituencies was to prevent domination of minorities by a future nationalist government.
Not content with stripping their citizenship, successive governments tried to remove the estate Tamils from the country entirely. In 1964, Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike signed an agreement with Indian Prime Minister L.B. Shastri. A second agreement was signed three years later with Indira Gandhi. These provided that 600,000 of the estate Tamils would be expelled and sent to India over a 15-year period, and 375,000 would be restored their Sri Lankan citizenship. Not all of the former group actually returned to India, and remained in Sri Lanka without the ability to vote, travel abroad, or participate fully in Sri Lankan life. It was not until 2003 that full citizenship rights were restored to the remaining Tamils in the hill country.


== Language policy ==

The detailed reports of the Kandyan Peasantry commission (1947), the Buddhist commission (1956), as well as statistics of preponderant admissions of Tamil speaking students to the university provided a basis for these Sinhalese activists who ensured S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike won a landslide victory in 1956, campaigning on a strong Sinhalese nationalist platform.
Ethnic conflict was aggravated by the Sinhala Official Language Act of 1956. General consensus existed that English should be replaced as the country's official language. In the Act, the Sri Lankan government replaced English with Sinhala which deprived the Tamils of their right to deal with government institutions in their language as well as limited their opportunity to join government service. By 1956, approximately 75% of the population maintained fluency in the Sinhala language, approximately 15% were proficient in Tamil and the remaining ethnic groups spoke mainly English including the Burghers and Muslims. Multi-linguism was not common-spread, although many Sri Lankans had knowledge of at least two of the three main languages.
The Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) government led by Solomon Bandaranaike was sworn into office on a platform that of helping the growing population of unemployed youth who were disenfranchised by the Sinhala Official Language policy. A majority of civil servants under colonial rule were Tamil whose positions benefited from free English-medium missionary schools in the north and east of the island. The Tamil Federal Party led a group of Tamil volunteers and staged a sit-down satyagraha (peaceful protest).
The Sinhala Official Language policy was gradually weakened by all subsequent governments and in 1987, Tamil was made an official language of Sri Lanka, alongside Sinhala. English has remained the de facto language of governance; government activity continues to be carried out in English, including the drafting of legislation.


== 1958 riots ==

In the 1958 riots, 150–200 people were killed, primarily Tamils and thousands more were assaulted and Tamil property looted. Over 25,000 Tamil refugees were relocated to the North. Similarly, a large number of Sinhalese were killed or expelled from the North and East of country and were relocated in the South.


== 1970 – Banning of Tamil media and literature importation ==
Importing Tamil-language films, books, magazines, journals, etc. from the cultural hub of Tamil Nadu, India was banned in 1970. This was perceived by some minority Sri Lankan Tamil politicians as directed against their cultural survival. Sri Lanka also banned groups such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Tamil Youth League. Culturally, Tamil Sri Lankans were cut off from Tamil Nadu. But some argue that it led to native Sri Lankan Tamil literature and media to thrive without competition from India.
Foreign exchange for the long established practice of Tamil students going to India for university education was stopped. Equally, examinations for external degrees from the University of London were abolished. The government insisted this was a part of a general program of economic self-sufficiency, part of its socialist agenda, however most of the Tamil population did not accept nor believe this.


== 1971 – Universities Act ==

During the 1970s, university admissions were standardized. The Policy of standardisation was a policy implemented by the Sri Lankan government in 1971 to curtail the number of Tamil students selected for certain faculties in the universities.
Under the British, English was the state language and consequently greatly benefited English speakers. However, the majority of the Sri Lankan populace lived outside urban areas and did not belong to the social elite, and therefore did not enjoy the benefits of English-medium education. The issue was compounded further by the fact that in the Jaffna district, where a largely Tamil speaking populace resided, students had access to English-medium education through missionary schools. This created a situation where a large proportion of university students enrolled in professional courses such as medicine and engineering were English speaking Tamils.


== Rise of separatism ==
At first, Tamil politicians pushed for a federal system through the Federal Party. This was met with suspicion and resistance from many Sinhalese.  In the 1960s, the government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike proceeded to nationalize most missionary schools in the country, secularizing them and changing the language of instruction from English to Sinhala only.  After this, it became rare for Sinhalese and Tamil children to attend school together. Unable to speak Sinhalese, it became increasingly difficult for Tamil youth to gain access to civil service jobs or attend universities, and unemployment rose.
The name of the country was changed from Ceylon to Sri Lanka in 1970, a name of Sanskrit origin that angered and alienated many Tamils.


=== Vaddukoddai Resolution ===
The concept of a separate nation, Tamil Eelam, was proposed by the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) in the Vaddukoddai Resolution in 1976. TULF was a coalition of parties who went on to campaign in the 1977 elections for an independent state for Tamils in Sri Lanka. They won most of the Tamil seats, but the government later banned them from Parliament for advocating an independent state. Tamil Separatists led by LTTE took over leadership of the Tamils during the course of the Sri Lankan Civil War.


== 1981 – Destruction of the Jaffna Public Library ==

A Sinhalese mob went on a rampage on the nights of May 31 to June 2, burning the market area of Jaffna, the office of the Tamil Newspaper, the home of the member of Parliament for Jaffna, the Jaffna Public Library and killing four people. The destruction of the Jaffna Public Library was the incident which appeared to cause the most distress to the people of Jaffna. The 95,000 volumes of the Public Library destroyed by the fire included numerous culturally important and irreplaceable manuscripts. Witnesses reported the presence of uniformed police officers in the mob and their involvement in the deaths of four individuals.


== Outbreak of war ==


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Aspinall, Edward; Jeffrey, Robin; Regan, Anthony, eds. (2013). Diminishing Conflict in Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136251139.",1.1516404151916504
Pompeii,"Pompeii (  pom-PAY(-ee); Latin: [pɔmˈpei̯.iː]) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and many surrounding villas, the city was buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
Largely preserved under the ash, Pompeii offers a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried, as well as insight into ancient urban planning. It was a wealthy town of 10,000 to 20,000 residents at the time it was destroyed. It hosted many fine public buildings and luxurious private houses with lavish decorations, furnishings and artworks, which were the main attractions for early excavators; subsequent excavations have found hundreds of private homes and businesses reflecting various architectural styles and social classes, as well as numerous public buildings. Organic remains, including wooden objects and human bodies, were interred in the ash; their eventual decay allowed archaeologists to create moulds of figures in their final moments of life. The numerous graffiti carved on outside walls and inside rooms provide a wealth of examples of the largely lost Vulgar Latin spoken colloquially at the time, contrasting with the formal language of classical writers.
Following its destruction, Pompeii remained largely undisturbed until its rediscovery in the late 16th century. Major excavations did not begin until the mid-18th century, which marked the emergence of modern archeology; initial efforts to unearth the city were haphazard or marred by looting, resulting in many items or sites being damaged or destroyed. By 1960, most of Pompeii had been uncovered but left in decay; further major excavations were banned or limited to targeted, prioritised areas. Since 2018, these efforts have led to new discoveries in some previously unexplored areas of the city.
Pompeii is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, owing to its status as ""the only archaeological site in the world that provides a complete picture of an ancient Roman city."" It is among the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors annually.


== Name ==
Pompeii in Latin is a second declension masculine nominative plural noun (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, ""The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or perhaps it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia).""


== Geography ==
Pompeii was built approximately 40 m (130 ft) above sea level on a coastal lava plateau created by earlier eruptions of Mount Vesuvius (8 km or 5 mi distant). The plateau fell steeply to the south and partly to the west into the sea. Three layers of sediment from large landslides lie on top of the lava, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. The city, once by the shoreline, is today circa 700 m (2,300 ft) inland. The mouth of the navigable Sarno River, adjacent to the city, was protected by lagoons and served early Greek and Phoenician sailors as a haven port, later developed by the Romans.
Pompeii covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (160 to 170 acres) and was home to 11,000 to 11,500 people, based on household counts.


== History ==

Although best known for its Roman remains visible today, dating from AD 79, it was built upon a substantial city dating from much earlier times. Expansion of the city from an early nucleus (the old town) accelerated after 450 BC under the Greeks following the Battle of Cumae.


=== Early history ===

The first stable settlements on the site date to the 8th century BC when the Oscans, a population of central Italy, founded five villages in the area.
With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania from around 740 BC, Pompeii entered the orbit of the Hellenic people. The most important building of this period is the Doric Temple, built away from the centre in what would later become the Triangular Forum.: 62  At the same time the cult of Apollo was introduced. Greek and Phoenician sailors used the location as a safe port.
In the early 6th century BC, the settlement merged into a single community centred on the important crossroad between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae and was surrounded by a tufa city wall (the pappamonte wall). The first wall (which was also used as a base for the later wall) unusually enclosed a much greater area than the early town together with much agricultural land. That such an impressive wall was built at this time indicates that the settlement was already important and wealthy. The city began to flourish and maritime trade started with the construction of a small port near the mouth of the river. The earliest settlement was focused in regions VII and VIII of the town (the old town) as identified from stratigraphy below the Samnite and Roman buildings, as well as from the different and irregular street plan.
By 524 BC the Etruscans had settled in the area, including Pompeii, finding in the river Sarno a communication route between the sea and the interior. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans did not conquer the city militarily, but simply controlled it, and Pompeii enjoyed a sort of autonomy.: 63  Nevertheless, Pompeii became a member of the Etruscan League of cities. Excavations in 1980–1981 have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC necropolis. Under the Etruscans, a primitive forum or simple market square was built, as well as the Temple of Apollo, in both of which objects including fragments of bucchero were found by Maiuri. Several houses were built with the so-called Tuscan atrium, typical of this people.: 64 

 
The city wall was strengthened in the early 5th century BC with two façades of relatively thin, vertically set slabs of Sarno limestone some four metres (13 ft) apart filled with earth (the orthostate wall).
In 474 BC, the Greek city of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae and gained control of the area.


=== The Samnite period ===

The period between about 450–375 BC witnessed large areas of the city being abandoned while important sanctuaries such as the Temple of Apollo show a sudden lack of votive material remains.
The Samnites, people from the areas of Abruzzo and Molise, and allies of the Romans, conquered Greek Cumae between 423 and 420 BC. It is likely that all of the surrounding territory, including Pompeii, was already conquered around 424 BC. The new rulers gradually imposed their architecture and enlarged the town.
From 343 to 341 BC in the Samnite Wars, the first Roman army entered the Campanian plain bringing with it the customs and traditions of Rome, and in the Roman Latin War from 340 BC, the Samnites were faithful to Rome. Although governed by the Samnites, Pompeii entered the Roman orbit, to which it remained faithful even during the third Samnite war and in the war against Pyrrhus. In the late 4th century BC, the city began expanding from its nucleus into the open-walled area. The street plan of the new areas was more regular and more conformal to Hippodamus's street plan. The city walls were reinforced in Sarno stone in the early 3rd century BC (the limestone enceinte, or the ""first Samnite wall""). It formed the basis for the currently visible walls with an outer wall of rectangular limestone blocks as a terrace wall supporting a large agger, or earth embankment, behind it.
After the Samnite Wars from 290 BC, Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socii of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy.
From the outbreak of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in which Hannibal's invasion threatened many cities, Pompeii remained faithful to Rome unlike many of the southern cities. As a result, an additional internal wall was built of tufa and the internal agger and outer façade raised, resulting in a double parapet with a wider wall-walk. Despite the political uncertainty of these events and the progressive migration of wealthy men to quieter cities in the eastern Mediterranean, Pompeii continued to flourish due to the production and trade of wine and oil with places like Provence and Spain, as well as to intensive agriculture on farms around the city.
In the 2nd century BC, Pompeii enriched itself by taking part in Rome's conquest of the east, as shown by a statue of Apollo in the Forum erected by Lucius Mummius in gratitude for their support in the sack of Corinth and the eastern campaigns. These riches enabled Pompeii to bloom and expand to its ultimate limits. The Forum and many public and private buildings of high architectural quality were built, including The Large Theatre, the Temple of Jupiter, the Basilica, the Comitium, the Stabian Baths, and a new two-story portico.


=== The Roman period ===

Pompeii was one of the towns of Campania that rebelled against Rome in the Social Wars and in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla, who targeted the strategically vulnerable Porta Ercolano with his artillery as can still be seen by the impact craters of thousands of ballista shots in the walls. Many nearby buildings inside the walls were also destroyed. Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. The result was that Pompeii became a Roman colony named Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many of Sulla's veterans were given land and property in and around the city, while many who opposed Rome were dispossessed of their property. Despite this, the Pompeians were granted Roman citizenship and quickly assimilated into the Roman world. The main language in the city became Latin, and many of Pompeii's old aristocratic families Latinized their names as a sign of assimilation.
The area around Pompeii became very prosperous due to the desirability of living on the Bay of Naples for wealthy Romans and due to the rich agricultural land. Many farms and villas were built nearby, outside the city and many have been excavated. These include the Villa of the Mysteries, Villa of Diomedes, several at Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, Oplontis, Terzigno, and Civita Guiliana.
The city became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way. Many public buildings were constructed or refurbished and improved under the new order; new buildings included the Amphitheatre of Pompeii in 70 BC, the Forum Baths, and the Odeon. In comparison, the Forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC. These buildings raised the status of Pompeii as a cultural centre in the region as it outshone its neighbours in the number of places for entertainment which significantly enhanced the social and economic development of the city.
Under Augustus, from about 30 BC, a major expansion in new public buildings, as in the rest of the empire, included the Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus and the Macellum. From about 20 BC, Pompeii was fed with running water by a spur from the Serino Aqueduct, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
In AD 59, there was a serious riot and bloodshed in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians (which is recorded in a fresco) and which led the Roman Senate to send the Praetorian Guard to restore order and to ban further events for ten years.


==== AD 62–79 ====

The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor earthquakes (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors ""were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania""), but on 5 February 62 a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale.
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named Pater Patriae (""Father of the Country"") and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake; fires caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake added to the panic. The nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected.
Between 62 AD and the eruption in 79 AD, most rebuilding was done in the private sector and older, damaged frescoes were often covered with newer ones, for example. In the public sector, the opportunity was taken to improve buildings and the city plan, e.g. in the Forum.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were restored between the earthquake of 62 and the eruption. It was thought until recently that some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption, but this is doubtful as the evidence of missing forum statues and marble wall veneers are most likely due to robbers after the city's burial. The public buildings on the east side of the Forum were largely restored and were enhanced by beautiful marble veneers and other modifications to the architecture.
Some buildings like the Central Baths were only started after the earthquake and were built to enhance the city with modern developments in their architecture, as had been done in Rome, in terms of wall-heating and window glass, and with well-lit spacious rooms. The new baths took over a whole insula by demolishing houses, which may have been made easier by the earthquake that had damaged these houses. This shows that the city was still flourishing rather than struggling to recover from the earthquake.
In about 64, Nero and his wife Poppaea visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus (the city's patron deity), probably when he performed in the theatre of Naples.
By 79, Pompeii had a population of 20,000, which had prospered from the region's renowned agricultural fertility and favourable location, although more recent estimates are up to 11,500 based on household counts.


=== Eruption of Vesuvius ===

The eruption lasted for two days. The first phase was of pumice rain (lapilli) lasting about 18 hours, allowing most inhabitants to escape. Only approximately 1,150 bodies have so far been found on site, which seems to confirm this theory, and most escapees probably managed to salvage some of their most valuable belongings; many skeletons were found with jewellery, coins, and silverware.
At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic flows began near the volcano, consisting of high speed, dense, and scorching ash clouds, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating the remaining population and altering the landscape, including the coastline. By the evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.
A multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (480 °F) hot pyroclastic flows at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of tephra, in total, up to 6 metres (19.7 ft) deep. Archaeology in 2023 showed that some buildings collapsed due to one or more earthquakes during the eruption, killing the occupants.
Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, but it was written approximately 27 or 28 years after the event. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events ""Plinian"". It had long been thought that the eruption was an August event based on one version of the letter, but another version gives a date of the eruption as late as 23 November. A later date is consistent with a charcoal inscription at the site, discovered in 2018, which includes the date of 17 October and which must have been recently written. A collaborative study in 2022 determined a date of 24–25 October.
An October/November eruption is clearly supported by many pieces of evidence: the fact that people buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; the fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form; nuts from chestnut trees were found at Oplontis, which would not have been mature before mid-September; wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September.


=== Rediscovery and excavations ===

Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise a relief effort while donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. He visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year but no work was done on recovery.
Soon after the city's burial, survivors and possibly thieves came to salvage valuables, including the marble statues from the Forum and other precious materials from buildings. There is wide evidence of post-eruption disturbance, including holes made through walls. The city was not completely buried, and the tops of larger buildings would have been visible above the ash, making it obvious where to dig or salvage building material. The robbers left traces of their passage, as in a house where modern archaeologists found a wall graffito saying ""house dug"".
Over the following centuries, its name and location were forgotten, though it still appeared on the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century. Further eruptions, particularly in 471–473 and 512, covered the remains more deeply. The area became known as the La Civita (the city) due to the features in the ground.

The next known date that any part was unearthed was in 1592, when architect Domenico Fontana, while digging an underground aqueduct to the mills of Torre Annunziata, ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. His aqueduct passed through and underneath a large part of the city and would have had to pass through many buildings and foundations, as they still can be seen in many places today. However, he kept the finding secret.
In 1689, Francesco Picchetti saw a wall inscription mentioning decurio Pompeiis (""town councillor of Pompeii""), but he associated it with a villa of Pompey. Francesco Bianchini pointed out the true meaning, and he was supported by Giuseppe Macrini, who in 1693 excavated some walls and wrote that Pompeii lay beneath La Civita.
Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738 by workers digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. Due to the spectacular quality of the finds, the Spanish military engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre made excavations to find further remains at the site of Pompeii in 1748, even if the city was not identified. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the finds, even after leaving to become king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced Naples' political and cultural prestige. On 20 August 1763, an inscription [...] Rei Publicae Pompeianorum [...] was found and the city was identified as Pompeii.
Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations. He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.
There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. The land on which Pompeii lies was confiscated, and up to 700 workers were employed in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. Parts of the Via dell'Abbondanza were also exposed in the west–east direction, and for the first time, an impression of the size and appearance of the ancient town could be appreciated. In the following years, the excavators struggled with a lack of money. Excavations progressed slowly, but with significant finds such as the houses of the Faun, of Menandro, of the Tragic Poet and the Surgeon.

Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. Fiorelli realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies, and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
Fiorelli also introduced scientific documentation. He divided the city into today's nine areas (regiones) and blocks (insulae) and numbered the entrances of the individual houses (domus). Fiorelli also published the first periodical with excavation reports. Under his successors, the entire west section of the city was exposed.


=== Modern archaeology ===

After those of Fiorelli, excavations continued in an increasingly more systematic and considered manner under several directors of archaeology though still with the main interest in making spectacular discoveries and uncovering more houses rather than answering the main questions about the city and its long term preservation.
In the 1920s, Amedeo Maiuri excavated older layers beneath those of 79 AD for the first time to learn about the settlement history. Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. Preservation was haphazard, and his reconstructions were difficult to distinguish from the original ruins, which is a great handicap for studying genuine antique remains. Questionable reconstruction was also done after the severe earthquake of 1980, which caused great destruction. Since then, work has been confined to the excavated areas except for targeted soundings and excavations. Further excavations on a large scale are not planned, and today archaeologists are more engaged in reconstructing, documenting and slowing the decay of the ruins.
In December 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of harnessed horses in the Villa of the Mysteries.

Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of ancient walls within the city were relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. These excavations resumed on unexcavated areas of Regio V. In November 2020 the remains of two men, thought to be a rich man and his slave, were found in a 2 m-thick (6.6 ft) layer of ash. They appeared to have escaped the first eruption but were killed by a second blast the next day. A study of the bones showed that the younger one appeared to have done manual labour and hence was likely a slave.
In December 2020, a thermopolium, an inn or snack-bar, was excavated in Regio V. In addition to brightly coloured frescoes depicting some of the food on offer, archaeologists found eight dolia (terracotta pots) still containing remnants of meals, including duck, goat, pig, fish, and snails. They also found a decorated bronze drinking bowl known as a patera, wine flasks, amphorae, and ceramic jars used for cooking stews and soups. One fresco depicts a dog with a collar on a leash, possibly reminding customers to leash their pets. The complete skeleton of a tiny adult dog was also discovered, measuring only about 20–25 cm (7.9–9.8 in) at the shoulder, which provides evidence of the highly selective breeding of dogs in Roman times.
In January 2021 a well-preserved ""large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot"" was uncovered in the portico of the luxurious villa in Civita Giuliana, north of Pompeii, where a stable had previously been discovered in 2018. The carriage is made of bronze and black and red wooden panels, with engraved silver and bronze medallions at the back. It is now thought to be an elaborate and unique bridal carriage called a pilentum and in 2023 has been restored for display at the Baths of Diocletian. Nearby the bodies of two fugitives had been found using plaster casts, and in a stable the remains of horses, one still in harness.
In 2021, an exceptional 1st century AD painted tomb of a freed slave, Marcus Venerius Secundio, containing mummified human remains, was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. Its inscription records he achieved custodianship of the Temple of Venus and membership of the Augustales, priests of the Imperial Cult. Also, he organised Greek and Latin performances lasting four days, the first evidence of Greek cultural events in Pompeii.
In April 2024, a dining hall lined with rare frescoes was excavated as part of a broader project aimed at shoring up the front of the perimeter between the excavated and unexcavated area of the site. One fresco presents Helen of Troy and Paris, and another depicts Apollo and Princess Cassandra, with Apollo trying to attract the princess's attention. The hall, measuring 15 by 6 meters, was located in a house on Via di Nola—one of the main city streets in the famous Regio IX area. The room walls were painted black, perhaps to hide the traces of soot from the lighting fixtures.
In June 2024, a shrine with rare blue-painted walls covered with paintings of females thought to represent the four seasons (Horae) was discovered. 15 amphorae, two bronze jugs and two bronze lamps were among the findings. The 8 m2 (86 sq ft) room is thought to be a sacrarium (the sanctuary of a church).


=== Conservation ===

Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years as the lack of air and moisture allowed little to no deterioration. However, Pompeii has been exposed to natural and anthropic deterioration following excavation.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. The lack of adequate weather protection for all but the most interesting and important buildings has allowed original interior decoration to fade or be lost. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
Furthermore, during World War II many buildings were badly damaged or destroyed by bombs dropped in several raids by the Allied forces.
The conservation concern has constantly worried archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii ""desperately need[ed] repair"" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
The Schola Armatorum ('House of the Gladiators') collapsed in 2010 caused by heavy rainfall and lack of proper drainage. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
In June 2013, UNESCO warned that if restoration and preservation works ""fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years,"" Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. A ""Grande Progetto Pompei"" project of about five years had begun in 2012 with the European Union and included stabilization and conservation of buildings in the highest risk areas. In 2014, UNESCO headquarters received a new management plan to help integrate the property's management, conservation, and maintenance programs.
In 2020 many domus gardens, orchards and vineyards were carefully recreated using depictions in frescoes and archaeological finds to give better insights into what they were like before the catastrophe. These include the House of Julia Felix, the House of the Golden Cupids, the House of Loreius Tiburtinus, the House of Cornelius Rufus and the Garden of the Fugitives.
In 2021 several long-closed domus were re-opened after restoration including the House of the Ship Europa, House of the Orchard and House of the Lovers. Also the newly excavated House of Leda and the Swan has opened.


== Roman city development ==

Owing to its wealth and its Greek, Etruscan and Roman history, Pompeii is of great interest for the study of Ancient Roman architecture in terms of building methods and urban planning. However, it was a relatively small provincial city and, except for the Amphitheatre, it did not have large monuments on the scale of other Roman cities. It also missed the large building schemes of the early Empire and kept much of its urban architecture dating from as early as the 4th century BC.
The evolution of Pompeii's private and public buildings is often unclear because of the lack of excavations beneath the levels of 79. It is, however, clear that by the time of the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, the development of the street layout was largely complete, and most of the insulae were built.


=== Public buildings ===

Under the Romans, Pompeii underwent a process of urban development which accelerated in the Augustan period from about 30 BC. New public buildings included the Amphitheatre with palaestra or gymnasium with a central natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool, two theatres, the Eumachia Building and at least four public baths. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
Other service buildings were the Macellum (""meat market""); the Pistrinum (baker); the thermopolia (inns or snack-bars that served hot and cold dishes and drinks), and cauponae (""pubs"" or ""dives"" with a seedy reputation as hangouts for thieves and prostitutes). At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution. A large hotel or hospitium (of 1,000 m2) was found nearby at Murecine/Moregine, when the Naples-Salerno motorway was being built, and the Murecine Silver Treasure and the Tablets (providing a unique record of business transactions), as well as the Moregine bracelet, were discovered there.
An aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses and businesses. The aqueduct was a branch of the great Serino Aqueduct built to serve the other large towns in the Bay of Naples region and the important naval base at Misenum. The castellum aquae is well preserved and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.


=== Shops and workshops ===

There were at least 31 bakeries in the town, each with wood-burning ovens, millstones and a sales counter. The Modestus bakery, or House of the Oven, was the largest in the city and Sotericus's bakery, also among the largest, preserves the room for kneading bread.
Thermopolia were inns or snack-bars in which hot food and drinks were sold and in Pompeii there were nearly 100. The thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus overlooked the street directly, had a counter and several dolia, as well as a room behind the shop where customers could eat their meals: the lararium with frescoes of the Lares and Mercury and Dionysus and a triclinium decorated in the Third style. In the thermopolium of Asellina, with three sales counters and a lararium with depictions of Mercury and Bacchus, numerous furnishings have been found, both in bronze and terracotta, as well as 683 sesterces; the external façade bears a representation of jugs and funnels and an electoral inscription referring to Asellina, probably the owner of the inn.
Wool processing was well developed with 13 workshops that worked the raw material, seven that did the spinning, nine the dyeing, and 18 the washing: the Building of Eumachia, from the name of the priestess who built it, was the wool market, or the seat of the fullers guild; construction took place after 62 and was entirely in brickwork. Inside it has numerous niches in which statues were housed, mostly concerning the imperial family, a colonnade, and near the entrance, there was a jar in which urine was collected for use as a detergent for clothes. The fullonica of Stephanus, named after the owner or manager, was originally a house that was transformed into a workshop for the processing of fabrics: on the lower floor the working and washing activities took place, carried out in large tanks with water, soda and urine while on the upper floor the clothes were dried.
The garum workshop made the sauce obtained from the fermentation of the entrails of fish; in the building some containers were found, closed by lids, with the sauce inside while in the nearby garden was a large deposit of amphorae.


=== Lists of buildings ===


=== Agriculture and horticulture ===
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. Pompeii had fertile soil for crop cultivation. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate. Barley, wheat, and millet were produced along with wine and olive oil, for export to other regions.

Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii's economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produce a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum; otherwise, the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient and often capable of largely exceeding these requirements, providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii's economy, most other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities sufficient for the city's consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in the Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens have been found in gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and a Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All but the dates could have been produced locally.


=== Erotic art ===

The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma stemming from the clash of cultures between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his grotesquely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away ""out of prudishness"" and opened only on request – and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall. In 2018, an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of ""Leda and the Swan"" was discovered at Pompeii.
Many artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a ""secret cabinet"" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to ""people of mature age and respected morals"". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples ""Secret Museum"" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.


== Tourism ==
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of Italy's most popular tourist sites. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', has begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii. In 2024, the site's management announced that it would limit daily sales to a maximum of 20,000 personalised tickets per day and introduce timed entry schemes in the peak summer season.
Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality industry, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters, or hotel staff.
Excavations at the site have generally ceased due to a moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. The site is generally less accessible to tourists than in the past, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s available for public viewing today.


=== Antiquarium of Pompeii ===
Originally built by Giuseppe Fiorelli between 1873 and 1874, the Antiquarium of Pompeii began as an exhibition venue displaying archaeological finds that represented the daily life of the ancient city. The building suffered extensive damage in 1943 during the World War II bombings and again in 1980 due to an earthquake. The museum was closed to the public for 36 years before reopening in 2016 as a space for temporary exhibitions. The museum was re-opened on 25 January 2021 as a permanent exhibition venue. Visitors can see archaeological discoveries from the excavations, casts of the victims of the Mount Vesuvius eruption as well as displays documenting Pompeii's settlement history before becoming a thriving Roman city.


== In popular culture ==

The 1954 film Journey to Italy, starring George Sanders and Ingrid Bergman, includes a scene at Pompeii in which they witness the excavation of a cast of a couple who perished in the eruption.
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, named ""The Fires of Pompeii"", which featured Caecilius as a character.
The rock band Pink Floyd filmed a 1971 live concert, Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, in which they performed six songs in the city's ancient Roman amphitheatre. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
Siouxsie and the Banshees wrote and recorded the punk-inflected dance song ""Cities in Dust"", which describes the disaster that befell Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79. The song appears on their album 1985 Tinderbox. The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii.
Pompeii is a 2003 Robert Harris novel featuring an account of the aquarius's race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days before the eruption of Vesuvius. Actual events and people inspired the novel.
""Pompeii"" is a 2013 song by the British band Bastille. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pompeii is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.
45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, guitarist David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphitheatre in 2016 to perform a live concert for his Rattle That Lock Tour. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.


== Documentaries ==
In Search of...'s episode No. 82 focuses entirely on Pompeii; it premiered on 29 November 1979.
The National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
Ancient Mysteries: Pompeii: Buried Alive (1996), an A&E television documentary narrated by Leonard Nimoy.
Pompeii: The Last Day (2003), an hour-long drama produced for the BBC that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
Pompeii and the AD 79 eruption (2004), a two-hour Tokyo Broadcasting System documentary.
Pompeii Live (28 June 2006), a Channel 5 production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time (2013), a BBC One drama documentary presented by Margaret Mountford.
The Riddle of Pompeii (23 May 2014), Discovery Channel.
Pompeii: The Dead Speak (8 August 2016), Smithsonian Channel.
Pompeii's People (3 September 2017), a CBC Gem documentary presented by David Suzuki.


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== See also ==

Foreign influences on Pompeii
Mastroberardino, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii
Robert Rive, 1850s photographer of Pompeii
Luigi Bazzani: Watercolours of Pompeii when first excavated
Volcanic destruction
Armero tragedy, a city in Colombia that suffered a similar fate in 1985
Akrotiri, in Santorini, Greece, excavated ruins of a city that suffered a similar fate to Pompeii more than 3000 years ago
Joya de Cerén, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the ""Pompeii of the Americas""
Plymouth, Montserrat, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s
Saint-Pierre, Martinique, town similarly destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee, in 1902


== References ==


== Further reading ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Data on new excavations from the International Association for Classical Archaeology (AIAC)
World History Encyclopedia – Pompeii
Archaeological Park of Pompeii on Google Arts and Culture platform
Pompeii project by CyArk
N. Purcell; R. Talbert; T. Elliott; S. Gillies. ""Places: 433032 (Pompeii)"". Pleiades. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Pompeii, Scientific American historical article, 26 May 1877, pp. 326–27",1.273911476135254
Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient,"The Corps Expéditionnaire d'Orient (Oriental Expeditionary Force) (CEO) was a French expeditionary force raised for service during the Gallipoli Campaign in World War I. The corps initially consisted of a single infantry division, but later grew to two divisions. It took part in fighting around Kum Kale, on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, at the start of the campaign before being moved to Cape Helles where it fought alongside British formations for the remainder of the campaign. In October 1915, the corps was reduced to one division again and was finally evacuated from the Gallipoli peninsula in January 1916 when it ceased to exist.


== Formation ==
Initially, the force consisted of 16,700 troops organised into one division, made up of two brigades, which included ""metropolitan"" French, and colonial troops. The so-called metropolitan units included two battalions of zouaves, mainly recruited from French settlers (Pieds-Noirs) in Algeria and Tunisia, plus one battalion of the Foreign Legion, both troop types associated with the 19th Military District of Metropolitan France, known as the Armee d'Afrique. They were joined by the 175th regiment of French line infantry, its troops provided by the other 18 military districts of (mainland) Metropolitan France. The colonial troops consisted of both West African Tirailleurs Senegalais and white regulars of colonial infantry (""marsouins""), amounting to four and two battalions respectively.  The force had a strong divisional artillery, consisting of six field and two mountain batteries, but having been raised quickly, it received only limited training as a formation. With only two brigades it was smaller than the British divisions that took part in the campaign, having a strength of 16,762 men.
Later in the campaign, the corps was expanded to include a second division. Supporting Corps troops and additional artillery were subsequently shipped to Gallipoli. Four squadrons of cavalry were also present, the unit being renamed as the 8th provisional regiment of Chasseurs d'Afrique on 29 July 1915.

Troops assigned to the corps wore varying coloured uniforms, even in combat, in contrast to those worn by some of the other nations which they fought alongside. War correspondent Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, writing from Gallipoli, provides this account of a scene around Krithia in May 1915: ""Neither was the picturesque element of colour absent from the scene, as in most modern battles, for amidst the green and yellow of the fields and gardens the dark blue uniforms of the Senegalese, the red trousers of the Zouaves, and the new light blue uniform of the Infantry showed up in pleasant contrast amidst the dull-hued masses of the British brigades.""


== Operational service ==

Following the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war on the Central Powers side in late 1914, the Allies began preparations to capture the Dardanelles in order to secure a supply route to Russia. As part of these preparations, the Corps Expeditionnaire d'Orient was raised on 22 February 1915 under the command of General Albert d'Amade, who had previously served in Morocco and the Western Front.
Throughout February and March, Anglo-French naval forces attempted to penetrate the Dardanelles, aided by small landing parties that were put ashore to destroy Ottoman fortifications. Several small-scale operations were undertaken, starting on 19 February, but they were hampered by bad weather which delayed the main attack until 18 March. Entering the straits in broad daylight, the force was heavily engaged by Ottoman shore batteries and following heavy losses from mines and shelling, they were forced to turn back. After this, the Allied strategy to capture the Dardanelles turned towards a large-scale landing.

Hastily formed, after assembling on Lemnos there had been no time for the corps to undertake large-scale training before it was committed to the land campaign. During the initial Allied landing on 25 April, the corps undertook a diversionary landing on the Dardanelles Asiatic coast around Kum Kale, to divert Ottoman forces away from the main landings on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and to disrupt Ottoman artillery that could have fired upon the main landings. The 6th Mixed Colonial Regiment led the division ashore, supported by three battleships and a Russian warship. Part of the first wave was turned back by heavy fire, but the rest managed to get ashore and they proceeded to secure the village and an Ottoman fort. Throughout the course of 26 April, the Ottoman 3rd Division counterattacked, but the following day, having lost over 2,200 killed or wounded, the Ottomans began surrendering to the French in large numbers. Nevertheless, the French were withdrawn shortly afterwards, having lost about 300 killed and 500 wounded.
Following this, the French force re-embarked and was landed at Cape Helles, where they took up a position on the right flank around 'S' Beach. On 28 April, the commander of the C.E.O. set up the French headquarters at the old castle situated at Sedd el Bahr. With a strength of 24 companies, they subsequently took part in the First Battle of Krithia on 28 April. In early May, the Ottoman forces launched a heavy counterattack on the Allied positions with a force of over 16,000 men. The attack was beaten back, but the French division suffered heavy casualties – up to 2,000 men – and at the height of the assault some of the Senegalese and Zouaves ""broke and ran"". As a result, the 2nd Naval Brigade from the British Royal Naval Division, had to take over some of their positions. Reinforcements were brought in, including a second French division, which arrived between 6 and 8 May, although they did not arrive in time to take part in the Second Battle of Krithia, during which the 1st Division  attacked towards the Kereves Dere gully, and although they made slow progress they eventually managed to secure the high ground overlooking this position before the attack petered out.

D'Amade was replaced as commander of the corps in late May when he was dismissed and recalled to France. He was replaced by General Henri Gouraud. On 4 June, both divisions took part in the Third Battle of Krithia, once again forming the right of the Allied line as part of the effort to take Achi Baba, a high feature that dominated the Allied position. The six French batteries were detached to support the British, while the infantry were tasked with attacking the Haricot Redoubt, overlooking the Kereves Dere spur. Attacking in daylight, but possessing a numerical superiority, the Allies made ground across a broad front, before the French were forced back by an Ottoman counterattack, and suffering 2,000 casualties. Regaining positions on the right, the Ottomans were able to enfilade the British positions and eventually they too were forced back, and the attack ultimately failed. In preparation for the August Offensive, minor attacks continued around Helles, and the French undertook further attacks on the Haricot Redoubt, which they subsequently took on 21 June albeit with heavy casualties. In the four days fighting, from 21 to 25 June, the French suffered over 2,500 killed and wounded. 
On 30 June, command of the corps changed again when Gouraud, who had been viewed with considerable respect by the British commander, Ian Hamilton, was wounded while touring the front line to boost the morale of his troops. He was replaced by Maurice Bailloud, who had previously commanded one of the corps' divisions. On 12 July, an allied attack at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost 2,500 casualties out of 7,500 men; the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men. Ottoman losses were about 9,000 casualties and 600 prisoners.


== Corps expéditionnaire des Dardanelles ==

A period of stalemate followed, and after the August Offensive failed to break the deadlock, the Allied commanders at Gallipoli requested heavy reinforcements. The French initially proposed to send a further four divisions, but following Bulgaria's entry into the war, this was cancelled, and in late September one of the corps' divisions was diverted to Salonika, on the Macedonian front. On 24 September, a secret telegram was despatched from the French Minister of War to Bailloud. He was ordered to prepare a division of the C.E.O. composed exclusively of metropolitan units to be sent to aid Serbia. Bailloud and the reconstituted division commenced embarkation on 30 September. The division resumed its nomenclature of 156th Infantry Division, and was no longer referred to as the 2nd Division of the C.E.O. thereafter. At the same time, the 10th (Irish) Division was also shipped from Gallipoli, to counter the threat from Bulgaria.
As the French began to refocus their actions in the Mediterranean around Salonika, the Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient was renamed the ""Corps expéditionnaire des Dardanelles"" on 4 October. Notwithstanding the reduction in troop levels, a total of 21,000 French troops remained on the peninsula to show political support to the British nevertheless. There were 8,599 men in the 12 infantry battalions as at 1 October 1915, according to the first report from the C.E.D.'s new commander. The attrition through combat deaths and sickness due to the poor sanitary conditions meant that none of the four infantry regiments had maintained their establishment strength of 120 officers and 3,150 other ranks. The corps remained in existence until 6 January 1916 when, following the evacuation of French forces from the peninsula, it was subsumed into the larger Army of the Orient serving in Salonika.  

In the autumn of 1915, there were concerns as to the ability of the Senegalese to cope with the winter weather, and their withdrawal from Gallipoli was proposed, once the British agreed to replace them. In order to facilitate this, the 57th and 58th regiments were to be composed of Senegalese, with the 54th and 56th composed of Marsouins. This reconstitution took place on 11 December 1915. Similarly, five companies of creoles were detached from the 54th and 56th in order to be sent to a wintering camp. The plan did not go ahead. The creole companies of the 54th were detached on 15 December, and returned to their unit on 22 January 1916. The two locations for the ""wintering"" were either Egypt or Algeria. For political reasons, it was deemed inappropriate to send  them there, but to keep them on Lesbos. It was usual practice for Senegalese to be sent to Fréjus for a period of ""wintering"" (hivernage), but this location did not get proposed as an alternative, notwithstanding its previous mention by General Joffre. The men of the 58th were evacuated in batches between 16 December and 5 January, whilst the 57th were evacuated by a convoy of several ships on 13 December 1915. The marsouins of the 54th and the 56th were evacuated on 2 and 3 January 1916 respectively. Six older artillery pieces were destroyed and abandoned, two 140 mm guns (modèle 1884) and four 240 mm guns (modèle 1876), given that it was not possible to embark all of the heavy guns.
At its height, following the deployment of its second division in May, the corps' strength was around 42,000 men. Overall, 79,000 men served in the corps throughout the duration of the campaign. Casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000 killed, wounded or sick. Of these, 27,169 were specifically killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick. Out of 6,092 missing men, less than one percent were taken prisoner. There is a sole French cemetery on the peninsula, situated to the north of Morto Bay. Veterans were eligible for the Dardanelles campaign medal that was authorised on 15 June 1926.


== Order of battle ==
Sources:  

1st Division (renamed as fr:17e division d'infanterie coloniale on 6 January 1916) under Jean-Marie Brulard

1st Metropolitan Brigade
175th Regiment
three battalions of metropolitan infantry
1st Provisional African Regiment
composed of a Foreign Legion battalion and two Zouave battalions. 
2nd Colonial Brigade
4th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
6th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
Divisional Troops
Groupe Holtzapfel – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 1st Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Holtzapfel
Groupe Charpy – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 8th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Charpy
Groupe Benedittini – 2 batteries (4x 65 mm mountain guns apiece) of the 2nd Mountain Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Benedittini (succeeded by Major Grépinet)
Supporting elements for engineering, logistical and medical services

2nd Division (156th Infantry Division (France)) under Maurice Bailloud, which disembarked in May 1915

3rd Metropolitan Brigade
176th Regiment
three battalions of metropolitan infantry
2nd Provisional African Regiment
composed of three Zouave battalions
4th Colonial Brigade
7th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
8th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two European battalions and one Senegalese battalion
Divisional Troops
Groupe Deslions – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 17th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Deslions 
Groupe Mercadier – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 25th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Mercadier (succeeded by Captain Salin) 
Groupe Roux – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 47th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Roux (succeeded by Major Mercadier)
Supporting elements for engineering, logistical and medical services

Corps Troops

Corps Artillery:
1 Heavy Battery of 120 mm field artillery commanded by Captain Delval 
1 Heavy Battery of 155 mm field artillery
1 Heavy Battery of 6x 155 mm howitzers of the 2nd Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Gavois
1 Heavy Battery of 6x 155 mm howitzers of the 48th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Kolyczko 
1 Siege gun battery of 2x Canon de 240 mm mle 1884 sur affût à échantigolles
1 Siege gun battery of 4x 240 mm mle 1876 on a pivoted firing platform
Battery of naval guns of 2 Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1891 and 2 Canon de 140 sur affut-truc mle 1884
Corps Cavalry
4 squadrons of Chasseurs d'Afrique
Miscellaneous
1 squadron of supply train
4 sections to support the Artillery park
1 field company of Engineers
Signallers, comprising two detachments of telegraphists, and one of radio-telegraphy
2 detachments of Military Police
Escadrille MF98T situated at Tenedos airfield
Rear echelon support units at Mudros base
Rear echelon support units at Cape Helles base 


== Notes and citations ==
Notes

Citations


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Cassar, George H. (2019). Reluctant Partner: The Complete Story of the French Participation in the Dardanelles Expedition of 1915. Warwick: Helion. ISBN 978-1-911628-92-7.
Cooper, Augustus Richard (2016). ""6 With the Foreign Legion in Gallipoli"". In Bilton, Rachel (ed.). In the Trenches: Those Who Were There. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-6715-4.
Dardanelles, Orient, Levant: 1915–1921 Ce que les combattants ont écrit [Dardanelles, Orient, Levant: 1915–1921 A compendium of veterans' eyewitness accounts] (in French). Preface written by Michèle Alliot-Marie. Paris: Association nationale pour le souvenir des Dardanelles et fronts d'Orient. 2005. ISBN 2-7475-7905-0.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: others (link)
Ferreira, Sylvain (2015). L'Expédition française aux Dardanelles - Avril 1915 - Janvier 1916. Collection Illustoria. Clermont-Ferrand: Lemme Edit. ISBN 978-2-917575-59-8.
Jauffret, Jean-Charles [in French] (2000) [1996]. ""The Gallipoli Campaign: the French point of view"" [L'expédition des Dardanelles vue du côté français]. In Gilbert, Martin (ed.). The Straits of War. The Gallipoli Memorial Lectures 1985–2000. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-2408-5.
Horne, John (2019). ""A Colonial Expedition? French Soldiers' Experience at the Dardanelles"". War and Society. 38 (4): 286–304. doi:10.1080/07292473.2019.1643493. S2CID 201420971.
Saint-Ramond, Francine (2019). Les Désorientés: Expériences des soldats français aux Dardanelles et en Macédoine, 1915-1919 (in French). Presses de l’Inalco. ISBN 978-2-85-831299-3.
Vassal, Joseph (1916). Uncensored Letters from the Dardanelles: Written to His English Wife by a French Medical Officer. Preface written by Albert d'Amade. London: William Heinemann. OCLC 800491901.",0.8869865536689758
Southern torrent frog,"The southern torrent frog (Arthroleptides yakusini) is a species of frog in the family Petropedetidae endemic to Tanzania, where it is found in the Uluguru, Udzungwa, and Mahenge Mountains. It is one of many, often taxonomically unrelated, frogs referred to as torrent frogs. It occurs mainly around rocky montane streams surrounded by mature forest at elevations of 300–2,800 m (984.3–9,186.4 ft) above sea level, but also can be found on the forest floor away from water, and may be tolerant of open woodland environments. While it is sometimes claimed to be found in the Nguru Mountains as well, molecular evidence shows that this population may instead represent an unnamed species.
This frog is a nocturnal species, spending the daytime hidden away under rocks and emerging to feed after nightfall. It can grow over 70 mm (2.8 in) in snout-vent length, with males commonly growing larger than females. With its wide jaws, it is believed to prey on smaller frogs. The upper side of its body is mainly gray-brown with mottled patterns and an orange-reddish stripe stretching across each eye, camouflaging it against the leaf litter, while the underside is pale. During the breeding season, mature males produce advertisement calls to attract mates and develop a number of secondary sexual characteristics, including swollen forearms, spines on the throat and chin, knobs on the metacarpal area and a soft protrusion called a tympanic papilla on each tympanum. Eggs are laid on rocks over which a film of water is present, either in small clusters of four to five eggs or large groupings of about 200. The tadpoles remain attached to the rocks, developing out of water for 8 to 10 weeks until their metamorphosis is complete.
This species was named and described in 2002, with an adult male specimen collected in 1995 being designated as the holotype. Prior to this, it was thought to represent a population of the Usambara torrent frog, now known to be a closely related yet separate species. The specific name originates from the Swahili words ""ya kusini"" which mean ""of the south"", and the common name ""southern torrent frog"" has been given to this species, though this common name is also used for the unrelated Asian species Amolops australis. This African species has been listed as Endangered by the IUCN, as it has a severely fragmented distribution and its forest habitat is under threat from encroaching agriculture. Various diseases such as strongyloidiasis and chytridiomycosis are known to occur in this frog, the latter of which is known to cause drastic amphibian population declines, though these illnesses are not always fatal to the infected frog.


== Taxonomy ==
Prior to 2002, it was thought that all Tanzanian frogs belonging to the genus Arthroleptides were part of a single species, the Usambara torrent frog (A. martiensseni). However, a study was published that year based on fieldwork conducted from 1999 to 2001 which found that individuals from the Udzungwa and Uluguru mountains were consistently distinguishable from those found in the Usambara Mountains further north (where the type specimen of the Usambara torrent frog was collected). Therefore, the southern form was described as a new species and given the scientific name Arthroleptides yakusini, with the specific name being derived from the Swahili words ""ya kusini"", meaning ""of the south"" and referencing how this species occurs south of the range of the Usambara torrent frog. The holotype specimen is an adult male collected along the Njokomoni River in Udzungwa Mountains National Park on 8 December 1995, and three other individuals collected at the same site and time were designated as paratypes. These specimens, along with seven others of the same species, were sent to the American Museum of Natural History and were the subjects of a study published in 1998, prior to the recognition of this species, in which they were wrongly referred to as A. martiensseni. The common name ""southern torrent frog"" has been given to A. yakusini, though this name has also been proposed in 2018 for Amolops australis, an unrelated frog species discovered in Malaysia.
A paper published in 2005 concluded that the genus Arthroleptides is a junior synonym of Petropedetes, and therefore this species was renamed as Petropedetes yakusini. However, a 2014 study resurrected the former genus as a valid taxon, thus reinstating the original scientific name of the species. Both Arthroleptides and Petropedetes belong in the family Petropedetidae, and the two genera were found to be the closest known relatives of each other. The following cladogram shows the position of the southern torrent frog among its closest relatives according to said study:


== Distribution and habitat ==

The southern torrent frog is endemic to Tanzania, where it occurs in mountain ranges from 300–2,800 m (984.3–9,186.4 ft) above sea level. It was first discovered in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountain ranges, and in 2004 it was reported to occur in the Mahenge Mountains as well. Though sometimes claimed to also be found in the Nguru Mountains, molecular evidence suggests this population actually represents a separate, currently unnamed species within the same genus. The southern torrent frog mostly inhabits rocky streams surrounded by montane forest, with a preference for mature forest (though it may tolerate open woodland habitats more than the related Usambara torrent frog), and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,113.18 km2 (1,202.0 sq mi). It can also occur further from these streams, with adults sometimes being found some distance away from water on the forest floor.


== Description ==

A large species of frog, the snout-vent length of the southern torrent frog commonly exceeds 54 mm (2.1 in), and reaches over 70 mm (2.8 in) in some exceptionally large males. Unusually for a frog, the males tend to grow larger than the females. This species has countershading coloration, with the upper surface of the body being gray-brown with mottled dark patterns while the belly and chest are pale. The limbs have similarly pale undersides, while the back of the thighs have white speckles over a darker background color. The throat is dark with speckled pale patterns, and an orange-reddish stripe passes through the upper part of the eye in many individuals. Smaller individuals may have transverse bands of color on their backs.
This frog has wide jaws, the width of which ranges between 40 and 44% of the individual's snout-vent length, and nostrils located near the front of the snout. The eyes cannot be seen when the frog is viewed from below. The tympana are dark and round, and in large males the width of each tympanum is slightly less than the distance between the front corners of the eyes. However, females and smaller males have proportionally much smaller tympana, with the width of each being only about 20% of the distance between the eyes. A fold of skin known as the supratympanic ridge covers the hind part of the upper margin of the tympana, and is almost straight when seen from the animal's side. The tips of the digits are widened into broad discs, each divided into two parts by a groove and possessing scutes on the upper surface. The lengths of the tibia and the fourth toe are about 60% and over 50% of the snout-vent length respectively. The hind feet are webbed and each have five toes with tubercles on their undersides. The webbing reaches or extends pass the proximal tubercles of the first four toes and the middle tubercle of the fifth toe, a feature distinguishing this species from the closely related Usambara torrent frog (in which the webbing extends around half as far).

Mature breeding males of this species develop notable secondary sexual characteristics, which include spines on the throat and chin, hypertrophy of the forearms, an enlarged knob on the metacarpal area, a ring of knobs around each tympanum and a protrusion of soft tissue on each tympanum known as a tympanic papilla. These features are absent in females, smaller males and males collected outside of the breeding season. The forearms are so swollen in breeding males that they can be 1.5 times wider than the frog's eye, whereas individuals lacking these secondary sexual characteristics tend to have arm widths less than their eye diameter.


=== Tadpoles ===
The tadpoles of the southern torrent frog are semiterrestrial, hatching from eggs laid on wet rock faces outside of water and developing there rather than directly in the water like the tadpoles of most frog species. They largely resemble the tadpoles of the related Usambara torrent frog, which are also semiterrestrial. The upper surface is a dark color with pale spots and darker patterns, and nine saddle-like patches of light color stretch across the top of the tail to the sides. The underside is white, with some fine spots speckled across the belly, and the belly muscles are just clear enough that the coiled gut with five spirals is visible through them.
The main body (excluding the tail) is oval shaped, being widest in the hind area when viewed from above, and the large eyes bulge above the rest of the body. A single spiracle is visible as a small vertical slit on the left side of the body. The vent tube is rounded and located on the midline of the tadpole's underside, extending slightly beyond the hind limbs, and its opening is unconnected to the muscles of the tail. The tail of a southern torrent frog tadpole is very long, with one Gosner stage 37 tadpole measuring 27.4 mm (1.08 in) in total length having a 18.7 mm (0.74 in)-long tail, making up over 68% of its total length. At this development stage, the tail has only a very reduced dorsal fin and no ventral fin, and no external gills are present, whereas both these fins are better developed and external gills can be seen in younger tadpoles such as a Gosner stage 23 individual. Both the upper and lower jaws bear curved keratinous sheaths, with the jaws closing such that the lower jaw sheath fits within the upper sheath, similarly to the beak of a parrot. The oral disc bears lip-like flaps known as labia, which have rows of teeth. There are three upper tooth rows and three lower tooth rows, each having about 52 teeth per mm (0.039 in), with the upper rows being split in the middle to accommodate the large jaw sheath. When the oral disc is closed, the upper labium flexes to cover the lower labium, and the middle teeth of the first upper row (the A-1 row) overlap. At the hind margin of the oral disc, there is a double row of short, rounded protrusions known as papillae, which merges into a single row towards the jaw angle.


== Biology ==
The southern torrent frog is a nocturnal animal, emerging after nightfall and spending the daytime hidden in deep cracks under large rocks, with larger individuals being particularly likely to hide away in this manner at day. Based on its wide jaws, it is believed to be a predator of smaller frogs such as the common squeaker, which is common within the leaf litter of the southern torrent frog's habitat. The adult frogs can occur near stream banks or away from the water on the leaf litter of the forest floor, where their coloration provides excellent camouflage. They are capable of large leaps and sometimes seen sitting on rocks covered with shallow water in fast-flowing streams, where they can quickly flee with the current downstream if threatened. Smaller, non-adult frogs can be found near streams in small pools, on the leaves of plants or in the crevices of vertical rock or soil faces, and have been noted to peer at observers and move deeper into these crevices upon being disturbed. Subadult and juvenile individuals are reportedly active mostly in rivers and on the forest floor, though one has been seen perched 1 m (3 ft 3 in) above the ground in a small tree.
A variety of diseases are known to occur in this species, with one study sampling 60 southern torrent frogs from Kihansi gorge in the Udzungwa Mountains and finding that 60% of these individuals had some form of disease condition. The most prevalent condition among this species was strongyloidiasis, a disease caused by nematode worms parasitizing the intestines, occurring in over 20% of the sampled southern torrent frogs. Viral and fungal infections were also recorded, including chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis that has caused a drastic decline in amphibian populations worldwide. However, these diseases are not always fatal to the amphibian, and healthy southern torrent frogs have been found with infections of this fungus, suggesting that some individuals can harbor the pathogen without developing the disease. Nutritional status is also known to be linked to the outcome of nematode infection in amphibians, and the wide range of diet resources available to wild southern torrent frogs likely helps them avoid developing nematode-related clinical diseases.


=== Life cycle ===
After the short rains begin in November, adult males of this species start producing advertisement calls at night to attract mates, and may do so from the ground or atop rocks or fallen tree trunks. The advertisement call is made up of a series of ""wauk"" sounds, which are repeated at long intervals of as much as 25 seconds. Four to eight pulses comprise the call, which last from 30.6 to 81.2 milliseconds, and ranges from 1.2 to 1.4 kilohertz in emphasized frequency. The female lays her eggs on vertical or sloping rock surfaces covered with a film of water, which may be produced either by the drifting spray of a waterfall or natural drainage. The eggs are dark in color, camouflaging them against the dark rocks they are deposited on, and occur either in small clusters of four to five or large aggregations of around 200. Each egg measures about 2 mm (0.079 in) in diameter and is enclosed in a 4 mm (0.16 in) capsule. After hatching, the tadpoles do not directly enter the water and instead remain on the wet rocks, where they graze on algae and may occur in densities as high as 22 individuals per square meter (10.764 square feet). At the age of 8 to 10 weeks, metamorphosis is complete and the tail is reabsorbed, at which point the juvenile frogs move into forest leaf litter and vegetation near streams after leaving their nursery rock.


== Conservation ==

The conservation status of the southern torrent frog was assessed by the IUCN in 2013, and it was listed as an Endangered species. Although the species remains locally common in areas of suitable habitat and parts of the frog's range have been designated as protected areas including the Mkingu Nature Forest Reserve, Uluguru Nature Forest Reserve and Udzungwa Mountains National Park, its distribution is severely fragmented and the extent of available forest habitat in its range is declining due to the encroachment of agriculture. The pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes the disease chytridiomycosis in infected amphibians, has been recorded in southern torrent frogs, though at least some individuals appear to be capable of harboring the fungus without falling ill. Still, populations of this frog will require close monitoring to consider the potential impact of the disease.


== See also ==

Wildlife of Tanzania


== References ==


== External links ==",1.2429301738739014
Recurso de amparo,"In most legal systems of the Spanish-speaking world, the writ of amparo (""writ of protection""; also called recurso de amparo, ""appeal for protection"", or juicio de amparo, ""judgement for protection"") is a remedy for the protection of constitutional rights, found in certain jurisdictions. The amparo remedy or action is an effective and inexpensive instrument for the protection of individual rights.
Amparo, generally granted by a supreme or constitutional court, serves a dual protective purpose: it protects the citizen and their basic guarantees, and protects the constitution itself by ensuring that its principles are not violated by statutes or actions of the state that undermine the basic rights enshrined therein. It resembles, in some respects, constitutional remedies such as the tutela available in Colombia, the writ of security (Mandado de Segurança) in Brazil and the constitutional complaint (Verfassungsbeschwerde) procedure found in Germany.
In many countries, an amparo action is intended to protect all rights that are not protected specifically by the constitution or by a special law with constitutional rank, such as the right to physical liberty, which may be protected instead by habeas corpus remedies. Thus, in the same way that habeas corpus guarantees physical freedom, and the ""habeas data"" protects the right of maintaining the integrity of one's personal information, the amparo protects other basic rights. It may therefore be invoked by any person who believes that any of his rights, implicitly or explicitly protected by the constitution, another law (or by applicable international treaties), is being violated.


== Origins in Mexico ==
The Mexican amparo has inspired many and served as a model in other judicatures. In the Philippines, Chief Justice Reynato Puno noted that the model for amparo used there was borrowed from Mexico: the writ of amparo is a Mexican legal procedure to protect human rights. Amparo literally means ""protection"" in Spanish. De Tocqueville's Democracy in America became available in Mexico in 1837, and its description of judicial review practice in the U.S. appealed to many Mexican jurists. Mexican justice Manuel Crescencio Rejón, drafted a constitutional provision for his native state, Yucatán (threatening independence from Mexico), which empowered jurists to protect all persons in the enjoyment of their constitutional and legal rights. This was incorporated in 1847 into the national constitution. The great writ proliferated in the Western Hemisphere, slowly evolving into various fora. Amparo became, in the words of a Mexican Federal Supreme Court Justice, Mexico’s “task of conveying to the world's legal heritage that institution which, as a shield of human dignity, her own painful history conceived.”
Amparo's evolution and metamorphosis had been witnessed, for several purposes: ""(1) amparo de libertad for the protection of personal freedom, equivalent to the habeas corpus writ; (2) amparo contra leyes for the judicial review of the constitutionality of statutes; (3) amparo-casación for the judicial review of the constitutionality and legality of a judicial decision; (4) amparo administrativo for the judicial review of administrative actions; and (5) amparo agrario ejidal o comunal for the protection of peasants’ rights derived from the agrarian reform process.""
Mexico's ""recurso de amparo"" is found in Articles 103 and 107 of the Mexican Constitution —the judicial review of governmental action—to empower state courts to protect individuals against state abuses. Amparo was sub-divided into five legal departments:

(a) the Liberty Amparo (amparo de libertad)
(b) the Constitutionality Amparo (amparo contra leyes)
(c) the Judicial or “Cassation” Amparo, aimed at the constitutionality of a judicial interpretation
(d) the Administrative Amparo (amparo como contencioso-administrativo); and
(e) the Agrarian Amparo (amparo en materia agraria, ejidal y comunal).


== Extension to Latin America ==
Amparo was also legally enshrined in Latin American legal systems. It is now an extraordinary legal remedy in Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Brazil and Argentina.


=== Argentina ===
Amparo in Argentina is a limited, summary, emergency procedure, and merely supplementary, requiring previous exhaustion of administrative remedies before rendition of judgment of mandamus or injunction. The decision bars monetary awards and penal provisions except contempt or declaration of unconstitutionality. The 1994 constitution establishes the right to amparo in article 43.


=== Chile ===

In Chile, the term recurso de amparo (""amparo remedy"") refers to what is known in comparative law as habeas corpus. Chile's equivalent of amparo is the recurso de protección (""protection remedy"").


=== Colombia ===
In Colombia the Constitution of 1991 implemented a system named Acción de tutela (Tutelage action). The legal procedure resembles the Amparo law but is modified to be implemented in instances of imminent risk for any individual within the Colombian population. According to the Constitutional Court (Sentence T-451 of July 10, 1992) whether a right is to be judged as fundamental or not may be determined in a case-by-case basis; this means that the Constitution acknowledges that it can't be determined what are the corresponding fundamental rights therefore they may not only include the ones implicitly addressed by the Constitution of 1991 in Chapter I Title II.


=== Haiti ===
Jurists in Haiti, close to the Collectif des Juristes Progressistes Haitiens (Progressive Lawyers' Network), learning from the Filipino experience, are said to be preparing propositions for the Government to introduce a writ of amparo as a safeguard against frequent kidnappings and arbitrary arrests and torture cases.


== Extension to the world ==
Universal Declaration of Human rights (UDHR)
The inclusion of human rights in the UDHR is largely attributable to Latin America and NGOs forcing its inclusion into the Charter of the United Nations, at the San Francisco Conference, after the Great Powers at Dumbarton Oaks had made only one reference to human rights. When the UDHR was negotiated, Mexico successfully had amparo included in the UDHR, as Article 8.
""Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law."" The right to an effective remedy is included in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in its article 2, Paragraph 3:

3. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes:
(a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated shall have an effective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity; (b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall have his right thereto determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State, and to develop the possibilities of judicial remedy; (c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce such remedies when granted.
This is usually referred to as the ""substantive"" procedural right, the flipside of the ""fair procedure"" contained in Article 14 of ICCPR.[In the USA the two together make up ""due process""]
States ratifying ICCPR ""undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such laws or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant."" (Article 2)
Therefore, when there is a gap between a state's amparo remedies and ICCPR, the state is obliged to adapt amparo up to ICCPR's minimum standards, unless there is a legitimate reservation when ratifying, or what is known as derogation, or limitation or restriction.
Limitations/restrictions must be authorised by the article itself: See Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation of Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Annex, UN Doc E/CN.4/1984/4 (1984)


=== Spain ===
Under the current Spanish Constitution of 1978, a writ of amparo may be filed by any natural or legal person, domestic or foreign, as well by the Public Prosecutor and the Ombudsman, at the Constitutional Court. Its function is to protect the rights enshrined in the constitution-the fundamental rights contained in the Preliminary Title and First Section of Chapter II of Title I, to protect rights recognized in the Articles 14 to 29 of the Constitution and as well as conscientious objection to military service under Article 30.
It is a subsidiary remedy that requires all alternative relevant avenues have been exhausted in ordinary courts before turning to the Constitutional Court.


=== The Philippines ===

The writs of amparo and habeas data are prerogative writs introduced in the Philippines to supplement the inefficacy of habeas corpus (Rule 102, Revised Rules of Court). Amparo means protection, while habeas data is access to information. Both writs were conceived to solve the extensive Philippine extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances since 1999.
On July 16, 2007, Philippine Chief Justice Reynato Puno and Justice Adolfo Azcuna officially declared the legal conception of the Philippine writ of amparo – ""recurso de amparo"", at the historic Manila Hotel National Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances.
On August 25, 2007, Reynato Puno (at the College of Law of Silliman University in Dumaguete) declared the legal conception of amparo's twin, the supplemental Philippine Habeas Data. Puno by judicial fiat proclaimed the legal birth of these twin peremptory writs in October 2007, as his legacy to the Filipino nation. Puno admitted the inefficacy of habeas corpus, under Rule 102, Rules of Court, since government officers repeatedly failed to produce the body upon mere submission of the defense of alibi.
By invoking the right to truth, habeas data will not only compel military and government agents to release information about the desaparecidos but require access to military and police files. Reynato Puno's writ of amparo—Spanish for protection—will bar military officers in judicial proceedings to issue denial answers regarding petitions on disappearances or extrajudicial executions, which were legally permitted in habeas corpus proceedings.
The Supreme Court of the Philippines announced that the draft guidelines (Committee on Revision of Rules) for the writ of amparo were approved on September 23, to be deliberated by the en banc court on September 25.


== See also ==
Writ of security
Verfassungsbeschwerde
Habeas corpus


== References ==


== External links ==
The Argentine amparo
The Mexican amparo
""Amparo"" from the Global Legal Information Network Subject Term Index


== Bibliography ==
Sagües, Néstor P. (2007). La Acción de Amparo (5th ed.). Buenos Aires: Editorial Astrea. ISBN 978-950-508-762-4.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: publisher location (link)",0.9515940546989441
Constant Nieuwenhuys,"Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys (21 July 1920 – 1 August 2005), better known as Constant, was a Dutch painter, sculptor, graphic artist, author and musician.


== Early period ==
Constant was born in Amsterdam on 21 July 1920 as the first son of Pieter Nieuwenhuijs and Maria Cornelissen. Their second son, Jan Nieuwenhuys, was born a year later. Both sons became artists although their parents had no apparent interest in art.
As a young child Constant drew passionately and showed great talent. He read literature with a special preference for poetry and played musical instruments. During his teenage years he learned to sing and to read music while in the church choir at the Ignatius Gymnasium, a prestigious Jesuit school in Amsterdam. In his later years, greatly inspired by gypsy music, he only played improvised music. He played guitar, violin and at 45 years of age also mastered playing the cimbalon.
Constant painted his first oil painting, De Emmaüsgangers, at age sixteen. It depicted the revelation of Jesus to two of his followers in Emmaus. With no money to buy materials he painted this painting on a jute sugar bag with pigments he had bought from a house painter. Many of Constant's early drawings and paintings are religiously inspired, due to his Jesuit schooling. Yet at the age of twenty Constant turned his back on Catholicism.
After one year studying at the Kunstnijverheidsschool (Arts and Crafts School), Constant attended the Rijksakademie voor Beeldende Kunst (State Academy of Fine Arts) from 1939 to 1941. This education in craftmanship was put to use especially during his ""New Babylon"" period, when Constant built many constructions and models.
Constant lived and worked in Bergen from 1941 to 1943. Through the Bergense School he was introduced to the work of Paul Cézanne, which impacted him deeply, as evident in Zelfportret (Self Portrait), 1942. On 13 July 1942 he married Matie van Domselaer, the daughter of the composer Jakob van Domselaer.
The city of Bergen was evacuated by the Germans in 1943 and so Constant and Matie moved back to Amsterdam. During this period Constant went into hiding and refrained from registering at the Kulturkammer (Nazi Chamber of Culture) to avoid the Arbeitseinsatz (labour supply for the Germans). Because of this he was unable to conventionally exercise his craft or to buy art supplies. To paint Constant used tablecloths and bed linen and had to rinse them out to start again.
During the war Constant's brother in law, Jaap van Domselaer, moved into the apartment to hide from the 'Arbeitseinsatz.' He introduced Constant to Plato, Spinoza, Descartes, Kant, Hegel and Marx. Especially the latter provided great inspiration to Constant regarding his later ideas on art and society.
During the winter famine of 1944 Constant's first son, Victor Nieuwenhuys, was born. After the war, Constant, his wife and son moved back to Bergen only to return to Amsterdam in 1946 where they lived in an apartment across from the zoo Artis. When the war ended Constant was able to expand and grow as an artist after years of captivity and limitations. He liberated himself artistically and experimented with multiple techniques of art-making. He was inspired by Cubism, especially by Georges Braque. In 1946 his daughter Martha was born, followed by his daughter Olga in 1948.


== CoBrA ==
In 1946 Constant travelled to Paris for the first time where he met the young Danish painter Asger Jorn. The friendship between Jorn and Constant later formed the basis for the avant-garde movement CoBrA.
July 1948 Constant founded Reflex Experimentele Groep in Holland with Corneille, Karel Appel and his brother Jan Nieuwenhuys. The first edition of the magazine Reflex was published with a manifesto written by Constant. For Constant art had to be experimental. He had deducted this from the French word 'expérience' and believed that art springs from experience of the artist and is continuously changing. In the manifesto he stated that the process of creation is more important to the experimental artist than the work itself; it is a means to reach spiritual and mental enrichment. Also, the work of experimental artists is a mirror image of changes in the general perception of beauty.
Constant, Corneille and Appel, three totally different characters and artists, were united in their quest for innovation. They exhibited their work together and were often seen together in the European art scene. The wanderlust of the three is especially notorious.
Later in the year 1948 on the terrace of café Notre Dame in Paris the Experimentele Groep in Holland linked up with Christian Dotremont and Joseph Noiret from Belgium and Asger Jorn from Denmark to form CoBrA, a name which was made by Dotremont, formed by the first letters of their hometowns: Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam. The members opposed aesthetics in painting and bourgeois art in general.
Constant had already outlined their ideas in his manifesto in Reflex magazine. This manifesto contains another of his famous quotes: ""A painting is not a structure of colours and lines, but an animal, a night, a cry, a man, or all of these together"".
Constant was productive during the CoBrA period. White Bird (1948), Ladder (1949) and Scorched Earth I (1951) are some of his noted works from this period. At this time CoBrA published bulletin additional artists from several different disciplines joined their ranks. In 1948 Constant, together with poet Gerrit Kouwenaar, published a poetry album Goede Morgen Haan. Additionally there were two large CoBrA exhibitions, one in Amsterdam in 1949 and one in Liège in 1951.
The director of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam (Municipal Museum of Amsterdam), Willem Sandberg, was very supportive of young artists and fully supported the CoBrA group by giving them seven large rooms to exhibit their work in. Most of the CoBrA works had been fairly small due to their lack of money and so Sandberg gave the artists an advance to create some larger works in the week before the exhibition. Constant, Corneille, Appel and Eugène Brands created several large pieces of art that have become iconic for the movement. The architect Aldo van Eyck was commissioned to shape the exhibition. The works of art as well as the way they were presented give rise to harsh critique from press and public. A critic from Het Vrije Volk wrote: ""Geklad, geklets en geklodder in het Stedelijk Museum"" (""Smirch, twaddle and mess in the Municipal Museum""). The CoBrA artists were considered scribblers and con artists.
In the Liège exhibition in 1951, even larger than the Stedelijk exhibition, the CoBrA group dissolved itself and with its tenth edition bulletin publication. As Christian Dotremont, the international secretary, stated in Museum News in 1962 the group would rather ""mourir en beauté"" (die in beauty) than become a regular artist interest group.


== Situationist International ==

After CoBrA Constant's work became more abstract. Back in Amsterdam in the summer of 1952 he developed an interest in spatial architecture and three-dimensional works. With Aldo van Eyck, whom he met during his CoBrA time, he created a space for the exhibition 'Man and House' at the Urban Museum Amsterdam from 1952-1953. In 1954 he worked on a project with Gerrit Rietveld. Together they created a model house for warehouses de Bijenkorf.
In 1952 Constant received a scholarship from the Arts Council of Great Britain to study in London for three months. There he met, amongst others, Henry Moore, Anthony Hill, Kenneth Martin, Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Roger Hilton and Victor Pasmore. He found the art climate in London very welcoming. As opposed to Paris, Constant felt that art was judged more objectively.
At that time Constant lived near Kensington Gardens and as he walked through the bombed city every day he started to wonder how people live and how cities should be built. His stay in London raised his awareness of how the constructions that surround us influence us. He felt that the constructions of his time were mostly practical, immensely dull and provided no room to develop playful and creative lifestyles.
In the summer of 1956 Asger Jorn invited Constant to Alba, Piedmont, Italy, for a congress dedicated to 'Industry and the Fine Arts' initiated by 'Mouvement pour un Bauhaus Imaginiste' (International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus). At this congress Constant presented his lecture Demain la poésie logera la vie in which he pleaded for a free architecture which could stimulate a creative lifestyle rather than impede it. In 1952 Debord had founded the Lettrist International for which he was a writer, filmmaker and strategic activist. The 'Lettrist International' were also at the Alba congress and they pleaded for a unitary urbanism (the synthesis of art and technology). Later that year Constant visited Debord in Alba, which proved to be an inspiration for both.
Debord wanted to establish an even more radical movement which would totally abandon the arena of fine art while solely focusing on questions of psychogeography, a total dissolution of boundaries between art and life. In 1957 he and Asger Jorn brought together the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus and the Lettrist International by establishing Situationist International. They specifically denied their status as an art movement.
Constant did not join SI at that time. He objected to the SI on the ground that the movement seemed to be established mainly by artists who have their own interest at heart more than a common goal. When SI openly pleaded for 'unitary urbanism', as defined by Constant and Debord, Constant joined. An intensive correspondence between him and Debord followed. Constant wrote several theoretical articles for the French SI journal and staged events at several museums in Paris as well as the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where he showed his New Babylon series in 1959.
The success of the New Babylon show in 1959 prompted SI to plan a group exhibition there in April–May 1960. This exhibition would never take place. Disagreements in the group resulted in a split and several expulsions. In 1960 Constant left the group for the same reason he initially objected to joining. By 1961 no one remained of the original artistic core or tendency except Debord himself. though members more allied to the SI's political tendency remained.


== New Babylon ==

Back in Amsterdam after his stay in London, Nieuwenhuys started to focus mainly on architecture and the urban environment. The focal point of his work was finding out what potential added value art can provide in intensifying daily life, in which there is room for creative expression. He abandoned painting to work solely on his New Babylon project from 1956 to 1974.
With New Babylon Nieuwenhuys envisioned a ""world wide city for the future"" where land is owned collectively, work is fully automated and the need to work replaced with a nomadic life of creative play. New Babylon is inhabited by homo ludens, who, freed from labor, will not have to make art, for he can be creative in the daily practice of his life.
In Nieuwenhuys' own words:

The project of New Babylon only intends to give the minimum conditions for a behaviour that must remain as free as possible. Any restriction of the freedom of movement, any limitation with regard to the creation of mood and atmosphere, has to be avoided. Everything has to remain possible, all is to happen, the environment has to be created by the activity of life, and not inversely.
The New Babylon project consisted of a series of models, constructions, maquettes, collages, drawings, graphics and texts expressing Constant's theories of urban development and social interaction. A few examples of spatial constructions for which he used modern materials like stainless steel, aluminum and perspex are Het Ruimtecircus (1956) (Spatial Circus) and Het Zonneschip (1956) (Sunvessel).
In 1974 the New Babylon project officially came to an end with a large exhibition in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Because he lacked room to store the vast collection of constructions, maquettes, maps and structures he sold them all to the museum. In 1999 Constant's New Babylon: City for Another Life, opened at the Drawing Center in New York. It was his first solo exhibition in the United States and was curated by Mark Wigley. There was a symposium conducted in conjunction with the exhibition.
According to the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas, Nieuwenhuys has made a lot of architects think with his New Babylon: ""He was an example of courage"".


== Colorism ==
Constant returned to painting, watercoloring and graphics in 1969. Until the mid-1970s, the subjects of his imaginary world New Babylon still crowded his work. However, more and more, he was inspired by contemporary and political issues, including such things as the Vietnam War, African famine and Kosovo refugees. Marxism was a strong influence. Rudi Fuchs said in his foreword to the Catalogue of Constant Paintings in 1995: ""there are people who consider Constant's later work as a return to tradition. I, however, do not share this opinion. Because I consider his later development from the 1970s as greater penetration into the garden of painting.""
In the tradition of the Venetian Renaissance painters, Titian and Tintoretto, Constant applied himself to the technique of colorism. Following this technique the artist doesn't make use of charcoal or pencil sketches but applies colour directly on the canvas with the paintbrush, constructing soft transitions instead of sharp contours. The most important feature of this technique is the way light is expressed in the painting by integrating it into the colour. This technique is laborious. The painting comes to life layer by layer. Constant painted with oil on canvas and every layer he applied then needed to dry. In this period Constant produced a mere three to four paintings per year.


== Public space ==

In 1949 Constant decorated a garden wall in Tibirkelunde, Sjelland, Denmark.
In 1963 The Gate of Constant was placed at the entry of a sports park in the west side of Amsterdam. Constant designed the forty-foot-high concrete structure as a commission for the Municipality of Amsterdam. For almost three decades the structure adorned the entry in anonymity until Rita Doets, a former employee of the municipality, left money in her legacy to construct an information sign next to the gate. Constant's widow, Trudy Nieuwenhuijs, was present at the inauguration.
In 1966 Constant designed a fountain for the Kooiplein in Leiden. For years the structure didn't function and slowly withered. When the square was redesigned in 1999, the fountain was repaired. New equipment made sure that the shoppers were not bothered by the water.


== Death ==
Constant died on 1 August 2005 and was survived by his son and his three daughters, and by his widow and her daughter.


== Films ==
Gyromorphosis (1958), 7 min - In Gyromorphosis, film maker Hy Hirsh strives to display the kinetic qualities of the New Babylon structures of Constant Nieuwenhuys. One by one he puts parts of the structures in motion and films the details with colored lighting having them overlap each other, appear and disappear. He creates a sensation of acceleration and suspense suggested by the work itself.
Accompanying Simon Vinkenoog to Constant's New Babylon (1962), 15 min - Lies Westenburg visits Constant at his studio with writer Simon Vinkenoog. Simon Vinkenoog and Constant discuss the ideas behind the New Babylon project.
Constant oder der Weg nach New Babylon (1968), 55 min - For ten years Constant worked on his New Babylon project as a reaction to the architectural and social reality. Film maker Carlheinz Caspari follows Constant and his visions.
Cobra, a revolt against order (1986), 50 min - Documentary by Jan Vrijman about the meaning and influence of the COBRA group, then and now.
Constant, Avant le Départ (2005), 82 min - Constant died in the summer of 2005. Thomas Doebele and Maarten Schmidt filmed the artist during the last months of his life. They followed him and his dog, Tikus, on their daily stroll to the artist's studio, where he finished his last painting Le Piège.
New Babylon de Constant (2005), 13 min - New Babylon visually captured by Constant's son Victor Nieuwenhuijs and Maartje Seyfert.


== Exhibitions ==
This is an incomplete list of Constant's exhibitions over the years:

1940 at the Aalderink art gallery in Amsterdam (together with Hans Wiesman, first exhibition for Constant)
1947 Santee Landweer art gallery in Amsterdam (first solo exhibition for Constant)
1953 For a spatial colorisme in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam Constant with Aldo van Eijck
1956 XXVIII Esposizione Biennale Internazionale d'Arte, Venice
1959 II. Documenta, Kassel
1959 Constant. Constructions and models Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1961 Niw (sic!) Babylon in the Stedelijk Museum Schiedam
1964 4. Documenta, Kassel
1964 Académie Royale, Kopenhagen
1964–1965  '45-'85 Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1966 New Babylon at the Biennale of Venice (Constant represented the Netherlands)
1967 New Babylon in Kunstnernes Hus, Oslo
1974 New Babylon, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1974–1975 Constant. An illustration of freedom [drawings 1945-74], Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1978 Constant. Paintings 1969-77, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1980 Constant. Paintings 1940-1980, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1985 Work from the period 1975-1985, Centraal Museum in Utrecht
1985 Arbeiten auf Papier 1948-1985, in Kultur-historischen Museum der Stadt Bielefeldt
1986 Constant 1945-1983, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn
1993 Constant. Drawings, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1994 Constant. Models / Constructions, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1994–1995 Constant. Œuvreprijs 1994, Chabot Museum, Rotterdam
1996 Constant: paintings 1948-1995, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam & Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum Ålborg
1997 Situacionistes. Art, politica, urbanisme, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona (MACBA)
1998 Constant, etchings and lithographs, Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas, Venezuela
1998–1999 Constant - New Babylon, Witte de With (Centrum voor hedendaagse kunst), Rotterdam
1999 Another City for Another Life: Constant's New Babylon, The Drawing Center, New York
2001 Constant, une rétrospective, Musée Picasso Antibes
2002 Constant. New Babylon, Documenta 11, Platform 5, Kassel Hauptbahnhof
2004 Constant graphic, Cobra Museum
2005–2006 Tribute to Constant, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
2006 Play! The art of play, Cobra Museum
2008–2009 Constant. In his studio, Stedelijk Museum Schiedam
2009 Time as Matter. MACBA collection. New Acquisitions, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona
2009 Intensely Dutch, Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia
2011 Klee und Cobra. Ein Kinderspiel, Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Switzerland
2012 Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek and Cobra Museum


== Public collections ==
Constant's artworks can be found in the following public collections.
Dutch museums

European museums

Museums outside Europe

MoAFL, Museum of Art Fort Lauderdale, US
SFMOMA, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, US


== Awards ==
This is a list of awards granted to Constant.

1960 Sikkens Award (together with Aldo van Eyck)
1966 Premio Cardazzo at the Venice Biennale
1971 Royal decoration of 'Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau' (refused)
1974 David Röell Award for his work as a draughtsman
1985 Singer Award for his entire body of work
1991 Resistance Award of the Foundation Artist Resistance 1942-1945
1994 Oeuvre Award from Foundation Fund for Fine Arts, Design & Engineering


== Further reading ==
This list does not include Constant's own writings.

Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play. Michael Baumgartner en Kirsten Degel, Ludion, Amsterdam, 2012
Constant. The late period. Trudy van der Horst, BnM publishers, 2008
In Girum Imus Nocte et Consumimur Igni. The Situationist International (1957–1972). JRP|Ringier, Zürich, 2006
Constant. Grafics. Waanders uitgevers/Editions Cercle d'Art, Zwolle/Paris, 2004
CoBrA. The color of freedom. The Schiedam collection. NAi publishers, Rotterdam, 2003
Après nous la Liberté. Constant and the artistic avant-garde in 1946-1960. Marcel Hummelink, academic thesis privately published, 2002
The Activist Drawing Retracing. Situationist Architectures from Constant's New Babylon to Beyond. Edited by Catherine de Zegher and Mark Wigley, The Drawing Center, New York, 2001
Constant. Une rétrospective. Musée Picasso, Antibe, 2001
Constant. L'atelier d'Amsterdam. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 2000
The Child in Cobra. Cobra Museum for modern art, Amstelveen, 2000
Constant's New Babylon. The hyper-architecture of desire. Mark Wigley, Zero, Rotterdam, 1998
The A of COBRA in word en image. 50 years Cobra. Jaski Art Gallery, Amsterdam, 1998
Cobra. Copenhague. Bruxelles. Amsterdam. Art éxperimental 1948-1951. Musée cantonal des Beaux-Arts et Hirmer Verlag, Munich, 1997
Constant. Schilderijen/Paintings 1948-195. Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, 1996
Constant. Aquarellen/Watercolors 1975-1995. Haags Gemeentemuseum, 1996
Constant. Les Aquarelles. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1994
Cobra. Richard Miller, Nouvelles Éditions Françaises, Paris, 1994
Constant. Les trois escpaces. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992
New Babylon. Constant. Art et Utopie. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992
Documents Relatifs À La Fondation De L'Internationale Situationiste 1948-1957. Éditions Allia, Paris, 1985
Cobra 1948-1951. Éditions Jean-Michel Place, Paris, 1980
Cobra. History, foreplay and meaning of a movement in art after the second world war. Willemijn Stokvis, De Bezige Bij, Amsterdam, 1980


== References ==


== External links ==
website bij Constant's son and his film 'New Babylon de Constant', bio with photos
management foundation Stichting ""Fondation Constant"" with bio and photos
Constants works and photos at 'not bored' a situationist site
Interview with Constant, 2003
Constants works at Tate Gallery
Constant texts on New Babylon Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine a situationist site",0.7328762412071228
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America,"Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America is the extraction, purification and alloying of metals and metal crafting by Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European contact in the late 15th century. Indigenous Americans had been using native metals from ancient times, with gold artifacts from the Andean region being dated to 2155–1936 BC,
and North American copper artifacts being dated to approximately 5000 BC.
The metal would have been found in nature without the need for smelting, and shaped into the desired form using hot and cold hammering without chemical alteration or alloying. As of 1999, ""no one has found evidence that points to the use of melting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North America.""(p 136)
In South America the case is quite different. Indigenous South Americans had full metallurgy with smelting and various metals being purposely alloyed. Metallurgy in Mesoamerica and western Mexico may have developed following contact with South America through Ecuadorian marine traders.


== South America ==

South American metal working seems to have developed in the Andean region of modern Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina with gold and native copper being hammered and shaped into intricate objects, particularly ornaments.
Recent finds date the earliest gold work to 2155–1936 BC. and the earliest copper work to 1432–1132 BC.
Ice core studies in Bolivia suggest copper smelting may have begun as early as 700 BC, over 2700 years ago. By 1410–1090 BC, gilding was practiced in coastal Peru.
Further evidence for this type of metal work comes from the sites at Waywaka (near Andahuaylas in southern Peru), Chavín and Kotosh,
and it seems to have been spread throughout Andean societies by the Early horizon (1000–200 BC).
Unlike other metallurgy traditions where metals gained importance through practical use in weaponry and everyday utensils, metals in South America (and later Central America) were mainly valued as adornments and status objects. Though also functional objects were produced, even in the metallurgically advanced Andean cultures of the Inca era stone tools were never completely replaced by bronze items in everyday life.
During the Early horizon, advances in metal working produced spectacular and characteristic Andean gold objects made by the joining of smaller metal sheets, and also gold-silver alloy appeared.
Two traditions seem to have developed alongside each other – one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. There is evidence for smelting of copper sulphide in the Altiplano region around the Early horizon. Evidence for this comes from copper slag recovered at several sites,
with the ore itself possibly coming from the south Chilean-Bolivian border. Near Puma Punku, Bolivia, and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia, portable smelting kilns were used to cast I-shaped ""cramps"" (fasteners) in place, to join large stone blocks during construction. Their chemical analysis shows

The estimated date of these pours lies between 800 and 500 BC.
Evidence for fully developed smelting, however, only appears with the Moche culture (northern coast, 200 BC – 600 CE).
The ores were extracted from shallow deposits in the Andean foothills. They were probably smelted nearby, as pictorially depicted on the metal artifacts themselves and on ceramic vessels. Smelting was done in adobe brick furnaces with at least three blow pipes to provide the air flow needed to reach the high temperatures. The resulting ingots would then have been moved to coastal centers for shaping in specialised workshops.
Two workshops studied were near the administrative sections of their towns, again showing the prestige of metal. Analysis of a Moche statue composed of numerous thin metal layers revealed complex plating and gilding involving a combination of immersion in acidic solutions and the application of extreme heat.
The objects themselves were still mainly adornments, now often being attached to beads. In fact, in the Lambayeque and Chimu cultures (750–1400 CE), a wide range of functional metal items were produced such as bowls, plates, drinking vessels, boxes, plates, models, scales and especially beakers (acquillas), but mostly for ceremonial or elite use.
Some functional objects were fashioned, but they were elaborately decorated and often found in high-status burials, seemingly still used more for symbolic than for practical purposes. The appearance of gold or silver seems to have been important, with a high number of gilded or silvered objects as well as the appearance of Tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold, and sometimes also silver. Arsenic bronze
was also smelted from sulphidic ores, a practice either independently developed or learned from the southern tradition. The earliest known powder metallurgy, and earliest working of platinum in the world, was apparently developed by the cultures of Esmeraldas (northwest Ecuador) before the Spanish conquest
Beginning with the La Tolita culture (600 BC – 200 CE), Ecuadorian cultures mastered the soldering of platinum grains through alloying with copper, gold and silver, producing platinum-surfaced rings, handles, ornaments and utensils. This technology was eventually noticed and adopted by the Spanish c. 1730.
Coastal communities in the Atacama Desert, as exemplified by those near Tocopilla, produced their own metal objects for practical use in the 900–1400 CE period.

Metallurgy gradually spread north into Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica, reaching Guatemala and Belize by 800 CE. By c. 100–700 CE, depletion gilding was developed by the Nahuange culture of Colombia to produce ornamental variations such as rose gold.
Muisca goldworking, from modern Colombia, made a wide variety of small ornamental and religious objects from about 600 CE onwards. The gold Muisca raft is probably the best-known single object. This is in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, the largest of the six ""gold museums"" owned by the Central Bank of Colombia displaying gold from the Muisca and other pre-Columbian cultures in the country.
Many copper objects produced in the Tiwanaku polity (c. 600–c. 1000) are alloys that are characterized by having approximately 5% arsenic and 4% nickel.


=== Inca Empire ===
Only with the Incas would metals really come into practical use. At Machu Picchu and other sites, metal was used for bolas, plumb bobs, chisels, gravers, pry bars, tweezers, needles, plates, fish hooks, spatulas, ladles, knives (tumi), bells, breastplates, lime spoons, mace heads, ear spools, bowls, cloak pins (tupus), axes, and foot plough adzes.
Nonetheless, they remained materials through which to display wealth and status. The characteristic importance placed on colour, which had led to some of the earlier developments, was still present (sun/moon association with gold/silver). Metals other than gold also had an intrinsic value, with axe pieces being of particular note in this regard. With the spread of metal tools by the Incas, it is thought possible that a more Old World use of metals would have become more common. In any case, as Bruhns notes, ""[b]ronze can be seen as an expensive substitute for the equally efficient stone"".(p 183) However, sediment research in Bolivia has revealed that metals such as silver were smelted on a very large scale, thousands of tons, from late Tiwanaku to Inca times (1000–1530 CE), which suggests that the paucity of metal (particularly precious metal) at Inca sites is more likely caused by Spanish acquisition and export than by limited pre-colonial use.
It has been claimed that the Inca Empire expanded into Diaguita lands in what is now north-central Chile because of its mineral wealth, but that view is rejected by some scholars.
Further, an additional possibility is that the Incas invaded the relatively well-populated Eastern Diaguita valleys (present-day Argentina) to obtain labor to send to Chilean mining districts. The Incas influenced Diaguitas, who adopted Incan metalworking techniques.
Farther south in Chile, Mapuche tribes within or near the Incan Empire paid tributes in gold. Incan yanakuna are believed by archaeologists Tom Dillehay and Américo Gordon to have extracted gold south of the Incan frontier in free Mapuche territory. Following that thought, the main motive for Incan expansion into Mapuche territory would have been to access gold mines.
Among the Mapuche people of central and south-central Chile, gold had an important cultural significance that predates Inca contact.
At the time of the Spanish conquest of Chile, Mapuches are reported by various chroniclers to use gold ornaments. According to historian Osvaldo Silva gold ornaments of the Mapuche of the Concepción area evidence some kind of interaction between the Mapuche and the Inca that may have been trade, gifts, or spoils of war taken from a defeated Inca army.
Pre-Hispanic Mapuche tools are known to have been relatively simple and made of wood and stone, but a few of them were actually made of copper and bronze.


=== Iron ===
Iron was never smelted by Native Americans, thus the New World never entered a proper ""Iron Age"" before European contact, and the term is not used of the Americas. But there was limited use of native (unsmelted) iron ore, from magnetite, iron pyrite and ilmenite (iron–titanium), especially in the Andes (Chavin and Moche cultures) and Mesoamerica, after 900 BC and until c. 500 CE. Various forms of iron ore were mined,
drilled and highly polished. There is considerable evidence that this technology, its raw materials and end products were widely traded in Mesoamerica throughout the Formative era (2000–200 BCE).
Lumps of iron pyrite, magnetite, and other materials were mostly shaped into mirrors, pendants, medallions, and headdress ornaments for decorative and ceremonial effect.
However, concave iron ore mirrors were apparently used for firing and optical purposes by the Olmec (1500–400 BCE) and Chavin (900–300 BCE) cultures,
and ilmenite ""beads"" may have served as hammers for fine work.
The Olmec and Izapa (300 BCE – 100 CE) also seem to have used iron magnetism to align and position monuments.
They may have developed a zeroth-order compass using a magnetite bar.
Some Mesoamerican uses of native iron seem to have been military. Steven Jones proposed that the Olmec sewed ilmenite ""beads"" into protective mail armour or helmets. Iron pyrite mosaics and plates formed protective tezcacuitlapalli (mirrored back flap shields) and breastplate ornaments in the military attire of the Teotihuacan (100 BCE – 600 CE), Toltec (800–1150 CE) and Chichen Itza (800–1200 CE) cultures.


=== Lead ===
Lead ore (galena) in relatively pure form is present geologically in a number of places in North America.  Some native populations mined and used the lead.  


== Central America and Caribbean ==

Gold, copper and tumbaga objects started being produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300–500 CE. Open-molded casting with oxidation gilding and cast filigrees were in use. By 700–800 CE, small metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of gold and tumbaga ornaments constituted the usual regalia of persons of high status in Panama and Costa Rica.
The earliest specimen of metalwork from the Caribbean is a gold-alloy sheet carbon dated to 70–374 CE. Most Caribbean metallurgy has been dated to between 1200 and 1500 CE and consists of simple, small pieces such as sheets, pendants, beads and bells. These are mostly gold or a gold alloy (with copper or silver) and have been found to be largely cold hammered and sand-polished alluvial nuggets, although a few items seem to have been produced by lost wax casting. It is presumed that at least some of these items were acquired by trade from Colombia.


== Mesoamerica ==

Metallurgy only appears in Mesoamerica in 800 CE with the best evidence from West Mexico. Much like in South America, fine metals were seen as a material for the elite. Metal's special qualities of colour and resonance seemed to have appealed most and then led to the particular technological developments seen in the region.
Exchange of ideas and goods with peoples from the Ecuador and Colombia region (likely via a maritime route) seems to have fueled early interest and development. Similar metal artifact types are found in West Mexico and the two regions: copper rings, needles, and tweezers being fabricated in the same ways as in Ecuador and also found in similar archaeological contexts. A multitude of bells were also found, but in this case they were cast using the same lost-wax casting method as seen in Colombia. During this period, copper was being used almost exclusively.
Continual contact kept the flow of ideas from that same region and later, coinciding with the development of Andean long distance maritime trade, influence from further south seems to have reached the region and led to a second period (1200–1300 CE to the Spanish arrival). By this time, copper alloys were being explored by West Mexican metallurgists, partly because the different mechanical properties were needed to fashion specific artifacts, particularly axe-monies – further evidence for contact with the Andean region. However, in general the new properties such alloys introduced were developed to meet regional needs, especially wirework bells, which at times had such high tin content in the bronze that it was irrelevant for its mechanical properties but gave the bells a golden colour.
The actual artifacts and then techniques were imported from the south, but west Mexican metallurgists worked ores from the abundant local deposits; the metal was not being imported. Even when the technology spread from West into north-eastern, central and southern Mexico, artifacts that can be traced back to West Mexican ores are abundant, if not exclusive. It is not always clear if the metal reached its final destination as an ingot, an ore or a finished artifact. Provenance studies on metal artifacts from southern Mesoamerica cast with the lost wax technique and dissimilar to west Mexican artifacts have shown that there might have been a second point of emergence of metallurgy into Mesoamerica there since no known source could be identified.
In the Tarascan Empire, copper and bronze was used for chisels, punches, awls, tweezers, needles, axes, discs, and breastplates.
The Aztecs did not initially adopt metal working, even though they had acquired metal objects from other peoples. However, as conquest gained them metal working regions, the technology started to spread. By the time of the Spanish conquest, a  bronze-smelting technology had already been developed. Spanish conquistadors used indigenous smelting technology to produce weapons and tools.


== Northern America ==
Archaeological evidence has not revealed metal smelting or alloying of metals by pre-Columbian native peoples north of the Rio Grande; however, they did use native copper extensively.


=== Old Copper Culture ===

 
Pure native copper was abundant in the Great Lakes region, particularly Michigan, but Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Manitoba as well. The last glacial period had left copper bearing rock exposed and scoured bare. Once the ice retreated, loose pieces were readily available in a variety of sizes for use. Copper was cold hammered into objects from very early in the (Archaic period in the region: 8000–1000 BC). There is also evidence the indigenous people of the Old Copper Complex mined copper veins in the rock, but disagreement exists as to when.
Extraction would have been extremely difficult. Hammerstones may have been used to break off pieces to be worked. This labor-intensive process might have been eased by building a fire on top of the deposit, then quickly dousing the hot rock with water fracturing the metal.
The copper could then be cold-hammered into shape, which would make it brittle, or hammered and heated in an annealing process to avoid this. The final object would then have to be ground and sharpened using native sandstone. Numerous bars have been found with no identified purpose like trade or barter.

Great Lake artifacts found in the Eastern Woodlands of North America seem to indicate there were widespread trading networks by 1000 BC. Progressively the usage of copper for tools decreases with more jewelry and adornments being found. This is believed to be indicative of social changes to a more hierarchical society. Thousands of copper mining pits have been found along the shores of Lake Superior, and Isle Royale. These pits may have been in use as far back as 8,000 years ago. This copper was mined and then made into objects such as heavy spear points and tools of all kinds. It was also made into crescent objects similar to bannerstones that some archaeologists believe were for religious or ceremonial purposes. The crescents were too delicate for utilitarian use.  Many have 28 or 29 notches along the inner edge, the approximate number of days in a lunar month.The Old Copper Culture flourished mainly in the Lake Superior region.  The Milwaukee Public Museum has an extensive display of objects.  At least 50 Old Copper items, including spear points and ceremonial crescents have been discovered in Manitoba. A few more in Saskatchewan, and at least one, a crescent, has turned up in Alberta, 2,000 kilometres from its origin in Ontario. It is most likely that these copper items arrived in the plains as trade goods rather than people of the Old Copper Culture moving into these new places. However from one excavated site in eastern Manitoba it can be seen that some people were moving northwest. At a site near Bissett archaeologists have found copper tools, weapons, and waste material of manufacture, along with a large nugget of raw copper. This site however was dated to around 4,000 years ago, a time of cooler climate when the boreal forest's treeline moved much further south. Though if these migrants moved with their metallurgy up the Winnipeg River at that time they may have continued to Lake Winnipeg, and the Saskatchewan River system.
The Old Copper Culture did not develop advanced metallurgy like the principle of creating alloys. This means that many, though they could make metal objects and weapons, continued to use their flint, which could maintain a sharper edge for much longer. The unalloyed copper could simply not compete in daily utilization. In the later days of the Culture the metal was almost exclusively used for ceremonial items.

However, Lake Superior, as a unique source of copper for over 6,000 years has recently come into some criticism, particularly since other deposits have been found that other archaic cultures mined on a much smaller scale.


=== Copper in the Mississippian culture ===
During the Mississippian period (800–1600 CE, varying locally), elites at major political and religious centers throughout the midwestern and southeastern United States used copper ornamentation as a sign of their status by crafting the sacred material into representations connected with the Chiefly Warrior cult of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (S.E.C.C.).
This ornamentation includes Mississippian copper plates, repousséd plates of beaten copper now found as far afield as Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Some of the more famous of the plates are of raptorial birds and avian-themed dancing warriors. These plates, such as the Rogan plates from Etowah, the Spiro plates from the Spiro in Oklahoma, and the Wulfing cache from southeast Missouri, were instrumental in the development of the archaeological concept known as the S.E.C.C.
The only Mississippian culture site where a copper workshop has been located by archaeologists is Cahokia in western Illinois, where a copper workshop dating to the Moorehead Phase (c. 1200 CE) was identified at Mound 34. Gregory Perino identified the site in 1956 and archaeologists subsequently excavated it.

Numerous copper fragments were found at the site; metallographic analysis indicated that Mississippian copper workers worked copper into thin sheet through repeated hammering and annealing, a process that could be successful over open-pit wood fires.
After the collapse of the Mississippian way of life in the 1500s with the advent of European colonization, copper still retained a place in Native American religious life as a special material. Copper was traditionally regarded as sacred by many historic period Eastern tribes. Copper nuggets are included in medicine bundles among Great Lakes tribes. Among 19th century Muscogee Creeks, a group of copper plates carried along the Trail of Tears are regarded as some of the tribe's most sacred items.


=== Iron in the Pacific Northwest ===

Native ironwork in the Northwest Coast has been found in places like the Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site, where iron chisels and knives were discovered. These artifacts seem to have been crafted around 1613, based on the dendrochronological analysis of associated pieces of wood in the site, and were made out of drift iron from Asian (specifically Japanese) shipwrecks, which were swept by the Kuroshio Current towards the coast of North America.
The tradition of working with Asian drift iron was well-developed in the Northwest before European contact, and was present among several native peoples from the region, including the Chinookan peoples and the Tlingit, who seem to have had their own specific word for the metallic material, which was transcribed by Frederica De Laguna as gayES. The wrecking of Japanese and Chinese vessels in the North Pacific basin was fairly common, and the iron tools and weaponry they carried provided the necessary materials for the development of the local ironwork traditions among the Northwestern Pacific Coast peoples,
although there were also other sources of iron, like that from  meteorites, which was occasionally worked using stone anvils.


== See also ==
Copper Inuit
Mapuche silverwork


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Leibsohn, Dana; Mundy, Barbara E. (2015). ""The Mechanics of the Art World"". Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820 (Report). New York, NY: Fordham University.",1.3954635858535767
Class conflict,"In political science, the term class conflict, class struggle, or class war refers to the economic antagonism and political tension that exist among social classes because of clashing interests, competition for limited resources, and inequalities of power in the socioeconomic hierarchy. In its simplest manifestation, class conflict refers to the ongoing battle between the rich and poor.
In the writings of several leftist, socialist, and communist theorists, notably those of Karl Marx, class struggle is a core tenet and a practical means for effecting radical sociopolitical transformations for the majority working class. It is also a central concept within conflict theories of sociology and political philosophy.
Class conflict can reveal itself through: 

Direct violence, such as assassinations, coups, revolutions, counterrevolutions, and civil wars for control of government, natural resources, and labor;
Indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty, malnutrition, illness, and unsafe workplaces;
Economic coercion, such as boycotts and strikes, the threat of unemployment and capital flight, the withdrawal of investment capital;
Political machinations through lobbying (legal and illegal), bribery of legislators, voter suppression and disenfranchisement;
Ideological struggle by way of propaganda and political literature.
In the economic sphere, class conflict is sometimes expressed overtly, such as owner lockouts of their employees in an effort to weaken the bargaining power of the employees' union; or covertly, such as a worker slowdown of production or the widespread, simultaneous use of sick leave (e.g., ""blue flu"") to protest unfair labor practices, low wages, poor work conditions, or a perceived injustice to a fellow worker.


== Usage ==

When Marxists speak of class struggle, they define a class primarily in economic terms, i.e., by its relationship to the means of production. When anarchists like Bakunin speak of class struggle, they have a broader definition of ""social class"" which encompasses ""notions of domination and privilege"" in the political and cultural spheres as well as the economic. Bakunin believed the successful struggle of the dominated classes would achieve a revolution to depose the ruling elites and create a stateless or libertarian socialism, and that a prerequisite for successful revolution is class solidarity.
Marx's theory of history asserts that in the history of economic systems such as capitalism and feudalism, class struggle is ""the central fact of social evolution."" Indeed, the first sentence of Chapter 1 of the Communist Manifesto reads: ""The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."" Marxists view the struggle's resolution in favor of the working class to be inevitable under plutocratic capitalism.


== Oligarchs versus commoners in Ancient Greece ==
Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of social production and distribution, class structures arise and are thus coeval with civilization itself. The rise of class structures eventually leads to class conflict. It is a pattern that has repeated since at least European classical antiquity as illustrated in the Conflict of the Orders and the slave revolt led by Spartacus.


=== Thucydides ===
In his History, Thucydides describes a civil war in the city of Corcyra between the pro-Athens party of the common people and their pro-Corinth oligarchic opposition. Near the climax of the struggle, ""the oligarchs in full rout, fearing that the victorious commons might assault and carry the arsenal and put them to the sword, fired the houses round the market-place and the lodging-houses, in order to bar their advance.""
The historian Tacitus would later recount a similar class conflict in the city of Seleucia, in which disharmony between the oligarchs and the commoners would typically lead to each side calling on outside help to defeat the other. Thucydides believed that ""as long as poverty gives men the courage of necessity, [...] so long will the impulse never be wanting to drive men into danger.""


=== Aristotle ===
In the Politics, Aristotle describes the basic dimensions of class conflict: ""Again, because the rich are generally few in number, while the poor are many, they appear to be antagonistic, and as the one or the other prevails they form the government."". Aristotle also commented that ""poverty is the parent of revolution"", but did not consider poverty to be the only cause of revolution. In a society where property is distributed equally throughout the community, ""the nobles will be dissatisfied, because they think themselves worthy of more than an equal share of honors; and this is often found to be a cause of sedition and revolution."" Moreover, Aristotle said that it was wrong for the poor to seize the wealth of the rich and divide it among themselves, but he said that it is wrong for the rich to impoverish the multitude.
Moreover, Aristotle further discussed a middle way, between laxity and cruelty, in the treatment of slaves by their masters, averring that ""if not kept in hand, [slaves] are insolent, and think that they are as good as their masters, and, if harshly treated, they hate and conspire against them.""


=== Socrates ===
Socrates was the first Greek philosopher to describe class conflict. In the Republic, by Plato, Socrates said that ""any city, however small, is in fact divided into two, one the city of the poor, the other [the city] of the rich; these [cities] are at war with one another."" Socrates disapproved of oligarchies, in which members of a small class of wealthy property owners take positions of political power in order to dominate the large social class of impoverished commoners; and used the analogy of a maritime pilot, who, like the power-holder in a polis, ought to be chosen for political office for his skill, not for the amount of property he owns.


=== Plutarch ===

The historian Plutarch recounts how the Greek people participated in the class conflict between the aristocrats and the common folk. Financially oppressed by their indebtedness to the aristocrats, the mass of Athenians chose Solon to be the lawgiver to lead them to freedom from their creditors. The philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said that Solon's constitution of the Athenian popular assembly created a political sphere that balanced the competing socio-economic interests of the social classes of Athens:

The wealthy aristocratic party of the plain
The poor common party of the mountains
The moderate party of the coast
Participating in a war among the social classes of Ancient Greece was a dangerous political endeavour. In his book Parallel Lives, Plutarch wrote of two Spartan kings, Agis and Cleomenes, who  ""being desirous to raise the people, and to restore the noble and just form of government, now long fallen into disuse, [they] incurred the hatred of the rich and powerful, who could not endure to be deprived of the selfish enjoyment to which they were accustomed.""


== Patricians versus plebeians in Ancient Rome ==
It was similarly difficult for the Romans to maintain peace between the upper class, the patricians, and the lower class, the plebs. French Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu notes that this conflict intensified after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy.
In The Spirit of Laws he lists the four main grievances of the plebs, which were rectified in the years following the deposition of King Tarquin:

The patricians had much too easy access to positions of public service.
The constitution granted the consuls far too much power.
The plebs were constantly verbally slighted.
The plebs had too little power in their assemblies.


=== Camillus ===
The Senate had the ability to give a magistrate the power of dictatorship, meaning he could bypass public law in the pursuit of a prescribed mandate. Montesquieu explains that the purpose of this institution was to tilt the balance of power in favour of the patricians. However, in an attempt to resolve a conflict between the patricians and the plebs, the dictator Camillus used his power of dictatorship to coerce the Senate into giving the plebs the right to choose one of the two consuls.


=== Marius ===
Tacitus believed that the increase in Roman power spurred the patricians to expand their power over more and more cities. This process, he felt, exacerbated pre-existing class tensions with the plebs, and eventually culminated in a civil war between the patrician Sulla and the populist reformer Marius. Marius had taken the step of enlisting capite censi, the very lowest class of citizens, into the army, for the first time allowing non-land owners into the legions.


=== Tiberius Gracchus ===

Of all the notable figures discussed by Plutarch and Tacitus, agrarian reformer Tiberius Gracchus may have most challenged the upper classes and most championed the cause of the lower classes. In a speech to the common soldiery, he decried their lowly conditions:

""The savage beasts,"" said he, ""in Italy, have their particular dens, they have their places of repose and refuge; but the men who bear arms, and expose their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy in the meantime nothing more in it but the air and light; and having no houses or settlements of their own, are constrained to wander from place to place with their wives and children.""
Following this observation, he remarked that these men ""fought indeed and were slain, but it was to maintain the luxury and the wealth of other men."" Cicero believed that Tiberius Gracchus's reforming efforts saved Rome from tyranny, arguing:

Tiberius Gracchus (says Cicero) caused the free-men to be admitted into the tribes, not by the force of his eloquence, but by a word, by a gesture; which had he not effected, the republic, whose drooping head we are at present scarce able to uphold, would not even exist.
Tiberius Gracchus weakened the power of the Senate by changing the law so that judges were chosen from the ranks of the knights, instead of their social superiors in the senatorial class.


=== Julius Caesar ===
Contrary to Shakespeare's depiction of Julius Caesar in the tragedy Julius Caesar, historian Michael Parenti has argued that Caesar was a populist, not a tyrant. In 2003 The New Press published Parenti's The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome. Publishers Weekly said ""Parenti [...] narrates a provocative history of the late republic in Rome (100–33 BC) to demonstrate that Caesar's death was the culmination of growing class conflict, economic disparity and political corruption."" Kirkus Reviews wrote: ""Populist historian Parenti... views ancient Rome's most famous assassination not as a tyrannicide but as a sanguinary scene in the never-ending drama of class warfare.""


=== Coriolanus ===

The patrician Coriolanus, whose life William Shakespeare would later depict in the tragic play Coriolanus, fought on the other side of the class war, for the patricians and against the plebs. When grain arrived to relieve a serious shortage in the city of Rome, the plebs made it known that they felt it ought to be divided amongst them as a gift, but Coriolanus stood up in the Senate against this idea on the grounds that it would empower the plebs at the expense of the patricians.
This decision would eventually contribute to Coriolanus's undoing when he was impeached following a trial by the tribunes of the plebs. Montesquieu recounts how Coriolanus castigated the tribunes for trying a patrician, when in his mind no one but a consul had that right, although a law had been passed stipulating that all appeals affecting the life of a citizen had to be brought before the plebs.
In the first scene of Shakespeare's Coriolanus, a crowd of angry plebs gathers in Rome to denounce Coriolanus as the ""chief enemy to the people"" and ""a very dog to the commonalty"" while the leader of the mob speaks out against the patricians thusly:

They ne'er cared for us yet: suffer us to famish, and their store-houses crammed with grain; make edicts for usury, to support usurers; repeal daily any wholesome act established against the rich, and provide more piercing statutes daily, to chain up and restrain the poor. If the wars eat us not up, they will; and there's all the love they bear us.


=== Landlessness and debt ===

Enlightenment-era historian Edward Gibbon might have agreed with this narrative of Roman class conflict. In the third volume of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, he relates the origins of the struggle:[T]he plebeians of Rome [...] had been oppressed from the earliest times by the weight of debt and usury; and the husbandman, during the term of his military service, was obliged to abandon the cultivation of his farm. The lands of Italy which had been originally divided among the families of free and indigent proprietors, were insensibly purchased or usurped by the avarice of the nobles; and in the age which preceded the fall of the republic, it was computed that only two thousand citizens were possessed of an independent substance. Hegel similarly states that the 'severity of the patricians their creditors, the debts due to whom they had to discharge by slave-work, drove the plebs to revolts.' Gibbon also explains how Augustus facilitated this class conflict by pacifying the plebs with actual bread and circuses.
The economist Adam Smith noted that the poor freeman's lack of land provided a major impetus for Roman colonisation, as a way to relieve class tensions at home between the rich and the landless poor. Hegel described the same phenomenon happening in the impetus to Greek colonisation.


== Enlightenment era ==
Writing in pre-capitalist Europe, the Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Federalist statesman James Madison across the Atlantic Ocean made significant remarks on the dynamics of class struggle. Later, German idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel would also contribute his perspective to the discussion around class conflict between employers and employees.


=== Jean-Jacques Rousseau ===

It was with bitter sarcasm that Rousseau outlined the class conflict prevailing in his day between masters and their workmen: You have need of me, because I am rich and you are poor. We will therefore come to an agreement. I will permit you to have the honour of serving me, on condition that you bestow on me the little you have left, in return for the pains I shall take to command you.
Rousseau argued that the most important task of any government is to fight in class warfare on the side of workmen against their masters, who he said engage in exploitation under the pretence of serving society. Specifically, he believed that governments should actively intervene in the economy to abolish poverty and prevent the accrual of too much wealth in the hands of too few men.


=== Thomas Jefferson ===
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) led the U.S. as president from 1801 to 1809 and is considered one of America's Founding Fathers. Regarding the interaction between social classes, he wrote:

I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians) which live without government enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of happiness than those who live under the European governments. Among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep. I do not exaggerate. This is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention. Do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the public affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. It seems to be the law of our general nature, in spite of individual exceptions; and experience declares that man is the only animal which devours his own kind, for I can apply no milder term to the governments of Europe, and to the general prey of the rich on the poor.


=== James Madison ===
In his Federalist No. 10, James Madison revealed an emphatic concern with the conflict between rich and poor, commenting that ""the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination."" He welcomed class-based factions into political life as a necessary result of political liberty, stating that the most important task of government was to manage and adjust for 'the spirit of party'.


=== Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ===
In his Philosophy of Right, Hegel expressed concern that the standard of living of the poor might drop so far as to make it even easier for the rich to amass even more wealth. Hegel believed that, especially in a liberal country such as contemporary England, the poorest will politicise their situation, channelling their frustrations against the rich:Against nature man can claim no right, but once society is established, poverty immediately takes the form of a wrong done to one class by another.


== Capitalist societies ==
Class conflict is most commonly described as occurring within capitalist societies. The conflict manifests itself as clashes between the capitalist class and working class, and takes the form of disputes over hours of work, amount paid in wages, division of profits, culture in the workplace, cost of consumer goods, cost of rent, control over parliament or government bureaucracy, and economic inequality. Even a seemingly benign humanitarian program such as government-provided disaster relief can exacerbate class conflict if the relief is seen as being unequally distributed depending on the recipient's class.


=== Adam Smith ===


==== Inequality in the distribution of wealth ====
Like Rousseau, the classical liberal Adam Smith believed that the amassing of property in the hands of a minority naturally resulted in a disharmonious state of affairs. He said that ""avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the hatred of labour and the love of present ease and enjoyment, are the passions which prompt to invade property"", requiring a government to protect property rights:Wherever there is a great property, there is great inequality. For one very rich man, there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and prompted by envy to invade his possessions. It is only under the shelter of the civil magistrate, that the owner of that valuable property, which is acquired by the labour of many years, or perhaps of many successive generations, can sleep a single night in security. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never provoked, he can never appease, and from whose injustice he can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate, continually held up to chastise it.Writing The Wealth of Nations, Smith's concern was the welfare of the ordinary workers who make up society and provide for it:No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable. It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, clothe, and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labour as to be themselves tolerably well fed, clothed, and lodged.
Regarding the extravagant consumption of the aristocracy, he remarked that:All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind.


==== Violence against commoners by feudal lords ====
In the third book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith explains that in the medieval period, after the fall of the Roman Empire, governments were unable to protect commoners, and their property, from the ""violence of the great lords"":In order to understand this, it must be remembered, that, in those days, the sovereign of perhaps no country in Europe was able to protect, through the whole extent of his dominions, the weaker part of his subjects from the oppression of the great lords. Those whom the law could not protect, and who were not strong enough to defend themselves, were obliged either to have recourse to the protection of some great lord, and in order to obtain it, to become either his slaves or vassals; or to enter into a league of mutual defence for the common protection of one another. The inhabitants of cities and burghs, considered as single individuals, had no power to defend themselves; but by entering into a league of mutual defence with their neighbours, they were capable of making no contemptible resistance.Residents of the cities were able to establish their freedom and security of property long before those of the country, which enabled a gradual increase in their prosperity:Order and good government, and along with them the liberty and security of individuals, were in this manner established in cities, at a time when the occupiers of land in the country, were exposed to every sort of violence. But men in this defenceless state naturally content themselves with their necessary subsistence; because, to acquire more, might only tempt the injustice of their oppressors. On the contrary, when they are secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry, they naturally exert it to better their condition, and to acquire not only the necessaries, but the conveniencies and elegancies of life.


==== Distribution of incomes into wages, profit and rent ====
In Book I Chapter 6, Smith explained how income is distributed between workers and their employers:The value which the workmen add to the materials, therefore, resolves itself in this case into two parts, of which the one pays their wages, the other the profits of their employer upon the whole stock of materials and wages which he advanced. He could have no interest to employ them, unless he expected from the sale of their work something more than what was sufficient to replace his stock to him; and he could have no interest to employ a great stock rather than a small one, unless his profits were to bear some proportion to the extent of his stock.Smith said that while a worker is paid wages in proportion to their ""dexterity and ingenuity"", as well as for ""superior hardship and superior skill"", this is not the case for the profit of their employers: The profits of stock [capital], it may perhaps be thought, are only a different name for the wages of a particular sort of labour, the labour of inspection and direction. They are, however, altogether different, are regulated by quite different principles, and bear no proportion to the quantity, the hardship, or the ingenuity of this supposed labour of inspection and direction.He added that the work of management is often performed by other employees, rather than the business owner themselves:In many great works, almost the whole labour of this kind is committed to some principal clerk. His wages properly express the value of this labour of inspection and direction. Though in settling them some regard is had commonly, not only to his labour and skill, but to the trust which is reposed in him, yet they never bear any regular proportion to the capital of which he oversees the management; and the owner of this capital, though he is thus discharged of almost all labour, still expects that his profit should bear a regular proportion to his capital.In Chapter 9, Smith notes that: ""The increase of stock, which raises wages, tends to lower profit. When the stocks of many rich merchants are turned into the same trade, their mutual competition naturally tends to lower its profit"". He says that ""high profits tend much more to raise the price of work than high wages"", because ""the rise of wages operates in the same manner as simple interest"", while ""the rise of profit operates like compound interest"". He concludes the chapter:Our merchants and master manufacturers complain much of the bad effects of high wages in raising the price [of commodities], and thereby lessening the sale of their goods, both at home and abroad. They say nothing concerning the bad effects of high profits; they are silent with regard to the pernicious effects of their own gains; they complain only of those of other people.


==== Wage negotiations and trade unions ====
Concerning wages, he explained the conflicting class interests between the owners of capital and workers, who he said were often compelled to form trade unions for fear of suffering starvation wages, as follows:What are the common wages of labour, depends everywhere upon the contract usually made between those two parties, whose interests are by no means the same. The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little, as possible. The former are disposed to combine in order to raise, the latter in order to lower, the wages of labour.
It is not, however, difficult to foresee which of the two parties must, upon all ordinary occasions, have the advantage in the dispute, and force the other into a compliance with their terms. The masters, being fewer in number, can combine much more easily: and the law, besides, authorises, or at least does not prohibit, their combinations, while it prohibits those of the workmen. We have no acts of parliament against combining to lower the price of work, but many against combining to raise it.
Smith was aware of the main advantage of employers over workers, in addition to state protection:In all such disputes, the masters can hold out much longer. A landlord, a farmer, a master manufacturer, or merchant, though they did not employ a single workman, could generally live a year or two upon the stocks, which they have already acquired. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, and scarce any a year, without employment. In the long run, the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him; but the necessity is not so immediate.


==== Conflict between classes ====
Smith observed that, outside of colonies where land is cheap and labour expensive, both the masters who subsist by profit and the masters who subsist by rents will work in tandem to subjugate the class of workmen, who subsist by wages. Moreover, he warned against blindly legislating in favour of the class of merchants and manufacturers who subsist by profit, since, as he said, their intention is to gain as large a share of their respective markets as possible, which naturally results in monopoly prices or close to them, a situation harmful to the other social classes.

In the conclusion of the first book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith assessed the knowledge and interests of capitalists in comparison to that of the landed aristocracy:Merchants and master manufacturers are, in this order [those who live by profit], the two classes of people who commonly employ the largest capitals, and who by their wealth draw to themselves the greatest share of the public consideration. As during their whole lives they are engaged in plans and projects, they have frequently more acuteness of understanding than the greater part of country gentlemen. As their thoughts, however, are commonly exercised rather about the interest of their own particular branch of business than about that of the society, their judgment, even when given with the greatest candour (which it has not been upon every occasion), is much more to be depended upon with regard to the former of those two objects, than with regard to the latter. Their superiority over the country gentleman is, not so much in their knowledge of the public interest, as in their having a better knowledge of their own interest than he has of his. It is by this superior knowledge of their own interest that they have frequently imposed upon his generosity, and persuaded him to give up both his own interest and that of the public, from a very simple but honest conviction, that their interest, and not his, was the interest of the public.In the final words of the first book, he suggested how the public should consider the political agenda of this class:The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never to be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention. It comes from an order of men, whose interest is never exactly the same with that of the public, who have generally an interest to deceive and even to oppress the public, and who accordingly have, upon many occasions, both deceived and oppressed it.


=== Karl Marx ===

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German born philosopher who lived the majority of his adult life in London, England. In The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx argued that a class is formed due to changes in the mode of production. Members of a class may become aware of their position within it, achieving what is known as class consciousness. For the working classes this happens when their members become aware of their exploitation at the hands of the ruling class. According to Marx, the working class then takes action against the ruling class, and vice versa.
What Marx points out is that members of each of the two main classes have interests in common. These class or collective interests are in conflict with those of the other class as a whole. This in turn leads to conflict between individual members of different classes.
Marxist analysis of society identifies two main social groups:

Labour (the proletariat or workers) includes anyone who earns their livelihood by selling their labor power and being paid a wage or salary for their labor time. They have little choice but to work for capital, since they typically have no independent way to survive.
Capital (the bourgeoisie or capitalists) includes anyone who gets their income not from labor as much as from the surplus value they appropriate from the workers who create wealth. The income of the capitalists, therefore, is based on their exploitation of the workers (proletariat).
Not all class struggle is radical, violent or aggressive, as in the case of strikes, lockouts and workplace sabotage. Class antagonism can also surface in minor acts of pilferage, low worker morale, and individual worker resistance to petty authority and hoarding of information. On the employers' side, lobbying for anti-union laws and against minimum wage increases, and hiring union-busting legal firms are expressions of class antagonism. On a larger scale, workers engage in class struggle when they agitate for systemic change via socialist or populist parties.
But not every instance of class struggle from below constitutes a grave threat to capitalism, or even to the authority of an individual capitalist. A narrow struggle for higher wages by a small sector of the working class, what is often called ""economism"", hardly threatens the status quo. In fact, by applying the craft-union tactics of excluding other workers from skilled trades, an economistic struggle may even weaken the working class as a whole by dividing it. Class struggle becomes more important in the historical process as it becomes more general, as industries are organized rather than crafts, as workers' class consciousness rises, and as they self-organize away from political parties. Marx referred to this as the progress of the proletariat from being a class ""in itself"", a position in the social structure, to being one ""for itself"", an active and conscious force that could change the world.
Marx focuses on the capital industrialist society as the source of social stratification, which ultimately results in class conflict. He states that capitalism creates a division between classes which can most clearly be seen in factories. The proletariat is separated from the bourgeoisie because production becomes a social enterprise. Contributing to their separation is the technology that is in factories. Technological advances de-skill and alienate workers as they are no longer viewed as having a specialized skill. Another effect of technology is a homogenous workforce that can be easily replaceable. Marx believed that this class conflict would result in the overthrow of the bourgeoisie and that the private property would be communally owned. The mode of production would remain, but communal ownership would eliminate class conflict.
Even after a revolution, the two classes would struggle, but eventually the struggle would recede and the classes dissolve. As class boundaries broke down, the state apparatus would wither away. According to Marx, the main task of any state apparatus is to uphold the power of the ruling class; but without any classes there would be no need for a state. That would lead to the classless, stateless communist society.


=== John Stuart Mill ===
Adam Smith was not the only classical liberal political economist concerned with class conflict. In his Considerations on Representative Government, John Stuart Mill observed the complete marginalisation of workmen's voices in Parliament, rhetorically asking whether its members ever empathise with the position of workmen, instead of siding entirely with their masters, on issues such as the right to go on strike. Later in the book, he argues that an important function of truly representative government is to provide a relatively equal balance of power between workmen and masters, in order to prevent threats to the good of the whole of society.

During Mill's discussion of the merits of progressive taxation in his essay Utilitarianism, he notes as an aside the power of the rich as independent of state support:People feel obliged to argue that the State does more for the rich than for the poor, as a justification for its taking more [in taxation] from them: though this is in reality not true, for the rich would be far better able to protect themselves, in the absence of law or government, than the poor, and indeed would probably be successful in converting the poor into their slaves.


=== Max Weber ===
Max Weber (1864–1920) agreed with the fundamental ideas of Karl Marx about the economy causing class conflict, but claimed that class conflict can also stem from prestige and power. Weber argued that classes come from the different property locations. Different locations can largely affect one's class by their education and the people they associate with. He also stated that prestige results in different status groupings. This prestige is based upon the social status of one's parents. Prestige is an attributed value and many times cannot be changed. Weber stated that power differences led to the formation of political parties. Weber disagreed with Marx about the formation of classes. While Marx believed that groups are similar due to their economic status, Weber argued that classes are largely formed by social status. Weber did not believe that communities are formed by economic standing, but by similar social prestige. Weber did recognize that there is a relationship between social status, social prestige and classes.


=== Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer ===
Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer argued that class struggle came from factions that managed to gain control of the state power. The ruling class are the groups that seize the power of the state to carry out their political agenda, the ruled are then taxed and regulated by the state for the benefit of the ruling classes. Through taxation, state power, subsidies, tax codes, laws, and privileges the state creates class conflict by giving preferential treatment to some at the expense of others by force. In the free market, by contrast, exchanges are not carried out by force but by the non-aggression principle of cooperation in a win-win scenario.


=== Other perspectives ===

One of the first writers to comment on class struggle in the modern sense of the term was the French revolutionary François Boissel. Other class struggle commentators include Henri de Saint-Simon, Augustin Thierry, François Guizot, François-Auguste Mignet and Adolphe Thiers. The Physiocrats, David Ricardo, and after Marx, Henry George noted the inelastic supply of land and argued that this created certain privileges (economic rent) for landowners. According to the historian Arnold J. Toynbee, stratification along lines of class appears only within civilizations, and furthermore only appears during the process of a civilization's decline while not characterizing the growth phase of a civilization.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, in What is Property? (1840) states that ""certain classes do not relish investigation into the pretended titles to property, and its fabulous and perhaps scandalous history."" While Proudhon saw the solution as the lower classes forming an alternative, solidarity economy centered on cooperatives and self-managed workplaces, which would slowly undermine and replace capitalist class society, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, while influenced by Proudhon, insisted that a massive class struggle by the working class, peasantry and poor was essential to the creation of libertarian socialism. This would require a final showdown in the form of a social revolution.
One of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, and how inheritance produces early class divisions and conflict.
Fascists have often opposed 'horizontal' class struggle in favour of vertical national struggle and instead have attempted to appeal to the working class while promising to preserve the existing social classes and have proposed an alternative concept known as class collaboration.


== Twentieth and twenty-first centuries ==


=== Soviet Union and similar societies ===
A variety of thinkers, mostly Trotskyist and anarchist, argue that class conflict existed in Soviet-style societies. Their arguments describe as a class the bureaucratic stratum formed by the ruling political party (known as the nomenklatura in the Soviet Union), sometimes termed a ""new class"", that controls and guides the means of production. This ruling class is viewed to be in opposition to the remainder of society, generally considered the proletariat. This type of system is referred by them as state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism or new class societies. Marxism was already a powerful ideological power in Russia before the Soviet Union was created in 1917, since a Marxist group known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party existed. This party soon divided into two main factions; the Bolsheviks, who were led by Vladimir Lenin, and the Mensheviks, who were led by Julius Martov.
However, many Marxists argue that unlike in capitalism, the Soviet elites did not own the means of production, or generate surplus value for their personal wealth as the generated profit from the economy was equally distributed into Soviet society. Even some Trotskyists like Ernest Mandel criticized the concept of a new ruling class as an oxymoron, saying: ""The hypothesis of the bureaucracy's being a new ruling class leads to the conclusion that, for the first time in history, we are confronted with a 'ruling class' which does not exist as a class before it actually rules.""


=== United States ===
Class conflict was present in the earliest days of the U.S. with the struggles between slaveowners and slaves. Since the abolition of slavery, class conflict is more often noted in labor-management disputes. As far back as 1933, representative Edward Hamilton of the Airline Pilot's Association used the term ""class warfare"" to describe airline management's opposition at the National Labor Board hearings in October of that year. Apart from day-to-day forms of class conflict, there are also periods of crisis or revolution when class conflict takes on a violent nature and involves repression, assault, restriction of civil liberties, and assassinations or death squads.

The investor, billionaire, and philanthropist Warren Buffett, one of the wealthiest people in the world, voiced in 2005 and once more in 2006 his view that his class, the ""rich class"", is waging class warfare on the rest of society. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN: ""It's class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldn't be."" In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that ""[t]here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the rich class, that’s making war, and we’re winning.""
Noam Chomsky, American linguist, philosopher, and political activist, has spoken out on the topic of class conflict in the United States:

Well, there’s always a class war going on. The United States, to an unusual extent, is a business-run society, more so than others. The business classes are very class-conscious – they’re constantly fighting a bitter class war to improve their power and diminish opposition. Occasionally this is recognized... The enormous benefits given to the very wealthy, the privileges for the very wealthy here, are way beyond those of other comparable societies and are part of the ongoing class war. Take a look at CEO salaries....The 2024 killing of United Healthcare CEO Brian Thompson was seen by some as a class struggle event. Luigi Mangione was charged with the killing, and a manifesto attributed to Mangione criticized the health insurance industry. According to NBC, highly engaged posts on social media appeared celebrating the shooter, and mentioning other powerful figures as potential targets. In particular, some called it the opening blow of a class war.


=== Post-2008 financial crisis ===

Class conflict intensified in the period after the 2008 financial crisis, which led to a global wave of anti-austerity protests, including the Greek and Spanish Indignados movements and later the Occupy movement, whose slogan was ""We are the 99%"", signalling a more expansive class antagonist against the financial elite than that of the classical Marxist proletariat.
In the speech ""The Great American Class War"" (2013), the journalist Bill Moyers asserted the existence of social-class conflict between democracy and plutocracy in the U.S. Chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called ""Let's Get This Class War Started"", which was a play on Pink's song ""Let's Get This Party Started."" In a 2022 piece ""America's New Class War"", Hedges argues that increased class struggle and strikes by organized workers, often in defiance of union leadership, is the ""one last hope for the United States.""
Historian Steve Fraser, author of The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power, asserted in 2014 that class conflict is an inevitability if current political and economic conditions continue, noting that ""people are increasingly fed up [...] their voices are not being heard. And I think that can only go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle, class warfare.""


=== Arab Spring ===
Often seen as part of the same ""movement of squares"" as the Indignado and Occupy movements, the Arab Spring was a wave of social protests starting in 2011. Numerous factors have culminated in the Arab Spring, including rejection of dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, government corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables), economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors, such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the population. but class conflict is also a key factor. The catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo.


== Relationship to race ==

Some historical tendencies of orthodox Marxism reject racism, sexism, etc. as struggles that essentially distract from class struggle, the real conflict. These divisions within the class prevent the purported antagonists from acting in their common class interest. However, many Marxist internationalists and anti-colonial revolutionaries believe that sex, race and class are bound up together. Within Marxist scholarship there is an ongoing debate about these topics.
According to Michel Foucault, in the 19th century, the essentialist notion of the ""race"" was incorporated by racists, biologists, and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of ""biological race"" which was then integrated into ""state racism"". On the other hand, Foucault claims that when Marxists developed their concept of ""class struggle"", they were partly inspired by the older, non-biological notions of the ""race"" and the ""race struggle"". Quoting a non-existent 1882 letter from Marx to Friedrich Engels during a lecture, Foucault erroneously claimed Marx wrote: ""You know very well where we found our idea of class struggle; we found it in the work of the French historians who talked about the race struggle."" For Foucault, the theme of social war provides the overriding principle that connects class and race struggle.
Moses Hess, an important theoretician and labor Zionist of the early socialist movement, in his ""Epilogue"" to ""Rome and Jerusalem"" argued that ""the race struggle is primary, the class struggle secondary. [...] With the cessation of race antagonism, the class struggle will also come to a standstill. The equalization of all classes of society will necessarily follow the emancipation of all the races, for it will ultimately become a scientific question of social economics.""
W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain certain aspects of black political economy. Patricia Hill Collins writes: ""Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power."": 44 
In modern times, emerging schools of thought in the U.S. and other countries hold the opposite to be true. They argue that the race struggle is less important, because the primary struggle is that of class since labor of all races face the same problems and injustices.


== Chronology ==
Nationalist movements are not included.


== See also ==
Class collaboration
Class consciousness
Classicide
Classism
Criticism of capitalism
Critique of political economy
Critique of work
Economic stratification
Master-slave dialectic


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Abidor, Mitchell, ed. (2016). Death to Bourgeois Society: The Propagandists of the Deed. PM Press. ISBN 978-1629631127.
Adamic, Louis (1934). Dynamite: The Story of Class Violence in America (Revised ed.).
Antell, Gerson; Harris, Walter (2007). Economics For Everybody. Amsco School Publications. ISBN 978-1-56765-640-4.
Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class & Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804705615. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) (also available in hardback as ISBN 0804705607, 1131155734).
Faux, Jeff (2006). The Global Class War: How America's Bipartisan Elite Lost Our Future and What It Will Take to Win It Back. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0471697619.
Klein, Matthew C.; Pettis, Michael (2020). Trade Wars Are Class Wars: How Rising Inequality Distorts the Global Economy and Threatens International Peace. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300244175.
Li Yi (2005). The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-3331-4.
Maavak, Mathew (December 2012). ""Class Warfare, Anarchy and the Future Society"" (PDF). Journal of Futures Studies. 17 (2): 15–36. SSRN 2226762.
Ness, Immanuel, ed. (2009). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present. Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.
Ness, Immanuel (2014). New Forms of Worker Organization: The Syndicalist and Autonomist Restoration of Class-Struggle Unionism. PM Press. ISBN 978-1604869569. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
Tranjan, Ricardo (2023). The Tenant Class. Between the Lines. ISBN 978-1771136228.
Vasudevan, Ramaa (2019). ""The Global Class War"". Catalyst. 3 (1): 110–139.
Zeilig, Leo, ed. (2002). Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa. New Clarion Press.


== External links ==

2008-2010 Study: CEOs Who Fired Most Workers Earned Highest Pay – video report by Democracy Now!
How a Real Class War, Like with Guns, Could Actually Happen. Vice, 26 November 2018.",1.0544687509536743
"History of education in Dedham, Massachusetts","The history of education in Dedham, Massachusetts covers schools and schooling from the establishment of the first public school in America to the present. It includes the history of the Dedham Public Schools, several Catholic schools, and other private schools. It also includes two institutions of higher education.


== First public school ==

On January 1, 1644, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first U.S. taxpayer-funded public school; ""the seed of American education."" Its first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. John Thurston was commission by the town to build the first schoolhouse in 1648 for which he received a partial payment of £11.0.3 on December 2, 1650. The details in the contract require him to construct floorboards, doors, and ""fitting the interior with 'featheredged and rabbited' boarding"" similar to that found in the Fairbanks House.
By the later part of the century, however, a sentiment of anti-intellectualism had pervaded the town. Residents were content to allow the minister to be the local intellectual and did not establish a grammar school as required by law. As a result, the town was called into court in 1675 and then again in 1691.
Other schools, including Boston Latin School and the Town of Rehoboth have claimed to be the first public school, but Dedham's was the first to be supported exclusively by tax dollars. Lt. Governor Roger Wolcott led a committee that heard the claims of several cities and towns, including the presentation made by Dedham's Don Gleason Hill and Rev. Carlos Slafter. Governor Frederic T. Greenhalge and the Governor's Council. confirmed that Dedham's was the first. On June 17, 1898, a monument was unveiled on the grounds of the First Church Green, near the site of the original schoolhouse.


=== First schoolhouse ===
The first classes were likely in the meetinghouse. The first schoolhouse was built in present-day Dedham Square near the First Church and Parish in Dedham by Thomas Thurston at a cost of £11 3 pence. Approved at a town meeting in January 1648–9, it measured 15' by 18' with two windows and a fireplace. Each boy was responsible for providing his share of firewood during the colder months. The building likely resembled contemporary schools in the English countryside with a raised platform, wooden wainscoting, and high windows. The teacher's desk would look like a pulpit and students would sit on plank seats.
The schoolhouse also included a watchtower at one end to prevent Indian attack. Placing the school next to the church was deliberate and symbolized the need for both academic and moral instruction. It stood for nearly 50 years, although in 1661 school was kept in the house of the teacher, Francis Chickering.


=== Other early educational efforts ===
The early residents of Dedham were so committed to education that they donated £4.6.6 to Harvard College during its first eight years of existence, a sum greater than many other towns, including Cambridge itself.
On March 16, 1695, Dedham and several other towns established a 300-acre School Farm in what is today Wellesley, Massachusetts, near Wellesley College.  It did not prove to be profitable, and so it was sold on March 13, 1699, for 50 pounds.


== Dedham Public Schools ==

On January 2, 1643, the Town Meeting set aside land for three public purposes: a school, a church, and a training field. Two years later, on January 1, 1645, by unanimous vote, the Town of Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school in the United States. It is believed the success of Dedham's school helped convince the Great and General Court to enact a law mandating schools in every community. Dedham's delegates to that body also served on the local School Committee.
School was held year round, with students attending from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. in the summer and 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. in the winter. Initially held in the village center, the school began travelling around town as families moved to outlying areas. From 1717 to 1756, school was held in different parts of town according to population and taxation. In 1762, for example, it was held in the village for 166 days, in South Dedham for 79 days, in Clapboard Trees, for 69 days, and in the West Precinct for 52 days. When in the outer precincts, classes were often held in private homes, but in some parts of Dedham residents privately built schoolhouses. One such school, in Springfield, was built by residents before that part of town had even organized as a parish. In addition, both boys and girls attended dame schools.
Many schools were built in the years following 1897, and were adorned through purchase and donation with a number of works of art. In 1896, the Avery School began running a program to teach illiterate adults how to read. There was also in the 1840s a Lyceum that put on plays in addition to the usual public education programs.


=== Establishment of a high school ===

As early as 1827 the Commonwealth of Massachusetts required all towns with more than 500 families to establish a free public high school.  Beginning in 1844 the School Committee repeatedly began recommending that the town establish a high school.  It wasn't until 1850 when, under threat of a lawsuit, that the town meeting voted to ""instruct the Town's School Committee to hire a building and teacher, and establish a High School according to law."" A sum of $3,000 was appropriated to support it.


=== Kindergartens ===
A kindergarten supported by private subscription was established at the Ames School in 1893 and ran until 1896. In that year the town appropriated money for kindergartens at the Ames, Avery, and Oakdale Schools, but they did not last long.


=== Teachers ===
The first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. Descendants of these students would become presidents of Dartmouth College, Yale University, and Harvard University.
Michael Metcalf was hired as a teacher in 1656 at the age of 70 and John Swinerton was hired in 1663. Joshua Fisher and Thomas Battle also taught during the early years of the school. Battle, Metcalf, and Fisher were all farmers who stepped in to teach when a professional teacher could not be found. As they had their own farms to manage in addition, their pay was not docked unless they missed an entire week's worth of classes. Until he left to minister to the people of the new community of Wrentham in 1671, Rev. Samuel Man also served as teacher.
Sir Joseph Belcher, the son of Rev. Joseph Belcher, was the first teacher to travel to the various precincts to hold classes. In 1766, Manasseh Cutler, a future congressman and ""father of Ohio University,"" began teaching.
Charles J. Capen started a private school in 1849 and then became the first high school teacher when it was established the following year.


=== School Committee and administration ===
The school was originally controlled by the town meeting but, in 1652, it was put under the control of the Selectmen. In 1789, as the town was split into districts, a school committee was formed. Clergymen were elected to oversee the schools. In the mid-1800s, the school committee consisted of Rev. Alvan Lamson, Rev. Samuel Babcock, and Rev. Calvin Durfee.
While living in Dedham, Horace Mann served on the School Committee.
In 1880, the growth of the schools required that a professional superintendent of schools be hired to oversee them. I. Freeman Hall, who had previously taught in Quincy, was hired. His successors through 1936 include Abner J. Phipps, Henry E. Crocker, Guy Channel, Oscar S. Williams, Roderick W. Hine, and John C. Anthony.
From 1956 to 2004, the administration's offices were housed in the ""White House"" originally built by Charles and Mary Shaw at the corner of East Street and Whiting Avenue. In 2004 they moved to the B-wing of Dedham High School as the house was razed to make room for the new Dedham Middle School.


=== Finances ===
The teacher's salary was paid by taxes. For every boy between the ages of four and 14, a tax of between three-and-a-half to five shillings was assessed, depending on how far from the school the family lived. Families who lived more than 2.5 miles from the meetinghouse were exempt from the tax until their children started attending. This covered between 25% and 50% of the total cost, with the rest made up by a tax on the estates of the entire population. In the years following the passage of the Old Deluder Satan Law, Dedham was occasionally fined for not spending enough money of its school but, for the most part, the appropriations to the school were generous.
The schoolmaster's salary was initially set at £20 and was raised in 1695 to £25. As there was little specie in the colony at the time, salaries were instead paid in wheat and corn. Michael Metcalf, for example, received five pounds of each crop at every six months. Not until 1696 did teachers receive actual money for their labor. While the salary was not high, teachers earned a great deal of respect. Records show that teachers were given the honorary title of ""sir"" at a time when most men were not even referred to as ""mister.""
The first donation to the school was made by Dr. Henry Deengaine of Roxbury. His deathbed will, taken verbally by John Eliot and approved by Governor John Winthrop,  left £3 to the school. In 1680, Dr. William Avery gave £60, and the Honorable Samuel Dexter left $170 in his will. Dexter requested that his bequest, along with several other sums previously donated for the school but were used to hire soldiers instead, be returned to the school. The town agreed to the terms but this fund, along with other school funds, subsequently disappeared. A fund established by Deacon Nathaniel Kingsbury in 1749 had a corpus of £100, the interest of which was to be used for the schools.
On January 1, 1744–5, school trust funds had a balance of £236, 2s, 8d. By 1749–50, the account had £345, 8s, which was loaned out to 12 men in sums between £5 and £100.


=== Districts ===
With the town growing and multiple schoolhouses being built, the school was essentially split into districts in 1756. The districts were not established by law, however, until 1789. As early as 1848, Rev. Dr. Alvan Lamson of the First Church and Parish in Dedham was making the argument that the districts should be abolished and Horace Mann said that the law allowing districts was ""beyond comparison, the most pernicious law ever pass in the Commonwealth on the subject of schools."" The districts were discontinued in 1866 when the Town purchased all 11 buildings for a total of $49,180 and returned their value to the taxpayers of the respective districts.


== Catholic schools ==


=== St. Mary's School and Asylum ===

In 1866 the Sisters of Charity founded the St. Mary's School and Asylum at what was formerly the Norfolk House.  The property was sold to them for $1 by Martin Bates who, out of a ""spirit of vindictiveness,"" gave it to the Sisters because the Town of Dedham would not purchase the run down building from him at his asking price. Bates, who was not Catholic, had previously tried selling the building at auction, but could find no buyer willing to pay a price equal to his mortgage.  At news of the sale, the Dedham Gazette wrote in an editorial:

Whatever prejudices may naturally exist against the establishment of a Roman Catholic School in so central a location, the community cannot but feel that the transformation of a building recently used only for the indiscriminate sale of liquors into an institution founded for 'promoting virtue, learning and piety in the town of Dedham' is an object worthy only of the most exalted motives, and in this view should be accepted as a public blessing.
The school was situated far away from the homes of many parishioners of the local Catholic Church, St. Mary's, and thus they did not send their children to it. Since they did not send their children to it, they did not support it financially either. The school held a number of fundraisers, but with the heavy debt of the parish the school closed on June 27, 1879.  It would have cost the parish $1,500 a year to keep it open. The closure was intended to be temporary, but it never reopened.  The building was sold in 1905.


=== St. Mary's Parish School ===

Rev. Robert J. Johnson, pastor of St. Mary's Church, the parish purchased a large lot of land to one day be used as a school. Several decades later, a parochial school was started in 1932 by Father George P. O'Connor and run by the Sisters of St. Joseph.
For the first few years the school was limited by the lack of space, and classes were held in the convent.  On June 16, 1935, the cornerstone for a new school was laid using the same golden trowel with ivory handle that was used in 1880 for the church.  A crowd of 500 attended the ceremony.
In September 1936, the new building on High Street was open. On Sunday, January 24, 1954, it was announced that an increase in the school population required more space.  The new school was constructed on the Greenhood Estate on High Street, which had been purchased several years before.  The cost of the 16-room school was estimated to be $450,000.
A new addition was constructed in 1958, and the student population grew to 650. In 1966 it had over 800 students. It was in the 1960s that the 8th grade was added.  The school had two classes per grade, with both nuns and laity as teachers.  The school had a debt of $250,000, but it was paid off by 1966.
In December 1973, the pastor, Monsignor Charles Dewey, announced the school would close in 1975. At the time, 9 nuns taught 16 classes comprising 525 students. The graduating class had 85 students and two teachers. The building was razed in 2010.


=== Ursuline Academy ===

The first Ursuline Academy in the Boston area opened in Charlestown in 1819.  In 1957, the growing school relocated to a 28-acre campus on Federal Hill in Dedham. It provides education in all areas and offers over 20 clubs and 15 varsity sports. The Boston Globe has praised Ursuline's athletes, the Bears, as winning the Singelais Award for maintaining a 3.0 GPA or higher and excelling in their chosen activity.
On October 18, 2024, a mass was held in the gymnasium at the Academy to mark the transfer of sponsorship from the Ursuline Sisters to the Ursuline Education Foundation, a lay-led organization. During the mass, a silver ciborium was transferred from Sister Elisa Ryan, the prioress of the Ursuline Sisters of the Central Province, to Kate Levesque, the head of school. 
The ciborium was originally used by the French Navy in the 1700s and eventually was given to a Boston priest, possibly Bishop Jean-Louis Lefebvre de Cheverus. It was used by the sisters in Charlestown before the Ursuline Convent riots in 1834, and was saved when a group of sisters hid it below a clump of asparagus in the garden. It eventually made its way into the Boston College archives before being returned to Ursuline Academy for the transfer of sponsorship.


== Other private schools ==


=== East Dedham evening schools ===


==== 1870s ====
In 1870, an evening school was established in East Dedham for those who could not attend the day school because they were busy working in the mills along Mother Brook. Students ranged in age from nine to 35 years old, and met on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings for an hour and a half.
Some students were learning to read and write for the first time, and others were learning English. During the first seven weeks it was offered, there was an average of 120 students attending each session. This was approximately 25% of the entire workforce in the mills. Royal O. Storrs, the overseer of the mills, was a major contributor to the school.


==== 1880s ====
In 1882, there was a public debate about whether or not the Town should provide an evening school in East Dedham. There was a general reluctance to pay for a school in the neighborhood that would educate immigrants and their children. 
Volunteers began a night school at the Avery School two nights a week from January to March, when the reduced daylight resulted in shorter hours at the mills. Students, between the ages of 15-40, were limited to 40 though 86 expressed a desire to attend. Each paid 10 cents per class with the money raised was used to purchase stationary.  
Attendance began to drop, however, as the volunteer teachers were not reliably attending. It was argued that if they were being paid, perhaps they would show up as ""regularly as the scholars under their instruction."" One letter to the editor of the Dedham Transcript arguing that the Town should pay for such a school said that 

When eighty-six young men from one mill, in one section of town... declare their desire to brave the stormy nights of winter, each after a hard day's work that they may attend an irregular evening schoool, it convinces me... that this is a real bone fide desire on their part to devote themselves to improvement, and to become good, intelligent, qualified, citizens. 

A Town-funded evening school was established in Mechanic's Hall a few years later but, pay records for the teachers show ""suggest that it was very irregular, at best.""


=== The Dedham Inn ===
Until the Dedham Inn burned down in 1939, Barbara Thorley taught a kindergarten in the building.


=== Dedham Country Day School ===
Frances L. Faulkner founded The Norfolk School in 1903 as a kindergarten and primary school near the Dedham-Westwood line. Students could attend the school through the 8th grade by 1922. It changed its name to the Dedham Country Day School in 1930 and the cornerstone of the present building was laid on Sandy Valley Road in 1949.


=== Noble and Greenough School ===

Noble and Greenough was founded in 1866 by George Washington Copp Noble, in Boston, Massachusetts, as an all-boys preparatory school for Harvard University. It became known as Noble & Greenough in 1892. In 1922, the school moved from Boston to its current location in Dedham. The property had previously been the estate of Albert W. Nickerson. The grounds were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. The school discontinued its lower school at this time, which caused parents to start the Dexter School, to fill the gap created. In 1975, Nobles began admitting girls.


=== Rashi School ===

The Rashi School, an independent, Reform Jewish private school was founded in 1986. In 1998, they moved to the St. Mary's Parish School building. They moved to Newton in 2000, but opened a permanent campus in 2010. The school in on a wooded site on the banks of the Charles River, within Newbridge on the Charles Campus for Hebrew Senior Life.


=== British International School of Boston ===

In September 2000, the British International School of Boston opened in the St. Mary's Parish School building. Just 10 days after it opened, the headmistress was killed by a drunk driver.  In 4 years the enrollment jumped from 25 to 250 students, and the school moved to a location in Jamaica Plain.


== Higher education ==

The Society of African Mission's American Province was established in 1941 amidst significant growth in vocations. In 1945, the society had acquired land in Dedham, Massachusetts to hold a new minor seminary, a location chosen because of its proximity to Boston, which had a large Catholic population.
Queen of Apostles Seminary was incorporated on 26 December 1945 by the SMA's inaugural US provincial superior Ignatius Lissner and opened in 1946 to educate and train college-age SMA seminarians. Fr. James McConnell, SMA, was the seminary's first president, and Fr. Michael Moran, SMA, initially served as treasurer and clerk.
The seminary closed in the early 1960s and was used to house an art collection owned by the Society, which still maintained a priest residence across the street. In the late 1980s, the building was purchased by Northeastern University and has served ever since as the university's Dedham satellite campus. The Northeastern Huskies field hockey and track and field teams compete at a sports complex on the site.


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Works cited ==
Austin, Walter (1912). Tale of a Dedham tavern: history of the Norfolk hotel, Dedham, Massachusetts. Riverside Press.
Byrne, William; Leahy, W. A.; Dowling, Austin; Young, E. J. A.; Finen, J. E. (1899). Introductory. The Hurd & Everts co. pp. 323–324.
Clarke, Wm. Horatio (1903). Mid-Century Memories of Dedham. Dedham Historical Society.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Hanson, Robert Brand (1976). Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890. Dedham Historical Society.
Hurd, Duane Hamilton (1884). History of Norfolk County, Massachusetts: With Biographical Sketches of Many of Its Pioneers and Prominent Men. J. W. Lewis & Company.
Lockridge, Kenneth (1985). A New England Town. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-95459-3.
Neiswander, Judith (2024). Mother Brook and the Mills of East Dedham. Damianos Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941573-66-2.
Parr, James L. (2009). Dedham: Historic and Heroic Tales From Shiretown. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-750-0.
Slafter, Carlos (1905). A Record of Education: The Schools and Teachers of Dedham, Massachusetts 1644-1904. Dedham Transcript Press. 1642-3.
Smith, Frank (1936). A History of Dedham, Massachusetts. Transcript Press, Incorporated. Retrieved July 18, 2019.",0.9682788252830505
Faith in Nyingma Buddhist Dharma,"In the Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist Dharma teachings faith's essence is to make one's being, and perfect dharma, inseparable. The etymology is the aspiration to achieve one's goal. Faith's virtues are like a fertile field, a wishing gem, a king who enforces the law, someone who holds the carefulness stronghold, a boat on a great river and an escort in a dangerous place.  Faith in karma causes temporary happiness in the higher realms. Faith is a mental state in the Abhidharma literature's fifty-one mental states. Perfect faith in the Buddha, his Teaching (Dharma) and the Order of his Disciples (Sangha) is comprehending these three jewels of refuge with serene joy based on conviction. The Tibetan word for faith is day-pa (Tib. དད་པ་གསུམ་, dépa sum; Wyl. dad pa gsum), which might be closer in meaning to confidence, or trust.
According to Chogyam Trungpa (1939 to 1987), faith means ""accepting what is there"" or ""accepting what has been taught"" unselfishly. It is feeling unshakably steady and confident as well as knowing what to cultivate and what to avoid. It means dedication to and conviction in one's own intelligence, which begins to manifest with one's guru, teacher, spiritual friend; this is awakened faith, real faith based on someone else acknowledging your existence. Genuine faith is without expectations, it is developed with renunciation. Emptiness is based on faith, with the idea of not getting anything in return. Right faith develops trust in all sentient beings who are worthy to be objects of compassion. Faith in knowing the right path based on actual experience, one has a sense of being with forward vision, it also involves delightfulness and the first perception.
In the Nyingma ""Vast Expanse Heart Essence"" preliminary teachings, teacher Patrul Rinpoche (1808–1887) has faith preceding refuge. It is the first step opening the refuge gateway to the three jewels of faith: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. It is also the first of the seven noble signs of wealth (faith with the six perfections). Having the ability to turn to the Dharma is the advantage of faith, among the five individual advantages. Lasting and stable faith is important and there are three main kinds: vivid faith, eager faith, and confident faith. A fourth to be aimed for is irreversible faith, when it becomes integral to the person and is refuge's cause, like a house's foundation serving the Dharma's three jewels.  While lacking faith is one of the six stains in which the antidotes are the kinds of faith. Faith is a jewel that comes before all else blossoming in the heart's center. It is the essence of the Three Roots outer support power and it is Dharma's root.

For anyone, man or woman, who has faith in me, I, the Lotus Born, have never departed — I sleep on their threshold.
I am present in front of anyone who has faith in me, just as the moon casts its reflection, effortlessly, in any vessel filled with water.
What is faith? It is trust, longing, and clarity regarding the cause and result, truths and the Three Jewels.


== Nature, categories, forms and characteristics ==
There are seven parts to developing faith according to Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje's (1904 -1987) preliminary practices of the Profound and Secret Heart Essence of the Dakini. Faith's nature is in the root of every kind of virtuous practice. Its nature is a clear, untroubled mind, discriminating and aware of what should be adopted and avoided. Faith is the cause that gives rise to interest and happiness, it is an antidote to laziness.
 Intelligent faith and devotion brings trust when developed from shamatha, vipashyana and tonglen practice. In general, the sutra teachings speak of four faith types: inspired faith, aspiring faith, confident faith and irreversible faith.


=== Three categories ===
Vivid faith - A clear fresh feeling of joy and devotion untainted by guile.
Eager faith - Yearning to rid cyclic existence of suffering and to attain liberation and enlightenment. Comparable to the quest for riches.
Confident faith - Confident that cyclic existence is to be emptied and Dharma will not fail.
Cultivating firm faith through meditation on impermanence, and devotion to a teacher can lead to positive signs. It gives protection and clears away sufferings of cyclic existence as it is the first step on the path to liberation when aroused intensely with the determination to be free.


=== Six forms ===
According to the Nyingma school's Choying Tobden Dorje (1787–1848), the ennobling positive six forms of faith are:

Yearning faith stimulating renunciation of rebirth desire to attain awakening freedom. Arising from disillusionment from life's suffering.
Devoted faith leading to a dedication to supreme ideals. Arising from disillusionment from evil companion's behavior.
Respectful faith in body, speech, and mind with outstanding conscientiousness. Arising from disillusionment from life's appearances.
Lucid faith that uplifts the mind's positive qualities. Arising from contact with those who represent supreme ideals.
Trusting (confidence) faith that ends doubts concerning the teaching's base, path, and result. Arising from hearing of the principle of karma.
Certainty in faith toward the doctrine, leading to the application, reflecting, and meditating upon it. Arising from hearing and reflecting on Dharma.


=== Characteristics ===
Inspired faith is a sublime quality, indestructible, indomitable and an inexhaustible treasure of good qualities. People who have immutable faith in the three jewels are extremely rare and exalted, as the Sutra of the Precious Lamp points out its characteristics:

Faith gives birth to delight in the Buddha's Teaching, Faith points the way to the city of happiness and excellence, Faith banishes lack of opportunity, it is the best of all freedoms.  Faith turns one from the path of demons, Faith is what makes one attain Buddhahood.  Among the hosts of ordinary beings, Rare are those who have such faith in the Dharma.
Unless we have faith, however many other good qualities we might have, they will not be of much use to us - as though we were very beautiful, but blind. So we have to make an effort to develop faith - by meditating on impermanence four times a day; by reflecting minutely on actions and their effects; by reflecting on the positive aspects of everything; by reflecting on how rare the Dharma is; by thinking of our teacher's kindness; by thinking of the excellent qualities of the Buddha. It is important to consider that other people - all of them - marvelous, and to be free of partiality and notions of high or low status, thus making a habit of faith and taming your own mind.
Faith is like a wheel, always ready to roll along the road; if you have it, you can make internal progress at any time. Faith is an inexhaustible treasure of good qualities. It is a vehicle carrying you along the path to omniscience, and outstretched hand drawing you to all good qualities.  The extent to which spiritual qualities can be internalized depends on faith.
Reflective wisdom in Buddhism says beliefs should not be accepted with blind faith. Such means to consider the evidence of things, and irrefutable proof upon reflection on the intended meaning, so that a conclusion may arrive. Advanced meditation invites faith based on insight.
Reflecting on the Dharma's and the teacher's good qualities can remedy lack of faith. Ardent faith in the Dharma will arise by stressing lineage. Faith comes in the aftermath of doubt and vice versa but, in the end both are abandon. Single-pointed faith in your teacher can burn away ignorance and obscurations (temporary blindness), but if it is inadequate, you can be burned yourself. Bodhisattvas appear as spiritual friends to those with faith. Faith comes because the vajra master is capable of ransacking kleshas.


== Support power ==
Gyatrul Rinpoche (b. 1924), a Payul lineage mediator, in a commentary on the work of Chagmé (Wylie: Kar-ma Chags-med, fl. 17th century) says, faith power enables eliminating the two types of obscurations (i.e. conflicting emotions and obscuration concerning the knowable).  Through the power of faith both ontological and phenomenological knowledge arises. Also, both the common and uncommon siddhis arise. He conveys the importance of faith for qualifying disciples who ""listen"" to the Dharma. This pertains to teaching Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna, and to Atiyoga in particular. Those without faith who are completely involved in the eight mundane concerns are not suitable vessels, and they should not be taught these kinds of Dharma.
Believing that the teacher knows best and arousing sublime bodhichitta is part of the inner power of support - faith, taking refuge and arousing bodhicitta - within the extraordinary or inner preliminaries of the Longchen Nyingthig Ngondro. Singular faith in the teacher seen as Buddha has greater benefit that the actual teaching.
Many factors may instill genuine faith, among these, four crucial circumstances are: 1) an authentic spiritual master attendance, 2) wholesome friends, 3) the three jewels and 4) reflection on existence's round of misery, according to Jigme Lingpa. Khenpo Namdrol says the bodhisattva on the accumulation path has faith and so with joining the five powers and five strengths In The Thirty-Seven Factors of Enlightenment, a commentary on the Rigdzin Dupa terma (The Gathering of the Vidyadharas revealed by Jigme Lingpa), which is an inner Guru Rinpoche ritual practice from the Longchen Nyingtik.
It is easier to have faith in religious instruction when it has a sense of the sacred. The thousand-petaled lotuses of faith and wisdom bloom. Signs that one is on the right track to accomplishment can be known through experiencing: faith, compassion and wisdom, automatically increasing, so that realization will come easily and few difficulties are experienced. Faith in mantra is more important that how it is pronounced.
Without faith in an afterlife, people may live lives deprived of ultimate meaning. Students who have emotional faith in the guru instead of understanding wisdom are not properly qualified to take teachings.
Enduring faith in the vinaya and the three baskets of the lamrim.
Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo states unequivocally that the Great Perfection can be penetrated with faith alone when being shown the nature of mind itself awakening (i.e. bodhicitta).
When the Buddha taught, he always began by introducing the wheel of faith, which opens the way to the Dharma, like the precious wheel of a universal ruler's power.
Faith and a strong determination to leave samsara develop in places that resemble where the Buddha gained enlightenment. Offering unceasing and unconquerable faith are the greatest offerings.


== References ==",0.881013035774231
Red envelope,"A red envelope, red packet, lai see (Chinese: 利是; Cantonese Yale: laih sih), hongbao or ang pau (traditional Chinese: 紅包; simplified Chinese: 红包; pinyin: hóngbāo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: âng-pau) is a gift of money given during holidays or for special occasions such as weddings, graduations, and birthdays. It originated in China before spreading across parts of Southeast Asia and other countries with sizable ethnic Chinese populations.
In the mid-2010s, a digital equivalent to the practice emerged within messaging apps with mobile wallet systems localized for the Chinese New Year, particularly WeChat.


== Usage ==
Red envelopes containing cash, known as hongbao in Mandarin and laisee in Cantonese, are gifts presented at social and family gatherings such as weddings or holidays such as Chinese New Year; they are also gifted to guests as a gesture of hospitality. The red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and wards off evil spirits. In Chinese, the red packet is also called ""money warding off old age"" (壓歲錢; yāsuì qián) for Chinese New Year.
The act of requesting red packets is normally called tao hongbao (Chinese: 討紅包; pinyin: tǎo hóngbāo) or yao lishi (Chinese: 要利是; pinyin: yào lìshì), and, in the south of China, dou lishi (Chinese: 逗利是; pinyin: dòu lìshì; Cantonese Yale: dauh laih sih). Red envelopes are usually given out to the younger generation who are normally in school or unmarried.
The amount of money contained in the envelope usually ends with an even digit, following Chinese beliefs; odd-numbered money gifts are traditionally associated with funerals. An exception exists for the number nine, as the pronunciation of nine (Chinese: 九; pinyin: jiǔ) is homophonous to the word long (久; jiǔ), and is the largest single digit. In some regions of China and among the Chinese diaspora, odd numbers are favored for weddings because they are difficult to divide. One widespread tradition is that money should not be given in fours, or the number four should not appear in the amount, such as in 40, 400, and 444, as the pronunciation of the word four (四; sì) is similar to the word death (死; sǐ). When giving money, new bills are favored over old bills. It is common to see long bank queues before Chinese New Year holding people waiting to acquire new bills.
At wedding banquets, the amount offered is usually intended to cover the cost of the attendees as well as signify goodwill to the newlyweds. The amounts given are often recorded in ceremonial ledgers for the new couple to keep.
In southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the married to the unmarried during Chinese New Year, mostly to children. In northern and southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the elders to those under 25 (30 in most of the three northeastern provinces), regardless of marital status. The money is usually in the form of notes to make it difficult to judge the amount before opening. In Malaysia it is common to add a coin to the notes, particularly in hongbao given to children, signifying even more luck.
It is traditional to avoid opening the envelopes in front of the relatives out of courtesy. However, to receive an envelope, the youth kowtow to thank their elders. In Hong Kong, red envelopes are traditionally opened on or after the 7th day of the Lunar New Year.
During Chinese New Year supervisors or business owners give envelopes to employees.
In Suzhou, children keep the red envelope in their bedroom after receiving it. They believe that putting the red envelope under their bed can protect the children. This action relates to the Chinese ""壓 yā"". Those yasui qian would not be used until the end of Chinese New Year. They also receive fruit or cake during the celebration.
It is traditional to give an actor a red packet when he or she is to play a dead character, or pose for a picture for an obituary or a grave stone.
Red packets are also used to deliver payment for favorable service to lion dance performers, religious practitioners, teachers, and doctors.
Red packets as a form of bribery in China's film industry, were revealed in 2014's Sony hack.
In the Chinese communities of Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong and Macao, it is also customary for red packets to be given to service staff, such as security guards, cleaners, domestic helpers and doormen during the first few days of the Lunar New Year.


=== Virtual red envelopes ===
Virtual red envelopes are available on mobile payment platforms. During the Chinese New Year holiday in 2014, the messaging app WeChat introduced the ability to distribute virtual red envelopes of money to contacts and groups via its WeChat Pay platform. The launch included an on-air promotion during the CCTV New Year's Gala — China's most-watched television special — where viewers could win red envelopes as prizes.
WeChat Pay adoption increased following the launch, and over 32 billion virtual envelopes were sent over the Chinese New Year holiday in 2016 (a tenfold increase over 2015). The feature's popularity spawned imitations from other vendors; a ""red envelope war"" emerged between WeChat owner Tencent and its historic rival, Alibaba Group, who added a similar function to its competing messaging service and held similar promotions. Analysts estimated that over 100 billion digital red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday in 2017. One study reported that this popularization of virtual red packets comes from their contagious feature—users who receive red packets feel obligated to follow. Since 2020, brands such as HeyTea, Tencent Video, Disney, and the Palace Museum have used custom WeChat red envelope covers to promote seasonal themes, product launches, or cultural IP. These covers often incorporate zodiac motifs, New Year greetings, or brand mascots, allowing users to share branded visuals during gift-giving, thus turning red envelopes into tools of viral marketing and cultural engagement.


== History ==
The history of the red packet dates to the Han dynasty. People created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, ""yasheng qian"" (Chinese: 压胜钱; pinyin: yāshèng qián), which was inscribed with auspicious words, such as ""May you live a long and successful life"". It was believed to protect people from sickness and death.
In the Tang dynasty, the Chinese New Year was seen as the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits.
After the Song and Yuan dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children lucky money. The elderly would thread coins with a red string.
The Ming and Qing dynasties featured two kinds of lucky money. One was made of red string and coins, sometimes placed at the foot of the bed in the shape of a dragon. The other was a colorful pouch filled with coins.
In Qing dynasty, the name ""yāsuì qián"" (压岁钱) emerged. The book Qīng Jiā Lù (清嘉录) recorded that ""elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, the money is called yasui qian.""
From the Republic of China (1912–1949) era, it evolved into 100 coins wrapped in red paper, meaning ""May you live a hundred years!"". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, red envelopes became more prevalent. Later, people adopted banknotes instead of coins.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the custom of the elders giving the younger generation money continued.


== Other customs ==

Other similar traditions also exist in other countries in Asia.


=== Ethnic Chinese ===
In Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), and Cambodia, the Chinese diaspora and immigrants introduced the practice of red envelopes.


=== Cambodia ===
In Cambodia, red envelopes are called ang pav or tae ea (""give ang pav""). Ang pav are delivered with best wishes to younger generations. Ang pav is an important gift as a symbol of good luck from the elders. Ang pav can be presented on the day of Chinese New Year or Saen Chen, when relatives gather. The gift is kept as a worship item in or under the pillowcase, or somewhere else, especially near the bed of young while they are sleeping. Ang pav can be either money or a cheque, and more or less according to the donors.
Ang pav are not given to someone in family who has a career, while such a person has to gift their parents and/or their younger children or siblings.
At weddings, the amount offered is scaled to cover the cost of the attendees as well as help the newlyweds.


=== Vietnam ===

Red envelopes are a traditional part of Vietnamese culture. They are considered to be lucky money and are typically given to children during Vietnamese New Year. They are generally given by elders and adults, where a greeting or offering health and longevity is exchanged. Common greetings include ""Sống lâu trăm tuổi"" (𤯩𥹰𤾓歲), ""An khang thịnh vượng"" (安康興旺), ""Vạn sự như ý"" (萬事如意) and ""Sức khỏe dồi dào"" (飭劸洡𤁠), wishing health and prosperity. The typical name for lucky money is lì xì (利市) or, less commonly, mừng tuổi (𢜠歲).


=== South Korea ===
In South Korea, a monetary gift is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. Bags known as bokjumeoni (복주머니) are used instead of red envelopes.


=== Japan ===
Monetary gifts called otoshidama (お年玉) are given to children during the New Year period. White or decorated envelopes (お年玉袋, otoshidama-bukuro) are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver usually written on the front. A similar practice, shūgi-bukuro (祝儀袋), is observed for Japanese weddings, but the envelope is folded rather than sealed, and decorated with an elaborate bow, called mizuhiki (水引).


=== Philippines ===
In the Philippines, Chinese Filipinos (known locally as ""Filipino-Chinese"") exchange red envelopes (termed ang pao) during the Lunar New Year or ""Chinese New Year"". Red envelopes have gained acceptance in the broader Philippine society. Filipinos with no Chinese heritage appropriated the custom for occasions such as birthdays and in giving monetary aguinaldo during Christmas and New Year. Due to the phonetics of most Philippine languages, red envelopes are nowadays more well known as ampaw.


=== Green envelope ===

Malay Muslims in Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore adopted the Chinese custom as part of their Eid al-Fitr (Malay: Hari Raya Aidilfitri) celebrations, but instead of red packets other colored envelopes are used, most commonly green. Customarily a family gives (usually small) amounts of money in green envelopes, and may send them to friends and family unable to visit. Green is used for its traditional association with Islam. The adaptation of the red envelope is based on the Muslim custom of sadaqah, or voluntary charity. While present in the Qur'an, sadaqah is less formally established than the sometimes similar practice of zakat, and in many cultures this takes a form closer to gift-giving and generosity among friends than charity. I.e. no attempt is made to give more to guests ""in need"", nor is it a religious obligation. Among the Sundanese people, a boy who had been recently circumcised is given monetary gifts known as panyecep or uang sunatan.


=== Purple envelope ===
The tradition of ang pao was adopted by local Indian Hindu populations of Singapore and Malaysia for Deepavali. They are known as Deepavali ang pow (in Malaysia), purple ang pow or simply ang pow (in Singapore). Yellow colored envelopes for Deepavali were give in the past.


== See also ==
Chinese marriage
Chinese social relations
Color in Chinese culture
Eidi
Gift economy
Hell money


== References ==


== Sources ==
Chengan Sun, ""Les enveloppes rouges : évolution et permanence des thèmes d'une image populaire chinoise"" [Red envelopes : evolution and permanence of the themes of a Chinese popular image], PhD, Paris, 2011.
Chengan Sun, Les enveloppes rouges (Le Moulin de l'Etoile, 2011) ISBN 978-2-915428-37-7.
Helen Wang, ""Cultural Revolution Style Red Packets"", Chinese Money Matters, 15 May 2018.


== External links ==

How to Give Lai See in Hong Kong
Red Packet: Sign of Prosperity
Gallery: Chinese New Year Red Envelopes
Will The Paper Red Packet Be Replaced By An Electronic Red Envelope?
A red envelope with a collection of value-Lai See
Money envelopes in the British Museum Collection",0.7767191529273987
Action of 16 October 1799,"The action of 16 October 1799 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and two frigates of the Spanish Navy close to the Spanish naval port of Vigo in Galicia. The Spanish ships were a treasure convoy, carrying silver specie and luxury trade goods across the Atlantic Ocean from the colonies of New Spain to Spain. Sighted by British frigate HMS Naiad enforcing the blockade of Vigo late on the 15 October, the Spanish ships were in the last stages of their journey. Turning to flee from Naiad, the Spanish soon found themselves surrounded as more British frigates closed in.
Although they separated their ships in an effort to split their opponents, the Spanish captains were unable to escape: Thetis was captured after a short engagement with HMS Ethalion on the morning of 16 October, while Santa Brigida almost reached safety, only being caught on the morning of 17 October in the approaches to the safe harbour at Muros. After a short engagement amid the rocks she was also captured by an overwhelming British force. Both captured ships were taken to Britain, where their combined cargoes were transported with great fanfare to the Bank of England. The eventual value of their cargo was assessed as at least £618,040, resulting in one of the largest hauls of prize money ever awarded.


== Background ==
In 1796, following the secret terms of the Treaty of San Ildefonso, the Kingdom of Spain suddenly reversed its position in the French Revolutionary Wars turning from an enemy of the French Republic into an ally. The Spanish declaration of war on Great Britain forced the British Mediterranean Fleet to abandon the Mediterranean Sea entirely, retreating to ports at Gibraltar and Lisbon. This force now concentrated against the Spanish Navy, most of which was stationed at the main fleet base of Cádiz in Southern Spain. A British blockade fleet won a significant victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797, dissuading the Spanish fleet from playing a significant role in the ongoing war.
Other Spanish ports were also blockaded with the intention of limiting Spanish trade and movement and intercepting treasure convoys from the colonies of New Spain and South America. Vast quantities of gold, silver and valuable trade goods crossed the Atlantic in regular armed frigate convoys. To intercept and seize these shipments the Royal Navy dispatched their own frigates to patrol the Spanish coast. To encourage their sailors, the Royal Navy distributed prize money to the value of the ships and material captured and the seizure of a Spanish treasure fleet could yield spectacular amounts of money: particularly large sums had been captured during previous wars in 1656, 1744 and 1762, but during the first three years of conflict between Great Britain and Spain only one treasure convoy had been intercepted, near Cádiz at the action of 26 April 1797, and on that occasion the treasure was smuggled ashore before the convoy was seized.


== Pursuit ==
On 21 August 1799, a convoy of two 34-gun frigates, Thetis under Captain Don Juan de Mendoza and Santa Brigida under Captain Don Antonio Pillon, sailed from Vera Cruz in New Spain with a cargo that included cochineal, indigo dye, cocoa and sugar but which principally consisted of more than two million silver Spanish dollars. The passage across the Atlantic was uneventful and by the afternoon of 15 October the convoy, under orders to make any Spanish port, was nearing its destination at Vigo, a fortified port city in Galicia just south of Cape Finisterre at the most northwestern point of Spain. The ports of Northern Spain were blockaded by British frigates sailing independently, crossing the approaches in search of enemy shipping and it was one such ship, the 38-gun HMS Naiad under Captain William Pierrepont, that sighted the Spanish convoy in position 41°01′N 12°35′W at 20:00 on 15 October. Turning away to the southeast, the Spanish ships then made all sail northeast in search of a safe harbour, with Pierrepont in pursuit.
At 03:30 on 16 October, another sail was spotted to the southwest, rapidly revealed to be a second British frigate, the 38-gun HMS Ethalion under Captain James Young. Ethalion joined the chase and at dawn two more sails were sighted, the 32-gun HMS Alcmene under Captain Henry Digby to the west and 32-gun HMS Triton under Captain John Gore to the north. With four British frigates now in full pursuit, the Spanish captains sought to split their enemy and divided, at which Pierrepont directed Ethalion, the closest British ship, to pursue the faster Thetis. Young complied, firing long-range shot in Santa Brigida's direction at 09:00, driving Pillon's ship further from his companion.


== Battle ==
As Naiad, Triton and Alcmene streamed past in pursuit of Santa Brigida, Young focused his attention on Thetis, coming within range at 11:30. Mendoza, seeing that battle was inevitable, bore up across Ethalion's bows in an effort to rake Young's ship. Young turned in order to thwart the manoeuvre and fired two rapid broadsides into Thetis, which responded in kind. For an hour the frigates exchanged running fire until Mendoza, realising escape was impossible, surrendered. Thetis had lost one man killed and nine wounded in the exchange while Ethalion had suffered no casualties.
As Ethalion subdued Thetis the remainder of the British squadron continued southwards in pursuit of Santa Brigida. Pillon was an experienced officer with a good knowledge of the Northern Spanish coast and he intended to lose his pursuers in the rocky channels of Cape Finisterre. Early on 17 October he reached Spanish coastal waters, rounding Finisterre just beyond the Monte Lora rocks. Captain Gore on Triton, which was in full flow at seven knots, was unaware of the obstacle and at 05:00 crashed into them, coming to a juddering halt and inflicting severe damage to his ship's hull. Gore was able however to bring Triton off soon afterwards and continued pursuit, assisted by Digby on Alcmene who was able to block Pillon's route into Porte de Vidre. Both frigates opened fire on Santa Brigida at 07:00 as the Spanish ship sought shelter in the rocks at Commarurto close to the safe harbour at Muros, Pillon's movement hampered by the coastal rias that blocked the wind. After an hour of resistance, with Naiad belatedly approaching, Pillon was forced to surrender his ship to superior British forces. Santa Brigida had lost two men killed and eight wounded, Alcmene one killed and nine wounded and Triton a single man wounded.


== Aftermath ==
As the British force took control of Santa Brigida, a Spanish squadron of four ships sailed from Vigo with the appearance of intending to bring Pierrepont's squadron to battle. Pierrepont immediately issued orders for his ships to meet with the Spanish who promptly turned about and returned to port without coming within range. A shore breeze enabled the British ships and their prize to extricate themselves from the Commarurto rocks without further damage. They then sailed directly for the fleet base at Plymouth, arriving on 22 October to find that Thetis and Ethalion had reached the port the day before. Dispatches were sent to Lord Bridport, commander of the Channel Fleet, which were then forwarded to the Admiralty and revealed the scale of the prize.
Aboard Thetis was found a quantity of trade cocoa and a series of boxes containing coin, including 333 boxes of 3,000 dollars each, four boxes of 2,385 dollars each, 94 boxes containing 4,000 dollars each and two golden doubloons and 90 golden half-doubloons. This totalled 1,385,292 silver dollars, with a sterling value of £311,690. On Santa Brigida were trade cocoa, sugar, indigo and cochineal worth in total about £5,000 as well as 446 boxes containing 3,000 dollars each, 59 bags and three kegs of dollars and numerous loose coins, for  a total value of at least 1,338,000 silver dollars or £301,350. Altogether the sterling value of the cargo was calculated as not less than £618,040 (the equivalent of £76,699,000 in 2025). The captured ships however were written off as worthless, although some additional money was made auctioning off their naval stores. In the aftermath, the sailors of the squadron were noted in the streets of Portsmouth wearing ""bank notes stuck in their hats, buying watches for the fun of frying them, and issuing laws that any of their crew who appeared without a gold-laced hat should be cobbed, so that the unlucky man who appeared in silver could only escape by representing that the costlier articles were all bought up, but he had compelled the shopkeeper to take money for gold lace.""
This vast sum of money was transported through Plymouth on 63 wagons, guarded by armed sailors and Royal Marines and accompanied by musical bands and cheering crowds to the security of the Royal Citadel. It remained in Plymouth until November when it was removed to London with considerable ceremony and placed at the Bank of England. The sums awarded as prize money, distributed in equal proscribed shares among the crews of Ethalion, Naiad, Alcmene and Triton were among the largest ever recorded. Each captain was given £40,730 (of which a third was due to the admiral in command), each lieutenant £5,091, each warrant officer £2,468, each midshipman £791  and each sailor or marine £182. For the regular seamen, this total was 15 times their annual pay of £12. As historian James Henderson noted ""even the humblest seaman could set himself up with a cosy pub"". For the captains, normally paid £150 a year, this was more money than they could make in 270 years. On the only subsequent occasion when a Spanish treasure fleet was successfully intercepted, at the Battle of Cape Santa Maria in October 1804, an even greater haul was captured. On that occasion however the Admiralty used an obscure regulation to seize the bulk of the prize and the captains only received around £15,000 each.  Captain John Gore, commanding first HMS Triton and later HMS Medusa, received a share of the money on both occasions.
Historian Richard Woodman has noted that this action illustrates both the dominance of the Royal Navy and its high standards at this stage in the war, stating that ""The coincidental appearance of four frigates in the vast Atlantic testifies to the enormous resources the British put into the prosecution of the war. That the four frigate captains proceeded to act in such perfect concert is further evidence, if it were needed, of the shared standards of mutual help and assistance"".


== Notes ==


== References ==
Clowes, William Laird (1997) [1900]. The Royal Navy, A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, Volume IV. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-013-2.
Gardiner, Robert, ed. (2001) [1996]. Fleet Battle and Blockade. Caxton Editions. ISBN 978-1-84067-363-0.
Hannay, David (1886). Admiral Blake. New York: D. Appleton and Company. ISBN 978-1-44378-410-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Henderson CBE, James (1994) [1970]. The Frigates. Leo Cooper. ISBN 0-85052-432-6.
James, William (2002) [1827]. The Naval History of Great Britain, Volume 2, 1797–1799. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-906-9.
Woodman, Richard (2001). The Sea Warriors. Constable Publishers. ISBN 1-84119-183-3.",1.1109483242034912
Heavy metals,"Heavy metals is a controversial and ambiguous term for metallic elements with relatively high densities, atomic weights, or atomic numbers. The criteria used, and whether metalloids are included, vary depending on the author and context and it has been argued that the term ""heavy metal"" should be avoided. A heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density, atomic number or chemical behaviour. More specific definitions have been published, none of which have been widely accepted. The definitions surveyed in this article encompass up to 96 out of the 118 known chemical elements; only mercury, lead and bismuth meet all of them. Despite this lack of agreement, the term (plural or singular) is widely used in science. A density of more than 5 g/cm3 is sometimes quoted as a commonly used criterion and is used in the body of this article.
The earliest-known metals—common metals such as iron, copper, and tin, and precious metals such as silver, gold, and platinum—are heavy metals. From 1809 onward, light metals, such as magnesium, aluminium, and titanium, were discovered, as well as less well-known heavy metals including gallium, thallium, and hafnium.
Some heavy metals are either essential nutrients (typically iron, cobalt, copper and zinc), or relatively harmless (such as ruthenium, silver and indium), but can be toxic in larger amounts or certain forms. Other heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead, are highly poisonous. Potential sources of heavy metal poisoning include mining, tailings, smelting, industrial waste, agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints and treated timber.
Physical and chemical characterisations of heavy metals need to be treated with caution, as the metals involved are not always consistently defined. As well as being relatively dense, heavy metals tend to be less reactive than lighter metals and have far fewer soluble sulfides and hydroxides. While it is relatively easy to distinguish a heavy metal such as tungsten from a lighter metal such as sodium, a few heavy metals, such as zinc, mercury, and lead, have some of the characteristics of lighter metals; and lighter metals such as beryllium, scandium, and titanium, have some of the characteristics of heavier metals.
Heavy metals are relatively rare in the Earth's crust but are present in many aspects of modern life. They are used in, for example, golf clubs, cars, antiseptics, self-cleaning ovens, plastics, solar panels, mobile phones, and particle accelerators.


== Definitions ==


=== Controversial terminology ===
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which standardizes nomenclature, says ""the  term heavy  metals is both meaningless and misleading"". The IUPAC report focuses on the legal and toxicological implications of describing ""heavy metals"" as toxins when there is no scientific evidence to support a connection. The density implied by the adjective ""heavy""  has almost no biological consequences and pure metals are rarely the biologically active substance.
This characterization has been echoed by numerous reviews. The most widely used toxicology textbook, Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology uses ""toxic metal"", not ""heavy metal"". Nevertheless, there are scientific and science related articles which continue to use ""heavy metal"" as a term for toxic substances. To be an acceptable term in scientific papers, a strict definition has been encouraged.


=== Use outside toxicology ===
Even in applications other than toxicity, there no widely agreed criterion-based definition of a heavy metal. Reviews have recommended that it not be used. Different meanings may be attached to the term, depending on the context. For example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density, the distinguishing criterion might be atomic number or chemical behaviour.
Density criteria range from above 3.5 g/cm3 to above 7 g/cm3. Atomic weight definitions can range from greater than sodium (atomic weight 22.98); greater than 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals, hence starting with scandium); or more than 200, i.e. from mercury onwards. Atomic numbers are sometimes capped at 92 (uranium). Definitions based on atomic number have been criticised for including metals with low densities. For example, rubidium in group (column) 1 of the periodic table has an atomic number of 37 but a density of only 1.532 g/cm3, which is below the threshold figure used by other authors. The same problem may occur with definitions which are based on atomic weight.

The United States Pharmacopeia includes a test for heavy metals that involves precipitating metallic impurities as their coloured sulfides.  On the basis of this type of chemical test, the group would include the transition metals and post-transition metals.
A different chemistry-based approach advocates replacing the term ""heavy metal"" with two groups of metals and a gray area. Class A metal ions prefer oxygen donors; class B ions prefer nitrogen or sulfur donors; and borderline or ambivalent ions show either class A or B characteristics, depending on the circumstances. The distinction between the class A metals and the other two categories is sharp. The class A and class B terminology is analogous to the ""hard acid"" and ""soft base"" terminology sometimes used to refer to the behaviour of metal ions in inorganic systems. The system groups the elements by 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            m
          
          
            2
          
        
        r
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{m}^{2}r}
  
 where 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{m}}
  
 is the metal ion  electronegativity and 
  
    
      
        r
      
    
    {\displaystyle r}
  
 is its ionic radius. This index gauges the importance of covalent interactions vs ionic  interactions for a given metal ion. This scheme has been applied to analyze biologically active metals in sea water for example, but it has not been widely adopted.


== Origins and use of the term ==
The heaviness of naturally occurring metals such as gold, copper, and iron may have been noticed in prehistory and, in light of their malleability, led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons.
In 1817, the German chemist Leopold Gmelin divided the elements into nonmetals, light metals, and heavy metals. Light metals had densities of 0.860–5.0 g/cm3; heavy metals 5.308–22.000. The term heavy metal is sometimes used interchangeably with the term heavy element. For example, in discussing the history of nuclear chemistry, Magee notes that the actinides were once thought to represent a new heavy element transition group whereas Seaborg and co-workers ""favoured ... a heavy metal rare-earth like series ..."".
The counterparts to the heavy metals, the light metals, are defined by The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society as including ""the traditional (aluminium, magnesium, beryllium, titanium, lithium, and other reactive metals) and emerging light metals (composites, laminates, etc.)""


== Biological role ==

Trace amounts of some heavy metals, mostly in period 4, are required for certain biological processes. These are iron and copper (oxygen and electron transport); cobalt (complex syntheses and cell metabolism); vanadium and manganese (enzyme regulation or functioning); chromium (glucose utilisation); nickel (cell growth); arsenic (metabolic growth in some animals and possibly in humans) and selenium (antioxidant functioning and hormone production). Periods 5 and 6 contain fewer essential heavy metals, consistent with the general pattern that heavier elements tend to be less abundant and that scarcer elements are less likely to be nutritionally essential. In period 5, molybdenum is required for the catalysis of redox reactions; cadmium is used by some marine diatoms for the same purpose; and tin may be required for growth in a few species. In period 6, tungsten is required by some archaea and bacteria for metabolic processes. A deficiency of any of these period 4–6 essential heavy metals may increase susceptibility to heavy metal poisoning (conversely, an excess may also have adverse biological effects). 
An average 70 kg (150 lb) human body is about 0.01% heavy metals (~7 g (0.25 oz), equivalent to the weight of two dried peas, with iron at 4 g (0.14 oz), zinc at 2.5 g (0.088 oz), and lead at 0.12 g (0.0042 oz) comprising the three main constituents), 2% light metals (~1.4 kg (3.1 lb), the weight of a bottle of wine) and nearly 98% nonmetals (mostly water).
A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium, germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants (though it is not always considered a heavy metal).


== Toxicity ==

Heavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment and while some are, certain others are toxic only when taken in excess or encountered in certain forms. Inhalation of certain metals, either as fine dust or most commonly as fumes, can also result in a condition called metal fume fever.


=== Environmental heavy metals ===
Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have the greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment. Hexavalent chromium, for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds. These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling the speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally. Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant. Levels in the aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels. As a component of tetraethyl lead, (CH3CH2)4Pb, it was used extensively in gasoline from the 1930s until the 1970s. Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations. Later research demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve virtually tracked the lead exposure curve.
Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and nickel (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and silver (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and thallium (central nervous system damage).


=== Other heavy metals ===
A few other non-essential heavy metals have one or more toxic forms. Kidney failure and fatalities have been recorded arising from the ingestion of germanium dietary supplements (~15 to 300 g in total consumed over a period of two months to three years). Exposure to osmium tetroxide (OsO4) may cause permanent eye damage and can lead to respiratory failure and death. Indium salts are toxic if more than few milligrams are ingested and will affect the kidneys, liver, and heart. Cisplatin (PtCl2(NH3)2), an important drug used to kill cancer cells, is also a kidney and nerve poison. Bismuth compounds can cause liver damage if taken in excess; insoluble uranium compounds, as well as the dangerous radiation they emit, can cause permanent kidney damage.


=== Exposure sources ===

Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities. Common sources of heavy metals in this context include vehicle emissions; motor oil; fertilisers; glassworking; incinerators; treated timber; aging water supply infrastructure; and microplastics floating in the world's oceans. Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016); the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil, high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States and 2015 Hong Kong heavy metal in drinking water incidents.


== Formation, abundance, occurrence, and extraction ==

Heavy metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.
Heavier heavy metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy. Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process. In the s-process (""s"" stands for ""slow""), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay, while in the r-process (""rapid""), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30,000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on. In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium.
Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star merger, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse, new stars and planets are formed.
The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust. Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes.
Heavy metals are found primarily as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile heavy metals are mainly f-block elements and the more reactive of the d-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low density silicate minerals. Chalcophile heavy metals are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and period 4–6 p-block metals and metalloids. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.
In contrast, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal. Some other (less) noble heavy metals—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).
Concentrations of heavy metals below the crust are generally higher, with most being found in the largely iron-silicon-nickel core. Platinum, for example, comprises approximately 1 part per billion of the crust whereas its concentration in the core is thought to be nearly 6,000 times higher. Recent speculation suggests that uranium (and thorium) in the core may generate a substantial amount of the heat that drives plate tectonics and (ultimately) sustains the Earth's magnetic field.
Broadly speaking, and with some exceptions, lithophile heavy metals can be extracted from their ores by electrical or chemical treatments, while chalcophile heavy metals are obtained by roasting their sulphide ores to yield the corresponding oxides, and then heating these to obtain the raw metals. Radium occurs in quantities too small to be economically mined and is instead obtained from spent nuclear fuels. The chalcophile platinum group metals (PGM) mainly occur in small (mixed) quantities with other chalcophile ores. The ores involved need to be smelted, roasted, and then leached with sulfuric acid to produce a residue of PGM. This is chemically refined to obtain the individual metals in their pure forms. Compared to other metals, PGM are expensive due to their scarcity and high production costs.
Gold, a siderophile, is most commonly recovered by dissolving the ores in which it is found in a cyanide solution. The gold forms a dicyanoaurate(I), for example: 2 Au + H2O +½ O2 + 4 KCN → 2 K[Au(CN)2] + 2 KOH. Zinc is added to the mix and, being more reactive than gold, displaces the gold: 2 K[Au(CN)2] + Zn → K2[Zn(CN)4] + 2 Au. The gold precipitates out of solution as a sludge, and is filtered off and melted.


== Uses ==
Some common uses of heavy metals depend on the general characteristics of metals such as electrical conductivity and reflectivity or the general characteristics of heavy metals such as density, strength, and durability. Other uses depend on the characteristics of the specific element, such as their biological role as nutrients or poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Examples of such atomic properties include: partly filled d- or f- orbitals (in many of the transition, lanthanide, and actinide heavy metals) that enable the formation of coloured compounds; the capacity of heavy metal ions (such as platinum, cerium or bismuth) to exist in different oxidation states and are used in catalysts; strong exchange interactions in 3d or 4f orbitals (in iron, cobalt, and nickel, or the lanthanide heavy metals) that give rise to magnetic effects; and high atomic numbers and electron densities that underpin their nuclear science applications. Typical uses of heavy metals can be broadly grouped into the following categories.


=== Weight- or density-based ===

Some uses of heavy metals, including in sport, mechanical engineering, military ordnance, and nuclear science, take advantage of their relatively high densities. In underwater diving, lead is used as a ballast; in handicap horse racing each horse must carry a specified lead weight, based on factors including past performance, so as to equalize the chances of the various competitors. In golf, tungsten, brass, or copper inserts in fairway clubs and irons lower the centre of gravity of the club making it easier to get the ball into the air; and golf balls with tungsten cores are claimed to have better flight characteristics. In fly fishing, sinking fly lines have a PVC coating embedded with tungsten powder, so that they sink at the required rate. In track and field sport, steel balls used in the hammer throw and shot put events are filled with lead in order to attain the minimum weight required under international rules. Tungsten was used in hammer throw balls at least up to 1980; the minimum size of the ball was increased in 1981 to eliminate the need for what was, at that time, an expensive metal (triple the cost of other hammers) not generally available in all countries. Tungsten hammers were so dense that they penetrated too deeply into the turf.

Heavy metals are used for ballast in boats, aeroplanes, and motor vehicles; or in balance weights on wheels and crankshafts, gyroscopes, and propellers, and centrifugal clutches, in situations requiring maximum weight in minimum space (for example in watch movements).
In military ordnance, tungsten or uranium is used in armour plating and armour piercing projectiles, as well as in nuclear weapons to increase efficiency (by reflecting neutrons and momentarily delaying the expansion of reacting materials). In the 1970s, tantalum was found to be more effective than copper in shaped charge and explosively formed anti-armour weapons on account of its higher density, allowing greater force concentration, and better deformability. Less-toxic heavy metals, such as copper, tin, tungsten, and bismuth, and probably manganese (as well as boron, a metalloid), have replaced lead and antimony in the green bullets used by some armies and in some recreational shooting munitions. Doubts have been raised about the safety (or green credentials) of tungsten.


=== Biological and chemical ===
The biocidal effects of some heavy metals have been known since antiquity. Platinum, osmium, copper, ruthenium, and other heavy metals, including arsenic, are used in anti-cancer treatments, or have shown potential. Antimony (anti-protozoal), bismuth (anti-ulcer), gold (anti-arthritic), and iron (anti-malarial) are also important in medicine. Copper, zinc, silver, gold, or mercury are used in antiseptic formulations; small amounts of some heavy metals are used to control algal growth in, for example, cooling towers. Depending on their intended use as fertilisers or biocides, agrochemicals may contain heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, or lead.
Selected heavy metals are used as catalysts in fuel processing (rhenium, for example), synthetic rubber and fibre production (bismuth), emission control devices (palladium and platinum), and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in the walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon-based cooking residues). In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases, paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps).


=== Colouring and optics ===

The colours of glass, ceramic glazes, paints, pigments, and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium. Tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper. The high reflectivity of some heavy metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. Headlight reflectors rely on the excellent reflectivity of a thin film of rhodium.


=== Electronics, magnets, and lighting ===
Heavy metals or their compounds can be found in electronic components, electrodes, and wiring and solar panels. Molybdenum powder is used in circuit board inks. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. Silver and gold are used in electrical and electronic devices, particularly in contact switches, as a result of their high electrical conductivity and capacity to resist or minimise the formation of impurities on their surfaces. Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800.
Magnets are often made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium. Neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of, for example, car door locks, starter motors, fuel pumps, and power windows.
Heavy metals are used in lighting, lasers, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Fluorescent lighting relies on mercury vapour for its operation. Ruby lasers generate deep red beams by exciting chromium atoms in aluminum oxide; the lanthanides are also extensively employed in lasers. Copper, iridium, and platinum are used in organic LEDs.


=== Nuclear ===

Because denser materials absorb more of certain types of radioactive emissions such as gamma rays than lighter ones, heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications.
Niche uses of heavy metals with high atomic numbers occur in diagnostic imaging, electron microscopy, and nuclear science. In diagnostic imaging, heavy metals such as cobalt or tungsten make up the anode materials found in x-ray tubes. In electron microscopy, heavy metals such as lead, gold, palladium, platinum, or uranium have been used in the past to make conductive coatings and to introduce electron density into biological specimens by staining, negative staining, or vacuum deposition. In nuclear science, nuclei of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, or zinc are sometimes fired at other heavy metal targets to produce superheavy elements; heavy metals are also employed as spallation targets for the production of neutrons or isotopes of non-primordial elements such as astatine (using lead, bismuth, thorium, or uranium in the latter case).


== Notes ==


== References ==


=== Sources ===


== Further reading ==
Definition and usage

Ali H. & Khan E. 2017, ""What are heavy metals? Long-standing controversy over the scientific use of the term 'heavy metals'—proposal of a comprehensive definition"", Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, pp. 1–25, doi:10.1080/02772248.2017.1413652. Suggests defining heavy metals as ""naturally occurring metals having atomic number (Z) greater than 20 and an elemental density greater than 5 g cm−3"".
Duffus J. H. 2002, ""'Heavy metals'—A meaningless term?"", Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 793–807, doi:10.1351/pac200274050793. Includes a survey of the term's various meanings.
Hawkes S. J. 1997, ""What is a 'heavy metal'?"", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 74, no. 11, p. 1374, doi:10.1021/ed074p1374. A chemist's perspective.
Hübner R., Astin K. B. & Herbert R. J. H. 2010, ""'Heavy metal'—time to move on from semantics to pragmatics?"", Journal of Environmental Monitoring, vol. 12, pp. 1511–1514, doi:10.1039/C0EM00056F. Finds that, despite its lack of specificity, the term appears to have become part of the language of science.
Toxicity and biological role

Baird C. & Cann M. 2012, Environmental Chemistry, 5th ed., chapter 12, ""Toxic heavy metals"", W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, ISBN 1-4292-7704-1. Discusses the use, toxicity, and distribution of Hg, Pb, Cd, As, and Cr.
Nieboer E. & Richardson D. H. S. 1980, ""The replacement of the nondescript term 'heavy metals' by a biologically and chemically significant classification of metal ions"", Environmental Pollution Series B, Chemical and Physical, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3–26, doi:10.1016/0143-148X(80)90017-8. A widely cited paper, focusing on the biological role of heavy metals.
Association between Heavy Metal Exposure and Parkinson’s Disease: A Review of the Mechanisms Related to Oxidative Stress.
Formation

Hadhazy A. 2016, ""Galactic 'gold mine' explains the origin of nature's heaviest elements Archived 2016-05-24 at the Wayback Machine"", Science Spotlights, 10 May, accessed 11 July 2016
Uses

Koehler C. S. W. 2001, ""Heavy metal medicine"", Chemistry Chronicles, American Chemical Society, accessed 11 July 2016
Morowitz N. 2006, ""The heavy metals"", Modern Marvels, season 12, episode 14, HistoryChannel.com
Öhrström L. 2014, ""Tantalum oxide"", Chemistry World, 24 September, accessed 4 October 2016. The author explains how tantalum(V) oxide banished brick-sized mobile phones. Also available as a podcast.


== External links ==
 Media related to Heavy metals at Wikimedia Commons",1.2163106203079224
History of South Tyrol,"Modern-day South Tyrol, an autonomous Italian province created in 1948, was part of the Austro-Hungarian County of Tyrol until 1918 (then known as Deutschsüdtirol and occasionally Mitteltirol). It was annexed by Italy following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I. It has been part of a cross-border joint entity, the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino, since 2001.


== Before the 19th century ==


=== Antiquity ===
In 15 BC the region, inhabited by the Alpine population of the Raeti, was conquered by the Roman commanders Drusus and Tiberius, and its northern and eastern parts were incorporated into the provinces of Raetia and Noricum respectively, while the southern part including the lower Adige and Eisack valleys around the modern-day city of Bolzano up to present-day Merano and Waidbruck (Sublavio) became part of Roman Italy (Italia), Regio X Venetia et Histria. The mountainous area then mainly was a transit country along Roman roads crossing the Eastern Alps like the Via Claudia Augusta, settled by Romanised Illyrian and Raeti tribes which had adopted the Vulgar Latin (Ladin) language.


=== Middle Ages ===
After the conquest of Italy by the Goths in 493, Tyrol became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy in the 5th and the 6th centuries. Already in 534 the western Vinschgau region fell to the Kingdom of the Franks (Alamannia), while after the final collapse of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in 553 West Germanic Bavarians entered the region from the north. When the Lombards invaded Italy in 568 and founded the Kingdom of Italy, it also included the Duchy of Tridentum with the southernmost part of Tyrol. The border with the German stem duchy of Bavaria ran southwest of present-day Bolzano along the Adige River, with Salorno and the right bank (including Eppan, Kaltern and the area up to Lana on the Falschauer River) belonging to the Lombard kingdom. While the boundary remained unchanged for centuries, Bavarian settlers further migrated southwards down to Salorno (Salurn). The population was Christianised by the Bishops of Brixen and Trento.

In 1027 Emperor Conrad II established the Prince-bishopric of Trent in order to secure the route up to the Brenner Pass. He ceded the counties of Trento, Bolzano and Vinschgau to the Trent bishops and finally separated the territory on the east bank of the Adige River down to Mezzocorona (Deutschmetz) from the Imperial Kingdom of Italy. The Gau of Norital, including the Wipptal, the Eisacktal and the Val Badia, was granted to the newly established Prince-Bishopric of Brixen, followed in 1091 by the Puster Valley. Over the centuries, the episcopal reeves (Vögte) residing at Tirol Castle near Merano extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops who were nominally their feudal lords. The later Counts of Tyrol reached independence from the Duchy of Bavaria during the deposition of Duke Henry the Lion in 1180. Also in this period, from the late twelfth to the thirteenth centuries, have been established along the Brenner axis almost all of up-today's existing urban settlements, which can be categorized as marked-formed, not very densely populated small-towns, such as Bolzano, Merano, Sterzing or Bruneck.


=== Modern Age ===
From the 13th century they held much of their territory immediate from the Holy Roman Emperor and were elevated to Princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1504.
Following defeat by Napoleon in 1805, the Austrian Empire was forced to cede the northern part of Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bavaria in the Peace of Pressburg. It became a member of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. Tyrol remained split between Bavaria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy until it was returned to Austria by the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Integrated into the Austrian Empire, from 1867 it was a Kronland (Crown Land) of Cisleithania, the western half of Austria-Hungary.


== Age of nationalism ==

After the Napoleonic Era, nationalism emerged as the dominant ideology in Europe. In Italy several intellectuals and groups began to push the idea of a unified nation-state (see Risorgimento). At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was largely waged against the Austrian Empire, which was the hegemonic power in Italy and the single most powerful adversary to unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed the growing nationalist sentiment among Italian elites, most of all during 1848 revolution and the following years. Italy finally attained independence in 1861, annexed Venetia in 1866, and Latium, including Rome, in 1870.
However, for many nationalist intellectuals and political leaders, the process of unification of the Italian peninsula under a single national state was not complete. This was because several areas inhabited by Italian-speaking communities remained under what was seen as foreign rule. This situation gave rise to the idea that parts of Italy were still unredeemed, hence Italian irredentism became an important ideological component of the political life of the Kingdom of Italy: see Italia irredenta.
In 1882 Italy signed a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany (see Triple Alliance). However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about the alignment with Austria-Hungary, still perceiving it as the historical enemy of Italy. In the years before World War I, many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would change sides.
Italy declared its neutrality at the beginning of World War I, because the Triple Alliance was a defensive one, requiring its members to come under attack to come into effect. Many Italians were still hostile to Austrian historical and continuing occupation of ethnically Italian areas. Austria-Hungary requested Italian neutrality, while the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France and Russia) demanded its intervention. Many people in Italy wanted the country to join the conflict on the side of the Triple Entente, with the aim of gaining the ""unredeemed"" territories.
Under the secret Treaty of London, signed in April 1915, Italy agreed to declare war against the Central Powers in exchange for (among other things) territorial gains in the Austrian crown lands of Tyrol, Küstenland and Dalmatia, homeland of large Italian minorities. War against the Austro-Hungarian Empire was declared on May 24, 1915.
In October 1917, the Italian army was defeated in the Battle of Caporetto, and was forced back to a defensive line along the Piave river. In June 1918, an Austro-Hungarian offensive against the Piave line was repulsed (see Battle of the Piave River). On October 24, 1918, Italy launched its final offensive against the Austro-Hungarian Army, which consequently collapsed (see Battle of Vittorio Veneto). The armistice of Villa Giusti was signed on November 3. It came into force at 3.00 pm on November 4. In the following days the Italian Army completed the occupation of all Tirol (including Innsbruck), according to the armistice terms.


== Annexation by Italy ==

Under the secret Treaty of London (1915), Italy ""shall obtain the Trentino, Cisalpine Tyrol with its geographical and natural frontier (the Brenner frontier)"" and after the ceasefire of Villa Giusti (November 3, 1918) Italian troops occupied uncontested the territory and as stipulated in the ceasefire agreement marched into North Tyrol and occupied Innsbruck and the Inn valley.
During the negotiations between Austria and the victorious Entente powers in Saint-Germain a petition for help, signed by all the mayors of South Tyrol, was presented to US President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson had announced his Fourteen Points to a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1918, and the mayors reminded him of point 9:

""A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.""
But when the Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed on September 10, 1919, Italy was given by Article 27, section 2 the ethnic German territories south of the Alpine watershed.
It has been claimed that Wilson later complained about the annexation:

""Already the president had, unfortunately, promised the Brenner Pass boundary to Orlando, which gave to Italy some 150,000 Tyrolese Germans-an action which he subsequently regarded as a big mistake and deeply regretted. It had been before he had made a careful study of the subject....""
As Italy had not yet adopted the toponymy created by Ettore Tolomei, all the names of locations in the treaty, except the Adige river, were in German (the same monolingual German approach to local names as in the Treaty of London).

At first, the territory was governed by a military regime under General Guglielmo Pecori-Giraldi, directly subordinated to the Comando Supremo. One of the first orders was to seal the border between South Tyrol and Austria. People were not allowed to cross, and the postal service and the flow of goods were interrupted; censorship was introduced and officials not born in the area were dismissed. On November 11, 1919, General Pecori-Giraldi proclaimed in the name of King Victor Emmanuel III in Italian and German: ""... Italy is willing, as sole united nation with full freedom of thought and expression, to allow nationals of other language the preservation of their own schools, private institutions and associations."" On December 1, 1919 the King promised in a speech: ""a careful maintenance of local institutions and self-administration""
Italy formally annexed the territories on October 10, 1920. The administration passed from the military to the new Governatorato della Venezia Tridentina (Governorate of Venezia Tridentina) under Luigi Credaro. The term Venezia Tridentina had been proposed in 1863 by the Jewish linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli from Gorizia, who sought to include all of the territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire claimed by Italy into a wider region called Venezia (the Julian March was accordingly named Venezia Giulia). The Governatorato included the present-day region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the three Ladin communes of Cortina, Colle Santa Lucia and Livinallongo, today in the Province of Belluno. The northern part of Tyrol, comprising North Tyrol and East Tyrol, became what is today one of the nine federal states of Austria.
On January 21, 1921, the Governatorato, while retaining military and police control, ceded administrative control to the new provincial council of the Provincia di Venezia Tridentina in Trento. On May 15, 1921, the people of the area participated for the first (and until April 18, 1948, the only) free and democratic elections (the people of Venezia Tridentina and Venezia Giulia did not participate in the general election of June 2, 1946). The result was a resounding victory for the Deutscher Verband (German Association), which won close to 90% of the votes and thus sent four deputies to Rome.


== Rise of fascism ==
Up to this time, the German-speaking population had not been subjected to violence and nor had the Italian authorities interfered with its cultural activities, traditions and schooling. This was about to change with the rise of fascism. The first hint of what was to come was experienced by the German population on Sunday April 24, 1921. The population of Bolzano-Bozen had organized a Trachtenumzug (a procession in traditional local costume) to celebrate the opening of the spring trade fair. The General Civil Commissioner of the province, Luigi Credaro, had been warned in advance by his colleagues from Mantua, Brescia, Verona and Vicenza of the intention of the fascists there to go to Bolzano-Bozen to disrupt the procession, but did not take any precautions. After arriving by train in Bolzano-Bozen the approximately 280 out-of-province fascists were joined by about 120 from Bolzano-Bozen, and proceeded to attack the procession with clubs, pistols and hand grenades. The teacher Franz Innerhofer from Marling was shot dead and around 50 people injured in the attack. After the attack the military intervened and escorted the fascists back to the station. Although Credaro, under orders from the Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, had two suspects in Innerhofer's murder arrested, nobody was brought to justice for the attack, as Benito Mussolini had threatened to come to Bolzano-Bozen with 2,000 fascists to free the two suspects by force if they were not set free immediately. Mussolini made clear his policies regarding the people of South Tyrol:

""If the Germans on both sides of the Brenner don't toe the line, then the fascists will teach them a thing or two about obedience. Alto Adige is Italian and bilingual, and no one would even dream of trying forcibly to Italianize these German immigrants. But neither may Germans imagine that they might push Italy back to Salorno and from there to the Lago di Garda. Perhaps the Germans believe that all Italians are like Credaro. If they do, they’re sorely mistaken. In Italy, there are hundreds of thousands of Fascists who would rather lay waste to Alto Adige than to permit the tricolore that flies above the Vetta d’Italia to be lowered. If the Germans have to be beaten and stomped to bring them to reason, then so be it, we’re ready. A lot of Italians have been trained in this business.""


=== Italianization ===

In October 1922, the new Fascist government rescinded all the special dispensations that protected linguistic minorities.
The Italianization program had been started, and the Fascist regime charged Achille Starace and Ettore Tolomei (a nationalist from Rovereto) to drive it.
Tolomei's ""program in 23 points"" was adopted. Among other things it decreed:

exclusive use of Italian in the public offices;
closure of the majority of the German schools;
incentives for immigrants from other Italian regions.
The first forms of opposition to the regime appeared in 1925: a priest, Michael Gamper, opened the first ""Katakombenschulen"", clandestine schools where teachers taught in German.
In 1926 the ancient institution of communal autonomy was abolished. Throughout Italy the ""podestà"", appointed by the government, replaced the mayors and had to report to the ""prefetti"".
A large industrial zone in Bolzano opened in 1935. It was followed by the immigration of many workers and their families from other parts of Italy (mainly from Veneto).
In this period of oppression, National Socialist propaganda became more and more successful among young South Tyroleans, leading in 1934 to the formation of the illegal local Nazi organization of the Völkischer Kampfring Südtirols (VKS).


=== German-Italian option agreement ===

Adolf Hitler never claimed any part of the Southern Tyrol for his Third Reich, even before the alliance with Benito Mussolini; in fact in Mein Kampf (1924) he claimed that Germans were just a small and irrelevant minority in Southern Tyrol (this definition including also Trentino) and he acknowledged the German portion of Southern Tyrol as a permanent possession of Italy. Hitler writes in Book II of Mein Kampf, ""But I do not hesitate to declare that, now the dice have fallen, I not only regard a reconquest of the South Tyrol by war as impossible, but that I personally would reject it in the conviction that for this question the flame of national enthusiasm of the whole German people could not be achieved to a degree which would offer the premise for victory.""
In 1939, both dictators in order to solve any further dispute agreed to give the German-speaking population a choice in the South Tyrol Option Agreement: they could emigrate to neighbouring Germany (including annexed Austria) or stay in Italy and accept complete Italianisation.
The South Tyrolean population was deeply divided. Those who wanted to stay (Dableiber) were condemned as traitors; those who left (Optanten), the majority, were defamed as Nazis. There was a plan to relocate the Optanten in Crimea (annexed to Greater Germany), but most were resettled in German-annexed Western Poland, where they were expelled or killed after the war. Because of the outbreak of World War II, this agreement was only partially carried out.
In 1939 Mussolini decided to build an Alpine Wall, a military fortification to defend Italy's northern land border.


== Annexation by Nazi Germany ==
In 1943, Mussolini was deposed and Italy surrendered to the Allies, who had invaded southern Italy via Sicily. German troops promptly invaded and occupied northern Italy to help Mussolini's side against the Allies and new Italy, and South Tyrol became part of the Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills, along with Operation Zone of the Adriatic Littoral de facto annexed to Greater Germany. Many German-speaking South Tyroleans, after years of linguistic oppression and discrimination by Fascist Italy, wanted revenge upon ethnic Italians living in the area (particularly in the larger cities) but were mostly prevented from doing so by the occupying Nazis, who still considered Mussolini head of the Italian Social Republic and wanted to preserve good relations with the Italian Fascists, still supporting Mussolini against the Allies. Although the Nazis were able to recruit South Tyrolean youth and to capture local Jews, they prevented anti-Italian feelings from getting out of hand. Mussolini, who wanted to set up his new pro-German Italian Social Republic in Bolzano, was still a Nazi ally.
The region largely escaped fighting, and its mountainous remoteness proved useful to the Nazis as a refuge for items looted from across Europe. When the US 88th Infantry Division occupied South Tyrol from May 2 to May 8, 1945, and after the total unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, it found vast amounts of precious items and looted art treasures. Among the items reportedly found were railway wagons filled with gold bars, hundreds of thousands of metres of silk, the Italian crown jewels, King Victor Emmanuel's personal collection of rare coins, and scores of works of art looted from art galleries such as the Uffizi in Florence. It was feared that the Germans might use the region, along with other Nazi-owned territories to make a last-ditch stronghold in the Alps to fight to the bitter end, and from there direct Werwolf activities in Allied-controlled territories, but this did not occur due to the suicide of Hitler, the disintegration and chaos of the Nazi apparatus and the rapid Nazi German surrender thereafter.


== After World War II ==


=== First Austrian-Italian agreement ===

In 1945 the South Tyrolean People's Party (Südtiroler Volkspartei) was founded, mainly by Dableiber, who had elected to stay in Italy after the agreement between Hitler and Mussolini.
As the Allies had decided that the province should remain a part of Italy, Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement in 1946, recognizing the rights of the German minority. This led to the creation of the Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland region, a new name for ""Venezia Tridentina"". German and Italian were both made official languages, and German-language education was permitted. But as the Italians were the majority in the region, self-government of the German minority was impossible.
Together with the arrival of new Italian-speaking migrants, this led to strong dissatisfaction among South Tyroleans, which culminated in terrorist acts perpetrated by the Befreiungsausschuss Südtirol (BAS–Committee for the liberation of South Tyrol). In a first phase only public buildings and fascist monuments were targeted. One of the most notable attacks was the Night of Fire, when the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee destroyed a number of electricity pylons. The second phase was bloodier, costing 21 lives (among them four activists and 15 Italian policemen and soldiers), four of them during a BAS ambush at Cima Vallona, province of Belluno, on 25 June 1967.
The South Tyrolean question (Südtirolfrage) became an international issue. As the implementation of the post-war agreement was not seen as satisfactory by the Austrian government, the matter became the cause of significant friction with Italy and was taken up by the United Nations in 1960. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but this proved unsuccessful.


=== The second agreement ===
Eventually, international (especially Austrian) public opinion and domestic considerations led the Italian government to consider a ""Second statutory order"" and to negotiate a package of reforms that produced the ""Autonomy Statute"", which virtually delinked the mostly German-speaking province of South Tyrol from the Trentino. The new agreement was signed in 1969 by Kurt Waldheim for Austria and by Aldo Moro for Italy. It stipulated that disputes in South Tyrol would be submitted for settlement to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, that the province would receive greater autonomy within Italy, and that Austria would not interfere in South Tyrol internal affairs. The agreement proved broadly satisfactory and the separatist tensions soon eased.
The new autonomous status, granted from 1972 onwards, has resulted in a considerable level of self-government, also due to the large financial resources of the province of Bolzano/Bozen, retaining almost 90% of all levied taxes.
It took a further 20 years for the reforms to be fully implemented, the last in 1992. After a debate in Parliament, Vienna declared the dispute closed. On June 18, 1992 the release was signed by Italy and Austria in New York, in front of the United Nations building.
Today, South Tyrol is peaceful and the wealthiest Italian province, enjoying a high degree of autonomy. It has strong relations with the Austrian state of Tyrol, especially since Austria's 1995 entry into the European Union, which has led to a common currency and a de facto disappearance of the borders.
The whole historic region of Tyrol, comprising the Austrian state of Tyrol and the Italian Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, forms a Euroregion, a region of intensified cross-border cooperation within the EU, called ""Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino"", and a joint Tyrolean parliament has been established, albeit with limited powers.


== Linguistic and demographic history ==
At the time of its annexation, South Tyrol was inhabited by a large German-speaking majority. According to the census of 1910, which listed four groups according to their spoken language, the area was inhabited by approximately 89% German speakers, 3.8% Ladin, 2.9% Italian, and 4.3% speakers of other languages of the Austrian Empire, altogether 251,000 people. According to some sources, the census did not include some 9000 immigrants from Italy. However, from the official provincial statistics of the ""Autonomous Province of South Tyrol"" it appears that Italian citizens were indeed registered in the census, although not necessarily as Italian speakers.
In the following, the population is listed by language group, according to the censuses undertaken from 1880 to 2001. In absolute numbers:

In percentages:


== Secessionist movement ==

Given the region's historical and cultural association with neighboring Austria, calls for the secession of South Tyrol and its reunification with Austria are notable in the local and national political climate. Polls conducted in 2013 noted that 46% of South Tyrol's population would favor secession from Italy. Among the political parties that support South Tyrol's reunification into Austria are South Tyrolean Freedom, Die Freiheitlichen and Citizens' Union for South Tyrol.


== See also ==
Timeline of Bolzano


== Notes and references ==


== Bibliography ==
Paula Sutter Fichtner (2009). ""South Tyrol"". Historical Dictionary of Austria. USA: Scarecrow Press. pp. 282+. ISBN 978-0-8108-6310-1.
Georg Grote, Hannes Obermair (2017). A Land on the Threshold. South Tyrolean Transformations, 1915–2015. Oxford, Bern, New York: Peter Lang. pp. 417+. ISBN 978-3-0343-2240-9.
Giovanni Bernardini, Günther Pallaver (2017). Dialogue against Violence. The Question of Trentino-South Tyrol in the International Context. Bologna, Berlin: Il Mulino - Duncker & Humblot. pp. 256+. ISBN 978-88-15-27340-6.


== External links ==
 Media related to History of South Tyrol at Wikimedia Commons

""South Tyrol/Südtirol—History of Tyrol & the Dolomites"". South Tyrol Information. 2009. Archived from the original on 2012-08-15. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
Anthony Alcock, The South Tyrol Autonomy. County Londonderry/Bozen-Bolzano, May 2001. Retrieved on 2009-03-16.",1.1465378999710083
Tsugaru clan,"The Tsugaru clan (Japanese: 津軽氏, Hepburn: Tsugaru-shi) was a Japanese samurai clan who ruled the northwestern half of what is now Aomori Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of Japan under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The Tsugaru were daimyō of Hirosaki Domain and its semi-subsidiary, Kuroishi Domain. The Tsugaru were in constant conflict with their former overlords, the Nanbu clan of adjoining Morioka Domain. During the Boshin War of 1868-69, the Tsugaru clan fought mostly on the pro-imperial side, although it did briefly join the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei. In the Meiji period, the official status of the daimyō was abolished.  The former daimyō, including the Tsugaru, became part of the kazoku peerage instead, with Tsugaru Tsuguakira receiving the title of hakushaku (Count).


== Origins ==
Much about the ancestry of the Tsugaru clan is uncertain. Ōura Tamenobu was born in 1550, as the adopted son and heir of Ōura Tamenori, a retainer of the Nanbu clan, based at Sannohe Castle. He succeeded his father in 1567 or 1568 as castellan of Ōura Castle, located in what is now part of the city of Hirosaki.  According to later Tsugaru clan records, the clan was descendant from the noble Fujiwara clan and had an ancient claim to ownership of the Tsugaru region of northwestern Honshu; however, according to the records of their rivals, the Nanbu clan, Tamenobu was born as either Nanbu Tamenobu or Kuji Tamenobu, from a minor branch house of the Nanbu clan and was driven from the clan due to discord with his elder brother.
The Ōura served as hereditary vice-district magistrate (郡代補佐, gundai hosa) under the Nanbu clan's local magistrate Ishikawa Takanobu; however, in 1571 Tamenobu attacked and killed Ishikawa and began taking the Nanbu clan's castles in the Tsugaru region one after another. He captured castles at Ishikawa, Daikoji and Aburakawa, and soon gathered support of many former Nanbu retainers in the region. Tamenobu later attacked Kitabatake Akimura (another local power figure) and took his castle at Namioka.
In 1582, with the death of Nanbu Harumasa, the Nanbu clan collapsed into numerous competing factions. The 25th hereditary clan chieftain, Nanbu Harutsugu, was a boy of 13 and soon died under uncertain circumstances, and the Kunohe branch of the Nanbu clan under the warlord Kunohe Masazane began to expand its influence over the Sannohe main branch. This provided an opportunity for Ōura  Tamenobu to declare that the western Nanbu territories under his control would henceforth be independent of Nanbu rule. Proclaimed a traitor by the Nanbu clan, rivals Nanbu Nobunao and Kunohe Masazane both called for Tamenobu's death. Tamenobu, realizing that he would need to solicit outside help, approached the Mogami clan for an introduction to the regime of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Tamenobu initially departed by boat from Ajigasawa, but inclement winds blew the boat north as far as Matsumae. He made attempts to reach Hideyoshi overland in 1586, 1587 and 1588, but was blocked each time by hostile forces in the territories to the south of Tsugaru.
In 1590, Tamenobu pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi; Hideyoshi confirmed Tamenobu in his holdings. As the Ōura fief had been in the Tsugaru region on the northern tip of Honshū, the family then changed its name to Tsugaru.


== In the Edo era ==
The Tsugaru clan sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu during the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, although Tsugaru Tamenobu's eldest son, Nobutake, was serving Toyotomi Hideyori as a page in Osaka Castle.
After the Tokugawa victory at Sekigahara, the Tsugaru clan remained somewhat “suspect” in the eyes of the fledgling Tokugawa shogunate as Tsugaru Tamenobu granted refuge to Ishida Mitsunari’s son and arranged for Ishida Mitsunari's daughter to marry his third son and heir, Tsugaru Nobuhira. As a result, the clan was confirmed in its original territory with only a nominal increase in kokudaka to 47,000 koku. Tsugaru Tamenobu further fueled concerns by reconstructing Hirosaki Castle on a massive scale disproportionate to the size of his territories.
The early years of the Edo era were marked by a series of major O-Ie Sōdō disturbances over the succession to the clan chieftainship. Tsugaru Nobuhira's accession was disputed by supporters of the son of Tsugaru Nobutake in the Tsugaru Disturbance (津軽騒動, Tsugaru-sōdō) of 1607. Further troubles arose in the Kōsaka Kurando's Riot (高坂蔵人の乱, Kōsaka Kurando no ran) of 1612, the Funabashi Disturbance (船橋騒動, Funabashi-sōdō) of 1634, and the Shōhō Disturbance (正保騒動, Shōhō-sōdō) of 1647.
Tsugaru Nobuhira was forced to reduce his wife to concubine status and marry a niece of Tokugawa Ieyasu to strength his political ties to the shogunate. However, he named the son by his first wife, Tsugaru Nobuyoshi as heir. His son by the niece of Tokugawa Ieyasu was made head of a subsidiary hatamoto household based in Kuroishi.
Nobuyoshi was forced to retire in 1655 for alleged misgovernment, and was replaced by his son, Tsugaru Nobumasa, who was a reformer who developed the resources of the domain. Nobumasa's son Tsugaru Nobuhisa developed the arts and cultural level of the domain, but was beset by numerous natural disasters, including bad weather and repeated eruptions of Mount Iwaki. He continued to rule from behind-the scenes during the tenure of his grandson, Tsugaru Nobuaki and great-grandson Tsugaru Nobuyasu as the domain fell further and further into debt.  Nobuyasu's son, Tsugaru Nobuakira attempted reforms, but was vexed by corrupt officials and died under suspicious circumstances in 1791 without heir.
Tsugaru Yasuchika, son of the 5th Lord of Kuroishi, was appointed daimyō of Hirosaki to succeed Nobuakira. Under his tenure, the official kokudaka of the domain was raised from 47,000 to 70,000 and then to 100,000 koku to cover the expenses of dispatching military forces to Ezo to protect Japan's northern borders. Also under Yasuchika's tenure, Kuroishi was raised in status to become Kuroishi Domain, In 1821, during his sankin kōtai journey to Edo, he survived an assassination attempt by Sōma Daisaku, a former retainer of the Nanbu clan. Although Yasuchika was a noted reformer who attempted to strength the domain, he spent a tremendous amount of money attempting to arrange prestigious marriages for his incompetent son, Tsugaru Nobuyuki, which again plunged the domain into financial crisis. Nobuyuki was eventually forced out of office in 1839 and a complete outsider, the 7th son of rōjū Matsudaira Nobuakira, lord of Yoshida Domain in Mikawa Province was adopted into the Tsugaru clan as Tsugaru Yukitsugu. Yukitsugu managed to restore order and prosperity to the domain and modernized its military forces through increased implementation of rangaku studies.


== In the Boshin War ==

During the Boshin War of 1868-69, the Tsugaru clan under its final daimyō, Tsugaru Tsuguakira, first sided with the imperial government, and attacked the forces of the nearby Shōnai Domain. However, it soon switched course, and was briefly a signatory to the pact that created the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei, before backing out, once again in favor of the imperial government. It did not take part in any of the major military action against the imperial army. The Kuroishi branch joined the Hirosaki-Tsugaru in siding with the imperial government. As a result, the clan was able to evade the punishment meted out by the government on the northern domains. After northern Honshū was pacified, Tsugaru forces joined the imperial army in attacking the Republic of Ezo at Hakodate. In return for its assistance, the Meiji government granted the Tsugaru family of Hirosaki a 10,000 koku increase. Both branches of Tsugaru daimyo were made imperial governors (藩知事, han chiji) of their domains in 1869. Two years later, as with all other daimyo, both Tsugaru lines were relieved of their offices by the abolition of the han system.


== Meiji and beyond ==
In the Meiji era, Tsugaru Tsuguakira, was ennobled with the title of count (hakushaku) under the kazoku peerage system. Tsugaru Tsugumichi, the last daimyō of the Kuroishi-Tsugaru, became a viscount (shishaku). He later worked as a director of the Number 15 National Bank (第十五国立銀行, Dai jūgo kokuritsu ginkō), and Tsugumichi became a member of the House of Peers in 1890.
Tsugaru Tsuguakira had no son, and adopted the younger son of the court noble Konoe Tadafusa, who took the name of Tsugaru Hidemaru (津軽英麿, 1872–1919) to be his heir. Hidemaru was educated in Germany, graduating from the University of Bonn, Humboldt University of Berlin and University of Geneva and after his return to Japan served in under the Japanese Resident-General of Korea from 1907-1914, and in the Ministry of the Imperial Household from 1914-1918. In 1918, he was appointed to the House of Peers.
Hidemaru was succeeded by Tsugaru Yoshitaka (津軽義孝, 1907-1994), who was born as the second son of a branch of the Owari Tokugawa clan. As his mother was the daughter of Tsugaru Tsuguakira, he was adopted by Hidemaru as heir, becoming Count and chieftain of the clan in 1919. A noted equestrian, he was involved with the creation of the Japan Racing Association.
Yoshitaka's fourth daughter, Hanako, married Prince Hitachi, the younger son of Emperor Showa.
The main Tsugaru clan temple in Hirosaki is Chōshō-ji.


== Family heads ==


=== Main line (Hirosaki) ===


=== Branch line (Kuroishi) ===


== Notable retainers ==


=== Hirosaki ===


== See also ==
Hirosaki Domain
Kuroishi Domain
Nanbu clan
Fujishiro Gozen
Tsugaru Peninsula


== Notes ==


== References ==
Dodd, Jan (2001). The rough guide to Japan. n.p.: Rough Guides.
Kojima, Keizō (2002). Boshin sensō kara Seinan sensō e. Tokyo: Chūōkōron-shinsha.
Koyasu Nobushige (1880). Buke kazoku meiyoden 武家家族名誉伝 Volume 1. Tokyo: Koyasu Nobushige. (Accessed from National Diet Library, 17 July 2008)
Kunai-chō website on Prince and Princess Hitachi (accessed 15 July 2008).
McClellan, Edwin and Mori Ōgai. (1985). Woman in the Crested Kimono : The Life of Shibue Io and Her Family Drawn from Mori Ogai's 'Shibue Chusai. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04618-2
""Nobility, Peerage and Ranks in Ancient and Meiji-Japan"" (accessed 15 July 2008)
Noguchi, Shin'ichi (2005). Aizu-han. Tokyo: Gendai shokan.
Onodera, Eikō (2005). Boshin nanboku sensō to Tōhoku seiken. Sendai: Kita no mori.
Peerage of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Gazette, 1912.
Ravina, Mark (1999). Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan. California: Stanford University Press.
""Tokugawa Bakufu to Tozama 117 han"". Rekishi Dokuhon Magazine, April 1976.
(in Japanese) Tsugaru-han Archived 2016-03-14 at the Wayback Machine on Edo 300 HTML (accessed 15 July 2008).
(in Japanese) Tsugaru-shi on Harimaya.com (accessed 15 July 2008).


== Further reading ==
Dazai, Osamu (1985). Return to Tsugaru: travels of a purple tramp. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Kurotaki, Jūjirō (1984). Tsugaru-han no hanzai to keibatsu 津軽藩の犯罪と刑罰. Hirosaki: Hoppō shinsha.
Narita, Suegorō (1975). Tsugaru Tamenobu: shidan 津軽為信: 史談. Aomori: Tōō Nippōsha.
Tsugaru Tsuguakira Kō Den kankōkai (1976). Tsugaru Tsuguakira kō-den 津輕承昭公傳. Tokyo: Rekishi Toshosha


== External Link ==
Takaoka no Mori Hirosaki Domain History Museum",0.8372024893760681
Computer terminal,"A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that can be used for entering data into, and transcribing data from, a computer or a computing system. Most early computers only had a front panel to input or display bits and had to be connected to a terminal to print or input text through a keyboard. Teleprinters were used as early-day hard-copy terminals and predated the use of a computer screen by decades. The computer would typically transmit a line of data which would be printed on paper, and accept a line of data from a keyboard over a serial or other interface. Starting in the mid-1970s with microcomputers such as the Sphere 1, Sol-20, and Apple I, display circuitry and keyboards began to be integrated into personal and workstation computer systems, with the computer handling character generation and outputting to a CRT display such as a computer monitor or, sometimes, a consumer TV, but most larger computers continued to require terminals.
Early terminals were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for input; with the advent of time-sharing systems, terminals slowly pushed these older forms of interaction from the industry. Related developments were the improvement of terminal technology and the introduction of inexpensive video displays. Early Teletypes only printed out with a communications speed of only 75 baud or 10 5-bit characters per second, and by the 1970s speeds of video terminals had improved to 2400 or 9600 2400 bit/s. Similarly, the speed of remote batch terminals had improved to 4800 bit/s at the beginning of the decade and 19.6 kbps by the end of the decade, with higher speeds possible on more expensive terminals.
The function of a terminal is typically confined to transcription and input of data; a device with significant local, programmable data-processing capability may be called a ""smart terminal"" or fat client. A terminal that depends on the host computer for its processing power is called a ""dumb terminal"" or a thin client. In the era of serial (RS-232) terminals there was a conflicting usage of the term ""smart terminal"" as a dumb terminal with no user-accessible local computing power but a particularly rich set of control codes for manipulating the display; this conflict was not resolved before hardware serial terminals became obsolete.
The use of terminals decreased over time as computing shifted from command line interface (CLI) to graphical user interface (GUI) and from time-sharing on large computers to personal computers and handheld devices. Today, users generally interact with a server over high-speed networks using a Web browser and other network-enabled GUI applications. Today, a terminal emulator application provides the capabilities of a physical terminal – allowing interaction with the operating system shell and other CLI applications.


== History ==
The console of Konrad Zuse's Z3 had a keyboard in 1941, as did the Z4 in 1942–1945. However, these consoles could only be used to enter numeric inputs and were thus analogous to those of calculating machines; programs, commands, and other data were entered via paper tape. Both machines had a row of display lamps for results.
In 1956, the Whirlwind Mark I computer became the first computer equipped with a keyboard-printer combination with which to support direct input of data and commands and output of results. That device was a Friden Flexowriter, which would continue to serve this purpose on many other early computers well into the 1960s.


== Categories ==


=== Hard-copy terminals ===

Early user terminals connected to computers were, like the Flexowriter, electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters (TeleTYpewriter, TTY), such as the Teletype Model 33, originally used for telegraphy; early Teletypes were typically configured as Keyboard Send-Receive (KSR) or Automatic Send-Receive (ASR). Some terminals, such as the ASR Teletype models, included a paper tape reader and punch which could record output such as a program listing. The data on the tape could be re-entered into the computer using the tape reader on the teletype, or printed to paper. Teletypes used the current loop interface that was already used in telegraphy. A less expensive Read Only (RO) configuration was available for the Teletype.
Custom-designs keyboard/printer terminals that came later included the IBM 2741 (1965) and the DECwriter (1970). Respective top speeds of teletypes, IBM 2741 and the LA30 (an early DECwriter) were 10, 15 and 30
characters per second. Although at that time ""paper was king"" the speed of interaction was relatively limited.
The DECwriter was the last major printing-terminal product. It faded away after 1980 under pressure from video display units (VDUs), with the last revision (the DECwriter IV of 1982) abandoning the classic teletypewriter form for one more resembling a desktop printer.


=== Video display unit ===
A video display unit (VDU) displays information on a screen rather than printing text to paper and typically uses a cathode-ray tube (CRT). VDUs in the 1950s were typically designed for displaying graphical data rather than text and were used in, e.g., experimental computers at institutions such as MIT; computers used in academia, government and business, sold under brand names such as DEC, ERA, IBM and UNIVAC; military computers supporting specific defence applications such as ballistic missile warning systems and radar/air defence coordination systems such as BUIC and SAGE.

Two early landmarks in the development of the VDU were the Univac Uniscope and the IBM 2260, both in 1964. These were block-mode terminals designed to display a page at a time, using proprietary protocols; in contrast to character-mode devices, they enter data from the keyboard into a display buffer rather than transmitting them immediately. In contrast to later character-mode devices, the Uniscope used synchronous serial communication over an EIA RS-232 interface to communicate between the multiplexer and the host, while the 2260 used either a channel connection or asynchronous serial communication between the 2848 and the host. The 2265, related to the 2260, also used asynchronous serial communication.
The Datapoint 3300 from Computer Terminal Corporation, announced in 1967 and shipped in 1969, was a character-mode device that emulated a Model 33 Teletype. This reflects the fact that early character-mode terminals were often deployed to replace teletype machines as a way to reduce operating costs.

The next generation of VDUs went beyond teletype emulation with an addressable cursor that gave them the ability to paint two-dimensional displays on the screen. Very early VDUs with cursor addressibility included the VT05 and the Hazeltine 2000 operating in character mode, both from 1970. Despite this capability, early devices of this type were often called ""Glass TTYs"". Later, the term ""glass TTY"" tended to be restrospectively narrowed to devices without full cursor addressibility.
The classic era of the VDU began in the early 1970s and was closely intertwined with the rise of time sharing computers. Important early products were the ADM-3A, VT52, and VT100. These devices used no complicated CPU, instead relying on individual logic gates, LSI chips, or microprocessors such as the Intel 8080. This made them inexpensive and they quickly became extremely popular input-output devices on many types of computer system, often replacing earlier and more expensive printing terminals.
After 1970 several suppliers gravitated to a set of common standards:

ASCII character set (rather than, say, EBCDIC or anything specific to one company), but early/economy models often supported only capital letters (such as the original ADM-3, the Data General model 6052 – which could be upgraded to a 6053 with a lower-case character ROM – and the Heathkit H9)
RS-232 serial ports (25-pin, ready to connect to a modem, yet some manufacturer-specific pin usage extended the standard, e.g. for use with 20-mA current loops)
24 lines (or possibly 25 – sometimes a special status line) of 72 or 80 characters of text (80 was the same as IBM punched cards). Later models sometimes had two character-width settings.
Some type of cursor that can be positioned (with arrow keys or ""home"" and other direct cursor address setting codes).
Implementation of at least 3 control codes: Carriage Return (Ctrl-M), Line-Feed (Ctrl-J), and Bell (Ctrl-G), but usually many more, such as escape sequences to provide underlining, dim or reverse-video character highlighting, and especially to clear the display and position the cursor.
The experimental era of serial VDUs culminated with the VT100 in 1978. By the early 1980s, there were dozens of manufacturers of terminals, including Lear-Siegler, ADDS, Data General, DEC, Hazeltine Corporation, Heath/Zenith, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, TeleVideo, Volker-Craig, and Wyse, many of which had incompatible command sequences (although many used the early ADM-3 as a starting point).
The great variations in the control codes between makers gave rise to software that identified and grouped terminal types so the system software would correctly display input forms using the appropriate control codes; In Unix-like systems the termcap or terminfo files, the stty utility, and the TERM environment variable would be used; in Data General's Business BASIC software, for example, at login-time a sequence of codes were sent to the terminal to try to read the cursor's position or the 25th line's contents using a sequence of different manufacturer's control code sequences, and the terminal-generated response would determine a single-digit number (such as 6 for Data General Dasher terminals, 4 for ADM 3A/5/11/12 terminals, 0 or 2 for TTYs with no special features) that would be available to programs to say which set of codes to use.
The great majority of terminals were monochrome, manufacturers variously offering green, white or amber and sometimes blue screen phosphors. (Amber was claimed to reduce eye strain). Terminals with modest color capability were also available but not widely used; for example, a color version of the popular Wyse WY50, the WY350, offered 64 shades on each character cell.
VDUs were eventually displaced from most applications by networked personal computers, at first slowly after 1985 and with increasing speed in the 1990s. However, they had a lasting influence on PCs. The keyboard layout of the VT220 terminal strongly influenced the Model M shipped on IBM PCs from 1985, and through it all later computer keyboards.
Although flat-panel displays were available since the 1950s, cathode-ray tubes continued to dominate the market until the personal computer had made serious inroads into the display terminal market. By the time cathode-ray tubes on PCs were replaced by flatscreens after the year 2000, the hardware computer terminal was nearly obsolete.


=== Character-oriented terminals ===

A character-oriented terminal is a type of computer terminal that communicates with its host one character at a time, as opposed to a block-oriented terminal that communicates in blocks of data. It is the most common type of data terminal, because it is easy to implement and program. Connection to the mainframe computer or terminal server is achieved via RS-232 serial links, Ethernet or other proprietary protocols.
Character-oriented terminals can be ""dumb"" or ""smart"". Dumb terminals are those that can interpret a limited number of control codes (CR, LF, etc.) but do not have the ability to process special escape sequences that perform functions such as clearing a line, clearing the screen, or controlling cursor position. In this context dumb terminals are sometimes dubbed glass Teletypes, for they essentially have the same limited functionality as does a mechanical Teletype. This type of dumb terminal is still supported on modern Unix-like systems by setting the environment variable TERM to dumb. Smart or intelligent terminals are those that also have the ability to process escape sequences, in particular the VT52, VT100 or ANSI escape sequences.


==== Text terminals ====

A text terminal, or often just terminal (sometimes text console) is a serial computer interface for text entry and display. Information is presented as an array of pre-selected formed characters. When such devices use a video display such as a cathode-ray tube, they are called a ""video display unit"" or ""visual display unit"" (VDU) or ""video display terminal"" (VDT).
The system console is often a text terminal used to operate a computer. Modern computers have a built-in keyboard and display for the console. Some Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and FreeBSD have virtual consoles to provide several text terminals on a single computer.
The fundamental type of application running on a text terminal is a command-line interpreter or shell, which prompts for commands from the user and executes each command after a press of Return. This includes Unix shells and some interactive programming environments. In a shell, most of the commands are small applications themselves.
Another important application type is that of the text editor. A text editor typically occupies the full area of display, displays one or more text documents, and allows the user to edit the documents. The text editor has, for many uses, been replaced by the word processor, which usually provides rich formatting features that the text editor lacks. The first word processors used text to communicate the structure of the document, but later word processors operate in a graphical environment and provide a WYSIWYG simulation of the formatted output. However, text editors are still used for documents containing markup such as DocBook or LaTeX.
Programs such as Telix and Minicom control a modem and the local terminal to let the user interact with remote servers. On the Internet, telnet and ssh work similarly.
In the simplest form, a text terminal is like a file. Writing to the file displays the text and reading from the file produces what the user enters. In Unix-like operating systems, there are several character special files that correspond to available text terminals. For other operations, there are special escape sequences, control characters and termios functions that a program can use, most easily via a library such as ncurses. For more complex operations, the programs can use terminal specific ioctl system calls. For an application, the simplest way to use a terminal is to simply write and read text strings to and from it sequentially. The output text is scrolled, so that only the last several lines (typically 24) are visible. Unix systems typically buffer the input text until the Enter key is pressed, so the application receives a ready string of text. In this mode, the application need not know much about the terminal. For many interactive applications this is not sufficient. One of the common enhancements is command-line editing (assisted with such libraries as readline); it also may give access to command history. This is very helpful for various interactive command-line interpreters.
Even more advanced interactivity is provided with full-screen applications. Those applications completely control the screen layout; also they respond to key-pressing immediately. This mode is very useful for text editors, file managers and web browsers. In addition, such programs control the color and brightness of text on the screen, and decorate it with underline, blinking and special characters (e.g. box-drawing characters). To achieve all this, the application must deal not only with plain text strings, but also with control characters and escape sequences, which allow moving the cursor to an arbitrary position, clearing portions of the screen, changing colors and displaying special characters, and also responding to function keys. The great problem here is that there are many different terminals and terminal emulators, each with its own set of escape sequences. In order to overcome this, special libraries (such as curses) have been created, together with terminal description databases, such as Termcap and Terminfo.


=== Block-oriented terminals ===
A block-oriented terminal or block mode terminal is a type of computer terminal that communicates with its host in blocks of data, as opposed to a character-oriented terminal that communicates with its host one character at a time. A block-oriented terminal may be card-oriented, display-oriented, keyboard-display, keyboard-printer, printer or some combination.
The IBM 3270 is perhaps the most familiar implementation of a block-oriented display terminal, but most mainframe computer manufacturers and several other companies produced them. The description below is in terms of the 3270, but similar considerations apply to other types.
Block-oriented terminals typically incorporate a buffer which stores one screen or more of data, and also stores data attributes, not only indicating appearance (color, brightness, blinking, etc.) but also marking the data as being enterable by the terminal operator vs. protected against entry, as allowing the entry of only numeric information vs. allowing any characters, etc. In a typical application the host sends the terminal a preformatted panel containing both static data and fields into which data may be entered. The terminal operator keys data, such as updates in a database entry, into the appropriate fields. When entry is complete (or ENTER or PF key pressed on 3270s), a block of data, usually just the data entered by the operator (modified data), is sent to the host in one transmission. The 3270 terminal buffer (at the device) could be updated on a single character basis, if necessary, because of the existence of a ""set buffer address order"" (SBA), that usually preceded any data to be written/overwritten within the buffer. A complete buffer could also be read or replaced using the READ BUFFER command or WRITE command (unformatted or formatted in the case of the 3270).
Block-oriented terminals cause less system load on the host and less network traffic than character-oriented terminals. They also appear more responsive to the user, especially over slow connections, since editing within a field is done locally rather than depending on echoing from the host system.
Early terminals had limited editing capabilities – 3270 terminals, for example, only could check entries as valid numerics. Subsequent ""smart"" or ""intelligent"" terminals incorporated microprocessors and supported more local processing.
Programmers of block-oriented terminals often used the technique of storing context information for the transaction in progress on the screen, possibly in a hidden field, rather than depending on a running program to keep track of status. This was the precursor of the HTML technique of storing context in the URL as data to be passed as arguments to a CGI program.
Unlike a character-oriented terminal, where typing a character into the last position of the screen usually causes the terminal to scroll down one line, entering data into the last screen position on a block-oriented terminal usually causes the cursor to wrap— move to the start of the first enterable field. Programmers might ""protect"" the last screen position to prevent inadvertent wrap. Likewise a protected field following an enterable field might lock the keyboard and sound an audible alarm if the operator attempted to enter more data into the field than allowed.


==== Common block-oriented terminals ====
Hard-copy
IBM 1050
IBM 2740
Remote job entry
IBM 2770
IBM 2780
IBM 3770
IBM 3780
Display


=== Graphical terminals ===

A graphical terminal can display images as well as text. Graphical terminals are divided into vector-mode terminals, and raster mode.
A vector-mode display directly draws lines on the face of a cathode-ray tube under control of the host computer system. The lines are continuously formed, but since the speed of electronics is limited, the number of concurrent lines that can be displayed at one time is limited. Vector-mode displays were historically important but are no longer used.
Practically all modern graphic displays are raster-mode, descended from the picture scanning techniques used for television, in which the visual elements are a rectangular array of pixels. Since the raster image is only perceptible to the human eye as a whole for a very short time, the raster must be refreshed many times per second to give the appearance of a persistent display. The electronic demands of refreshing display memory meant that graphic terminals were developed much later than text terminals, and initially cost much more.
Most terminals today are graphical; that is, they can show images on the screen. The modern term for graphical terminal is ""thin client"". A thin client typically uses a protocol such as X11 for Unix terminals, or RDP for Microsoft Windows. The bandwidth needed depends on the protocol used, the resolution, and the color depth.
Modern graphic terminals allow display of images in color, and of text in varying sizes, colors, and fonts (type faces).
In the early 1990s, an industry consortium attempted to define a standard, AlphaWindows, that would allow a single CRT screen to implement multiple windows, each of which was to behave as a distinct terminal. Unfortunately, like I2O, this suffered from being run as a closed standard: non-members were unable to obtain even minimal information and there was no realistic way a small company or independent developer could join the consortium.


=== Intelligent terminals ===
An intelligent terminal does its own processing, usually implying a microprocessor is built in, but not all terminals with microprocessors did any real processing of input: the main computer to which it was attached would have to respond quickly to each keystroke. The term ""intelligent"" in this context dates from 1969.
Notable examples include the IBM 2250, predecessor to the IBM 3250 and IBM 5080, and IBM 2260, predecessor to the IBM 3270, introduced with System/360 in 1964.

Most terminals were connected to minicomputers or mainframe computers and often had a green or amber screen. Typically terminals communicate with the computer via a serial port via a null modem cable, often using an EIA RS-232 or RS-422 or RS-423 or a current loop serial interface. IBM systems typically communicated over a Bus and Tag channel, a coaxial cable using a proprietary protocol, a communications link using Binary Synchronous Communications or IBM's SNA protocol, but for many DEC, Data General and NCR (and so on) computers there were many visual display suppliers competing against the computer manufacturer for terminals to expand the systems. In fact, the instruction design for the Intel 8008 was originally conceived at Computer Terminal Corporation as the processor for the Datapoint 2200.
From the introduction of the IBM 3270, and the DEC VT100 (1978), the user and programmer could notice significant advantages in VDU technology improvements, yet not all programmers used the features of the new terminals (backward compatibility in the VT100 and later TeleVideo terminals, for example, with ""dumb terminals"" allowed programmers to continue to use older software).
Some dumb terminals had been able to respond to a few escape sequences without needing microprocessors: they used multiple printed circuit boards with many integrated circuits; the single factor that classed a terminal as ""intelligent"" was its ability to process user-input within the terminal—not interrupting the main computer at each keystroke—and send a block of data at a time (for example: when the user has finished a whole field or form). Most terminals in the early 1980s, such as ADM-3A, TVI912, Data General D2, DEC VT52, despite the introduction of ANSI terminals in 1978, were essentially ""dumb"" terminals, although some of them (such as the later ADM and TVI models) did have a primitive block-send capability. Common early uses of local processing power included features that had little to do with off-loading data processing from the host computer but added useful features such as printing to a local printer, buffered serial data transmission and serial handshaking (to accommodate higher serial transfer speeds), and more sophisticated character attributes for the display, as well as the ability to switch emulation modes to mimic competitor's models, that became increasingly important selling features during the 1980s especially, when buyers could mix and match different suppliers' equipment to a greater extent than before.
The advance in microprocessors and lower memory costs made it possible for the terminal to handle editing operations such as inserting characters within a field that may have previously required a full screen-full of characters to be re-sent from the computer, possibly over a slow modem line. Around the mid-1980s most intelligent terminals, costing less than most dumb terminals would have a few years earlier, could provide enough user-friendly local editing of data and send the completed form to the main computer. Providing even more processing possibilities, workstations such as the TeleVideo TS-800 could run CP/M-86, blurring the distinction between terminal and Personal Computer.
Another of the motivations for development of the microprocessor was to simplify and reduce the electronics required in a terminal. That also made it practicable to load several ""personalities"" into a single terminal, so a Qume QVT-102 could emulate many popular terminals of the day, and so be sold into organizations that did not wish to make any software changes. Frequently emulated terminal types included:

Lear Siegler ADM-3A and later models
TeleVideo 910 to 950 (these models copied ADM3 codes and added several of their own, eventually being copied by Qume and others)
Digital Equipment Corporation VT52 and VT100
Data General D1 to D3 and especially D200 and D210
Hazeltine Corporation H1500
Tektronix 4014
Wyse W50, W60 and W99
The ANSI X3.64 escape code standard produced uniformity to some extent, but significant differences remained. For example, the VT100, Heathkit H19 in ANSI mode, Televideo 970, Data General D460, and Qume QVT-108 terminals all followed the ANSI standard, yet differences might exist in codes from function keys, what character attributes were available, block-sending of fields within forms, ""foreign"" character facilities, and handling of printers connected to the back of the screen.
In the 21st century, 
the term Intelligent Terminal can now refer to a retail Point of Sale computer.


=== Contemporary ===

Even though the early IBM PC looked somewhat like a terminal with a green monochrome monitor, it is not classified a terminal since it provides local computing instead of interacting with a server at a character level. With terminal emulator software, a PC can, however, provide the function of a terminal to interact with a mainframe or minicomputer. Eventually, personal computers greatly reduced market demand for conventional terminals.
In and around the 1990s, thin client and X terminal technology combined the relatively economical local processing power with central, shared computer facilities to leverage advantages of terminals over personal computers.
In a GUI environment, such as the X Window System, the display can show multiple programs – each in its own window – rather than a single stream of text associated with a single program. As a terminal emulator runs in a GUI environment to provide command-line access, it alleviates the need for a physical terminal and allows for multiple windows running separate emulators.


== System console ==

One meaning of system console, computer console, root console, operator's console, or simply console is the text entry and display device for system administration messages, particularly those from the BIOS or boot loader, the kernel, from the init system and from the system logger. It is a physical device consisting of a keyboard and a printer or screen, and traditionally is a text terminal, but may also be a graphical terminal.
Another, older, meaning of system console, computer console, hardware console, operator's console or simply console is a hardware component used by an operator to control the hardware, typically some combination of front panel, keyboard/printer and keyboard/display.


=== History ===

Prior to the development of alphanumeric CRT system consoles, some computers such as the IBM 1620 had console typewriters and front panels while the very first electronic stored-program computer, the Manchester Baby, used a combination of electromechanical switches and a CRT to provide console functions—the CRT displaying memory contents in binary by mirroring the machine's Williams-Kilburn tube CRT-based RAM.
Some early operating systems supported either a single keyboard/print or keyboard/display device for controlling the OS. Some also supported a single alternate console, and some supported a hardcopy console for retaining a record of commands, responses and other console messages. However, in the late 1960s it became common for operating systems to support many more consoles than 3, and operating systems began appearing in which the console was simply any terminal with a privileged user logged on.
On early minicomputers, the console was a serial console, an RS-232 serial link to a terminal such as a ASR-33 or, later, a terminal from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), e.g., DECWriter, VT100. This terminal was usually kept in a secured room since it could be used for certain privileged functions such as halting the system or selecting which media to boot from. Large midrange systems, e.g. those from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard and IBM, still use serial consoles. In larger installations, the console ports are attached to multiplexers or network-connected multiport serial servers that let an operator connect a terminal to any of the attached servers. Today, serial consoles are often used for accessing headless systems, usually with a terminal emulator running on a laptop. Also, routers, enterprise  network switches and other telecommunication equipment have RS-232 serial console ports.
On PCs and workstations, the computer's attached keyboard and monitor have the equivalent function.  Since the monitor cable carries video signals, it cannot be extended very far. Often, installations with many servers therefore use keyboard/video multiplexers (KVM switches) and possibly video amplifiers to centralize console access. In recent years, KVM/IP devices have become available that allow a remote computer to view the video output and send keyboard input via any TCP/IP network and therefore the Internet.
Some PC BIOSes, especially in servers, also support serial consoles, giving access to the BIOS through a serial port so that the simpler and cheaper serial console infrastructure can be used. Even where BIOS support is lacking, some operating systems, e.g. FreeBSD and Linux, can be configured for serial console operation either during bootup, or after startup.
Starting with the IBM 9672, IBM large systems have used a Hardware Management Console (HMC), consisting of a PC and a specialized application, instead of a 3270 or serial link. Other IBM product lines also use an HMC, e.g.,  System p.
It is usually possible to log in from the console. Depending on configuration, the operating system may treat a login session from the console as being more trustworthy than a login session from other sources.


== Emulation ==

A terminal emulator is a piece of software that emulates a text terminal. In the past, before the widespread use of local area networks and broadband internet access, many computers would use a serial access program to communicate with other computers via telephone line or serial device.
When the first Macintosh was released, a program called MacTerminal was used to communicate with many computers, including the IBM PC.
The Win32 console on Windows does not emulate a physical terminal that supports escape sequences so SSH and Telnet programs (for logging in textually to remote computers) for Windows, including the Telnet program bundled with some versions of Windows, often incorporate their own code to process escape sequences.
The terminal emulators on most Unix-like systems—such as, for example, gnome-terminal, Konsole, QTerminal, xterm, and Terminal.app—do emulate physical terminals including support for escape sequences; e.g., xterm can emulate the VT220 and Tektronix 4010 hardware terminals.


== Modes ==
Terminals can operate in various modes, relating to when they send input typed by the user on the keyboard to the receiving system (whatever that may be):

Character mode (a.k.a. character-at-a-time mode): In this mode, typed input is unbuffered and sent immediately to the receiving system.
Line mode (a.k.a. line-at-a-time mode): In this mode, the terminal is buffered, provides a local line editing function, and sends an entire input line, after it has been locally edited, when the user presses an, e.g., ↵ Enter, EOB, key. A so-called ""line mode terminal"" operates solely in this mode.
Block mode (a.k.a. screen-at-a-time mode): In this mode (also called block-oriented), the terminal is buffered and provides a local full-screen data function. The user can enter input into multiple fields in a form on the screen (defined to the terminal by the receiving system), moving the cursor around the screen using keys such as Tab ↹ and the arrow keys and performing editing functions locally using insert, delete, ← Backspace and so forth. The terminal sends only the completed form, consisting of all the data entered on the screen, to the receiving system when the user presses an ↵ Enter key.
There is a distinction between the return and the ↵ Enter keys. In some multiple-mode terminals, that can switch between modes, pressing the ↵ Enter key when not in block mode does not do the same thing as pressing the return key. Whilst the return key will cause an input line to be sent to the host in line-at-a-time mode, the ↵ Enter key will rather cause the terminal to transmit the contents of the character row where the cursor is currently positioned to the host, host-issued prompts and all. Some block-mode terminals have both an ↵ Enter and local cursor moving keys such as Return and New Line.
Different computer operating systems require different degrees of mode support when terminals are used as computer terminals. The POSIX terminal interface, as provided by Unix and POSIX-compliant operating systems, does not accommodate block-mode terminals at all, and only rarely requires the terminal itself to be in line-at-a-time mode, since the operating system is required to provide canonical input mode, where the terminal device driver in the operating system emulates local echo in the terminal, and performs line editing functions at the host end. Most usually, and especially so that the host system can support non-canonical input mode, terminals for POSIX-compliant systems are always in character-at-a-time mode. In contrast, IBM 3270 terminals connected to MVS systems are always required to be in block mode.


== See also ==


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

The Terminals Wiki, an encyclopedia of computer terminals.
Text Terminal HOWTO from tldp.org
The TTY demystified from linussakesson.net
Video Terminal Information at the Wayback Machine (archived May 23, 2010)
Directive 1999/5/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 1999 on radio equipment and telecommunications terminal equipment and the mutual recognition of their conformity (R&TTE Directive)
List of Computer Terminals from epocalc.net
VTTEST – VT100/VT220/XTerm test utility  –  A terminal test utility by Thomas E. Dickey",1.1497892141342163
Maximilian Kolbe,"Maximilian Maria Kolbe  (born Raymund Kolbe; Polish: Maksymilian Maria Kolbe; 8 January 1894 – 14 August 1941) was a Polish Roman Catholic priest, Conventual Franciscan friar, missionary, saint, martyr, and a Nazi concentration camp victim, who volunteered to die in place of a man named Franciszek Gajowniczek in the German death camp of Auschwitz, located in German-occupied Poland during World War II. He had been active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary, founding and supervising the monastery of Niepokalanów near Warsaw, operating an amateur-radio station (SP3RN), and founding or running several other organizations and publications.
On 10 October 1982, Pope John Paul II canonized Kolbe and declared him a martyr of charity. The Catholic Church venerates him as the patron saint of amateur radio operators, drug addicts, political prisoners, families, journalists, and prisoners. John Paul II declared him ""the patron of our difficult century"". His feast day is 14 August, the day of his martyrdom.
Due to Kolbe's efforts to promote consecration and entrustment to Mary, he is known as an ""apostle of consecration to Mary"".


== Early life ==
Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in Zduńska Wola, in the Kingdom of Poland, which was then part of the Russian Empire. He was the second son of weaver Julius Kolbe and midwife Maria Dąbrowska. His father was an ethnic German, and his mother was Polish. He had four brothers, two of whom died of tuberculosis. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Pabianice.
Kolbe's life was strongly influenced in 1903, when he was 9, by a vision of the Virgin Mary. He later described this incident:

That night I asked the Mother of God what was to become of me. Then she came to me holding two crowns, one white, the other red. She asked me if I was willing to accept either of these crowns. The white one meant that I should persevere in purity and the red that I should become a martyr. I said that I would accept them both.


== Franciscan friar ==
In 1907, Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the Conventual Franciscans. They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in Lwów later that year. In 1910, Kolbe was allowed to enter the novitiate, where he chose a religious name Maximilian. He professed his first vows in 1911, and final vows in 1914, adopting the additional name of Maria (Mary).


=== World War I ===
Kolbe was sent to Rome in 1912, where he attended the Pontifical Gregorian University. He earned a doctorate in philosophy in 1915 there. From 1915 he continued his studies at the Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure, where he earned a doctorate in theology in 1919 or 1922 (sources vary). He was active in the consecration and entrustment to Mary.
In the midst of these studies, World War I broke out. Maximilian's father, Julius Kolbe, joined Józef Piłsudski's Polish Legions fighting against the Russians for an independent Poland, still subjugated and still divided among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Julius Kolbe was caught and hanged as a traitor by the Russians at the age of 43, a traumatic event for young Maximilian.
During his time as a student, he witnessed vehement demonstrations against Popes Pius X and Benedict XV in Rome during an anniversary celebration by the Freemasons. According to Kolbe:

They placed the black standard of the ""Giordano Brunisti"" under the windows of the Vatican. On this standard the archangel, Michael, was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer. At the same time, countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope) was attacked shamefully.
Soon afterward, on 16 October 1917, Kolbe organized the Militia Immaculatae (Army of the Immaculate One), to work for conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church, specifically the Freemasons, through the intercession of the Virgin Mary. So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added to the Miraculous Medal prayer:

O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee. And for all those who do not have recourse to thee; especially the Freemasons and all those recommended to thee.
Kolbe wanted the entire Franciscan Order consecrated to the Immaculate by an additional vow. The idea was well received, but faced the hurdles of approval by the hierarchy of the order and the lawyers, so it was never formally adopted during his life and was no longer pursued after his death.


== Priesthood ==
In 1918, Kolbe was ordained a priest. In July 1919, he returned to Poland, which was newly independent. He was active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary. He was strongly opposed to leftist – in particular, communist – movements.
From 1919 to 1922, he taught at the Kraków Seminary. Around that time, as well as earlier in Rome, he suffered from tuberculosis, which forced him to take a lengthy leave of absence from his teaching duties. Before antibiotics, tuberculosis was often fatal, with rest and good nutrition the only treatment.
In January 1922, Kolbe founded the monthly periodical Rycerz Niepokalanej (Knight of the Immaculata), a devotional publication based on the French Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus (Messenger of the Heart of Jesus). From 1922 to 1926, he operated a religious publishing press in Grodno. As his activities grew in scope, in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at Niepokalanów near Warsaw. It became a major religious publishing centre. A junior seminary was opened there two years later.


=== Missionary work in Asia ===
Between 1930 and 1936, Kolbe undertook a series of missions to East Asia. He arrived first in Shanghai, China, but failed to gather a following there. Next he moved to Japan, where by 1931 he had founded a Franciscan monastery, Mugenzai no Sono (無原罪の園, transl. Garden of the Immaculata), on the outskirts of Nagasaki. Because of its location within the hills outlying the city, the monastery was spared from destruction during the United States' atomic bombing of Nagasaki.
Kolbe was persuaded to work in Japan by a group of Japanese students he encountered in Europe, who lamented the need for missionaries in their home country. After arriving in Japan, Kolbe acquired some facility in the local language, including basic literacy; the monastery soon began publishing a Japanese edition of the Knight of the Immaculata.
In mid-1932, Kolbe left Japan for Malabar, India, where he founded another monastery, which has since closed.


=== Return to Poland ===
Meanwhile, in his absence the monastery at Niepokalanów began to publish a daily newspaper Mały Dziennik (the Small Diary), in alliance with the political group National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo Radykalny). This publication reached a circulation of 137,000, and nearly double that, 225,000, on weekends. Kolbe returned to Poland in 1933 for a general chapter of the order in Kraków. Kolbe returned to Japan and remained there until called back to attend the Provincial Chapter in Poland in 1936. There he was appointed guardian of Niepokalanów, thus precluding his return to Japan. Two years later, in 1938, he started a radio station at Niepokalanów, Radio Niepokalanów. He held an amateur radio licence, with the call sign SP3RN.


== World War II ==
After the outbreak of World War II, Kolbe was one of the few friars who remained in the monastery, where he organized a temporary hospital. After the town was captured by the Germans, they arrested him on 19 September 1939; he was later released on 8 December. He refused to sign the Deutsche Volksliste, which would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his ethnic German ancestry. Upon his release he continued work at his friary where he and other friars provided shelter to refugees from Greater Poland including 2,000 Jews whom he hid from Nazi persecution in the Niepokalanów friary. Kolbe received permission to continue publishing religious works, though significantly reduced in scope. The monastery continued to act as a publishing house, issuing a number of publications considered anti-Nazi.


== Arrest and imprisonment ==

On 17 February 1941, the monastery was shut down by the German authorities. That day Kolbe and four others were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned in the Pawiak prison. On 28 May, he was transferred to Auschwitz as prisoner 16670.

Continuing to act as a priest, Kolbe was subjected to violent harassment, including beatings and lashings. Once, he was smuggled to a prison hospital by friendly inmates.


== Martyrdom at Auschwitz ==
At the end of July 1941, a prisoner escaped from the camp, prompting the deputy camp commander, SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Fritzsch, to pick ten men to be starved to death in an underground bunker to deter further escape attempts. When one of the selected men, Franciszek Gajowniczek (also a Polish Catholic), cried out, ""My wife! My children!"" Kolbe volunteered to take his place.
According to an eyewitness, who was an assistant janitor at that time, in his prison cell Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer. Each time the guards checked on him, he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell and looking calmly at those who entered. After they had been starved and deprived of water for two weeks, only Kolbe and three others remained alive.
The guards wanted the bunker emptied, so they gave the four remaining prisoners lethal injections of carbolic acid. Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for the deadly injection. He died on 14 August 1941. He was cremated on 15 August, the feast day of the Assumption of Mary.


== Canonization ==
The cause for Kolbe's beatification was opened at a local level on 3 June 1952. On 12 May 1955 Kolbe was recognized by the Holy See as a Servant of God. Kolbe was declared venerable by Pope Paul VI on 30 January 1969, beatified as a Confessor of the Faith by the same Pope in 1971, and canonized as a saint by Pope John Paul II on 10 October 1982. Upon canonization, the Pope declared Maximilian Kolbe as a confessor and a martyr of charity. The miracles that were used to confirm his beatification were the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni and in August 1950, the cure of calcification of the arteries/sclerosis of Francis Ranier; both attributed to Kolbe's intercession by their prayers to him.
Franciszek Gajowniczek, the man Kolbe saved at Auschwitz, survived the Holocaust and was present as a guest at both the beatification and the canonization ceremonies.

After his canonisation, a feast day for Maximilian Kolbe was added to the General Roman Calendar. He is one of ten 20th-century martyrs who are depicted in statues above the Great West Door of Anglican Westminster Abbey, London.
Maximilian Kolbe is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 14 August.


=== Controversies ===
Kolbe's recognition as a Christian martyr generated some controversy within the Catholic Church. While his self-sacrifice at Auschwitz was considered saintly and heroic, he was not killed out of odium fidei (hatred of the faith), but as the result of his act of Christian charity toward another man. Pope Paul VI recognized this distinction at Kolbe's beatification, naming him a Confessor and giving him the unofficial title ""martyr of charity"". Pope John Paul II, however, overruled the commission he had established (which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity). John Paul II wanted to make the point that the Nazis' systematic hatred of whole categories of humanity was inherently also a hatred of religious (Christian) faith; he said that Kolbe's death equated to earlier examples of religious martyrdom.


==== Accusations of antisemitism ====
Kolbe's alleged antisemitism was a source of controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his canonization. In 1926, in the first issue of the monthly Knight of the Immaculate, Kolbe said he considered Freemasons ""as an organized clique of fanatical Jews, who want to destroy the church."" In a 1924 column, he cited the Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an ""important proof"" that ""the founders of Zionism intended, in fact, the subjugation of the entire world"", but that ""not even all Jews know this"". In a calendar that the publishing house of his organization, the Militia of the Immaculate, published in an edition of a million in 1939, Kolbe wrote, ""Atheistic Communism seems to rage ever more wildly. Its origin can easily be located in that criminal mafia that calls itself Freemasonry, and the hand that is guiding all that toward a clear goal is international Zionism. Which should not be taken to mean that even among Jews one cannot find good people."" In his periodicals he had published articles about topics such as a Zionist plot for world domination. Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek criticized Kolbe's activities as ""writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church, with a clear anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic edge."" In contrast, a writer for online EWTN claimed that the ""Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe's thought and work"" and that ""only thirty-one out of over 14,000 of his letters reference the Jewish people or Judaism, and most express a missionary zeal and concern for their spiritual welfare"".
During World War II, Kolbe's monastery at Niepokalanów sheltered Jewish refugees. According to the testimony of a local, ""When Jews came to me asking for a piece of bread, I asked Father Maximilian if I could give it to them in good conscience, and he answered me, 'Yes, it is necessary to do this because all men are our brothers.'""


=== Relics ===
First-class relics of Kolbe exist, in the form of hairs from his head and beard, preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941. Since his beatification in 1971, more than 1,000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration. Second-class relics, such as his personal effects, clothing and liturgical vestments, are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów, where they may be venerated by visitors.


== Influence ==

Kolbe influenced his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the Militia Immaculatae movement had continued. In recent years new religious and secular institutes have been founded, inspired from this spiritual way. Among these are the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Fr. Kolbe, the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate, and a parallel congregation of religious sisters and others. The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns sung by Kolbe, in his native tongue.
According to the friars:

Our patron, St. Maximilian Kolbe, inspires us with his unique Mariology and apostolic mission, which is to bring all souls to the Sacred Heart of Christ through the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Christ's most pure, efficient, and holy instrument of evangelization – especially those most estranged from the Church.

Kolbe's views into Marian theology echo today through their influence on Vatican II. His image may be found in churches across Europe and throughout the world. Several churches in Poland are under his patronage, such as the Sanctuary of Saint Maxymilian in Zduńska Wola and the Church of Saint Maxymilian Kolbe in Szczecin. A museum, Museum of St. Maximilian Kolbe ""There was a Man"", was opened in Niepokalanów in 1998.
In 1963, Rolf Hochhuth published The Deputy, a play influenced by Kolbe's life, and dedicated to him. In 2000, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (US) designated Marytown in Libertyville, Illinois home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe.
In 1991, Krzysztof Zanussi released a Polish film about the life of Kolbe, Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe, with Edward Żentara as Kolbe. The Polish Senate declared 2011 to be the year of Maximilian Kolbe.
In 2023, the Mexican production company Dos Corazones Films released the animated feature film Max, which recounts part of the Franciscan's life.


== Immaculata prayer ==
Kolbe composed the Immaculata prayer as a prayer of consecration to the Immaculata.


== See also ==
Holocaust theology
Maximilian of Tebessa
Peter Fehlner
Sisters Minor of Mary Immaculate
Élise Rivet


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Rees, Laurence (2005). Auschwitz: A New History. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-357-9.
Smith, Jeremiah J. (1951).  Saint Maximilian Kolbe : Knight of the Immaculata. Rockford, IL:  Tan. ISBN 978-0895556196


== External links ==

Patron Saints Index: Saint Maximilian Kolbe
Kolbe's Gift, a play by David Gooderson about Kolbe and his self-sacrifice in Auschwitz based on factual evidence and conversations with the late Józef Garliński
A Man Feared by the 21st Century: Saint Maximilian Kolbe from the Starvation Bunker in Auschwitz – a drama by Kazimierz Braun
Saint Maximilian Kolbe, a popular biography at Catholicism.org
Niepokalanów in English
Catholic Online, St. Maximilian Kolbe, Catholic Online.Inform-Inspire-Ignite.
St. Maximilian Kolbe Website
An ""Insight"" episode which mentions Maximilian Kolbe, who was portrayed by Werner Klemperer
Radio Kolbe, International Radio Group OM / SWL / BCL (Based in Italy)
National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe - Libertyville, IL USA",0.7759234309196472
National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers,"The National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was established on March 3, 1865, in the United States by Congress to provide care for volunteer soldiers who had been disabled through loss of limb, wounds, disease, or injury during service in the Union forces in the American Civil War. Initially, the Asylum, later called the Home, was planned to have three branches: in the Northeast, in the central area north of the Ohio River, and in what was then considered the Northwest, the present upper Midwest.
The Board of Managers, charged with governance of the Home, added seven more branches between 1870 and 1907 as broader eligibility requirements allowed more veterans to apply for admission. The effects of World War I, which resulted in a new veteran population of over five million men and women, brought dramatic changes to the National Home and all other governmental agencies responsible for veterans' benefits. In 1930 the Veterans Administration was established, to consolidate all veterans' programs into a single Federal agency. The several wars since then in the 20th and 21st centuries have resulted in more veterans needing services.


== Beginning of the National Home ==

The National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was originally called the National Asylum in the legislation approved by Congress and signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln in March 1865. The term ""asylum"" was used in the 19th century for institutions caring for dependent members of society, such as the insane and the poor, who were thought to temporarily have conditions that could be cured or corrected. But, the term had some negative connotations. In January 1873, the Board of Managers gained approval of the name, the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers.
From the Revolutionary War through the Civil War, the small number of veterans of American wars had three sources of assistance from the Federal government. The government offered land grants to veterans as compensation for their service, particularly following the Revolutionary War, when it used the land grant system to develop unsettled territories of the new nation. In 1833, the Federal government established the Bureau of Pensions, which made small cash payments to veterans. The low numbers of the veteran population and the more attractive offer of free land kept the pension system relatively small until after the Civil War.
In 1811 the United States Navy was authorized by Congress to establish a permanent shelter for its veterans; construction was started in 1827. The United States Sailors' Home, located in Philadelphia as part of the Navy Yard, was opened in 1833. In 1827, Secretary of War James Barbour suggested a similar institution for the Army, but Congressional lack of interest and funding meant such a project was delayed.
In 1851, legislation introduced by Jefferson Davis, senator from Mississippi and former secretary of war, was enacted by Congress. It appropriated funds for construction of the United States Soldiers' Home. The Soldiers' Home was open to all men who were regular or volunteer members of the army with 20 years' service and who had contributed to the home's support through pay withdrawals.
When the Soldiers' Home was being organized in 1851 and 1852, it was intended to have at least four branches. Its organization and administration were based on the army's command structure and staffed with regular army officers. The Soldiers' Home was managed by a board of commissioners, although drawn from army officers; each branch had a governor, deputy governor, and secretary-treasure; the members were organized into companies and the daily routine followed the military schedule; all members wore uniforms; and workshops were provided for members wanting or required to work. When the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was being organized in 1866, the National Soldiers' Home assisted the asylum's board by explaining its regulations and offering suggestions.
The Civil War was the first event in the history of the United States considered to be national in the scale of citizen involvement, and in its effects on the daily lives of people communities in both the North and the South. The Civil War was a war of volunteers and draftees, both military and civilian. Very early in the war, it became clear to social leaders in the North that new programs were required to deliver medical care to the wounded beyond what was available through the official military structure.
The leading civilian organization was the United States Sanitary Commission; it secured permission from President Lincoln in the summer of 1861 to deliver medical supplies to the battle front, build field hospitals staffed with volunteer nurses (mostly women), and raise funds to support the commission's programs. As the war continued, civilian leaders began to address the issue of caring for the numerous veterans who would require assistance once the war ended. Members of the Sanitary Commission favored the pension system rather than permanent institutional care for the disabled veteran; the commission feared that a permanent institution would become a poorhouse for veterans. Other groups favored as strongly the establishment of a soldiers' asylum, to ensure provision of quality care. The groups gathered information on European military asylums, particularly the Invalides in Paris. They tended to find evidence to support their opinions on either side of the concept of a soldiers' asylum.
When President Lincoln signed legislation creating the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers in March 1865, the nation was in a period of heightened emotional response to the approaching peace. The victory of the Union was seen as the triumph of the nation. The creation of a national institution to serve the veterans was an affirmation of that national victory. When the institution was established, supporters likely had a limited awareness of the potential need among future veterans. But, more than 2,000,000 men served in the Union Army, a third of the white men of military age (13 to 43 years old in 1860). If the number of men disabled in service equaled a sixth of the soldiers who died in the war, the number eligible for admission to the National Asylum would have been more than 300,000.


== Board of Managers (1866–1916) ==
It took time for the new institution to be organized, including design and construction of the building. The original corporation could not secure a quorum for a year after being authorized. In March 1866, Congress passed new legislation to replace the 100-member corporation with a twelve-member board of managers, a more manageable group. Still, they had to select the sites, arrange supervision of construction projects, and designate local officials while serving as unpaid volunteers of an independent Federal agency. The managers of the Asylum looked to past models and local efforts to guide the creation of the institution.
The Board of Managers of the National Asylum met for the first time in Washington, D.C. on May 16, 1866. Their first priority was the selection of sites for the three branches of the national institution, based on geographic distribution. They established criteria for site evaluation: a healthy site with fresh air and ample water supply, located 3 to 5 miles (8.0 km) from a city, and consisting of a tract of at least 200 acres (0.81 km2), connected to the city by a railroad. The Board issued a bulletin to newspapers and to governors of the northern states requesting proposals for sites to be donated or sold for use by the branches. Proposals were due before July 12. In addition, the Board advertised for plans, specifications, and estimates for the construction of asylum buildings.
At the September 1866 Board meeting, General Benjamin Butler, the President of the Board, proposed the purchase of a bankrupt resort at Togus, Maine, near Augusta, as the eastern branch of the Asylum. In regards to a Milwaukee location or a northwestern branch, the Board directed that an executive committee visit the city to select a site. Possible locations for a central branch were discussed.
At the December 7, 1866 meeting of the Board, the executive committee announced its approval of a Milwaukee location. The Board directed them to return to Milwaukee to purchase a site and arrange for the construction of asylum buildings, as well as the transfer of veterans currently housed in the Wisconsin Soldiers' Home in Milwaukee, operated by the Lady Managers of the Home Society. At the same meeting, the Board approved the purchase of the Togus site. Veterans had already been moved into the former hotel on the site in November 1866. The Central Branch location in Dayton, Ohio, was not selected until September 1867.
The selection of the sites for the three branches was based on three motivations: practical, political and economic. First, the Board needed sites ready to be used immediately before the second winter after the war, and before the time of the November 1866 elections. The Togus site, having been a resort, had a sufficient number of buildings appropriate for housing the disabled veterans. Choosing Dayton as the Central Branch site satisfied the powerful Ohio faction in Congress, as well as the numerous Union generals from Ohio, particularly William Tecumseh Sherman. Locating the Northwestern Branch at Milwaukee resulted in the Board of Managers gaining a large cash donation from the Ladies Managers, enabling them both to purchase a site and have funds left to begin construction.
As the first buildings at the Northwestern Branch were being completed in 1867–1869, the Board of Managers concentrated building efforts at the Central Branch, and in rebuilding facilities at the Eastern Branch, which had been destroyed by fire in 1868. Even though membership had increased in the first few years the Asylum was open, the Board had felt membership would soon begin to decline. The Board-based this on the belief that any veteran who needed the Asylum had already entered it and that, as members regained their health or learned new work skills, they would leave the Asylum. In 1868, the Board adopted a resolution that limited the number of branches to the three existing ones. Problems with construction of the Main Building at the Northwestern Branch, and concern over the harsh winters at both the Northwestern and Eastern branches, led the Board to open a fourth branch in 1870 at a site in a warmer climate; it had existing buildings available for immediate use. In addition, an increasing number of veterans applied for services.
The Southern Branch of the National Asylum was established in October 1870, with the Board's purchase of the Chesapeake Female College at Hampton, Virginia. What became the main building of this new branch was built in 1854 and used as the principal facility of the college. The building was used as a hospital for both Union and Confederate troops. In the economic downturn following the Civil War, the women's college did not reopen. Acquisition of the property by the National Home followed the precedent four years earlier of the purchase of the Togus resort.
The Southern Branch was founded to provide a facility in a milder climate for the benefit of older veterans, to house Southern black members whom the board believed would be more accustomed to a southern location, and to be associated with Fort Monroe, adjacent to the new branch site. The Federal troops at Fort Monroe and Union veterans at the Southern Branch would establish a strong Union presence near the strategic city of Newport News in the former Confederate state of Virginia.
On January 23, 1873, Congress passed a resolution changing the name of the institution to the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, reflecting the increasing permanence of the institution and its membership. In 1875, the Board's report to Congress stressed the need for construction of larger accommodations as quickly as possible. The Broad projected an eventual decline in the population as of the early 1870s, due to an increase in death rate with aging, but also said that it expected more aging veterans to apply for admission in the late 1870s and early 1880s. In 1875, major construction projects were started at the four branches, in part to provide more housing, but also to provide more hospital facilities to meet the changing medical needs of the members.
Considering the ages for Civil War participants ranged from 13 to 43 years in 1860, the Home could have expected continuing admissions well into the 20th century. The Board indicated a new understanding of the population makeup when it recommended that Congress change the eligibility requirements for admission to the Home by allowing benefits to all destitute soldiers unable to earn a living, without having to trace their disabilities to their military service. The Board realized that denying benefits to this large group of veterans meant their only recourse was the poor house.
In 1883, the Board, recognizing the changes the Home would face with increased membership and increased medical needs of the members, conceded that an ""institution like the National Home must in time become an enormous hospital."" It concluded that all new buildings for the Home must be planned with that in mind. As a result, the Board asked for Congressional appropriations to enlarge the hospital at the Central Branch and to build a new hospital at the Southern Branch. At the September 1883 Board meeting, the managers considered asking Congress for the transfer of Fort Riley, Kansas, to the Home as a new facility. They understood the fort was likely to be abandoned since the end of most of the Indian Wars, and it would be easily adaptable to Home use. The Board tabled the motion, but the issue of establishing additional branches of the National Home had been raised.
On July 5, 1884, Congress approved the Board's recommendation to change the eligibility requirements for admission, allowing any veterans disabled by old age or disease to apply without having to prove a service-related disability. In effect, the Federal government assumed responsibility of providing care for the aged veterans; what had been established as a temporary asylum for disabled people in 1866, had become a permanent home for the elderly. This legislation provided for expansion of the National Home by authorizing branches to be established west of the Mississippi and on the Pacific Coast.
With the loosening of restrictions, the Home rapidly had an increase of 12% in membership, but it had not gained additional funding from Congress. The Board returned to Congress with a request for deficiency funding, arguing that the Home could either go into debt, which was illegal under its organic law, or it would have to discharge a large number of members to save on expenses.
Expansion at the four original branches proceeded more slowly after 1884. The 1884 Board of Surgeons Report recommended that the Central Branch was already too large and should not be expanded; the severe climate at the Eastern and Northwestern branches should limit their growth; and the Southern branch should not be allowed to grow to more than 1500–2000 members. The surgeons suggested that new branches were a better solution than enlarging the older ones. They also recommended that certain diseases would benefit from treatment at the various branches. The establishment of new branches in the west and on the Pacific coast limited the expansion of the older branches.
In September 1884, the Board selected Leavenworth, Kansas, as a new location, contingent on the city donating a tract of 640 acres (2.6 km2) and $50,000 to provide for ""ornamentation""; the city accepted in April 1885. At the same meeting, the Board took under consideration the establishment of a Pacific Branch; the Sawtelle Veterans Home opened near Santa Monica, California in January 1888. Even with the creation of two new branches, the Board realized that membership would continue to increase; it proposed four alternatives to manage the needs. Additional branches could be established; existing branches could be enlarged; states could be encouraged to erect state soldiers' homes through partial funding from the Federal government; and financial relief to veterans outside the Home system could be increased.
Congress established a new Home branch in Grant County, Indiana, on March 23, 1888, with an initial appropriation of $200,000, based on the county residents' providing natural gas supply sufficient for the heating and lighting of the facility. The site selected was near Marion, Indiana, and the new facility was called the Marion Branch. The Marion Branch was the seventh of ten homes and one sanatorium that were built between 1867 and 1902. These homes were primarily intended to provide shelter for the veterans. The homes gradually developed as complete planned communities, with kitchens, gardens and facilities for livestock, designed to be nearly self-sufficient. It appears that these homes were the first non-religious planned communities in the country.
Additionally, Congress passed legislation to provide $100 annually for every veteran eligible for the National Home who was housed in a state soldiers' home. In 1895, the Indiana legislature authorized the establishment of a state soldiers' home, which was built in West Lafayette, Indiana.
The National Home continued to face problems of overcrowding and the need for more specialized medical care. In 1898, Congress approved an eighth branch, to be established at Danville, Illinois. The Mountain Branch was established in 1903 near Johnson City, Tennessee. The last of the National Home facilities was established as the Battle Mountain Sanitariumt at Hot Springs, South Dakota, in 1907. It was not a full-service branch, but a specialized institution open to members from any of the nine branches who had rheumatism or tuberculosis. Neither disease could be cured at the time, but patients were believed to benefit from the dry air prevalent at that location. Between 1900 and 1910, the Board of Managers were directed most of their attention to developing these three new branches.


== 1916–1930 ==
In 1916, the Board of Managers believed that membership had begun to decline, due to aging and deaths of veterans. But, on April 6, 1917, the United States entered World War I. By the time of the armistice on November 11, 1918, almost five million Americans had entered the armed forces. On October 6, 1917, an amendment to the War Risk Insurance Act, originally enacted in 1914 to insure American ships and cargo against risks of war, extended eligibility for National Home membership to all troops serving in the ""German War."" Most importantly, it provided that all veterans were entitled to medical, surgical and hospital care by the federal government.
Prior to the 1917 amendment, the only veterans entitled to such medical care were members of the National Home who had access to the Home hospitals. All other veterans were dependent on civilian medical services. The 1917 amendment meant that all veterans were eligible for the same medical care as the members of the National Home. Existing hospital facilities at the ten Home branches were insufficient to care for the potentially high number of World War I veterans needing medical care.
In 1919, the responsibility for veterans' services was distributed among several agencies: the United States Public Health Service (PHS) took over the provision of medical and hospital services; the Federal Board for Vocational Rehabilitation organized rehabilitation programs; and the War Risk Insurance Bureau managed compensation and insurance payouts. The burden on PHS government hospitals was so great that the Service began to contract with private hospitals to provide health care for veterans.
On March 4, 1921, in response to the need for veterans' hospitals, Congress appropriated funds to construct additional hospitals for veterans covered by the War Risk Insurance Act amendment. In addition, in 1926 Congress required the Bureau of War Risk Insurance to make allotments to the National Home to fund alterations or improvement to existing Home facilities to care for beneficiaries.
Immediately after the war, the National Home took actions to accommodate the large number of returning veterans:

1) transformed facilities of two branches into hospitals and classified them for specialized care (Marion for neuropsychiatric cases and Mountain for tuberculosis, which were the two classes of illness with the highest numbers of patients),
2) modernized existing facilities and established tuberculosis wards (Central and Pacific); and
3) built entirely new hospitals (Northwestern), using funding from the Treasury Department.
In August 1921, Congress established the Veterans Bureau to manage all veterans' benefits. On April 29, 1922, this agency assumed responsibility for fifty-seven veterans' hospitals operated by the Public Health Service, as well as nine under construction by the Treasury Department.
The participation of African Americans in World War I and issues of racism in US society added to the complexity of caring for veterans. African Americans pressed their case to the federal government, feeling that their service had created an obligation by the government to help them in the war's aftermath. African Americans had difficulty gaining medical care, especially in the South. The federal government authorized construction of what was originally called the ""Tuskegee Home"", now the Tuskegee Veterans Administration Medical Center, on land adjacent to Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Opened in 1923 with 600 beds, it was intended to serve the 300,000 African-American veterans in the South. The complex eventually had 27 buildings, and more than 2300 beds by 1973.
By 1926, the Board began to see a new trend in veterans' use of the National Home. For the most part, the World War I veterans were receiving medical treatment and returning to civilian life, rather than entering the domiciliary program for the Home. The Board noted that hospital care costs were almost three times the cost of domiciliary care, and it required large capital investments in hospitals, medical equipment, and professional staff. By 1928, the Board concluded that it was not capable of managing the National Home as a national medical service.
In June 1929, the president of the Board of Managers was appointed to the Federal Commission for Consideration of Government Activities Dealing with Veterans' Matters. The Commission recommended the founding of the Veterans Administration as a federal agency.
On July 21, 1930, the Veterans Bureau, the Bureau of Pensions, and the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers were consolidated into the Veterans Administration. The National Home was designated the ""Home Service."" In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt's relief program during the Great Depression put a temporary hold on funding for Veterans Administration construction projects, in favor of projects that could quickly put people to work and be completed more rapidly. Two years later, in August 1935, plans were announced for a $20,000,000 building program for the Veterans Administration. Several of the former National Home branches received funding for new medical treatment buildings, domiciliaries, storage buildings, and garages for staff quarters.
On December 7, 1941, another war brought a new period of change to the former National Home. More citizens were drafted for military service. To meet the demand for services after World War II, and later the Korean and Vietnam wars, the former branches of the National Home were expanded and adapted to serve veterans. To ensure high-quality development and training for personnel, in the postwar years the Veterans Administration and its hospital officials worked to establish medical residency programs at veterans hospitals, accredited through collaboration with local and regional universities.
During its life, the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was also known ""officially"" as the National Military Home and colloquially as the Old Soldiers Home. The formal organizational name was not changed by statute. But, the mailing address for most branches became ""National Military Home,"" in the appropriate city and state. In the early days, the designation of ""old soldier"" had no bearing on an individual veteran's age. It was used for all veterans.


== Meals ==
Breakfast meals included ham, sausage, corned beef hash, baked beans with pork, beef fricassee with hominy, potatoes. bread, butterine. Dinners might include string beans, lima beans, dried peas, pickles, pies, roast mutton, soups like vegetable or bean, roast beef and crackers. Supper would be a light fare like stewed dried fruits, watermelons, sugar cookies, tea, fresh berries, corn meal or rolled oats with syrup, cheese and biscuits.
The quantities of food required were enormous, including 2,800 pounds of ham for the Sunday breakfast, or 2,950 pounds of sausage. 1,250 pies were eaten for dinner, 800 pounds of bread at each meal, and so forth. Preparing these meals required 126 cooks, 44 bakers, 18 butchers, 22 bread cutters, along with farm hands, dishwashers, servers and gardeners.


== Branches of the National Homes for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers ==


== References ==


== External links ==

National Archives.gov: National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers",1.2788994312286377
Yellow-headed amazon,"The yellow-headed amazon (Amazona oratrix), also known as the yellow-headed parrot and double yellow-headed amazon, is an endangered amazon parrot of Mexico and northern Central America. Measuring 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) in length, it is a stocky short-tailed green parrot with a yellow head. It prefers to live in mangrove forests or forests near rivers or other bodies of water. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon (Amazona ochrocephala). It is a popular pet and an excellent talker. Poaching for the international pet trade has driven the species to near-extinction in the wild; around half of all wild-caught birds are thought to die in the process.


== Taxonomy ==

This species is part of the Amazona ochrocephala complex, which also includes the yellow-naped amazon (A. auropalliata). This complex, which has been called ""a taxonomic headache"", is considered a single species by some authorities and split into three species by others. The split is mainly based on the amount of yellow in the plumage, the color of the legs and bill, the proximity of A. oratrix and A. auropalliata in Oaxaca, Mexico, without apparent interbreeding, and the presence of both A. ochrocephala and A. auropalliata in northern Honduras. This evaluation has, however, been confused by misunderstandings regarding the plumage variations in the populations in northern Honduras, where birds vary greatly in amount of yellow on the head, crown and nape, but have pale bills and a juvenile plumage matching A. oratrix, but neither A. ochrocephala nor A. auropalliata. In 1997, the population from the Sula Valley in northern Honduras was described as a new subspecies, hondurensis, of A. oratrix. A. auropalliata caribaea on the Islas de la Bahía, which is relatively close to the recently described A. oratrix hondurensis, may have a relatively pale lower mandible, indicating that gene flow may occur between the two. If confirmed, this could suggest that the two are better considered conspecific. Alternatively, it has been suggested that caribaea and parvipes, both typically considered subspecies of A. auropalliata, may be closer to A. oratrix than they are to the nominate A. auropalliata. Both are relatively small and have red on the shoulder like A. oratrix, but unlike nominate A. auropalliata. The members of this complex are known to hybridize in captivity, and recent phylogenetic analysis of DNA did not support the split into the three ""traditional"" biological species, but did reveal three clades, which potentially could be split into three phylogenetic species: a Mexican and Central American species (including panamensis, which extends slightly into South America), a species of northern South America, and a species from the southern Amazon Basin. The Central American clade can potentially be split further, with panamensis (the Panama amazon) and tresmariae (the Tres Marías amazon) recognized as two monotypic species.According to the traditional split, A. oratrix includes the taxa tresmariae (from the Tres Marías Islands), belizensis (from Belize) and hondurensis (from the Sula Valley in northern Honduras) as subspecies. An additional subspecies, magna, has sometimes been recognized for the population on the Gulf slope of Mexico, but today most authorities consider it invalid, instead including this population in oratrix, which also occurs on the Pacific slope of Mexico. In contrast, the population in northwestern Honduras and adjacent eastern Guatemala (near Puerto Barrios), which resembles A. oratrix belizensis and commonly is included in that subspecies, may represent an undescribed subspecies. It has sometimes been referred to as guatemalensis, but until this population is officially described, the name remains provisional.
The origin of the common epithet ""double yellow-headed"" is that this species is differentiated from the others in the yellow-headed amazon complex by possessing both the yellow nape and yellow crown of its two close relatives, hence a ""double-yellow"" head.


== Description ==
The yellow-headed amazon averages 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) long. The shape is typical of amazons, with a robust build, rounded wings, and a square tail. The body is bright green, with yellow on the head, dark scallops on the neck, red at the bend of the wing, and yellow thighs. The flight feathers are blackish to bluish violet with a red patch on the outer secondaries.  The base of the tail also has a red patch, which is usually hidden.  The outer tail feathers have yellowish tips.

The bill is horn-colored (gray), darker in immatures of the Belizean subspecies.  The eye ring is whitish in Mexican birds and grayish in others.  The most conspicuous geographical difference is the amount of yellow.  In adults, the head and upper chest are yellow in the subspecies of the Tres Marías Islands (tresmariae); just the head in the widespread subspecies of Mexico (oratrix); just the crown in Belize (belizensis); and the crown and nape in the Sula Valley of Honduras (hondurensis, which thus resembles the yellow-naped parrot). Immatures have less yellow than adults; they attain adult plumage in 2 to 4 years.
The variety ""Magna"" (or ""Magnum"") is bred for more yellow and commands a premium price as a pet.  Some ""extreme"" Magnas have as much yellow as Tres Marías birds, but are distinguished from them by heavier barring on the chest and a less bluish tint to the green plumage.
Wild birds give low-pitched, sometimes human-sounding screams, but often fly silently (unlike many other parrots).  The calls can be described as ""a rolled kyaa-aa-aaah and krra-aah-aa-ow, a deep, rolled ahrrrr or ahrhrrrr,"" etc.  Young birds make a ""clucking"" sound to indicate that they are hungry.


== Distribution and habitat ==

This species lives in riparian forest and areas with scattered trees, as well as evergreen forest in Belize and mangroves in Guatemala. A notable ecoregion of occurrence is the Belizean pine forests. It occurs singly or in pairs, in small groups, and occasionally in big flocks.  The range formerly included both coastal slopes of Mexico from the Tres Marías Islands and Jalisco to Oaxaca and from Nuevo León to northern Chiapas and southwestern Tabasco, as well as a disjunct area including most of Belize, and another comprising a small part of northeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. However, their numbers have been reduced drastically—by 90%, to 7,000, from the mid-1970s to 1994, and by 68% from 1994 to 2004—because of capture for the pet trade and habitat destruction.
Introduced populations can be found in Stuttgart, Germany, where a recent population of over 50 individuals resides. Smaller introduced populations are to be found in coastal neighborhoods of San Diego, California, including Coronado, Ocean Beach, Pacific Beach, Point Loma, La Jolla, and Imperial Beach; they are also found in Santa Ana, Loma Linda and Pasadena, all also in Southern California. In addition, introduced –and apparently breeding– populations have been reported in Puerto Rico.


== Conservation status ==

The yellow-headed amazon is considered endangered by the IUCN, and is listed under CITES Appendix I, which regulates the international trade of the species including those bred in captivity through a permitting system. Populations range from Central America, through Mexico, and even into the southmost region of Texas. There is an approved CITES Captive breeding program established for this species near Canberra in Australia, located at Priam Psittaculture Centre. Providing a sustainable managed breeding program to assist elevating pressures on wild populations for use in avicultural, research and pets.https://cites.org/eng/common/reg/cb/AU 
The popularity of yellow-headed amazons as a pet continues to fuel poaching efforts, which have nearly driven it to extinction in the wild. Their wild population has declined from 70,000 to 7,000 in the past two decades alone. An estimated 40–60% of poached yellow-headed amazons die before they are sold. The situation for tresmariae, which potentially can be treated as a separate species, is unclear, but its very small range gives cause for concern and some reports indicate it is under considerable threat.
Unscrupulous bird traders may sometimes bleach or dye the feathers of more common parrot species, such as the white-fronted amazon in order to pass them off for sale as (more expensive) yellow-headed amazons. This cruel treatment is often fatal for the birds involved.


== As pets ==

Though only captive-bred yellow-headed amazons may be owned, these are widely available (if somewhat expensive) and their personalities make them highly desirable pets; they have been kept as such for centuries because they are among the parrots that ""talk"" best.  Their vocal abilities are generally bested only by the grey parrot and matched by similar species, such as the yellow-naped parrot. Yellow-headed amazons in captivity appear to have an affinity for both singing and the learning of song – and a naturally powerful, operatic voice.
As in most amazons, nervous plucking of plumage is rare among this species. A generally recognized disadvantage of the yellow-headed amazon and its close relatives (such as the yellow-naped amazon) is hormonal aggressiveness, most notable among males in the breeding season. It is a member of the ""Hot Three"" (referring to the male bird's ""hot"" temper), along with the yellow-naped and blue-fronted. Yellow-headed amazons are known for being ""one person birds"" – bonding to one human, to whom they become fiercely loyal. It is possible, albeit difficult, to mitigate this behavior by ensuring that the bird receives regular and equal attention from other members of the household.
Captive yellow-headed amazons are known for having a large appetite and an appreciation of a wide variety of foods. They are prone to obesity and nutritional deficiencies if the parrot's owner fails to provide adequate opportunities for play and exercise, and overindulges the parrot with treats and table scraps. The World Parrot Trust recommends that yellow-headed amazons be kept in an enclosure with a minimum length of 3 metres at a temperature no lower than 10°C.


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Amazona oratrix at Wikimedia Commons",0.9688532948493958
David Bustill Bowser,"David Bustill Bowser (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, and social activist. He designed battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during the American Civil War and painted portraits of prominent Americans, including U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and abolitionist John Brown. Politically active throughout much of his adult life, he was a contributor to the Underground Railroad and also helped to secure the post-war passage of key civil rights legislation in Pennsylvania.
As a major figure in the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, he designed broadsides and regalia for the organization.
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission has described Bowser as an artist whose ""works were the first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American"". 


== Formative years ==
Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, David Bustill Bowser was a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man who purchased his freedom and went on to become a founding member of Philadelphia's Free African Society, and a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), whose freedom had been purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after he had been arrested for being a fugitive slave.
A member of the prominent Bustill family, he was a cousin and student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., who trained at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and was a pupil of Thomas Sully. David Bustill Bowser also attended the private school operated by Douglass's sister, Sarah Mapps Douglass.
Married to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser and his wife were the parents of artist Raphael Bowser and Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist and music teacher. Respected for their civic engagement and philanthropy, David B. and Elizabeth Bowser supported their family by designing and painting banners, signs, uniform hats and other regalia for fraternal associations, political groups, and volunteer fire companies in and beyond Philadelphia.


== Mid-1800s and the American Civil War ==
During the 1840s, Bowser painted banners for a diverse range of clients, including the Know Nothing Party, and received a commission to paint the portrait of prominent abolitionist and real estate developer Jacob C. White. Active in that decade's efforts to repeal the clause in Pennsylvania's Constitution which prohibited blacks from voting, Bowser and his family also became so involved with the abolition movement that their home became a stop on the Underground Railroad. In 1858, politics and advocacy merged with art when Bower painted the portrait of abolitionist John Brown while Brown was visiting the Bowser home. During this same period, Bowser also completed work on his painting, The Firebell in the Night.

He was active during this phase of his life with the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. As Grand Master of the Order in Philadelphia, he delivered the keynote address at the Annual Moveable Committee of the G.U.O. of O.F. in Toronto, Canada on October 17, 1859, as its members celebrated the organization's thirteenth anniversary. According to news reports, he was ""listened to throughout with much attention, and was frequently rapturously applauded"" as he ""defined in eloquent terms the nature of the work of Odd Fellows — especially that great and leading principle, Charity,"" and ""remarked upon the practical good effected by Odd Fellowship, in alleviating distress and bestowing many of the comforts of life upon the aged and infirm of the Order, as well as conferring benefactions upon the widow and orphan.""

During the American Civil War, Bowser joined with several other prominent members of Philadelphia's African-American community to begin recruiting soldiers in 1862 in the event that the federal government would permit large numbers of black soldiers to enlist following the 1863 announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln. Bowser was then commissioned in early 1863 to design banners and battle flags for eleven of those African-American regiments in preparation for their respective mustering at Camp William Penn, which was located just outside of Philadelphia.

Bowser's work on the first banner was paid for through a commission awarded by the Contraband Relief Association (CRA), an organization headed by Elizabeth Keckley, the formerly enslaved woman who became Mary Todd Lincoln's dressmaker. It was then presented by the CRA to the leaders of 1st United States Colored Infantry. With respect to the other Bowser-designed battle flags, historians at the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission note that:

The 127th and 3rd regiments marched carrying banners reading 'We will prove ourselves men' and 'Rather Die Freemen, Than Live To Be Slaves.' Beneath these, black soldiers protect white women representing Columbia, the symbol of the republic. The 45th's banner, proclaiming 'One Cause, One Country,' shows a black soldier proudly holding an American flag in front of a bust of George Washington as black troops fight in the background. The 24th's banner shows a black soldier ascending a hill, his arms outstretched in prayer, beneath the words 'Let Soldiers in War, Be Citizens in Peace.'
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

For the 22nd USCT banner, Bowser depicted a black soldier pointing ""a bayonet at the chest of a Confederate who has allowed his flag to fall and who is tossing aside his sword,"" beneath the words, ""Sic semper tyrannis"" (""thus always to tyrants""), a phrase which would come to have an entirely different meaning two years later when shouted by John Wilkes Booth after his assassination of Lincoln at Ford's Theater.

In addition, Bowser was involved in the planning of, and presentation at, several large gatherings of African-Americans in Philadelphia during the summer of 1863. The June 24 event, which began at 8 p.m. at Franklin Hall on Sixth Street below Arch, was held to increase support for the Union Army's recruitment of black soldiers. Another event on July 6 filled Philadelphia's National Hall with a standing room only crowd. According to Philadelphia's Press, a ""great many persons in the audience were white, and they all seemed to take a lively interest in the proceedings."" The first orator, the Hon. William D. Kelley, began by announcing, ""the rebel army of Virginia is no more,"" that Virginia was ""henceforth secured to freedom,"" and would ""no longer lead blue-eyed girls or stalwart black men to the slave mart."" Repeatedly interrupted by loud cheers, Kelley ""then asked the black men to stop blacking boots ... to engage in the glorious work of war,"" adding that he ""would not have it said of all the colored regiments of Pennsylvania that there were no Philadelphians in it."" He was followed by abolitionist and orator Anna Elizabeth Dickinson. Enumerating the Union's recent losses and victories, she told the crowd: ""If the North succeeds — if the Union succeeds, it will be by letting all men fight for the stars and stripes. This war is not for the white men or the colored men, or for the flag, or for a military victory, but it is a war of democracy against aristocracy, a war of liberty against slavery."" A lengthy resolution by Professor E. D. Bassett proclaimed, ""Men of color, to arms, now or never!"", and described their present era as ""a golden moment."" Frederick Douglass also rose to speak, and also gave a lengthy address in which he reflected on his life during and after his enslavement and stressed the urgent need for black men to fill up new regiments ""for the purpose of upholding the stars and stripes, and crushing out the rebellion of the slaveholders."" Following a brief poetry reading and musical performance by a concert band, the membership elected a slate of officers, which included the naming of Bowser as one of several vice presidents.
In 1865, Bowser also painted a portrait of Lincoln, working from an image of the president that was later used to create America's post-Civil War five-dollar bill.


== Post-war life ==
Post-war, Bowser continued his involvement with the Grand and United Order of Odd Fellows, ultimately becoming a G.U.O. of O.F. officer, and was also active with several other black fraternal orders but, artistically, his creativity and productivity were limited by his inability to obtain additional major commissions. As a result, he and his wife increasingly turned to designing and producing organizational banners and regalia.
Frequently involved in his community as a civic leader, he also became increasingly active in politics. In 1867, he was appointed by the leadership of the Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, with William D. Forten and Octavius V. Catto, to represent the League in securing ""passage of a bill through the Legislature forbidding the exclusion of persons from public conveyances"" anywhere in Pennsylvania ""on account of race or color."" They were successful.
In 1870, he was selected to preside over the ""jubilee procession"" and ""mass meeting"" which took place at Philadelphia's Horticultural Hall on April 26. Among those in attendance were ""members of the Union League and other prominent citizens,"" including Lucretia Mott, Passmore Williamson and Judge Paxson; the Rev. James A. Jones, who ""opened the proceedings with prayer""; Robert Purvis, who delivered an address; Jacob C. White, Jr., who ""read the proclamation of the ratification of the fifteenth amendment""; and the Hon. Galusha A. Grow, Frederick Douglass, General Harry White, and Alexander P. Colesberry, who subsequently delivered formal addresses. Afterward, the group approved a resolution which ""recognize[d] the Anti-Slavery Society, the Republican party and press, the Equal Rights League, John Brown, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Charles Sumner, William Lloyd Garrison, Horace Greeley, Lucretia Mott, and the whole army of pioneers who spoke or ventured heroic deeds in behalf of their oppressed people, as among the human agencies that crystallized into law the Declaration for which our fathers died; that they regarded the restoration of this privilege as a vindication of popular government, and that therein was recognized their just claims to all the franchises granted to any other class of their fellow-citizens; that in the future, as in the past, they will be found on the side of loyalty and patriotism [with] an unfaltering adherence to the Republican party.""
As vice president of the Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, Bowser was also among those who motivated the organization's membership to meet with President Grant at the White House on November 26, 1872 ""for the purpose ... of urging upon him the importance of recommending in his annual message to Congress, a request kindred to the 'Fifteenth Amendment,' by the recommendation of the passage of such laws as will require that all the citizens of this country shall be protected from insult and outrage on the highways of the nation, and secured in all their 'public rights' — that all may have the full benefit of the unfaltering loyalty which, at the fearful price of life and suffering, we gave to our country; the full benefit of our taxes which we fully, freely and uncomplainingly pay; that ... Congress [will] pass such laws as will protect us in the attempt to exercise and enjoy our civil rights."" According to a report in the December 14, 1872 edition of The Weekly Louisianian, the group ""was very cordially received by the President""; however, while Grant acknowledged that ""[a]ll citizens undoubtedly in all respects should be equal"" and that further protections for their civil rights ""must come,"" he also informed the group that their request ""belong[ed] more properly to the next Administration.""
In 1875, Bowser sued Alfred L. Jones of Baltimore in court for violating his patent of a chromolithographic image that he (Bowser) had designed for the Odd Fellows.


== Death, interment and legacy ==
Bowser died in Philadelphia on June 30, 1900, and was buried at the Eden Cemetery in Collingdale, Pennsylvania.
During the 1940s, a major portion of his legacy was nearly obscured forever when the original Civil War battle flags he had designed were removed from the military museum at West Point, where they had been stored since the war. After the flags were thrown away, all that remained were the seven images described above (under ""American Civil War"").


== References ==


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== External links ==

""David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker"" (placed at the site of Bowser's Philadelphia residence by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission)
Selections of nineteenth-century Afro-American Art (PDF of an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art with information regarding Bowser and his work)
Works by or about David Bustill Bowser at the Internet Archive",0.9772946238517761
Han Huang,"Han Huang (Chinese: 韓滉) (723 – March 17, 787), courtesy name Taichong (太沖), formally Duke Zhongsu of Jin (晉忠肅公), was a Chinese economist and politician of the Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of the Emperor Dezong. He was praised by traditional historians for his frugality and personal integrity, but blamed for being overly harsh and cruel in his governance.


== Background ==
Han Huang was born in 723, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong.  His family was from the Tang dynasty capital Chang'an and traced its ancestry to the royal house of the Warring States period state Han.  It also claimed, as ancestors, a line of officials during the Han dynasty, Jin dynasty (266–420), Northern Wei, Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Sui dynasty, and Tang.  His father Han Xiu was an important official early during the middle of Emperor Xuanzong's reign and briefly served as chancellor in 733.  He had at least five older brothers – Han Hao (韓浩), Han Qia (韓洽), Han Hong (韓洪), Han Huan (韓澣), and Han Hong (韓汯, note different character than his other brother) – and at least three younger brothers – among whom were Han Hun (韓渾) and Han Hui (韓洄).  Han Huang himself was said to be firm and studious in his youth.  Because of his heritage, he was made an officer in the imperial guards early.
In 755, the general and jiedushi (military governor) An Lushan rebelled at Fanyang, and by summer 756 the armies of his new state of Yan were approaching Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xuanzong to flee.  After Chang'an fell to Yan forces, Yan forces tried to force Han Hao to serve in the Yan administration.  Han Hao, Han Hong (韓洪), Han Hong (韓汯), Han Huang, and Han Hun tried to flee Chang'an and join Emperor Xuanzong's crown prince Li Heng, who would be proclaimed emperor at Lingwu (as Emperor Suzong).  However, Han Hao, Han Hong (韓洪) and his four sons, and Han Hun were captured by Yan forces and executed although Han Hong (韓汯) and Han Huang were able to get away.  Emperor Suzong honored the Han family members who were killed with posthumous honors.


== During Emperor Suzong's reign ==
Early in the Zhide era (756–758) of Emperor Suzong, Deng Jingshan (鄧景山) the military governor (Jiedushi) of Qingqi Circuit (青齊, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong) invited Han Huang to be his secretary and the military commander of the militia of Qingqi's capital Beihai Commandery.  However, with the realm engulfed in warfare at the time, Han was not able to report to Qingqi, and he fled to Shannan Circuit (山南, headquartered in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi).  The surveyor of Shannan, Li Chengzhao (李承昭), had Han serve as his secretary.  Subsequently, when Deng was moved to Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), he again asked for Han to serve on his staff, but before Han could report to Huainan, he was recalled to Chang'an, then again under Tang control, to serve as Dianzhong Shiyushi (殿中侍御史), a low-level imperial censor.  However, Han Hong (韓汯) had offended the chancellor Wang Yu by failing to praise Wang with grand words when drafting the edict promoting Wang, and therefore, after Wang became chancellor in 758, he retaliated by putting the Han brothers in positions with no power.  After Wang was removed from his chancellor position in 759, the popular opinion was that they had been unfairly treated, and Han Huang thereafter successively served as Sibu Yuanwailang (祠部員外郎), a low-level official at the ministry of rites (禮部, Lǐbu); Kaogong Yuanwailang (考功員外郎), and then Lìbu Yuanwailang (吏部員外郎), both low-level officials at the ministry of civil service affairs (吏部, Lìbu, note different tone than the ministry of rites).  It was said that Han Huang was capable at evaluating officials and strong in character, and during the five years he served as Libu Yuanwailang, he paid great attention to detail and knew the records well.


== During Emperor Daizong's reign ==
During the Dali era (766–779) of Emperor Suzong's son Emperor Daizong, Han Huang was promoted to be Libu Langzhong (吏部郎中), who supervised the Libu Yuanwailang, as well as imperial attendant (給事中, Jishizhong). At that time, there was an incident where Wei Dang (韋當), the magistrate of Fuping County (富平, near Chang'an) was assassinated. After the assassins were captured, it was discovered that they were members of the Northern Army (北軍), under the command of the powerful eunuch Yu Chao'en. Yu sought a pardon for them on account of their military abilities, but Han Huang submitted a secret petition opposing Yu's request, and the assassins were executed. Han was thereafter made Shangshu You Cheng (尚書右丞), one of the secretaries general of the executive bureau of government (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng). In 770, he was put in charge of selecting officials for the ministry of defense (兵部, Bingbu). In 771, he was made the deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang) and put in charge of the economic affairs for the western half of the empire, replacing Diwu Qi. At that time, the imperial treasury was drained due to chronic wars and corruption. Once Han was in charge, he concentrated on details and stamped out corruption, and whenever he found corruption in his subordinates or in local official, he sought to punish them harshly. Further, by that point, there had been reduced instances of Tufan and Huige incursions and several straight good harvests, and therefore the imperial treasury was able to be replenished. However, it was also said that Han was cruel, unrelenting in his pursuit of money, and stripping all the revenues he could find. As a result, he drew much resentment.
In fall 777, major rainstorms fell on the western parts of the empire. Many of the salt pools at Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) were damaged, but Han, not willing to exempt the taxes from the households in charge of the salt pools, submitted a report claiming that the pools not only were not damaged, but there was an unusual kind of salt being formed that showed good fortune. Emperor Daizong doubted this, and sent the officials Jiang Zhen (蔣鎮) to examine the salt pools. Jiang, after return from Hezhong, confirmed Han's report, and further requested that a shrine be established to celebrate the divine blessing. Emperor Dezong agreed, but this was viewed by popular sentiment as a major scandal at the time. Around the same time, Li Gan (黎幹) the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the Chang'an region) submitted a report stating that the fields of Jingzhao were being heavily damaged. Han, again fearing tax exemptions, stated that there was no damage. One of Li's subordinates, Liu Zao (劉藻) the magistrate of Weinan County (渭南, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), wanted to ingratiate Han, and therefore submitted a report claiming no damage. The imperial censor Zhao Ji (趙計) also confirmed this report, but Emperor Daizong became suspicious and sent another censor, Zhu Ao (朱敖), to reexamine, and Zhu pointed out that much damage was being incurred. Emperor Daizong exiled Liu and Zhao, but did not punish Han.


== During Emperor Dezong's reign ==
In 779, Emperor Daizong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Dezong.  Emperor Dezong had heard about Han Huang's harshness, and therefore stripped him of his financially related responsibilities and made him the minister of worship (太常卿, Taichang Qing), transferring his responsibilities to Liu Yan.  He then sent Han out of Chang'an to serve as the prefect of Jin Prefecture (晉州, in modern Linfen, Shanxi).  Later in the year, he made Han the prefect of Su Prefecture (蘇州, in modern Suzhou, Jiangsu) and governor (觀察使, Guanchashi) of Zhejiang Circuit (浙江東西道).  In 781, he made Han the prefect of Run Prefecture (潤州, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) and military governor (Jiedushi) of Zhenhai Circuit (鎮海, i.e., same area as Zhejiang Circuit).  It was said that Han was an effective governor, and that he comforted the people and balanced the taxes.  However, it was also said that he was harsh, and that whenever local minor officials – often members of strong local clans – committed crimes, he would execute them without mercy, believing that by doing so he would be stamping out potential rebellions against his rule.  For the same reason, he also banned the slaughtering of cattle, under the rationale that beef and wine were often used at feasts that were preludes to rebellions.  He also executed large numbers of people due to allegations of crimes without certainty of their guilt, leading to much terror in the region.
In 783, due to Zhu Ci's rebellion, Emperor Dezong fled from Chang'an to Fengtian (奉天, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi).  With the empire thrown into confusion, Han trained his soldiers in preparation of war, and he also sent soldiers to aid the campaign against another rebel, Li Xilie, who had declared himself the emperor of Chu.  His soldiers were instrumental in aiding the general Liu Qia (劉洽) in recapturing Bian Prefecture (汴州, in modern Kaifeng, Henan) from Li Xilie.  He also prohibited people from entering and exiting Zhenhai Circuit and built fortresses (including rebuilding Shitou) and fleets, under the rationale that if Emperor Dezong decided to evacuate the Chang'an region and flee to the Yangtze River region like what occurred with the Jin dynasty (266–420), Zhenhai could become the emperor's base for recovery, and also to defend against potential attacks by Li Xilie's one-time ally Chen Shaoyou (陳少遊), the military governor of neighboring Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu).  This, however, led to suspicions that he was intending to rule Zhenhai as an effective independent realm.  Meanwhile, though, because he was shipping supplies to Emperor Dezong, Emperor Dezong awarded him the title of Duke of Nanyang.  Emperor Dezong was suspicious of Han's intentions.  However, by 784, after Zhu's rebellion was defeated, with the Chang'an region stricken by a serious famine, at the persuasion of his key advisor Li Mi, he alleviated Han's apprehension by sending Han's son Han Gao (韓皐) to Zhenhai to request that he send food supplies as soon as possible.  In response, Han sent a large supply of rice, causing Emperor Dezong to be very happy with him.  His trust in Han was further enhanced when Chen died later in the year, and Han was able to dissuade Chen's subordinate Wang Shao (王韶) from starting a disturbance to take over Huainan.  He gave Han the honorary chancellor designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事) and put him in charge of the Yangtze-Huai River supply system.  Han was created the Duke of Zheng, and later his title was changed to Duke of Jin.
In 786, Han headed to Chang'an to pay homage to Emperor Dezong – and ultimately, he would remain there until his death, even though he retained the title of military governor of Zhenhai as well.  As he went through Bian Prefecture, he also persuaded Liu Qia, whose name had been changed to Liu Xuanzuo (劉玄佐), to go to Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor as well, by means of making large payments to both Liu and his army.  Once he arrived at Chang'an, he began to exercise actual chancellor authorities, and he attacked the official Yuan Xiu (元琇), whom the chancellor Cui Zao had put in charge of financial affairs for improprieties.  With Emperor Dezong particularly happy about the large shipments of supplies that Han was shipping from Zhenhai to Chang'an, he put Han again in charge of the financial affairs.  In late 786, he tried to defuse the tension between the major general Li Sheng, with him he was friendly, and Zhang Yanshang, by holding feasts (along with Liu Xuanzuo) for them and asking them to be sworn brothers.  He also supported Li Sheng's advocacy for military action against Tufan.
Meanwhile, it was said that Han was so trusted by Emperor Dezong that he had the greatest authority among chancellors.  He was also described to be so harsh that he would even batter minor officials to death within the office of the chancellors.  Fellow chancellor Liu Hun, whom he had recommended, sternly spoke to him about this, and thereafter, it was said that Han was embarrassed and curbed his ways slightly.  He died in spring 787 and was buried with great honors.


== Notes and references ==

Old Book of Tang, vol. 129.
New Book of Tang, vol. 126.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232.",0.7724941372871399
Gordon McClymont,"Gordon Lee McClymont AO (8 May 1920 – 6 May 2000) was an Australian agricultural scientist, ecologist, and educationist.  The originator of the term ""sustainable agriculture"", McClymont is known for his multidisciplinary approach to farm ecology.  McClymont was the foundation chair of the Faculty of Rural Science at the University of New England, the first degree program of its kind to integrate animal husbandry, veterinary science, agronomy, and other disciplines into the field of livestock and agricultural production. In 1978, in recognition of his work and contributions to his field, he was appointed Officer of the Order of Australia.
Born in Australia, McClymont entered the University of Sydney under the sponsorship of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture. After graduating with a bachelor's degree in veterinary science from Sydney and a PhD from the University of Cambridge, he worked as an animal nutrition researcher for the state of New South Wales. Believing that his education had not adequately prepared him for his work, McClymont designed a broader, multi-disciplinary educational approach to the field of livestock and agricultural production. Impressed with his ideas, the  University of New England hired McClymont in 1955 to chair its new department of rural science.
While at the university, McClymont championed his approach to farm and livestock production and sustainability of agricultural ecosystems. Under his direction, the University of New England became a leader in ruminant research. The Australian poultry industry recognized McClymont's contributions to poultry production with a special award in 1967. After his retirement in 1980, McClymont continued to work with the agricultural industry in Australia and consulted with the United Nations and the World Bank on farm issues. In 1996, he expounded his approach to livestock and farm production in the book Rural Science:  Philosophy and Application.


== Early life and undergraduate education ==
McClymont was born on 8 May 1920.  His father was one of seven sons of a Scottish immigrant to Australia. McClymont's father greeted him as a newborn with, ""G'day Bill"" and Bill stuck with him as a nickname for the rest of his life. McClymont's father's brothers resided in rural areas, including in the Orange, New South Wales, region.  Thus, although McClymont grew up in the Sydney metropolitan area, he spent much holiday time as a youth in a rural environment. His activities at his relatives' farms included lamb marking, fruit picking, horse breaking, and pig shooting.  McClymont also became familiar with the local animals and plants.
McClymont attended Chatswood Intermediate High School, where he became interested in science. In his fourth year, he transferred to North Sydney Boys High School. In his Leaving Certificate Exam, taken in 1936, McClymont earned First Class Honours in physics and chemistry, which placed him third and fourth respectively on the New South Wales state honours list.  While in high school, he participated in the Australian Army Cadets in a horse-drawn field artillery unit.
Lacking funds to attend university, a family friend who worked for the New South Wales Department of Agriculture suggested that McClymont apply for a department traineeship. In spite of his lack of formal agricultural training, McClymont passed the exam and interview and was assigned to the University of Sydney's veterinary science program.  Provided with a salary of £110 a year, he entered the university in 1937.
When World War II began in 1939, McClymont joined the Australian Army Veterinary Corps in the 2nd Cavalry Mobile Veterinary Section assigned to his university.  His unit volunteered for overseas duty, but was refused. McClymont joined the Royal Australian Air Force as an aircrew reservist, but was again denied an overseas assignment and ordered to complete his education at Sydney while serving the military in a scientific advisory role. He joined the Volunteer Defence Corps at the rank of sergeant and served weekend duty during the war years at anti-aircraft and radar installations in Australia.
Because of the war, McClymont's final two years of undergraduate study were compressed into 16 months. He graduated in 1941 with a bachelor of veterinary science, First Class Honours, and a gold university medal.


== New South Wales Department of Agriculture ==


=== Early career ===
Immediately after graduation in 1941, McClymont was appointed as a specialist in animal nutrition at the New South Wales Department of Agriculture.  In that position, he was responsible for all extension, advisory work, and policy advice on animal nutrition for the state government.  In one instance during the war, McClymont had to respond to a swine influenza outbreak caused by pig meat imported by American troops stationed in Australia.  While participating in an operation to kill and burn potentially infected suidae in a local piggery, he met his future wife, Vivienne Pecover, sister of the farmer whose pigs were being slaughtered.  The two married in 1946.
From 1947 to 1949, under a Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship, he attended the University of Cambridge from which he earned a doctor of philosophy.  His thesis, called Interrelationships between the digestive and mammary physiology of ruminants, was based on research he had conducted in 1947 in which he discovered that green oat consumption by dairy cows produced milk with less butterfat.  In the thesis, he explained how the complex interaction between environment, climate, soil, plant, and animal physiology and metabolism had combined to produce the lowered milkfat.
After completion of his term at Cambridge, McClymont toured agricultural research centres and colleges in the United States.  While in the US, he gave 15 lectures on his doctoral research.  A number of American agricultural scientists told him later that his lectures had caused them to change their fields of research.  McClymont was not impressed by the agricultural education he observed in Britain or the US, saying that the British focused on estate management while the Americans concentrated on descriptive evaluations of livestock quality.
Upon his return to Australia in 1950, McClymont was reassigned as Officer in Charge of the department's Animal Nutrition Research Laboratory at Glenfield Veterinary Research Station.  At Glenfield, he developed research programs on drought feeding and pregnancy toxaemia in sheep and established a nutritional diagnostic service.
Between 1945 and 1953, McClymont participated in adult education activities to rural areas around New South Wales for the Sydney University Extension Board and New England University College.  New England University College was an extension college of the University of Sydney located in Armidale, New South Wales.  The activities included holding seminars on animal husbandry and agriculture for farmers and graziers.  From 1951 to 1953, McClymont helped New England University College establish facilities and adult classes in animal husbandry and agricultural economics in Walcha, Tamworth, Moree, and Dubbo.


=== Ideas on education ===
McClymont's work experiences caused him to feel dissatisfied with the quality of education he had received in his degree program at Sydney.  He felt the veterinary science specialization was too narrow, especially in the area of animal husbandry and livestock production.  Moreover, he felt the specialization of the discipline did not provide sufficient knowledge in how the overall farm animal production process worked.  For example, as an undergraduate, he received only three lectures on statistics, a skill he had to teach himself during his first few years as an animal nutritionist advisor.  As a result, he took an interest in education and curriculum development.  McClymont later said that he had ""seen the educational deficiencies of narrow specialization, whether of veterinary graduates as specialists in animal health and disease or of agricultural science graduates as specialists in aspects of soil and plants.  I had seen the problems created by such specialized knowledge when exercised without overall understanding.""
In June 1952, two lecturers in veterinary science at the University of Sydney, Doug Blood and Jim Steel, wrote a letter to the Australian Veterinary Journal complaining of their university's placement of animal husbandry as a subordinate topic within veterinary science.  They argued that the field of animal husbandry included ""the procurement of maximum production from the available animals, compatible with their continued health and the maintenance of the natural resources of the land on which they live"" and was worthy of its own profession.  McClymont saw the letter and responded with his own missive to the journal in June 1953.  In his letter, McClymont opined that the field in question should instead be called ""animal production"" and that it should, ""be defined as the integration of animal husbandry and agronomy (the science of pasture and crop production), or in more general terms, manipulation of the soil-plant-animal complex, for the purpose of economic production of animal products"".  He added that the university-level training in the field should include, ""extension work, research, and commercial applications"".  McClymont concluded that university graduates in such a field of study would be prepared to blend veterinary (animal) and agricultural (plant) production sciences to optimize farm animal output.
James Belshaw, Deputy Warden of New England University College, saw the letter and brought it to the attention of the school's advisory council's Special Committee on Animal Husbandry.  At that time, the college was preparing to become an independent university and was looking to differentiate itself with a farm-based degree program that was different from what the University of Sydney had to offer, but which would also be applicable and beneficial to the rural New England area.
With approval from the committee, Belshaw asked McClymont in July 1953 to prepare a paper further explaining his ideas on the topic of educational curricula related to farm animal production.  McClymont's paper, submitted on 8 September 1953, was titled, ""Planning Rural Science and Possible Curriculum"".  In the paper, McClymont further expounded his views and, as the title indicated, suggested that a better name for the prospective faculty would be ""rural science"".  In February 1954, Robert Madgwick, vice-chancellor of the newly independent university, reviewed McClymont's paper.  Convinced by McClymont's reasoning, Madgwick recommended to the university council the establishment of a faculty of rural science.  On 16 October 1954 the University of New England offered McClymont the position of Chair of the soon-to-be established Department of Rural Science.


== University of New England ==


=== Rural science ===
McClymont's appointment to the University of New England Faculty of Rural Science took effect in March 1955, one year after the university's independence.  Upon arrival, McClymont was surprised by the school's humble facilities.  He had to borrow a chair since his office did not have one.  Madgwick had assumed that it would take at least two years to get the new department up and running.  McClymont, however, pointed out to Madgwick that the program could begin accepting enrolments in 1956 because the existing faculty of science could already offer first-year courses in several basic science topics needed for the degree program.
On 11 July 1955, McClymont gave the degree program's inaugural address in the auditorium of nearby Armidale Teachers' College, titled ""All Flesh is Grass"" after a passage in the Biblical Book of Isaiah.  In the speech, McClymont explained his vision for the goals of the rural science program, saying, ""The economic health of this country, and so the standard of civilization which it will support, rests on the fertility of its soils and on the resultant productivity of its pastures, livestock and crops.""
The degree program was the first of its kind to implement a multi-disciplinary approach to farm animal production science.  It combined elements of agronomy, biochemistry, physiology, veterinary science, soil and agricultural ecology (agricultural science), biology, economics, social sciences, and animal nutrition and husbandry to teach students how all these elements interacted to create a productive agricultural ecosystem.  Graduates from the new program were more generalists than specialists in order to help them find and implement original solutions to varied problems with Australia's livestock production, then still struggling with output and sustainability issues.  The impact of the resulting improvements in Australia's livestock production was seen in Australians becoming among the world's biggest per capita meat consumers.
Classes in the degree program began in March 1956 with an initial enrolment of 17 students.  Five hundred students had graduated with bachelors in rural science by the early 1980s.  One hundred sixty graduated with honours.  Seventy had attained master's degrees in the discipline.  Graduates included Bridget Ogilvie, director of the Wellcome Trust, Hugh Beggs, Life Governor of the Australian Sheep Breeders Association and Chair of both the Australian Wool Corporation and the International Wool Secretariat, I Made Nits, Professor of Nutrition and Tropical Forage at Udayana University, and Robert Clements, Director of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.  As of 2005, approximately 1,700 students had passed through the rural science program.
As chair of the department, McClymont advocated and helped establish functionally autonomous agricultural education community centres around the New England area.  The centres, supported by both the Departments of Rural Science and Agricultural Economics, were patterned after university external agricultural centres in the United States.  The centres were financially independent and so avoided control by the university's central administration.
McClymont's writings and lectures while at the university emphasized the importance of sustainability in agricultural ecosystems.  He is considered to be the originator of the term ""sustainable agriculture"".  McClymont diagrammed the key elements of agricultural ecosystems into a series of flowcharts which were often used by other agricultural instructors.  He alerted the agricultural community to the issues involved with feeding grain to livestock while the world was experiencing a shortage of grain.


=== Further activities ===
During the 1960s and 1970s, the University of New England became a prominent international centre in ruminant research.  McClymont published a series of articles in academic journals on biochemistry and animal nutrition, including pregnancy toxaemia in sheep, poultry nutrition, and mineral deficiencies in dairy cattle.  He promoted an original approach to researching metabolic diseases in livestock, utilizing radioactive tracer methods to identify ""the quantitative importance of various metabolites including glucose, volatile fatty acids, B-hydroxybutyrate and long chain fatty acids in ruminant metabolism, and the metabolic interactions between these materials"".
McClymont and Professor R. B. Cumming established the Poultry Research Fund Group at the Tamworth Adult Education Centre to facilitate the exchange of ideas between the university's rural science and agricultural economics departments and the poultry industry.  The group first met on 1 July 1963.  In 1967 McClymont was awarded the Australian Poultry Award for his work in poultry nutrition and with the poultry industry, particularly in the Namoi River region.
In 1967, McClymont proposed the establishment of a School of Biological Sciences at the university because of expansion of the topic within the Department of Rural Science.  The school was founded the next year.
McClymont served on the advisory standing committee of eight for the independent but university-affiliated Kellogg Rural Adjustment Unit.  The formal commencement for the unit was on 1 July 1976, with operations beginning the next year. The name of the organization was later changed to Rural Development Centre.  The purpose of the centre, among other objectives, was to provide education on rural issues and policies, play a role in the development of rural policies, and assist rural communities in adjusting to changes in their cultural and economic environments.

While at the university, McClymont consulted to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.  In 1975 the organization published a booklet he authored, titled Formal Education and Rural Development.  On 26 January 1978, citing his ""service to veterinary science and to agricultural research"", the Commonwealth of Australia designated McClymont an Officer in the Order of Australia.
McClymont retired from the university in 1980 and was appointed an emeritus professor.  Professor J. S. Ryan said, ""Fifty years on, he is widely recognized – and acclaimed – as being so far ahead of his time in recognizing the vital interaction between animal and plant production and in the importance of a healthy ecosystem.""


== Retirement ==
In retirement, McClymont continued to consult with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in its Department of Agricultural Education, Research, and Rural Matters.  In addition, he consulted on agricultural issues with the World Bank.
As an emeritus professor, McClymont observed and commented on issues with the rural science curriculum at New England.  An external review, began in 1979 by the university with help from an independent committee of agricultural specialists from the Australian Academy of Science, recommended curriculum changes, which were implemented in 1982.  The most significant change was increased freedom given to students to choose electives in the fourth year of study, allowing limited specialization in certain subject areas.  McClymont lamented the changes, feeling that they damaged the quality and standing of the rural science degree program.
In 1994, McClymont and New England professor J. S. Ryan began work on the book Rural Science:  Philosophy and Application.  In 1996 a special conference was held at the University of New England to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of the rural science curriculum.  Although he was in failing health, McClymont attended as a guest of honour.  Rural Science was formally presented at the conference.  Said Ryan of the book, ""This work is less of a respective chronicle, but is one arising from a more reflective, forward-looking, questioning, and nationally and globally focused essays"".


== Death ==
After years of struggling with Parkinson's disease, McClymont died on 6 May 2000.  A building on New England's Armidale campus was named after him.  He was survived by his wife, Vivienne, and their four children, daughter Vicky and sons Kim, Glen, and Rod.


== Personality ==
McClymont believed in challenging dogma, which sometimes earned him enmity from colleagues and associates.  J. S. Ryan described McClymont as ""devastatingly honest"", but ""always likeable and compassionate"".  He reportedly placed emphasis on the welfare of his students.  For example, McClymont criticized the 1963 decision by the University Council to abolish room-visiting between female and male students.
McClymont's personal interests included acting, singing, and landscape gardening.  He sang bass in New England's University Choir.


== Awards and honours ==
1941 University of Sydney Medal and First Class Honours
1947 Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship
1967 Australian Poultry Award
1978 Officer of the Order of Australia
1986 Honorary Doctor of Rural Science, University of New England


== Selected publications ==
McClymont, G. L. (1949). Interrelations of the Digestive and Mammary Physiology of Ruminants (Dissertation report to the University of Sydney and Walter and Eliza Hall Trust on research work carried out during tenure of the Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship Dec. 1947-Dec. 1949). University of Cambridge. OCLC 220646122. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
McClymont, G. L. (1953). Raising Dairy Calves. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Agriculture. p. 32. OCLC 21349663. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
McClymont, G. L.; Peter J. Mylrea; G. M. D. Carse; New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Division of Animal Industry (1955). Feeding Pigs for Profit. Sydney: Pettifer. p. 24. OCLC 71108668. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Elkin, Adolphus Peter (editor); Gordon McClymont (1962). ""Chapter No. 8, Plant and Animal Nutrition"". A Goodly Heritage: ANZAAS Jubilee: Science in New South Wales. Organizing Committee of the Thirty-Sixth Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science. Sydney: ANZAAS. OCLC 154164960. Retrieved 23 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
McClymont, G. L. (1975). Formal Education and Rural Development. Occasional paper - Agricultural Education and Extension Service of the Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 23. OCLC 2454354. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (Editor); G. L. McClymont (1996). Rural Science: Philosophy and Application. Armidale, New South Wales: School of Rural Science, University of New England. p. 548. ISBN 978-1-86389-386-2. OCLC 39839079. Retrieved 21 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)


== Notes ==


== References ==
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2012). ""It's an Honour: Australia Celebrating Australians"". Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
Franklin, Margaret Ann, ed. (1988). The New England Experience: Inside Stories of U.N.E. 1938–1988. Armidale, New South Wales: U.N.E. Alumni Association. p. 243. ISBN 0-7316-1631-6. OCLC 27531591. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
Jordan, Matthew (2004). A Spirit of True Learning: The Jubilee History of the University of New England. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-86840-663-3. OCLC 224191137. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Leng, Ron; McClymont, Kim (26 May 2000). ""Professor Bill McClymont, AO"". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
Rural Science Graduates Association (2002). ""In Memorium - Former Staff and Students of Rural Science at UNE"". University of New England. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (1992). A History of Adult Education at and through the New England University College and the University of New England, 1948 to 1980 (Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis). University of New England. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (Editor); G. L. McClymont (1996). Rural Science: Philosophy and Application. Armidale, New South Wales: School of Rural Science, University of New England. p. 548. ISBN 978-1-86389-386-2. OCLC 39839079. Retrieved 21 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
Ryan, J. S. (2007). McClymont's Vision: The Challenge Remains : Rural Science 50th Anniversary Conference 2006. Armidale, New South Wales: University of New England School of Rural Science and Agriculture. p. 205. OCLC 271833401. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S.; Newman, Warren (2008). New England Lives III. Armidale, New South Wales: University of New England. ISBN 978-1-921597-02-2. OCLC 318575037. Retrieved 28 October 2012.


== External links ==
National Library of Australia. ""McClymont, G. L."" (Materials listing). National Library of Australia. Retrieved 26 October 2012.",0.7271831035614014
Primero,"Primero (in English also called Primus, in French Prime, in Italian Primiera or in Spanish Primera), is a 16th-century gambling card game of which the earliest reference dates back to 1526. Primero is closely related to the game of primo visto (a.k.a. prima-vista, and various other spellings), if not the same. It is also believed to be one of the ancestors to the modern game of poker,  to which it is strikingly similar.
The gambling game with this name goes back to the 16th century, being known to Gerolamo Cardano as primiera, which he thought of as the noblest of all card games, to François Rabelais as prime, and to William Shakespeare as primero.


== The origins of Primero ==
It is uncertain if Primero is of Spanish or Italian origin. Although Daines Barrington is of the opinion that it is of Spanish origin, a poem of Francesco Berni is the earliest known writing to mention the game; it affords proof that it was at least commonly played in Italy at the beginning of the 16th century. His work entitled Capitolo del Gioco della Primiera, published in Rome in 1526, and believed to be the earliest extant work describing a card game, contains some particulars on primero. According to David Parlett, the game's card-point system is found in other Italian games but nowhere else. The game is still very much played in central Europe and Spain with Italian-suited cards, under the name of goffo or bambara, remaining the major native vying game of Italy. Alessandro Striggio's  madrigal dramatizing a party of the game ""II gioco di primiera"" was published in 1569.


== Etymology ==
This old game of cards was called prime in France, primera in Spain, and primiera in Italy. All names derived from the Latin primarius, 'first'. In English literature, besides the occasional use of the foreign names, the game is designated primero (and also prima-vista, a probable variant), with the usual corruptions in spelling of the early days.
According to Stephen Skinner, primero and prima-vista are one and the same game. As for John Minshew, primero and prima-vista (Primum et primum visum, that is, first and first seen, because he that can show such an order of cards, wins the game), are two different games of cards.
Whichever opinion these two seventeenth-century lexicographers might have had on the origin of primero, it seems fairly plausible that the game being played in different parts of Europe had to acquire similar names as it migrated from one country to another, or from one region to the other, notably in Italy and Spain. And with the addition of new rules to the original set of rules, or even variations on the rules that the game devised, it finally reached a level of development that made them become separate games, despite their common origin. So, as the Italian writer Berni said: ""The game is played differently in different places.""


== The gamblers ==

Daines Barrington described an Elizabethan card party painted by Federico Zuccari that originally belonged to Lord Falkland in which Lord Burleigh is represented playing at cards with three other persons, apparently of distinction, each having two rings on the same fingers of both their hands. The cards used are marked as at present, although they differ from those of modern times for being narrower and longer. Eight of the cards lie on the table with the blank side uppermost, for the cards at that time had blank backs, while four remain in each of the other players hands. A particular in this painting is that one of the players is seen showing his cards, which are: the jack (knave) of hearts, the ace, 7 and 6 of clubs. The cover of the pack lying on the table displays two lions supporting a shield, upon which is what appears to be a heraldic rose (the crest of the Tudors), and underneath, though indistinctly, the partially illegible name of a French card-maker Jehan Licl**rer. This particular shows that the cards then used were at least sometimes obtained from France. The money on the table, together with considerable heaps of gold and silver, appears to be coins of Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth I.
As the first Marquess of Exeter, Lord Burleigh, is said to have entirely devoted his time to business and study, taking no diversion but that afforded by his gardens, of which he was both fond and proud, it is to be supposed that this painting was not actually a portrait of him, though mistaken for his, as was the ownership of the old manor-house of Wimbledon. So, there seems to be little doubt here as for which game the artist meant to describe, and that the person exhibiting his cards to the spectators had won a lush, for his three clubs are the best cards for counting.
A passage in an old play by Robert Greene has been quoted by several writers as evidence that primero was a gambling game. But a person who objects to cards, might make such a remark with respect to any card game, whether a gambling game or not. Judging from the partial descriptions of the game which remain to us, it might seem that primero was played for either large or small stakes, as agreed upon. John Florio describes primero played by two persons for ""one shilling stake and three rest (pool)."" In Minsheu's ""Spanish Dialogues"",  four play; the stake is two shillings and the rest, eight. The text is self-explanatory, explaining also the meaning of the name primero.


== Primero and the Tudor dynasty ==
Primero appears to have been one of the earliest card games played in England during the Renaissance and the Tudor dynasty, and certainly it continued to be one of the most fashionable games throughout the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I of England, Elizabeth I and James I, due to the frequent mention of it by many writers of that time. Already during the reign of Henry VII, notices of money issued several times for the King's losses at cards appear in the Remembrance's Office, dated December the 26th, in the ninth year of his reign. There, an entry is made of one hundred shillings paid at one time to him for the purpose of playing at cards. The private expenses of Princess Mary, Henry VIII's daughter and later Queen, also contain numerous items of money ""for the playe at cardes"". But despite the records, it is not certain that primero found its way to England previously to the marriage of Queen Mary I with Philip II of Spain, although there is no doubt that his coming to England from the court of Charles V would have cause it to be more generally known and played. William Shakespeare also speaks of Henry VIII playing at primero with his brother-in-law Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and makes Falstaff say: ""I never prospered since I forswore myself at primero."" Additionally, the clown Lancelot in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice confides in this father that ""for mine own part, as I have set up my rest to run away, so I will not rest till I have sun some ground"" (2.2.91-92). To ""set up [one's] rest"" alludes to a type of gamble in the Italian version of primero (see below).  Among the epigrams of John Harington we have one which describes ""The Story of Marcus' Life at Primero"", in which many of the terms of the game are developed in detail.


== Evolution and decline ==
Judging by the pattern of succession of games during the Renaissance, many of the card games played throughout Europe, ascended in popularity to be later replaced by another type of game, again brought into England by the court gamester of that time. So that, by the last quarter of the 16th century, primero had already decreased in popularity, and was gradually replaced by the trick-taking game maw, the favorite card game of James I, and alluded by Harington as supplanting primero. According to Charles Cotton, primero, which by the time of the Restoration in 1660 had already evolved into many other variations, some of six cards, rapidly went out of fashion with the introduction of the Spanish game of Ombre.


== Rules of the game ==
The object of the game, as in poker, is to attain the highest possible hand, or at least bluff your competitors out of betting against you. There are no existing written rules for the 16th-century primero, only descriptions. However, a number of reconstructions of the game have been made, primarily on the basis of books describing playing strategy and references in period literature.


=== The play ===
Primero is played with a 40-card deck, and there are special decks made for this game. It works best with four to six players. The player who holds the prime, a sequence of the best cards and a good trump, is sure to be successful over the adversaries – hence the game's name.


=== English version ===
Because this is a gambling game, the first step is for all players to ante into the pot. The deal is counter-clockwise, starting with the dealer. Each player receives 4 cards dealt in 2's from a 40-card deck ranking K Q J 7 6 5 4 3 2 A. Anyone dealt a winning combination calls for an immediate showdown, and the player with the best hand wins the pot. Two cards go to each player, which is followed by the next phase of betting, and two more cards are dealt to each player. Then either eight cards are dealt face down on the table or the remaining cards are left out as a draw pile or stockpile.
In the eight-card version, eight cards are laid out on the table, and players may draw and discard from only these. When a player is satisfied with his cards, he may knock on the table, calling out: Vada (go!), which brings an immediate showdown won by the best hand. If no one bets, the stakes are carried forward to the next deal; but if one stays in, at least one other must contest the pot, this obligation ultimately falling upon the player immediately ahead of the last bettor if everyone else has folded. In a showdown, the better equal combinations are those with the highest point. Thus, a quartet of aces (4x16=64) beats a quartet of 5s (60), but it's beaten by four 6s (72). Four kings will not beat four queens or jacks, as these hands all count 40. Such ties are broken in favor of the eldest hand competing.
Players vie or vye by stating how high a hand they claim to have, and may bluff by overstating it. What they apparently must not do is to underbid their hands; for as Cardano puts it: ""If anyone wins with the greatest point, he is obliged to show another card; otherwise he loses his deposit because he could have a 'Flush'... Similarly, if he 'vies' on the basis of point, he is obliged to show two different cards and one of a matching suit, so that no one may suspect him of having a 'Flush' or 'Prime'.""
A player may either knock or draw in a turn, but not both. Once a player knocks, he may no longer draw. When two players have knocked, the play stops, and cards are shown. Betting starts after the two cards are dealt, and may continue after these two cards have been dealt, and then at every round, just before the dealer's turn. The dealer always bets first. Players may match, raise, or fold any time during wagering. If all players refuse a bet, it must be withdrawn.


=== Italian version ===
In Rome, the full 52-card deck was used. In Florence, it is custom to leave out the 7s, 8s and 9s, keeping and vying only with the smaller cards; the ""rest"" (to set up a rest means 'to win [something]', and is a phrase which occurs in almost every poem in the times of James and Charles. It is taken from terms used at primero, and perhaps other games then played) is made at the second card, and when the first player say ""pass"", every one is obliged to discard, notwithstanding any one may have an ace or a 6 in hand. In Venice, for instance, the mode of playing may be different; in Lombardy, Naples, France and Spain, so many countries, so many customs. But of all the modes, none can be superior to that of the court of Rome. There, the 7s, 8s and 9s are not withdrawn; there it is allowed to discard, but not both cards after ""pass"" is once said; nor can this be done with the two cards of the rest, as it is usual in other places. The most essential operation of this game may be its two principal hands, the flush and the primera, and a third, derived from the first, which is called punto; from these three are deducted all the varieties which daily occur at primero, as the greater and lesser flush, the great and little prime, and more or less points; this diversity gives rise to numerous controversies and disputable points. Another excellent hand in this game is four-of-a-kind; four court cards, four aces, etc., beat both the flush and primera.


=== Spanish version ===
Jacob Le Duchat, in a note on that chapter of Rabelais, in which the games Gargantua played at are enumerated, has described the mode of playing primero, and a similar account may be gathered from the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy. According to Duchat, there are two kinds of primero, the greater and the lesser; the difference between them is that the former is played with the figured cards, while at the latter the highest card is the 7, which counts for 21. Each player has four cards, which are dealt one by one. the next card in value to the 7 is the 6, which counts for 18; then the 6, which counts for 15. The ace is equivalent to 6 points, but the 2 (deuce), the 3 (trey) and the 4 count only for their respective numbers. To these cards may be added, if the players choose, the quinola, for which the jack of hearts is most commonly chosen, and of which he may make what card and what colour he likes. After which each of the players show their four cards, and he whose cards are all of different sorts wins the prime, if they are all of one colour he wins the Flush.
Meanwhile, according to the Great Spanish Dictionary, is played by dealing four cards to each player; the value of the 7, 6 and ace, are the same; but the 2 is said to count for 12, the 3 for 13, the 4 for 14, and the 5 for 15, the figured cards are each equivalent to 10. The best hand is the flush, that is, four cards of high numbers and one of one colour; the next is the punto(supremus), consisting of the quinola, 7, 6, and ace, which count for 55; then the primera, or prime, which is four cards of different suits. Should two persons have flushes, the player who counts the highest number, or the greatest flush wins, and the same regulation holds good in regard to the prime. But should there be neither flush nor prime, the one who can count the most points in one suit wins.


== See also ==
Ambigu
Bouillotte
Brelan
Gilet
Post and pair
Put (card game)
Three-card brag


== References ==


== External links ==

Game Report: ""Primero – Reconstructed from primary and tertiary sources"", Justin du Coeur, 2003
""Primero: A Renaissance Cardgame"", Jeff A. Suzuki, 2007; another reconstruction of the game",0.8286628127098083
Nisaba,"Nisaba was the Mesopotamian goddess of writing and grain. She is one of the oldest Sumerian deities attested in writing, and remained prominent through many periods of Mesopotamian history. She was commonly worshiped by scribes, and numerous Sumerian texts end with the doxology ""praise to Nisaba"" as a result. She declined after the Old Babylonian period due to the rise of the new scribe god, Nabu, though she did not fully vanish from Mesopotamian religion and attestations from as late as the neo-Babylonian period are known.
In myths and god lists, she was a part of the circle of Enlil, alongside her husband Haya. In the myth Enlil and Sud she plays an important role due to being the mother of the eponymous deity. Enlil seeks her permission to marry Sud with the help of his sukkal (attedant deity) Nuska. Both this narrative and other sources attest that she and her daughter were regarded as very close.
Outside Mesopotamia her name was used to logographically represent these of other gods, not necessarily similar to her in character, including Syrian Dagan, Hurrian Kumarbi and Hittite Ḫalki.


== Name ==
The origin of Nisaba's name is unknown. The widely accepted reading, Nisaba, has been confirmed by Akkadian lexical texts spelling the name syllabically as ni-sa-ba. The reading Nidaba, originally favored by some Assyriologists, for example Miguel Civil, now regarded as implausible, as the evidence is very scant, and might simply constitute recurring scribal errors. The name Nisaba was originally written using a combination of the cuneiform sign 𒉀, called NAGA, accompanied by the dingir, 𒀭, so-called ""divine determinative"" preceding names of deities. The NAGA sign is assumed to be a pictogram representing a plant, possibly later interpreted as a sheaf of barley. The same sign, though with a different determinative added, was also used to write the name of Nisaba's main cult center, Eresh. While the true etymology of Nisaba's name is generally considered impossible to determine, Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that it was derived from a hypothetical form nin.sab(a).ak, ""Lady of Saba,"" but as no such a place name is attested in Sumerian sources this is regarded as implausible. Another proposal explains it as nin-še-ba-ak, ""lady of grain rations.""
It has been proposed that a variant form of the name, Nišpa, was used in Mari, perhaps as a syllabic rather than logographic spelling. However, it has also been argued that this deity, attested only in a single Amorite personal name, Ḫabdu-Nišpa, instead corresponds to Nišba rather than Nisaba. Nišba was most likely a deified mountain, and appears in inscriptions of Iddin-Sin of Simurrum and Anubanini of Lullubum. It has also been argued that the mountain was regarded as holy by the Gutians. Furthermore, a certain KA-Nišba was the ruler of Simurrum during the reign of the Gutian king Erridupizir. The mountain corresponding to Nišba is assumed to lie northeast of modern Sulaymaniyah, though there is no agreement which landmark bore this name.
An alternate name of Nisaba was Nanibgal (Sumerian: 𒀭𒉀 DAN.NAGA; later 𒀭𒊺𒉀 DAN.ŠE.NAGA), though this name also functioned as a name of a distinct goddess. Yet another name applied to her was Nunbarshegunu.


=== Epithets ===
Nisaba's epithets include ""lady of wisdom,"" ""professor of great wisdom"" (geštu2 diri tuku-e) ""unsurpassed overseer"" (ugulu-nu-diri; ugula is an office known for example from Eshnunna, conventionally translated as ""overseer""), and ""opener of the mouth of the great gods."" Names of a number of distinct goddesses could also serve as epithets of Nisaba, including Aruru, Ezina-Kusu and Kusu (in this context meaning ""goddess filled with purity""), without necessarily implying identification of the deities with each other.


== Functions ==
Piotr Michalowski describes Nisaba as ""the goddess of grain and the scribal arts in the widest sense of this word, including writing, accounting and surveying."" She was also associated with literature and songs. It is commonly assumed that she was an agricultural deity in origin, but started to be associated with writing after its invention. However, it is agreed that in Sumerian texts the latter association is regarded as primary. In the texts forming the curriculum of scribal schools she is the deity most commonly associated with literacy, numeracy and related implements.
Due to her primary function Wilfred G. Lambert regarded her gender as unusual, noting that ""female scribes were very rare"" in historical records. However, as proven by Eleanor Robson, it was not uncommon for goddesses to be regarded as literate in Sumerian mythology, and individual goddesses are regarded as such twice as often as individual gods in texts from the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. Various compositions include references to many other goddesses writing, using measuring tools or performing other tasks associated with literacy and numeracy, including Inanna, Manungal, Geshtinanna, Ninisina, Ninshubur (counted by Robson as male, but usually regarded as primarily female) and even a minor  lamma goddess serving Bau.
As a goddess of wisdom Nisaba was believed to bestow it upon rulers, as attested in compositions associated with Lipit-Ishtar and Enlil-bani. Scribes' right to teach others their craft was likewise believed to be bestowed upon them by her.
The Curse of Agade lists her among the most prominent deities, alongside Sin, Enki, Inanna, Ninurta, Ishkur and Nuska. This grouping is regarded as unusual by researchers.
In late texts Nisaba commonly appears simply as the deification of grain, though there are exceptions. A prayer known from a compilation of texts about goddesses from neo-Assyrian Kalhu still refers to her as the ""queen of wisdom."" It also appears that in the first millennium BCE she acquired an association with exorcisms.


== Iconography ==
It has been proposed that some depictions of so-called ""vegetation deities"" known from the art of the Early Dynastic and Akkadian periods are representations of Nisaba. For example, it is commonly assumed that the goddess with stalks of vegetation decorating her crown, depicted on a fragment of a stone vase, likely from Girsu (presently in the Pergamon Museum), is Nisaba. Kathleen R. Maxwell-Hyslop points out that she is however not mentioned in the accompanying inscription, and other identifications are possible, including Bau.


== Association with other deities ==
As a grain deity, Nisaba was sometimes regarded as synonymous with the goddess Ashnan, though most primary sources, including god lists and offering lists, present them as fully separate. It has also been proposed that she was the same goddess as Ezina and Kusu, but all three of them appear separately in offering lists from Lagash. Syncretic associations possibly present in ancient scholarship did not necessarily translate into cultic practice.
The goddess Ninimma, regarded as the personal scribe of Enlil, was sometimes associated with and possibly acquired some of the characteristics of Nisaba due to fulfilling a similar role in the pantheon of Nippur. In god lists she often follows the latter and her spouse.


=== Family and court ===
Nisaba's husband was Haia, possibly regarded as a god of seals. He was a deity of relatively low rank. Compared to other divine couples (Shamash and Aya, Ishkur and Shala, Ninsianna and Kabta, Enki and Damkina, Lugalbanda and Ninsun and others) they are invoked together extremely rarely in seal inscriptions, with only one example presently known. In one explanatory text, Haya is described as ""Nisaba of prosperity"" (Nisaba ša mašrê).
Their daughter was Sud, the city goddess of Shuruppak, in later periods fully conflated with Enlil's wife Ninlil.
According to the god list An = Anum, Nisaba had two sukkals (attendant deities), Ungasaga and Hamun-ana.
In god lists, she usually appears in the section dedicated to relatives and servants of Enlil.
Multiple traditions regarding Nisaba’s origin are known, and her parentage is not regarded as fixed in ancient tradition. She was described either as the firstborn daughter of Enlil, as his mother in law, or possibly as his twin sister. Her mother is usually said to be Urash.  In a first millennium BCE text from Kalhu, which is also the source attesting that she could be viewed as Enlil's twin, her father is Ea, equated with Irḫan, in this context understood as a cosmic river, ""father of the gods of the universe."" Elsewhere Irḫan was often associated with Ishtaran. Wilfred G. Lambert notes that the text ""seems to imply a desire not to have Anu as Nisaba's father,"" though attestations of the sky god in this role are nonetheless known from other sources.


=== Nisaba and Nabu ===
Nabu gradually replaced Nisaba as a deity of writing in what has been described by Julia M. Asher-Greve as ""the most prominent case of a power transferred to a god from a goddess"" in Mesopotamian history. However, the process was complex and gradual. In the Old Babylonian and early Kassite periods Nabu’s cult was only popular in central Mesopotamia (Babylon, Sippar, Kish, Dilbat, Lagaba), had a limited extent in peripheral areas (Susa in Elam, Mari in Syria) and there is little to no evidence of it from cities such as Ur and Nippur. Nabu has relatively few epithets in god lists from the second millennium BCE as well.
In late bronze age Ugarit Nisaba and Nabu coexisted, and colophons of texts reveal that a number of scribes described themselves as ""servant of Nabu and Nisaba."" Similar evidence is also known from Emar.
Andrew R. George assumes the reason why Nabu replaced Nisaba, while other deities associated with writing did not, was due to the generalized character of his connection to this art. He points out that while Ninimma and Ninurta were also associated with writing, the former occupied a different niche from Nisaba (which he compares to them functioning as a librarian and as a scribe or scholar, respectively), while the latter was only a divine scribe as an extension of his role as the archetypal good son helping his elderly father with his various duties (in this case - writing down Enlil's judgments on the Tablet of Destinies).


=== dNISABA as logographic writing of other deities' names ===
In some documents from Syrian cities, for example Halab, the logogram dNISABA designates the god Dagan, while in Hurrian texts - Kumarbi. According to Alfonso Archi, both of these phenomena have the same source. In cities such as Ugarit, Dagan's name was homophonous with the word for grain (dgn in alphabetic Ugaritic texts), and the logographic writing of his and Kumarbi's names as dNISABA was likely a form of wordplay popular among scribes, relying on the fact that Nisaba's name could simply be understood as “grain” too. In theological texts, both Kumarbi and Dagan were compared to each other and Enlil rather than Nisaba due to all three of them playing the role of “father of gods” in their respective pantheons.
The name of the Hittite grain goddess Ḫalki could be represented by the logogram dNISABA too.


== Worship ==

Nisaba is one of the tutelary goddesses of specific cities already attested in the most ancient written sources, a status shared with Ezina, Nanshe, Inanna of Uruk and Inanna of Zabalam. Eresh was her original cult center, and there is evidence it was a city of considerable importance in the Early Dynastic times, including a reference to a possible king (lugal). Its existence is attested from between Uruk IV and Old Babylonian periods, though only a single reference, a year name of Sin-Muballit of Babylon, postdates the Ur III period. It is therefore assumed that it gradually declined, and that as a result its deities were transferred to Nippur.
It is assumed that Nisaba acquired broader significance outside her city in the Early Dynastic period already. She was worshiped in Shuruppak, Urukagina of Lagash left behind inscriptions in which he refers to her, while Lugalzagesi of Umma considered her his personal tutelary deity, and described himself as her high priest (lu-maḫ). She is also one of the goddesses mentioned in inscriptions of Naram-Sin of Akkad.
Temples of Nisaba attested in textual sources include E-mulmul (""house of stars"") in Eresh and Edubbagula (""large store house"") in the Girsu-Lagash area. In Nippur she was worshiped in the temple of her daughter Ninlil alongside Nintinugga, Ninhursag and Nanna. A festival of Nisaba is also attested from Umma. The term ""house of wisdom of Nisaba"" is known from many texts, and Andrew R. George assumes that at least two shrines of Nisaba, one in Eridu and another in Uruk bore such a name. However, it is also possible this term functioned as a generic designation of scribal institutions.
In letters from the Old Babylonian period, Nisaba appears less often than the most popular goddesses (Ishtar, Ninsianna, Aya, Annunitum, Sarpanit, Gula) but more commonly than Ninlil or Nanshe. Old Assyrian evidence includes three references to Nisaba as a family deity. A reference to a prayer ""before Ashur and Nisaba"" is known from the same period and might be another attestation of her as a tutelary deity of a specific individual or family, like other similar prayers to Ashur and a second deity. Later she continued to be worshiped in the territories of the First Sealand dynasty.
In later periods Nisaba did not entirely cease to be an object of worship, though she largely existed ""in the shadow of Nabu."" She nonetheless acquired a new role one of the goddesses most commonly invoked in exorcisms, next to Kusu and Ningirima. Additionally, as late as during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I references were made to ""wisdom of Nabu and Nisaba.""
While references to Nisaba are known from texts from Ebla, Emar, Ugarit and Mari, it is uncertain whether she had an active, official cult anywhere outside Babylonia with the exception of the last of the aforementioned cities, where she is present on offering lists most likely dated to the reign of Yahdun-Lim or earlier.
As the choice of a personal god was often based on profession, Nisaba was a popular object of devotion among scribes. As an extension of this phenomenon, many Sumerian texts end with the formula ""praise Nisaba,"" and some invoke her in the beginning too. Most cylinder seals of scribes from Lagash show a female deity, though it is uncertain if she can be always identified as Nisaba. Other deities commonly attested in personal names of members of this profession include Ninimma (in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods) and Nabu (in the first millennium BCE).


== Mythology ==
In mythological texts Nisaba is portrayed as the scribe and accountant of the gods. Many compositions mention her literacy, with over a half of the references to literacy and numeracy of goddesses in the texts included in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature referring to her according to a survey conducted by Eleanor Robson. In the myth Enki and the World Order, she is entrusted  by Enki with measuring the land and with overseeing the harvest. In the Kesh Temple Hymn, she is tasked with writing down Enlil's words of praise for the city of Kesh. In this text the process of writing down words on a tablet is described in poetic terms as comparable to making a necklace out of individual beads.
According to various texts Nisaba was believed to be equipped with a lapis lazuli tablet inscribed with ""heavenly writing,"" a term related to poetic comparisons between cuneiform signs and stars. It has also been suggested that it might be connected to the well attested practice of consulting the constellations to determine the best time for cultivation of specific crops.
Nisaba is also mentioned in the myth Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana, in which Sagburu, a native of Eresh described as ""wise woman"" mockingly notes that the antagonist, Urgirinuna from Hamazi, was foolish to think he could engage in sorcery in Nisaba's city. The passage hints at a close bond between Nisaba and her daughter, as Eresh is called ""the beloved city of Ninlil."" While references to goddesses breastfeeding are very rare in Mesopotamian literature, one of the few known exceptions refers to Nisaba and Sud.
Nisaba plays a central role in the myth Enlil and Sud. Much like in other sources, she is represented as a goddess of wisdom and mother of Sud. Enlil, represented unusually as a young bachelor, seeks to gain her permission to marry her daughter. Enlil's sukkal Nuska negotiates with her on his behalf. Nisaba, pleased with the latter's conduct and the gifts he brought for her and Sud, agrees to the proposal, and bestows various blessings on her daughter.
A late Akkadian composition known from Assur and Sultantepe describes a debate between Nisaba and personified wheat. In this text she is called the ""Mistress of the underworld,"" an otherwise unknown association.


== Unicode for the cuneiform sign NAGA ==
Unicode 5.0 encodes the NAGA sign at U+12240 𒉀 (Borger 2003 nr. 293). 
AN.NAGA is read as NANIBGAL, and AN.ŠE.NAGA as NÁNIBGAL. NAGA is read as NÍDABA or NÍSABA, and ŠE.NAGA as NIDABA or NISABA.
The inverted (turned upside down) variant is at U+12241 𒉁 (TEME), and the combination of these, that is the calligraphic arrangement NAGA-(inverted NAGA), read as DALḪAMUN7 ""whirlwind"", at U+12243 𒉃. DALḪAMUN5 is the arrangement AN.NAGA-(inverted AN.NAGA), and DALḪAMUN4 is the arrangement of four instances of AN.NAGA in the shape of a cross.


== References ==


=== Bibliography ===


== External links ==

Enlil and Sud
A Hymn to Nisaba
Senhora tingida como as estrelas celestes (Hino a Nisaba) (Portuguese translation of a hymn to Nisaba, by G. Lentz)",0.9431998133659363
"Juneau, Alaska","Juneau (  JOO-noh; Tlingit: Dzánti K'ihéeni [ˈtsʌ́ntʰɪ̀ kʼɪ̀ˈhíːnɪ̀] transl. Base of the Flounder's River), officially the City and Borough of Juneau, is the capital of the U.S. state of Alaska, located along the Gastineau Channel and the Alaskan panhandle. Juneau was named the capital of Alaska in 1906, when the government of what was then the District of Alaska was moved from Sitka as dictated by the U.S. Congress in 1900. On July 1, 1970, the City of Juneau merged with the City of Douglas and the surrounding Greater Juneau Borough to form the current consolidated city-borough, which ranks as the second-largest municipality in the United States by area and is larger than both Rhode Island and Delaware.
Downtown Juneau is nestled at the base of Mount Juneau and it is across the channel from Douglas Island. As of the 2020 census, the City and Borough had a population of 32,255, making it the third-most populous city in Alaska after Anchorage and Fairbanks, but the sixth-least populous U.S. state capital. Juneau experiences a daily influx of 21,000 people or more from visiting cruise ships between the months of May and September.
The city is named after a gold prospector from Quebec, Joe Juneau, although it was once called Rockwell and then Harrisburg (after Juneau's co-prospector, Richard Harris). The Tlingit name of the town is Dzántik'i Héeni transl. Base of the Flounder's River, and Auke Bay just north of Juneau proper is called Áak'w (transl. Little Lake) in Tlingit. The Taku River, just south of Juneau, was named after the cold t'aakh wind, which occasionally blows down from the mountains.
Juneau is unique among U.S. state capitals in that there are no roads connecting the city to the rest of the state or to the contiguous United States. Honolulu, Hawaii, is the only other state capital which is not connected by road to the contiguous United States. The absence of a road network is due to the extremely rugged terrain surrounding the city. In turn, Juneau is a de facto island city in terms of transportation; all goods coming in and out must be transported by plane or boat despite the city's location on the Alaskan mainland.
Downtown Juneau sits at sea level with tides averaging 16 feet (5 m), below steep mountains about 3,500 to 4,000 feet (1,100 to 1,200 m) high. Atop the mountains is the Juneau Icefield, a large ice mass from which about 30 glaciers flow; two of them, the Mendenhall Glacier and the Lemon Creek Glacier, are visible from the local road system. The Mendenhall Glacier has been gradually retreating; its front face is declining in width and height.
The Alaska State Capitol in downtown Juneau was built as the Federal and Territorial Building in 1931. Prior to statehood, it housed federal government offices, the federal courthouse, and a post office. It also housed the territorial legislature and other territorial offices, including that of the governor. Today, Juneau is the home of the state legislature and the offices of the governor and lieutenant governor. Some executive branch offices have moved certain functions to Anchorage and elsewhere in the state.


== History ==

The Gastineau Channel was a fishing place for the Auke (A'akw Kwáan) and Taku tribes, who had inhabited the surrounding area for thousands of years. The A'akw Kwáan had a village and burying ground here. In the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the spawning season.
Since the late 20th century, the A'akw Kwáan, together with the Sealaska Heritage Institute, have resisted European-American development of Indian Point, including proposals by the National Park Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). They consider it to be sacred territory, both because of the burying ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboot chitons, grass, and sea urchins, as well as tree bark for medicinal uses.
The city and state supported the Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78 acres (32 ha) site, and in August 2016, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. ""It is the first traditional cultural property in Southeast Alaska to be placed on the register.""
Descendants of the indigenous cultures include the Tlingit people. Native cultures have rich artistic traditions expressed in carving, weaving, singing, dancing, and in oral lore. Juneau is a social center for the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian of Southeast Alaska.


=== European encounters ===

Although the Russians had a colony in the Alaska territory from 1784 to 1867, they did not settle in Juneau. They conducted extensive fur trading with Alaskan Natives of the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak.
The first European to see the Juneau area was Joseph Whidbey, master of the Discovery during George Vancouver's 1791–95 expedition. He and his party explored the region in July–August 1794. Early in August he viewed the length of Gastineau Channel from the south, noting a small island in mid-channel. He later recorded seeing the channel again, this time from the west. He said it was unnavigable, being filled with ice.


=== Mining era and naming ===
After the California gold rush, miners migrated up the Pacific Coast and explored the West, seeking other gold deposits. In 1880, Sitka mining engineer George Pilz offered a reward to any local native in Alaska who could lead him to gold-bearing ore. A local native arrived with some ore, and several prospectors were sent to investigate. On their first trip to Gold Creek, they found deposits of little interest. However, Pilz sent Joe Juneau (the cousin of Milwaukee co-founder Solomon Juneau) and Richard Harris back to the Gastineau Channel, directing them to Snow Slide Gulch (the head of Gold Creek). According to the Rev. Samuel Young, in his book Alaska Days with John Muir, Juneau and Harris decided to explore their party's campsite at the creek head in the summer of 1879. They found nuggets ""as large as peas and beans"" there, in Harris' words.
On October 18, 1880, the two men marked a 160-acre (650,000 m2) town site and soon a mining camp sprang up. Many miners arrived within a year and the camp became a village, albeit made up mostly of tents and shacks rather than buildings. It was the first European American settlement founded in the territory after the United States purchased Alaska. By the autumn of 1881, the village had a population of over 100 and was known as Rockwell, after Lt. Com. Charles Rockwell; later it was known as Harrisburg after prospector Richard Harris. On December 14, 1881, it was decided at a miners' meeting of 72 persons to name the settlement Juneau, after prospector Joe Juneau.


=== Establishment of Russian Orthodox Church ===

Likely due to the pressure of European encroachment, some Tlingit appealed to the Russian Orthodox Church. It held services in northern Tlingit settlements in local languages as early as 1800 and 1824. One of its priests translated scripture and liturgy into the Tlingit language during the 1830s and 1840s. The Tlingit arranged for an Orthodox priest to come to their Juneau settlement. In 1890, about 700 people converted, following chief Yees Gaanaalx and his wife of Auke Bay. The Orthodox Church Missionary Society supported the Tlingit in furnishing and constructing a church for the large congregation.
The St. Nicholas Russian Orthodox Church was completed in 1894 and has maintained an important presence among the Tlingit, Serbians, and other Europeans who follow Orthodox traditions. The iconostasis has six large panels which were sent from Russia.


=== Development of mining ===
Prospector and placer miner John Lemon operated at the time in what is today the Lemon Creek area. The neighborhood which developed there was given his name by early settlers, several other landmarks in Juneau have also been named for him. Major mining operations in the Juneau mining district prior to World War II included the Treadwell Mine, the Alaska-Juneau Mine, and the Alaska-Gastineau Mine.
By 1906, after the decline of whaling and the fur trade, Sitka which was the original capital of Alaska, had become less important and the territorial legislature moved the seat of government to Juneau in accordance with a 1900 federal law. Juneau was the most populous city in Alaska during the inter-war years, surpassing Fairbanks population by the 1920 census. Anchorage became the largest city in terms of population in 1950.


=== Selection as capital ===
In 1911, the United States Congress authorized funds for construction of a capitol building for the Alaska Territory. World War I delayed construction and there were difficulties purchasing the necessary land. Citizens of Juneau donated some of the required funds, and construction began on September 8, 1929. Construction of the capitol took less than two years, and the building was dedicated as the Federal and Territorial Building on February 14, 1931. It was designed by Treasury Department architects in the Art Deco architectural style. The building was originally used by the federal government to house the federal courthouse and the post office for the territory. Alaska gained statehood in 1959 and under the Alaska Statehood Act, the Federal and Territorial Building was transferred to the new state and became its capitol.
The Alaska Governor's Mansion was commissioned under the Public Building Act in 1910. The mansion was designed by James Knox Taylor in the Colonial Revival style. Construction was completed in 1912. The territorial governor at the time was the first governor to live in the mansion, and he held the first open house for citizens on January 1, 1913.
The area of the mansion is 14,400 square feet (1,340 m2). It has ten bathrooms, six bedrooms, and eight fireplaces. It is the governor's residence when in Juneau on official business. In June 1923, President Warren G. Harding became the first president to visit Alaska. Harding visited the Governor's Mansion while Territorial Governor Scott Bone, who was appointed by Harding, was in office. Harding spoke from the porch of the mansion explaining his policies and met with attendees.
During World War II, more than 50 Japanese citizens and Japanese Americans residing in Juneau were sent to the internment camps inland as a result of Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced removal of all ethnic Japanese away from their homes and businesses on the West Coast of the United States. The removal of Juneau's Japanese community during the war is memorialized by the Empty Chair Memorial, which was dedicated in July 2014 in the city's Capital School Park neighborhood.
Robert Atwood, who was then the publisher of the Anchorage Times and an Anchorage ""booster"", was an early leader in efforts to move the capital to Fairbanks, which many in both cities resisted. Some supporters of a move wanted a new capital to be at least 30 miles (48 km) away from Anchorage and Fairbanks, to prevent either city from having undue influence. Juneau has continued as the capital. In the 1970s, voters passed a plan to move the capital to Willow, a town 70 miles (110 km) north of Anchorage. But pro-Juneau people there and in Fairbanks persuaded voters also to approve a measure (the FRANK Initiative) requiring voter approval of all bondable construction costs before building could begin. Alaskans later voted against spending the estimated $900 million. A 1984 ""ultimate"" capital-move vote also failed, as did a 1996 vote.
After Alaska was given statehood in 1959, Juneau's population increased as well as the growth of state government. After construction of the Alaska Pipeline in 1977, the state budget was flush with oil revenues, and it expanded state spending programs. The Juneau population growth slowed considerably after 1990.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== 21st century ===

In 2005, the state demographer projected slow growth in the borough for the next twenty years. Cruise ship tourism has expanded rapidly, from approximately 230,000 passengers in 1990 to nearly 1,000,000 in 2006, as cruise lines have built more and larger ships. They sail to Juneau seven days a week over a longer season than before, but the cruising tourism is still primarily a summer industry. It provides few year-round jobs but stimulates summer employment in the city.
In 2010, the city was recognized as part of the ""Playful City USA"" initiative by KaBOOM!, created to honor cities that ensure their children have great places to play.
Juneau is larger in area than the state of Delaware and was for several decades, the country's largest city by area. (Sitka surpassed it in 2000 when it incorporated.) Juneau is the only U.S. state capital on an international border; it is bordered on the east by Canada. It is the U.S. state capital whose namesake was most recently alive: Joe Juneau died in 1899.
The city was temporarily renamed UNO, after the card game, on April 1, 2016 (April Fool's Day). It was a promotion with Mattel to draw ""attention to new wild cards in [the] game"". For Juneau's cooperation, Mattel donated $15,000 ""to the Juneau Community Foundation in honor of the late Mayor Greg Fisk.""


== Geography ==

According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 3,255 square miles (8,430 km2). In land area, Juneau (proper) is the largest state capital and the second-largest city overall in the United States, with 2,716.7 square miles (7,036 km2) being made up of land and 538.3 square miles (1,394 km2) consisting of water (16.54%).
The central (downtown) area of Juneau is at 58°18′00″N 134°24′58″W. The City and Borough of Juneau includes Douglas Island, which is a tidal island to the west of mainland Juneau. Douglas can be reached via the Juneau-Douglas Bridge. An unpopulated section of the city is located on Admiralty Island near its northern end.
As in the rest of Southeast Alaska, the Juneau area is susceptible to damage caused by natural disasters. The 2014 Palma Bay earthquake caused widespread outages to telecommunications in the area due to damage to a fiber-optic cable serving the area. In April 2008, a series of massive avalanches outside Juneau heavily damaged the electrical lines providing Juneau with power, knocking the hydroelectric system offline and forcing the utility to switch to a much more expensive diesel system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Adjacent boroughs and census areas ===
Haines Borough, Alaska – northwest, west
Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, Alaska – south, southwest
Petersburg Borough, Alaska – quadripoint


=== Border area ===
Juneau shares its eastern border with the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is the only U.S. state capital which borders another country.

Stikine Region, British Columbia – northeast, east


=== National protected areas ===
Tongass National Forest (part)
Admiralty Island National Monument (part)
Kootznoowoo Wilderness (part)
Tracy Arm-Fords Terror Wilderness (part)


=== State Parks ===
Alaska State Parks maintains the Juneau Trail System, a series of wilderness trails which are easy to extremely difficult to hike.


=== Climate ===

The Juneau area is in a transition zone between a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc), and an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb/Cfc), depending on the isotherm used. The city's climate is heavily influenced by the proximity of the Pacific Ocean, specifically the warm Alaska Current, and the Coast Mountains that form a natural orographic barrier for incoming air. As a result, the weather is mild and moist, which, as in other parts of the Alaska Panhandle, allows the growth of temperate rainforests. Like other cities in southeast Alaska, Juneau does not have permafrost.
As of 2023, Juneau falls within USDA Hardiness Zones 6B and 7A.
There are two prevalent types of wind in Juneau. Particularly in winter, the Aleutian Low draws warm and moist air from the south, bringing ample snow- or rainfall, and even in summer, winds will tend to blow onshore. The strength and frequency of the rainfall depends on several factors, including the presence of El Niño (more mild and rainy weather) or La Niña (colder and drier periods due to the presence of an anticyclone in the Gulf of Alaska). Conversely, offshore winds from the interior are normally dry but may have extreme variations in temperature.
Temperatures vary relatively little over the year. Winters are mild by Alaskan standards, with the average temperature of January slightly below freezing and highs often above 32 °F (0.0 °C); summers are rather cool but occasionally may get warm. Temperatures above 75 °F (23.9 °C) or below 10 °F (−12.2 °C) are not unheard of but are rare. Precipitation falls on an average 230 days per year, averaging 62.27 inches (1,580 mm) at the airport (1981–2010 normals), but ranging from 55 to 92 inches (1,400 to 2,340 mm), depending on location. Most of it will occur in fall and winter, some falling as snow from November to March.
Records have been officially kept at downtown Juneau from January 1890 to June 1943, and at Juneau International Airport since July 1943. The coldest temperature ever officially recorded in Juneau was −22 °F (−30.0 °C) on February 2, 1968, and January 12, 1972, while the hottest was 90 °F (32.2 °C) on July 7, 1975. The normals and record temperatures for both downtown and the airport are given below.

See or edit raw graph data.


== Demographics ==

Juneau first appeared on the 1890 U.S. Census. It was formally incorporated in 1900, and on July 1, 1970, the city of Juneau merged with the city of Douglas and the surrounding Greater Juneau Borough to form the current municipality, which accounts for the population jump between the 1970 and 1980 censuses.


=== 2020 census ===
As of the census of 2020, there were 31,275 people, 12,922 households. The population density was 11.9 people per square mile (4.6 people/km2), making it the least densely populated state capital. There were 12,922 housing units at an average density of 4.0 units per square mile (1.5 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city/borough was 64.7% White (62.5% Non-Hispanic White), 1.0% African American, 10.1% Native American or Alaska Native, 6.7% Asian, 1.3% Pacific Islander, and 14.3% from two or more races. 7.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 2.6% reported speaking Tagalog at home, and 2.4% reported speaking Spanish.
The median income for a household in the city/borough was $90,126. The per capita income for the city/borough was $45,607. 7.2% of the population was below the poverty line.


== Economy ==

The primary employer in Juneau is government including the state government, federal government (which has regional offices here, especially for resource agencies), municipal government (which includes the local airport, hospital, harbors, and school district), and the University of Alaska Southeast. State government offices and their indirect economic impact comprise approximately one-quarter of Juneau's economy.

A large contributor to the local economy is the tourism industry, which generates most income in the summer months. In 2005, nearly an estimated one million cruise ship passengers visited Juneau between May and September. That figure is now 1.65 million per year for the season ending in October 2023.

On the other hand, former politician Bill Ray, who previously lived in Juneau and represented Juneau in the Alaska Legislature, said: ""Juneau doesn't go forward. They've prostituted themselves to tourism. It looks like a poor man's Lahaina"".
The fishing industry is a major part of the Juneau economy, while not as strong as when a halibut schooner fleet generated considerable profits. The city was recently the 49th most lucrative U.S. fisheries port by volume and 45th by value. In 2004 it took in 15 million pounds of fish and shellfish, valued at 21.5 million dollars, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service. While the port of Juneau has comparatively little seafood processing compared to other towns of this size in Alaska, hundreds of commercial fishing boats sell their fish to plants in nearby Sitka, Hoonah, Petersburg and Ketchikan. The largest fleets operating from Juneau are the gillnet and troll salmon fleets.
Juneau has many of the commercial fishing associations in Alaska. The associations include the Alaska Trollers Association, United Fishermen of Alaska, United Southeast Alaska Gillnetters Association, and the Southeast Alaska Seiners Association.
Real estate agencies, federally funded highway construction, and mining are still viable non-government local industries. Alaska Seaplanes, an airline, has its headquarters in Juneau.
As of the 2010 census, there were 1,107 businesses with operations in Juneau borough; with a population of 31,275 there is a per capita of about 28 people per business.
Juneau's only power utility is Alaska Electric Light & Power (AEL&P). Most of the electricity in the borough is generated at the Snettisham Hydroelectric facility in the southern end of the borough, accessible only by boat or plane. In April 2008, an avalanche destroyed three transmission towers, forcing AEL&P to supply almost all of the borough's electricity from diesel-powered generators for one month.
Also headquartered in Juneau is the Marine Exchange of Alaska, a nonprofit organization which operates an extensive vessel tracking network and ensures safe maritime operations for the entire state.


== Culture ==
Juneau hosts the annual Alaska Folk Festival, Juneau Jazz & Classics music festival, and Celebration, a biennial Alaska Native cultural festival. A city-owned ski resort, Eaglecrest is on Douglas Island.
The city-owned Treadwell ice-skating rink is located on the south end of Douglas Island. It is named after the Treadwell Gold Mine, which is located next to the rink. The rink has figure skating, hockey, and free open skates. From April to September when there is no ice, it is used for rollerblading, roller hockey, tennis, basketball, and concerts.
The city has a vibrant performing arts scene; it is home to Perseverance Theatre, Alaska's largest professional theater, the non-profit Theatre in the Rough, Theater Alaska, Theater at Latitude 58, and Juneau Ghost Light Theatre (formerly the Juneau Douglas Little Theatre). The Juneau Symphony regularly performs. The two local opera companies are the Juneau Lyric Opera and Opera to Go. Twice a year the JUMP Society hosts screenings of locally made short films. Gold Town Nickelodeon is a local art house cinema which plays independent films, foreign films, classics, and has operated a drive-in.
Downtown Juneau has art galleries which participate in the monthly First Friday Art Walk and annual Gallery Walk held in the first week of December. The Juneau Arts & Humanities Council coordinates certain events and operates the Juneau Arts & Culture Center featuring a community center, gallery and lobby shop. The University of Alaska Southeast Campus offers lectures, concerts, and theater performances. Sealaska Heritage, the nonprofit affiliate of the Sealaska Corporation, operates the Walter Soboleff Building which is decorated by carvings and hosts cultural exhibits.


== Efforts to move state capital ==
There have been efforts and discussions about moving Alaska's capital away from Juneau. A primary motivating factor has been concerns about Juneau's remote location. In 1960, 56% of voters voted against a measure to move the capital to a location in the ""Cook Inlet-Railbelt Area"" (the specific location would subsequently be selected by a committee appointed by the governor). In 1962, 55% of voters voted against a measure to move the capital to ""Western Alaska... within 30 miles of Anchorage"". ""Senior"" state senators would have been chosen to select three potential sites to be put to a vote by later vote by the state's electorate.
In 1974, at a time when Alaska was expected to be flushed with new funds from the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 56% of Alaskan voters approved an initiative to move the capital. The initiative specified that the new location must be within 300 miles of both Anchorage and Fairbanks and have at least 100 square miles of donated public land. The initiative would have the final location selected by a committee appointed by the governor. The committee proposed Larson Lake, Mount Yenlo, and Willow as sites and Willow received 53% of votes in a 1976 statewide vote. However, in 1978, voters rejected a measure to fund a move to Willow, with 55% of voters voting against spending $996 million to move the capital there. In 1978, voters also approved the Fiscally Responsible Alaskans Needing Knowledge (FRANK) Initiative, which required that all costs of moving the capital be disclosed and approved by Alaskans before the move commenced. In 1982, 53% of voters voted against spending roughly $2.9 billion to move the capital to Willow. This vote also had the effect of repealing the previous approval of moving the capital.
In 1994, a statewide initiative to move Alaska's capital to Wasilla was defeated by a vote of 116,277 (54.7%) to 96,398 (45.3%). At the same time, 77% of voters approved a renewed FRANK Initiative. In 2002, Alaskan voters again voted against moving the state's capital. Advocacy for a capital move has continued.


== Notable people ==
Carlos Boozer (born 1981), professional basketball player
Gab Cody, playwright, filmmaker
Dale DeArmond (1914–2006), printmaker
Mike Dunleavy (born 1961), current governor of Alaska
Neva Egan (1914–2011), Educator and First Lady of Alaska
Janet Gardner (born 1962), singer of the hard rock band Vixen
Al Gross (born 1962), surgeon, fisherman, and politician
Elaine Hopson (born 1939), Oregonian politician born in Juneau
Mary McGee (born 1936), motorcycle racer
Charles Melton (born 1991), actor
Joshua Morrow (born 1974), actor known for starring in daytime drama The Young and the Restless
Rie Muñoz (1921–2015), artist and Bureau of Indian Affairs educator
Elizabeth Peratrovich (1911–1958), civil rights activist, Grand President of the Alaska Native Sisterhood, member of the Tlingit nation.
Macy Rodman (born 1989), musician and podcaster
Linda Rosenthal, violinist
Paul Rosenthal (born 1942), violinist
Lynn Schooler, photographer, writer who authored The Blue Bear
James Schoppert (1947–1992), carver, painter
Molly Smith, theatre director


== Government and politics ==

The City and Borough of Juneau operates under a council–manager form of government. The mayor is the titular head of the city, the presiding officer (or chair) of the Juneau Assembly (council), and is one of three members of the body which is elected at-large, or areawide. The other six members are elected by single-member districts: as of the last redistricting by the Assembly in 2003 there are two districts:

 A city manager handles daily affairs and a city attorney is responsible for working with legal matters.
The districts are nearly aligned with the boundaries of the 31st and 32nd election districts which were established by the state. Mainly the difference is that the 32nd District includes communities outside the CBJ: Gustavus, Kupreanof, Petersburg, Skagway and Tenakee Springs. The Juneau Airport precinct is in the 31st district, which is otherwise identical to the 2nd Assembly District.
Juneau was split into two state house districts by the state during redistricting in the early 1990. The districts comprising downtown Juneau, Douglas Island and surrounding areas have exclusively elected Democrats to the Alaska House of Representatives and the districts comprising Mendenhall Valley and surrounding areas have mostly elected Republicans. The 31st District is represented in the House by Andi Story, a Democrat who has been in office since 2018. The 32nd District is represented by Democrat Sara Hannan. The two election districts form Alaska Senate District Q and the seat is held by Democrat Jesse Kiehl. The last Republican to represent Juneau in the state Senate was Elton Engstrom Jr., the father of Cathy Muñoz. He left office at the end of his term in early 1971, after failing to be re-elected in 1970.

Juneau is one of the most Democratic boroughs in Alaska. The borough has voted Democratic in the U.S. presidential election in every election (except for one) since 1988.
While more state jobs are based in Anchorage than in Juneau, the state government still maintains a substantial presence in Juneau. A number of executive branch departments, as well as the legislature, are based in Juneau. In response to repeated pressure from Southcentral Alaska to move either the capital or the legislature, the legislature acquired and renovated several buildings in the vicinity of the Alaska State Capitol, which hold committee meeting rooms and administrative offices for the Legislative Affairs Agency. The buildings were named for former legislators Terry Miller and Thomas B. Stewart. Stewart, a Juneau native and son of early Juneau mayor Benjamin D. Stewart, represented Juneau in the Senate during the 1st Alaska State Legislature. He later served in Juneau's Alaska Superior Court judgeship and was noted as an authority on the territory and early statehood eras of Alaska's history.
A nine-story federal government building in Juneau near the mouth of Gold Creek and a short distance east of the Juneau-Douglas Bridge, houses many federal agencies, the United States District Court for the District of Alaska, and Juneau's main post office. It is in the area known as ""The Flats"". The building was designed by Linn A. Forrest and built in 1966.


== Education ==


=== Primary and secondary schools ===
Juneau is served by the Juneau School District, and includes the following schools:

The following private schools serve Juneau:

(Glacier) Valley Baptist Academy
Faith Community School
Thunder Mountain Learning Center (formerly Thunder Mountain Academy)
Juneau Seventh-day Adventist Christian School
Juneau Montessori School


=== Colleges and universities ===
The University of Alaska Southeast is within the Auke Bay community along the shore of Auke Lake. Juneau-Douglas Community College, founded in 1956, and Southeastern Senior College which was established in 1972, were merged in 1980 forming the University of Alaska Juneau. The university was restructured as the University of Alaska Southeast to include Ketchikan and Sitka campuses. The university offers undergraduate and graduate studies. The University of Alaska Fairbanks has a satellite campus in Juneau for mainly graduate level students in marine studies.


== Transportation ==
Juneau is not directly accessible by road, although there are road connections within the borough to rural areas. The Glacier Highway section of Alaska Route 7 is within Juneau. Primary access to the city is by air and sea. Cars and trucks are transported to and from Juneau by barge or the Alaska Marine Highway ferry system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Sea ===
The state-owned ferry system is the Alaska Marine Highway. The ferries connect Juneau with 13 other cities in Southeast Alaska and other destinations north via Whittier, as well as with the continental road system in Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia. On the northern route the ferries dock in Haines and Skagway connecting to the Alaska Highway via Whitehorse, Yukon. In addition to the traditional Alaska Marine Highway ferries, high-speed catamarans known as ""fast cats"" connect Juneau with Haines and Skagway (91 miles (146 km)) in two hours, about half the time of the traditional ferries travel time.


=== Air ===
Juneau International Airport serves the city and borough of Juneau. Alaska Airlines services the airport year round, operating over 11 daily departures. Alaska Airlines serves Juneau and other Southeast Alaska villages via ""Milk Run"" flights which make multiple stops to and from Seattle or Anchorage. It also connects Juneau to other cities in the country through connections in Seattle or Anchorage.
In the summer, Delta Air Lines serves Juneau from its major West Coast hub in Seattle, providing global service to and from Southeast Alaska without having to switch air carriers.
MarkAir and Western Airlines serviced Juneau in the past. Alaska Seaplanes and Ward Air offer charter seaplane service from the seaplane floatpond ""runway"" that runs parallel to the traditional tarmac. They offer service to the smaller villages in the surrounding area as well as flightseeing.
Alaska Seaplanes, Harris Air, and Island Air Express provide FAA Part 135 scheduled commuter service to communities throughout Southeast Alaska. These trips are the only connections to the outside world for many of these villages. Alaska Seaplanes has restored scheduled international service to Juneau with 3 weekly trips to Whitehorse, Canada, while Ward Air provides unscheduled charter flights to Canada.


=== Roads ===
Avalanche hazards, steep slopes, cold weather and environmental protection concerns are factors that make road construction and maintenance both difficult and costly.
The Juneau-Douglas Bridge connects the Juneau mainland with Douglas Island.
No roads connect Juneau to the rest of North America; ferries allow access to the road network. There is a lack of places to build a road. A route to the east would fail due to an icefield the size of Rhode Island separating Juneau from Atlin, British Columbia. Similarly, the route up the Taku River is blocked by ever-shifting glaciers. Juneau is one of only four state capitals not served by an Interstate highway (the others being Dover, Delaware; Jefferson City, Missouri; and Pierre, South Dakota).


==== Juneau Access Project ====

Juneau's roads remain separate from other roads in Alaska and in the Lower 48. In the past there have been plans to connect Juneau to Haines and Skagway by road since before 1972, with funding for the first feasibility study acquired in 1987. The State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities announced in 2005 that the connection was to be provided partly by road, and partly by fast ferry. A 51-mile (82 km) road would be built on the east side of Lynn Canal to a new ferry terminal at the Katzehin River estuary. A ferry would be able to transport cars from the terminal to Haines and Skagway and the North American road system. In 2006, the project was estimated to cost $258 million, and in 2007, the estimate was increased to $350 million. Annual costs have been estimated from $2.1 million to $12 million, depending on the length of the road. The Western Federal Lands Center estimated the project would cost $491 million.
Local opinions on constructing a road link to the outside world were mixed. Some residents saw such a road as a much-needed link between Juneau and the rest of the world which will also provide great economic benefits to the city, while many other residents were concerned about the project's financial costs along with environmental and social impacts it could have on Lynn Canal.
Citing the state's multibillion-dollar financial crisis, Governor Bill Walker announced on December 15, 2016, that the state is no longer backing construction of the Juneau Access Improvements Project. Eventually the project lost its steam and was ended in July 2018 with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) releasing their Record of Decision, selecting the no-build alternative for the Juneau Access Project, halting construction on the road.


=== Public transportation ===
Local government operates a bus service under the name Capital Transit.


=== Walking, hiking, and biking ===
Residents walk, hike, or ride bicycles for recreational purposes and for transportation. The downtown area of Juneau has sidewalks, outdoors flights of stairs, and the neighborhoods on the hill above downtown are accessible by foot. Some roads in the city also have bike lanes, and there is a bike path parallel to the main highway.


== Infrastructure ==


=== Healthcare ===
The city and borough is primarily served by Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau's Twin Lakes area. The hospital also serves the nearby remote communities of Hoonah, Haines, and Skagway. Individuals from those communities are airlifted in emergencies to the hospital via helicopter or air ambulance (a 20-minute to a 45-minute flight).


== Utilities ==
Juneau is served by the following utilities:

Electric: Alaska Electric Light and Power Company
Water and Sewer: City and Borough of Juneau


== Media ==


=== Print ===
Juneau's daily newspaper, the Juneau Empire, is published Wednesdays and Saturdays. The Capital City Weekly was published weekly and the Empire runs a few stories in a CCW section. The University of Alaska Southeast has The Whalesong, a college newspaper.


=== Radio ===
AM: KJNO 630, KINY 800, KXXJ 1330
FM: KTKU 105.1, KSUP 106.3, and LPFM station KBJZ-LP 94.1.
Public Radio: KTOO 104.3, KXLL ""Excellent Radio"" 100.7 and KRNN ""Rain Country Radio"" 102.7 (all 3 operated by KTOO).
The studios of CoastAlaska (a regional public radio station consortium), are in Juneau. AP (the Associated Press), Anchorage news outlets, and other Alaska media entities, send reporters to Juneau during the annual Legislative session.


=== Television ===
Juneau's major television affiliates are: KTOO (PBS), 360 North ""Alaska's public affairs channel"" (Operated by KTOO), KATH-LD (NBC), KYEX-LD (CBS/MyNetworkTV on DT2), and KJUD (ABC)/The CW on DT2/Fox on DT3).
The Juneau-Douglas High School video program produces television programming including a weekly 10-minute TV newscast, JDTV News, which is on air during the spring semester.


== Sister cities ==
Juneau has three active sister city relationships. 

 Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada
 Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia
 Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines 
It also has two relationships which are in emeritus status, meaning they are not currently active. 

 Mishan City, China
 Chiayi City, Taiwan


== See also ==

Juneau gold belt
Adair-Kennedy Memorial Park
Capital City Fire/Rescue
Evergreen Cemetery
Hurff Ackerman Saunders Federal Building and Robert Boochever U.S. Courthouse
Juneau Mountain Rescue
National Register of Historic Places listings in Juneau, Alaska
Alaska Route 7
Out the road, a region of Juneau
USS Juneau, 3 ships


== Notes ==


== References ==
Andrews, Clarence Leroy (1944). The Story of Alaska. Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd. OCLC 5024244.
Naske, Claus-M; Slotnick, Herman E. (1987). Alaska: A History of the 49th State. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2099-1.


== External links ==

Official website
Juneau Convention & Visitors Bureau",0.7819392681121826
Albanian National Awakening,"The Albanian National Awakening (Albanian: Rilindja or Rilindja Kombëtare), commonly known as the Albanian Renaissance or Albanian Revival, is a period throughout the 19th and 20th century of a cultural, political, and social movement in the Albanian history where the Albanian people gathered strength to establish an independent cultural and political life, as well as the country of Albania.
Prior to the rise of nationalism, Albania remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or institutional national conscience by the Albanian people. There is some debate among experts regarding when the Albanian nationalist movement should be considered to have started. Some sources attribute its origins to the revolts against centralisation in the 1830s, others to the publication of the first attempt by Naum Veqilharxhi at a standardized alphabet for Albanian in 1844, or to the collapse of the League of Prizren during the Eastern Crisis in 1881. Various compromise positions between these three theses have also emerged, such as one view positing that Albanian nationalism had foundations that dated earlier but ""consolidated"" as a movement during the Eastern Crisis (1878–1881). 
Another view is that Albanian nationalism's roots ""sprouted"" in the reforms of the first decades of the 19th century, and that Albanian nationalism emerged properly in the 1830s and 1840s, when it was a romantic movement for societal reform that was initially mainly driven by Albanians publishing from abroad; it transformed into an overt political national movement in the 1870s. On 20 December 1912, the Conference of Ambassadors in London recognized an independent Albania within its present-day borders.


== Background ==


=== Albanian Pashaliks ===
When the central authority of the Ottoman Empire and the timar system weakened, anarchy emerged in the Albanian-populated region of the empire, and in the late 18th century, two Albanian centers of power arose: the Pashalik of Shkodra under the Bushati family; and the Pashalik of Yanina under Ali Pasha of Tepelenë. Both cooperated with and defied the Sublime Porte as their interests required. The Albanian people (both Muslim and Christian) had a great influence in the politics and events of the late 18th century and early 19th century Ottoman Empire, and in particular they played a key role in the Greek War of Independence, on both sides of the war. Pursuing their own interests, they acted after their own agenda, regardless of the Porte's demands.

The rulers of the increasingly independent Albanian Pashaliks were Albanian military leaders who were at first awarded for their loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, and who however exploited the weakness of the Sublime Porte to exercise in northern and southern Albania their gathered military and political power. While they are clearly not described as champions of national fight aiming at an independent and united Albania, but regarded as political opportunists within the context of the Ottomam Empire, nevertheless these Albanian rulers established separate states by challenging the authority of the Sublime Porte, and Ali Pasha of Yanina, in particular, also established foreign diplomatic relations with Napoleonic France and with Britain. British travellers who had met Ali Pasha noted that Ali described himself and the Albanians as friends of the British nation. Furthermore, Albanians were seen as living independently and without oppression by the Porte, meanwhile Ali Pasha was aiming to form some kind of alliance with the British government. Ali's separatist initiative, by conceiving his territory in increasingly independent terms referring to it as ""Albania"", eventually aiming at creating an independent Albanian–Greek state, revealed the vulnerability of Ottoman power. The Albanian rule of the Pashalik of Yanina as well as that of the Pashalik of Scutari caused the emergence of a sense of ethnic belonging among the Albanian people, which consequently led to an enduring hostility of Albanians against the Sublime Porte, also by seeking autonomy from its central power.


=== 1831–1878 ===
After the fall of the Yanina Pashalik, the power and influence of the Albanian beys had faded. The remaining beys thus attempted to restore their rule. An assembly was held in Berat in 1828. In this Convention, the leaders were Zylyftar Poda and Shahin bej Delvina. The Ottoman Empire tried to prevent the rise of local beys, which presented a menace to centralised power. In 1830, the Sublime Porte sent an expeditionary force under the command of Reşid Mehmed Pasha to suppress the local Albanian beys. On hearing the news of the Ottoman forces' arrival, the three most powerful local chiefs, Zylyftar Poda, accompanied by the remains of Ali Pasha's faction, Veli Bey (whose power base was around Yannina), and Arslan Bey, along with other less powerful beys, began to prepare their forces to resist a probable Ottoman attack. Realising the seriousness of the situation and the danger of a general uprising, Reşid Mehmed Pasha invited the Albanian beys to a meeting on the pretext that they would be rewarded for their loyalty to the Porte. The beys however, were all killed along with their guards.
The last Albanian pashalik to fall was the Scutari Pashalik. The Bushati dynasty rule ended when an Ottoman army under Mehmed Reshid Pasha besieged the Rozafa Castle and forced Mustafa Reshiti to surrender (1831). The Albanian defeat ended a planned alliance between the Albanian beys and the Bosnian nobility, who were similarly seeking autonomy. Instead of the pashalik, the vilayets of Scutari and that of Kosovo were created.


=== Early revolts ===
By removing the Timar system, the Sublime Porte intended to strengthen its central government and reclaim the power of the Empire which had been severely weakened due to economic and social backwardness, from the exploitative system and from the ongoing uprisings of peoples. Reforms began to be implemented in Albania since the 1830s. They gave a blow to the ranks of the old military feudal class which had been weakened from Ottoman expeditions from 1822 to 1831. Parts of the feudal heads that had launched revolts were eliminated, others were exiled and those who could, had escaped from the country. All their properties were declared state-owned. This gave rise to new landowners who had connections to the Sublime Porte. Due to the Ottoman occupation, the ideology of Nationalism developed with difficulty and was limited in Albanian-inhabited territories in the Balkan. They found more favorable development conditions outside, in the capital of the Empire, Istanbul, Italy, other Balkan countries etc. The national ideas became apparent via popular uprisings against the Tanzimat reforms, but they still did not reach a period to be formulated in full policy of the National Movement. They were more expressed with literary works and studies of the Albanian people, history, language and culture. In their writings, the Rilindas fought to invoke feelings of love for the country by exalting patriotic traditions and episodes of history, especially that of the Skanderbeg era and folk culture; They devoted a lot of attention to native language and Albanian schools as a means to affirm individuality and national vindication.
The centralising reforms of the Ottoman government were implemented immediately with the deployment of civil and military personnel in Albania. This was met with resistance by the local population which first began with the refusal to execute orders and quickly transformed into armed rebellion. After two local uprisings that burst in the beginning of 1833 in Kolonjë and in Dibër were repressed, uprisings occurred in Berat-Vlorë-Delvinë-Çamëria area in larger scales than before. The actions of the Ottoman army  were driven by terror and increased unhappiness in the local population, who were aptly anticipated to revolt again. Fugitive agitators circulated across the provinces to organise further rebellions, calling on the people to prepare for war. Others were sent to neighbouring provinces to secure their presence by pointing out they are ""brothers."" To get ahead of the danger Of the new outbreak of popular hate, at the beginning of 1844, the Ottoman authorities urged urgent action. They concentrated large military forces at various points, especially in Bitola where the state was worse. By the end of March 1844, the new uprising erupted but was suppressed.
In the ensuing years there were bursts of armed insurrections throughout Albania against the Ottoman centralising reforms, and especially against the burden of the new taxes imposed and against the obligatory military service. But, at the same time and within the bosom of these insurrections, preliminary national claims started to spread. These claims came forth especially in the revolt of 1847, which assumed great proportions in two zones of Southern Albania: in the Gjirokastra region led by Zenel Gjoleka and in that of Berat led by Rapo Hekali.


== The movement ==


=== Formation ===

There is some debate among experts regarding when the Albanian nationalist movement should be considered to have started. Some sources attribute its origins to the revolts against centralization in the 1830s, others to the publication of the first attempt by Naum Veqilharxhi at a standardized alphabet for Albanian in 1844, or to the collapse of the League of Prizren during the Eastern Crisis in 1881. Various compromise positions between these three theses have also emerged, such as one view positing that Albanian nationalism had foundations that dated earlier but ""consolidated"" as a movement during the Eastern Crisis (1878–1881). Another view is that Albanian nationalism's roots ""sprouted"" in the reforms of the first decades of the 19th century but Albanian nationalism emerged properly in the 1830s and 1840s as a romantic movement for societal reform that was initially mainly driven by Albanians publishing from a broad, and it transformed into an overt political national movement in the 1870s. According to the view that the Rilindja evolved in the 1870s, because of religious ties of the Albanian majority of the population with the ruling Ottomans and the lack of an Albanian state in past, nationalism was less developed and the national movement was greatly delayed among Albanians in the 19th century compared to neighbouring southeast European nations, such as the Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians and Romanians. The Rilindja was a continuation of the Albanian revolts and cultural activities for independence that took place during the entire Ottoman period. The centralist Tanzimat reforms, which were aimed at replacing local Albanian functionaries and suppression of Albanian culture sowed the seeds of the Rilindja. In that period an intellectual and merchant class with the new ideas that were emerging in Europe was shaped, empowering the existing struggle against the Ottoman rule. Political nationalism and economic liberalism were two modern platforms that inspired many Albanian intellectuals.

The French Revolution left a socio-economic impact on the Albanian society, with many Albanian intellectuals highlighting ideals of the Revolution and important figures such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During that time, the destruction of the Pashalik of Yanina and the growing Greek nationalist ambitions fueled reaction among the Albanian intellectual elite. The son of one merchant family, Naum Veqilharxhi, started his work to write an alphabet intended to help Albanians overcome religious and political issues in 1824 or 1825. Veqilharxhi thought that the continuous occupations had caused many problems to Albanian education. His work facilitated the diffusion of national awareness based on the unity of kin, identity of language and traditions. Some Albanian patriots, among them many from the Arbëreshë communities in Italy, built contacts with Italian democratic and revolutionary forces. This helped the Rilindja movement to expand beyond the frame of Albanian-Ottoman relations, and become an international issue. The Risorgimento actually served as an inspiration for the movement. The 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece fueled the rise of the Albanian national movement.
The first postwar treaty, the abortive Treaty of San Stefano signed on March 3, 1878, assigned Albanian-populated lands to Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom blocked the arrangement because it awarded Russia a predominant position in the Balkans and thereby upset the European balance of power. A peace conference to settle the dispute was held later in the year in Berlin.

The Treaty of San Stefano triggered profound anxiety among the Albanians meanwhile, and it spurred their leaders to organize a defense of the lands they inhabited. In the spring of 1878, influential Albanians in Constantinople—including Abdyl Frashëri, one of the first political ideologues of the National Revival-organized a secret committee to direct the Albanians' resistance. In May the group called for a general meeting of representatives from all the Albanian-populated lands. On June 10, 1878, about eighty delegates, mostly Muslim religious leaders, clan chiefs, and other influential people from the four Albanian-populated Ottoman vilayets, met in Prizren. The delegates declared the formation of the League of Prizren which consisted of two branches: the Prizren branch and the southern branch. The Prizren branch was led by Iljas Dibra and it had representatives from the areas of Kirçova (Kicevo), Kalkandelen (Tetovo), Pristine (Pristina), Mitroviça (Mitrovica), Viçitirin (Vushtrri), Üsküp (Skopje), Gilan (Gjilan), Manastir (Bitola), Debar (Debar) and Gostivar. The southern branch, led by Abdyl Frashëri consisted of sixteen representatives from the areas of Kolonjë, Korçë, Arta, Berat, Parga, Gjirokastër, Përmet, Paramythia, Filiates, Margariti, Vlorë, Tepelenë and Delvinë. The League of Prizren was set under the direction of a central committee that had the power to impose taxes and raise an army. The League of Prizren worked to gain autonomy for the Albanians and to thwart implementation of the Treaty of San Stefano, but not to create an independent Albania. The participants wanted to return to the status quo before the start of Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The main aim was to defend from immediate dangers. Among other things the League requested an official status for the Albanian language in the Albanian-inhabited territories and the foundation of Albanian schools.
At first the Ottoman authorities supported the League of Prizren, but the Sublime Porte pressed the delegates to declare themselves to be first and foremost Ottomans rather than Albanians. Some delegates supported this position and advocated emphasizing Muslim solidarity and the defense of Muslim lands, including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other representatives, under Frashëri's leadership, focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and creating a sense of Albanian identity that would cut across religious and tribal lines. Because conservative Muslims constituted a majority of the representatives, the League of Prizren supported maintenance of Ottoman suzerainty.

In July 1878, the league sent a memorandum to the Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin, which was called to settle the unresolved problems of Turkish War, demanding that all Albanians be united in a single autonomous Ottoman province. The Congress of Berlin ignored the league's memorandum. The congress ceded to Montenegro the cities of Bar and Podgorica and areas around the mountain towns of Gusinje and Plav, which Albanian leaders considered Albanian territory. Serbia also gained some Albanian-inhabited lands. The Albanians, the vast majority loyal to the empire, vehemently opposed the territorial losses. Albanians also feared the possible occupation of Epirus by Greece. The League of Prizren organized armed resistance efforts in Gusinje, Plav, Scutari, Prizren, Preveza, and Ioannina. A border tribesman at the time described the frontier as ""floating on blood.""
In August 1878, the Congress of Berlin ordered a commission to trace a border between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro. The congress also directed Greece and the Ottoman Empire to negotiate a solution to their border dispute. The Great Powers expected the Ottomans to ensure that the Albanians would respect the new borders, ignoring that the sultan's military forces were too weak to enforce any settlement and that the Ottomans could only benefit by the Albanians' resistance. The Sublime Porte, in fact, armed the Albanians and allowed them to levy taxes, and when the Ottoman army withdrew from areas awarded to Montenegro under the Treaty of Berlin, Roman Catholic Albanian tribesmen simply took control. The Albanians' successful resistance to the treaty forced the Great Powers to alter the border, returning Gusinje and Plav to the Ottoman Empire and granting Montenegro the Albanian-populated coastal town of Ulcinj. There the Albanians refused to surrender as well. Finally, the Great Powers blockaded Ulcinj by sea and pressured the Ottoman authorities to bring the Albanians under control. The Great Powers decided in 1881 to cede Greece only Thessaly and the district of Arta.
Faced with growing international pressure ""to pacify"" the refractory Albanians, the sultan dispatched a large army under Dervish Turgut Pasha to suppress the League of Prizren and deliver Ulcinj to Montenegro. Albanians loyal to the empire supported the Sublime Porte's military intervention. In April 1881, Dervish Pasha's 10,000 men captured Prizren and later crushed the resistance at Ulcinj. The League of Prizren's leaders and their families were arrested and deported. Frashëri, who originally received a death sentence, was imprisoned until 1885 and exiled until his death seven years later. In the three years it survived, the League of Prizren effectively made the Great Powers aware of the Albanian people and their national interests. Montenegro and Greece received much less Albanian-populated territory than they would have won without the league's resistance.
Formidable barriers frustrated Albanian leaders' efforts to instill in their people an Albanian rather than an Ottoman identity. Divided into four vilayets, Albanians had no common geographical or political nerve centre. The Albanians' religious differences forced nationalist leaders to give the national movement a purely secular character that alienated religious leaders. The most significant factor uniting the Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Each of the three available choices, the Latin, Cyrillic, and Arabic scripts, implied different political and religious orientations opposed by one or another element of the population. In 1878 there were no Albanian-language schools in the most developed of the Albanian-inhabited areas and the choice for education was between Orthodox Church schools, where education was in Greek and Ottoman government schools where education was in Turkish.

The Ottoman Empire continued to crumble after the Congress of Berlin and Sultan Abdül Hamid II resorted to repression to maintain order. The authorities strove without success to control the political situation in the empire's Albanian-populated lands, arresting suspected nationalist activists. When the sultan refused Albanian demands for unification of the four Albanian-populated vilayets, Albanian leaders reorganized the League of Prizren and incited uprisings that brought the Albanian-populated lands, especially Kosovo, to near anarchy. The imperial authorities disbanded a successor organisation Besa-Besë (League of Peja) founded in 1897, executed its president Haxhi Zeka in 1902, and banned Albanian-language books and correspondence. In Macedonia, where Bulgarian-, Greek-, and Serbian-backed guerrillas were fighting Ottoman authorities and one another for control, Muslim Albanians suffered attacks, and Albanian guerrilla groups retaliated. Albanian leaders meeting in Bitola during 1905 established the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania. In 1905, priest Kristo Negovani who had attained Albanian national sentiments abroad returned to his native village of Negovan and introduced the Albanian language for the first time in Orthodox liturgy. For his efforts Negovani was killed by a Greek guerilla band on orders from Bishop Karavangelis of Kastoria that aroused a nationalist response with the Albanian guerilla band of Bajo Topulli killing the Metropolitan of Korçë, Photios.
In 1906 opposition groups in the Ottoman Empire emerged, one of which evolved into the Committee of Union and Progress, more commonly known as the Young Turks, which proposed restoring constitutional government in Constantinople, by revolution if necessary. In July 1908, a month after a Young Turk rebellion in Macedonia supported by an Albanian uprising in Kosovo and Macedonia escalated into widespread insurrection and mutiny within the imperial army, Sultan Abdül Hamid II agreed to demands by the Young Turks to restore constitutional rule. Many Albanians participated in the Young Turks uprising, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. The Young Turks lifted the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language. As a consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting in Bitola in 1908 chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script. The Young Turks, however, were set on maintaining the empire and not interested in making concessions to the myriad nationalist groups within its borders. After securing the abdication of Abdül Hamid II in April 1909, the new authorities levied taxes, outlawed guerrilla groups and nationalist societies, and attempted to extend Constantinople's control over the northern Albanian mountain men. In addition, the Young Turks legalized the bastinado, or beating with a stick, even for misdemeanors, banned carrying rifles, and denied the existence of an Albanian nationality. The new government also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet.
The Albanians refused to submit to the Young Turks' campaign to ""Ottomanise"" them by force. New Albanian uprisings began in Kosovo and the northern mountains in early April 1910. Ottoman forces quashed these rebellions after three months, outlawed Albanian organizations, disarmed entire regions, and closed down schools and publications. Montenegro held ambitions of future expansion into neighbouring Albanian-populated lands and supported a 1911 uprising by the mountain tribes against the Young Turks regime that grew into a widespread revolt. Unable to control the Albanians by force, the Ottoman government granted concessions on schools, military recruitment, and taxation and sanctioned the use of the Latin script for the Albanian language. The government refused, however, to unite the four Albanian-inhabited vilayets.


=== Revolts of 1910 and 1911 ===

In 1910, due to the new centralisation policies of the Young Turk Ottoman government towards Albanians, local Albanian leaders Isa Boletini and Idriz Seferi started an uprising against the Ottomans in the Kosovo vilayet. After subduing the Ottoman garrisons in towns such as Prishtina and Ferizaj, the Ottoman government declared martial law and sent a military expedition of 16,000 men led by Shefket Turgut Pasha. Simultaneously, forces under Idriz Seferi captured the Kaçanik pass. They successfully defended the pass from the Ottoman expeditionary force thus, forcing them to send a force of 40,000 men. After two weeks the pass was lost to the Ottomans After fierce fighting, the rebels retreated to Drenica and the Ottomans seized control of Prizren, Gjakova and Peja Afterwards Ottoman forces incurred into Northern Albania and Macedonia. Ottoman forces were stopped for more than 20 days in the Agri Pass, from the Albanian forces of Shalë, Shoshë, Nikaj and Mërtur areas, led by Prel Tuli, Mehmet Shpendi, and Marash Delia. Unable to repress their resistance, this column took another way to Scutari, passing from the Pukë region. On July 24, 1910, Ottoman forces entered the city of Scutari. During this period martial courts were put in action and summary executions took place. A large number of firearms were collected and many villages and properties were burned by the Ottoman army.
In 1911, the Albanian National Committee was formed. In a meeting of the committee held in Podgorica from 2 to 4 February 1911, under the leadership of Nikolla bey Ivanaj and Sokol Baci Ivezaj, it was decided to organise an Albanian uprising.  Terenzio Tocci gathered the Mirditë chieftains on 26/27 April 1911 in Orosh, proclaimed the independence of Albania, raised the flag of Albania (according to Robert Elsie it was raised for the first time after Skanderbeg's death) and established the provisional government. Shefqet Turgut Pasha wanted to meet this threat and returned to the region with 8.000 soldiers. As soon as he reached Shkodër on 11 May, he issued a general proclamation which declared martial law and offered an amnesty for all rebels (except for Malësor chieftains) if they immediately return to their homes. After Ottoman troops entered the area Tocci fled the empire abandoning his activities. After months of intense fighting, the rebels were trapped and decided to escape to Montenegro.
On 23 June 1911, in the village of Gerče, in Montenegro, an assembly of the tribal leaders of the revolt was held to adopt the ""Greçë Memorandum"". This memorandum was signed by 22 Albanian chieftains, four from each tribe of Hoti, Grudë and Skrel, five from Kastrati, three from Klemendi and two from Shalë.

Requests of the memorandum included:

general amnesty for all participants in the revolt
demand for recognition of the Albanian ethnicity
election of the deputies of Albanian ethnicity for the Ottoman Parliament according to the proportional system
Albanian language in schools
governor and other appointed high officials have to know Albanian language and all other positions in the administration have to be reserved only for people of Albanian ethnicity
men who are ethnic Albanians to serve army only in Albania during the peacetime
confiscated arms to be returned
all Albanian property damaged by Ottoman troops to be compensated
The Memorandum was submitted to the representatives of Great Powers in Cetinje, Montenegro.
Ottoman representatives managed to deal with the leaders of Albanian rebels in Kosovo Vilayet and Scutari Vilayet separately, because they were not united and lacked central control. The Ottomans promised to meet most Albanian demands, limited mainly to Catholic highlanders like general amnesty, the opening of Albanian language schools, and the restriction that military service was to be performed only in the territory of the vilayets with substantial Albanian population. Other demands included requiring administrative officers to learn the Albanian language, and that the possession of weapons would be permitted.


=== Revolts of 1912 ===

The Albanian Revolt of 1912 was one of many Albanian revolts in the Ottoman Empire and lasted from January until August 1912. Albanian soldiers and officers deserted the Ottoman military service and joined the insurgents. After a series of successes, Albanian revolutionaries managed to capture the city of Skopje, the administrative centre of Kosovo vilayet within the Ottoman rule.
On August 9, 1912, Albanian rebels presented a new list of demands (the so-called list of Fourteen Points), related to the Albanian vilayet, that can be summarized as follows:

autonomous system of administration and justice of four vilayets populated with Albanians (Albanian vilayet)
Albanians to perform military service only in territory of four vilayets populated with Albanians, except in time of war
employing officials who know local language and customs, but not necessarily Albanians,
establishment of new licees and agricultural schools in the bigger districts
reorganisation and modernisation of the religious schools and use of Albanian language in secular schools
freedom to establish private schools and societies
the development of trade, agriculture and public works
general amnesty for all Albanians involved in revolt
court martial for those Ottoman officers who attempted to suppress the revolt
The revolt ended when the Ottoman government agreed to fulfill the rebels' demands, except of the last one, on September 4, 1912. The autonomous system of administration and justice of the four vilayets with a substantial Albanian population was accepted by the Ottoman Empire, however they avoided granting autonomy to a unitary Albanian vilayet which was part of the Albanian National Awakening agenda during the League of Prizren.


=== Independence ===

The First Balkan War, however, erupted before a final settlement could be worked out. The Balkan allies—Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece—quickly drove the Ottomans to the walls of Constantinople. The Montenegrins surrounded Scutari.

An assembly of Muslim and Christian leaders meeting in Vlorë in November 1912 declared Albania an independent country. The complete text of the declaration was:
In Vlora, on the 15th/28th of November. That time the President was Ismail Kemal Bey, in which he spoke of the great perils facing Albania today, the delegates have all decided unanimously that Albania, as of today, should be on her own, free and independent.

A second session of the Assembly of Vlorë was held on December 4, 1912. During that session members of the assembly established the Provisional Government of Albania. It was a government that consisted of ten members, led by Ismail Qemali until his resignation on 22 January 1914. The Assembly established the Senate (Albanian: Pleqësi) with an advisory role to the government, consisting of 18 members of the Assembly. An ambassadorial conference that opened in London in December decided the major questions concerning the Albanians after the First Balkan War in its concluding Treaty of London of May 1913. The Albanian delegation in London was assisted by Aubrey Herbert, MP, a passionate advocate of their cause.

One of Serbia's primary war aims was to gain an Adriatic port, preferably Durrës. Austria-Hungary and Italy opposed giving Serbia an outlet to the Adriatic, which they feared would become a Russian port. They instead supported the creation of an autonomous Albania. Russia backed Serbia's and Montenegro's claims to Albanian-inhabited lands. Britain and Germany remained neutral. Chaired by Britain's foreign secretary, Sir Edward Grey, the ambassadors' conference initially decided to create an autonomous Albania under continued Ottoman rule, but with the protection of the Great Powers. This solution, as detailed in the Treaty of London, was abandoned in the summer of 1913 when it became obvious that the Ottoman Empire would, in the Second Balkan War, lose Macedonia and hence its overland connection with the Albanian-inhabited lands.
In July 1913, the Great Powers opted to recognise an independent, neutral Albanian state ruled by a constitutional monarchy and under the protection of the Great Powers. The August 1913 Treaty of Bucharest established that independent Albania was a country with borders that gave the new state about 28,000 square kilometres of territory and a population of 800,000. Montenegro had to surrender Scutari after having lost 10,000 men in the process of taking the town. Serbia reluctantly succumbed to an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy to withdraw from northern Albania. The treaty, however, left large areas with majority Albanian populations, notably Kosovo and western Macedonia, outside the new state and failed to solve the region's nationality problems.


== Culture ==


=== Arts ===

The Albanian Renaissance is one of the most valuable periods in Albanian culture, a period characterised by a cultural, economic, political and social flourishing of Albanian consciousness within the Ottoman Empire. The period is directly connected with Jorgji Panariti and Kolë Idromeno, the most renowned representatives of the Albanian Renaissance.


=== Literature ===

Albanian intellectuals in the nineteenth century began devising a single, standard Albanian literary language and making demands that it be used in schools. In Constantinople in 1879, Sami Frashëri founded a cultural and educational organization, the Society for the Printing of Albanian Writings, whose membership comprised Muslim, Catholic, and Orthodox Albanians. Naim Frashëri, the most-renowned Albanian poet, joined the society and wrote and edited textbooks. Albanian émigrés in Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Romania, and the United States supported the society's work. The Greeks, who dominated the education of Orthodox Albanians, joined the Turks in suppressing the Albanians' culture, especially Albanian-language education. In 1886 the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople threatened to excommunicate anyone found reading or writing Albanian, and priests taught that God would not understand prayers uttered in Albanian. In 1844-5 however, Albanian intellectual Naum Veqilharxhi published his work Evëtori Shqip Fort i Shkurtër (English: The short Albanian Evëtor) which was an alphabet that included thirty three letters which were invented by himself. He avoided the use of Latin, Greek or Arabic alphabets and characters because of their religious associations and divisions. In November 1869, a Commission for the Alphabet of the Albanian Language was gathered in Istanbul.

One of its members was Kostandin Kristoforidhi and the main purpose of the Commission was the creation of a unique alphabet for all the Albanians. In January 1870 the Commission ended its work of the standardization of the alphabet, which was mainly in Latin letters. A plan on the creation of textbooks and spread of Albanian schools was drafted. However this plan was not realized, because the Ottoman Government wouldn't finance the expenses for the establishment of such schools. Although this commission had gathered and delivered an alphabet in 1870, the writers from the North still used the Latin-based alphabet, whereas in Southern Albania writers used mostly the Greek letters. The turning point was the aftermath of the League of Prizren (1878) events when in 1879 Sami Frashëri and Naim Frashëri formed the Society for the Publication of Albanian Writings. Members of the society Sami Frashëri, Naim Frashëri and Jani Vreto published the Primer of the Albanian language and other works in Albanian that dealt with the humanities, natural sciences and so on. After a long time struggling with obstacles coming from the Ottoman authorities, the first secular school of Albanian language was opened on the initiative of individual teachers and other intellectuals on 7 March 1887 in Korce. Diamanti Tërpo, a citizen of the city, offered her house to serve as a school building. The first director and teacher of the school was Pandeli Sotiri.

One year earlier, the Albanian dictionary (Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe) by Kostandin Kristoforidhi had been published in 1904. The dictionary had been drafted 25 years before its publication and was written in the Greek alphabet. In 1908, the Congress of Monastir was held by Albanian intellectuals in Bitola (in modern-day North Macedonia). The Congress was hosted by the Bashkimi (unity) club, and prominent delegates included Gjergj Fishta, Ndre Mjeda, Mit'hat Frashëri, Sotir Peçi, Shahin Kolonja, and Gjergj D. Qiriazi. There was much debate and the contending alphabets were Istanbul, Bashkimi and Agimi. However, the Congress was unable to make a clear decision and opted for a compromise solution of using both the widely used Istanbul, with minor changes, and a modified version of the Bashkimi alphabet. Usage of the alphabet of Istanbul declined rapidly and it was essentially extinct over the following decades. The Bashkimi alphabet is at the origin of the official alphabet of the Albanian language in use today.
A major role during the Albanian National Awakening was played by literature, which served to many Rilindas as a way to express their ideas. It was imbued with the spirit of national liberation, with the nostalgia of the émigré and the rhetorical pathos of past heroic wars. This literary school developed the poetry most. Regarding the motifs and poetical forms, its hero was the ethical man, the fighting Albanian, and to a lesser degree the tragic man. Because its major purpose was to awaken national consciousness it was closely linked with the folklore tradition.


== See also ==
History of Albania
Albanian nationalism
Albanophobia
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Library of Congress Country Study of Albania
Blumi, Isa (2011). Reinstating the Ottomans, Alternative Balkan Modernities: 1800–1912. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 9780230119086.
Brisku, Adrian (2013). Bittersweet Europe: Albanian and Georgian Discourses on Europe, 1878–2008. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0-85745-985-5.
Clayer, Nathalie (2005). ""Le meurtre du prêtre: Acte fondateur de la mobilisation nationaliste albanaise à l'aube de la révolution Jeune Turque [The murder of the priest: Founding act of the Albanian nationalist mobilisation on the eve of the Young Turks revolution]"". Balkanologie. IX (1–2).
Clayer, Nathalie (2007). Aux origines du nationalisme albanais: La naissance d'une nation majoritairement musulmane en Europe [The origins of Albanian nationalism: The birth of a predominantly Muslim nation in Europe]. Paris: Karthala. ISBN 9782845868168.
Dauti, Daut (30 January 2018). Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876–1914 (phd). University of Leeds.
Dauti, Daut (2023). Britain, the Albanian National Question and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1914. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781350349544.
Elsie, Robert (2010). Historical Dictionary of Albania. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press (The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group Incorporated). ISBN 978-0-8108-6188-6.
Fleming, K. E. (2014). The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplomacy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha's Greece. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6497-3.
Gawrych, George (2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris. ISBN 9781845112875.
Mazower, Mark (2000). The Balkans: A Short History. Modern Library Chronicles. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-64087-8.
Schwandner-Sievers and Fischer (eds.), Albanian Identities: Myth and History, Indiana University Press (2002), ISBN 0-253-21570-6.
Sette, Alessandro. ""L'Albania nella strategia diplomatica italiana (1871-1915)"", Nuova Rivista Storica, 102, I (2018): 321–378.
Skendi, Stavro (1967). The Albanian national awakening. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400847761.
Zickel, Raymond; Iwaskiw, Walter R. (1994). Albania: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: GPO for Library of Congress.",1.3350684642791748
"Gillette, Wyoming","Gillette (, jih-LET) is a city in and the county seat of Campbell County, Wyoming, United States. The town was founded in 1891 as a major railway town on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad.
The population was estimated at 33,496, as of July 1, 2023, making it the 3rd most populous city in Wyoming after Cheyenne and Casper. Gillette's population increased 48% in the ten years after the 2000 census, which counted 19,646 residents after a boom in its local fossil fuel industries.
Gillette is centrally located in an area involved with the development of vast quantities of coal, oil, and coalbed methane gas. The city calls itself the ""Energy Capital of the Nation""; Wyoming provides nearly 35% of the nation's coal. However, a decline in coal use in the U.S. has led to a decline in the local economy, leading some local officials to look for other industries or employment opportunities. As a major economic hub for the county, the city is also a regional center for media, education, health, and arts.


== History ==

Before its founding, Gillette started as Donkey Town, named after Donkey Creek, and then was moved and called Rocky Pile after Rocky Draw.
Gillette was founded in 1891 with the coming of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad and incorporated on January 6, 1892, less than two years after Wyoming became a state. Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad changed the name to Gillette, after Edward Gillette, a surveyor for the company.
In November 1895, a fire destroyed most of the city. Only two saloons, two stores, and a restaurant survived. A group of families from Mathews County, Virginia, and Gloucester County, Virginia, settled in the town between 1895 and 1905, all of whom were members of the Episcopal Church, and there has been an Episcopalian presence in Gillette ever since. During this same era a group of immigrants from County Antrim, Ireland (in what has since become Northern Ireland) also settled in Gillette, these settlers were Presbyterians of Scottish descent, this population was referred to as ""Scots-Irish"" in the United States, however this was not a term used in Ireland. Norwegian immigrants arrived in the town during the same era, all of whom were Lutheran. There were also a small group of settlers from rural New England, these were old stock ""Yankee"" New Englanders who were members of the Congregational church.
In 1974, U.S. psychologist ElDean Kohrs used the town as the basic example of what he called the Gillette syndrome, the social disruption that can occur in a community due to rapid population growth. During the 1960s, Gillette's population doubled from 3,580 to 7,194. Kohrs proposed that this fast increase caused increased crime, high costs of living, and weakened social and community bonds. Some of Kohrs's claims about the energy industry's influence have been disputed, since similar increases in divorce rates, welfare usage, and crime were also seen in other rapidly growing areas of the country.
Gillette annexed the census-designated place Antelope Valley-Crestview on January 1, 2018. Antelope Valley-Crestview's population was 1,658 at the 2010 census and it had an area of 4.9 mi2 (12.7 km²).


== Geography ==

Gillette is located at 44°16′58″N 105°30′19″W (44.282660, −105.505256).  It is situated between the Bighorn Mountains to the west and the Black Hills to the east, in the Powder River Basin.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 19.00 square miles (49.21 km2), of which 18.97 square miles (49.13 km2) are land and 0.03 square miles (0.08 km2) is water.
Few trees were in Gillette when it was founded. The native trees, box elder and cottonwood, were found along creeks. The oldest surviving non-native trees were planted in the 1940s. The earliest were almost exclusively elm, cottonwood, white poplar, green ash, Colorado blue spruce, and ponderosa pine. In the 1960s, crab apples, honey locust, catalpa, European mountain-ash, and other evergreens were planted. Nurseries started to sell trees in the 1970s, which further increased tree diversity.


=== Skyline ===


=== Climate ===
Gillette has a borderline humid continental (Köppen: Dfa) and cool semi-arid (Köppen: BSk) climate characterised by hot summers with pleasant mornings, and generally very cold, though very variable, winters. The city lies in USDA plant hardiness zone 5a (−20 to −15 °F; −29 to −26 °C).


== Demographics ==

As of 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $69,581, and for a family was $78,377. Males had a median income of $41,131 versus $22,717 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,749. About 5.7% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and 14.1% of those age 65 or over.


=== 2010 census ===

As of the census of 2010, 29,087 people, 10,975 households, and 7,299 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,533.3 inhabitants per square mile (592.0/km2). The 12,153 housing units averaged 640.6 per square mile (247.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.2% White, 0.4% African American, 1.2% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 3.2% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 9.5% of the population.
Of the 10,975 households, 38.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.5% were not families. About 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.09.
The median age in the city was 30.6 years. 28% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were 18 to 24; 30.6% were 25 to 44; 24.8% were 45 to 64; and 5.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 52.3% male and 47.7% female.


== Arts and culture ==
The volunteer board called the Mayor's Art Council runs the Avenues of Art program. The program pays artists to display sculptures for sale. Each year newly selected works are shown at the Donkey Creek Festival, where visitors can meet the artists. 113 sculptures are currently on display through the Avenues of Art program and 289 have been shown since 2004. Participating artists have included Jane DeDecker, Gary Lee Price, and Benjamin Victor.
A second program, Sculpture Walk, is operated by the Sculpture Committee. Started in 2018, it pays artists to display their sculptures for sale at Mount Pisgah Cemetery.
The city chose to increase investment in the arts program during the Great Recession and mayor Louise Carter-King describes the investment as a quality of life one.


=== Annual cultural events ===
A free multi-day event, Donkey Creek Festival is held in every June at the Gillette College. It includes the Avenues of Arts reception, concert, car and motorcycle show, disc golf tournament, and 5K run and walk. There are art and food vendors and alcohol is available at a beer garden. The festival has grown significantly since starting in 2006.
The Gillette chapter of PFLAG hosts an annual pride event to support the local LGBTQ community. Previous years have included a potluck, picnic, and bowling. In 2019, PFLAG held the Pride Drag Show at AVA Community Art Center as part of its pride event.


=== Tourism ===
In 2021, 7,338 people visited the Gillette Convention and Visitors Bureau.  While hunters always use the center, most visitors asked about coal mine tours and museums. Of the 569 visitors in 2018 who identified where they were from, 473 were from 46 states and 96 were from 23 other countries.


== Sports ==


=== Wyoming Center at the CAM-PLEX ===
The Wyoming Center at the CAM-PLEX is a 9,000 seat event center located just outside of Gillette. Ground was broken in 2006 and it was completed in 2008.
It hosts both sporting and community events. The center can be divided into 3 rooms by using moveable soundproof walls; which retract if more space is needed for a certain event. More walls can further divide the center into 9 rooms.
The Frontier and Equality Halls (located in the west and middle parts of the center, respectively) are used for various purposes; while the Spirit Hall (located on the east side) is used for ice skating and hockey. As stated before, it can be taken down should an event need more space.
The center currently hosts the National High School Finals Rodeo, amateur wrestling, and are hosts for the Wyoming Cavalry, of American Indoor Football.  The Cavalry use the Equality Hall of the CAM-PLEX for their home games.  The seating capacity is 4,000 for Cavalry games.  It once hosted the Gillette Mustangs, formerly of Champions Indoor Football.


=== Other facilities ===
The Campbell County Recreation Center is a 190,000-ft2 facility that was established April 2010. This facility includes a 42-ft climbing wall resembling the Devils Tower National Monument. Also, an 81,000-ft2 field house that contains basketball courts, a six-lane track, swimming and diving facilities, and five indoor tennis courts.
The Campbell County Ice Arena contains an ice rink for ice hockey and ice skating plus an area for curling.
The Energy Capital Sports Complex site has four fast-pitch softball fields that can be converted for Little League baseball. The fields use Slitfilm synthetic turf with sand-rubber infill. A 28,000-ft2 protected spectator viewing area has a grass play area. A 2.4-mi recreation trail runs around the complex. Since the grand opening in 2015, the complex has hosted many tournaments, including the Razor City Showcase softball tournament and the 2016 Wyoming ASA State softball tournament.


== Government ==

Gillette is governed by an elected mayor and a city council of six members. Gillette is split into three wards, each represented by two council members. The mayor and council members serve four-year terms.
Under the mayor and city council, the city government consists of the city attorney, municipal court, and city administration. The city administration consists of several departments and their divisions. The departments are Human Resources, Finance, Police, Development Services, Public Works, and Utilities.
The city council holds regular sessions on first and third Tuesday of every month in the Council Chambers at City Hall. The council also holds agenda review meetings and meetings before regular sessions. All meetings are open to the public except executive sessions. The council members are Gregory Schreurs and Tricia Simonson for Ward 1, Tim Carsrud and Billy Montgomery for Ward 2, Nathan McLeland and Shay Lundvall for Ward 3.
The sale and production of liquor is regulated by the city. The number of licenses is capped by population by state law and due to scarcity have been sold privately for as much as $300,000.


== Education ==

Public education in Gillette is provided by Campbell County School District Number 1. It is home to Campbell County High School and Thunder Basin High School. Gillette College, a two-year college, is part of the Northern Wyoming Community College District.
Gillette has a public library, a branch of the Campbell County Public Library System.


== Media ==

Gillette has one newspaper, the Gillette News-Record, published by Ann Kennedy Turner. It was originally two papers, the Gillette News and the Campbell County Record. The News-Record became a daily on July 14, 1975.
Over the air digital television stations available in Gillette include KOPA-CD on RF Channel 9 (ABC). Wyoming Public Television (PBS) is available on K26NL-D, channel 26. CBS programming from Casper, Wyoming can be seen on channel 16, K16AE-D. NBC programming from Rapid City, South Dakota is available on channel 22, K22AD-D.
Gillette also receives a moderate signal from KHSD-TV (Fox) on channel 5, and a weak signal from KQME (MeTV) on channel 11 and KSGW-TV ABC on channel 12.
Gillette Public Access Television is Gillette's only TV station. It is a traditional PEG cable-access station operated by the city. It can be viewed on Charter Communications Cable channels 189 (Education), 190 (Public Access) and 192 (Government).


== Infrastructure ==


=== Healthcare ===

Campbell County Memorial Hospital in Gillette is part of Campbell County Health. The hospital has 90 beds for acute care and is certified as an area trauma hospital.


=== Police ===

The Gillette Police Department consists of several divisions including Administration, Animal Control, Communications Center, Detectives Division which includes school resource officers (SRO), Evidence, Patrol Division, Records, and Victim Services. Police headquarters are located in City Hall, but the Animal Control division is located at the Animal Shelter on 950 W Warlow Dr. It consists of one Animal Control Supervisor, three Animal Control Officers, and two Animal Shelter Assistants. In addition to enforcing animal-related ordinances Animal Control sells pet licenses and acts as an animal shelter both housing pets and providing adoption services.


=== Military ===
At Gillette is a Wyoming National Guard armory. The A Battery, 2nd Battalion, 300th Field Artillery of the Wyoming National Guard are based in Casper, Gillette, and Lander. Also, the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System unit is based in Gillette. In recent years, soldiers from the 2nd Battalion, 300th Field Artillery have been deployed for Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Freedom's Sentinel.


=== Transportation ===

Northeast Wyoming Regional Airport (GCC) is served by United Airlines operated by SkyWest Airlines. SkyWest currently operates six flights daily in and out of Gillette to Denver.
Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Jefferson Lines.


==== Highways ====
 I-90
 I-90 BL
 US 14
 US 16
 WYO 50 (Skyline Drive)
 WYO 51
 WYO 59 (South – Douglas Highway)


== Notable people ==

Jacob M. Appel (born 1973), author, poet, bioethicist, physician, lawyer, social critic
Wade Brorby (born 1934), Gillette attorney, 1961–1988, United States federal appellate judge, 1988–
John Chick (born 1982), professional football player, 2006–2017
Alicia Craig (born 1982), distance runner
Mike Enzi (1944–2021), Mayor of Gillette, 1975–1982, Wyoming State Senator, 1993–1997, and United States Senator from Wyoming, 1997–2021
Joe Clifford Faust (born 1957), author
Bob Harris (1915–1989), professional baseball player, 1938–42
Burke Jackson (born 1949), Wyoming rancher, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2004–06
Mark Klaassen (born 1973), United States Attorney for the District of Wyoming
Tom Lubnau (born 1958), Gillette attorney, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2005–2015, and Speaker of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2013–2015
Weston Ochse (born 1965), author
Clint Oldenburg (born 1983), professional football player, 2007–2012
Sue Wallis (1957–2014), poet, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2007–2014
Ryun Williams (born 1969), women's basketball head coach, Colorado State
Sundance Wicks (born 1980), men's basketball head coach, University of Wyoming


== In popular culture ==
In David Breskin's bildungsroman The Real Life Diary of a Boomtown Girl, Randi Bruce Harper is raised by parents in the Wyoming ""oil-field service business""; as an adult, she drives a Wabco haul truck ""down in the pit"" while living with her husband in Gillette. Randi is a member of the first all-female blasting team, the ""Boom-Boom Girls"".
The Manticore facility is set in Gillette in the cyberpunk TV show Dark Angel and the books based on the show. Several fan fiction stories were written with Gillette central to the story because of the reference.
Marcus Sakey, in his Brilliance trilogy, lists Gillette as one of the three entrances (along with Rawlins and Shoshoni) to the New Canaan Holdfast, a large portion of Wyoming land owned by ""abnorms"".
In an interview with HorrorHound magazine, actor and musician Bill Moseley of the band Cornbugs said he was the great-grandson of Edward Gillette and named their studio album Donkey Town in honor of Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad's decision to change the name of Donkey Town to Gillette as a reward for Edward Gillette's surveying work.
On December 5, 1998, Cheryl Trover, a math teacher at Campbell County High School, kidnapped and tied up her children, shot her husband John Trover with a .22-caliber pistol, and stabbed him to death with a hunting knife. She had stolen the gun from her lover of four years, John Riley, the principal at the same school. She then set fire to her pickup truck and lied to police about who committed her crimes. Once police suspected her, she killed herself with a .270 rifle at a friend's house. The events were dramatized in the crime story TV shows Redrum and Murderous Affairs.
The Drive-By Truckers' song ""21st Century USA"", from their 2020 album The Unraveling, is about a layover the band had in Gillette. It describes the bleak landscape of small US towns, and the hardships of living there.


== Sister cities ==
After the mayor of Gillette visited a coal conference in China, a delegation from Yulin, Shaanxi, came to Gillette. These meetings eventually led the two communities to become sister cities in 2012.


== References ==


== External links ==

City of Gillette",0.9063963890075684
Libby Prison escape,"The Libby Prison escape was a prison escape from Libby Prison, a Confederate prison at Richmond, Virginia, in February 1864 that saw over 100 Union prisoners-of-war escape from captivity. It was one of the most successful prison breaks of the American Civil War.
Led by Colonel Thomas E. Rose of the 77th Pennsylvania Infantry, the prisoners started tunnelling in a rat-infested zone which the Confederate guards were reluctant to enter. The tunnel emerged in a vacant lot beside a warehouse, from where the escapees could walk out through the gate without arousing suspicion. Since the prison was believed to be escape-proof, there was less vigilance by the authorities than in other camps, and the alarm was not raised for nearly 12 hours. Over half the prisoners were able to reach Union lines, helped by their familiarity with the terrain after serving in McClellan's Peninsula Campaign of 1862.


== Background ==
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Luther Libby was running a ship supply shop from the corner of a large warehouse in Richmond, Virginia.  In need of a new prison for captured Union officers, Confederate soldiers gave Libby 48 hours to evacuate his property.  The sign over the north-west corner reading ""L. Libby & Son, Ship Chandlers"" was never removed, and consequently the building and prison bore his name.  Since the Confederates believed the building inescapable, the staff considered their job relatively easy.


== Location and layout ==
Libby Prison encompassed an entire city block in Richmond.  To the north lay Cary Street, connecting the prison area to the rest of the city.  On the south side ran the James River.  The prison itself stood three stories above ground with a basement exposed on the river side.  Confederate soldiers whitewashed the outer walls to make lurking prisoners instantly recognizable.
The first floor of Libby Prison housed the various offices of the Confederate guard unit; the second and third floors were partitioned as inmate holding areas.  The basement of the prison was divided into three sections.  The western end was a storage cellar, the middle section was a carpenter's shop used by civilians, and the eastern end was an abandoned kitchen.  This kitchen in the eastern section was once used by Union inmates, but an infestation of rats and constant flooding compelled the Confederates to close it off.  The abandoned area became known as ""Rat Hell.""


=== Rat Hell ===
Though most of the prisoners (and guards alike) did what they could to avoid Rat Hell, a handful of Union officers schemed to break in.  By removing a stove on the first floor and chipping their way into the adjoining chimney, the officers constructed a cramped but effective passage for access to the eastern basement.  Once access between the two floors was established, the officers set about plans to tunnel their way out.
The floor of Rat Hell was covered in two feet of straw.  This straw was a bane and a blessing for the officers.  On one hand, it provided a perfect hiding place for the dirt excavated from the tunnel. Captain I. N. Johnston, who spent more time in Rat Hell than any other Union officer, commented, ""I have been asked a thousand times how we contrived to hide such a quantity of earth as the digging of a tunnel of that size would dislodge.  [On the floor] we made a wide and deep opening...in this the loose dirt was closely packed, and then nicely covered with straw.""  By such means, the Union officers were able to conceal all signs of the tunnel that might tip off civilians and wandering sentries.  The straw in Rat Hell also provided a convenient hiding place for workers during the day.
One man was chosen to conceal all signs of the tunnel while the digging party scrambled up to the first floor.  He would then remain buried in the straw for the remainder of the day until the next relief arrived at dusk.  Johnston wrote, ""...There was a large quantity [of straw] there, and but for which our undertaking must have been discovered nearly as soon as begun.""  As helpful as the straw might have been, it was nevertheless the main reason for the nickname, Rat Hell.  Lt. Charles H. Moran, a recaptured officer from Libby, wrote, ""No tongue can tell...how the poor fellow[s] passed among the squealing rats,—enduring the sickening air, the deathly chill, the horrible interminable darkness.""
Major A. G. Hamilton, a leading founder of the escape party, pointed to the dilemma of the rats: ""The only difficulties experienced [were lack of proper tools] and the unpleasant feature of having to hear hundreds of rats squeal all the time, while they ran over the diggers almost without a sign of fear.""  Colonel Thomas E. Rose, the leader of the escape, addressed the double-edged lack of light in Rat Hell: ""The profound darkness caused some...to become bewildered when they attempted to move about.  I sometimes had to feel all over the cellar to gather up the men that were lost.""  Despite the difficulties, the dark repugnant atmosphere of Rat Hell offered the most effective cover.  ""On rare occasions, guards entered the large basement rooms.  'This was, however, so uninviting a place, that the Confederates made this visit as brief as nominal compliance with their orders permitted...'""


== Element of surprise ==
The tunnelers organized into three relief teams with five members each.  After 17 days of digging, they succeeded in breaking through to a 50-foot vacant lot on the eastern side of the prison, resurfacing beneath a tobacco shed inside the grounds of the nearby Kerr's Warehouse.  When Col. Rose finally broke through to the other side, he told his men that the ""Underground Railroad to God's Country was open!""  The officers escaped the prison in groups of two and three on the night of February 9, 1864.  Once within the tobacco shed, the men collected inside the walled warehouse yard and simply strolled out the front gate.
Union officers meandering through the streets of Richmond late at night might appear to be a leg of the plan doomed to failure, however, the guards simply did not expect that escape from Libby prison was possible.  The fact that the Libby guards were not looking for signs of escape meant that they were in a position to be more easily deceived.  Union Army Lieutenant Moran described how the sentries were not interested in stopping people outside the bounds of their jurisdiction, ""provided, of course, that the retreating form...were not recognized as Yankees.""  The tunnel provided enough distance from the prison to stealthily subvert those jurisdictional lines and allow prisoners to slip into the dark streets unchallenged.
So effective was this buffer that 109 men escaped the prison without ever being stopped.  At one point, Colonel Rose walked straight into the path of an oncoming sentinel.  Unflinching, he ""strode boldly past the guard unchallenged.""  Even more amazing, once news of the escape way broke out among the prisoners a panicked rush resulted, creating a thunderous stampede for the tunnel.  Wholly unsuspecting of the reality of the situation, one Confederate guard yelled out to a fellow sentry, ""Halloa, Bill—there's somebody's coffeepot upset, sure!""


=== Precious time ===
Another example of how unaware the Confederates were caught is evident in the reaction to the escape.  From the Richmond Examiner, February 11, 1864: ""At first it was suspicioned [sic] that the night sentinels had been bribed.  They were placed under arrest, searched ... for evidences of their criminality, [and] confined in Castle Thunder (a civilian penitentiary near Libby Prison).  Upon the testimony afforded by the revelation of the tunnel, the imprisoned guards were at once released and restored to duty.""
Despite the stampeding of prisoners, strong senior officers such as Colonel Harrison C. Hobart had the sense of mind to tie off the flow of escapees before dawn's light.  ""The remaining prisoners replaced the bricks at the fireplace, and the guards began their morning routine, unaware that 109 escaped Union officers were making their way toward the Federal lines.""  Keeping the escape secret from the Confederate guards until the last possible moment gave the evading inmates what they needed most: time.  After the morning roll call came up over a hundred short, the Confederates counted frantically several more times to ensure that the Yankees weren't pulling a trick.  Such ""tricks"" had occurred on many occasions when men slipped in and out of the counting lines; this ""repeating"" was a mild prank often used to frustrate the Confederates at roll call, much to the glee of the Union prisoners.
On the morning of February 10, the Confederates realized that this was no trick.  By this time, the first prisoners had been loose for nearly twelve hours.  Frenzy broke out among the Confederates: ""Messengers and dispatches were soon flying in all directions, and all the horse, foot, and dragoons of Richmond were in pursuit of the fugitives before noon.""  Despite the mobilization of Richmond, almost 17 hours passed before the Confederates could respond.  This no doubt added greatly to the window of opportunity that helped 59 men reach Union lines.  The Richmond Enquirer of  February 11, 1864 expressed such a sentiment: ""It is feared that [the fugitives] have gotten rather too much the start of the pursuers to admit anything like the recapture of them all."" Of the 109 escapees, 48 were recaptured, and 2 drowned in the nearby James River.


=== Prior reconnaissance ===
Though Union Commander George B. McClellan received little more than defeat in the Peninsular Campaign of 1862, his men received something more.  For those who would break out of Libby prison, the time spent studying maps and hoofing ground in Virginia familiarized them with the enemy terrain.  Such intelligence was of weighty benefit for the prisoners forging their way back to the Federal lines two years later.  The Richmond Enquirer reported, ""It is supposed that the direction taken by them all – if, indeed all have left the city – was towards the Peninsula...""  Lieutenant Moran, who escaped late in the night, wrote, ""I had served with McClellan in the Peninsula campaign of 1862, I knew the country well from my frequent inspection of war maps, and the friendly north star gave me my bearings.""
Just as slaves had been following the North Star to envisioned freedom, it also guided escaped Union prisoners from Libby in 1864.  Most of the prisoners made reference to following the North Star, such as Captain Johnston who wrote, ""I ... started due north, taking the north star for my guide, changing my course only when [I] came near any of the [Rebel] camps.""


=== Leaders ===
Colonel Rose and Major Hamilton led the escape efforts.  Rose, wounded at the Battle of Chickamauga, arrived at the prison on October 1, 1863.  From the moment he stepped in the door, he was bent on escape.  While exploring the darker regions of Rat Hell, he happened upon Hamilton, who was also searching for a proper tunneling point.  Soon fast friends, the two worked toward the successful escape in February.  Contemporarily, Libby prisoners showered Rose with admiration and credit for the escape's success.
Rose and Hamilton worked tirelessly together to bring about the escape.  Rose thought of breaking into the basement from the chimney, while Hamilton engineered the passage.  Rose toiled feverishly in the tunnel and organized digging teams while Hamilton worked out the logistics and invented contraptions for removing dirt and supplying oxygen to the tunnel.  Various setbacks plagued the tunneling effort but as Lieutenant Moran recorded, ""the undaunted Rose, aided by Hamilton, [always] persuaded the men to another effort, and soon the knives and toy saws were at work again with vigor.""  Lieutenant Colonel Federico Fernández Cavada, a prisoner at Libby, wrote, ""To Colonel Rose is chiefly due the credit [for the escape]... Animated by an unflinching earnestness of purpose, unwearying perseverance, and no ordinary engineering abilities, he organized ... working parties [which] he conducted every night [in] the cellars of the prison.""  ""[Rose] was the acknowledged leader of the tunnel party, the acknowledged projector of the tunnel,"" maintained Hamilton, ""and it was through his good sense, energy, and management ... that the escape was a success.""
Despite his work in planning the escape, Rose was captured before reaching Federal lines.  Minutes from an advancing Union front at Williamsburg, he was ambushed by Confederate pickets and wrestled back to Libby Prison.  Though placed in solitary confinement, the Confederates felt Rose's presence at Libby now presented a danger.  Given the chance, they gladly traded the famed escapist for a Confederate colonel on April 30, 1864.  Rose returned to his unit, the 77th Pennsylvania Infantry, and fought through to the end of the war.


== Effect ==
To judge the success of the Libby Prison escape solely by the number of men who crossed Federal lines would be a mistake.  Richmond was deeply affected by the break, and Libby Prison itself was thrown into chaos, much to the satisfaction and raised morale of the remaining prisoners.  Lieutenant Colonel Cavada recorded some of the more humorous effects of the escape inside the prison.  On one occasion, the entire camp was roused in the middle of the night for a roll call because a sentry thought he saw something down in a sewer.  It turned out to be his own shadow.  Even the Confederate warden, Major Thomas P. Turner, was visibly shaken.  Cavada commented, ""Really, when our distracted little Commandant now comes into our rooms, he keeps his knees well together, it is necessary to be very cautious, some of us might slip out between his legs!""


== In popular culture ==
A melodramatic Broadway play about the escape entitled A Fair Rebel, by Harry P. Mawson, premiered in New York City in August 1891. In 1914, a 3-reel silent film version was released starring Linda Arvidson, Charles Perley, and Dorothy Gish, and directed by Frank Powell.
Episode Number 25 of The Great Adventure (American TV series) (1964) presents a dramatisation of the Libby Prison escape.
The escape is in the television series History's Greatest Escapes with Morgan Freeman  season 2 episode 7 (2024).


== References ==
Cavada, F.F., Libby Life. Pennsylvania: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1865.
Hamilton, A. G., Story of the Famous Tunnel Escape from Libby Prison. Chicago: S. S. Boggs, 1893.
Johnston, I. N., Four Months in Libby. Cincinnati: Methodist Book Concern, 1893.
Klee, Brue, ""Libby Prison,"" Civil War Times, February 1999.
Moran, Frank E., Famous Adventures and Prison Escapes of the Civil War. New York: The Century Co., 1898.
Morgan, Michael, ""Breakout from Rat Hell,"" Civil War Times, October 1999.
Richmond Examiner, 11 February 1864.
Rose, Thomas E., “Libby Tunnel”, National Tribune, 14 May 1885.


== Notes ==


== External links ==
John Bray's (First New Jersey Cavalry) account of his escape",0.9050427079200745
French destroyer Le Triomphant,"Le Triomphant (""The triumphant one"") was one of six Le Fantasque-class large destroyers (contre-torpilleur, ""Torpedo-boat destroyer"") built for the Marine Nationale (French Navy) during the 1930s. The ship entered service in 1935 and participated in the Second World War. When war was declared in September 1939, all of the Le Fantasques were assigned to the Force de Raid which was tasked to hunt down German commerce raiders and blockade runners. Le Triomphant and two of her sister ships were based in Dakar, French West Africa, to patrol the Central Atlantic for several months in late 1939. They returned to Metropolitan France before the end of the year and were transferred to French Algeria in late April 1940 in case Italy decided to enter the war. Le Triomphant played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign in late April and was under repair when the Germans invaded France in May. She sailed to Britain to avoid capture in June.
The ship was seized by the British in early July and was transferred to the Free French in August. After a refit, Le Triomphant began escorting convoys before the end of 1940 and was transferred to the Pacific Ocean in mid-1941. Later that year, she received orders to return to the Mediterranean in December, but they were cancelled when the Pacific War began on 8 December. Aside from a refit that lasted 10 months, the ship was on convoy escort duties until late 1943. Ordered again to return to the Mediterranean, Le Triomphant was badly damaged by a typhoon in the Indian Ocean and had to be sent to the United States for permanent repairs and modernization that lasted until mid-1945.
The ship was sent to French Indochina after the Japanese surrender in September to provide support for the French forces there. After returning to Metropolitan France in mid-1946, she was intermittently active until late 1949. Le Triomphant was placed in reserve at that time and was sold for scrap in 1957.


== Design and description ==
The Le Fantasque-class ships were designed to counter the fast Italian Condottieri-class light cruisers and one member of the class, Le Terrible, set a world record for a ship with a conventional hull that was in excess of 45 knots (83 km/h; 52 mph). They had an overall length of 132.4 meters (434 ft 5 in), a beam of 12 meters (39 ft 4 in), and a draft of 4.5 meters (14 ft 9 in). The ships displaced 2,569 metric tons (2,528 long tons) at standard and 3,417 metric tons (3,363 long tons) at deep load. Le Triomphant was powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by four water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 74,000 metric horsepower (54,000 kW; 73,000 shp), which would propel the ship at 37 knots (69 km/h; 43 mph). During her sea trials on 26 November 1935, her turbines provided 98,529 metric horsepower (72,468 kW; 97,181 shp) and she reached 43.1 knots (79.8 km/h; 49.6 mph) for a single hour. The Parsons turbines were more economical than the Rateau-Bretagne turbines which gave those ships equipped with them a range of 2,900 nautical miles (5,400 km; 3,300 mi) versus 2,700 nmi (5,000 km; 3,100 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The crew of the Le Fantasque class consisted of 11 officers and 221 crewmen in peacetime and the number of the latter increased to 254 in wartime.
The main armament of the Le Fantasques consisted of five Canon de 138.6 mm (5.5 in) Modèle 1929 guns in single mounts, one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel. Their anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of two Canon de 37 mm (1.5 in) Modèle 1925 guns in single mounts positioned amidships and four Hotchkiss Mitrailleuse de 13.2 mm (0.52 in) CA Modèle 1929 in two twin-gun mounts aft of the 37 mm mounts. The ships carried three above-water triple sets of 550-millimeter (21.7 in) torpedo tubes; the aft mount could traverse to both sides, but the forward mounts were positioned one on each broadside. A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern; these housed a total of sixteen 200-kilogram (440 lb) depth charges with another dozen available in the torpedo magazine. They could also be fitted with rails capable of handling 40 naval mines.


=== Modifications ===
In April 1939, the bridge wings were enlarged to accommodate the Hotchkiss machine guns on Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable and Le Malin. After the war began, 200 kg depth-charge stowage increased to 48 and a pair of rails were installed on the stern for 35-kilogram (77 lb) depth charges. Each rail could accommodate 3 depth charges and 15 more were stored in the magazine. In early 1940 twin-gun 37 mm mounts replaced the single-gun mounts. Under Free French control as of 3 July, Le Triomphant was refitted in late 1940 during which she had her aft superfiring 138.6 mm gun replaced by a British 4-inch (102 mm) Mk V AA gun and a Type 128 ASDIC system that had been taken from a seized French destroyer was installed. The 35 kg depth charges and their rails were removed and the ship was fitted with four Modèle 1918 depth-charge throwers abreast the aft superstructure for 100-kilogram (220 lb) depth charges. Two of these were stowed next to each mount and eighteen more were stowed in the magazine.
During a subsequent refit in mid-1941, the Hotchkiss machine guns were relocated to positions on the forecastle deck and their former positions were occupied by single mounts for 2-pounder (40 mm (1.6 in)) Mk II AA guns. A quadruple mount for Hotchkiss machine guns taken from the battleship Paris was installed atop the aft superstructure and rails for 18 British Mk VIIH depth charges were installed on the stern. A fixed antenna for a Type 286M search radar was also installed. A late 1942 refit in Australia exchanged the 13.2 mm machine guns for six 20-millimeter (0.8 in) Oerlikon light AA guns and the Type 286M radar was replaced by a Type 290 system with a rotating antenna.
En route to the Boston Navy Yard in 1944 for a comprehensive refit, Le Triomphant stopped in Bizerte, French Tunisia, where the British Mk V AA gun was replaced by a 138.6 mm gun from L'Audacieux. The Americans installed SA early-warning, SF surface-search and a British Type 285 fire-control radar, removed her aft torpedo tubes to save weight and converted some boiler feedwater tanks to fuel oil to improve her range. Her AA armament had been removed earlier and now consisted of six 40-millimeter (1.6 in) Bofors guns in a twin-gun mount superfiring over the aft 138.6 mm guns, and two other twin mounts forward of the aft funnel; she now carried eleven Oerlikon guns in single mounts, four on the sides of the bridge and the remaining guns on platforms on the aft superstructure, on the quarterdeck, and where the aft torpedo mount had been.


== Construction and career ==
Ordered on 22 May 1931 as part of the 1930 Naval Program, Le Triomphant was laid down on 28 August 1931 by Ateliers et Chantiers de France at their shipyard in Dunkerque. She was launched on 16 April 1934, commissioned on 31 December 1935, completed on 25 May 1936 and entered service on 24 July. Completion was delayed when her turbines stripped some of their blades and required lengthy repairs. When the Le Fantasques entered service they were assigned to the newly formed 8th and 10th Light Divisions (Divisions légère) which were later redesignated as scout divisions (Division de contre-torpilleurs); both divisions were assigned to the 2nd Light Squadron (2eme Escadre légère) in Brest. As of 1 October 1936 Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable and Le Malin were assigned to the 8th Light Division while Le Fantasque, Le Terrible and L'Audacieux belonged to the 10th. Between 15 January and 26 February 1937, the 2nd Light Squadron cruised as far south as Conakry, French West Africa. On 27 May, Alphonse Gasnier-Duparc, Minister of the Navy, reviewed the fleet, including all of the Le Fantasques.


=== World War II ===
Both the 8th and 10th Scout Divisions were assigned to the Force de Raid at Brest when war was declared in September 1939; it made only a single sortie as a complete unit on 2–6 September when it responded to an erroneous report that German ships had left port. Afterwards it was dispersed into smaller groups to search for German commerce raiders and blockade runners. During 21–30 October, the Force de Raid, including all of the Le Fantasques, screened Convoy KJ 4 against a possible attack by the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee. On 25 November the 8th Scout Division, consisting of Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable, and Le Malin, rendezvoused with the battleship Strasbourg and escorted her to Brest. Her sister, Dunkerque, sailed for Canada on 11 December with a cargo of gold and she was escorted for the next two days by Le Triomphant, Le Terrible, Valmy, Mogador and Volta.
In anticipation of an Italian declaration of war, the Force de Raid, including the 8th Scout Division, assembled in Mers-el-Kébir, French Algeria, on 5–9 April 1940, only to return to Brest when the Germans invaded Norway on the 10th. On the night of 23/24 April 1940, the 8th Scout Division made a high-speed patrol of the Skaggerak, hoping to attack German merchantmen headed for Norway. They encountered two patrol boats and damaged one of them while also engaging a pair of S-boats to little effect and narrowly missed spotting a convoy of minelayers. Le Malin then began experiencing engine problems and the ships were forced to reduce speed. Near-misses by German bombers damaged one of Le Triomphant's propeller shafts as they withdrew and she returned to Lorient on 30 April for repairs. As the Germans advanced in France and threatened the harbors in Brittany, the ship departed for Plymouth on 21 June.


==== Free French service ====

On 3 July she was seized by the British at Plymouth as part of Operation Catapult, but the ship was turned over to the FNFL on 28 August and Commander (Capitaine de frégate) Philippe Auboyneau assumed command of the ship. She was partially refitted with British equipment in September–October and recommissioned on 23 October, although the ship was not ready to go back to sea until November when she was assigned to the 11th Escort Group, based on the Firth of Clyde in western Scotland. Le Triomphant had constant problems with her propulsion machinery and propeller shafts during this time, which were aggravated when she broke loose from her mooring in Greenock during a gale in February 1941 and collided with a cargo ship. The ship received a major refit at HM Dockyard, Devonport in May–July to prepare her for service in the Pacific Ocean for which she departed on 31 July via the Panama Canal. As Le Triomphant passed through the canal on 16 August, she was recognised and reported by a Japanese observer, whose transmission was intercepted by Magic. The ship reached San Diego on 25 August and received some minor repairs before she sailed for Tahiti on 5 September. Le Triomphant transported Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu, the Free French High Commissioner for the Pacific during this voyage and reached Papeete harbor on 23 September. The ship spent the next month visiting many of the islands of French Polynesia and British Fiji before arriving back in Papeete on 22 October.

At that time, she received orders from the Admiralty to return to the Mediterranean and to be at Suez, Egypt, no later than 13 December. While leaving Wellington, New Zealand, Le Triomphant was damaged by a violent and sudden gust of wind and was under repair in Sydney, Australia, on 8 December when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. In mid-December, she escorted the troopship SS Ormiston from Sydney to Nouméa, New Caledonia, and conducted other escort missions during this time. In late February 1942, as a Japanese invasion of Nauru and Ocean Island was feared, Le Triomphant helped to evacuate the small military contingent and the European and Chinese workers from both islands. The ship resumed her earlier duties before she began a refit at the Garden Island Dockyard in Sydney on 19 March. Completion of the refit was delayed by the heavy workload there and it was not finished until 20 January 1943. Le Triomphant was reassigned to escort duties, mostly between Sydney and Melbourne and she rescued survivors of the torpedoed BHP Shipping iron ore carrier SS Iron Knight off Cape Howe on 8 February. Between 10 February and 23 May, the ship conducted 19 escort missions before entering Williamstown Dockyard in Melbourne for the installation of her port propeller chase on 26 May. Le Triomphant resumed escort missions after the installation was completed on 17 June and Captain (Capitaine de vaisseau) Paul Ortoli relieved Auboyneau in July. The ship was overhauled again in Sydney from 8 September to 7 November. She was reclassified as a light cruiser on 28 September.
On 24 November, a five-man liaison team from the Royal Australian Navy boarded the ship in Melbourne. Le Triomphant departed Fremantle the following day to return to the Mediterranean, accompanied by the American oil tanker SS Cedar Mills. A few days later, an accident while starting to refuel damaged the oil transfer gear, which meant that the cruiser only had 170 metric tons (170 t) of fuel in her tanks; to conserve fuel, Cedar Mills started towing Le Triomphant. The transfer gear was finally repaired on 1 December and she was able to top off her oil tanks. During the night of 2/3 December, the ships were struck by a typhoon and Le Triomphant was badly damaged. She took on a 15 degree list and her forward boiler and engine rooms were flooded. After taking off some of the crew, Cedar Mills was able to re-establish the tow on 5 December. The heavy cruiser HMS Frobisher took over the task and towed the large destroyer to Diego Suarez, French Madagascar, on 19 December. Temporary repairs there took until 21 February 1944 when she sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, for permanent repairs that lasted for a year after her arrival there on 12 April. En route, Le Triomphant stopped at Algiers where she was inspected by General Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, and the High Commissioner for the Navy, Louis Jacquinot. Ordered to the Indian Ocean in 1945, she served with the Eastern Fleet after her arrival in Colombo, Ceylon, on 27 May. After a brief refit in Diego Suarez in July, she covered the British occupation of Singapore in early September together with the French battleship Richelieu.


=== Postwar activities ===
Le Triomphant was the first French warship to deploy to French Indochina after the war, arriving in Saigon on 3 October 1945 and alternated with Le Fantasque in providing gunfire support to the French garrison at Nha Trang and then supporting French forces on the coast of the Gulf of Tonkin until February 1946. On 6 March she led a convoy to Haiphong which the French were to take over from the Chinese, but they engaged the convoy for 20 minutes before a cease-fire could be negotiated. Le Triomphant was lightly damaged, but 8 of her crew had been killed and 39 wounded. The sisters participated in a naval review in Ha Long Bay on 24 March before Le Triomphant departed for France on 9 April where she arrived at Toulon on 16 May.
The ship was reduced to reserve upon her return and was refitted at Bizerte from February to November 1947. During this time, only two of the four surviving ships of the class were active at any one time because of a shortage of trained personnel. When Le Triomphant arrived at Toulon on 7 February, she relieved Le Malin in the 10th Light Cruiser Division (10e Division de croiseurs légers). The ship remained on active duty until she was placed in reserve at Bizerte on 1 November 1949. Le Triomphant was sold for scrap in December 1957 and was subsequently broken up.


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Bertrand, Michel (1982). La Marine française au combat [The French Navy in Combat: Battles in the Atlantic with the Free French Naval Forces] (in French). Vol. I: Des combats de l'Atlantique aux F.N.F.L. Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle. ISBN 2-7025-0002-1.
Jordan, John & Dumas, Robert (2009). French Battleships 1922–1956. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Punblishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-034-5.
Jordan, John & Moulin, Jean (2015). French Destroyers: Torpilleurs d'Escadre & Contre-Torpilleurs 1922–1956. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-198-4.
Roberts, John (1980). ""France"". In Chesneau, Roger (ed.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. New York: Mayflower Books. pp. 255–279. ISBN 0-8317-0303-2.
Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (Third Revised ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.
Waters, Sydney D. (1956). The Royal New Zealand Navy. The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939–1945. Wellington, New Zealand: Historical Publications Branch. OCLC 173284131. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
Whitley, M. J. (1988). Destroyers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-326-1.",0.7931241989135742
Siege of Toul,"The siege of Toul was the siege of the fortified French town of Toul from 16 August to 23 September 1870 by Prussian, Bavarian and Württemberg forces during the Franco-Prussian War. Toul controlled a railway line leading to Germany and it was vital for the Germans to secure it to resupply and reinforce their armies in northern France.
An attempt to seize the fortress on 16 August failed with heavy losses for the Germans. After a blockade of 37 days, the German siege artillery opened fire with 62 guns and howitzers at 0530 on 23 September and the fortress surrendered at 1530. The Germans captured 2,349 French soldiers and 71 fortress guns along with considerable stores of supplies and pushed the German railway terminus in France closer to the German forces besieging Paris.


== Background ==
During the German campaign in northern France in 1870, and especially after German armies began to advance on Paris to besiege it, it was critical for the German High Command to secure Toul, which controlled a railway line to Germany. Toul, located in a valley between the Marne–Rhine Canal and the Moselle, was protected by nine bastions, some outworks, water-filled ditches, including a 40 feet (12 m)-wide main ditch and a system of sluices to inundate the nearby ground. The 125-meter-high Mont St.Michel to the north, the Dommartin-lès-Toul heights to the east, the Choloy plateau to the south-west and the absence of bomb-proof cover rendered the fortification vulnerable to artillery bombardment and the hills and villages nearby made it easy for hostile infantry to advance to its ramparts.


== Prelude ==
On 14 August, Captain von Trotha's squadron from the 2nd Dragoons of the Guard attacked some chasseurs à cheval near Toul. A melee commenced and the French were driven into the suburbs. They received no fire support from the fortress. Trotha took this as evidence of a weak garrison and sent an officer to the fortress, demanding its surrender. The French commandant, Major Huck, simply told the Germans to go back and the French began shooting at the Germans from the houses and gardens nearby. The German cavalry broke their way out and destroyed the sluices controlling the water in the ditches.
Another demand for surrender came on 15 August, this time from Captain von Rosen of the 2nd squadron, 3rd Lancers of the Guard, whose men had advanced on the fortress under fire, though they suffered no losses. The commandant turned down the demand as before, and the Germans returned to Ménil-la-Tour in the afternoon.


== Coup de Main ==
General of the Infantry Gustav von Alvensleben, commander of IV Corps, encouraged by Toul's weak resistance to these advance groups, decided on the early morning of 16 August to reconnoiter the fort and seize it by means of a coup de main. French inhabitants told the Germans that Toul had only 1,000 or 1,200 Garde Mobile as garrison. IV Corps' advance guard, consisting of the reinforced 14th Infantry Brigade, which included the 27th and 93rd Infantry Regiments, the 7th Dragoons, the 1st heavy and 2nd light batteries, two pioneer companies and the light bridge train and which was commanded by General von Zychlinski, received Alvensleben's order and deployed at Francheville at 1100, where the 2nd heavy battery had also been concentrated.
The two heavy batteries advanced on the fort and opened fire at the ramparts at 1,500 meters, the first battery from the east and the second from Mont St. Michel to the north. Two guns from the light battery augmented the St. Michel position, with the remaining four guns of the battery in reserve. Dismounted dragoons and 2nd Battalion, 93rd Regiment escorted the batteries. The bombardment was ineffective and the French replied with six guns well-concealed by trees. Alvensleben arrived in person and ordered the town to bombardment to induce a surrender.

At 1245, Zychlinski led the infantry column on an assault at the fortress. The 3rd pioneer company led the attack to reconnoiter the ditches. Skirmishers would follow and surround the fort, the ditch would be passed and an entrance gained through the north gate of the fortress. The pioneers reached the north side of the fortress under long-range rifle fire. The Germans found the northern glacis unfavorable to an assault and began to search for an eastern passage. After a gaining a position on the eastern side, they opened fire on the garrison. At 1300, the 93rd Regiment's fusilier battalion advanced in skirmishing order against the northern face and reached the main ditch, opening fire on the garrison deployed at the north gate ravelin. The 2nd Battalion of the 93rd Regiment advanced against the north-western side and engaged in a firefight in a skirmish line against the garrison. The drawbridge had been raised and no suitable location for an assault was found. The 2nd Battalion, 27th Regiment moved against the western side, crossing open ground and suffering heavy losses in the process, including the injuring of the battalion's commander Major Joffroy. They reached the foot of the glacis and received reinforcements from the 1st Battalion, which also suffered casualties, with the battalion commander Lieutenant-Colonel Werner wounded. The Bavarian lancer brigade reached the scene and opened fire with its horse artillery batteries on the fort.
With the fortress immune to the fire of skirmishers and a few batteries of artillery, the only means to take it was to gain a passage over the main ditch and storm it. At 1400, a German heavy gun fired eight rounds from a range of 80 meters at the gate near the St. Mansuy suburb to destroy it and bring down the drawbridge. The powder-smoke and large number of trees made aiming impossible and the attempt was discontinued. Between 1500 and 1600, Alvensleben ordered the coup de main to be abandoned. The Germans retreated in small groups to minimize casualties, though the French artillery fired on them with effect. The 2nd Battalion in the west did not get the order until 1900, having maintained a fire up until that moment and suffering serious casualties. It then withdrew north with few losses, as the French passively contented themselves with staying in the fort and launched no sorties. On arriving at his headquarters, Alvensleben received an order from Second Army commander to attempt a coup de main on Toul but decided that a second assault would be pointless and would tie down his troops in an extended siege and reported his thoughts to Second Army headquarters. IV Corps continued its march to the west.


== Siege ==
The French commandant, Major Huck, controlled 2,375 men and 71 fortress guns. By early September, the German besiegers had Etappen troops from III Prussian Army, the 4th and 6th fortress artillery companies and captured French guns from Marsal with which to bombard Toul.
The weather and unfavorable ground delayed the German preparations but by the night of 9–10 September they had deployed three artillery batteries on the Côte Barine slope with German infantry providing cover from the nearby railway embankment. After informing Major Huck of their intent, the German batteries opened fire at 0700 but only burned some houses in the town and received heavy French counter-battery fire. The French artillery continued firing on 11 September and the newly-arrived German commander, Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, discontinued his own bombardment. Frederick Francis had been detached to Toul from the Siege of Metz with the 17th Infantry Division, the 17th Cavalry Brigade, three batteries from the 2nd Landwehr Division. The German formations arrived near Toul on 12 and 13 September. The previously engaged German siege forces were redeployed to cover the German supply lines at St. Dizier. German cavalry at Ochey prevented French forces on the Langres plateau from interfering with the siege.
The 34th Brigade was deployed on the Choloy plateau, the 33rd on both banks of the Marne–Rhine Canal and the Germans set to work closing in on the glacis from the north. French fire could not stop the German outpost groups, which suffered only 13 casualties. A reconnaissance on 12 September convinced Frederick Francis to begin bombarding the fortress to submission from the south-west. He went off on 13 September to meet King Wilhelm I at Château-Thierry to receive more instructions.
On the morning of 15 September, the 2nd Landwehr Division's heavy battery at Mont St. Michel, firing from positions prepared the previous night, harassed for hours the French troops inside Toul and watchposts in the Toul Cathedral tower. The 5th and 6th heavy batteries of the 17th Infantry Division were deployed into pre-prepared positions on Mont St. Michel on 16 September to subdue the French fortress artillery, which had maintained its own fire. Three companies of Prussian heavy artillery with 26 heavy guns and their ammunition arrived by railway from Nancy on 17 and 18 September at St. Robert. Carriages transported the guns to the artillery parks on the Choloy plateau and on the Côte Marine, while their emplacements were being constructed by infantry from Ecrouves. Simultaneously, 42 field guns pounded the fortress on 18 September to distract the French from the transport operation.
Colonel Bartsch, commander of the siege artillery, and Major Schumann, the senior engineer officer, planned the direction of the attack. Twelve siege batteries would be used and trenches dug, if necessary. The siege batteries on Mont St. Michel would fire on bastions no. 3 and 4, while fire from La Justice would make a breach on the masonry to the right of bastion no. 4. German pioneers erected a bridge over the river at Pierre la Treiche on 20 September, while a detachment of Bavarian engineers destroyed a canal lock near the suburb of St. Mansuy. A German attempt to drain the ditch of the fortress by diverting the Vauban canal's water to the Moselle succeeded only partially.


=== Franc-tireur ===
French franc-tireur bands harassed the lines of communications of the German siege forces surrounding Paris. The French garrison at Toul was so weak that the Germans could send the 33rd Infantry Brigade, the 11th Lancers and three batteries to Châlons on 19 September to secure the lines of communications alongside other German forces.


=== Final bombardment and capitulation ===
The Prussian siege artillery, with the help of five infantry companies, constructed emplacements for its pieces on the evening of 22 September. To cover the preparations, a rifle company occupied St. Evre on the night of 21–22 September and heavy guns and three field batteries bombarded the town throughout the day from Mont St. Michel. At 0530 on 23 September, 11 siege batteries with 62 guns and howitzers opened fire, while Frederick Francis watched the proceeding from the Côte Barine. The German firepower burned down French barracks' and magazines near the fortifications. After an initially lackluster response, the French artillery and infantry set on fire the suburbs of St. Evre and St. Mansuy, but otherwise accomplished little.
At 1530 the French raised the white flag over the cathedral. Major Huck sent a letter to the Germans, declaring his readiness to surrender the fort. The garrison was taken prisoner of war and sent to a bivouac on the Choloy road and the German 3rd Battalion, 90th Regiment and two rifle companies occupied the town in the evening. The Grand Duke entered the next morning at the head of the troops.


== Aftermath ==
The 2nd Battalion, 90th Regiment, remained as garrison while the Prussian siege artillery was sent to bombard Soissons. The French guns captured at Marsal and Toul were now available for operations against Verdun. The German railway terminus was pushed to the west by the fall of Toul and by the German victory at the Siege of Strasbourg on 28 September. The Germans expended 5,034 artillery shells, shrapnel and bombs during the siege on 16 and 23 August and from 10 to 23 September.


=== Casualties ===
The French lost 1 officer and 25 men killed, 8 officers and 80 men wounded, 109 officers and 2,240 men captured as well as 8 civilians killed and 20 wounded. Three standards of the 3rd dragoons and the eagle of a Garde Mobile regiment were captured. Three barracks and some private buildings were destroyed by the German bombardment but overall damage to the town was minimal. French material losses were enormous, with 71 fortress guns, 30,000 stands of arms, 2,800 sabres, 224,000 lb (102 t) of gunpowder, 143,000 rations of food and 50,000 rations of corn captured by the Germans.
German casualties during the expedition to Toul on 16 August amounted to 6 officers and 41 enlisted men killed or died of wounds, 11 officers, 1 assistant surgeon and 129 men wounded and 9 men missing. Five horses were killed and nine wounded. Losses from 27 August to 23 September were minimal, with 7 enlisted men killed or dead of wounds, 1 officer and 27 men wounded and 1 horse wounded.


== Citations ==


== References ==
The Franco-German War 1870–71 Part 1. Vol. I. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. (2nd Clowes & Sons, London ed.). Grosser Generalstab. Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung. 1881. OCLC 221986676. translated from the German official account for the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster-General's Department, Horse Guards
German General Staff (1880). The Franco-German War 1870-71: Part 2; Volume 1. Translated by F.C.H Clarke. London: Clowes & Sons.
German General Staff (1884). The Franco-German War 1870-71: Part 2; Volume 3. Translated by F.C.H Clarke. London: Clowes & Sons.",0.9644601941108704