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+{"id": "528b9d4d2d1d1884644fcad9337a804829ba8868", "text": "ARTICLE\n\nThe Horror of the Anthropocene\n\nSarah Dillon\nUniversity of Cambridge, GB\nsjd27@cam.ac.uk\n\nIn this essay I explore the profound and specific fastening of horror to the Anthropocene by considering both scientific and philosophical responses to our contemporary moment. I then take Cormac McCarthy's The Road as a case study of the Anthropocene horror story, analysed in relation to the four stages of horror as defined by John Clute. This close reading of the The Road reveals a problem with the horror of the Anthropocene: just like the road down which the man and boy travel, it takes us nowhere. I end with a critical engagement with Donna Haraway's coinage of an alternative descriptor \u2013 the Chthulucene \u2013 arguing that it remains haunted by horror. I conclude that the challenge remains to think the affect of the horror of the Anthropocene whilst conceiving of stories that will move us beyond it.\n\nKeywords: horror; Anthropocene; Clute; The Road; Haraway; Chthulucene\n\nIn 2014, Samuel Beckett\u2019s short story \u2018Echo\u2019s Bones\u2019 was published for the first time. Until that date it had existed only in typescript, the original of which is held at the Rauner Library at Dartmouth College in America, with a carbon copy to be found in the A. J. Leventhal Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, Austin. Mark Nixon, the editor of the first published version, explains in his introduction that the story was written by Beckett at the request of Charles Prentice, senior partner at the publishing house Chatto & Windus, who accepted Beckett\u2019s collection More Pricks Than Kicks (1934) for publication but suggested in editorial correspondence with Beckett that an eleventh story would \u2018help the book\u2019 (Beckett, 2014: 112).\u00b9 Beckett duly wrote an additional story in which he resurrects the main\n\ncharacter, Belacqua, who had in fact died in the ninth story of the originally submitted volume. By resurrect, I should clarify here that I do not mean simply that he wrote another story in which Belacqua featured, set some time prior to his death despite the story being written chronologically after that death had been written. No, in 'Echo's Bones' Belacqua is quite literally resurrected. Belacqua, we are told at the story's opening:\n\nNow found himself up and about in the dust of this world, back at his old games in the dim spot, on so many different occasions that he sometimes wondered if his lifeless condition were not all a dream and if on the whole he had not been a great deal deader before than after his formal departure, so to speak, from among the quick. (Beckett, 2014: 3)\n\nBelacqua is a ghost in this story; his corporeal insubstantiality is confirmed a few pages later when he realises that his body casts no shadow.\n\nPrentice eagerly read the new story, only to be so horrified by it that he rejected it and went ahead with the publication of More Pricks Than Kicks in the ten story form with which we are familiar. I use the word \u2018horrified\u2019 here quite specifically since it is clearly the emotional affect the story had on Prentice, as revealed in his rejection letter to Beckett on 13th November 1933 which he begins with the declaration that the story \u2018is a nightmare. Just too terribly persuasive. It gives me the jim-jams\u2019 (Beckett, 2014: 114). \u2018People will shudder and be puzzled and confused,\u2019 he declares, \u2018and they won't be keen on analysing the shudder\u2019 (Beckett, 2014: 114). Prentice is remarkably apologetic to Beckett: his rejection of the story is explained as an emotional issue on his part as reader, rather than as a judgement of literary quality, style or technique as a publisher. He concludes the letter:\n\nThis is a dreadful d\u00e9b\u00e2cle \u2013 on my part, not on yours, God save the mark. But I have to own up to it. A failure, a blind-spot, call it what I may. Yet the only plea for mercy I can make is that the icy touch of those revenant fingers was too much for me. I am sitting on the ground, and ashes are on my head. (Beckett, 2014: 114)\nPrentice\u2019s readerly response here is sufficient to classify \u2018Echo\u2019s Bones\u2019 as a horror story, if one adheres to the predominant mode of classifying horror stories in terms of their \u2018affect\u2019. This mode can be traced back, at least, to H. P. Lovecraft\u2019s 1927 survey of the genre, \u2018Supernatural Horror in Literature\u2019, in which he describes horror as \u2018a literature of cosmic fear\u2019 in which \u2018atmosphere is the all-important thing, for the final criterion of authenticity is not the dovetailing of a plot but the creation of a given sensation\u2019 (2012: no pag.). For Lovecraft, \u2018the one test of the really weird is simply this \u2013 whether or not there be excited in the reader a profound sense of dread\u2019 (2012: no pag.).\n\nJohn Clute provides a succinct definition of \u2018Affect Horror\u2019 in *The Darkening Garden: A Short Lexicon of Horror*, a text first published in 2006 but reissued in 2014 in *Stay*, as the final section of a volume primarily serving as a collection of Clute\u2019s reviews (although it does collect five short stories as well). Clute explains that \u2018it has become common to state not only that certain emotional responses are normally generated in the reader of horror texts, but also to claim that these responses are, in themselves, what actually define horror\u2019 (2014: 275). Clute\u2019s issue with this definition \u2013 his dislike of it is implicit rather than explicit in the entry \u2013 is that since, he claims, \u2018no other genre has ever been defined in terms of the affect it generates in the reader\u2019 (2014: 275), defining horror in such a way means that critics have been able to define horror not as a genre at all, but as a sensation which could be produced by any kind of story, generic or not. Indeed, precisely such an argument is to be found in Lovecraft, who asserts that \u2018we must judge a weird tale not by the author\u2019s intent, or by the mere mechanics of plot, but by the emotional level which it attains at its least mundane point\u2019 (2012: no pag.). For Lovecraft, \u2018if the proper sensations are excited\u2019 (2012: no pag.) \u2013 those of fear and dread \u2013 then the moments in a story which elicit them can be classed as horror, even if the story as a whole cannot. But Clute, a veteran structuralist, is affronted by this dissipation of what he considers a strictly generic category \u2013 horror \u2013 into \u2018a kind of afflatus, a wind from anywhere\u2019 (2014: 275).\n\n---\n\n2 Another significant theorist of horror in the affect mode is Julia Kristeva for whom, in *Powers of Horror*, abjection names \u2018a twisted braid of affects and thoughts\u2019 (1982: 1).\nIn contrast to \u2018Affect Horror\u2019, Clute\u2019s lexicon is committed to consolidating horror as a genre, constituted, as all genres are, by \u2018certain patterns of story\u2019 that can be suitably analysed or, in Clute\u2019s terminology, \u2018anatomized\u2019 (2014: 275). Clute\u2019s work offers the most compelling structural schema for horror: a four-part model for the definitive horror story which comprises \u2018Sighting\u2019, \u2018Thickening\u2019, \u2018Revel\u2019 and \u2018Aftermath\u2019. These constitute \u2018a grammar of moves that culminate in an understanding that the true world augurs and embodies an ultimate terror that does not lie to us\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 310). For Clute, \u2018Affect Horror\u2019 \u2018may be very profitably applied to non-supernatural texts\u2019, whereas genre horror is the preeminent mode of what he calls the \u2018bound fantastic\u2019 (2014: 275, 287). In Clute\u2019s account, all fantastic literature emerged from 1750 onwards when mankind became aware of the planet itself and, crucially, of its mortality. Fantastic literature can be divided into two categories, the free and the bound, according to a text\u2019s relation to the planet: texts of the bound fantastic \u2013 horror \u2013 \u2018move towards an exposure of the nature of the world to which we are bound\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 305); texts of the free fantastic \u2013 fantasy, a category which for Clute includes science fiction \u2013 move to escape from the world, whether through fancy or reason. These categories, Clute believes, provide a structural definitional context for genre horror, since \u2018attendance to the world precedes affect\u2019 (2014: 311).\n\nAs Prentice\u2019s response demonstrates, \u2018Echo\u2019s Bones\u2019 is definitely affect horror, but Clute seems to consider the entirety of Beckett\u2019s oeuvre to reside within the horror genre, despite the fact that Beckett\u2019s texts would not ordinarily be considered supernatural: Clute\u2019s lexicon is prefaced by an epigraph from Beckett\u2019s late story \u2018Company\u2019, and, in the final entry on \u2018Vastation\u2019, Clute asserts that \u2018vastation eats Beckett into a silence which it is his heroism to break\u2019 (2014: 341). This complicates Clute\u2019s association of affect horror with non-supernatural texts, and what we might call \u2018story horror\u2019 (rather than genre horror) with fantastic ones. In this essay I test to what extent Clute\u2019s structural model might be effectively used to analyse a\n\n---\n\n3 Another structuralist approach can be found in Tzvetan Todorov\u2019s The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre (1973). But Clute\u2019s model is specific to horror, whereas Todorov\u2019s is not. This essay is intended, in part, to draw greater attention to Clute\u2019s model and its efficacy in reading horror stories. For a fuller exploration of Todorov\u2019s theory in relation to horror, see Hills (2005), Chapter Two.\nnon-supernatural horror text \u2014 Cormac McCarthy\u2019s *The Road* (2006) \u2014 and explore what new readings of this frequently interpreted novel might be generated as a result of approaching it in such a way. I believe that *The Road* is indicative of a specific twenty-first century phenomenon: that the early twenty-first century is beginning to see, and will quite possibly continue to see, a literary mainstream incorporation of the story moves of the horror genre akin to the literary mainstream incorporation of the story moves of science fiction witnessed in the late twentieth century. Writers are turning to horror \u2014 just as Veronica Hollinger argued they were doing in relation to science fiction back in 2002 \u2014 \u2018as a narrative discourse through which to map the metamorphoses of present reality\u2019 (Hollinger, 2002: 4). Prentice deemed Beckett\u2019s story unfit for publication in 1933 because it was a jim-jam inducing nightmare that would leave its readers puzzled and confused; Beckett\u2019s story is appropriate for publication now, because life in the early twenty-first century \u2014 and the future we see before us \u2014 is considered by many people to be a jim-jam inducing nightmare that leaves us puzzled and confused. But contemporary horror is moving from a literature of cosmic fear to a literature of planetary fear, and horror can be seen to be structuring the entire story, not just the high spots, of non-supernatural literature.\n\nIn this essay I will explore the profound and specific fastening of horror to the Anthropocene by considering first both scientific and philosophical responses to our contemporary moment. I then take *The Road* as a case study of the non-supernatural Anthropocene horror story, analysed in relation to the four stages of horror as defined by Clute. This structural close analysis exposes a problem with horror of\nthe Anthropocene \u2013 just like the road down which the man and boy travel, it takes us nowhere. I end with a critical engagement with Donna Haraway\u2019s coinage of an alternative descriptor \u2013 the Chthulucene \u2013 arguing that it, nevertheless, remains haunted by horror. I conclude that the challenge remains to think the affect of the horror of the Anthropocene whilst conceiving of stories that will move us beyond it.\n\n1 The Anthropocene\n\nClute defines \u2018Fantastic Horror\u2019 as \u2018a pattern of story moves deeply and at times grotesquely responsive \u2013 like all genres of the Fantastic \u2013 to the nature of the world since 1750\u2019 (2014: 311). He posits that horror began as \u2018a subversive response to the falseness of that Enlightenment ambition to totalize knowledge and the world into an imperial harmony\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 311). But he also argues that \u2018horror is born at a point when it has begun to be possible to glimpse the planet itself as a drama\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 311). The perception of the planet itself as a drama summarises succinctly the idea of the \u2018Anthropocene\u2019, the term proposed by Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene F. Stoermer in 2000 to name a new geological epoch in which, as Crutzen explains two years later, \u2018the effects of humans on the global environment have escalated\u2019 (Crutzen, 2002: 23) to such an extent that we can be said to have had a scientifically-verifiable geological effect on our planet. In 2009, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), the arbitrator of the International Geological Time Scale (IGTS), set up an Anthropocene Working Group as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (the body that deals with formal units of the current Ice Ages), tasked with collating evidence for the formal consideration of the term to be presented at the 35th International Geological Congress in South Africa between 27th August and 4th September 2016. On Monday 29th August 2016 the AWG did indeed present its preliminary findings and recommendations, as well as mapping out a route towards a proposal on formalization, and indicating work that still needs be done to effect that. It was reported that majority opinion within the group confirms the concept of the Anthropocene as geologically real and of a sufficient scale to be considered as an\nepoch within the Geological Time Scale. Its adoption would mark the termination of the Holocene, but when did the Anthropocene begin?\\(^6\\)\n\nCrutzen and Stoermer originally proposed \u2018the latter part of the 18\\(^{th}\\) century\u2019 as a specific start date to the onset of the \u201canthropocene\u201d (2000: 17), and at the beginning of their investigations, the AWG acknowledged that \u2018the beginning of the \u201cAnthropocene\u201d is most generally considered to be at c. 1800 CE, around the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe (Crutzen\u2019s original suggestion)\u2019 (Media Note: Anthropocene Working Group, 2016). Whilst human activity has left traces on the stratigraphic record for thousands of years, in 2002 Crutzen argued that in the latter part of the eighteenth century \u2018analyses of air trapped in polar ice showed the beginning of growing global concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane\u2019 (2002: 23). The originally proposed scientific start date for the Anthropocene thus connects it to the Industrial Revolution and to current climate change concerns. Fascinatingly, it also roughly corresponds to Clute\u2019s start date for the origin of the genres of the fantastic \u2013 1750 \u2013 in which case, fantastic literature would be, by definition, the Literature of the Anthropocene. The AWG\u2019s subsequent investigations have, however, challenged this originally proposed start date, locating the most likely beginning of the Anthropocene as around 1945 since \u2018substantial and approximately globally synchronous changes to the Earth System most clearly intensified in the Great Acceleration of the mid-20th century\u2019 (Media Note: Anthropocene Working Group, 2016). Since \u2018the mid-20th century also coincides with the clearest and most distinctive array of signals imprinted upon recently deposited strata\u2019, the AWG propose that \u2018the mid-20th century represents the optimal beginning of a potential Anthropocene Epoch\u2019 (Media Note: Anthropocene Working Group, 2016). So: it now appears that the epoch of the Anthropocene will be dated from around 1945, a date which corresponds not to the Industrial Revolution but to the development and testing of nuclear weapons; variations on the term \u2018Anthropocene\u2019 have been in use\n\n\\(^6\\) This most recent information regarding the AWG is drawn from a media note issued by the University of Leicester on August 29\\(^{th}\\) 2016. The AWG includes two Leicester geologists, Jan Zalasiewicz and Colin Waters; Zalasiewicz is the AWG convener. A paper making a case for a formal Anthropocene Epoch and analysing ongoing critiques has just been published in *Newsletters on Stratigraphy* (Zalasiewicz et al, 2017).\nfrom as early as the mid-nineteenth century (Crutzen, 2002: 23); and fantastic literature has existed since (at least) the mid-eighteenth century. Why propose then that there is something unique about the relationship between the Anthropocene and twenty-first-century literature? The significance of the connection is that the term 'Anthropocene' was not widely popularised until Crutzen and Stoermer's use of it in 2000. So whilst the origins of the term may well date back centuries, and science may determine its start date to be the mid-twentieth century, our self-consciousness that we are living in the Anthropocene Epoch can be dated very precisely to the beginning of the twenty-first century.\n\nWhilst a numerical start state for the Anthropocene expressed as a calendar date might make more sense to the non-specialist, the AWG is now committed to identifying a candidate Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), more colloquially known as a \u2018golden spike\u2019, \u2018a physical reference point in strata at one carefully selected place\u2019 (Media Note: Anthropocene Working Group, 2016), which is the accepted scientific method of defining geological time units. For example, the beginning of the Holocene is defined by a boundary between two ice layers in a core sample taken from Greenland which is now stored in Denmark. The AWG hopes to identify suitable candidates for the Anthropocene in the next two-three years on the basis of which they would prepare a formal proposal to the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy to define a formal Anthropocene unit, which would then have to be voted upon and ratified by various committees before the Anthropocene would become a formal part of the Geological Time Scale. Whilst science is therefore still some years away from declaring that we are living in the Anthropocene, both the sciences and the humanities \u2013 who have been more quick to adopt the concept, speaking as it does so succinctly to existing concerns about ecology, sustainability and more \u2013 agree that the most likely event in the Anthropocene Epoch, if we continue to live as we do now, is the extinction of the human race. In 'The Anthropocene: From Global Change to Planetary Stewardship', a scientific paper remarkable for its clear political purpose, Will Steffen and his co-authors provide strong evidence and argument that \u2018the momentum of the Anthropocene threatens to tip the complex\nEarth System out of the cyclic glacial-interglacial pattern during which Homo sapiens has evolved and developed' (2011: 757). In other words, the Anthropocene threatens to render the planet unfit for human habitation. Without an immediate and concerted move towards active planetary stewardship, they conclude, \u2018the Anthropocene threatens to become for humanity a one-way trip to an uncertain future in a new, but very different, state of the Earth System\u2019 (Steffen et al, 2011: 757).\n\nWhat is interesting about Steffen et al.\u2019s language here is that the Anthropocene is conceived of as transitive, in the now rare, even obsolete, meaning of that term: it forms a transition between two conditions. The Anthropocene will take us all from one state of the Earth System to another, one that possibly no longer supports any, let alone human, life on Earth. Although he does not use the term \u2018Anthropocene\u2019 explicitly, the philosopher Eugene Thacker is describing precisely this epoch\u2019s potential consequences \u2013 many of which we are already living with \u2013 in the opening of his meditation on the end of philosophy, *In The Dust of This Planet: Horror of Philosophy* (2011). On his opening page, Thacker states that:\n\n> The world is increasingly unthinkable \u2013 a world of planetary disasters, emerging pandemics, tectonic shifts, strange weather, oil-drenched seascapes, and the furtive, always-looming threat of extinction. In spite of our daily concerns, wants, and desires, it is increasingly difficult to comprehend the world in which we live and of which we are a part. (2011: 1)\n\n---\n\n7 Thacker\u2019s title recalls the lines from Proverbs, which also haunt \u2018Echo\u2019s Bones\u2019, in which Wisdom reminds us that we would do well to heed her since \u2018Before the mountains had been shaped,/ before the hills, I was brought forth,/ before he had made the earth with its fields,/ or the first of the dust of the world\u2019 (Prov. 8:25-26). *In the Dust of this Planet* is the first of a trilogy of books by Thacker \u2013 the others are *Starry Speculative Corpse* (2015) and *Tentacles Longer Than Night* (2015) \u2013 which explore the relationship between horror and philosophy. This is a revived intersection of enquiry in the contemporary moment, with issues of *Collapse IV* (Mackay, 2012) and *Horror Studies* 8(1) (Bruhm, 2017) devoted to it. For the historically seminal work on philosophy and horror see Carroll (1990); on Thacker, see Zager (2017).\nEchoing critical discourse about the Anthropocene, Thacker asserts that \u2018to confront this idea is to confront an absolute limit to our ability to adequately understand the world at all\u2019 (2011: 1). Like Clute, Thacker identifies this confrontation with the unknown and ungraspable as \u2018an idea that has been a central motif of the horror genre for some time\u2019 (2011: 1). Horror, it seems, arrives when we are at the limit of our capacity to tell stories, be they literary or philosophical ones.\n\nConfronted by \u2018the unthinkable [anthropocenic] world\u2019 (2011: 1), Thacker, a philosopher, recognises that his discipline is in crisis. As a result, he is concerned with \u2018the horror of philosophy\u2019, understood as the moments at which philosophy meets the limits of the capacities of its own mode of engaging with the world. He wishes to isolate:\n\nThose moments in which philosophy reveals its own limitations and constraints, moments in which thinking enigmatically confronts the horizon of its own possibility \u2013 the thought of the unthinkable that philosophy cannot pronounce but via a non-philosophical language. (Thacker, 2011: 2)\n\nFor Thacker, horror replaces philosophy as the dominant mode in which we can now think in and about the epoch of the Anthropocene: \u2018the genre of supernatural horror,\u2019 he asserts, \u2018is a privileged site in which this paradoxical thought of the unthinkable takes place\u2019 (Thacker, 2011: 2). The problem for Thacker is that philosophy is irreducibly anthropocentric, \u2018always determined within the framework of the human point of view\u2019 (2011: 7). In contrast, and somewhat counter-intuitively given its name, if humankind is to survive the epoch of the Anthropocene, he asserts that we must displace the human point of view in favour of a planetary one. In essence, the epoch of the Anthropocene forces us to confront what Thacker calls, \u2018the world-without-us\u2019 (2011: 5; emphasis in original): \u2018one of the greatest challenges that philosophy faces today,\u2019 he says, \u2018lies in comprehending the world in which we live as both a human and a non-human world \u2013 and of comprehending this politically\u2019 (2011: 2; emphasis in original).\nIf the epoch of the Anthropocene can be understood as the era in which, in Thacker\u2019s words, \u2018the world as such cataclysmically manifests itself in the form of a disaster\u2019 (2011: 3), what is crucially at stake is not just what meaning we attribute to that world, but the mode we use in order to interpret it and reach that meaning. As Haraway asserts in *Staying with the Trouble*, \u2018it matters which thoughts think thoughts\u2019 (2016: 57). Thacker posits that the Greeks responded to the world mythologically, the Christians theologically (via the idea of apocalypse) and modernity existentially. As do all those who are attempting to critically engage with the Anthropocene, Thacker realises that \u2018one of the greatest lessons of the ongoing discussion on global climate change is that these approaches are no longer adequate\u2019 (2011: 4). Instead, Thacker asserts that it is in horror literature \u2018that we most frequently find attempts to think about, and to confront the difficult thought of, the world-without-us\u2019 (2011: 6). Cormac McCarthy\u2019s *The Road* is the seminal work of Anthropocene horror, a terrifying evocation of the world-without-us, \u2018a nebulous zone that is at once impersonal and horrific\u2019 (Thacker, 2011: 6). I want to turn to this text now in order to analyse in what sense it can be classified as a horror story, but also to open up a challenge if not to the appropriateness, at least to the efficacy, of horror as a response to our current epoch.\n\n**2 Horror**\n\nShortly before she abandons her son and husband and embraces the welcome oblivion of death, the mother in *The Road* challenges her husband\u2019s positive spin on current events:\n\n> We\u2019re survivors he told her across the flame of the lamp.\n> Survivors? she said.\n> Yes.\n> What in God\u2019s name are you talking about? We\u2019re not survivors. We\u2019re the walking dead in a horror film. (McCarthy, 2006: 47)\n\nThere is no doubt that *The Road* is a horrific and horrifying novel in its affect, with its \u2018tableau of the slain and the devoured\u2019 and its \u2018blackened looters\u2019 tunneling among\nthe ruins of civilization to retrieve precious tins of food, \u2018like shoppers in the com-\nmissaries of hell\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 77, 152). The Road also borrows story-telling tech-\nniques from the horror film to build some of its most powerful moments. Consider,\nfor instance, the familiar building of suspense that McCarthy employs as the man\nand the son explore the house in whose basement they are to encounter the resident\ncannibals\u2019 human larder. In fact, this scene is regularly referenced in online evalua-\ntions of whether the novel can be classed as horror, or not. In \u2018But is it Horror? A Criti-\ncal Re-Examination of Genre in Cormac McCarthy\u2019s The Road\u2019, Nicholas Kaufmann\nsummarises online responses to the text, guided by Douglas Winter\u2019s assertion, deliv-\nered at the Bram Stoker Awards in 1998, that \u2018horror can only truly be defined by\nthe emotions a work of literature evokes\u2019 (Kaufmann, 2008: no pag.). Kaufmann\u2019s\nconclusion is that, according to this definition, The Road is indeed horror. But this\nonly defines the text as affect horror, in Clute\u2019s terminology, and affect horror is not\nanthropocenic, since it is not transitive \u2013 it does not move the reader from one con-\ndition to another. Instead, it arrests us in the horrific thick of things: \u2018much Affect\nHorror could be described as being stuck in the Thickening phase\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 313).\nIn contrast, story horror, like the Anthropocene, is transitive. In the following close\nanalysis I examine The Road according to Clute\u2019s four-part model in order to deter-\nmine if it qualifies as story horror and, if so, where it transits us to.\n\ni. Sighting\n\nThe first stage in a horror story is the \u201cgranting\u201d to a protagonist of a first Sighting\nof things to come\u2019; this is not, Clute is clear, \u2018an invitation but an impalement\u2019 (2014:\n310). In the story of The Road, the sighting begins at a very precise moment, 1:17am:\n\nThe clocks stopped at 1:17. A long shear of light and then a series of low\nconcussions. He got up and went to the window. What is it? she said. He didn\u2019t\nanswer. He went into the bathroom and threw the lightswitch but the power\nwas already gone. A dull rose glow in the windowglass. He dropped to one knee\nand raised the leaver to stop the tub and then turned on both taps as far as they\nwould go. She was standing in the doorway in her nightwear, clutching the\njamb, cradling her belly in one hand. What is it? she said. What is happening?\nI don\u2019t know.\nWhy are you taking a bath?\nI\u2019m not. (McCarthy, 2006: 45)\n\nI refer to the \u2018story\u2019 of The Road quite deliberately here, for what Clute\u2019s model does not account for is the difference between story and discourse. Whilst the story of The Road contains the elements of Clute\u2019s model in the correct order, its discourse or telling presents them to us in a less than linear way, the consequences of which I will examine in what follows.\n\nIn the story of The Road, the sighting stage continues until the moment of the mother\u2019s suicide. The mother has fast-forwarded through all the stages of the horror story and already resides in the aftermath. Her act of suicide is equivalent to Kurtz\u2019s final words on his death bed in Heart of Darkness (1899), which Clute describes as \u2018an ultimate gape of rage, a final saying of the world at the close\u2019 (2014: 312). Along with Kurtz, she has gazed upon the heart of darkness, \u2018the naked, impersonal malice of the world\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 312): \u2018I\u2019m speaking the truth. Sooner or later they will catch us and they will kill us. They will rape me. They\u2019ll rape him. They are going to rape and kill us and eat us and you won\u2019t face it. You\u2019d rather wait for it to happen\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 48). Like Kurtz, she has, in Clute\u2019s words, \u2018transited all that fiddle of story, and can only utter the final grammar of reality entire, a rage isomorphic with how the world is truly said, the still point where any great Horror story ends: nothing but true, intransitive\u2019 (2014: 312): \u2018my only hope,\u2019 she says, \u2018is for eternal nothingness and I hope it with all my heart\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 49). Having already \u2018transited all that fiddle of story\u2019, the mother cannot be part of the horror story to come \u2013 she has already reached its end. But she is right about her husband; he \u2018won\u2019t face it\u2019 because protagonists in horror stories always begin in a state of denial.\\footnote{Perhaps the most famous opening in denial \u2013 in the story, not the discourse \u2013 is the narrator of Lovecraft\u2019s \u2018The Call of Cthulhu\u2019 (1928) who in fact considers lack of knowledge and full awareness to be \u2018the most merciful thing in the world [. . .], the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents\u2019 (2011: 61). The same sentiment is echoed at the beginning of Shirley Jackson\u2019s The Haunting of Hill House (1959): \u2018no live organism can continue for long to exist sanely under conditions of absolute reality\u2019 (2009: 1).}\n\u2018Sighting,\u2019 Clute says, \u2018signals the moment when the protagonist (or the narrative voice in the story) begins to recognize a Thickening (which is the second stage) in the texture of the world\u2019 (2014: 331). Before moving on to thickening, though, I want to pause momentarily and pay attention to the uncharacteristic imprecision in Clute\u2019s analysis here \u2013 closer attention must be paid to the crucial distinction between narrative voice and protagonist. *The Road* is a third-person narrative primarily focalised through the man. I will examine below the significance of the end of the novel when the man dies and the focalisation (perhaps) shifts to his son, as well as the indeterminate focalisation of the final paragraph. For now it is sufficient to note that, for most of the text, we gain insight into no one else\u2019s mind but the man\u2019s, apart from information conveyed to us about others\u2019 thoughts and feelings through direct speech. Direct speech, though, is not properly indicated as such in the text. In fact, as is characteristic of McCarthy\u2019s work, many rules of grammar and narrative melt away in this text \u2013 we find no direct speech, omitted apostrophes, no chapters, and the frequent omission of words in sentences. In the context of a horror story, however, this stylistic tendency produces very specific effects. At the moment of sighting, for instance, consider the line: \u2018A dull rose glow in the windowglass\u2019. This is not a grammatically correct sentence \u2013 it omits a pronoun (the so-called \u2018existential there\u2019) and the past tense of the verb \u2018to be\u2019. The correct sentence would be \u2018there was a dull rose glow in the windowglass\u2019. But this is not the sentence we get. The existential pronoun is used in front of a verb, usually a form of the verb *to be*, to assert that someone or something exists. The construction as a whole is called an existential sentence. By inversion, the omission of the existential pronoun serves to create a sense of unreality around that which is being described, a sense of it being out of time and place, or possibly of not having really happened at all. With such careful sentence construction, McCarthy evokes the man\u2019s sense of the ungraspable unreality of the events through which he is living.\n\nBut such language also has an effect on the reader. From the very beginning, we encounter a language and style which unsettles us, with which we are not at home. With the absence of the existential pronoun, at first we struggle to make sense of this sentence \u2013 we read \u2018rose\u2019 as a noun, but then that does not make sense since \u2018glow\u2019\nshould be \u2018glowed\u2019 to be declined correctly, and how would a dull rose glow anyway?\n\nThings are not as they seem in the language, just as things are not as they seem in the story. \u2018Sighting\u2019, says Clute, \u2018is a trompe l\u2019\u0153il which the world generates. It is the familiar, which is the false, and the unfamiliar, which is the true, in one aspect\u2019 (2014: 332). An action becomes \u2018the same and not the same\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 332): the man running the bath is not running a bath. And things are certainly not as they seem in the windowglass, McCarthy\u2019s equivalent of the mirror in which Clute claims \u2018sighting is often first experienced\u2019 (2014: 332). The Road\u2019s style serves as our, the reader\u2019s, first sighting, \u2018the first sign that we are going to be unmapped or unhoused from the normal world \u2013 \u201cnormal world\u201d being a term simply designating a world that we are accustomed to, a world which we may indeed discover to have been unreal\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 331). \u2018Unhoused\u2019, an adjective meaning \u2018not having had the Eucharist administered\u2019 (OED), is most famously used by the Ghost in Hamlet to emphasise the horror of his death \u2013 not just that he was murdered, but that he was dispatched without the last rites that would purge his soul and secure his entry into heaven:\n\nCut off even in the blossoms of my sin,\nUnhoused, disappointed, unanel'd,\nNo reckoning made, but sent to my account\nWith all my imperfections on my head:\nO, horrible! O, horrible! most horrible! (I.v. 82-6)\n\nClute adapts the Ghost\u2019s adjective into a powerful verb to describe a displacement from the \u2018normal\u2019 to the \u2018horrific\u2019. The unusual and unsettling language and style of The Road performs this displacement, unhousing us from the world of literary fiction to which we might have become accustomed just as the man\u2019s first sighting of the world-to-come unhouses him from his \u2018normal\u2019 world.\n\n**ii. and iii. Thickening and Revel**\n\nIn the order of the story, from the moment of sighting the protagonist moves into the thickening: \u2018thickening begins after the uncanny afflatus of Sighting begins to fade, and the future adumbrated in the terrorizing flash of Sighting begins to come\ntrue\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 337; emphasis in original). Whilst \u2018the moment of Sighting may be conveyed in a sentence. . . the process of Thickening normally occupies most of any text being considered\u2019 and is a process during which \u2018the phenomenal world is increasingly revealed as a rind that, once peeled, exposes the vacancies within the false consciousness of \u201cnormal\u201d life\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 337). In thickening, the focus is on what Clute calls the \u2018world-rind\u2019, \u2018a rind of lies\u2019, \u2018the assemblage of evasions, the scar tissue over the unendurable past, which comprises the Hooked self\u2019 (2014: 338). Such is the focus of one narrative strand in The Road \u2013 the rind of lies about surviving, carrying the fire, the good guys, and so on, which the man tells his son in order to create and sustain the false hope that reaching the coast will bring some sort of relief.\n\nBut the horror of the man and boy\u2019s environment is so profound, so undeniable, that the thickening stage is constantly interrupted, ruptured, fissured by the reality of that world. The man and the boy cannot avoid the horror which surrounds them \u2013 cannibalism, enslavement, rape, murder \u2013 and their repeatedly close encounters with danger enforce a constant threat that they will be pulled down into that world. The man\u2019s journey is a profound and conscious exercise in denial of that horror and a preservation of the world-rind that conceals it, not for his own sake but for the boy\u2019s, who, paradoxically, has no experience of what \u2018normality\u2019 was. In fact, the boy resists being told about that other \u2018normal\u2019 life. When the man visits his childhood home, the boy wants to leave. Towards the end of the discourse, the man has a moment of realisation:\n\nMaybe he understood for the first time that to the boy he was himself an alien. A being from a planet that no longer existed. The tales of which were suspect. He could not construct for the child\u2019s pleasure the world he\u2019d lost without constructing the loss as well and he thought perhaps the child had known this better than he. (McCarthy, 2006: 129)\n\nThe thickening discourse of The Road is thus constantly and repeatedly fissured by Clute\u2019s third stage \u2013 revel \u2013 which the man is constantly working to resist. According to Clute, revel should come after that thickening rind of appearances is peeled away at last, when the truth of things glares through the peeled Masque or Danse Maca-\nbre; and it resolves into the exhausted latency of Aftermath. Revel delivers the truth\u2019 (2014: 324). But things are not quite so sequential in the discourse of The Road \u2013 revel constantly intrudes but is repeatedly denied by the man. The closest he gets to confronting it, interestingly, is not by facing the present but by being haunted by the past. The memories of that past are most dangerous, most threatening, to the preservation of the world-rind in the present:\n\nFrom daydreams on the road there was no waking. He plodded on. He could remember everything of her save her scent. Seated in a theatre with her beside him leaning forward listening to the music. Gold scrollwork and sconces and the tall columnar folds of the drapes at either side of the stage. She held his hand in her lap and he could feel the tops of her stockings through the thin stuff of her summer dress. Freeze this frame. Now call down your dark and your cold and be damned. (McCarthy, 2006: 16)\n\nThe happy memories of the past perform the same function as \u2018Revels\u2019 in Clute\u2019s analysis which, as here, \u2018unfreeze the action into full horror\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 326).\n\niv. Aftermath\n\nThe final stage of the horror story is \u2018Aftermath\u2019, at the very heart of which \u2018lies an awareness that the story is done\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 279). The moment of \u2018Aftermath\u2019 \u2018prefigures a world incapable of change, a world no longer storyable\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 279). This moment of \u2018Aftermath\u2019 occurs in The Road when the boy leaves his father\u2019s dead body behind:\n\nHe slept close to his father that night and held him but when he woke in the morning his father was cold and stiff. He sat there a long time weeping and then he got up and walked out through the woods to the road. (McCarthy, 2006: 236)\n\nThe horror story of The Road ends here, leaving us, as all horror should, with a \u2018gut dislocation\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 279). But the discourse does not end here \u2013 the paragraph continues, \u2018When he came back he knelt beside his father and held his cold hand and said his name over and over again\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 236). The boy\u2019s return marks\na shift in the novel's mode from horror to fantasy. In horror, there can be no final\ntext moment of redemption, no restitution of the lost past; these are the hallmarks of\nfantasy, the fourth and final stage of which, in Clute's analysis, is 'Return' (Clute and\nGrant, 1997). The Road, then, does not end in the horror mode; instead McCarthy\nadds five final pages which proffer the nostalgic consolations of fantasy. Here, some-\nhow, a non-cannibalistic man, wife, boy, girl and dog have survived and come to the\nrescue of the boy. The nuclear family (if you'll excuse the pun) of times long gone.\nThese final pages undo the novel's horror story and its affect by offering a continu-\nance after the arresting aftermath of the man's death.\n\nIt is possible, of course, that fantasy is exactly what these final five pages are \u2013\nthat we have not in fact moved away from the man's focalisation but remain within\nit, experiencing with him his dying fantasy that his boy will be saved, that someone\nwill come to his son's rescue as he himself did not come to the rescue of the little\nboy they left behind. Such a reading is not impossible and this textual undecidability\ngives way to two mutually possible interpretations of the end of the novel. Either,\nthe novel shifts genres at this moment because the author is seduced by the con-\nsolations of fantasy, and/or the novel is self-consciously demonstrating the man's\nrefusal unto the very last to confront the full horror of his situation, to accept 'that\nthere is nothing to be done, that there is no cure to hand, no more story to tell, no\ndeus ex machina, no statement that It Was All a Dream' (Clute, 2014: 279). Either\nMcCarthy cannot confront this possibility, and designs an ending \u2013 after the after-\nmath \u2013 that holds on to precisely this hope, the nuclear family serving as the deus ex\nmachina. And/or McCarthy is aware that humankind is unable, in the final instance,\nto confront and accept the 'final gift of Horror' \u2013 'to flash-freeze the future' (Clute,\n2014: 280) and tends instead to cling to a nostalgic and fantastical restitution of an\nimagined past.\n\n3 The Chthulucene\n\nClute provides his lexicon of horror 'in order to suggest the ideal course of the full\nHorror story', but he is quite clear that it is a model set up precisely 'to illuminate\nand to value the chance-taking \u2013 the opportunism \u2013 the pushing against the limits\nof Order that seems inherent in any creative act, and manifest in any live creation of Story\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 312, 313\u201314). Whilst the above analysis confirms that the story of *The Road* is indeed a horror story according to Clute\u2019s definition, it also reveals that in the end it pushes against the possibility of the full horror story. Whichever interpretation of the end of *The Road*\u2019s story one is persuaded by, the novel\u2019s discourse does not end with \u2018Aftermath\u2019. Whilst the *story* ends with the consolation of a fantastical return, whether real or imagined (within the frame of the text), the *discourse* ends with a final lyrical passage evoking the ecological vitality of a bygone age.\n\nOpening with \u2018Once there were brook trout in the streams\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 241), this passage shifts mode again, this time not from horror to fantasy, but from fantasy to fairytale. \u2018Once\u2019 means not just \u2018some time in the past\u2019 (OED) but also recalls the \u2018Once upon a time\u2019 that heralds that atemporal suspended setting of the fairytale. The narrative focalisation also shifts, not from the father to the son, but from the son to the extra-diegetic omniscient narrator of the fairytale. Whilst at first it seems that the second person pronoun is being used in the passage \u2013 \u2018You could see them standing in the amber current\u2019 and \u2018they smelled of moss in your hand\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 241) \u2013 \u2018you\u2019 and \u2018your\u2019 are actually functioning here as the generic or impersonal \u2018you\u2019, colloquially substituting for the more formal \u2018one\u2019 and \u2018one\u2019s\u2019.\n\nThe generic \u2018you\u2019 mediates the environment through mankind. The trout stands as a metonym for an ecological time \u2018older than man\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 241) but man is still the observer of this world, he holds it in his hands, it is experienced through his sensorium, his sight and smell. By the end of the paragraph, we have shifted genre yet again, from fairytale to parable \u2013 man, in his hubris, has failed to respect the mystery of the natural world and has desecrated its impersonal becoming in ways which \u2018could not be put back. Not be made right again\u2019 (McCarthy, 2006: 241).\n\nEncapsulated here are two of Haraway\u2019s \u2018objections to the Anthropocene as a tool, story, or epoch to think with\u2019: its continued prioritisation of man over nature; and the paucity of the stories associated with it \u2013 \u2018they are not about ongoingness\u2019\n\n---\n\nHorror of the Anthropocene, quite literally, gets us nowhere \u2013 it produces only vastation or nostalgic consolation. Once we have \u2018transited all that fiddle of story\u2019, \u2018the still point where any great Horror story ends\u2019 is the \u2018intransitive\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 312). Horror should leave its readers in a state of vastation, \u2018literally: a laying waste to land or a psyche; a physical or psychological devastation; desolation\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 340). Vastation occurs when you find out that \u2018the world means its malice\u2019; after it, \u2018the utterands of Story, and Story itself, falls into dead silence: for there is no way to proceed\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 341). Yet it is in the nature of humankind to go on, and to continue to tell stories. To recall my opening, Clute observes, if you remember, that \u2018vastation eats Beckett into a silence which it is his heroism to break\u2019 (2014: 341). But for Beckett and his characters this is not heroism, it is inevitability, as the unnamed protagonist of The Unnamable (1953) perhaps most powerfully exhibits at the end of that novel: \u2018You must go on. I can\u2019t go on. I\u2019ll go on\u2019 (Beckett, 2012: 134).\n\nThe full horror story is perhaps so \u2018inhuman\u2019 because it is a defiance of this unavoidable continuance; it generates, in Clute\u2019s words, \u2018a Vastated sense of the imminence of the end of the world\u2019 (Clute, 2014: 342).\n\nBut the world has not ended yet; we are not yet living in the dust of this planet; our story is not over. As Haraway rightly observes, we remain \u2018mortal critters entwined in myriad unfinished configurations of places, times, matters, meanings\u2019 (2016: 1) \u2013 the challenge is to inhabit the thick of things without nostalgia or despair. Haraway\u2019s recent intervention into thinking the Anthropocene is an attempt to do just this. In \u2018Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Plantationocene, Chthulucene: Making Kin\u2019 (2015), an essay included in Staying with the Trouble (2016) in lightly revised form, Haraway also conceives of the Anthropocene as transitive:\n\nI along with others think the Anthropocene is more a boundary event than an epoch, like the K-Pg boundary between the Cretaceous and the Paleogene. The Anthropocene marks severe discontinuities; what comes after will not be like what came before. I think our job is to make the Anthropocene as short/\nthin as possible and to cultivate with each other in every way imaginable epochs to come that can replenish refuge. (2015: 160)\n\nBut in the chapter \u2018Tentacular Thinking: Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Chthulucene\u2019 (2016) (which was also originally published in 2015 but was significantly revised for the book), Haraway\u2019s proposition is more radical \u2013 the idea of the Anthropocene ought to be replaced by the Chthulucene: \u2018an ongoing temporality that resists figuration and dating and demands myriad names\u2019 (2016: 51). Whilst for Haraway, \u2018both the Anthropocene and the Capitalocene lend themselves too readily to cynicism, defeatism, and self-certain and self-fulfilling predictions\u2019, the Chthulucene displaces the human and replaces the horror of the Anthropocene with \u2018ongoing multispecies stories and practices of becoming-with in times that remain at stake, in precarious times, in which the world is not finished and the sky has not fallen \u2013 yet\u2019 (2016: 56, 55).\n\nHaraway states that \u2018Chthulucene is a simple word\u2019 (2016: 2), a compound of the Greek roots *khth\u00f4n* and *kainos* (the Greek root for *cene*). *Khth\u00f4n* means \u2018earth\u2019 and, stretching the literal translation of *kainos* which is \u2018new\u2019, Haraway translates it as \u2018now\u2019 in order to evoke the presentness of the Chthulucene, \u2018the temporality of the thick, fibrous, and lumpy \u201cnow,\u201d which is ancient and not\u2019 (2015: 163). But in an act of deliberate metaplasm she also changes the spelling in an attempt to distance her coinage from the monster Cthulhu, created of course by Lovecraft.10 Even as Haraway attempts to escape from horror, then, her coinage is haunted by it. The relocation of an \u2018h\u2019 is not sufficient to exorcise that which it cannot fail to represent for others \u2013 horror \u2013 even if, as Haraway rather hollowly insists, \u2018Cthulhu (note spelling), luxuriating in the science fiction of H. P. Lovecraft, plays no role for me\u2019 (2016: 174). Interestingly, that \u2018h\u2019 was also crucial for Lovecraft, who noted in a letter to Duane\n\n---\n\n10 See \u2018The Call of Cthulhu\u2019 (1928) (Lovecraft, 2011: 61\u201398). Haraway states in a footnote: \u2018Less simple was deciding how to spell Chthulucene so that it led to diverse and bumptious chthonic dividuals and powers and not to Cthulhu, Cthulhu, or any other singleton monster or deity. A fastidious Greek speller might insist on the \u201ch\u201d between the last \u201cl\u201d and \u201cu\u201d; but both for English pronunciation and for avoiding the grasp of Lovecraft\u2019s Cthulhu, I dropped that \u201ch.\u201d This is a metaplasm.\u2019 (2016: 169).\nRimel on 23rd July 1934, that when pronouncing \u2018Cthulhu\u2019, \u2018the h represents the grot-\ntural thickness\u2019 (1976: 10\u201311). Haraway\u2019s work is a concerted and necessary effort to\nreconceive relationships between all critters and our planet beyond the constraints\non thought and action represented by the Anthropocene. But Lovecraft\u2019s monster\nstalks even Haraway\u2019s Chthulucene, an irreducible reminder that, nevertheless, to\ndwell in the thick of things in the present is to contend with horror. The challenge\nto literature remains: to recognise that the affect of Thickening is horror, but to con-\nceive of story moves other than horror that will transit all us critters into a future\npresent in which the dust does not lie thickly over this planet.\n\nAcknowledgements\nI am grateful to my former PhD student at the University of St Andrews, William\nLeszczynski, for first drawing my attention to the connection between the Anthro-\npocene and horror. I would also like to thank the organisers of the Current Research\nin Speculative Fiction Conference 2015 for their keynote invitation which was the\nprovocation to formulate my thoughts more exactly and at which an early version of\nthis essay was presented.\n\nCompeting Interests\nThe author has no competing interests to declare.\n\nReferences\nCarroll, N., 1990. The Philosophy of Horror, Or, Paradoxes of the Heart. New York: Rout-\nledge.\n\nI adopt here Haraway\u2019s use of the American idiom \u2018critters\u2019 in order to usefully \u2018refer promiscuously to\nmicrobes, plants, animals, humans and nonhumans, and sometimes even to machines\u2019 since, as she\nnotes, it avoids \u2018the taint of \u201ccreatures\u201d and \u201ccreation\u201d\u2019 (2016: 169).\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://c21.openlibhums.org/article/501/galley/639/download/", "len_cl100k_base": 11801, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 26, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 54444, "total-output-tokens": 15067, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00018453598022460935, "__label__art_design": 0.00234222412109375, "__label__crime_law": 0.0002206563949584961, "__label__education_jobs": 0.003582000732421875, "__label__entertainment": 0.0020961761474609375, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0001952648162841797, "__label__finance_business": 0.0002841949462890625, "__label__food_dining": 0.00023734569549560547, "__label__games": 0.0007238388061523438, "__label__hardware": 0.0001550912857055664, "__label__health": 0.0003919601440429687, "__label__history": 0.0009813308715820312, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00018703937530517575, "__label__industrial": 0.0002760887145996094, "__label__literature": 0.96826171875, "__label__politics": 0.0008807182312011719, "__label__religion": 0.0008487701416015625, "__label__science_tech": 0.016754150390625, "__label__social_life": 0.0002269744873046875, "__label__software": 0.0003659725189208984, "__label__software_dev": 0.0003743171691894531, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00015687942504882812, "__label__transportation": 0.00022208690643310547, "__label__travel": 0.00011074542999267578}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 55387, 0.0283]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 55387, 0.28238]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 55387, 0.93555]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 0, null], [0, 2045, false], [2045, 4225, null], [4225, 6763, null], [6763, 9468, null], [9468, 11313, null], [11313, 13743, null], [13743, 16372, null], [16372, 18790, null], [18790, 21218, null], [21218, 23364, null], [23364, 25411, null], [25411, 27840, null], [27840, 30274, null], [30274, 32855, null], [32855, 34999, null], [34999, 37400, null], [37400, 39484, null], [39484, 41875, null], [41875, 44410, null], [44410, 46692, null], [46692, 49198, null], [49198, 51164, null], [51164, 53100, null], [53100, 55028, null], [55028, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 0, null], [0, 2045, true], [2045, 4225, null], [4225, 6763, null], [6763, 9468, null], [9468, 11313, null], [11313, 13743, null], [13743, 16372, null], [16372, 18790, null], [18790, 21218, null], [21218, 23364, null], [23364, 25411, null], [25411, 27840, null], [27840, 30274, null], [30274, 32855, null], [32855, 34999, null], [34999, 37400, null], [37400, 39484, null], [39484, 41875, null], [41875, 44410, null], [44410, 46692, null], [46692, 49198, null], [49198, 51164, null], [51164, 53100, null], [53100, 55028, null], [55028, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 55387, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 0, 1], [0, 2045, 2], [2045, 4225, 3], [4225, 6763, 4], [6763, 9468, 5], [9468, 11313, 6], [11313, 13743, 7], [13743, 16372, 8], [16372, 18790, 9], [18790, 21218, 10], [21218, 23364, 11], [23364, 25411, 12], [25411, 27840, 13], [27840, 30274, 14], [30274, 32855, 15], [32855, 34999, 16], [34999, 37400, 17], [37400, 39484, 18], [39484, 41875, 19], [41875, 44410, 20], [44410, 46692, 21], [46692, 49198, 22], [49198, 51164, 23], [51164, 53100, 24], [53100, 55028, 25], [55028, 55387, 26]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 55387, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-07", "created": "2024-12-07"}
+{"id": "c26ac2e1475b7cda3d36269448c82c3ef6c53f3f", "text": "DOUGLAS KEESEY\nCalifornia Polytechnic State University\n\nSplit identification: Representations of rape in Gaspar No\u00e9\u2019s Irr\u00e9versible\nand Catherine Breillat\u2019s A ma soeur!/Fat Girl\n\nABSTRACT\nThis article critically examines rape scenes in two films of the \u2018new extreme cinema\u2019, Gaspar\nNo\u00e9\u2019s Irr\u00e9versible (2002) and Catherine Breillat\u2019s A ma s\u0153ur!/Fat Girl (2001). On the surface,\nNo\u00e9\u2019s disturbing long-take rape scene is clearly designed to foster empathy with the woman\u2019s\nexperience and to induce a physical aversion to rape. However, a deeper examination of the\nscene\u2019s ambiguous techniques reveals that they actually work to split the viewer\u2019s identification\nbetween the rapist and the woman he attacks. One function of this split is to lead the viewer \u2013\nwho is presumed to be male \u2013 along an emotional path from lustful aggression towards empathic\nunderstanding. Similarly, the film also provides audiences with a transitional figure \u2013 a male\ncharacter who is almost raped \u2013 as someone with whom they can identify on the way towards\nidentifying with the female. But this male character ultimately serves as a negative example\nwhen he moves to take revenge \u2013 an act which is shown to be an extension of the rape, part of the\nsame masculinist ideology or myth of male inviolability perpetuated through the violation of\nothers. Furthermore, the revenge is revealed as being the male character\u2019s denial of his own\ncomplicity in the rape and of his own participation in \u2018rape culture\u2019. The rape scene in\nBreillat\u2019s \"A ma s\u0153ur! also induces in the viewer a split identification with the rapist and with the female subjected to attack \u2013 in this case a young girl who disturbingly seems to \u2018acquiesce\u2019 to the assault. This scene is best understood as a rape fantasy that shows how the girl has internalized oppressive notions of femininity and female sexual response. In this fantasy, it is the girl\u2019s own subjectivity that is split between the attacker and herself as \u2018willing\u2019 victim, between the man\u2019s sadism and her own \u2018feminine\u2019 desire to be punished. The rape fantasy could thus be seen as an acting out of the same old gender story in which the girl (or the viewer) is forced to make a choice between two polarized or untenable positions: identifying masochistically with the victim or identifying against herself with the sadistic rapist. However, this rape fantasy could also be viewed as a working through of gender stereotypes. It is possible to see the split subject of the rape fantasy not as someone who is torn between masculine sadism and feminine masochism, but instead as someone who simultaneously occupies both positions and therefore occupies an undefined and unconventional space beyond sadomasochism.\n\nAs recently noted by Linda Williams in Screening Sex, sex \u2018is not a stable truth that cameras and microphones either \u201ccatch\u201d or don\u2019t catch\u2019. Rather, when it is depicted in the cinema, sex \u2018is a constructed, mediated, performed act\u2019 (Williams 2008: 2). The same could be said of rape as shown on film: far from being simply present, it is a complex representation involving formal strategies that have ideological effects. This article critically examines rape scenes in two films of the \u2018new extreme cinema\u2019, Gaspar No\u00e9\u2019s Irr\u00e9versible (2002) and Catherine Breillat\u2019s A ma s\u0153ur!/Fat Girl (2001).\n\n---\n\n1 Estelle Bayon takes the term \u2018physiological cinema\u2019 from director Marco Ferreri, who used it in referring to his film La Grande Bouffe/Blow Out (1973).\nThe most-often-noted aspect of the rape scene in *Irr\u00e9versible* is its long duration. For an excruciatingly extended period of time, a single-take static camera watches from floor level as Alex (Monica Bellucci) is raped, with her suffering face visible in the foreground throughout. No\u00e9 has explained this duration in terms of realism: \u2018I thought the time was realistic. [...] I don\u2019t think there are many rapes that are less than 5 minutes\u2019 (Lovell 2003). This introduction of \u2018real time\u2019 into cinematic representation creates a \u2018punctuation moment\u2019, a term that audience response researchers have used to describe \u2018a challenge to the boundaries of acceptable depiction\u2019 of an event on film (Self\u00e9 2008). The term has interesting resonance with Roland Barthes\u2019 \u2018punctum\u2019, the aspect of a photograph that \u2018pierces\u2019 the viewer (Barthes 1982: 26, 27), as the unbearable Real can be said to pierce the Symbolic. The \u2018real time\u2019-extended duration of the rape scene disallows a conventional distance from the event and pierces the viewer: \u2018this is as close [as] one could come to empathizing with a victim without having physically experienced the assault oneself\u2019, says Eugenie Brinkema (2004). Estelle Bayon, after describing the rape scene as \u2018obligating us to undergo the suffering of the victim in all its duration\u2019, characterizes No\u00e9\u2019s film as \u2018physiological cinema\u2019: \u2018By implicating [the spectator] physically rather than merely intellectually, verbally, cinema as a physical discourse makes one feel, really\u2019 (Bayon 2007: 81, 124, 127).\u00b9 And what we are meant to feel is repulsed by rape. In contrast to the ambiguous/ambivalent depiction of rape in a film like *Straw Dogs* (1971), No\u00e9 has said that \u2018In my case, it\u2019s much clearer. You have this innocent woman and this terrible monster\u2019 (Gabbey 2005: 41). No\u00e9\u2019s mode of representation is designed to induce a physical aversion to rape, making his film an example of what B. Ruby Rich has called \u201c\u201cconversion cinema\u201d: films that attempt to horrify or shock the spectator into ethics\u2019 (Horeck 2004: 96).\nTo \u2018feel violated\u2019, the viewer must empathize with the woman\u2019s experience. Before the rape, as Alex walks down into the underpass tunnel where the assault will occur, the camera maintains a position behind her, moving with her as she walks and seeing what she sees. Once the rape begins, the camera holds its floor-level position much as Alex is pinned to the floor by her attacker, and Alex\u2019s suffering face is constantly in frame as an emotional point of contact for the viewer. As No\u00e9 explains, \u2018The rape is seen from the victim\u2019s point of view\u2019 (Magill 2002): \u2018you identify with Monica [playing Alex], because at the beginning of the scene you\u2019re behind her back\u2019 (Gabbey 2005: 42), and \u2018because the camera is following her from the back, and is put on the floor, like she\u2019s stuck to the floor, you are in her head\u2019 (Magill 2002). However, the camera could also be experienced as stalking Alex as it follows her down into the tunnel, especially given that the camera remains some distance behind her and is thus not positioned for the kind of over-the-shoulder shot that would more fully suture us into her perspective. This idea that Alex is being eyed by a stalker is reinforced by a feeling of pervasive danger that makes us fear an impending assault: Alex is alone on the streets at night, wearing only a skimpy party dress, and the film\u2019s reverse chronology has already revealed her bloodied body on a stretcher so that we know she will soon be subjected to a vicious attack. Of course, even if the camera has in a sense adopted a stalker\u2019s visual perspective, it could be argued that this only increases our emotional identification with Alex. As Sarah Projansky points out, filmic \u2018texts that provide the spectator with an attacker\u2019s point of view do not necessarily equate the spectator with the villain. Rather, the representation of the attacker\u2019s visual point of view provides the spectator with more knowledge than the vulnerable woman in the text, using suspense to create anxiety for and identification with her\u2019 (Projansky 2001: 216).\n\n\u00b2 Sarah Projansky here follows Carol J. Clover, who in Men, Women, and Chain Saws (1992) was among the first to complicate our understanding of modes of viewer identification in modern horror and rape-revenge films.\nNo\u00e9\u2019s \u2018stalking camera\u2019 does make us fear for Alex, but it is too simple to say that it does not also get us to identify with the stalker. In his DVD audio commentary, No\u00e9 points out that one effect of the camera\u2019s following Alex from behind is that her face is not revealed for some time (in fact, not until just before the rape). No\u00e9 says that, knowing how much the fans of Monica Bellucci were desirous of seeing her face, he wanted to keep them in suspense. So the viewer here is also positioned as a fan following a beautiful actress and being tantalized, having to wait and wait to see her face. And this actress who is being followed is wearing an extraordinarily revealing dress \u2013 \u2018the sexiest dress we could find for her\u2019, according to No\u00e9 (Tang 2003). 3 Thus, as the camera follows Alex, the viewer\u2019s identification is split between the stalker and Alex, torn between lusting after her and fearing for her. When the rapist actually confronts Alex in the tunnel, leering at her in her revealing dress and raising his phallic knife, the identificatory tension within the viewer reaches a crisis provoked by the living presence of an actual stalker-figure. Faced with a clear choice, the viewer must emphatically resist the temptation to identify with the stalker/rapist. It is for this reason that No\u00e9 brings an end to the camera\u2019s ambivalent movement \u2013 lustful versus empathetic \u2013 and attempts to ground it for good in empathy with Alex:\n\nIn the case of Alex, I did [operate] the camera myself. I was [following, circling, and] preceding her, and then suddenly I put the camera on the ground, and I just couldn\u2019t move it again. I would have felt ashamed of shaking the camera above her. That would be like sharing the rapist\u2019s point of view. (Magill 2002)\n\nAlso, I would have felt like getting horny, which I didn\u2019t want. I\u2019m part of the male club, I\n\n---\n\n3 It is interesting to note that, before making *Irr\u00e9versible*, No\u00e9 had wanted to make a non-violent but sexually explicit film with Monica Bellucci, but they decided against it for fear that it would incite a crazed fan to attack Bellucci on the street (Schaller 2007: 61).\nknow what we are. Physically, it was something I couldn\u2019t do. (Morrow 2003)\n\nNo\u00e9 locks down the camera, training it resolutely on Alex\u2019s suffering face, in a very physical attempt to prevent himself from a shameful identification with the rapist\u2019s eye-roving lust. For one viewer at least, as conveyed on an Internet message board, No\u00e9\u2019s effort to definitively resolve the tension between identifying with the male rapist and identifying with the female sufferer seems to have had the desired effect:\n\nI think that the genius of Irreversible\u2019s rape is that at first it appears as a kind of rape fantasy with the camera swooshing around Bellucci in her very sexy dress before coming to rest totally leaving the rape fantasists with nothing left to find sexy. Just a poor woman, on the floor, in a great deal of pain and discomfort while they are forced to stay and watch for another few minutes. [...] I must admit that I have a somewhat sadistic streak in me and was initially aroused by the first 30 seconds of the rape. But then it just kept going. And going. By the end I just wanted it to stop. I wasn\u2019t turned on, just horrified that I\u2019d felt that way. (Selfe 2008)\n\nOther viewers, however, seem less able to make the transition from lust to empathy, perhaps because they are not willing to renounce \u2013 or acknowledge \u2013 their identification with the rapist or because identifying with a woman\u2019s suffering is something they find unbearable. \u2018I think that, partly, they are jealous [lusting after a woman they can\u2019t have]\u2019, No\u00e9 says about such viewers, adding:\n\nMonica is so famous in France \u2013 she\u2019s like our national muse. I notice sometimes, in cinemas in Paris, when there\u2019s a group of kids in from the suburbs, they get furious during the rape scene. Maybe they have a thing for Monica \u2013 and I wonder if it\u2019s those who have thought about rape that quit the theatre at that moment. (Morrow 2003)\nNo\u00e9 believes that mostly it is \u2018Male dominants [who] have problems identifying with a woman who\u2019s raped\u2019 (Tang 2003), and so No\u00e9 provides this audience with a transitional figure (Marcus) \u2013 a *male* character who is almost raped \u2013 as someone with whom they can identify on the way towards identifying with the female (Alex). For some male viewers, though, this transitional strategy seems to backfire, for the attempted rape of a man so threatens their masculinity that they then find it even harder to identify with a female rape victim. No\u00e9 says:\n\nI think that having the male lead almost raped at the beginning, feminises the male audience to a degree that they find challenging. And so, when they are then projected into the mind of a woman being raped, they can\u2019t cope. (Morrow 2003)\n\nSignificantly, No\u00e9\u2019s rape scene shows that rape itself is often a male defence against feminization, an attempt \u2018to reinforce sexual difference through violability\u2019, as Tanya Horeck (2004: 112) describes it. The rapist repudiates any sense of inferiority or lack and violently projects it onto his victim, whether this be in terms of gender, sexuality, class or looks. Gender: during the anal rape inflicted on Alex, the rapist \u2013 his hyperphallic nickname is Le T\u00e9nia (The Tapeworm) \u2013 pumps himself up by reducing her to a hole (\u2018I\u2019m gonna blast your ass!\u2019 \u2018I\u2019m opening up your ass real good!\u2019 \u2018You hole, you cunt!\u2019).\n\nSexuality: the rapist demeaned his rival\u2019s manhood (\u2018a fag\u2019) and praises his own prowess (\u2018Your old man fuck your ass? [...] I\u2019m gonna fuck your ass like no one has ever fucked it!\u2019). Class and looks: the rapist, a street pimp with a broken nose, tries to empower himself by depriving Alex of her beauty and class privilege (\u2018Fucking rich bitch! The world\u2019s your due because you\u2019re beautiful, right? Well, I\u2019m gonna fix your face!\u2019). One of the most telling moments in the rapist\u2019s verbal onslaught occurs when he repeatedly orders her to \u2018Call me \u201cDaddy\u201d!\u2019 \u2013 words that were specifically inserted so that \u2018maybe the\n\n---\n\n4 The gender ambiguity of the name \u2018Alex\u2019 is also part of this transition: when they first hear that someone named Alex has been raped, viewers may assume it is a man before finding out that Alex is a woman.\nviewer wonders if he [the rapist]\u2019s been raped himself\u201d, according to No\u00e9 (Torneo 2003). It is the man who cannot bear violation who becomes a violator, he who cannot withstand violence in any other way than by projecting it outward onto others.\n\nWhen Alex\u2019s boyfriend Marcus first sees her violated body on an ambulance stretcher, he is traumatized by the sight. The fact that he is struck dumb, immobilized and nearly moved to tears suggests that his initial response is empathy with her suffering. But, goaded by some other men who claim that only \u2018pussies\u2019 don\u2019t take revenge, Marcus has soon repudiated any \u2018feminine weakness\u2019 and converted his empathy to macho rage. Galvanized by vengeance, with his face a hardened mask and his mouth spewing vicious epithets, Marcus invades the red tunnel-like spaces of the club called The Rectum to attack the rapist, much as the rapist invaded the red tunnel underpass and anally raped Alex. Marcus\u2019s revenge thus becomes an extension of the rape, not an antidote to it but a spreading of its sickness. The revenge is part of the same masculinist ideology that led to the rape, a myth of male inviolability perpetuated through the violation of others. And, when a man (not the rapist) whom Marcus attacks attempts to rape him, Marcus\u2019 friend Pierre bashes the man\u2019s face in, much as the rapist had destroyed Alex\u2019s face.6When No\u00e9 talks about his film\u2019s critique of revenge, he refers to the fact that the vengeance is inflicted on the wrong man and that the violence gets out of control and leads to murder. But the film\u2019s deeper critique lies in showing how the avenger is the rapist\u2019s double, repeating the violation, caught up in the same pathology.\n\n5 In his rage to find the rapist, Marcus also brutalizes a prostitute named La Concha, committing violence against a woman much as the rapist had done against Alex. La Concha is strongly linked to Alex, for the rapist had actually first roughed up La Concha in the underpass before assaulting Alex. Marcus\u2019 brutality thus repeats and extends the rapist\u2019s attack on La Concha. Also, Marcus believes at first that a man named Guillermo Nu\u00f1ez committed the rape, and Marcus roughs up La Concha in an attempt to find out the whereabouts of Guillermo. But La Concha turns out to be Guillermo, a (transvestite) male. Marcus\u2019 violence towards a woman (La Concha) is thus conflated with his vengeance against a man (Guillermo) \u2013 once again showing Marcus\u2019 revenge to be a doubling of the original violation.\n\n6 The fact that a red fire extinguisher is used to do the battering makes this assault even more connotative of rape.\nMarcus\u2019 revenge is also a denial of his complicity in the rape \u2013 and here I mean much more than the fact that his boorish behaviour at a party drove Alex out into the night alone and unprotected by a paternalistic male. By casting himself in the role of Alex\u2019s avenger, Marcus refuses to take responsibility for the extent to which he has participated in \u2018rape culture\u2019, a social formation that \u2018encourages male sexual aggression\u2019, that sees \u2018violence [...] as sexy and sexuality as violent\u2019 (Buchwald et al. 2005: xi), and that condones the sexual objectification of women through uninvited gazing, remarks, touching or groping. No\u00e9 draws an extended parallel between Marcus\u2019 behaviour and that of the rapist, showing how Marcus\u2019 acts are merely steps along a continuum that leads from sexual objectification to rape.7 At the party, much to Alex\u2019s disgust, Marcus leers at, comments on and fondles women indiscriminately as though they were all there for his consumption. He also snorts coke, much as the rapist inhales poppers. When Marcus is alone in the apartment with Alex, he says that he stole her from her former boyfriend, while she protests that she is not an object and that she decides whom to be with. Marcus steals money from her purse (the way the rapist/pimp does from his prostitutes), \u2018playfully\u2019 spits in her face (the rapist too will spit at her) and gropes and grips her from behind, telling her that \u2018I wanna fuck you in the ass.\u2019 This comment \u2018makes you think that also Marcus is a potential rapist\u2019, says No\u00e9 (Sterritt 2007: 308). But this is a realization about himself that Marcus refuses to confront. When he and Alex wake up in bed together after falling asleep following sex, Marcus holds his hand over her mouth (the way the rapist will silence her later) just as she is trying to tell him about her dream of a red tunnel that gets broken \u2013 a premonition of the anal rape, but also an insight and warning about Marcus\u2019 character, about the nightmarish sexual assault that his daytime aggression is headed towards becoming. \u2018I think they\n\n7 There is thus another sense in which Marcus identifies \u2018the wrong man\u2019 as the rapist: Marcus himself is at least complicit in the crime. It is interesting to compare Marcus to the Butcher, a recurring character in No\u00e9\u2019s films. In Carne (1991), the Butcher\u2019s daughter is molested and the Butcher takes revenge on the wrong man. In Seul contre tous/I Stand Alone (1998), the Butcher himself molests \u2013 or imagines molesting \u2013 his own daughter. And at the beginning of Irreversible, the Butcher says that he has spent time in prison for that crime.\ncould have escaped it [their fate, but] people don\u2019t even read the signs around them\u2019, says No\u00e9 (Sterritt 2007: 309, 308). Instead of heeding the warning of the broken tunnel and empathizing with Alex, Marcus becomes a sexual aggressor at the party, which leads to the violence of the rape and of the revenge.\n\nYet, as No\u00e9 admits, the film\u2019s reverse chronology, in which the revenge and the rape are seen to \u2018occur\u2019 before the appearance of the signs warning about them, would suggest that it is always already too late to heed these warnings: \u2018the way it\u2019s told, it seems that they cannot escape it, because you already know where they\u2019re going to\u2019 (Sterritt 2007: 309); \u2018It makes the movie much more tragic because you cannot escape from destiny\u2019 (Tang 2003); Alex \u2018has this dream about the red tunnel, and still she cannot avoid her own fate\u2019 (Stringer 2003). Indeed, Alex sums up the moral of the book she has been reading on premonitory dreams as \u2018the future is already written\u2019. To the extent that No\u00e9\u2019s film *Irr\u00e9versible* represents rape and revenge as inevitable because predestined, it fails to leave open the possibility of positive change in the viewer. No\u00e9 succumbs to a biological essentialism where it is the fate of females to be raped, and the destiny of males to take revenge: \u2018you\u2019re not free from your genes,\u2019 No\u00e9 says. \u2018You have a genetic code that brings you to things, above anything your brain can tell you [\u2026] yes, you can choose, but your freedom is very limited\u2019 (Sterritt 2007: 309). Masculine aggression is less a social construction than it is an immutable biological fact. As No\u00e9 sees it, \u2018man is fundamentally barbaric\u2019 and \u2018you cannot truly represent him if you don\u2019t show him as he is when he loses control of his actions\u2019 (Gorin and Rigoulet 2002: 30); \u2018Vengeance is an instinct of man. Man is an animal that retains \u2013 more or less \u2013 his violent\n\n---\n\n8 Marcus is also given another warning he does not heed: he cannot feel his arm \u2013 a foreshadowing of the fact that, if he decides to take revenge (which he does), he will only end up with a broken arm (self-destruction).\n9 The book is J.W. Dunne\u2019s *An Experiment with Time* (1927) \u2013 and in fact it argues against the kind of predestination that Alex finds in it.\n10 No\u00e9\u2019s gender essentialism also leads him into a virulent homophobia. Trying to imagine a space that is \u2018totally male\u2019 and thus completely given over to masculine aggression (men among men, or against men, men fighting with men\u2019 (Stringer 2003)), No\u00e9 comes up with a gay s/m club.\ninstincts in terms of the degree of the crisis he goes through\u2019 (Gaillac and Morgue 2002). It thus becomes impossible for No\u00e9\u2019s filmic representation of rape and revenge to have an educative or curative effect on the viewer. The film\u2019s images of violence and violation can only further traumatize us as spectators if all we can know is that we are foredoomed to re-enact them.\n\nAnother rape scene whose \u2018shocking impact\u2019 has been seen as constituting a \u2018punctuation moment\u2019 because it challenges the boundaries of acceptable filmic representation occurs in Catherine Breillat\u2019s *A ma scour!* Here the challenge is not in the duration of the rape but in \u2018the young age of the victim, Ana\u00efs\u2019 \u2013 a 12-year-old girl (Selfe 2008). In fact, on the advice of two clinical psychologists, the British Board of Film Classification ordered that the rape scene be cut in its entirety from the UK DVD release of the film, on the grounds that the scene \u2018may arouse potential child abusers\u2019 and that it may be shown to children by \u2018paedophiles\u2019 who would use it to \u2018groom their victims\u2019 (Anon. 2002). The scene is thus censored due to concern that its representation of rape will contribute to the furtherance of the reality of rape, that its impact on a certain kind of viewer will be to invite identification with the rapist and that its impact on another kind of viewer will be to encourage identification with the victim. As a counterargument to this concern, Breillat has claimed that \u2018censors create the concept of obscenity\u2019: Ana\u00efs has \u2018got a body that is acceptable and normal for a young girl, yet [the censors maintain that] it shouldn\u2019t be shown by a film director\u2019 (Brooks 2001). Breillat says that the censors turn this child\u2019s body into \u2018a forbidden body because it\u2019s supposedly a body that is the object of desire\u2019, and the unfortunate result is that \u2018the weight [of opprobrium] has to be carried by the potential victims instead of being carried by the potential rapists\u2019 (Bochenski 2008). Breillat implies that it is the censors who, by *not* showing the rape scene, contribute to the furtherance of the reality of rape by assuming the continued sexual objectification of young girls\u2019 bodies and by banning the representation of those bodies rather than censuring the sexual objectifiers. Breillat also implies that\nthe censors are part of a masculinist social system that stigmatizes the female victims of rape and their bodies rather than attending to the male perpetrators and their violent desires.\n\nNow, it could be argued, contra Breillat, that the rape scene in *A ma scour!* is problematic in terms of the subject positions it encourages the viewer to take up. A forward tracking shot positions us behind the rapist as he walks towards Ana\u00efs, and then the camera cranes down and in on them as the rapist lies on top of her, pressing his body onto hers. There is thus a sense in which the viewer is led to adopt a paedophile\u2019s perspective and to participate in his movement towards the object of his desire. Alternatively, as in *Irr\u00e9versible*, the rapist\u2019s visual perspective here could be said to further our emotional identification with Ana\u00efs, intensifying our fear for her. But a potential problem for this argument occurs when, in the midst of the rape, Ana\u00efs stops trying to push the rapist off with her arms and instead puts them around his shoulders in an embrace. If our point of identification in the scene is Ana\u00efs, has she just moved from fighting to acceptance of the rape? It could be argued that she \u2018acquiesces\u2019 solely to ensure her survival, but one can see how the BBFC might be concerned about a paedophile viewer showing Ana\u00efs\u2019 embrace of her rapist to a potential victim as a model of how to consent to rape. This concern is only heightened right after this scene when we find out that Ana\u00efs herself claims that she \u2018wasn\u2019t raped\u2019.\n\nMy aim here is not to defend the grounds for censorship, but I do want to point out that there are certain problematic aspects of this particular representation of rape that should not be ignored or \u2018interpreted away\u2019 in an effort to save Breillat for political correctness. I would suggest that the sadomasochistic elements in this scene \u2013 the way it induces a split identification with the rapist and with his \u2018acquiescent\u2019 victim \u2013 can be most usefully construed as components of a rape fantasy. As\nElizabeth Wilson has said in calling for a return to a 1970s-feminist openness to exploring challenging material:\n\nWe could acknowledge, for example, that some women might have fantasies of being raped, without concluding that this therefore meant that women really want to be raped in real life. Rape or other masochistic fantasies might or might not be common, and they might be problematic, but it was important to confront and explore such responses if anything about sexual behaviour was to change [and] to understand how we internalize oppressive notions of femininity and female sexual response. (Wilson 1993: 17\u201318)\n\nIn considering the question of how \u2018women [can] desire rape when it is the most extreme instance of male domination and violence against them\u2019, Elizabeth Cowie suggests that a rape fantasy \u2018absolves the subject from the guilt and responsibility of [...] her desire, which appears to come from outside, apparently imposed, but in which the subject will be pleasured\u2019 (Cowie 1993: 143).\n\nThe assault on Ana\u00efs is figured in ways that could mark it as a fantasy. Before the attack, her sister and her mother fall asleep in the car; does Ana\u00efs nod off too and dream the ensuing events? The hairy rapist who breaks the car\u2019s windscreen and kills her sister and her mother with an axe also breaks the conventions of the intimiste film genre and introduces something alien and surreal, as if he were a woodcutter or a wolf in a dark fairytale. In fact, in her desperation to be rid of her virginity, Ana\u00efs earlier had occasion \u2018to dream\u2019 of a \u2018werewolf\u2019 who would come to take her, and this wild-haired woodsman who attacks her could be her wish-fulfilment fantasy. Perhaps the man who comes to her only looks like a predatory hairy beast because Ana\u00efs is defending against her\nown sexual desire for him, a desire that is socially unacceptable in women: \u2018the only thing that\nmakes the beast bestial is that beauty isn\u2019t capable of loving him, of seeing him [as he really is],\u2019\nBreillat has said (Clouzot 2004: 157). If the rape is actually a reaction formation or disguised\nwish, this would explain why, when the rapist and Ana\u00efs hold each other\u2019s gaze before the assault,\nshe seems to be hypnotizing him more than he is hypnotizing her; why her words to the rapist \u2013\n\u2018You\u2019re not going to hurt me?\u2019 \u2013 sound more like a command than a question; and why she ends\nup embracing her attacker. As Breillat says, for girls who have been \u2018brought up to be decent\u2019,\n\u2018rape is the only way to enact their desire for a man\u2019 (Breillat 1999: 51). This is because,\n\u2018following the mindset of our society, they must as it were \u201cfoist\u201d the guilt of desire onto the man\nwhom they did not have the power to resist\u2019 (Breillat 2006: 150).\n\nBut does Ana\u00efs have to imagine a man immobilizing her with his body, gagging her mouth\nand piercing her with pain as the means whereby she can \u2018actively\u2019 \u2018express\u2019 her own desire for\n\u2018pleasure\u2019? Does not this rape fantasy, for all its wishful transvaluation of terms, leave too much\nof society\u2019s mindset literally in place (on the screen), keeping the woman fixed within her\n\u2018passive feminine\u2019 position, continuing to define her desire as masochistic? As Cowie reminds\nus, \u2018The fantasy of rape may also constitute a fantasy of punishment in which the sexual\naggression of the other is a punishment for sexual desire\u2019, as if the woman \u2018\u201casks for rape\u201d by\nhaving sexual desires\u2019 (Cowie 1993: 146). If Ana\u00efs imagines the assault as a punishment for her\ndesire, if she views her body as \u2018asking for rape\u2019, then is she not identifying with the attacker in\nher rape fantasy, seeing herself through his eyes? Breillat has spoken of the formative influence\nupon her of such male authors as the Marquis de Sade and the Count de Lautr\u00e9amont:\n\n---\n\n1 Breillat\u2019s specific reference here is to \u2018Beauty and the Beast\u2019, but this tale, like that of Bluebeard, is a source text\nfor the rape scene between the hairy wild-man and Ana\u00efs.\nThese are things that I read in my childhood and that I made mine. [...] Authors who [...] wrote about their horror of women! Their murderous desires towards women! [...] as girls, we are nourished on this terrifying discourse by men about women. Fairytales say the same thing: the fear of the monster, the fear of the orge, the desire for Bluebeard, the man who kills women. (Cl\u00e9ment 2002: 286\u201387)\n\nAna\u00efs too has internalized oppressive notions of femininity and female sexual response. In her rape fantasy, her identification is split between the hirsute attacker (a version of Bluebeard) and herself as willing victim, split between the man\u2019s sadism and her own \u2018feminine\u2019 masochistic desire to be punished. As Breillat has said about her relation to a sadistic male character like Bluebeard, \u2018I love him and I am him, so I treat my victims the way he does. But obviously there\u2019s a schizophrenia since my victims are delectably me\u2019 (Breillat 2006: 264).\n\nThe rape fantasy, then, could be seen as reinforcing society\u2019s most pernicious gender stereotypes insofar as it solicits a \u2018schizophrenic\u2019 or split identification with the polarized positions of the male sadist and his masochistic female victim. However, it is also possible to see the \u2018schizophrenic\u2019 viewer of the rape scenario not as someone who is torn between masculine sadism and feminine masochism, but instead as someone who simultaneously occupies both positions and therefore neither. According to Cowie, \u2018Fantasy as a mise en sc\u00e8ne is more a setting out of lack, of what is absent, than a presentation of a having, a being present\u2019 (Cowie 1997: 133). Cowie explains that fantasy often involves a \u2018de-subjectivisation, \u2018a varying of subject position so that the subject takes up more than one position and thus is not fixed\u2019 (Cowie 1997: 134). The viewer identifies with both Ana\u00efs and the rapist and\ntherefore with *neither* absolutely. The position taken up by the viewer could be described as the non-position between the two characters, an undefined and unconventional space *beyond sadomasochism*.\n\nBefore the rape, the attacker stalks Ana\u00efs, moving menacingly towards her and fixing her as the object of the male gaze. But Ana\u00efs is also in motion and looking right back at him, as if the two were circling each other and holding each other\u2019s gaze. Breillat describes the two as \u2018fascinated, the one by the other\u2019, and she compares the scene to a \u2018bullfight\u2019 in which \u2018the victim dances with the executioner\u2019 (Tylski 2004). Unlike a conventional execution with its stark contrast between attacker and victim, sadist and masochist, a dance implies equality, mutuality, inter-involvement. During the rape *imagined* in this *fantasy* scenario, as the attacker and Ana\u00efs are body to body and face to face, they both are muddied by the forest floor and by their contact with one another, and the hair on each of their heads gets wild and tangled even as they are entangled. Breillat calls it \u2018the fusion of two beings who hate the world and want to make it explode\u2019 (Puaux 2001: 172). What is the nature of this \u2018fusion\u2019? Yes, one could see Ana\u00efs as identifying with her aggressor as a way of living in denial about the fact that she was raped. After the assault, she emerges from the forest looking as wild-haired as the hairy woodsman who had attacked her, and she claims that she was not raped. In this interpretation, the rape scenario is merely an *acting out* of the same old story: Ana\u00efs (or the viewer) is forced to make a choice between two polarized and untenable positions: identifying masochistically with the victim or identifying *against herself* with the sadistic rapist.\nBut it is also possible to see the \u2018fusion\u2019 in this rape fantasy not as a mere reversal of the binary (the masochist identifies with the sadist) that keeps the polarity in place, but rather as a confusion of these very categories, an identification with a non-position between sado- and masochism, a working through of these traumatic gender differences. If rape in our patriarchal world is the violent enforcement of gender differences, the rape in Breillat\u2019s fantasy scenario is instead an attempt to explode that hateful world, to deconstruct its differences. The rape fantasy is an attempt to imagine a female character (Ana\u00efs) who lives through the sadistic reduction of herself to a sexual object, who survives beyond the masochistic feeling that she should be punished for her desires. As Breillat has said,\n\nI used to love the man [...] like Bluebeard, the man who doesn\u2019t love, who kills women. [...] But I\u2019ve realized [...] that one can find pleasure in other ways than through antagonism and the same old dirty feelings of shame. I always had a strong, delicious taste for being humiliated by men. [...] And so I understand very well the couple formed by the victim and the executioner, I see how it\u2019s a powerful couple. But I nevertheless think \u2013 even if I adore Bluebeard \u2013 that it\u2019s a couple whose ties must be broken.[...] (Breillat 2006: 208, 264)\n\nIndeed, in her 2009 film Barbe Bleue (Bluebeard), Breillat extends the working through of gender differences in a way that allows her to move beyond rape fantasy itself. While the hairy Bluebeard does threaten to rape and murder the virginal Marie-Catherine as symbolized by his bloodstained key in her hand and by his knife at her throat, this time Breillat imagines a way to untie the victim\u2013executioner couple before the girl is victimized. Instead of being assaulted by Bluebeard as Ana\u00efs was by the hairy wild-man, Marie-Catherine does not allow herself to be punished for her desire \u2013 a desire symbolized by her wilfully unlocking the door he had forbidden her to open. Like Ana\u00efs,\nMarie-Catherine \u2018fuses\u2019 with the rebarbative wild-man, identifying with his alienation from the world: \u2018The two characters have the same solitude and loneliness. They are beings who are not loved\u2019, says Breillat (Wheatley 2010: 42). But this identification becomes a source of strength for Marie-Catherine, a rage against oppression that she uses to counteract Bluebeard\u2019s violence, decapitating him before he can commit an (ultimately very patriarchal) assault on her. Rather than be the masochistic object of his sadistic love as inculcated by the fairytale (\u2018It\u2019s a story that teaches these little girls to love the man who\u2019s going to kill them\u2019, according to Breillat (Anderson 2010)), Marie-Catherine pre-empts this entire scenario of sadomasochistic desire and cuts the very ties that bind her to this victim\u2013executioner dynamic. In so doing, Marie-Catherine (Breillat) clears the way for her to write a new scenario beyond the typically rapacious interaction of inherited \u2018masculine\u2019 and \u2018feminine\u2019 roles.\n\nBy contrast, the direction taken by Gaspar No\u00e9 after Irr\u00e9versible is not so clear, and there is space here to make only a few preliminary remarks about his latest work. With Enter the Void (2009) \u2013 a film first conceived under the influence of hallucinogenic mushrooms during a viewing of Lady in the Lake (which was shot entirely from the protagonist\u2019s point of view) \u2013 No\u00e9 continues his experimentation with viewer perspective and split identification. At the film\u2019s beginning, we see everything through the eyes of a sex- and drug-obsessed youth named Oscar. But after he is shot in a drug bust and lies dying in a nightclub toilet stall, subjective camera shifts to over-the-shoulder \u2013 or, more precisely, behind-the-head \u2013 shots showing us Oscar\u2019s flashback memories, including his separation from his sister Linda after their parents were killed in a car accident. Oscar remembers a promise he made never to leave her, and the perspective shifts again to disembodied \u2018astral projection\u2019 shots as his spirit leaves his body and goes in search of his sister, hovering above her and watching over her protectively. It is possible to see these changes in perspective \u2013\nsubjective camera to behind-the-head shots to _disembodied_ and _high-angle_ subjective camera \u2013 as No\u00e9\u2019s way of moving Oscar and the film\u2019s viewer from selfishness to empathy, as each change takes us one step further from egocentric spectatorship towards emotional identification with a woman.\n\nHowever, just as we viewers could only look on helplessly as Alex was raped, so Oscar as an incorporeal spirit can see \u2013 but not act to prevent \u2013 his sister from being sexually used by her boss Mario: \u2018People who believe in having had post-mortem visions recount that they float above themselves, that they see everything and cannot communicate with the living,\u2019 notes No\u00e9 (Etchegaray 2010). If in _Irr\u00e9versible_ the reverse chronology created the sense that it was always already too late to save Alex from assault by Le T\u00e9nia, so here the \u2018spirit cam\u2019 conveys a similar sense of fatalism, of knowledge without power in the face of Linda\u2019s being abused by Mario. Point of view then becomes even more problematic when the floating camera descends as Oscar\u2019s spirit moves behind and into Mario\u2019s head, adopting the abuser\u2019s perspective as he is thrusting into Linda. Is Oscar\u2019s seeming empathy for his sister really only lustful aggression, his protective vigilance a disguise for voyeuristic and egocentric desire? Is the \u2018spirit cam\u2019 really a \u2018stalker cam\u2019 like that which tracked Alex before the rape in _Irr\u00e9versible_? Some of the flashbacks to their past do appear to indicate the potential for an incestuous relationship between Oscar and Linda.\n\nOr does Oscar\u2019s brief sojourn into Mario\u2019s head, this momentary identification with the abuser, form part of Oscar\u2019s growing awareness of his own selfishness and former abuse of women? Perhaps this fleeting re-incorporation marks a further step in the journey of his consciousness to\ndistance itself from the lustful body, to relive sexually aggressive experiences but with a critical awareness of the pain that he has caused. Much later in the film, Oscar\u2019s spirit again moves into the head and sees through the eyes of a man having sex with his sister, but this time the man is Oscar\u2019s best friend and the sex with Linda could be construed as compassionate love-making. The camera then adopts a perspective from inside her vagina as the penis enters and ejaculates. Has Oscar (Gaspar) finally succeeded in moving beyond masculine aggression to see feelingly from the woman\u2019s point of view \u2013 or is this still basically a hardcore porn \u2018money shot\u2019 celebrating a man\u2019s potency and power? As so often with No\u00e9, it is probably both \u2013 again a matter of split identification and ideological complexity.\n\nACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\nMy special thanks to Tanya Horeck, Tina Kendall and Sarah Barrow, the organizers of the conference on The New Extremism: Contemporary European Cinema (Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, 24\u201325 April 2009), and to the participants at the conference, especially Martin Barker, whose probing comments and spirited debate led to marked improvements in this article.\n\nREFERENCES\n\n\nSUGGESTED CITATION\n\nCONTRIBUTOR DETAILS\nDouglas Keesey is Professor of Film and Literature at California Polytechnic State University. His publications include books on Catherine Breillat, Don DeLillo, Peter Greenaway, Paul Verhoeven, erotic cinema and neo-noir.\n\nContact: Douglas Keesey, English Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA.\nIdeas move fast\nwhen their time comes.\n\nCarolyn Heilbrun", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1087&context=engl_fac", "len_cl100k_base": 9453, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 24, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 45119, "total-output-tokens": 12395, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0082855224609375, "__label__art_design": 0.08349609375, "__label__crime_law": 0.08056640625, "__label__education_jobs": 0.00966644287109375, "__label__entertainment": 0.227294921875, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0018644332885742188, "__label__finance_business": 0.0010833740234375, "__label__food_dining": 0.0013475418090820312, "__label__games": 0.0038700103759765625, "__label__hardware": 0.0005927085876464844, "__label__health": 0.0020771026611328125, "__label__history": 0.003414154052734375, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0003180503845214844, "__label__industrial": 0.0009317398071289062, "__label__literature": 0.423095703125, "__label__politics": 0.1282958984375, "__label__religion": 0.00244903564453125, "__label__science_tech": 0.004131317138671875, "__label__social_life": 0.012542724609375, "__label__software": 0.0008072853088378906, "__label__software_dev": 0.0014848709106445312, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0009212493896484376, "__label__transportation": 0.000965118408203125, "__label__travel": 0.0004458427429199219}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 46373, 0.02556]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 46373, 0.10466]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 46373, 0.94473]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 1499, false], [1499, 3474, null], [3474, 5532, null], [5532, 7803, null], [7803, 9944, null], [9944, 11845, null], [11845, 14085, null], [14085, 16703, null], [16703, 19318, null], [19318, 21851, null], [21851, 24168, null], [24168, 26216, null], [26216, 28011, null], [28011, 30169, null], [30169, 32038, null], [32038, 33826, null], [33826, 35879, null], [35879, 38064, null], [38064, 39896, null], [39896, 41581, null], [41581, 44164, null], [44164, 45975, null], [45975, 46317, null], [46317, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 1499, true], [1499, 3474, null], [3474, 5532, null], [5532, 7803, null], [7803, 9944, null], [9944, 11845, null], [11845, 14085, null], [14085, 16703, null], [16703, 19318, null], [19318, 21851, null], [21851, 24168, null], [24168, 26216, null], [26216, 28011, null], [28011, 30169, null], [30169, 32038, null], [32038, 33826, null], [33826, 35879, null], [35879, 38064, null], [38064, 39896, null], [39896, 41581, null], [41581, 44164, null], [44164, 45975, null], [45975, 46317, null], [46317, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 46373, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 1499, 1], [1499, 3474, 2], [3474, 5532, 3], [5532, 7803, 4], [7803, 9944, 5], [9944, 11845, 6], [11845, 14085, 7], [14085, 16703, 8], [16703, 19318, 9], [19318, 21851, 10], [21851, 24168, 11], [24168, 26216, 12], [26216, 28011, 13], [28011, 30169, 14], [30169, 32038, 15], [32038, 33826, 16], [33826, 35879, 17], [35879, 38064, 18], [38064, 39896, 19], [39896, 41581, 20], [41581, 44164, 21], [44164, 45975, 22], [45975, 46317, 23], [46317, 46373, 24]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 46373, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-09", "created": "2024-12-09"}
+{"id": "84123165f4270fe072be28492d6156721888cbfc", "text": "the rainbow as they danced in gladsome joy on all around. Fancy could conjure them into many varied forms, and I found myself weaving imaginary scenes and visions from these heralds of the approaching king of day. Then a warm light of intense brightness flooded the whole scene, and the glory of all other lights waned and paled and vanished in the all-absorbing magnificence of the rising sun.\n\nAfter this a hideous-looking biped of the fowl species came and crowed in my ear, startling me nearly into fits and banishing all meditation and repose. Probably he had been allowed to live in order to perform the function of Rouser-in-Chief to the establishment, for with the sound of his shrill voice there appeared on the scene two shivering Kaffirs, who disappeared in different directions, doubtless in search of their separate duties. Following them, after a short interval, came the two soldier-servants of Captain Sullivan and my cousin, who at once set to work cleaning the saddles and bridles belonging to their masters. Unseen, from beneath my blanket, I watched the operations with much interest, and profited not a little in the lesson I learnt thereby as to how to clean and burnish steel and brighten up the leather of the saddle. I was also a good\ndeal amused in listening to their conversation; it chiefly related to the much-longed-for period when they should find themselves in England after an absence of nearly twelve years; while the bright visions and elaborate plans of Evelyn, my cousin's servant, were only outrivalled by the colossal dreams of the other man!\n\nThe saddles and bridles having been cleaned and burnished to their satisfaction, the boots of their masters next underwent a violent brushing. This process was enlivened by the favourite soldier-song of \"Come into the garden, Maud,\" until the eye of the singer suddenly and for the first time catching sight of my amused countenance watching him from beneath the blanket, he came to a dead stop, and with a confused \"Oh, I beg your pardon; look there, Fergusson\u2014we are disturbing her ladyship,\" picked up boots and brushes and blacking pot, and disappeared in the twinkling of an eye, followed by the servant to whom he had spoken. The next appearance on the scene was that of Captain Maude, who emerged from the house carrying a lot of blankets, which he offered to me. As, however, the rising hour had come and the cold hours of morning had passed away, they were not of much service, as may be imagined! A visitor at this juncture\nmade his appearance, proving to be Mr. Pilkington of the 60th, the same who had sent us the mutton and bread overnight, and he had now come to see how we were getting on. We invited him to remain and breakfast with us, of which meal at the same time we had no brilliant anticipations, knowing too well, alas! that the menu of the last night's dinner would be repeated with painful similarity. Mutton and stale bread and black coffee, in which latter article the element of chicory smothered every pretension, was to be our fare; such luxuries as eggs, butter, and milk, being things unknown. However, early rising produces a keen appetite, and hunger relishes the humblest food. We were therefore all pretty keen to set to, and impatiently awaited the arrival of Sir Evelyn Wood, who, we expected, would pass this way on his road to Pretoria. In fact it had been already arranged that the General was to stop and breakfast with us, and the hour had already passed at which he had intimated he would arrive. While we were all wondering what had happened to him, and listening for the sound of the spider's wheels, the General suddenly made his appearance, mounted on an artillery horse. His clothes were dusty and soiled, and it hardly needed the explanation that followed to be\naware that an accident had occurred. It appeared that in descending the incline from the Ingogo battlefield, one of the horses that drew the spider had made an effort to bolt, and, communicating his restiveness to his companion, the animals had made at an alarming pace for the river. The postilion found it impossible to restrain them, and the consequences might have proved disastrous had not the near horse suddenly crossed his legs and come down with so much force as to render him powerless for the time being to rise again. The spider was overturned, and Sir Evelyn and his servant thrown violently on to the road, one of the wheels passing over the prostrate form of the General. Fortunately, beyond a severe shaking and a few bruises, no one was hurt, and he was able to mount the postilion\u2019s horse and gallop on to join us, leaving his servant to pick up the pieces and follow him as soon as possible.\n\nHaving despatched Mr. Pilkington on an errand to procure a fresh pair of horses, and Captain Maude in search of another spider at a store not far distant, the General, with the rest of us, proceeded to breakfast. I regretted the poorness of the fare, as he appeared a good deal shaken and scarcely touched the food that was set before him.\n\nThe return of Captain Maude with the spider,\nand the arrival of Walkinshaw, the General's servant, with the damaged vehicle, made it necessary to get ready for a fresh start, and it was not long before Sir Evelyn was again settled in the position from which he had been so summarily ejected, and was once more bowling along the road *en route* for Pretoria.\n\nAfter he was gone we ordered our horses to be got ready and started off for Lange's Nek. A broad irregular road led up to the position in question, and wound along the base of a chain of hills, of which the Inquela Mountain formed one of its principal features, being of remarkable shape and size, and joined to the more interesting Amajuba by a long ridge. With this mountain we rode on a parallel for some time, and had ample opportunity to remark on the impregnable position afforded by its eastern face, whose steep sides, intersected with innumerable gullies and crevices, give it a dark and forbidding aspect. Dipping into a little hollow or valley, we suddenly found ourselves at the foot of the long rising incline which led up to Lange's Nek. When I first beheld the place I was greatly disappointed. All accounts which I had hitherto read of it led me to believe it to be a second Killiecrankie Pass. Past descriptions of the Nek had repre-\nsented it as a defile, but the road which led up to this position simply followed its old course through the Veldt, passing over Lange's Nek in a straight line. A line of forts extending from the right of the road from a north-to-easterly direction could, from our position, be distinctly discerned, and it was from these places that the defence was mostly conducted. Once on the summit of the Pass, and looking down from the Boer trenches on the ground up which our troops had to fight their way, the folly of attack became terribly apparent except with a large force. Truly 'twas but a fit imitation of the unnecessary charge of the gallant six hundred; and in the many valuable lives so uselessly thrown away we mourn the loss of friends, of relatives, and of men, who, we cannot but feel, were sacrificed in a hopeless cause, and died, alas! in vain.\n\nTraces of the late occupation could be seen on all sides; the grass was battered down and close-cropped, while old boots, pots, and pans lay scattered about in every direction. We were not very much struck with the way in which the trenches were dug or thrown up, but probably and not unnaturally the Boers looked upon the heights as a pretty secure fortress, and in themselves a sufficient protection against any attack.\nTurning to the westward, we rode along the eastern ridge which connects the Amajuba and Lange's Nek, until, reaching the base of the mountain's northern face, up which the Boers had ascended, we dismounted and prepared to follow in their footsteps. In some places the ascent was very steep, but had the advantage of complete shelter in large disjointed masses of rock, behind which the attacking party could advance almost unperceived by those above, to whom they must have presented a somewhat similar appearance to rabbits amongst rocks and ferns\u2014no sooner seen than immediately lost sight of\u2014mere snap shots, not practicable with a rifle. This inability to cover the enemy contributed, I should imagine, in a great manner to our defeat on this occasion; and the impossibility of directing our fire until the Boers were within some forty or fifty yards of the summit must have been trying and disheartening in the extreme.\n\nMuch has been said about the daring attack of the Dutchmen. But in this ascent it must be borne in mind they were simply operating in their own element, and the slopes of the Amajuba were to them little more than child's play; indeed, when following the line taken by them myself, I do not remember to have paused once to take breath,\nLANGE\u2019S NEK AND BOER TRENCHES AS SEEN FROM SUMMIT OF THE AMAJUBA.\nnor did I feel more blown upon reaching the summit than a breath of fresh air could dispel. What must it then have been to men who from their earliest childhood were familiar with and accustomed to such feats of hardiness, and to whom the ascent of any mountain was an easy task? Had the tables been turned, and the order given to charge across a plain and take an open position, this courage which has been so much applauded in the ascent of the Amajuba would not have been so apparent. Give honour to whom honour is due, and it will then be found that this assault, when looked at in all its bearings, was not the glorious affair drawn on the long bow of triumph by the Boers.\n\nThe summit of the Amajuba is very irregular, and the rocky ridge seen from the valley below extends nearly in a circle. In the centre the ground falls away to a hollow, and we therein came across the wells that had been dug by the order of General Colley. It was here the reserves of the 92d and 3-60th were placed, and not far off, under cover of a rocky ridge, the hospital was organised. I walked round the line occupied by the 92d; it appeared to be a very enlarged one, the defence of the brow assigned to them extending from a south-westerly position\nto west, and from west to north. They must decidedly have had their hands full, inasmuch as from this it will be seen that the defence of three parts of the mountain fell to their share, the 58th occupying the north-west and westerly ridges, whose precipitous sides appeared to me sufficient protection in themselves; while the Naval Brigade, who had posted a small reserve with the others, had left traces in the south-west corner of the plateau of their recent occupation.\n\nI picked up a letter evidently written by some sailor's sweetheart at home, but the paper was soiled and damp with many dews, and beyond the words \"My dearest Jack,\" I could not decipher much. It was at this point that the gallant Captain Romilly was shot by men from below, the fire by which he was struck proceeding from advancing parties who had crept round unperceived to the south-west, and scaled the steep slopes, coming unawares upon the Naval Brigade. All who knew Captain Romilly will mourn his loss; in him passed away a charming and accomplished gentleman, and an officer rigid in the performance of his duties, one of distinguished merit and courage,\u2014a life of bright promise and noble aims.\nI wandered over the plateau and across the ground where the gallant 92d made their determined stand; cartridge cases lay thickly strewn along the brow, and impromptu fortifications were still left standing. One stone in particular, about half the size of a man's body, was seared and scarred with bullet marks, and presented a strange appearance. This had evidently been a hot corner, and the pile of empty cartridges testified to the determined stand which must have been made by the occupier. Down in the hollow, and close to the wells, I came across a tiny cairn of stones; it marked the place where the gallant but unfortunate General, who had thrown his own fortunes in with his men, fell with his face to the foe. The condemning tongue grows silent in the presence of true valour. There, where the fight was thickest,\u2014where the bullets rained their deadly shower,\u2014he fell; he is now dead, and praise and blame fall on his ear alike. Let us admire the courage and compassionate the misfortune of one who died a soldier's death. Not far removed from the cairn I could see the grave of Captain Maude, and the tiny cemetery wherein were interred the men who fell that day. A small wooden cross headed the former, with the words \"Captain Maude\" rudely traced thereon; some immortelles\nhad been laid on the grave, that of the soldiers being similarly decorated. When at a somewhat later date I again visited this spot, a beautiful marble cross had replaced the wooden one, and the graves were in perfect order.\n\nWhile my companions completed their rounds of observation, I went and seated myself on the summit of a precipitous rock on the north-west side of the mountain. A grand view could be embraced from this position, which overlooked a vast expanse of country, in which the distant peaks of Basutoland were visible, and the countries of the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, Zululand, and Natal, extended in circling panorama around. Beneath me the rocks fell away in sheer precipice some six or seven hundred feet, terminating in thickly wooded slopes and grassy banks; and far away below wound a fertile valley, watered by many streams, the home, no doubt, of some farmer, whose house could be just distinguished peeping out from amidst a thick clump of trees, the blue smoke circling from their tops giving evidence that man lived therein. We descended the mountain by the path up which our troops had come. In some places it was extremely steep, and it cannot be wondered at that, heavily laden as they were with greatcoats, waterproof sheets, three days'\nrations, and their arms and ammunition, besides six picks and four shovels per company, they found themselves too exhausted to intrench on reaching the summit.\n\nWhen we got below we mounted our horses, which our servants had brought round by a path on the western side of the mountain over the combined Nek of the Inquela and Amajuba, and rode towards the camp of the mounted infantry, which lay not far distant. On our way we passed close by O'Neill's Farm, distinguished as being the place where an ignoble peace was signed; but, not caring to stop to visit so painful a spot, we hurried on to partake of the hospitality of the mess, our appetites being of the keenest. Indeed, in recalling that time, I cannot help thinking that we must have presented the appearance of sharks or famished wolves more than anything else in the greedy manner with which we begged to be at once introduced to our food. It would seem that the gallant major commanding had quite anticipated our wants, for on being ushered into the mess tent we found a repast that made our mouths water ready awaiting us. As may be imagined, we did ample justice to everything; indeed some of my companions, much in the fashion of schoolboys, gorged themselves\nto such a degree that, in my indignant remonstrances, I could only liken them to vultures. Remorse, however, came quickly when we were once more in the saddle and galloping quickly in the direction of Mount Prospect. How they regretted when it was too late the over-excesses in which they had indulged! On our way to the camp we turned aside to visit the little cemetery in which so many of our gallant officers lay. It was sad work standing by the last resting-place of many whose faces rose up with strange distinctness, bringing to memory voices not long since heard, now hushed and silent in their last long sleep. Beside his chief lay young Elwes, aide-de-camp to Sir George Colley. We had been playmates in childhood, and friends in later years. Standing by the grave of the gallant boy, I found old scenes recurring with great force and vividness. It is ever thus: old memories arise, each trivial circumstance of childhood returns; old sayings, doings, and pastimes crop up again; voices come back from the far past; and in the recollection of the early and happy years of childhood, for a few brief moments as you stand by the grave of some cherished friend, those golden halcyon days are lived o'er again.\nWe left Mount Prospect the next day, reaching Signal Hill in time for a cheery lunch with the 15th Hussars. That evening a grand banquet, given by the Inniskillings, in which the element of generals abounded, brought to a close a day pleasantly spent and pleasantly recalled.\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nA SOUTH AFRICAN GRAND MILITARY\u2014THE RACECOURSE\u2014\nTHE FATE OF JOHN GILPIN\u2014A HUNTING EXPEDITION\u2014\nSUCCESSFUL TRAVELLING\u2014WATCHING A STALKER\u2014AN\nINVALUABLE SERVANT\u2014FINAL DIRECTIONS.\n\nThe morning of the 26th of April opened with\nunusual stir and bustle. It was a day which had\nlong been looked forward to with the greatest\nexcitement, for which much preparation had been\nundergone and great anticipations formed. A race\nmeeting! nothing more or less, and dignified under\nthe title of \"The Grand Military at Signal Hill.\"\nIt embraced every kind of race belonging to\nboth the legitimate and illegitimate sports; every\nmanner of horse or pony with any pretensions to\ngallop filled up the long list of entries; the stakes\nworth winning were in considerable numbers; and\naltogether the prospects of the day were of the\nhighest. About an hour before the time at which\nproceedings were to commence a large party of us\nrode down to the course, which had been laid out\nin circular fashion on either side of the road lead-\ning to Mount Prospect. A great gathering of people from Newcastle and the surrounding district had already assembled, the black element decidedly predominating. Wagons and vehicles of every description lined either side of the course nearest the winning post, impromptu betting stands had been erected, and everything done to give the whole affair a business-like appearance. There were several mess tents in course of erection, destined to dispense the hospitalities of different regiments, the most noticeable being a large marquee belonging to the 15th Hussars, in which a lunch worthy of Ascot or Goodwood was being laid out.\n\nWith the arrival of the General and his staff proceedings commenced. The saddling bell sounded, the numbers of the first race went up, and the horses one by one began to assemble at the starting-post. There were a great number, and several false starts took place; eventually, however, the flag fell, and they got away in excellent order. This race was won, after a close and exciting finish, by a good-looking, well-bred colonial horse called Charcoal. He was steered to victory by Captain Sullivan, who, however, had his work well cut out for him in defeating the second, an animal ridden by Lord St. Vincent. This latter threw\nthe race away by declaring a stone and a half over weight, in order that he might ride his own horse; had it not been so, the result would have been undoubtedly otherwise.\n\nThe second race gave rise to several amusing scenes. In it was entered a mare called Mooi River, the property of Captain Beresford, by whom he set great store, and in whom he placed great faith. She had, previous to his buying her, won a Ladies' Purse somewhere or other, and the golden visions of the gay engineer pictured her the winner on this occasion. The services of my cousin as her jockey were secured, and no sooner was he mounted than we all made for the starting-post to see the start for this famous race. The behaviour of Mooi River was everything that could be desired, and though many of the others fidgeted a good deal she remained perfectly quiet; but it soon proved a case of \"butter won't melt,\" etc., for no sooner had the flag fallen than she swerved violently on one side, and, taking the bit into her teeth, dashed in amongst the crowd, cannoning every one right and left. Pursuing her erratic course, and notwithstanding all the efforts of my cousin to prevent her, she made straight for a gentleman who, apart from the crowd, was riding a somewhat restive horse, and cannoning up against\nhim sent the affrighted animal careering wildly over the Veldt, bearing with him his clinging and helpless owner. The sight was ludicrous, and we were at the same time horribly unfeeling, as the shouts of laughter on all sides testified. Away went the unhappy John Gilpin; his horse performed a large semicircle, and brought him round towards the racecourse, which reached, he never paused, but, continuing on his way, disappeared over a high hill in the direction of Newcastle. I never learnt his fate. Poor Mooi River, she came in for a good deal of abuse after this, but made up for her bad behaviour later in the day by running very well in the big steeplechase, which should have been won by an English thoroughbred called Darkie, who, however, managed to dispose of his rider in a very neat manner. Swerving at a stone wall, the man was sent flying; and thus the race, which would otherwise have been a certainty for the thoroughbred, was thrown away. This horse had previously won that day two flat races, and his performances had all the greater interest for me, inasmuch as I had ridden him in some of his gallops and predicted his sure success.\n\nIt was a picturesque sight to see the gallant General commanding stretched out on the grass\nunder a waggon, entertaining the Boer leaders to a champagne lunch. As I rode by, Sir Evelyn courteously invited me to make one of the party; but having already accepted the invitation of the 15th I was forced to decline, and rode on towards the large marquee erected by that regiment, accompanied by General Buller, whose blunter nature would not bother itself to whisper soft nothings in the ears of Messrs. Joubert, Pretorius, and Jorrissen. Later on in the day I was introduced to these gentlemen; but as their knowledge of English was restricted to a few words, and my capability of making myself understood in their \\textit{patois} was small, the conversation sustained was not, as may be imagined, of a very brilliant nature; so I returned to the horses and the races, and with a final scurry over hurdles, in which I was nearly jumped upon and annihilated altogether, a very enjoyable and successful meeting terminated.\n\nAmusements at this period seemed to come all together, and no sooner was one excitement over than another appeared. The prospect of moving could only be looked forward to on some distant and shadowy date, and all hope of a quick return home was out of the question. Amongst ourselves an expedition had been planned and\nA HUNTING EXPEDITION.\n\nfrequently discussed, and it was over our simple dinner that night that the project was further mooted. At last, after a good deal of discussion, a hartebeest hunt was announced, and my cousin and Captain Sullivan agreed to form members of the party. Having obtained leave, and a further loan from the colonel of a mule waggon and its team, while I was fortunate in securing another in other quarters, we at once set about our preparations. These, however, did not occupy a very great deal of time, and the second morning after the races saw them all completed and everything ready for an immediate start.\n\nAway we went, happy as kings, and like so many children, delighted with the holiday in prospect. The mule waggons rattled along at a tremendous pace down the steep road leading from Signal Hill to Newcastle; the dust rose in clouds and enveloped us in its choking veil, Kaffir dogs flew out from wayside kraals and barked defiance, while the inmates stared and grinned good-naturedly in answer to our salutations. Keeping Fort Amiel on our right, we crossed the drift over the river and skirted Newcastle in like manner. The heat was great, and our horses suffered a good deal, while we found ourselves frequently halting to refresh and water\nthem by the sides of every drift and stream over\nwhich we crossed. About twelve miles from\nNewcastle we turned off the road, and struck\nacross the Veldt in the direction of a curiously\nshaped hill which rose from the middle of a vast\nplain like a great pyramid, and near which we\nhoped to come across the hartebeest. We could\nnot, however, reach our final destination that day,\nand in consequence called a halt by the side of a\nclear sparkling river, into which, the moment they\nwere let loose, every mule and horse speedily found\nits way, drinking long and eagerly of the refresh\u00ad\ning beverage. The only drawback to camping\nby a river is the swarm of midges which at once\nassemble to annoy one as the sun goes down.\nThis occasion proved no exception to the general\nrule, and we were terribly teased and tormented\nby these tiresome little creatures. The following\nmorning we struck camp and continued on our\nway, still pointing for the Leo Kop. A lonely\nBoer farmhouse was the only thing we came\nacross that gave any indication of the presence of\nman, and a timely raid in search of eggs termi\u00ad\nnated successfully in our procuring some dozens\nof these fresh-laid delicacies. We found a good\ndeal of trouble in packing them to prevent break\u00ad\nage, and the basket containing them was event\u00ad\nSUCCESSFUL TRAVELLING.\n\nusually slung on to the waggon. As we were following no kind of track, we were frequently stopped by deep, treacherous-looking swamps and bogs, into which the waggons sank deeply; and in the joltings which ensued on the mules' endeavours to extricate their load, it was a perfect marvel to me how every egg was not smashed. Fortunately, however, each danger was successfully tided over, and we at length found ourselves on a smooth hard plain, with plenty of easy going. All obstacles being apparently overcome, we pointed out to our servants the distant position where we wished our camp laid out, and having seen them well on their way towards the spot, we separated for the time being, and spread ourselves out over the Veldt in different directions, taking with us a gun or a rifle in the hope of falling in with game of some sort, which might help to fill the pot and afford sport. I had been riding along for about half an hour without seeing anything, when the Basuto pony on which I was mounted suddenly shied at something concealed in the long grass. Frightened by the action of the pony, a lovely little gazelle-like antelope, not larger than a hare, immediately sprang to its feet, and, after staring at me with large dark eyes dilating with terror, turned and fled across the\nVeldt with quick graceful bounds. Poor little beast! it might have saved itself the trouble, and I regretted my inability to assure it of its complete safety from incurring any harm at my hands. To wander amidst wilds untainted by the stain of civilisation, to watch the ways and manners of the untamed denizens of these lonely scenes, to creep into close proximity to them unheard and unseen, must always possess for the wanderer and the lover of nature a strange charm. It is this very feeling that stirs the heart of the stalker and the sportsman, whose satisfied longing is not, however, satiated until, by the unequal power which he carries in his hand, he has destroyed and laid low that which a few minutes before had stood in all the beauty of life and enjoyment, harmless, unsuspecting, and helpless, but now the quivering victim of man's pleasure. As I rode along I could hear the frequent report of a gun which proceeded from the direction taken by my cousin, and far away to the westward I could at the same time distinguish several herds of hartebeest quietly grazing. I felt sure that Captain Sullivan would not fail to catch sight of them, and I found myself wondering what a nice steak of hartebeest would taste like, and picturing the dish being placed on the table\u2014all the\nwhile counting my chickens before they were hatched. In my conjecture that Captain Sullivan would be sure to see them I was, however, correct, for on riding over some rising ground I caught sight of him moving along under cover of a long low slope, with the evident intention of circumventing their grazing ground and coming upon them unawares. The herd had, however, winded something, and were on the alert, for I saw them moving still farther to the westward, keeping close together, and in the open ground rendering it difficult, if not impossible, to approach them unseen. I watched him for a short time, but, the operation growing tedious, I turned my pony's head in the direction of our camp. Some little white specks by the side of a long dark green line betokened where it lay, and thither I galloped at a good pace, arriving to find a busy scene of bustle and activity going on. Unsaddling my pony, he was quickly careering over the Veldt to join his wandering companions and the mules, who were regaling themselves some way off on the young green grass sprouting afresh from a patch of burnt land. I then turned to give a hand to the general tidying up of the camp; blankets were quickly unstrapped, and our sleeping-couches made up; a cheery fire was set\nblazing; mealies and oats ready placed for the mules and horses when they should be taken up for the night, and the clothing of the latter neatly arranged along the picketing lines. Before long the place had began to assume an air of cosy comfort, which I felt would not be lost upon the others when they returned. After a bit they began to appear one by one, but beyond some winged game nothing of much importance was contributed towards the pot, and the visions of hartebeest steak were, alas, still but dreams of the future! The anticipation of the morrow's sport, however, kept every one in capital spirits, and the dinner and evening that followed was pleasantly spent in discussing the various plans to be made, until the moon, shining brightly high up in the clear night sky, warned us that it was time to seek the couches where restlessness and sleeplessness were unknown.\n\nHardly had the sun risen on the following morning when I was aroused by the sound of a horse's tramp, and peering through an opening in my tent to learn the cause, I found that it was occasioned by the return of Fergusson, Captain Sullivan's servant, who had received orders overnight to proceed as far as the road drift over the Ingagane River, and there leave word with the\nhotel-keeper as to our whereabouts. This was done by previous agreement with the colonel of the 15th, and formed a point for communication should he by any chance require our immediate return. I could not but admire the promptitude with which this man had executed his orders, as the point in question lay some eight miles distant, in consequence of which he must have made at least two good hours' start before the sun rose. A closer and longer acquaintance proved him to be a most valuable servant. There were few things he could not put his hands to; and later on, when I had an opportunity of observing him on the march, the amount of work he seemed to get through was perfectly surprising. His good example in early rising found on this occasion willing imitators, for my own servant Tom, and Evelyn, soon made their appearance, and busied themselves feeding and grooming the horses\u2014the indefatigable Fergusson in the meanwhile having lit a fire and commenced the operation of scone-making. After a bit the others made their appearance, and went down to the water's side for a plunge, while I completed my own toilet in my tent. Ere they returned the whole place had been tidied up, and the table laid for breakfast, a meal for which we were all ready; and I leave\nmy readers to judge for themselves whether we fared badly or not in the enumeration of the following menu. There was hot coffee and tea to be had at will, bread and butter, scones, a beefsteak and potatoes, crisp bacon and eggs, with boiled eggs for those who wanted them. On these delicacies we made a hearty breakfast, and then turned our attention to the grand excitement of the day, the hartebeest drive.\n\nAway to the north-westward we could distinguish a large herd of these animals; and it was decided to send the servants round by a circuitous route so as to get behind them, and endeavour to drive them over a kind of low neck or pass on the eastern side of the Leo Kop, and along which a line of rocks running transversely would afford excellent cover for those lying in wait. Some discussion ensued as to whether we should take our horses or not, but it was finally decided to send them with the servants, who could bring them up as soon as they heard the report of the rifle; so everything being satisfactorily arranged, the three started off to place themselves, leaving me to see the drivers off as soon as I had given them necessary law. As soon as this was done I was to follow the course of the stream running south-\nwards, and, keeping under cover of some long grass, take up a position close to a hartebeest trail which had been discovered by Captain Sullivan on the previous day; so, having given final directions, and seen the men started on the job before them, I took my rifle and set out upon my way.\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nABUNDANT NATURE\u2014THE DOLCE FAR NIENTE\u2014WANDERING ANTELOPES\u2014A WOUNDED HARTBEEST\u2014A DISAPPOINTMENT\u2014SUCCESS\u2014AFTER LABOUR COMETH REST.\n\nThe course of the stream that I followed ran through a deep gully or cutting in the Veldt, so that in walking along I ran no risk of being seen by any animal on the plain above. Life seemed to abound in these regions, and the tiny steenbuck kept springing up in all directions, darting away with quick graceful bounds until they thought themselves out of danger, when, with the true instinct of the antelope, they would wheel round and follow me with curious and wondering eyes. At a bend in the stream I came across a lot of wild duck, and regretted the absence of a gun, which would have added so materially to the contents of the pot. They rose, quacking forth defiance and disdain on my rifle, and startling in their fishing operations two stately Mahaan birds who were standing by a deep sedgy pool, with\ntheir long necks half buried in the water. As I approached they extended their wings with slow and dignified caution, sailing away to other \"pastures new.\"\n\nIt was not long before I reached the spot where it had been arranged I should hide myself. I found the grass growing to a great height, and the place well adapted for a place of concealment. Creeping into the thick cover it afforded, I was soon extended at my ease, and prepared to await the results of the drive, which I knew must be yet some time before taking place, as, though the servants were mounted, they had a great deal of ground to get over. I congratulated myself on having fallen into such comfortable and luxurious quarters as I stretched myself on the soft grass and gave myself up to dreamy repose and the delights of the dolce far niente. The ripple of the stream close by struck on my ear with soothing melody, the hot sun shone down with tremendous power, and the drowsy effect produced thereby was to invite sleep and forgetfulness. I was very nearly becoming a victim to the surrounding influences, when some distant objects which appeared to be moving my way suddenly caught my eye. Crouching as close along the ground as possible, I parted the long\ngrass and cautiously peered through the opening. The animals, whatever they were, appeared to be making at a good pace straight for the place where I lay concealed, and were rapidly nearing the spot. As they approached I could make out that they were not hartebeest; and as we had agreed to confine ourselves that day to securing one of these animals, I judged it best to lay aside my rifle, which I was not sorry to do, and settled myself to watch these wandering gems of the Veldt free from the malicious intention to do grievous bodily harm.\n\nThey came steadily on, free from any kind of fear or apprehension; and as they drew near I was able to examine them more closely. A species of very beautiful, dark-coloured, dark-eyed antelope they appeared to me; and to this day I cannot class them, nor did I come across their species again during the whole of my wanderings in South Africa. An old bull was leading the herd, which consisted principally of the cows of his species and a few half-grown young. He appeared a most careful and solicitous pilot; for, on reaching the little incline which led down to the water's edge, he paused and looked round to see if everything was all right before trusting himself and family to the hollow\nbefore him. Finding the surrounding aspect clear of apparent danger, the bull, with a stamp of his right foot and a peculiar cry, trotted down to the water's edge, and soon the nostrils of the entire herd were deeply buried beneath the clear cool waters. They took a long time to slake their thirst, and from the avidity with which they drank it struck me that they must have been travelling long and far, and were probably mere birds of passage passing away from old haunts \u2014rendered insecure by the advance of civilisation \u2014to discover, farther north, fresh \"pastures new.\"\n\nI suppose I must have moved slightly in my posture of observation, for suddenly, with a startled snort, the bull wheeled round and confronted me. Immediately the cows and calves closed up together and clustered about his heels, while every eye was turned towards the spot where I lay concealed. Finding that I had been discovered, I rose from my crouching position and showed myself. The effect was interesting to watch, as the curiosity of the antelope for a moment overmastered his timidity, and he began to advance towards me. A slight movement of my hand was enough, however, to dispel the latent courage of the moment; and with a terrified snort he turned, and, driving the herd before him,\ndisappeared over the Veldt in the direction of our camp, leaving me once more to solitude and watchfulness.\n\nI returned to my place of concealment, having satisfied myself with one glance around that there were no hartebeest in sight; the excitement aroused by the past incident related tended to prevent any further desire for sleep, and the look-out I kept up was therefore more attentive. I had not long to wait, when the sudden report of a rifle put me altogether on the alert, and in a moment I was once more peering through the long grass that surrounded me. There sure enough they were!\u2014a large herd of hartebeest, galloping at full speed across a bit of open ground, affording me a splendid view of their movements. To my excited vision the whole herd appeared to be wounded, and I found myself picking them out right and left, making sure that first this one, then that one, was going on only three legs. In my delusion I was a good deal assisted by the lumbering gait of the animals, who to the uninitiated have every appearance of lameness when seen galloping from a distance. I am afraid that my over-curiosity and impatience to get a good view of them frustrated the chance that existed of their coming my way; indeed, the heads of the\nwhole herd at one time pointed in my direction, but something must have frightened them, for they bore away to the westward; and though they kept stopping, wheeling round, and looking back over the ground they had come, their point had evidently been made, from which danger could alone have headed them.\n\nWhile watching their slow flight across the uneven Veldt, I was surprised to see one of the hartebeests detach itself from the herd and come galloping in my direction. Occasionally it would pause, as if to rest itself, and then resume its slow canter. The stoppages became at last more and more frequent, and as the animal approached I could see that its fore-leg was broken. Seeing how badly the poor brute was hurt, I became all the more anxious to get a shot at it, and if possible end its sorrows; so, cautiously grasping my rifle, I wriggled myself into a sitting posture and awaited an opportunity to fire. Suddenly, and apparently for no rhyme or reason, the hartebeest swerved away to the left, and altered his course in such a manner that by the time he would get in a line with my rifle, the distance would make it a difficult and hazardous shot. I was at my wits' end what to do, and the fear of losing him filled me with dismay. To advance\nwas to show myself at once, and thus banish the last chance of getting near him; while, if I wished to make sure of the game, it was imperative that I should get forward a bit. In this dilemma I cast my eye round to see if there was no kind of cover under which I could reach a fresh position, when I noticed a slight fall in the ground not very far away. Without a moment's hesitation I lost no time in crawling on hands and knees to the place in question, which I found to be a kind of sloping bank running parallel with the position I had quitted. This was fortunate, and I started to run at full speed, keeping well under cover until reaching the end of the donga. I cautiously crept up its sides, and peered over a large rock or stone in search of my game. No position could have been better chosen: the hartebeest was barely three hundred yards away, and coming straight for me. I was fearfully excited, and either from this cause or from the exertion of running my hand positively trembled. As he advanced I was struck by the extraordinary formation of the animal's head, the eyes being very high in the forehead, and the great horns curling up and tapering backwards. This, with a long dark nose, gave him a strange and even ludicrous appearance, which made me laugh when I looked at him.\nHe came on slowly, frequently pausing to rest himself, so that I had ample time to compose myself and get into good position to shoot. I had arranged myself to my satisfaction, and had made up my mind to fire the very next time he should pause,\u2014I had even brought my rifle to my shoulder, so as to lose no time in doing the deed,\u2014when in the distance, and just in the line of fire, appeared five horsemen, who, immediately catching sight of the hartebeest, came galloping towards him at full speed. Of course under the circumstances it was impossible to fire, and, thoroughly disgusted at the turn affairs had taken, I no longer tried to conceal myself, but arose at once from my crouching posture. My appearance seemed greatly to astonish the animal, who, immediately on catching sight of me, came to a dead stop and confronted me with wondering eyes. It was a splendid opportunity for a shot, but I possessed not the confidence of William Tell, and, fearful lest I should miss, and thus jeopardise the lives of my companions, I was forced to remain inactive. How long the hartebeest would have retained his observant position I do not know, had his ear not detected the sound of the galloping horsemen. With a quick movement he turned and made observation of the\napproaching danger, which he doubtless thought he had escaped, and in another moment was disappearing over some rising ground, followed in hot pursuit by myself and the enemy which had so lately appeared. Though I got a good start of my companions, they being mounted soon caught me up and passed me, and I was left to struggle on over the rough uneven Veldt. I was, however, too excited to experience any fatigue, and quite forgot that the sun was burning with all the intensity of midday. Being very fit, as fast as I got blown a second\u2019s pause would bring me to again, and the farther I ran the more I felt the increasing easiness of my task. On breasting the rising ground over which the hartebeest had disappeared, I caught sight of the quarry and hunters about a quarter of a mile away. They had got close up to him, and my husband and cousin were in the act of springing from their horses. A minute later, and two blue puffs of smoke, followed by the reports of a rifle, told me that one of them had tried to arrest the further progress of the wounded animal. Whoever it was proved unsuccessful, for the hartebeest still continued to canter away, though now his movements were very slow and labouring. It was his last effort, however, and a third shot sent him\ntoppling head foremost to the ground, where shortly afterwards, arriving upon the scene, I found the coup de gr\u00e2ce had been given, and the animal was no more.\n\n\"Hartebeest steak to-night!\" called out my cousin triumphantly to me as I joined them, and we clustered round the dead beast with that pleasant feeling of success which all sportsmen and hunters will understand and share with me. It was a large full-grown cow in excellent condition, and the visions of untold feasts helped to multiply the satisfaction of the moment. But the animal had to be skinned, cut up, and the head secured for stuffing, eventually to become the property of my husband, whose shot he had been. While my companions occupied themselves with this task I sat down to rest, when, for the first time, I noticed that all the horses had disappeared with the exception of Captain Sullivan's. On looking round, there, true enough, they all were, quite a mile away, trotting back to camp. Mounting the only horse that remained, I set off in pursuit. As long as the animal confined itself to quietly galloping I did not find my seat so very insecure. Mounted sideways on a man's saddle is not, however, the most comfortable position in the world, and when the horse suddenly put his\nfoot into an ant-bear hole and came down on his head, I too lost my balance and imitated his example. The ground was very hard, and though I broke no bones I gave myself a good shaking. Rising, I ruefully proceeded to remount my steed, who appeared rather sheepish and knocked out of time himself; and, rendered wiser by our late experience, we were both more careful than we had hitherto been. When I came up with the straying horses they showed a strong disinclination to be brought back, and had it not been for the friendly interposition of the river, which helped to turn them from their course, I do not think that I should have been equal to the task of stopping them. One in particular evinced the most rebellious signs against being kept in order, flourishing his heels, neighing and galloping about in his wicked efforts to excite his companions and render them as unmanageable as himself; for I had no sooner collected them together and begun to drive them in the direction whence they had strayed, than Punch\u2014for so the pony was named\u2014would break away and behave in the manner I have described. The timely arrival of Fergusson on the scene assisted in a great measure to restore order, and we succeeded in driving the unwilling animals back to their masters. When I rode up\nI found that the hartebeest had been skinned, and the choicest morsels cut off. There remained nothing further to be done but to secure these trophies of our day's sport to the saddles, which we did not find such an easy task, as the meat had not been cut up in a very business-like manner, and the necessary sinews had been omitted.\n\nWhen everything was completed we mounted and rode slowly back to camp, discussing all along the occurrences of the day. The hartebeest drive had not produced the immense results which our morning dreams had anticipated; nevertheless we could not but congratulate ourselves on having secured at least one, and by no means dissatisfied with the result of our first attempt we returned in the highest spirits to camp. Plenty was there to be done on our arrival, and the cooks at once set to to prepare the soup and hartebeest steak for that night's dinner. Occupied one way and the other, the remainder of the afternoon sped quickly by, until the sun, setting behind the distant Leokop and far-off range of the mighty Drakensberg, warned us that the time was drawing near when labour ceaseth and rest and enjoyment come. We were soon seated in our snug tent discussing the merits of the result of our day's sport. Harte-\nbeest steak was pronounced excellent, tender as lamb, and very tasty. Having done justice to the excellent cooking of Fergusson, we handed the remains to the men; and while they ate their dinner round the cheery blaze of the camp fire, cards were produced in the tent, and whist occupied our undivided attention until bed time. What wonder if, in the dreams that visited our pillows that night, the hartebeest and ace of hearts danced strange attendance side by side, jumbling together in all the intricacies and marvels of Wonderland?\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nANOTHER SUCCESS\u2014AN ARDUOUS CLIMB\u2014A NATIVE LEV\u00c9E\u2014BAREBACKED RIDING\u2014A ROUGH NIGHT\u2014SURROUNDED BY FIRE\u2014DISCOMFORT\u2014AN AFTER-DINNER RIDE.\n\nThe rest of the week flew very quickly by. Each day was chiefly spent after the hartebeest, but our success was not brilliant, the wary animals proving very wild and difficult to approach. Captain Sullivan was fortunate, however, in securing one on the last day of our stay in those parts, and returned late that night on foot, having lost his horse, who had taken fright at the report of his rifle, and seized the opportunity to make off. Having spent the best part of an hour in fruitless efforts to catch him, Captain Sullivan thought it best while light yet remained to find his way back to the camp. Luckily Ferguson was with him, and the hartebeest was packed away on to the man's horse, besides a little steenbuck and a fine pow, which had also been bagged that day. The hartebeest proved to be a fine old bull, and\nhis head, the trophy of the successful stalker, was reserved for stuffing.\n\nI was up at break of day on the morning of our departure, and, saddling a pony before any one was stirring, rode off towards the Leokop with the intention of climbing to the summit to see the sun rise. On my way thither I startled in their morning's nap several old hartebeest bulls, who, after staring at me for a few seconds in petrified astonishment, made off as hard as they could go, doubtless wondering what strange apparition I was. A number of nasty spruits had to be crossed, but my pony was a sagacious animal, and we managed them in safety. A good deal of time was, however, lost at each place, and as I approached the Leokop the sun was already beginning to rise. All around the base of the mountain nestled amidst the long grass numberless little native kraals and villages. Cattle and goats occupied the laagers, and as the sun rose the former clamoured loudly for release; while the appearance of fresh smoke slowly rising from many of the kraals showed that the inhabitants were awake and stirring. I was astonished at the height and steepness of the mountain I had come to climb, distance having greatly deceived my calculation. In some places the grass grew\nhigh above my head, and soon the rugged nature of the ground obliged me to dismount. Tying my horse to a species of mountain ash, I turned to leave him, when a horrible coiling object suddenly raised itself up and hissed at me. I started back, recognising the deadly puff-adder in the animal before me, and hastened to place both myself and my horse in a more secure position. Choosing a spot where the grass grew shorter, I left him to graze in peace, and commenced the ascent of the Leokop. I have seldom had a more arduous or fatiguing occupation, and many a time felt tempted to turn back. Masses of disjointed rocks, whose sides were precipices in themselves, had to be scaled and descended in turn, while the dense underwood and thick high grass rendered progress exceedingly difficult. In endeavouring to cross a kind of chasm or cleft between two rocks, the branch to which I was clinging snapped in two, and before I could catch at another I found myself huddled up in hopeless confusion at the bottom of the crevice. Fortunately I was not hurt, and I at once proceeded to make inspection of my new position. I found myself in a kind of cave, the walls of which were overgrown with a beautiful kind of blue-flowered creeper. Little lizards darted about like so many glittering gems,\nand the spot was extremely lovely. But I felt uncomfortable, and found myself dreading the appearance of some venomous reptile, which might render my position both unpleasant and dangerous. Happily the blue creeper I have mentioned proved of the same strong texture as Jack found the beanstalk, and it was to its friendly offices as a ladder that I owed my escape from the prison into which I had fallen. The remainder of the ascent soon after this grew easier, and I was not sorry when the brushwood and rocks came to an end, and I found myself on green grass once more. The view obtained from the summit certainly repaid me for the exertions I had undergone, and the fresh exhilarating air soon refreshed and invigorated me. Far away below I could distinguish my horse still quietly feeding, and could not but admire the simple honesty of the many Kaffirs who kept passing that way between their kraals without an attempt to kidnap the animal. One of them stopped to look at him, and my heart beat for the result; but having satisfied his curiosity, this son of the Veldt, whose honesty I had done him the injustice to doubt, passed along as had the others, and I felt that any danger in that direction was illusory.\n\nStill farther away I could make out some little\nspecks close to the glancing waters of a green-lined stream, which I knew to be our tents; and some black moving objects in close proximity told me that my companions were on the move, and that these were the mules and horses released for their morning meal and drink. I was thereby warned that the time had come to think about returning, and having taken a last look at the magnificent panorama that lay around I proceeded to make the descent. This I found to be if possible more difficult than the ascent had been, and many a shave did I run that morning of being buried alive in unknown clefts, whose depths I was fortunately not forced to test. I confess I was not sorry to reach my horse, the riding boots in which I had performed the climb having severely suffered from the effects, so that walking was no longer a pleasure. A group of Kaffirs came, and gathered round me as I mounted my horse; and though I could not understand what they were saying, it was evident that my every movement caused them wonder, fear, and amusement, by turns. \"Good morning, Johnnies,\" said I, at which they burst into shrieks of laughter, the younger women nearly giggling themselves into fits, and deriving immense amusement from the fact of my having spoken. Though\nI confess I myself did not see the ludicrous side of the matter, I repeated my salutation, which was greeted with similar evidences of jocularity. Happening to have a piece of bread in my pocket, I held it out towards the group. A great deal of confabulation was the result, and some discussion seemed to be going on amongst the elder men. I put it to my mouth and bit off a little piece, which I proceeded to eat. This evidently satisfied them that treachery was not intended, for, with a long-drawn exclamation, one of the men advanced and took it from my hand. In a minute every one had had a bite of the precious morsel, and the delicacy was duly appreciated.\n\nAs I rode away, fresh exclamations of wonder broke out on all sides; and when I turned to look again after riding a little more than a mile, I could see the group still assembled and gazing after my retreating form. On reaching camp I found breakfast awaiting me; I leave it to my readers to imagine whether I did justice to it or not.\n\nWe experienced a great deal of trouble that morning in finding our mules and horses. I believe that the sagacious animals were aware of our intended departure, and preferred the sweet fresh grass of the uninhabited Veldt, to that burnt-\nKAFFIR WOMAN AND CHILD\nup apology for it at Newcastle. Our muleteers too were generally lazy, and declared they had searched everywhere for the missing animals, whereas in reality they had simply, as soon as out of sight, lain down to indulge in a smoke and siesta. On the old principle that if you want a thing done you must do it yourself, I started off to look for the mules. In my search I came across two of Captain Sullivan's horses reclining, in calm and provoking laziness, on some green burnt grass, in which they were indulging. Not in the best of humours, I soon had them on their legs, and, manufacturing an impromptu bridle out of the head-collar and ream on the horse's head, by the help of a friendly ant-heap I managed to scramble on to the back of my old friend of the first hartebeest hunt. His back was very slippery, and I found some difficulty in keeping my balance. In my efforts, my spur touched his side, and a tremendous buck was the result. Of course I at once met mother earth; but as I had slipped from the horse's back rather than fallen, I arose unhurt. At this juncture, and while leading the animal towards some neighbouring rocks, with the intention of remounting, I came across one of the muleteers stretched out under their shade fast asleep. He started up at the sound\nof the horse's tread, and appeared rather sheepish, offering no reply to my indignant remonstrances. Not two hundred yards away from the spot where he had lain down to rest, browsed, in a convenient and secluded hollow, the mules for which so much search had been made. I at once sent him to collect them, and though we worked hard we found it no easy matter to manage. The obstinate animals would not be driven towards the camp, and I believe would have entirely nonplussed us, but for the timely arrival of Captain Sullivan, who appeared leading a pony saddled for myself. Changing mounts, I found myself more at home, and with this timely and extra help we eventually managed to reduce the mules to obedience. This protracted delay, however, resulted in a late start, and we found ourselves compelled to camp that evening some ten or twelve miles outside Newcastle. On riding into the town the next day, we were informed that the 15th Hussars had moved camp to the Drakensberg, some eight or ten miles distant. Thither we followed, and came upon them in a very pretty but very uncomfortable position. The camp was pitched on a steep slope directly beneath the towering heights of tree-covered precipices, and the strong wind which blew off the upper Veldt of the\nDrakensberg rendered the putting up of tents a difficult matter, and the dust and general discomfort not small. It was late that night before we got everything into ship-shape order and neatness, without which camp life would be unbearable; but all through the night the wind blew and howled, and I had frequently to get up and hold the poles of the tent to keep it from falling. The 60th, who were also encamped close by, had many of their tents blown down, and some of the hussars' shared the same fate; so that we should have been proportionately grateful to our stout little Indian tent that so bravely withstood the hurricane. As the wind did not abate, the colonel of the 15th, on the third day, gave orders to strike tents and change the camp. We ourselves put off moving our own until the next day, as assistance from the regiment would be then more readily forthcoming.\n\nIt had grown dark, and I had paid my last visit to the horses for the night, when, standing outside one of the tents, a strange gleam of light shot up into the air, lighting up the mountains above with vivid distinctness. \"What's that?\" I called out to my servant, who was bending over the fire close by. 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+{"id": "8d5a5120c1e03f910d4ab4f285e9b5ef1c15b5f6", "text": "From Colour Separation (Mongrel, 1997).\nCourtesy of the artist.\nIntroduction: Race and/as Technology; or, How to Do Things to Race\n\nWendy Hui Kyong Chun\n\nFinal version published in:\nCamera Obscura 70, Volume 24, Number 1 doi\n10.1215/02705346-2008-013 \u00a9 2009 by Camera Obscura\na publication of Duke University Press\n\nThis special issue poses the questions: to what degree are race and technology intertwined? Can race be considered a technology or a form of media\u2014that is, not only a mechanism, but also a practical or industrial art? Could race be not simply an object of representation and portrayal, of knowledge or truth, but also a technique that one uses, even as one is used by it\u2014a carefully crafted, historically inflected system of tools, mediation, or enframing that builds history and identity?\n\n\u201cRace and/as technology\u201d is a strange, and hopefully estranging, formulation, but its peculiarity does not stem from its conjoining of race and technology. There already exists an important body of scholarship that simply addresses race and technology in science and technology, media and visual culture, and African American and ethnic studies, ranging, just to give some examples, from analyses documenting the resurgence of race as a valid scientific category to those tracing the historically intersecting truth claims of phrenology and photography, from investigations uncovering the centrality of data processing to the execution of the Holocaust to those analyzing the importance of raced images to mass-mediated consumer culture.\u00b9 These works have mapped the ways in which race and technology impact each other\u2019s logic and development, especially in relation to enterprises that\nseek to establish the truth of race as a scientific fact or as a cultural phenomenon.\n\nYet the consideration of race as technology brings even more questions forward. Crucially, race as technology shifts the focus from the what of race to the how of race, from knowing race to doing race by emphasizing the similarities between race and technology. Indeed, race as technology is a simile that posits a comparative equality or substitutability\u2014but not identity\u2014between the two terms. Race as technology, however, is not simply an example of a simile; it also exemplifies similes by encapsulating the larger logic of comparison that makes both race and similes possible. Race as technology reveals how race functions as the \u201cas,\u201d how it facilitates comparisons between entities classed as similar or dissimilar. This comparison of race and technology also displaces claims of race as either purely biological or purely cultural because technological mediation, which has been used to define humankind as such (\u201cman\u201d as a \u201ctool-using\u201d animal), is always already a mix of science, art, and culture. Humans and technology, as Bernard Stiegler has argued, evolve together. Race, it therefore follows, has never been simply biological or cultural; rather, it has been crucial to negotiating and establishing historically variable definitions of biology and culture. Thus, as the articles included in this special issue make clear, by framing questions of race and technology, as well as by reframing race as technology, in relation to modes of media naturalization, not only can we theoretically and historically better understand the force of race and technology and their relation to racism; we can also better respond to contemporary changes in the relationships between human and machine, human and animal, mediation and\nembodiment, nature and culture, visibility and invisibility, privacy and publicity.\n\nRace, in the biological and medical sciences, has returned as a new form of natural history, that is, as a means to track \u201cthe great human diaspora\u201d through mainly invisible (nonexpressed) genetic differences or as a way to weigh risk factors for certain diseases. As Jennifer Reardon has noted, these biological \u201cconfirmations\u201d have disturbed the post\u2013World War II, cross-disciplinary \u201cconsensus\u201d on the physical nonexistence of race, catching off guard many humanities scholars, whose critiques rested in part on \u201cscientific evidence.\u201d In response, some, such as the philosopher of science Lisa Gannett, have analyzed the ways in which race never left population science; similarly, some historians of science and medicine, such as Evelyn Hammonds, have highlighted the biases underpinning the use of current and historical race. Others, such as Henry Louis Gates Jr., have embraced DNA tracing to write a more comprehensive African American history, and still others, such as Paul Gilroy, have argued that these new biological categorizations, because they view the body from a nanological perspective from which race may exist but is not visible, defy the epidermal logic that has traditionally defined race and thus offer us an opportunity to shelve race altogether. That is, if race\u2014like media\u2014has involved linking what is visible to what is invisible\u2014then Gilroy argues that race, as an invisible entity, can no longer buttress its logic of revelation. This debate over the ontology of race is important, and this special issue seeks to supplement it with an analysis of race\u2019s utility, regardless of its alleged essence, suggesting how race itself has proven key to the modern concept of essence that is apparent in discourses of science and art, of education and entertainment, alike. Most important, understanding\nrace and/as technology enables us to frame the discussion around ethics rather than around ontology, on modes of recognition and relation, rather than on being.\n\nClustered around questions of the face, the articles in this special issue focus on how, through various media, we relate to, visualize, and recognize each other. They also reveal how race is used to construct connections between\u2014and indeed construct the very concepts of\u2014public and private, outside and inside. In addition to questioning the logic of revelation that drives both mainstream mass media and the epistemological value of race, they also explore the extent to which race and media can be used to make possible different configurations of visibility, of self and other. In what follows, I offer a historical and theoretical context for these interventions by outlining the ways in which race has been framed as both biology and culture, and how this dichotomy also relies on and is disturbed by race as technology. I further outline the stakes of this reconfiguration of race by considering the ways in which race can be considered a \u201csaving\u201d grace.\n\n**Making the Visible Innate**\n\nAt a certain level, the notion of race as technology seems obvious, for race historically has been a tool of subjugation. From Carl Linnaeus\u2019s eighteenth-century taxonomy of human races in *Systema naturae* to Charles Davenport\u2019s early twentieth-century \u201cdocumentation\u201d of the disastrous effects of miscegenation, from the horrors of the Holocaust to continuing debates over the innateness of intelligence, supposedly objective scientific categorizations of race have been employed to establish hierarchical differences between people, rendering some mere objects to be exploited, enslaved, measured, demeaned, and sometimes destroyed. In the US, racist theories maintained the contradiction at the\nheart of the nation\u2019s founding: that of all men being created equal and black slaves counting as three-fifths human (thus allowing them to be accounted for, but not themselves count). Even after emancipation, racist legislation and bureaucratic practices such as segregation, with its validation of discrimination in social and private spaces as \u201cnatural antipathies,\u201d maintained inequalities in a facially equal democratic system. Race in these circumstances was wielded \u2014and is still wielded\u2014as an invaluable mapping tool, a means by which origins and boundaries are simultaneously traced and constructed and through which the visible traces of the body are tied to allegedly innate invisible characteristics.\n\nRace as a mapping tool stems from its emergence as a scientific category in the eighteenth century, although it has consistently designated relations based on perceived commonalities. According to Bruce Dain, race first denoted a group of people connected by common descent (e.g., a noble house, family, kindred); then, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the era of exploration, it roughly corresponded to \u201cgeographical groups of people marked by supposedly common physical characteristics\u201d (e.g., the English race); lastly, in the eighteenth century, it designated all humankind (in distinction to animals), as well as the subspecies of Homo sapiens, such as *Homo sapiens asiaticus*; according to Linnaeus, a male of this subset is \u201cyellowish, melancholy, endowed with black hair and brown eyes . . . severe, conceited, and stingy. He puts on loose clothing. He is governed by opinion.\u201d\n\nAs science moved from eighteenth-century natural history, which based its species classifications on visible structures, to nineteenth-century science, which pursued the invisible processes of life itself, race became an even more important means by which the\nvisible and the invisible were linked.\\(^9\\)\n\nThe modern value of race stemmed from its ability to link somatic differences to innate physical and mental characteristics. According to Samira Kawash,\n\nIn this shift to a modern, biologized understanding of race, skin color becomes visible as a basis for determining the order of identities and differences and subsequently penetrates the body to become the truth of the self. . . . Race is on the skin, but skin is the sign of something deeper, something hidden in the invisible interior of the organism (as organic or ontological). To see racial difference is therefore to see the bodily sign of race but also to see more than this seeing, to see the interior difference it stands for.\\(^10\\)\n\nThis \u201cseeing\u201d of internal difference makes accidental characteristics essential, prescriptors rather than descriptors. In terms of US slavery, dark skin became the mark of the natural condition of slavery through which all kinds of external factors\u2014and the violence perpetrated on African slaves\u2014became naturalized and \u201cinnate.\u201d As Saidiya Hartmann has argued, \u201cthe wanton use of and the violence directed toward the black body come to be identified as its pleasures and dangers\u2014that is, the expectations of slave property are ontologized as the innate capabilities and inner feelings of the enslaved, and moreover, the ascription of excess and enjoyment to the African effaces the violence perpetrated against the enslaved.\u201d\\(^11\\) For many antiracists, then, the key to loosening the power of racism was (and still is) to denaturalize race, to loosen the connection between the bodily sign of race and what it signifies.\nThe US has a long history of this attempt at denaturing, from the work of radical abolitionists in the nineteenth century to that of cultural anthropologists in the twentieth. Frederick Douglass, in his commencement address at Western Reserve College in 1854, famously contended that similarities between the bodies of Irish workers and black slaves undermined theories of racial traits as inherent or natural. To Douglass, the congruence between the \u201cdeformed\u201d physical features of the American slave and the common Irish man revealed the importance of education and class to bodily form, and the accomplishments of many Irish thinkers (and implicitly of himself) testified to the potential of emancipated and educated slaves. For Douglass, racist arguments about the inherent inferiority of Africans were also a case of media bias, since they would always feature images of the \u201cbest\u201d Caucasians next to those of the most oppressed African slaves. Franz Boas also deployed arguments against \u201cnatural\u201d reasons for visible racial traits in the 1930s. Boas\u2019s work, which was key to transforming race from a biological to an anthropological category, argued against the innateness of both racial traits and racism. Challenging those who advocated racism as a form of natural selection, Boas contended that antagonism between closed social groups may be innate, but that what constituted a social group was not.\n\nAfter World War II and the public renunciation by many scientists of overtly racist science in various UNESCO statements, race as a cultural, rather than a biological, fact seemed universally accepted, and the \u201ctwo cultures\u201d of the sciences and the humanities cemented together around this common understanding. Indeed, many humanists in the late twentieth century rested their own critique of race as ideological on scientific definitions of race. Henry Louis Gates Jr., for\ninstance, argued:\n\nRace has become a trope of ultimate, irreducible difference between cultures, linguistics groups, or adherents of specific belief systems which\u2014more often than not\u2014also have fundamentally opposed economic interests. Race is the ultimate trope of difference because it is so very arbitrary in its difference. The biological criteria used to determine \u201cdifference\u201d in sex simply do not hold when applied to \u201crace.\u201d Yet we carelessly use language in such a way as to will this sense of natural difference into our formulations.\\(^1\\)\n\nBy calling race a careless use of language, Gates implies that the problem of racism (which stems from race) could be fixed by a more careful use of language. Racism, in other words, stemmed from faulty media representations, and thus the best way to combat it was to offer more realist portrayals of \u201craced others\u201d and to produce media critiques that exposed the fallacies of racial thinking.\n\nAs mentioned previously, the resurgence of the category of race in science and medicine has troubled this position, which rests, as Reardon notes, on a separation between what are evaluated as \u201cideological\u201d and \u201ctrue\u201d scientific statements\u2014a separation that work across media and cultural studies has repeatedly emphasized is impossible.\\(^2\\) Even more damning, despite the good intentions behind the reformulation, the conceptualization of race as culture has created no fewer social divisions than the notion of race as biology. Racist arguments have adeptly substituted culture for nature, creating what Etienne Balibar has called \u201cneo-racism.\u201d\\(^3\\) For instance, as Anne Anlin Cheng has pointed out, the psychological evidence used\nin *Brown v. Board of Education*\u2014the \u201cdoll test,\u201d which was pivotal to the juridical overturning of segregation in schools\u2014is now used to justify segregation as granting \u201cblack children the opportunity to develop a stronger, \u2018healthier,\u2019 more independent black identity.\u201d\\(^1\\) Rather than the abatement of racism and raced images after World War II, we have witnessed their proliferation. As Toni Morrison notes:\n\nRace has become metaphorical\u2014a way of referring to and disguising forces, events, classes, and expressions of social decay and economic division far more threatening to the body politic than biological \u201crace\u201d ever was. Expensively kept, economically unsound, a spurious and useless political asset in election campaigns, racism is as healthy today as it was during the Enlightenment. It seems that it has a utility far beyond economy, beyond the sequestering of classes from one another, and has assumed a metaphorical life so completely embedded in daily discourse that it is perhaps more necessary and more on display than ever before.\\(^2\\)\n\nAlthough Morrison here argues that race has become metaphorical, it is important to note the ways in which race, cultural or biological, acts as a trope. Even when understood as biological, race was not simply indexical, but rather still served as a sign, as a form of mediation, as a vehicle for revelation.\n\n**On the Limits of Culture**\n\nRace, either conceived as biology or as culture, organizes social relationships and turns the body into a signifier. Michael Omi and Howard Winant have\ninfluentially argued that race is \u201ca fundamental organizing principle of social relationships,\u201d and they have used the term \u201cracial formation\u201d to refer to the process by which social, economic and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories, and by which they are in turn shaped by racial meanings\u201d (61\u201362). Race, like media, is also a heuristic, a way to understand, to reveal, the world around us. To return to Kawash\u2019s argument regarding skin color:\n\nThe modern conception of racial identity maintains an uneasy relation to the visual; the visible marks of the racialized body are only signs of a deeper, interior difference, and yet those visible marks are the only differences that can be observed. The body is the sign of a difference that exceeds the body. The modern concept of race is therefore predicated on an epistemology of visibility, but the visible becomes an insufficient guarantee of knowledge. As a result, the possibility of a gap opens up between what the body says and what the body means.\n\nBy linking outside to inside in an effort to make the body transparent, the body becomes a signifier: by creating a gap between what one sees and what one knows, racial markers are placed in an ever-shifting chain of signification.\n\nCrucially, this gap between what the body says and what the body is taken to mean underlies the force of racism. As Ann Laura Stoler has argued, racism\u2019s force lies in the productive tension between the somatic and the essential. Reflecting on how racial discourse slips between discussions of somatic and visual difference and notions of inner, essential\nqualities, Stoler argues:\n\nThe ambiguity of those sets of relationships between the somatic and the inner self, the phenotype and the genotype, pigment shade and psychological sensibility are not slips in, or obstacles to, racial thinking but rather conditions for its proliferation and possibility. . . . The force of racisms is not found in the alleged fixity of visual knowledge, nor on essentialism itself, but on the malleability of the criteria of psychological dispositions and moral sensibilities that the visual could neither definitively secure nor explain.21\n\nRacial discourse has always been polyvalently mobile and capable of thriving in the face of uncertainty. Race as biology and race as culture are similarly mobile and flexible technologies. Focusing on race as a technology, as mediation, thus allows us to see the continuing function of race, regardless of its essence. It also highlights the fact that race has never been simply biological or cultural, but rather a means by which both are established and negotiated.\n\nCreating Differences: Eugenics and Segregation\nLike technology, race has never been merely cultural or biological, social or scientific. Indeed, the strict conceptual separation of culture from biology \u2014 nurture from nature, development from transmission \u2014 is a fairly recent phenomenon, stemming from the acceptance of Mendelian genetics. Focusing on US eugenics and segregation in the twentieth century as technologies of difference, this section outlines how accepting race as biology also makes race\nRace did not simply move from a biological to a cultural concept. The early \u201cmixed\u201d nature of notions of race is evident in Linnaeus\u2019s foundational description of the male variant of *Homo sapiens asiaticus* cited earlier: \u201cYellowish, melancholy, endowed with black hair and brown eyes . . . severe, conceited, and stingy. He puts on loose clothing. He is governed by opinion.\u201d This description treats interchangeably visible physical traits (\u201cyellowish\u201d), psychological characteristics (\u201cmelancholy\u201d), and cultural traditions (\u201cloose clothing\u201d). Similarly, Thomas Jefferson, writing in the eighteenth century, argued against incorporating African slaves into the nation, using a mix of both historical and natural reasons. Even in the nineteenth century, race was seen as encompassing both cultural and biological transmission. As George W. Stocking Jr. has argued, the terms *race* and *nation* differed not by nature but by degree, since both intersected with questions of \u201cblood.\u201d Both environmentalists and extreme hereditarians, that is, \u201cstarted from the same inclusive idea of race as an integrated physical, linguistic, and cultural totality. Furthermore, because science\u2014to paraphrase a number of contemporary social scientists\u2014no longer separated the phenomena of the body from those of the mind, both hereditarians and environmentalists tended to assume that racial mental differences were related to racial physical differences\u201d (15). The clear separation of biology from culture and transmission from development stemmed from Mendelian genetics\u2019 strict separation of germ from somatic cells. This emphasis on the chromosomes as unchanging from generation to generation both made possible and relied on a belief in unchanging \u201ceternal\u201d features, many of which were racialized.\n\nThe premise of eugenics\u2014which seemingly\ndefined race as biological\u2014was the breedability of the human species. Charles Davenport, the father of US eugenics, argued in *Heredity in Relation to Eugenics*, his textbook on eugenics:\n\nEugenics is the science of the improvement of the human race by better breeding or, as the late Sir Francis Galton expressed it:\u2014\u201cThe science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race.\u201d The eugenical standpoint is that of the agriculturalist who, while recognizing the value of culture, believes that permanent advance is to be made only by securing the best \u201cblood.\u201d Man is an organism\u2014an animal; and the laws of improvement of corn and of race horses hold true for him also. Unless people accept this simple truth and let it influence marriage selection human progress will cease.26\n\nThis notion of traits in the blood, which can be manipulated through proper breeding, places eugenics within what Michel Foucault has called an \u201canalytics of sexuality.\u201d27 The term *breeding* exemplifies human races as technologically manipulable, while also muddying the boundary between culture and biology, human and animal. Agriculture, Davenport\u2019s favorite metaphor\u2014\u201cthe human babies born each year,\u201d he writes, \u201cconstitute the world\u2019s most valuable crop\u201d\u2014nicely encapsulates the intertwining of the natural and the cultivated that is necessary to human civilization.28 Eugenics is necessary because biology is not enough. Davenport\u2019s work also exemplifies the difficulty of separating the natural from the cultivated: in the end, he argued that any \u201ccharacteristic,\u201d such as vagrancy, evident in more than one generation, is transmitted through blood. Although Davenport\u2019s work is now considered ideologically corrupt, race and breeding are still intertwined in more modern understandings of race. According to modern\npopulation genetics, a human race is a \u201cbreeding population\u201d marked by certain gene frequencies. However, as the history of segregation and antimiscegenation legislation in the US makes clear, breeding populations, if they exist, are never simply natural but rather result from a complex negotiation between culture, society, and biology. Importantly, segregation was a response to failures of biological theories of the innate physical degeneracy of mulattos and Africans. It was also a response to the \u201cconfusion\u201d brought about by emancipation. As Hartmann argues:\n\nThe conception of race engendered by slavery and abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment made \u201cblack\u201d virtually synonymous with \u201cslave\u201d and \u201cwhite\u201d with \u201cfree.\u201d . . . Now that race no longer defined status, classificatory schemes were required to maintain these lines of division. The effort to maintain the color line, or, properly speaking, black subordination involved securing the division between the races and controlling the freed population. Central to this effort was the codification of race, which focused primarily on defining and containing blackness.\n\nThis codification\u2014especially its \u201cone-drop\u201d formulation\u2014widened the gap between what the body says and what it means, since it became increasingly difficult to read the signifier, let alone the signification.\n\nSegregation is an important US racial technology, a clarifying spatial mapping that creates stark racial differences where none necessarily exist. As Grace Elizabeth Hale has argued, \u201cwhites created the culture of segregation in large part to counter black success, to\nmake a myth of absolute racial difference, to stop the rising.\u201d Segregation made \u201crace dependent on space, and the color bar became less a line than the ground on which southern people were allowed to drink and buy and stand\u201d (228). Segregation, importantly, did not only map space but was also a reaction to the transgression of space brought about by modern technologies, such as trains. It fought mobility with immobility. Hale, analyzing the importance of segregation on trains, argues:\n\nFor southern whites, however, more was at stake than comfortable plushy cushions and clean-carpeted aisles. Whiteness itself was being defined in late nineteenth-century first class train cars. When middle class-blacks entered the semi-public space of railroads, they placed their better attire and manners in direct juxtaposition with whites\u2019 own class signifiers. Because many whites found it difficult to imagine African Americans as anything other than poor and uneducated, finely dressed blacks riding in first-class cars attracted their particular ire. . . . Greater mobility made the poorest whites more visible to the rising white middle class as well. . . . Class and race, then, became more visibly unhinged as railroads disrupted local isolation. Confusion reigned. (128\u201329)\n\nRacist technologies thus sought to make clear distinctions in society where none necessarily existed. Segregation and eugenics are thus examples of what Foucault has called modern racism, a racism fostered to allow states, which are supposedly dedicated to the social welfare of their populations, to exercise sovereign power\u2014that is, to punish and destroy.\n\u201cRacism,\u201d he writes, \u201cis bound up with the workings of a State that is obliged to use race, the elimination of races and the purification of the race, to exercise its sovereign power. The juxtaposition of\u2014or the way biopower functions through\u2014the old sovereign power of life and death implies the workings, the introduction and activation, of racism.\u201d\\textsuperscript{34}\nImportantly, though, for Foucault, modern racism did not simply apply to those who were subjugated. Extrapolating from Nazism, he argues that race wars became \u201ca way of regenerating one\u2019s own race. As more and more of our number die, the race to which we belong will become all the purer\u201d (257). In terms of an analytics of sexuality, eugenics too applies to everyone: Davenport\u2019s eugenics textbook, for instance, is directed at those middle-class readers who want to know \u201chow to fall in love intelligently.\u201d\n\nEugenics redefined all humans as the carriers of eternal characteristics, making the base unit not the human but the trait. Racism renders everyone into a standing reserve of genes to be stored and transmitted.\n\n**Mimicking Standing Reserves**\n\nAccording to Martin Heidegger in his 1955 \u201cThe Question Concerning Technology,\u201d the essence of technology is not technological. Indeed, by examining tools, we miss what is essential about technology, which is its mode of revealing or \u201cenframing.\u201d This mode of revealing, he argues, \u201cputs to nature the unreasonable demand that it supply energy that can be extracted and stored as such\u201d; once transformed into energy, it is also transmitted and circulated.\n\nTechnology changes the nature of essence as such, making what is essential that which endures rather than its generic type, and it shrinks causality from the rich fourfold system discussed by Aristotle (comprising a material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause) to one mode: \u201cA reporting \u2014 a reporting challenged forth \u2014 of standing-reserves that must be guaranteed either simultaneously or in sequence\u201d (23). Most damningly, enframing endangers man by rendering man himself a standing reserve:\nAs soon as what is unconcealed no longer concerns man even as object, but does so, rather, exclusively as standing-reserve, and man in the midst of objectlessness is nothing but the order of the standing reserve, then he comes to the brink of a precipitous fall; that is, he comes to the point where he himself will have to be taken as standing-reserve. Meanwhile man, precisely as the one so threatened, exalts himself to the posture of lord of the earth. In this way the impression comes to prevail that everything man encounters exists only insofar as it is his construct. This illusion gives rise to one final delusion: It seems as though man everywhere and always encounters only himself. . . . *In truth, however, precisely nowhere does man today any longer encounter himself.* (27)\n\nThis endangerment, though, is not only a misrecognition and a reduction of man to a standing and circulating source of energy; it also makes it impossible for him to conceive of another kind of revealing, since it \u201cconceals that revealing which, in the sense of *poieses*, lets what presences come forth into appearance\u201d (27). *Poieses*, art, enables a revelation that does not reduce nature into a standing reserve, but rather lets it stand against man as an object.\n\nThe resonances between Heidegger\u2019s post\u2013World War II reflections on the dangers of technology and analyses of race and racism are profound and perhaps not surprising given Heidegger\u2019s involvement with national socialism. In a 1949 lecture on technology, Heidegger argued, \u201cagriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing as blockades and the reduction of\ncountries to famine, the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.\u201d The national socialist program reduced all humans to standing reserves: some to be destroyed, others to be optimized and made more productive. Intentionally or unintentionally, Heidegger\u2019s discussion of the experience of the human as not even an object also resonates with the historical experience of people of color. Hortense Spillers, writing on the situation of slaves in the Middle Passage, argues, \u201cunder these conditions, one is neither female, nor male, as both subjects are taken into \u2018account\u2019 as quantities.\u201d During this period, she argues, the captives are unmade culturally. The pain of nonrecognition, which makes one neither object nor subject, has also been eloquently enunciated by Frantz Fanon:\n\nI came into the world imbued with the will to find a meaning in things, my spirit filled with the desire to attain to the source of the world, and then I found that I was an object in the midst of other objects.\n\nSealed into that crushing objecthood, I turned beseechingly to others. Their attention was a liberation, running over my body suddenly abraded into nonbeing, endowing me once more with an agility that I had thought lost, and by taking me out of the world, restoring me to it. But just as I reached the other side, I stumbled, and the movements, the attitudes, the glances of the other fixed me there, in the sense in which a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. I was indignant; I demanded an explanation. Nothing happened. I burst apart.\n\nIn addition, race understood as a set of visible or\ninvisible genetic characteristics is a mode of revealing that renders everyone into a set of traits that are stored and transmitted; race is then seen as what allows the human to endure through time as a set of unchanging characteristics.\n\nYet crucially, for Heidegger, understanding the essence of technology also makes salvation possible: although enframing conceals *poieses*, it also makes *poieses* a saving power. \u201cBecause the essence of technology is nothing technological,\u201d he writes, \u201cessential reflection upon technology and decisive confrontation with it must happen in a realm that is, on the one hand, akin to the essence of technology and, on the other, fundamentally different from it. Such a realm is art.\u201d\n\nAccording to Heidegger, *poieses* \u201cbrings forth truth into the splendor of radiant appearing\u201d (34). Similarly, Fanon writes: \u201cThe crippled veteran of the Pacific war says to my brother, \u2018Resign yourself to your color the way I got used to my stump; we\u2019re both victims.\u2019 Nevertheless with all my strength I refuse to accept that amputation. I feel in myself a soul as immense as the world, truly a soul as deep as the deepest of rivers, my chest has the power to expand without limit.\u201d\n\nThus the question becomes: To what extent can ruminating on race as technology make possible race as *poieses*, or at least as a form of agency? Can race become a different mode of creation or revealing? Race has historically enabled subversive action. Homi Bhabha, for instance, has influentially argued that colonial mimicry\u2014the mimicking of the colonizers by the colonized, demanded by the colonizers\u2014\u201cis at once resemblance and menace.\u201d\n\nUnderstood as something that is repeatedly performed, race, like gender, opens up the space of parody and agency. Intriguingly, Fanon describes his strength in terms that trouble the boundary between nature and human: his soul as \u201cdeep as the\ndeepest rivers.\u201d This simile suggests an embracing of factors not usually considered human. That is, if race as technology does make it possible to expand without limit, could this power stem not from asserting the difference between humans and technology, technology and poieses, but rather from an acceptance of their similarities through race as prosthesis?\n\nDonna Haraway has influentially argued that we must embrace the breakdown in boundaries between human and animal, natural and artificial, mediation and embodiment. According to Haraway, \u201clate twentieth-century machines have made thoroughly ambiguous the difference between natural and artificial, mind and body, self-developing and externally designed, and many other distinctions that used to apply to organisms and machines.\u201d Rather than condemning this situation, as does Heidegger, she argues for the cyborg as a utopian figure precisely because it reworks nature and culture so that \u201cthe one can no longer be the resource for appropriation or incorporation by the other. The relationships for forming wholes from parts, including those of polarity and hierarchical domination, are at issue in the cyborg world. . . . The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust\u201d (151). As she notes, however, \u201cthe main trouble with cyborgs . . . is that they are the illegitimate offspring of militarism and patriarchal capitalism, not to mention state socialism\u201d (151). Thus, in dealing with cyborgs, one must always see things doubly and \u201csee from both perspectives at once because each reveals both dominations and possibilities unimaginable from the other vantage point\u201d (154).\n\nThis question of seeing doubly\u2014and indeed the act of seeing more generally, especially as filtered through both race and mass media\u2014is taken up by the authors in this special issue. They examine race as both\nthe imposition of a grid of control and as a lived social reality in which kinship with technology can be embraced. And most important, as previously noted, they frame this question of race and/as technology in terms of ethics. Race, for these authors, is fundamentally a question of relation, of an encounter, a recognition, that enables certain actions and bars others.\n\n**Face-ing Public Exposure**\n\nThis special issue pursues race and/as technology by analyzing a wide range of phenomena: from the production of photographic evidence to digital art practices, from the rise of the raced brand image in advertising to the emergence of the generic Asian terrorist in terror TV, from science fiction to legal cases and political speeches. Focused on the intersections of facial and racial recognition, it addresses the ways in which race constructs relations between self and other, private and public, visibility and invisibility. These articles argue that race, like one\u2019s face, is not simply a private possession or technology\u2014it is not a usually hidden \u201ccard\u201d that one can choose to \u201cplay\u201d publicly, but rather exists at the cusp between the public and the private, the visible and the invisible. As Jennifer Gonz\u00e1lez argues in \u201cThe Face and the Public: Race, Secrecy, and Digital Art Practice,\u201d \u201crace is . . . a relation of public encounter,\u201d or, as Eden Osucha contends in \u201cThe Whiteness of Privacy: Race, Media, Law,\u201d mass media are technologies of racialization, and the legal right to privacy is a response to this racialized, mediatized publicity. The other articles in this issue\u2014Lisa Nakamura\u2019s \u201cInterfaces of Identity: Oriental Traitors and Telematic Profiling in 24,\u201d Thomas Foster\u2019s \u201cFaceblindness, Visual Pleasure, and Racial Recognition: Ethnicity and Technicity in Ted Chiang\u2019s \u2018Liking What You See: A Documentary,\u2019 \u201d and Beth Coleman\u2019s \u201cRace as Technology\u201d \u2014further investigate\nthe relationship between media and race, publicity and privacy, cultural forms and embodied experience by examining the interrelationship between technical and racial productions.\n\nIn her essay, Gonz\u00e1lez addresses the limitations of seeing technoculture as an ideal public sphere through insightful critiques of contemporary new media theory and digital art. Starting with the contradiction between the \u201cdesire to see online digital spaces as sites of universal subjectivity that can escape the limitations of race\u201d and the \u201cproliferation of racially marked avatars and experimental hybrids (human and nonhuman),\u201d she argues that both positions reduce cultural and racial difference to the domain of visual signs in order to construct digital space as one free of aggression, exclusion, and invisibility. Taking on Mark Hansen\u2019s analysis of Keith Piper\u2019s work as revealing the corrupt emptiness of images and racial identifications in a capitalist system, and thus enabling what Giorgio Agamben has called \u201ccommunity beyond identity,\u201d Gonz\u00e1lez argues that Piper\u2019s work instead reveals how racial discourses elicit complex affective and embodied identifications. It is precisely because race is an embodied discourse that raced others cannot participate in community without identity, for, according to Agamben, community without identity is possible only if humans become a \u201cwhatever face\u201d: \u201cif humans could, that is, not be-thus in this or that particular biography, but be only the thus, their singular exteriority and their face, then they would for the first time enter into a community without presuppositions and without subjects, into a communication without the incommunicable.\u201d This position, however, is impossible for \u201craced\u201d others precisely because they are reduced by others to their face, although this does not mean that the face cannot produce ethical encounters.\nIndeed, Gonz\u00e1lez turns to Emmanuel Levinas\u2019s theorization of the face to argue that it can make legible the absolute infinity of the other. In addition, rather than construct the digital as somehow outside commodified images, she investigates, through the work of digital artists Ken Obadake and Mongrel, how \u201cvisual culture (both online and off) is the very place where contemporary race discourse might be most powerfully critiqued and transformed.\u201d Most provocatively, Gonz\u00e1lez concludes by redressing the question of the paradoxical erasure and proliferation of race online by positing race as the secret fundamental to the ongoing conflation of technoculture with the ideal public sphere. As she argues, \u201crace and other forms of cultural difference have been historically presented as secret unknowns that require definition, mapping, measuring, and legislating by those in power to render them public.\u201d\n\nOsucha also links races and faces as sites of exposure through an insightful analysis of the mass-mediated and commodified faces of two women: Nancy Green, the first model for the mass-produced Aunt Jemima pancake mix, and Abigail Roberson, the \u201canti-Jemima,\u201d an upper-class white woman whose image was used, against her wishes, to advertise flour. Looking at the historical emergence of privacy as a right, most famously articulated by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis in \u201cThe Right to Privacy,\u201d Osucha argues that media publicity constitutes a technology of racialization. That is, the right to privacy, conceptualized as a property right in the self, emerged in response to the invasion of the domestic sphere by new visual technologies and media, an invasion that threatened to expose and \u201csell\u201d all individuals as African Americans had historically been exposed and sold. She writes, \u201cThe specter of injury to privacy that haunts \u2018The Right to Privacy\u2019 and Roberson and the\nlaws that followed in its wake thus finds more concrete expression in the media depictions of people of color in that era, images generically shaped by abjecting and frequently grotesque racial stereotype.\u201d Focusing like Gonz\u00e1lez on race and commodification, Osucha emphasizes the historical dimensions behind this commodification. The right to privacy is inextricably linked to the construction of whiteness as inviolable and, in contrast, of other bodies as \u201cnatural\u201d objects of visual consumption. Osucha\u2019s analysis therefore reveals that the threat\u2014or, conversely, what we might call the democratic potential\u2014of mass media lies in the ways in which they threaten to racialize, to expose, everyone.\n\nSimilarly addressing questions of race and publicity, Nakamura reveals how, after 9/11, the threat of raced others has been used to deny everyone\u2019s right to privacy. In the landscape of terror TV, every face can and must be scanned so that the truth can emerge and the foreign terrorist in the nation be exposed. Examining the television series 24 in relation to face recognition technologies more broadly, Nakamura argues, \u201cthe horror of witnessing torture perpetrated both by and on American bodies, as well as the destruction of urban infrastructures in the US, is paired with the spectacle of the digital sublime in the form of advanced telecommunication technologies that perform the work of remote sensing and the identification of bodies and especially of faces.\u201d That is, \u201cthe problem of correctly identifying the true and loyal \u2018American,\u2019 as opposed to the concealed Islamic fanatic, can only be solved by the deployment of highly advanced, spectacular surveillance and identification technologies, such as aerial and satellite photography, FRS [facial recognition systems], biometrics, frame enhancement technology, infrared visioning systems, and extensive databases and \u2018traces\u2019 of informational network traffic.\u201d In terms of the \u201cwatchful eye\u201d of facial recognition\ntechnology and the larger security society it supports, the ideal is to deny the mystery of every face\u2014the basis for Levinas\u2019s concept of ethics\u2014and to render all of them into completely knowable entities. Importantly, this making of the face completely knowable also racializes the terrorist as Asian and Asian American. Terror TV justifies racist stereotyping by representing \u201cboth West Asians and East Asians as spies, permanent aliens whose loyalties are always in doubt\u201d; the technologies used on these shows thus seem to reveal the rightness of racial profiling. Once again, race becomes the open secret that must be exposed.\n\nFoster also addresses questions of what it means publicly to recognize a face through a science fiction story by Ted Chiang and through new media and its theory. A highlight of Foster\u2019s article is an investigation of how nature and culture are being reformulated within technoculture, a process encapsulated by what he calls \u201ctechnicity.\u201d Foster specifically focuses on how \u201cprocesses of visual recognition and response are being reconceptualized in some technoculture contexts,\u201d so that \u201ctoday, this technical manipulability seems to be increasingly relocated to the level of the viewers\u2019 cognitive architectures and mental processes, understood as scientifically material, physically identifiable, and therefore open to change rather than reified or eternalized.\u201d Rather than nature and culture simply changing places, though, Foster argues that Chiang\u2019s \u201cLiking What You See: A Documentary\u201d reveals that the \u201cbreakdown in traditional conceptual distinctions between nature and culture, biological givens and social constructs, might also represent an opportunity to move beyond the impasse of these dichotomies to an understanding of the natural environment, including our own bodies, as something other than a constraint and to a recognition of our technology as something other than a neutral instrument or extension of our conscious\nwill.\u201d In particular, it is through this story\u2019s representation of the perception and recognition of racial features\u2014which are first classed as \u201cjust cultural,\u201d but then shown to intersect biology and culture in interesting ways\u2014that a new form of technoscientific hybridity emerges.\n\nFinally, these questions of hybridity and of the possibilities of technology are taken up in Coleman\u2019s piece. The proposition of race as technology, she argues, \u201cmoves race away from the biological and genetic systems that have historically dominated its definition, toward questions of technological agency\u201d; that is, it moves race from an object to a technique. Drawing from a wide range of theories of technology and race, she addresses examples of both theorizations and enactments of race as technology that span philosophical texts and political speeches, cinema practice and film criticism, art and science. They include Barack Obama\u2019s 2008 speech on race in Pennsylvania, the film The Battle of Algiers, recent debates on genomics, and James Snead\u2019s theory of blackness as repetition. Acknowledging that the construction of race as technology can be used for good or evil, Coleman nonetheless argues that \u201crace as technology . . . moves toward an aesthetic category of human being, where mutability of identity, reach of individual agency, and the conditions of the culture all influence each other.\u201d That is, \u201cif race as we know it is an \u2018algorithm\u2019 inherited from the age of Enlightenment, reprogramming its function from inheritance (a form of destiny) to insurrection provides the possibility of new formulations.\u201d This is because the pronounced quality of race, Coleman finds, is its immateriality, \u201cits speed of change, its sliding value, its apparent and invisible differences.\u201d Coleman, like Foster, thus also investigates the extent to which modes of racial recognition allow us to address changes to visuality\nbrought about by new technologies and by varied media forms.\n\nRace as technology thus problematizes the usual modes of visualization and revelation, while at the same time making possible new modes of agency and causality. Importantly, it displaces ontological questions of race\u2014debates over what race really is and is not, focused on discerning the difference between ideology and truth\u2014with ethical ones: what relations does race set up? The formulation of race as technology also opens up the possibility that, although the idea and the experience of race has been used for racist ends, the best way to fight racism might not be to deny the existence of race but to make race do different things. Crucially, however, this is not simply a private decision, since race has proven key to the definition of the private and the public as such. To reformulate race, we need also to reframe nature and culture, privacy and publicity, self and collective, media and society.\n\nNotes\n\n\n3 See Reardon, *Race to the Finish*.\n\n\n8. Michel Foucault, *The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences*, trans. Alan Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1971); and\n\n\n12. Relaying his experience of speaking on temperance before \u201cthe common people of Ireland,\u201d Douglass stated: \u201cNever did human faces tell a sadder tale. More than five thousand were assembled; and I say, with no wish to wound the feelings of any Irishman, that these people lacked only a black skin and woolly hair, to complete their likeness to the plantation negro. The open, uneducated mouth\u2014the long, gaunt arm\u2014the badly formed foot and ankle\u2014the shuffling gait\u2014the retreating forehead and vacant expression\u2014and, their petty quarrels and fights\u2014all reminded me of the plantation, and my own cruelly abused people. Yet, that is the land of GRATTAN, of CURRAN, of O\u2019CONNELL, and of SHERIDAN . . . The Irishman educated, is a model gentleman; the Irishman ignorant and degraded, compares in form and feature, with the negro!\u201d (Douglass, *The Claims of the Negro: An Address, before the Literary Societies of Western Reserve College, at Commencement, July 12, 1854* [Rochester, NY: Lee, Mann, 1854], 30).\n\n13. Responding to arguments that racism was key to the evolution of the species, Boas contended: \u201cI challenge him [Sir Arthur Keith] to prove that race antipathy is \u2018implanted by nature\u2019 and not the effect of social causes which are active in every closed social group, no matter whether it is racially heterogeneous or homogeneous.\nThe complete lack of sexual antipathy, the weakening of race consciousness in communities in which children grow up as an almost homogeneous group; the occurrence of equally strong antipathies between denominational groups, or between social strata\u2014as witnessed by the Roman patricians and plebeians, the Spartan Lacedaemonians and Helots, the Egyptian castes and some of the Indian castes\u2014all these show that antipathies are social phenomena. If you will, you may call them \u2018implanted by nature,\u2019 but only in so far as man is a being living in closed social groups, leaving it entirely indetermined [sic] what these social groups may be\u201d (Franz Boas, \u201cRace and Progress,\u201d *Science* 74 [1931]: 8). Importantly, this argument highlighted race\u2019s functioning: race was a tool for creating social groupings to enclose \u201cman\u201d into them, which could then coincide with a natural antipathy to other closed social groupings.\n\n\n17. Anne Anlin Cheng, *The Melancholy of Race: Psychoanalysis, Assimilation, and Hidden Grief* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 5. The same group of white parents argued that \u201cmajor differences exist in the learning ability patterns of white and Negro children.\u201d As Cheng notes, \u201cthis line of argument advanced by white segregationists aimed to transform psychical damage as the result of social injury into a notion of inherent disability\u201d (5).\n\n\n22. Thomas Jefferson, arguing against the incorporation of freed black slaves into the nation-state, argued, \u201cdeep rooted prejudices entertained by the whites; the thousand recollections, by the blacks, of the injuries they have sustained; new provocations; the real distinctions which nature has made; and many other circumstances, will divide us into parties, and produce convulsions which will probably never end but in the extermination of one race or the other.\u201d Quoted in Dain, *Hideous Monster of the Mind*, 31.\n\n23. He writes: \u201cIn 1896, the processes and the problems of heredity were little understood, and \u2018blood\u2019 was for many a solvent in which all problems were dissolved and all processes commingled. \u2018Blood\u2019\u2014and by extension \u2018race\u2019\u2014included numerous elements that we would today call cultural; there was not a clear line between cultural and physical elements or between social and biological heredity. The characteristic qualities of civilizations were carried from one generation to another both in and with the blood of their citizens\u201d (George W. Stocking Jr., \u201cThe Turn-of-the-Century Concept of Race,\u201d *Modernism/Modernity* 1 [1994]: 6).\n\n24. To be clear, this is not to say that understandings of\nrace prior to the widespread acceptance of Mendelian genetics did not assert racial differences as biological: the polygenesist argument provides a perfect example of this. Yet importantly, this argument did not strictly separate biologically transmitted racial traits from cultural ones\u2014that is, racial characteristics were considered mutable.\n\n25. Charles Davenport\u2019s studies of the transmission of traits, for instance, revealed how eye color, skin color, feeblemindedness, and so on moved unchanged from generation to generation. These characteristics allegedly formed a stable link between individuals across time. These unit characteristics, however, also reveal that, although eugenics is now popularly conceived as pitting race against race, it also made unstable the concept of race. Davenport, for instance, consistently wrote about the need to better the race, but he also argued that \u201ctwo very light \u2018colored\u2019 parents will have (probably) only light children, some of whom \u2018pass for whites\u2019 away from home. So far as skin color goes they are as truly white as their greatgrandparent and it is quite conceivable that they might have mental and moral qualities as good and typically Caucasian as he had. Just as perfect white skin can be extracted and a typical Caucasian arise out of the mixture. However, this result will occur only in the third, or later, hybrid generation and the event will not be very common\u201d (Davenport, *Heredity in Relation to Eugenics* [New York: Arno, 1972], 37\u201338). In this passage, the race of a typical Caucasian is viewed as something that is \u201crecoverable\u201d from a mixture of other races\u2014a notion diametrically opposed to the \u201cone-drop rule\u201d used in many southern states and to the percentage logic that drove Nazi anti-Semitism (although later, arguing against hybrid vigor in offspring between black and white Jamaicans, Davenport would write about the disharmonies in\nmulattos, thus implying that racial types comprised a certain balance of racial features). See Davenport and Steggerda, Race Crossing in Jamaica, 471. This passage also reveals the connection between visible differences\u2014white skin\u2014and mental characteristics. Yet importantly, what this passage suggests is that the move to separate biology from culture did not designate the biological as unchangeable, but rather as technological\u2014as something that could be bred and improved upon.\n\n26. Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, 1.\n\n27. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, volume 1, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1978), 148. Foucault argues that, within a sovereign society, blood relation was paramount because \u201cdifferentiation into orders and castes, and the value of descent lines were predominant. . . . It [blood] owed its high value at the same time to its instrumental role (the ability to shed blood), to the way it functioned in the order of signs (to have a certain blood, to be of the same blood, to be prepared to risk one\u2019s blood) . . . blood was a reality with a symbolic function. We, on the other hand, are in a society of \u2018sex,\u2019 or rather a society \u2018with a sexuality\u2019: the mechanisms of power are addressed to the body, to life, to what causes it to proliferate, to what reinforces the species, its stamina, its ability to dominate, or its capacity for being used\u201d (147). Given Davenport\u2019s argument, it would seem, however, that the society of sex does not forego blood, but rather resignifies it.\n\n\n29. Breeding is an \u201cunnatural\u201d product of human ingenuity, needed because natural and sexual selection are not sufficiently rational: \u201cThe general program of the eugenist is clear\u2014it is to improve the race by\ninducing young people to make a more reasonable selection of marriage mates; to fall in love intelligently\u201d (4). This falling in love intelligently implies that any \u201cnatural\u201d phenomenon can be cultured, cultivated, to produce something better\u2014that biology, in other words, can never be completely separated from culture.\n\n30. See Gannett, \u201cMaking Populations.\u201d\n\n31. Hartmann, Scenes of Subjection, 187.\n\n\n33. This technology of segregation was also accompanied, Hale contends, by modern technological spectacles such as the lynch festival, which represented the consequences of crossing racial lines through a perverse \u201ccrossing\u201d of the black lynched body (see \u201cDeadly Amusements\u201d in Making Whiteness, 199\u2013239).\n\n\n35. Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, 4.\n\n\n39. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans.\n\n\n41. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 140.\n\n\n**Wendy Hui Kyong Chun** is associate professor of modern culture and media at Brown University. She has studied both systems design engineering and English literature, which she combines and mutates in her current work on digital media. She is author of Control and Freedom: Power and Paranoia in the Age of Fiber Optics (MIT Press, 2006), and co-editor (with Thomas Keenan) of New Media, Old Media: A History and Theory Reader (Routledge, 2005). 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+{"id": "94e9fd28c9589757d70b7227732448ded9e6791a", "text": "Tales of Other Times: A Survey of British Historical Fiction 1770-1812\n\nAnne H. Stevens\nUniversity of Nevada, Las Vegas, anne.stevens@unlv.edu\n\nFollow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/english_fac_articles\n\nPart of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Commons, Literature in English, Anglophone outside British Isles and North America Commons, and the Literature in English, British Isles Commons\n\nRepository Citation\n\nThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the English at Digital Scholarship@UNLV. It has been accepted for inclusion in English Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Digital Scholarship@UNLV. For more information, please contact digitalscholarship@unlv.edu.\nThe years 1760\u20131820 mark a turning point in the history of historiography. Methods for studying the past changed rapidly during this period, as did the forms in which historical knowledge was displayed. Hume famously called these years \u2018the historical age\u2019, while Foucault\u2019s *Order of Things* contends that an epistemic shift from \u2018order\u2019 to \u2018history\u2019 took place around the year 1800.\\[1\\] The historical novel, possibly the most important generic innovation of Romantic-era fiction, is also the most important and underexplored historiographic innovation of these years. Its importance has not often been recognised, however, since, following the nineteenth-century establishment of an autonomous realm of art and the professionalisation of historiography, history and fiction came to appear more and more distinct and their earlier connections forgotten. The novel has come to be studied as a linguistically complex work of the imagination, using the techniques of close reading to uncover its hidden meanings, while works of historiography have more often been studied for the ideas they express than their means of expression.\n\nThe best recent book on eighteenth-century historiography, Mark Phillips\u2019s *Society and Sentiment*, examines an expanded set of historiographic genres, including memoirs, biography, and \u2018fragmentary\u2019 histories (of art, commerce, women, and so on) to discuss developments in historiography over the period 1740 to 1820. The changes Phillips describes within historiography are precisely those areas where historical fiction excels\u2014in the creation of narrative identification, the exploration of social history, and the depiction of domestic spaces and everyday life.\\[2\\] This paper seeks to complement the work of Phillips and others by reading the Romantic-era historical novel as an important and often overlooked historiographic genre.\n\nBy annexing the subject matter and some of the methods of historians, novelists participated in one of the most important generic rivalries of the eighteenth century. Historical works were produced in far greater numbers (10,000 historiographic works in contrast to 3,000 novels in the eighteenth century) and had far more prestige than the novel. Following the popular and critical successes of David Hume, William Robertson, and Edward Gibbon, novelists attempted to appropriate the prestige and popularity of historiography by encroaching upon its subject matter and techniques. In the process, however, they created an entirely new form of historical representation, one that played with new ideals of historical objectivity and new extremes of historical scepticism.\n\nMost historians of the historical novel can be placed into one of two camps. The first of these camps has defined the features of genre by the Waverley Novels of Sir Walter Scott (published 1814\u201332) at the expense of previous incarnations of the form. These critics, such as Herbert Butterfield, Avrom Fleishman, Georg Luk\u00e1cs, and Harry Shaw, dismiss the historical fiction published before Scott as costume drama, Gothic romance, or ahistorical fantasy and begin their studies of the genre with *Waverley*.\\[3\\] The second camp, often comparatists, traces a much longer history for the historical novel. While Margaret Anne Doody extends the history of the historical novel to ancient Greek romance, Richard Maxwell and April Alliston have devoted considerable attention to seventeenth-century French examples of historical fiction.\\[4\\]\n\nKatie Trumpener lays claim to a third position between the two extremes.\\[5\\] Historical fiction does not begin with Scott, she argues, but the historical novel of the Romantic period is notably different from and discontinuous with the historical fiction of the seventeenth\ncentury. Trumpener attributes this rupture to the influence of a new type of elegiac, nationalist antiquarianism, centred around the figure of the bard, which develops in Scotland and Ireland in response to the loss of political sovereignty. The focus of Trumpener\u2019s study, however, is the thematic issue of nationalism rather than the generic issue of historical fiction. Consequently, she does not limit her study to historical fiction but ranges freely among a variety of fictional and non-fictional forms, including national tales, Jacobin novels, and travel literature. Like Trumpener, I contend that historical fiction does not begin with Scott but that the features of the modern historical novel only begin to be elaborated in the second half of the eighteenth century. Rather than focusing on this shift as a political event, caused by an emergent sense of cultural nationalism, I have chosen to focus on its implications for the history of the production of knowledge.\n\nFictionalised representations of the past, of course, have classical antecedents in Homer and Heliodorus. For eighteenth-century novelists, the more immediate model for prose fiction set in a different historical epoch and featuring historical figures as characters would have been late seventeenth-century French works such as Madame de Lafayette\u2019s La Princesse de Cl\u00e8ves (1678) and the heroic romances of Mad\u00e9leine de Scud\u00e9ry (1601\u201367). In Britain, another type of \u2018historical novel\u2019 flourished in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, in the form of scandal fiction, or the \u2018secret histories\u2019 of the amours of historical figures. These works, often identified as \u2018historical novels\u2019 in their subtitles, were often translations of or influenced by the French chronique scandaleuse, a genre which began in 1660 with Bussy-Rabutin\u2019s Histoire amoreuse des Gaules. The most famous examples in English are Delarivier Manley\u2019s Secret History of Queen Zarah (1705) and New Atalantis (1709). [6]\n\nThese works were well out of fashion by the 1760s, when a new type of historical novel began to appear. Beginning with Thomas Leland\u2019s Longsword, Earl of Salisbury (1762) and popularised by Horace Walpole\u2019s The Castle of Otranto (1764), these new historical novels downplayed scandalous anecdotes of recent political figures in favour of \u2018tales of other times\u2019. Dozens of historical fictions were published each year in the 1770s and 1780s. [7] The real explosion in historical fiction occurs during the 1790s, coinciding with the popularity of Gothic works by Ann Radcliffe and M. G. Lewis. Gothic novels, of course, are usually set in the past, but the use of \u2018Gothic\u2019 as a generic indicator of the supernatural was not fully established until the very end of the eighteenth century, following the popularity of Matthew Lewis\u2019s The Monk and the importation of the German schauerroman. Until that point, the word \u2018Gothic\u2019 as a generic tag meant a story set in the \u2018Gothic\u2019 period, or the Middle Ages. Among the novels that twentieth-century critics have lumped together as \u2018Gothic\u2019, a fairly distinct category of works can be isolated which are set in the past but lack supernatural machinery. These works tend to be set in England rather than on the Continent, and usually feature a mixture of historical and fictional characters, thus more closely resembling the historical novel than the Gothic in their modern senses.\n\nWhile no single generic designation delineates all the historical novels of this period, many of these works possess subtitles that call attention to their claims to historicity. Since historiography was one of the novel\u2019s greatest competitors for the attention of the reading public, authors used the title pages of their works to call attention to the factuality of their content in a variety of ways:\n\n- \u2018An Historical Tale\u2019 (Louis d\u2019Ussieux, The Siege of Aubigny, 1782; Anne Fuller, The Son of Ethelwolf, 1789; Rosetta Ballin, The Statue Room, 1790; Lady Jane Grey, 1791)\n- \u2018An Historic Tale\u2019 (Gabrielle de Vergy, 1790; Edwy, son of Ethelred the Second, 1791)\n- \u2018A Tale, Founded on Historic Facts\u2019 (Anna Maria MacKenzie, Monmouth, 1790; Henry Siddons, William Wallace: Or, the Highland Hero, 1791)\n- \u2018An Historical Tale, Founded on Facts\u2019 (Cassandra Cooke, Battleridge, 1799)\n- \u2018A Tale, Founded upon Historic Truths\u2019 (Somerset; or, the Dangers of Greatness, 1792)\nEighteenth-century subtitles helped to adumbrate the subject matter of a novel and to market it to a particular audience. [8] The subtitles above advertise the basis of the novels on real events (founded on facts, founded on historic facts, founded upon historic truths, and so forth) in an attempt to appeal to a reading public that was turning Hume and Gibbon into best-selling authors.\n\nTurning to the contents of a few of these novels, then, we can see the ways in which Romantic-era historical fiction functioned as both a fictional and a historiographic genre. These novels repackaged the contents of historiography for a fiction-reading audience. At the same time, however, the novel did not merely borrow the prestige of historiography to lend credibility to a \u2018low\u2019 form of writing. By its very nature as a fictional narrative, the novel was uniquely equipped to accommodate certain new features of eighteenth-century historiography, such as the expanded range of topics for historical research, while simultaneously taking up features discarded from an increasingly scientific pursuit, such as invented speeches.\n\nIn repackaging the contents of historiography in fictional form, novelists aimed for an audience likely to be composed of more women, older children, and middle-rank readers, the patrons of the circulating libraries, than the more aristocratic male readers of antiquarian and specialised historical publications. [9] Gary Kelly has described a new type of didacticism in Romantic-era fiction, less interested in inculcating moral lessons than in providing useful knowledge through a fictional medium:\n\nChildren, like the common people (and perhaps women), were supposed to be irrational, incomplete as inward beings, and given to mere sociability. Hence narrative and fiction were supposed to be, unfortunately, necessary in order to secure their attention and interest. Nevertheless, fiction for the young would preferably include large amounts of factual, \u2018solid\u2019 information and be in a mode of formal realism, and set in common life. Where the historical or the geographical and social exotic were used they would be primarily for information and education. [10]\n\nKelly\u2019s characterisation of the structure of children\u2019s literature also describes the contents of Romantic-era historical fiction. In the preface to his novel Queenhoo-Hall (1808), the antiquary Joseph Strutt makes his intentions explicit: \u2018the chief purpose of the work, is to make it the medium of conveying much useful instruction, imperceptibly to the minds of such readers as are disgusted at the dryness usually concomitant with the labours of the antiquary\u2019. [11]\nAntiquaries such as Joseph Strutt worried about the \u2018dryness\u2019 of their historical writings, and turned to fiction as a way to package their materials for a popular audience. At the same time, historical novelists borrowed some of the more striking formal features of antiquarian publications to lend the appearance of authority to their volumes. These authors often take only the surface features of historiography\u2014inserting unnecessarily pedantic footnotes or elaborate prefatory material\u2014in an attempt to make their novels look like historiographic publications. Following the success of Walpole\u2019s *Castle of Otranto*, these novels often use the convention of the discovered manuscript to introduce their work, even though the artificiality of the device is quickly apparent. Just as historical novelists drew upon the antiquarian interest in manuscripts, and prefaced their volumes as an antiquary would preface a paper to the Society, they also used the scholarly apparatus developed by antiquaries and antiquarian-influenced historians to frame their novels. Although only a handful of historical novelists used them, footnotes were a tool available to novelists who wished to display their learning, refer readers to other works, or just to make their prose appear more authoritative on the page. Historical novels with footnotes include *The Minstrel; or, Anecdotes of Distinguished Personages in the Fifteenth Century* (1793), Henrietta Rouviere Mosse\u2019s *A Peep at our Ancestors: An Historical Romance* (1807), and Elizabeth Strutt\u2019s *The Borderers* (1812).\n\nElizabeth Strutt, for example, calls attention to her footnotes: \u2018Those obsolete customs and words which it was found necessary to introduce, in order to render the delineation of manners more perfect, are explained in notes at the end of the volumes, where may also be found such characteristic anecdotes as were deemed illustrative of that period of history with which they are connected.\u2019 [12] The notes and illustrations place *The Borderers* within the battlegrounds of antiquarian controversy, suggesting that this work shares affinities with more serious works of historiography. Strutt\u2019s preface further emphasises these affinities: \u2018if they should excite in a single reader the wish to become more fully acquainted with one of the most brilliant epocha of English history, the labours of the authoress will not have been in vain\u2019 (p. iv). Strutt showcases her historical sources in the footnotes, which include a number of antiquarian publications, such as the Society of Antiquaries of London\u2019s journal *Archaeologia* (1770\u2013), Walter Scott\u2019s ballad collection *The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border* (1802\u201303), the ballad collections of Joseph Ritson (1752\u20131803), the poems of Ossian, and Thomas Warton\u2019s *History of English Poetry* (1774\u201389). Likewise, Mosse\u2019s *Peep at our Ancestors* contains numerous footnotes explaining tangential historical details like the sailing abilities of the Normans, historical figures like Robert Duke of Normandy, and legal details like the establishment of the practice of trial by jury. In the footnotes, Mosse refers readers to antiquarian works such as Joseph Strutt\u2019s *Customs and Manners* (1775\u201376) and Francis Grose\u2019s *Antiquarian Repertory* (1775\u201384), situating her novel within a scholarly community.\nSeveral novelists supplement their display of erudition in the footnotes with prefatory statements of the labours that went into their compositions. In her preface, for example, Rouvi\u00e8re thanks the British Museum and the Herald\u2019s Office for allowing her access to their records. Anna Maria Porter\u2019s *Don Sebastian* (1809) goes further, listing the main sources for the novel and in the process illustrating her process of research and composition:\n\nIn my delineation of countries, manners, &c. I have endeavoured to give as faithful a picture as was possible to one who describes after the accounts of others; I consulted the voyages and tours of those days; so that the modern traveller, in journeying with me over Barbary, Persia, and Brazil, must recollect that he is beholding those countries as they appeared in the sixteenth century [\u2026] The materials with which I have worked, have been drawn from general history, accounts of particular periods, the Harleian Miscellany, and a curious old tract published in 1602, containing the letters of Texere, De Castro, and others, with minute details of the conduct and sufferings of the mysterious personage concerning whom it treats. [13]\n\nThis account of her work serves a credentialising function for Porter. Just as antiquaries displayed their credentials through the initials \u2018F.S.A.\u2019 (Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries) on the title page, so Porter, unable to supply any scholarly initials, demonstrates that she has extensive read and researched her field, and is thus qualified to write a historical novel that makes some claim to historical accuracy.\n\nWhile novelists experimented formally with the scholarly trappings of an increasingly \u2018scientific\u2019 historiography, thematic trends in the historical novel paralleled trends in eighteenth-century historiography. While it is impossible to generalise about the content of the eighteenth-century historical novel, certain topics were more popular than others. Just as historians\u2019 interest shifted from Greece and Rome to native English history and from antiquity to the Middle Ages, in the historical novel, medieval settings and English history predominate. The seventeenth-century heroic romances were frequently set in ancient Greece and Rome (see, for example, Scud\u00e9ry\u2019s *Cl\u00e9l\u00e9e*, 1654\u201360, and Charlotte Lennox\u2019s satiric treatment of it in *The Female Quixote*, 1752), while the bizarre *Memoirs of a Pythagorean* (1785), which surveys manners and customs in several ancient nations, is the exception rather than the rule by the last decades of the eighteenth century. [14] Instead, the historical novels of this period are usually set in Europe, most often England, and in temporal settings ranging from Anglo\u2013Saxon times to the \u2018recent past\u2019 of the eighteenth century. [15]\n\nIn subject as in setting, the historical novel participates in larger historiographic trends. Phillips has noted the increased popularity of biography and memoirs in the second half of the eighteenth century. Fictionalised biographies of historical figures, sometimes called \u2018heroic novels\u2019, fed off this demand for more intimate accounts of the lives of familiar historical figures. [16] Jane Porter\u2019s *The Scottish Chiefs* (1810), a fictionalised biography of William Wallace and a source for the film \u2018Braveheart\u2019, was the one of most popular \u2018heroic novels\u2019, but many other novelists preceded Porter in casting the life story of an intriguing historical figure as a novel, such as James White\u2019s *Adventures of King Richard Coeur-de-Lion* (1791), Henry Siddons\u2019s *William Wallace* (1791), or *Lady Jane Grey* (1791).\n\nThe popularity of memoirs, biography, and heroic novel indicates the demand for stories about the private lives of public figures. This demand may partially be a by-product of the reduction in private or dramatic moments from the narratives of historiography. As Phillips has pointed out, invented speeches and the monarchical character-sketch were both important elements of classical historiography. Barbara Shapiro claims that the invented speech was the first \u2018fictional\u2019 element of historiography modern historians rejected. [17] Indeed, dramatic moments were becoming increasingly hard to find in historiography. The classics of eighteenth-century historical narrative depict their historical subjects speaking very infrequently. Edward Gibbon, for example, de-emphasises the biographical elements of his *Decline and Fall* (1776\u201388): \u2018To illustrate the obscure monuments of the life and death of each individual would prove a laborious task, alike barren of\ninstruction and of amusement.\u2019 [18] When a very important character, such as the Emperor Julian, appears, Gibbon will give him at most a line or two of dialogue. Likewise, although Hume\u2019s account of the execution of Charles I is as powerful and dramatic as any comparable incident from a novel, Hume usually avoids this type of biographical episode, merely providing an illustration of the character of each monarch at the end of his sections.\n\nIt is quite likely that contemporary readers would have wanted to see notable historical figures come to life on the page as they did on the stage. In order to write historiography with claims to be quasi-scientific fact, historians had to omit invented speeches, dialogue, and dramatic situations, first relegating them to the sidelines as \u2018anecdotes\u2019, as in Voltaire\u2019s *Le Si\u00e8cle de Louis XIV* (1751), and then exiling them from general history altogether. These then became the province of the historical novel. While some novelists chose to make a single notable figure the focus of their story, many novels featured only \u2018cameo appearances\u2019 by the notable figures of an era. This feature, which Luk\u00e1cs lauds as a mark of Scott\u2019s originality and genius, was already a staple trope of the eighteenth-century historical novel. Examples of this type abound in the novels of this time. *The Borderers*, for example, features cameos by John of Gaunt, Geoffrey Chaucer, and Edward the Black Prince, while William Godwin\u2019s eponymous protagonist meets Rabelais and Henry VIII in *St Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century* (1799). Sometimes these cameos serve merely to place the novel within a particular period of history, while in other novels such as *The Recess: Or, A Tale of Other Times* (1783\u201385) the historical characters are as important as the fictional heroines.\n\nWhen historical novelists chose not merely to embellish the detail of a real person\u2019s life but to invent fictional characters to inhabit a real historical setting, novelists and reviewers had recourse to concepts of \u2018typicality\u2019 or \u2018probability\u2019 to defend this choice. Daston and Galison have discussed the idea of the \u2018typical\u2019 in relation to scientific atlases: \u2018In eighteenth-century atlases, \u201ctypical\u201d phenomena were those that hearkened back to some underlying Typus or \u201carchetype,\u201d and from which individual phenomena could be derived, at least conceptually. The typical is rarely if ever embodied in a single individual.\u2019 [19] They further distinguish between two variants of the typical: \u2018the \u201cideal\u201d image purports to render not merely the typical but the perfect, while the \u201ccharacteristic\u201d image locates the typical in an individual\u2019 (p. 88). For scientists, a \u2018typical\u2019 member of the species is a composite of various individuals which embodies the most important characteristics of that species. Novelists create something akin to a \u2018characteristic\u2019 image in their creation of a fictional hero or heroine supposed to be \u2018typical\u2019 of a given historical period. [20]\n\nIn the creation of typical but invented characters, historical novelists help to erect a boundary between fiction and history, truth and falsehood, while simultaneously transgressing it. In the preface to *A Peep at our Ancestors*, for example, Mosse suggests that certain rules apply to the writers of \u2018historical romance\u2019: \u2018Yet Shakespeare, like some other dramatic and narrative writers, frequently subjects himself to the reproach of infidelity and distortion of fact. These writers appear to lose sight of that most essential law for compositions of this nature, that\nHistorical fiction emerged at the moment when the history/fiction divide was being established, and in turn helped to create that distinction. Rouvi\u00e8re\u2019s claim that \u2018fiction but not falsehood\u2019 is allowable in historical romance\u2019 suggests the direction that this distinction followed. By accusing Shakespeare of \u2018distortion of fact\u2019 in his history plays, Rouvi\u00e8re makes space for a category of imaginative literature based on fact but subject to a different set of rules than historical composition. Similarly, reviewers of the anonymous Minstrel (1793) praised its historical verisimilitude:\n\nit brings before the reader\u2019s imagination the busy period of English history in which the contest between the houses of York and Lancaster was at its height, and places its characters in the midst of the great events of that period. The incidents, indeed, as well as most of the persons, are fictitious: but the writer adheres with fidelity to the general spirit and manners of the times. [22]\n\nBy capturing the \u2018general spirit and manners of the times\u2019, the author of The Minstrel has remained faithful to history, even while employing fictitious incidents and characters.\n\nIn choosing to focus on typical but fictitious embodiments of a particular era rather than familiar historical personages, novelists opened up new avenues for exploring \u2018manners and customs\u2019 or the everyday life of the past. In this way, their work is analogous to the that of the Scottish Enlightenment historians, antiquaries, and other commentators who were beginning to explore cultural and social history. The Minstrel is paradigmatic in its use of a \u2018typical\u2019 character to focus narrative and to provide access to a spectrum of historical detail. Set during the War of the Roses, the novel follows the noble and beautiful Eleanor, who, after the treacherous St Julian seizes her titles and lands and tries to force her to marry his son, escapes disguised as a minstrel. Because of her disguise, Eleanor is able to enter the ranks and interact with the most important figures on both sides of the conflict, including King Henry VI. She also encounters an assortment of medieval social types, including bear baiters, a \u2018travelling vender of pardons and indulgencies from the pope\u2019, and members of the peasantry. [23] While helping a family to improve their cottage, Eleanor sees the domestic arrangements of a peasant family during this period: \u2018there was a chimney, [\u2026] pewter spoons, instead of wooden ones, were used in the family [\u2026] the beds and bulsters were all of feathers, and all of them had sheets\u2019 (III, 81). Through the medium of the minstrel, the novel surveys a range of social ranks, providing us glimpses of the private life of both the peasantry and the nobility. [24]\n\nSimilarly, Henrietta Rouviere Mosse\u2019s Peep at our Ancestors offers a voyeuristic account of private life in English history. The author employs a visual metaphor to suggest that the novel form allows an eyewitness approach to history: \u2018aided by records and documents she has kindly been permitted to consult, she may have succeeded in a correct though faint sketch of the times she treats, and in affording, if through a dim, yet not distorted nor discoloured glass, \u201cA Peep at Our Ancestors\u201d \u2019 (I, xiv\u2013xv). Mosse\u2019s novel is perhaps closest in spirit to the works of the engraver and antiquary Joseph Strutt, whose works mingled engravings and descriptions to illustrate the clothing, pastimes, and manners of the past visually. [25] Similarly, A Peep at our Ancestors uses narrative description to recreate the past visually in the mind of the reader.\n\nJoseph Strutt\u2019s own historical novel Queenhoo-Hall embodies the extremes of antiquarianism in the novel. Because of his encyclopaedic knowledge of everyday life in the Middle Ages, Strutt pauses his story every time he has a chance to expound upon a new historical detail, for example inserting paragraph-long descriptions of each character\u2019s clothing in the midst of a dialogue. Strutt also attempts to historicise the language of the characters, but the resulting dialogue sounds awkward: \u2018\u201cBy our holy-dam, my lady,\u201d said Oswald, bowing, \u201cI weened they were: but, I trow, the varlets have contrived some new knackeries\u201d \u2019 (I, 25). More successful is Elizabeth Strutt\u2019s Borderers, which balances its depiction of everyday life in a Scottish castle, including food, clothing, pastimes, heraldry, and chivalric tournaments, with a sentimental love story. Even novels that were much less descriptive than The Borderers emphasise their depiction of \u2018manners\u2019. The preface to Edwy; Son of Ethelred the Second (1791) claims that \u2018The Authoress has endeavoured to\nmake her Hero speak and act conformable to the manners of the age in which he lived; and throughout the tale, she has endeavoured to depict manners as they were at that remote period.\u2019 [26]\n\nThe freedom which the historical novel allowed in creating fictional characters typical of a particular era was essential to authors more interested in surveying historical manners than particular historical figures. Through the concept of \u2018typical\u2019 or \u2018probable\u2019 but fictional characters and situations, novelists mediated between historical truth and historical fiction, staking out their territory as the form of historical representation best suited to depicting everyday life, domesticity, and interiority. Another historiographic contradiction that the historical novel was well suited to mediate was the opposition between local knowledge and universal truths. Peter Dear has defined objectivity as \u2018knowledge that is not local; it is not contingent on the situation (in the broadest sense) of the individual knower\u2019. [27] For eighteenth-century historians, defining a set of standards for historical objectivity presented a challenge, since much of the historical record consisted of the testimony of individual observers, often biased and contradictory. The materialist side of antiquarianism was one way around the problem of having to rely on individual testimony for knowledge of the past, based as it was reading artefacts instead of texts. Where people could and often did lie or exaggerate, material objects told the truth. What exactly they were saying, however, was a matter of dispute. By the second half of the eighteenth century, historians and antiquaries were attempting in various ways to deduce more general truths from the individual fragments of antiquarian research. Before nineteenth-century archaeologists codified more scientific principles for the study of material artefacts, antiquaries often had to import some type of general historical narrative in order to make sense of their fragmentary findings. The Scottish Enlightenment historians\u2019 general narrative of the progress of society was perhaps the most productive of these narratives, which also included religious and mythical schema. Historians struggled to find the correct balance between local empirical knowledge and general scientific truths.\n\nIn the historical novel, a version of this conflict was carried out on the level of point of view. The majority of historical novels employed third-person authoritative narrators (the same type of impersonal voices who narrated historiographic works) in order to lend an air of objectivity to their novels. These third-person narrators, such as the narrator of The Minstrel, inhabit the same historical moment as the readers of the novel and often compare the past they describe to the present they live in:\n\nFar, very far distant was the condition of the peasantry of England in those iron times, from the happy freedom of the present. Now, the poor man selecting the place of his residence, hires his humble cottage of the rich, and for its annual stipend enjoys in it every right of property, but the power of destruction [\u2026] Then, the kingdom distributed into baronies, each lord reigned despotic in his district, and the lower order of peasants, termed villains, were the abject slaves of his arbitrary will [\u2026] (III, 27\u201328)\n\nThe obtrusive narrator of The Borderers shows a surprising degree of historical relativism, using\nhistorical details to reflect upon class and gender issues. For example, a note on the phrase \u2018above\nthe salt\u2019 explains:\n\nFormerly the whole family, however numerous, sat down at table together, but that there might be some\ndistinction retained between the master and his dependants, a large salt-cellar was placed in the middle of\nthe board, the most honourable places being above it; at the same time that it formed a boundary, which any\ndelicacy that the table might afford was not expected to pass. (I, 210)\n\nIn detailing the domestic customs of the fourteenth century, the novel illustrates an alternative set of\nclass distinctions, where the servants and the family \u2018sat down at table together\u2019. The praxis is\ninterrupted at another point in order to describe the education of a woman at the time, in music,\ndancing, medicine, and needlework (I, 31). The narrator reflects upon female education:\n\nthe difference between an education of the fourteenth century and the nineteenth, was not trifling; but the\nrespect paid to the sex, in the interim, has apparently decreased, in proportion as their claim to it may have\nseemed to increase. Women, mortifying as the confession may be, never more powerfully influenced society\nthan when they could neither read or write\u2014never were more respected in it. (I, 32\u201333)\n\nThis reflection indicates a non-progressive model of history, where women\u2019s social influence has\nactually receded. The author seems to advocate a greater degree of women\u2019s rights, using historical\nexample as a way to highlight the lack of power women possessed in her time.\n\nAlthough most historical novels employed the historian\u2019s point of view to narrate a \u2018tale of other\ntimes\u2019 while commenting upon its significance for contemporary readers, other historical novels\nemphasised their status as local knowledge by employing first-person narrators. Mark Phillips has\nremarked upon eighteenth-century experiments with spectatorial narrative, such as Helen Maria\nWilliams\u2019s *Letters* from France (1790\u201392), as indicative of a shift to a more inward, sentimental\nengagement with history:\n\nsympathetic reading was part of a crucial expansion of the aims of historical writing in the course of which\nthe traditional historical task of mimesis was reinterpreted to include the evocation of past experience.\nHistory enlarged its scope to incorporate the wider spectrum both of actors and experiences that made up a\nmodern, commercial, and increasingly middle-class society. [28]\n\nThrough the use of a first-person narrator, an author could create a more immediate, eyewitness\naccount of historical life. By encouraging sympathetic identification, readers were able to live\nvicariously in another era.\n\nOne way in which this identification was achieved was through annotated editions of memoirs,\nautobiography, or collections of letters. Over the course of the eighteenth century, historians began\nto look to the personal letter as a means of gaining a more immediate relationship to the past.\nLenglet du Fresnoy\u2019s early-eighteenth-century treatise, *A New Method of Studying History* (1728),\nis one of the first to promote the value of letters as historical sources: \u2018I do not believe there is a\nmore secure Method of knowing History, than from Memoirs and Letters.\u2019 [29] In letters, he\nclaims, \u2018we find History in its Purity, the Passions of Mankind are better represented than in\nHistorians themselves\u2019. [30] In fact, by mid-century collections of personal letters began to be\npublished for their value as historical sources. At the same time, an epistolary historical novel, such as\nSophia Lee\u2019s *The Recess*, presented fictitious letters from Matilda and Ellinor, the imaginary\ndaughters of Mary, Queen of Scots, as a means to achieve sympathetic identification with\ncharacters from the past.\n\nWhile Lee exploits the epistolary form to generate sympathy, however, she also uses the form to\ncreate the effect of scepticism in the mind of the reader. The sceptical implications of her novel\nwork to open up a space for her fictionalisation of history, whereby fiction becomes the necessary\nsupplement to a historical record fraught with conspiracy, uncertainty, and conflicting accounts.\nDeception is the very condition for success in the Renaissance political world of *The Recess*:\n\u2018James ardently desired to be nominated as the successor of Elizabeth by herself, and had not spared bribes, promises, or flattery, to interest those around her whom he thought likely to influence her choice\u2019. [31] Here Lee reiterates the eighteenth-century critique of political corruption\u2014of the history that takes place behind the history\u2014found in the \u2018secret histories\u2019 of Delarivier Manley or the musings of Gulliver upon seeing the truth behind history at Glubbdubdribb. [32] Like her successor, Elizabeth also deceives (and is deceived) to succeed:\n\nElizabeth, in defiance of time and understanding, indulged a romantic taste inconsistent with either; and, not satisfied with real pre-eminence, affected to be deified by the flattery of verse. The Lady of the Lake was the title she chose to be known by here, and nothing art could invent, or wealth procure, was wanting to render the various pageants complete. A boat scooped like a shell, and enclosing a throne, conveyed her to the aight, where I and many more, habited like Nereids, waited to receive her. (p. 80)\n\nThe pageantry of Elizabeth\u2019s court, later romanticised in Scott\u2019s Kenilworth, is presented here as nothing more than ridiculous flattery. [33] The panegyric of the Elizabethan court poets receives its necessary corrective in Matilda\u2019s account of Elizabeth\u2019s tyranny.\n\nEllinor\u2019s inserted narrative, placed at the very centre of the novel, further enhances the effect of scepticism for the reader. Covering the same period of time as Matilda\u2019s narrative, Ellinor sometimes fills in gaps and elsewhere subverts what has come before. In the first page of \u2018The Life of Ellinor, Addressed to Matilda\u2019, Ellinor describes Matilda\u2019s husband in terms that contradict the preceding narrative. She calls Leicester \u2018callous\u2019, \u2018timid and subtle\u2019, and \u2018tyrannic\u2019 (p. 156), thus forcing the reader to re-evaluate Matilda\u2019s panegyric. In fact, in Ellinor\u2019s narrative Leicester is transformed from romantic hero to the shadowy double of Elizabeth: \u2018I feared the keen eye of Elizabeth, and the colder and more watchful one of Lord Leicester\u2019 (p. 159). Other features of Ellinor\u2019s narrative have the effect of destabilising the reader\u2019s certainty about historical narrative. Most of the major events in Ellinor\u2019s story, and indeed, of the entire novel, hinge on some form of falsehood or deception. Leicester\u2019s death may be merely a \u2018fiction\u2019: \u2018In fine, having bribed the servants employed in blazoning this pompous fiction, the family were indubitably assured, the body buried under the name Lord Leicester, was one procured for the purpose\u2019 (p. 184). Similarly, Ellinor stages her own death in order to be able to follow Essex to Ireland (p. 218); while earlier, Elizabeth forced her to sign a false document, a spurious confession (p. 178). She remarks upon the deceptions practiced on the world: \u2018Oh, misjudging world, how severely on the most superficial observation dost thou venture to decide!\u2019 (pp. 206\u201307), but she deceives herself when she masquerades as a man to follow Essex. The emphasis on deception, forgery, and fiction creates a sense of scepticism about official historical accounts, and if there is no sure way to distinguish fact from fiction, a fictitious history may be the best method to understand the past.\n\nFictitious histories such as The Recess and the other novels discussed in this paper shared a number of features and functions with the historical and antiquarian publications of the late eighteenth century. In form, both fictitious and \u2018true\u2019 histories utilised footnotes, prefaces, and other paratextual devices to display their learning. In function, novels like The Recess demonstrated dissatisfaction with received historical accounts and attempted to supplement them by inventing fictitious accounts of important periods of history. Antiquaries expressed a similar scepticism about documents and historical generalisations in a number of activities, such as their interest in investigating forgers like James Macpherson and Thomas Chatterton and their revisionist attitude toward familiar figures, as evidenced in Horace Walpole\u2019s Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III (1768). In fact, the subtitle of The Recess: A Tale of Other Times, is taken from one of the most famous forgeries of the day, Macpherson\u2019s Ossian poems (1760\u201365). [34] Antiquaries and historical novelists also shared the function of supplementing political and military history by investigating other aspects of the past, such as social and cultural details and by providing ways to engage with the past more sympathetically. These novels, some tedious and derivative and others unjustly forgotten by literary history, provide new perspectives on the history of history in the Romantic period. By the time Walter Scott came to publish Waverley in 1814, he was working within an already established genre. [35] A better understanding of the features and\nfunctions of this genre will help us to shed new light on Scott\u2019s remarkable undertaking, as well as on the achievements of nineteenth-century historian.\n\nNOTES\n\n\n7. The recent publication of Peter Garside, James Raven, and Rainer Sch\u00f6werling\u2019s *The English Novel 1770\u20131829: A Bibliographical Survey of Prose Fiction Published in the British Isles*, 2 vols. (Oxford: OUP, 2000) has enabled a fuller understanding of the larger publishing trends in this period. In the brief survey of historical fiction that follows, I make no claims to exhaustive knowledge of quite a large class of novels. Rather, I have chosen to focus my attention on the handful of historical novels in the period which most directly seem to be influenced by developments in historiography.\n\n8. In the list above, \u2018novel\u2019 and \u2018romance\u2019 are used interchangeably. In fact, one result of my investigation into Romantic-era historical fiction is a greater sense that these terms were less distinct during this period than modern scholars would have them.\n\n9. The popular histories of Hume and Goldsmith, however, were read widely and often served as schoolroom textbooks.\n\n\n11. *Queenhoo-Hall, A Romance: and Ancient Times, a Drama*, 4 vols. (Edinburgh: John Murray, 1808), I, i. Subsequent quotations will be taken from this edition and given in the text.\n\n\n14. The preface claims to: \u2018exhibit the manners, customs, and state of the ancient nations in a style more descriptive than has hitherto been attempted\u2019\u2014Alexander Thomson, Memoirs of a Pythagorean. In Which Are Delineated the Manners, Customs, Genius, and Polity of Ancient Nations. Interspersed with a Variety of Anecdotes, 3 vols. (London: Robinsons, 1785), I, iv. In this work, a Pythagorean is reincarnated in various ancient nations, which provides an occasion to describe the culture of these places.\n\n15. See, for example, Charles Dacres: or, The Voluntary Exile. An Historical Novel, Founded on Facts, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: John Moir, 1797). It begins in \u2018A.D. Seventeen hundred and sixty, odd\u2019 (I, 16), and features encounters with notable figures, such as the Pretender \u2018who, every opera-night, went to sleep at the theatre\u2019 (I, 98).\n\n16. The phrase is taken from a review of The Castle of Mowbray (1788): \u2018The heroic novel, where characters are taken from real life, is a pleasing kind of composition; but it is the bow of Ulysses and requires strength as well as address to bend it. Our author possesses neither. He has mutilated history, is unacquainted with the human heart, and deficient in judgment; yet with these defects, he enters into the lists as the rival of Horace Walpole and Miss Lee\u2019\u2014Critical Review 66 (1788), 577.\n\n\n23. The Minstrel; or, Anecdotes of Distinguished Personages in the Fifteenth Century, 3 vols. (London: Hookham and Carpenter, 1793), II, 129. Subsequent references will be taken from this edition and included in the text.\n\n24. See also Joseph Strutt\u2019s Queenhoo-Hall: \u2018The different degrees of the people, from the nobleman to the peasant, have their places in the romance\u2019 (I, iii).\n\n\n27. \u2018From Truth to Disinterestedness in the Seventeenth Century\u2019, Social Studies of Science 22 (1992), 620.\n\n\n30. Ibid., I, 225.\n\n32. \u2018I was chiefly disgusted with modern History. For having strictly examined all the Persons of greatest Name in the Courts of Princes for a Hundred Years past, I found how the World had been misled by prostitute Writers, to ascribe the greatest Exploits in War to Cowards, the wisest Counsel to Fools, Sincerity to Flatterers [\u2026] Here I discovered the true Causes of many great Events that have surprised the World: How a Whore can govern the Back-stairs, the Back-stairs a Council, and the Council a Senate\u2019\u2014Jonathan Swift, *Gulliver\u2019s Travels*, ed. Paul Turner (1726; Oxford: OUP, 1971), pp. 199\u2013200.\n\n\n34. For an interesting discussion of the connections between the forgeries of Macpherson and Chatterton and the historical novels of Walter Scott, see Ian Haywood\u2019s *The Making of History: A Study of the Literary Forgeries of James Macpherson and Thomas Chatterton in Relation to Eighteenth-Century Ideas of History and Fiction* (London: Associated University Presses, 1986)", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1022&context=english_fac_articles", "len_cl100k_base": 9562, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 14, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 39317, "total-output-tokens": 12122, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0002884864807128906, "__label__art_design": 0.000732421875, "__label__crime_law": 0.0002310276031494141, "__label__education_jobs": 0.00560760498046875, "__label__entertainment": 0.0006380081176757812, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00020694732666015625, "__label__finance_business": 0.00023043155670166016, "__label__food_dining": 0.00032401084899902344, "__label__games": 0.0003714561462402344, "__label__hardware": 9.053945541381836e-05, "__label__health": 0.00013649463653564453, "__label__history": 0.027557373046875, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00025010108947753906, "__label__industrial": 0.0002034902572631836, "__label__literature": 0.9599609375, "__label__politics": 0.0004849433898925781, "__label__religion": 0.000553131103515625, "__label__science_tech": 0.0008149147033691406, "__label__social_life": 0.00029778480529785156, "__label__software": 0.00013005733489990234, "__label__software_dev": 0.00020253658294677737, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00017118453979492188, "__label__transportation": 0.00019299983978271484, "__label__travel": 0.0003333091735839844}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 50189, 0.02775]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 50189, 0.79344]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 50189, 0.94031]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 957, false], [957, 4717, null], [4717, 9095, null], [9095, 11758, null], [11758, 15078, null], [15078, 19653, null], [19653, 23221, null], [23221, 27894, null], [27894, 31353, null], [31353, 35648, null], [35648, 40586, null], [40586, 45010, null], [45010, 48796, null], [48796, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 957, true], [957, 4717, null], [4717, 9095, null], [9095, 11758, null], [11758, 15078, null], [15078, 19653, null], [19653, 23221, null], [23221, 27894, null], [27894, 31353, null], [31353, 35648, null], [35648, 40586, null], [40586, 45010, null], [45010, 48796, null], [48796, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 50189, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 957, 1], [957, 4717, 2], [4717, 9095, 3], [9095, 11758, 4], [11758, 15078, 5], [15078, 19653, 6], [19653, 23221, 7], [23221, 27894, 8], [27894, 31353, 9], [31353, 35648, 10], [35648, 40586, 11], [40586, 45010, 12], [45010, 48796, 13], [48796, 50189, 14]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 50189, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-09", "created": "2024-12-09"}
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+{"id": "b6bed8ddf0e75d07bcf920d704aed2664d6d396e", "text": "The Silent Soldiers: A Postcolonial Feminist Study of Selina Hossain\u2019s River of My Blood and Khaled Hosseini\u2019s A Thousand Splendid Suns\n\nFarhanaz Rabbani\u00b9 and Tazin Aziz Chaudhury\u00b2\nUniversity of Dhaka, Bangladesh\n\nAbstract\nThis paper attempts a postcolonial feminist interpretation of Selina Hossain\u2019s River of My Blood and Khaled Hosseini\u2019s A Thousand Splendid Suns to identify parallels between women protagonists \u2013 Boori, Mariam, Laila, Nita and Ramija \u2013 who grapple with political imbalance as well as social and sexual oppression in their respective conservative, patriarchal societies. Driven by nationalism as well as a desire for freedom, these Muslim women exhibit a passive resistance and embody the power of the socially and sexually oppressed as they traverse through pain and suffering in two war-torn countries, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The resounding force of nature and folk and oral traditions in Hossain\u2019s rural village, Haldi, echo the imagery used in Hosseini\u2019s depiction of the bustling cities, Kabul and Herat. The significance of how women\u2019s cultural and social identities and their critical minds in postcolonial countries are closely identified with the linguistic traditions and folk culture of their societies is also highlighted. In accordance with the norms of postcolonial feminism, the significance of women\u2019s immeasurable sacrifices, as portrayed in the selected words, is examined and celebrated.\n\nKeywords\nPostcolonial feminism, Third World feminism, nationalism, Muslim women, folk, identity\n\nIntroduction\nThis paper attempts to draw a comparison between Bangladeshi writer Selina Hossain\u2019s novel Hangor Nodi Grenade (1976), translated into English as River of My\n\n\u00b9 Farhanaz Rabbani is Assistant Professor at the Department of English, University of Dhaka. After obtaining her Bachelor\u2019s and Master\u2019s degrees in English Literature from the University of Dhaka, she completed an M.S. in Written Communications at National Louis University, Illinois, USA. Her research interests include Writing, Cultural Studies, Digital Media, Cinema, and Popular and Folk Music. Email: fnazrs@yahoo.com.\n\n\u00b2 Dr. Tazin Aziz Chaudhury is Professor at the Department of English, University of Dhaka. She has a Ph.D. in English Language Studies (ELS) from International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). Her areas of specialisation are Curriculum Design, Language Needs Analysis and Content Specification, Teaching English Language Skills and Teaching Methodologies. Email: tazinchaudhury@yahoo.com.\nBlood (2016) and Khaled Hosseini\u2019s A Thousand Splendid Suns (2007), as both the works highlight emotional and physical complexities of the condition of women in Third World countries. Both Hossain and Hosseini manifest how the women protagonists use various forms of agency to give expression to their subaltern voices, defying political and social restrictions. The essence of Bangladesh is deeply rooted in the political and social struggles in the pre- and post-Liberation periods. From the Language Movement of 1952 to the War of Liberation in 1971, Bangladeshi women played a pivotal role in creating a Bangladeshi identity. Hossain\u2019s River of My Blood is an exposition of Boori, her rural, female psyche and her intricate role in the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971 along with her friend Nita and her step-daughter-in-law Ramija.\n\nWhile Bangladesh prides itself in its secular identity after a prolonged period of being under colonial rule, Afghanistan has been plagued with socio-political wars and religious conflicts for several decades. Hosseini\u2019s protagonists Mariam and Laila in A Thousand Splendid Suns masterfully expose the political, cultural and religious oppression of Afghan Muslim women throughout the transitions of political power from 1970 to 2003. Both the novels are situated in two Third World, Muslim majority countries \u2013 Bangladesh and Afghanistan \u2013 strikingly similar yet singularly different. Given this background, this paper draws comparisons between the novels and celebrates the strengths of third world women by examining the presence and immeasurable contributions of Third World women in literature. Prior to embarking upon an analysis of Hossain\u2019s novel, it is essential to gain an in-depth understanding of the history of Bangladesh, on which the following section sheds some light.\n\nHistorical Review of Feminism in Bangladesh\nBorn in 1971, Bangladesh is still a relatively young and developing nation. Previously part of Bengal, this region has a rich and diverse historical and cultural background. From the fourth to seventh centuries BC, this region was ruled successively by the Mauryas, Guptas and the Palas. During this time, Buddhists migrated to Bengal and enriched the local culture. From the 11th century, after almost two centuries of Hindu rule, Bakhtiyar Khilji established Muslim rule in Bengal. Soon after Khilji, the Sultanate of Bengal, during the 14th century, created a unified Muslim state in Bengal. The Mughals (Turco-Mongol-Chagatai from Central Asia and Afghanistan) took control of the Bengal region after the Sultans. In 1707, British colonisation over the Indian subcontinent began to play a role in influencing the cultural practices of the region. Thus, by the 18th century, Bengal\u2019s culture was a hybrid of the remnants of Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity co-existing with strong Islamic influences.\n\nSubsequently in the 20th century, Muslims of Bengal were influenced by countries like Turkey which were witnessing sweeping reforms. Ghadially states that in the post-World War I period, Western influences of secularism and\nextended communication networks resulted in a more \u201cindividual interpretation\u201d of Islamic rules and traditions (1). This helped to further define the identity of the urban middle class and upper class Muslim and non-Muslim women of Bengal. Issues ranging from veiling (purdah), education, age of marriage, polygyny and divorce came under severe scrutiny.\n\nRokeya Sakhawat Hossain (1880-1932), of the then undivided Bengal, exemplifies how women used their literary talents to modernise social views. A brave writer and social reformer, Rokeya strongly criticised the role of orthodox interpretations of purdah norms that subjugate women. However, Azim et al. assert that despite their efforts, middle class women\u2019s \u201cparticipation in these debates was also intense and engaged, but from the perspective of the mainstream male discourse, marginal to its outcome\u201d (1). This encouraged women to fight for equal rights during the anticolonial movement of the 1920s and 30s and the Pakistan movement of the 1940s. Women\u2019s involvement in political activism took off especially during the Language Movement of 1952 and Liberation War of 1971. Women joined hands with the Muktijoddhas (freedom fighters) and paved the way for the creation of an independent Bangladesh in 1971. In the post millennial era, the feminist movement in Bangladesh has progressed significantly, despite some political and social obstacles which still pervade society.\n\nWe will analyse Hossain\u2019s novel which showcases the bloodiest nine-month war between East and West Pakistan. Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation after paying a terrible price in the form of innumerable rapes and killings.\n\n**Historical Review of Feminism in Afghanistan**\n\nThe condition of women in Afghanistan also underwent dramatic changes in the 20th century. Afghanistan has various ethnic, religious and tribal groups living in a rugged landscape. The largest ethnic group is the Pashtuns, followed by Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks and Aimaq. Ghosh illustrates how up to the seventeenth century, Afghanistan was ruled by multifarious tribal and ethnic laws (3). Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, who ruled from 1880 to 1901, was the first ruler who tried to make Afghanistan a modern state. His son Amir Habibullah Khan, who continued to fulfil his father\u2019s dream, was also responsible for bringing Mahmud Beg Tarzi back from exile. Tarzi, being educated in Turkey and Syria, introduced social reforms advocating democracy and women\u2019s rights through his newspaper Seraj ul Akhbar where he had a special section called \u201cCelebrating Women of the World.\u201d After Habibullah\u2019s assassination, his son Amanullah defeated the British in the third Anglo-Afghan war of 1919 and embarked on a mission to liberate women from tribal cultural norms. By the late \u201920s, when the monarchy raised the marriageable age of women to 18 and gave women the right to choose their own partners, a subversive coalition of opponents of Amanullah was created and\nAmanullah was forced to flee the country. The central issue of women\u2019s rights was the main reason behind the fall of the monarchy in Afghanistan.\n\nIn the 1950s, with the assistance of the Soviet Union, Afghanistan embarked on yet another spurt of modernisation, when women were again encouraged to become nurses, doctors and teachers. Yet again, the Afghan fundamentalists were unhappy with the progressive social reforms in the 1970s. This led to the creation of the Mujahideen, who defeated the Soviets in 1989. The Mujahideen declared Afghanistan as an Islamic State in 1992 and deprived women of basic human rights, including the right to education. Ironically, in 1996 the Taliban thwarted the oppressive Mujahideen and established even more strict restrictions on women. Women were not allowed to leave their homes without a male companion. Nor could they visit male doctors.\n\nThus, feminism in Afghanistan is marred by conflicts between religion and power. From 2001, the democratic governments of the country are still struggling with the orthodox fundamentalists who do not believe in women\u2019s liberation. Hosseini, in his novel *A Thousand Splendid Suns*, portrays the tumultuous times spanning the Soviet invasion to Taliban rule through the lives of Mariam and Laila. Having provided a historical background of women\u2019s involvement in public life in Bangladesh and Afghanistan, in what follows we will elucidate key theoretical conceptions of Third World feminism.\n\n**Important Theoretical Underpinnings**\n\nPostcolonial theories repudiate the colonisers\u2019 discourse and its shaping of the experiences and realities of the colonised, focusing on resistance to colonial powers and the resulting impact upon the discourse in colonised nations. Postcolonial feminism integrates indigenous ideas with Third World feminist ideas and discusses the representation of women in \u201conce colonized countries\u201d (Tyagi 45), which is deeply embedded in nationalism. Therefore, postcolonial feminism in Third World countries invariably has strong political connotations and, as a result, the identity of a Third World feminist is implicitly nurtured by internal ideologies and socio-political factors.\n\nIn order to realise a fair and just picture of women in colonised nations, it is essential to employ Third World feminist perspectives; however, Tyagi points out that though feminism seeks to empower women by transcending national boundaries and geographical distances, nationalism \u201chas exaggerated such characteristics and boundaries in order to resist hegemonic occupation\u201d (Tyagi 46). Citing Ketu Katrak, Tyagi notes that Indian nationalism, during Gandhi\u2019s resistance to British colonial rule in the 1920s and 30s, tried to control female bodies by imprisoning them into stereotypes, \u201cwhere females symbolised the pre-colonial, the traditional, and the untouched domestic spaces\u201d (46). Likewise, Peterson and Rutherford opine that Third World women were in a precarious condition of \u201cdouble colonization\u201d (qtd. in Tyagi 45) as they simultaneously\nexperienced the oppression of colonialism and patriarchy in the postcolonial period.\n\nIn contrast, Mohanty (338) criticises First World feminism, stating that Third World women are perceived as \u201cpowerless,\u201d \u201cexploited\u201d and \u201csexually harassed.\u201d From the Western viewpoint, consequently, a misconception of Third World feminist discourse as a \u201cdiscourse of the weak\u201d has been created by these faulty assumptions. In her opinion, Third World women are a composite and singular construction, not victims of patriarchy and traditional culture; hence a unique position of Third World women embracing their socio-political background and inter-relationships with other colonised women is advocated by Third World feminism. Crowley concurs with this view as she says, \u201cthe descriptive and normative dimensions of western feminism are found to be sadly lacking when applied to non-western societies\u201d (44).\n\nCrowley further notes that nationalistic movements are nominally pro-feminist, citing the examples of some Islamic nationalist movements such as those of Iran and Algeria. She also shows how Eritrean women, who fought in the frontlines during a nationalistic movement, had to conform to Islamic rules when they returned home. As a result, the liberation of women, although a priority for Muslims theoretically, is fraught with \u201chuge dilemmas, when confronted with the forces of religious fervor and traditionalism\u201d (Crowley 49). Moreover, Mernissi explains that \u201cboth modernity and tradition confront each other with dramatic consequences for relations between sexes\u201d (8). Therefore, in Third World countries, a postcolonial feminist approach must incorporate cultural dimensions to comprehend the varied forms of agency used by women to make their voices heard. The next section discusses the selected novels in the light of postcolonial feminist theory.\n\n**Background of the Novels**\n\nSelina Hossain, a prolific writer, explores different dimensions of the experiences of women in Bangladesh in *River of My Blood*, where the central image is an explicit metaphor of the pain and struggles of women not only during the Liberation War but also in society at large. The central character of Hossain\u2019s captivating story is Boori (which literally means \u201can old woman\u201d), the youngest of twelve children, a rambunctious, spirited young girl with preferences and a mind of her own, who does not conform to the stereotypical role of the docile daughter. The novel is in ten parts and named after the Bengali seasons, and readers traverse down memory lane as Boori relates her life-story along with those of her friend Nita and daughter-in-law Ramija. She lives out her entire life in Haldi, a typical, traditional, rural backwater, Bangladeshi village, and continues to yearn for freedom as she progresses through puberty, her first love, heartbreak, marriage and motherhood.\nWithin this tapestry, Hossain skilfully interweaves the events of the bloody and violent Liberation War.\n\nIn *A Thousand Splendid Suns* Khaled Hosseini captures the essence of Third World women and their struggles through several diverse, socio-political movements through his narrative of Mariam and Laila, two co-wives in war-torn Afghanistan. The novel is divided into three parts and tells the stories of Mariam, then Laila and, finally, integrates both protagonists\u2019 narratives within which Hosseini masterfully interweaves the political and cultural shifts in Afghanistan. Though the women and narratives belong to different times and places there are recurrent themes and strong resemblances between the lives, events and thoughts of Mariam and Laila and Boori, Ramija and Nita.\n\n**Childhood, Desire for Freedom, Marriage and Oppression**\n\nHossain begins with: \u201cRed is blood is birth is life is\u2026. Or is it the other way round?\u201d (1). She thus establishes the undeniable significance of blood in a woman\u2019s life, and further reinforces this image with: \u201cRed was the colour of her earliest memories, the seeds that burst and rooted in the shallows where the crane stalked fish\u201d (Hossain 1). The first glimpse into Boori\u2019s train of thoughts shows her to be unhappy that her father Ramjan Ali named her \u201cBoori\u201d; she feels \u201cfractious\u201d when people utter her name, and she would prefer to have been named \u201cNoori, Nargis or Yasmeen.\u201d So, from the very beginning, she has a mind and opinion of her own. Despite being different from her siblings and despite hearing the unwanted judgemental comments from her neighbours, her mother supports her completely as she lets \u201cher grow up with her own ideas as long as it suited her. The villagers were silenced\u201d (Hossain 2). But references are made to the transient, ephemeral state of things which will not last and soon change for the worse when she is described \u201cas a drop of water on a maankochu leaf\u201d (Hossain 4), and compared to a small fly hovering over the damp swamp grass (Hossain 4).\n\nThrough Boori\u2019s interactions with her classmate Jalil, we learn about the position of women in an ultra-conservative, patriarchal society. Boori is desirous of freedom and independence and declares, \u201cI will go! Definitely! I\u2019ll go away one of these days!\u201d (Hossain 4). However, she also has a deep rooted understanding and realisation of her position as a woman in a patriarchal society as she reasons that: \u201cshe knew that in reality they were not the same. Jalil was a boy and that made all the difference!\u201d (Hossain 4). This difference is reinforced by the fact that Jalil was allowed to have dreams and ambitions of moving out of Haldi one day whereas Boori had to fit in with her surroundings and forget any such elusive, unrealistic dreams, and so she \u201cblended into village life like an insect camouflaged against bark or foliage \u2013 she wanted so many things, but they were beyond her reach \u2013 her dreams faded like the mail train into a faraway land\u201d (Hossain 5).\nShe had immense curiosity for the world \u201coutside Haldi,\u201d and wanted freedom and a life outside the confines of the village as she wants to be like a free bird and envies Jalil for his independence. However, conforming to the tenets of Third World feminism, she accepts her father\u2019s decision and discontinues her education after primary school; her acceptance of this decision without any fuss is because of her sense of her helplessness. Before Jalil leaves for Dhaka, he professes his love for her, but Boori is unable to leave her parents and defy societal norms, and consequently cannot muster up the courage to reciprocate his love. Soon after Jalil\u2019s departure from Haldi, Boori\u2019s father dies, thus drastically changing her life forever. She soon reaches puberty and has her first menstruation; her once supportive mother now says that \u201cit\u2019s not safe for girls when the red river flows\u2026. it\u2019s like a burning fire!\u201d (Hossain 12). This red river imagery concurs with the imagery at the beginning of the novel. Unable to comprehend the deeper meanings of such banter at such an early age, Boori docilely surrenders to the will of her family and marries her cousin Gafoor, a much older widower with children, thus reinforcing the double standards of patriarchy where an innocent child is married off to a previously married older man.\n\nDespite her meek acceptance of her marriage arrangements, Boori was secretly happy. Hossain presents Boori as a rebel in spirit when she states that Boori \u201cwas bored to death in her own village. At long last, she would be free to venture beyond the borders of Haldi. She longed to get on a boat and see the world\u201d (Hossain 13). Unfortunately, she was married in the same village and her new home was just a few steps from her mother\u2019s home. Instead of freedom she was confined to yet another room in her husband Gafoor\u2019s house. Her typical, daily, rural housewifely chores are juxtaposed with her constantly wandering mind; while caring for her stepsons Salim and Kalim, her thoughts would flit like a butterfly crossing the boundaries of Haldi village. She wonders if she would have been better off with her childhood crush Jalil and regrets that she let him \u201cslip through her fingers\u201d (Hossain 17). Sometimes, she finds Gafoor\u2019s presence unbearable and \u201cshe could sense a storm shatter the inside of her heart\u201d (Hossain 17). This reminds us of Susan, in Doris Lessing\u2019s To Room Nineteen (1963), who yearns to get away from her troubled domestic life and finds refuge in a rented room. Although Boori does not face any existential crisis after her marriage, she still desires a refuge of her own. She finds refuge in nature. Lessing depicts the dichotomy of the intellect and instinct through Susan and a similar dichotomy is depicted in Boori in the pre-Liberation era of Bangladesh by infusing the beauty of rural Haldi in the narrative: \u201cthe birds chirped, as the cold wind blew over the tree tops; the branches of the sajna swayed in the air \u2013 Boori sat with her legs stretched out\u201d (Hossain 17). For a rural housewife, sitting with outstretched legs is looked down upon by society. But when she is in nature, she feels free to\nquestion her own life and, like Lessing\u2019s Susan, totally immerses herself in Haldi\u2019s\ngreen setting and the Shomeshwari river.\n\nHosseini\u2019s plot begins with the story of Mariam, the illegitimate child of Jalil,\na Herat merchant, and his former maid. Mariam lives with her rather indifferent,\nocaring mother Nana in Gul Daman, a bustling city, two kilometres away from\nHerat and is known as \u201charami\u201d (illegitimate) by her own mother and the\nneighbours, though her father visits them every Thursday. Despite her\norientation in a strong patriarchal community, at the age of 15 in 1974, Mariam\nrebels against the injustice done to her, hoping her father and his legitimate family\nwill accept her and let her live with them. Defying her mother\u2019s advice, she boldly\ndecides to travel alone and \u201cfor the first time in her life, headed down the hill for\nHerat\u201d (Hosseini 30). Guha notes that \u201cwhen a victim, however timid, comes to\nregard herself as an object of injustice, she already steps into the role of a critic\nof the system that victimizes her\u201d (qtd. in Raheja 177). However, her rebellion\nfails as her father refuses to see her and her mother, terrified that her daughter\nhas deserted her, commits suicide. Thus, like Boori, Mariam is all alone and\nhelpless at a young age and in an analogous way she is also forced by her father\nto marry Rasheed, who is 30 years older. Just like Boori, Mariam is subjected to\na life of domestic submission after her move to her husband\u2019s house in Kabul;\nshe too is circumscribed by religion and society when her husband ceremoniously\ngives her a stereotypical Burqa. Mariam\u2019s feelings of confinement and oppression\necho Boori\u2019s: \u201cthe padded headpiece felt tight and heavy on her skull, and it was\nstrange seeing the world through a mesh screen\u2026 the loss of peripheral vision\nwas unnerving\u2026\u201d (Hosseini 71).\n\nMariam appears to be \u201ca silent woman\u201d who chooses not to rebel against\noppression. This silence can be analysed is several ways. Spivak noted that \u201cthe\nsubaltern as female cannot be heard or read\u201d (104). Therefore, subjugated\nwomen\u2019s sufferings are never noticed. Mohanty points out that western feminists\nassert that subaltern Third World women like Mariam cannot be heard because society is not ready to listen to them. Just as Boori accepted her father\u2019s wishes,\nMariam also knows that in order to live and survive she must obey her father.\nHer husband Rasheed shows the cruelty of patriarchy, symbolic of aggressive\nreligious ideologies and Taliban teachings in Afghanistan, where women are only\nprocreators, not equal human beings. Synonymous to Boori\u2019s transformation\nduring the Liberation War, Mariam transforms into a brave soul, sacrificing her\nown life to save Laila.\n\nHosseini\u2019s second protagonist, Laila, was born in Kabul in 1978, the same\nyear \u201ca new\u201d Afghanistan was born (Hosseini 100). Against the backdrop of the\nRussian Communist Afghan regime, Laila exists in the shadows of her brothers,\nAhmad and Noor, who join the anti-Soviet Mujahideen movement when Laila\nis two years old. We are here reminded of Boori\u2019s stepson Salim who joins the\nWar of Liberation in River of My Blood. Laila\u2019s mother is obsessed with her sons\nand neglects Laila. The plot parallels Mariam\u2019s story as she was also neglected in her childhood by her mother and everyone else because of her illegitimacy. Like Boori and Jalil, Laila cherishes the friendship and protection of her childhood friend Tariq, with whom she shares a sense of familiarity and comfort as they grow up together and later become romantically involved despite the strict guidelines of Afghan society. Jalil opened up horizons in Boori\u2019s life with stories of faraway lands and, similarly, Tariq gave Laila comic relief from the crisis and tensions of her nation and her family. Unlike Boori\u2019s authoritarian father and Mariam\u2019s passive father, Laila\u2019s father Hakim is a scholar who believes in equal rights for men and women. Despite his wife\u2019s apathy towards Laila, Hakeem instilled a fierce love for knowledge in Laila and allowed her relationship with Tariq to blossom. Hosseini illustrates Laila\u2019s aspirations through the words of her friend:\n\nBy the time we\u2019re twenty, Giti and I we\u2019ll have pushed out four, five kids each. But you, Laila, you\u2019ll make us two dummies proud. You\u2019re going to be somebody, I know one day I\u2019ll pick up a newspaper and find your picture on the front page.\u201d (Hosseini 163)\n\nWith the Afghan civil war, the Mujahideen find \u201cthe enemy in each other\u201d (Hosseini 169). In this chaotic historical period, Tariq\u2019s family decides to move from Kabul, and he proposes to Laila and wants to take her away from Kabul. Unfortunately, torn between her love for her parents and Tariq, Laila, like Boori, chooses to stay with her family. Laila\u2019s parents die in a rocket attack soon after Tariq leaves and her idyllic life crumbles suddenly. Her marriage happens with the backdrop of the civil war and a strong Taliban patriarchal society as her neighbour, Rasheed, rescues her. Rasheed\u2019s wife Mariam nurses Laila like an affectionate mother, but a crisis arises when the sixty year old Rasheed decides to marry the fourteen year old Laila, justifying his actions to Mariam in the following words: \u201cWe need to legitimize this situation\u2026. People will talk. It looks dishonourable, an unmarried young woman living here. It\u2019s bad for my reputation. And hers. And yours\u201d (Hosseini 208). Despite Mariam\u2019s pleas, Rasheed is resolute in his decision and Mariam, like a typical Third World woman, surrenders to her husband\u2019s will. Thus, when Mariam conveys Rasheed\u2019s proposal to Laila, Laila accepts it without any protest. Laila\u2019s silence is, however, different from Mariam\u2019s since she knows that she is pregnant with Tariq\u2019s child. Since she was informed that Tariq died in the war, she accepts the reality of her situation but she also willingly embraces deceit to keep her love alive in her womb and in her heart. She turns her silence into a rebellion. This is a perfect example of how Third World women endure double colonisation. She is simultaneously a victim of the chaos of colonial rule in Afghanistan and the patriarchal forces of power within postcolonial society, and a rebel showing passive resistance. Silence\nchanges the nature of women as they develop as strong women at the end of the narrative.\n\nAt first Mariam is strongly opposed to Laila and even repulsed by her sight but the relationship changes when she witnesses oppression being inflicted on young Laila. Soon after their marriage, Rasheed ceremoniously gives Laila a Burqa, in the same way that he had given one to Mariam. Interestingly, while Mariam felt suffocated on first wearing the Burqa, Laila initially feels fear and suffocation but later finds comfort in the confinement, as it conceals her true identity, and her shattered dreams and aspirations from the prying, pitying eyes of her acquaintances: \u201cshe wouldn\u2019t have to watch the surprise in their eyes, or the pity or the glee, at how far she had fallen, at how her lofty aspirations had been dashed\u201d (Hosseini 226).\n\nHaving been raised and mentored by a progressive father, Laila finds this confinement very difficult and yearns to leave the four walls of her husband\u2019s house. Her sense of confinement is described thus: \u201cthat winter, everywhere Laila turned, walls blocked her way. She thought longingly of the wide-open skies of her childhood, of her days of going to buzkashi tournaments with Babi and shopping at Mandai with Mammy, of her days of running free in the streets\u201d (Hosseini 224). We hear echoes of Boori\u2019s ruminations of her childhood days as she runs freely in her beloved Haldi. Boori, Laila and Mariam feel confined and restricted at some point of their lives.\n\nWhile Boori had the freedom to wander around in her village Haldi, Laila does not have the same liberty. Boori was a free spirited young wife, ignoring all the malicious comments of her neighbours but, unlike Mariam and Laila, she had the love and support of her husband Gafoor who gave her complete freedom. Boori also harboured her secret love for Jali in her heart, even after her marriage. Laila harbours her love for Tariq and endures the oppression of her husband only to ensure the birth of her and Tariq\u2019s baby. While Boori is impulsive and spontaneous, Laila is more calculative and manipulative, because on her marriage night after having intercourse with Rasheed, she deliberately pricks her finger and bleeds a few drops of her blood on the bed sheet, to convince Rasheed of her virginity. Her secret dreams are carefully nurtured within her womb. This brings us to the symbolic power of motherhood in the two Third World countries featured in the novels.\n\n**Motherhood and Heartbreak**\n\nIn the fourth year of marriage, Boori yearns for her own child, stating: \u201cI want to have my own flesh and blood, a baby from my womb and the river of my blood\u2026 mine!\u201d (Hossain 26) She seems to be searching for a more powerful identity for herself through her child; her wandering spirit wants new experiences to prevent her soul from being crushed by the monotony of domestic life: \u201cshe longed for something new, something different\u201d (Hossain 26). Village women advise her to\ngive up her random trips to the river and impulsive walks in open fields and suggest, \u201cwomen should not move so freely\u201d (Hossain 27). They believe that a free spirited woman like her could never have a child. These patriarchal attitudes affected Boori immensely. She \u201cclammed up, within herself, swinging in a cradle of doubts. What would her going out have anything to do with having a baby?\u201d (Hossain 27). But ultimately she sacrifices her spontaneity in the hopes of becoming a mother. Though this sacrifice may be viewed by some as a defeat, Mohanty points out the discrepancy between western feminism and Third World feminism saying:\n\n[T]he homogeneity of women as a group is produced not on the basis of biological essentials, but rather on the basis of secondary sociological and anthropological universals. What binds women together is a sociological notion of the \u2018sameness\u2019 of their oppression. It is at this point that an elision takes place between \u2018women\u2019 as a discursively constructed group and \u2018women\u2019 as material subjects of their own history. Thus, the discursively consensual homogeneity of \u2018women\u2019 as a group is mistaken for the historically specific material reality of groups of women. This results in an assumption of women as an always-already constituted group, one which has been labelled \u2018powerless,\u2019 \u2018exploited,\u2019 \u2018sexually harassed,\u2019 etc., by feminist scientific, economic, legal and sociological discourses. (337-38)\n\nTwo years later, after following every piece of advice and superstitious practices prescribed by others including a painstaking trip to seek Kesa Baba\u2019s blessings, Boori\u2019s desire is fulfilled when her son, Rais, is born. Boori\u2019s desire for motherhood may seem a surrender to patriarchal pressures imposed on women but it is significant in establishing Boori\u2019s character as an independent woman. Her inner spirit and her thirst for freedom seem to integrate with the face of Rais. But, unfortunately, she soon discovers that Rais is mute and all her hopes of raising her son as an ideal, strong man of Haldi are crushed. She reconciles with the fact that Rais will never call her \u201cMaa\u201d and will never be a fisherman like his father or step-brothers.\n\nLaila\u2019s experience of motherhood too is fraught with pain and suffering. At the onset she is tricked into marrying Rasheed, an abusive, tyrannical, old, married man, just to give her unborn love-child the stamp of legitimacy. She willingly marries Rasheed and deceives him by pricking a finger to bleed a few drops of blood after the consummation of their marriage in order to secure her unborn child\u2019s social safety and security. But with the birth of her child, who is a girl and not the much desired boy of patriarchal societies, her existence becomes bleaker. Rasheed, who knew about Tariq all along and had her lied to about his death, suspects the child is not his and becomes increasingly abusive. Hosseini highlights the male chauvinistic perspective by portraying the reaction of Rasheed towards\na girl child as he never calls his daughter by her name, Aziza. He hates her because she is not a son and to him, she is just a nuisance and he even expresses a desire to \u201cput that thing in a box and let her float down Kabul River\u201d (Hosseini 231). Finally, he has his way and sends Aziza to an orphanage. But Laila\u2019s resolve is always unwavering; her resolve is seen when she is beaten by both Rasheed and the Taliban for going to Aziza\u2019s orphanage alone, without any \u201cmahram,\u201d but this incident does not prevent her from visiting her daughter Aziza again and again. Her strength is also seen when she gives birth via caesarean section to Rasheed\u2019s son Zalmai, without any anaesthesia as per oppressive, tyrannical, patriarchal, Taliban dictates.\n\nLike Boori, Mariam undergoes similar motherhood pangs. During her first pregnancy \u201cwhen Mariam thought of this baby, her heart swelled inside of her. It swelled and swelled until all the loss, all the grief, all the loneliness and self-abasement of her life washed away\u201d (Hosseini 88). For her it was a chance to prove her power to Rasheed but sadly, she miscarries and is forced to bury her child on her own, just like Hardy\u2019s Tess who buried her child Sorrow (Hardy 148), as Mariam\u2019s husband Rasheed refuses to acknowledge the existence of a dead baby. For a mother like Mariam, even her aborted baby has an identity but her sense of equity is left unheard by the people around her. After seven miscarriages, Mariam\u2019s identity as a Third World woman who is barren suffocates her. She endures years of physical and mental torture inflicted by Rasheed, in silence, just like Boori\u2019s daughter-in-law, Ramija. Whenever Mariam speaks, she is punished; though she understands the injustice of her situation she has no other option except to obey passively in order to survive. This seems to support Spivak\u2019s observation that in the Third World, patriarchy is not ready to hear women\u2019s voices. When Laila enters her life, Mariam\u2019s motherly instincts are aroused and she lovingly nurses her almost like a mother. But soon their relationship is challenged as Laila becomes her co-wife and later gives birth to Aziza. Initially, Mariam was apathetic towards the new baby, but upon observing Laila taking care of Aziza, her heart softened: \u201cthe strange thing was, the girl\u2019s fall from grace ought to have pleased Mariam, brought her a sense of vindication\u2026 but it didn\u2019t. It didn\u2019t to her own surprise\u2026. Mariam found herself pitying the girl\u201d (Hosseini 233). When Rasheed sends Aziza to an orphanage, the two women share the pain of losing a child together and both secretly sneak out of the house to visit Aziza on different occasions. Mariam\u2019s sense of loss and the indescribable vacuum of her life is filled up when Laila enters her life, thus a kind of mother-daughter relationship develops between the two co-wives. This unusual mother-daughter bond further strengthens when Laila stops Rasheed from beating Mariam one night; the older woman feels grateful towards Laila and gradually, a very warm relationship, reminiscent of a sisterhood, develops between Laila and Mariam, which brings us to the themes of sisterhood present in the two novels.\nEmpowering Bonds of Sisterhood\n\nA significant aspect of Hossain\u2019s plot is the presence of Boori\u2019s friend Nita, the \u201cBaul minstrel.\u201d Bauls live a bohemian life, traversing open lands, singing songs of humanity and God. They live on offerings from devotees and do not believe in domesticity, and they never get married or settle down. Nita and Boori have a very strong connection and Nita appears at her doorstep after prolonged periods of time, sometimes months, and provides Boori with a macrocosmic view of the outside world with her stories of faraway lands and people. This fascinates Boori and reminds her of her past: \u201cNita reminded Boori of Jalil... he was a free man too\u201d (Hossain 31). Nita epitomises the freedom and liberation that all rural Bangladeshi women crave. Her dishevelled appearance contrasts the ideal picture of a domestic housewife. As Boori is deemed a rebel within her community, she feels a strange affinity to Nita. At one point, Boori impulsively tells Nita, \u201cno, please take me with you\u201d (Hossain 31). Their strong bond is like a sisterhood, as they support each other with all their heart throughout their trials: Nita\u2019s first partner Ramdas\u2019s death; Boori\u2019s pregnancy and motherhood struggles. Nita is much older than Boori and this adds an interesting dimension to the plot. Lamb asserts that the role of the older woman in the South Asian oral tradition is essential in comprehending the true meaning of womanhood in the region; as such, stories provide women with a \u201cforum for presenting an alternate way of looking at things, a way that resonates more soundly with the ambiguities of their own life experiences\u201d (Lamb 68). Boori hears Nita\u2019s song echoing through the open fields of Haldi and knows she will see her \u201csoi\u2019\u201d (friend) soon. Thus Boori and Nita maintain a sense of solidarity and kinship, as they face the trials and tribulations of life.\n\nWhen Boori\u2019s stepson Salim gets married, she develops a similar solidarity with her daughter-in-law Ramija. Ramija instantly blends in with the family and becomes Boori\u2019s companion but, when Salim physically and mentally torments Ramija, Boori does not help her as she does not want to interfere in her son\u2019s personal life. Like other typical Third World women, Ramija accepts her fate and Salim\u2019s scornful behaviour and understands that Boori, though affectionate towards her, cannot help. During the Liberation War we see Boori\u2019s protective motherly-cum-sisterly instincts when she insists upon sending Ramija and her new-born child to her father\u2019s home for her own protection, as Pakistani soldiers are on the rampage, raping and abducting young women. On Ramija\u2019s part we see her distraught at being sent away and requesting her neighbours to take care of Boori, her mother-cum-sister. Boori\u2019s character grows in leaps and bounds through her interaction with the two women in her life.\n\nSimilarly, after the birth of Aziza, a warm, strong relationship grows between Mariam and Laila. Mariam has sisterly, motherly and grandmotherly feelings for Laila\u2019s two children whom she cares for and teaches. Both women share the\ncommon pain of Aziza being sent to the orphanage and routinely sneak out to see the child, defying their husband Rasheed and the tyrannical Taliban. They become confidantes and best friends and even try to run away with Aziza from Kabul and Rasheed, but Rasheed catches them at the bus stop, severely beats up both of them and deprives them of water for several days and almost kills them and the child Aziza. Thus, both are routinely mentally and physically abused by their husband. Mariam knows very well that Laila and Tariq plan to reunite and yet she conceals it from everyone. Ultimately, Mariam murders Rasheed to protect Laila, her daughter-cum-sister, from being murdered. In the character of Mariam, Hosseini explicitly shows how a lifetime of anger, suppression, frustration and anguish can change a woman completely. A much stronger Mariam emerges at the end as Sindhu points out:\n\nMariam who never shows any sign of rebellion against Rasheed and his barbarous beating, gained courage to fight back and ultimately kill Rasheed by love and respect that she received from Laila and her children. Mariam makes a calculated decision to kill Rasheed as he is in act of murdering Laila. Mariam makes sure that Rasheed sees her so that he can acknowledge her action. (304)\n\nThis reminds us of the very close relationship between Boori and Nita and also between Boori and Ramija in Hossain\u2019s River of My Blood. These women depend on each other in times of crisis \u2013 both personal and political. They are comrades who understand each other. Ramija is Boori\u2019s daughter-in-law, who transforms into a companion and fellow comrade during the Liberation War as they suffer through the pain of losing Selim, Kalim and Rais. Although Nita is a bohemian, her intense affinity with Boori\u2019s independent spirit makes her a soul sister. Nita was present in Boori\u2019s house when Boori decided to sacrifice her son Rais to save the muktijoddhas. Mariam\u2019s role is similar to Nita\u2019s presence in River of My Blood, because Mariam transforms into a silent supporter and an anchor for Laila. Her role is glorified at the end of the plot when she takes revenge and kills Rasheed with her own hands. Thus through their bonds of sisterhood these women are sustained in extremely difficult, trying and defining situations in their lives. This brings us to the overwhelming themes of war, violence, death, loss and upheaval at both the personal and national levels that permeate both these narratives.\n\n**War, Bloodshed, Loss and Sacrifice**\n\nThe political storm sweeping East Pakistan in the late 60s begins to affect life in the small village of Haldi and violently rips apart the very fabric of Boori\u2019s existence and family. The tone, mood and discourse in River of My Blood changes drastically as the War of Liberation, Muktijuddho, begins. Boori\u2019s stepson Salim becomes a muktijoddha or a freedom fighter and actively participates in the Liberation War of Bangladesh. This transforms Boori totally; she is extremely\nproud of Salim for trying to uphold the rights of Bangladeshis. She regrets that her own son Rais cannot fight in the war because of his disability. We get a glimpse of a Muktijoddha\u2019s mother\u2019s pride when her younger stepson Kalim, who stayed home to look after the family, is taken, tortured and brought back by Pakistani soldiers. Reaching the front door of Boori\u2019s house, they shout, \u201cYou mother of an infidel, open the door\u201d (Hossain 145), and despite being crestfallen upon seeing Kalim\u2019s disfigured, bloodied face, and despite her pain, she says to herself, \u201cwhy do you keep your head down Kalim?\u2026 you must look up, son\u2026 let the flames blaze your tiger eyes\u2026 let Haldi be born again\u201d (Hossain 146). Even as Kalim is tortured and killed, she strokes his head with blood soaked fingers and thinks to herself, \u201cthe blood streaming from Kalim\u2019s body conjured up crimson cascades of *shimul* flowers\u201d (Hossain 149). Thus in her mind she juxtaposes blood red flowers with the red blood on Kalim\u2019s body. Later two young neighbours, Kader and Hakim, who are freedom fighters, take refuge in her house while her friend-cum-sister Nita is also at her house as her companion. Boori hears the distant gunshots and screams of the agitated soldiers when the Pakistani army enters Haldi and she panics and wonders how to save Kader and Hakim as \u201ctheir very lives were in her hands now. And theirs were precious lives, ones that must live on\u201d (Hossain 186). The narrator, describes the ensuing scene when in her moment of fear and frenzy, Boori suddenly looks at her own mute son Rais, and states:\n\nHe was snoring, unperturbed. Boori peered down at his face and inhaled his breath. It smelled like the sweet faces of Kader and Hakim, the day they left their home for *muktijuddho*. She felt she was at the centre of her people, huddled together with lights cupped in their hands. An oracle whispered in her ears, \u2018There\u2019s no time to loiter and stare\u2026. Life is full of fear.\u2019 (Hossain 187)\n\nIn a split second decision when the soldiers demand to search her house for muktijoddhas, she shoves a gun in Rais\u2019s hands and presents him in front of the soldiers. In her perception they, namely, Boori, Kader and Hakim were fighting for the freedom of their \u201cSonar Bangla,\u201d at the cost of their own lives and so she was no longer Rais\u2019s \u201cMaa,\u201d but \u201cthe mother of all Bangladeshis\u201d (Hossain 188). Boori\u2019s actions, however controversial, illustrates the helplessness of the times. War can alter someone\u2019s reality as well as his/her identity. Boori sheds her identity as Rais\u2019 mother and transforms into a mother for the Muktijoddhas \u2013 a silent soldier. It is a heart-breaking decision. Hossain wonderfully blends physical reality with psychical reality in an attempt to portray the selfless sacrifices of women during the Liberation War. Even Rais\u2019s death brilliantly integrates folk culture when, on seeing Rais\u2019s dead body, Nita consoles Boori saying: \u201cStop crying, dear. Did you see how\nyour Rais changed into a blood lotus?\u201d (Hossain 190). Boori imagines that \u201cher hut-her pond-her land-her river-her hands caught between the crosshairs of history. Everything turned red\u201d (Hossain 191).\n\nIn resonance with Hossain, Hosseini\u2019s narrative is also pervaded by the anti-Soviet war of the Mujahideen as well as the bloody Afghan civil war ignited by the Taliban. Mariam and Laila are married to a tyrannical Taliban supporter, Rasheed. Laila\u2019s brothers are Mujahideen fighters who died when she was young. Her lover and companion Tariq and his family leave Kabul because of the civil war. Her mother fanatically supports the Mujahideen, refusing to move out of Kabul which ultimately led to Laila\u2019s injury and the death of both of her parents in a rocket blast. Taking advantage of Laila\u2019s orphanhood, the general strife and chaos, her cunning old neighbour Rasheed conspires with fellow Taliban supporter Abdul Sharif and gives Laila the fake news of Tariq\u2019s death and forces her into marriage. Thus the consecutive and ongoing Afghan wars are depicted in gory detail. Hosseini shows the injustice of the supposedly Islamic strictures imposed by the Taliban, and exposes the victimisation of women in a misrepresentation of Muslim ideals in a Muslim country. Finally, this tyranny leads to Rasheed\u2019s murder by Mariam to save Laila. Mariam further elevates herself as a woman and strongly defines her freedom of choice and sense of independence by refusing to go away with Laila and Tariq and deciding to surrender to the Taliban. After a short trial the Taliban predictably sentence her to death and she faces her executioners calmly and serenely as in her mind she thinks of all the women who have guided her and given her strength: Nana, Bibijjo, Laila and Aziza. Her serenity and demeanour reflect the serenity and true happiness that Laila finds with her long lost love Tariq, her children and the legacy of Mariam\u2019s lasting love. Thus we see a gentle helpless woman metamorphose into a fearless, brave silent soldier who makes the ultimate sacrifice of her own self.\n\nConclusion\nLamb suggests that South Asian women have a complex and multifaceted identity on account of their long standing humiliation and oppression. Women like Mariam and Boori tell stories from a \u201cmother\u2019s perspective,\u201d focusing on their \u201cpowerlessness,\u201d presenting their identity as \u201cbeggared and displaced\u201d women (Lamb 55). According to Lamb,\n\nthrough such oral narratives\u2026 many Bengali women scrutinize and critique the social worlds they experience, giving voice to their experiences through the language of story\u2026. Their narratives form, then, a kind of subaltern voice, through which they present alternate visions of motherhood and a woman\u2019s old age. (Lamb 55)\nMariam, who is a mother/sister to Laila, after dwelling in silence for so long, decided to finally act on her repressed feelings. Her act of killing Rasheed may be seen in this light because, for the first time she feels liberated. The displaced oppressed woman finds an agency through which she can exert her power. Shameem evaluated Hosseini\u2019s motives in the portrayal of his women protagonists by commenting that perhaps the prolonged conditions of conflict in Afghanistan from the 1970s to 2003 have adversely impacted its women by \u201cexacerbating patriarchal oppression\u201d on them and consequently forcing them to undergo \u201cunbounded pain and suffering. This pain and suffering was cast in their voicelessness\u201d (65). Shameem reiterates that Hosseini shows that Afghan women have a voice by bringing their suffering to the forefront (65). Hossain in her narrative perhaps does the same. The Spivakian voicelessness or the silence of Boori, Ramija, Mariam and Laila prove to be potently powerful as they develop as human beings and as women. As a result, \u201csilent women\u201d who fight for liberty, justice and equal rights are finally given a voice of some sort. Thus Selina Hossain and Khaled Hosseini masterfully depict and bring to life gentle, powerless, compliant \u201csilent women\u201d who make brave, empowering decisions by sacrificing their loved possessions and emerging as unforgettable \u201csilent soldiers\u201d whose sacrifices, contributions and \u201csilent voices\u201d can no longer be denied or ignored.\n\nWorks Cited", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://journals.iium.edu.my/asiatic/index.php/AJELL/article/download/1207/796/2211", "len_cl100k_base": 10978, "olmocr-version": "0.1.48", "pdf-total-pages": 18, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 55499, "total-output-tokens": 12588, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00028824806213378906, "__label__art_design": 0.0006303787231445312, "__label__crime_law": 0.00034809112548828125, "__label__education_jobs": 0.00400543212890625, "__label__entertainment": 0.0007801055908203125, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0002300739288330078, "__label__finance_business": 0.0002639293670654297, "__label__food_dining": 0.00021946430206298828, "__label__games": 0.00041103363037109375, "__label__hardware": 4.303455352783203e-05, "__label__health": 0.00019276142120361328, "__label__history": 0.003570556640625, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00014448165893554688, "__label__industrial": 0.00016772747039794922, "__label__literature": 0.9716796875, "__label__politics": 0.0127716064453125, "__label__religion": 0.0008101463317871094, "__label__science_tech": 0.000896453857421875, "__label__social_life": 0.001870155334472656, "__label__software": 6.699562072753906e-05, "__label__software_dev": 0.0001837015151977539, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00015246868133544922, "__label__transportation": 0.00019752979278564453, "__label__travel": 0.0001067519187927246}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 51746, 0.01313]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 51746, 0.36325]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 51746, 0.95847]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 2520, false], [2520, 5624, null], [5624, 8592, null], [8592, 11636, null], [11636, 14504, null], [14504, 17506, null], [17506, 20676, null], [20676, 23857, null], [23857, 26912, null], [26912, 29885, null], [29885, 32886, null], [32886, 36077, null], [36077, 39187, null], [39187, 42184, null], [42184, 45154, null], [45154, 47907, null], [47907, 50465, null], [50465, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 2520, true], [2520, 5624, null], [5624, 8592, null], [8592, 11636, null], [11636, 14504, null], [14504, 17506, null], [17506, 20676, null], [20676, 23857, null], [23857, 26912, null], [26912, 29885, null], [29885, 32886, null], [32886, 36077, null], [36077, 39187, null], [39187, 42184, null], [42184, 45154, null], [45154, 47907, null], [47907, 50465, null], [50465, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 51746, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 2520, 1], [2520, 5624, 2], [5624, 8592, 3], [8592, 11636, 4], [11636, 14504, 5], [14504, 17506, 6], [17506, 20676, 7], [20676, 23857, 8], [23857, 26912, 9], [26912, 29885, 10], [29885, 32886, 11], [32886, 36077, 12], [36077, 39187, 13], [39187, 42184, 14], [42184, 45154, 15], [45154, 47907, 16], [47907, 50465, 17], [50465, 51746, 18]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 51746, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-11-25", "created": "2024-11-25"}
+{"id": "56a4fb48202296d813ac4663dac477d9f5020a8c", "text": "The Spectator, Aesthetic Experience and the Modern Idea of Happiness\n\nBrian Michael Norton (California State University, Fullerton, USA)\n\nAbstract  Focusing on Joseph Addison and Richard Steele\u2019s Spectator papers, this essay links modern ideas of happiness to the emergence of aesthetic theory in early eighteenth-century Britain. It argues that Addison and his contemporaries understood aesthetics foremost as a means of enriching life through sharpening our sensory experience of the world, especially the world of nature. The \u00abhappiness\u00bb that attends this experience, as they describe it, is a heightened sense of feeling alive, of connecting to the providential order, and being part of a common universe of existing things.\n\n\n1 Introduction\n\nCentral to modern conceptions of happiness is the belief that life is richest and most worth living in moments of intense perceptual awareness. Perhaps no one has espoused this idea more eloquently than the Victorian essayist and art critic Walter Pater. The task of \u00abspeculative culture\u00bb, he insists, is \u00abto startle\u00bb the \u00abhuman spirit\u00bb \u00abinto sharp and eager observation\u00bb (Pater 1974, p. 70). Indeed, Pater characterizes this as the key struggle of life itself. \u00abA counted number of pulses only is given to us of a variegated, dramatic life\u00bb, he proposes, going on to ask:\n\nHow may we see in them all that is to be seen in them by the finest senses? How shall we pass most swiftly from point to point, and be present always at the focus where the greatest number of vital forces unite in their purest energy?\n\nIt is as if in the very act of attention there is a concentration of life, a distillation. The world itself grows more vibrant. Pater writes lyrically of \u00abgathering all we are into one desperate effort to see and touch\u00bb, famously positing that \u00abto maintain this ecstasy, is success in life\u00bb (Pater 1974, pp. 60-61). Life radiates in such moments; it burns. A good life, according to this distinctly modern view, is one in which we are most perceptually alive.\nThe present essay traces this idea back to its origins, which coincide with the origins of modern aesthetics in early eighteenth-century Britain. This is perhaps not surprising. Etymologically, aesthetics comes from the Greek *aesthesis*, meaning sensation or sensory perception. And from the beginning, aesthetics was identified with a particular form of \u2018pleasure\u2019 or \u2018satisfaction\u2019. But the connections between modern aesthetics and modern happiness are in fact much deeper than this, and are woven into the very way we talk about happiness. Whereas classical *eudaimonia* refers to the objective quality of a life as a whole, and is perhaps best decided by a third party, modern happiness is a first-person, typically present-tense feeling or affect \u2013 as Darrin McMahon explains, it is \u00absomething we can savor, relish, and feel\u00bb (McMahon 2006, p. 181). These are perceptual terms, borrowed especially from the language of taste, which of course provides the foundational metaphor of aesthetic theory from Addison to Kant (on \u00abtaste\u00bb, see Gigante 2005). We have grown so accustomed to thinking about happiness in this way that we may no longer recognize it as metaphorical, and indeed it may no longer be metaphorical. In moments of happiness, we really do feel happy; there are times when we really do seem to savor life. Aesthetic-perceptual tropes lurk even in historical accounts of how this idea came into being. In his compendious *Happiness: A History*, McMahon charts the slow emergence of modern happiness over the course of the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, characterizing it as a \u00abgreat reorientation of the human gaze \u2013 from the joys of heaven to the happiness of earth\u00bb (McMahon 2006, p. 190). While McMahon is ostensibly describing the rise of a secular idea of temporal felicity, his language denotes a happiness that attends the way we \u00abgaze\u00bb upon the \u00abearth\u00bb. This essay seeks to unpack that happiness.\n\nI will focus on Joseph Addison and Richard Steele\u2019s enormously successful *Spectator* papers. Of particular relevance to scholars of aesthetics is Addison\u2019s celebrated \u00abPleasures of the Imagination\u00bb series, appearing in June and July 1712 as numbers 411-421 of *The Spectator*. Along with Shaftesbury\u2019s *The Moralists, A Philosophical Rhapsody* and Francis Hutcheson\u2019s *Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue*, the \u00abPleasures of the Imagination\u00bb series is widely regarded to be one of the founding texts of modern aesthetic theory (cfr. Costelloe 2013; Guyer 2008; Stolnitz 1961). For the purposes of this essay, I will be concerned less with Addison\u2019s originality than with his exemplarity, analysing the \u00abImagination\u00bb papers \u2013 as well as his, and Richard Steele\u2019s, related essays throughout *The Spectator* \u2013 to make larger claims about the period\u2019s aesthetic philosophy. I will\n\n---\n\n1 Of course, the term \u2018aesthetics\u2019 did not enter modern languages until later in the century through the work of Alexander Baumgarten. For a concise overview, see Costelloe 2013, pp. 1-5.\n\n2 For the third-person quality of *eudaimonia*, see Soni 2010 and Potkay 2010.\nalso draw on the work of a number of eighteenth-century nature poets, who can be seen as extending and disseminating this particular way of looking at nature. My central argument is that early aesthetic theory is less an academic study of the principles of art than it is a kind of art of living, one that pursues affective well-being through intensifying and enlivening our experiences of the world. In developing these ideas and practices, aesthetic writers pioneered modes of experience that continue to inform the way we think about happiness.\n\n2 Aesthetics beyond Art\n\nIn recent decades, a wide range of philosophers and theorists - including Jacques Ranci\u00e8re, Arnold Berleant, Richard Shusterman, Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Yuriko Saito, and Alexander Nehamas - have challenged the art-centred nature of contemporary aesthetic theory and its sequestering of aesthetic experience from the concerns and projects of everyday life. Although we may have lost sight of the fact, early aesthetic theory was not constrained in this way. This is the case even with the \u00abImagination\u00bb essays, the most technical and focused treatment of the subject to be found in The Spectator. In the inaugural number, Spectator 411, Addison introduces his topic and offers what is now recognized to be a paradigmatic account of aesthetic experience. I quote the passage in full:\n\nA Man of Polite Imagination, is let into a great many Pleasures that the Vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with a Picture, and find an agreeable Companion in a Statue. He meets with a secret Refreshment in a Description, and often feels a greater Satisfaction in the Prospect of Fields and Meadows, than another does in the Possession. It gives him, indeed, a kind of Property in every thing he sees, and makes the most rude uncultivated Parts of Nature administer to his Pleasures: So that he looks upon the World, as it were, in another Light, and discovers in it a Multitude of Charms, that conceal themselves from the generality of Mankind (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 538).\n\nAs this passage indicates, Addison understands aesthetics to encompass more than just the newly grouped fine arts (see Kivy 2012). In addition to pictures, statues and descriptions, aesthetics is also a matter of how one \u00ablooks upon the World\u00bb, including such things as fields, meadows, and even the \u00abrude uncultivated Parts of Nature\u00bb. Like Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, Addison holds a broad and inclusive view of the aesthetic; as he proposes in an earlier essay, the \u00abWhole Universe\u00bb is an arena of aesthetic experience, \u00aba kind of Theatre filled with Objects that either raise in us Pleasure, Amusement or Admiration\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 453).\nIn its earliest formulation, aesthetic theory attended to a special way of experiencing the world, one that included but was in no way limited to official artworks.\n\nWhat defines the aesthetic, as Addison is describing it here, is not the status of the object, or even its perceptual properties, but the particular way the subject regards or contemplates that object. As Addison puts it, the aesthetic spectator \u00ablooks upon the World, as it were, in another Light\u00bb. While this passage has become a locus classicus of modern aesthetic theory, it is worth noting that Addison\u2019s partner, Richard Steele, had formulated a very similar idea in a Tatler essay published almost three years earlier, proposing that a certain \u00abFrame of Mind raises that sweet Enthusiasm which warms the Imagination at the Sight of every Work of Nature, and turns all around you into Picture and Landskip\u00bb (Bond 1987, vol. 2, pp. 59-60). For Steele, too, aesthetic experience depends, at least in part, on how we look at things, the particular \u2018Frame of Mind\u2019 we bring to bear on the world. Analytic philosophers refer to this perspective as the \u00abaesthetic attitude\u00bb, a concept closely identified with Jerome Stolnitz, who defends the extreme position that \u00abno object is admitted to or excluded from the realm of the aesthetic because of its inherent nature\u00bb, concluding that \u00ab[i]t is the attitude of the percipient that is decisive\u00bb (Stolnitz 1961, p. 142). Addison and Steele do indeed suggest that the aesthetic field is potentially unlimited, Steele claiming that this \u2018Frame of Mind\u2019 shapes one\u2019s vision all around you, and Addison that this special \u2018Light\u2019 colors every thing one sees. But this does not mean that the objects themselves are \u00abindifferent\u00bb, as Kant would later suggest (Kant 1987, p. 46). The kind of attentiveness Addison and Steele are describing does not supply value to valueless things \u2013 it \u2018discovers\u2019 value where it might otherwise remain hidden.\n\nClosely bound up with the concept of the aesthetic attitude is the principle of disinterestedness. According to this line of thinking, what distinguishes aesthetic vision from other modes of looking is the fact that aesthetic vision is devoid of any practical or instrumental interest in the object, the spectator admiring it for its own sake alone. In eighteenth-century British aesthetic theory, this idea is often formulated in terms of property ownership. By seeing the world as \u00abin another Light\u00bb, Addison explains, the spectator may feel \u00aba greater Satisfaction in the Prospect of Fields and Meadows, than another does in the Possession\u00bb. A similar passage can be found in Shaftesbury\u2019s The Moralists, where, contemplating a \u00abdelicious\u00bb tract of country, Shaftesbury juxtaposes the \u00abenjoyment of the\n\n---\n\n3 For more on eighteenth-century practices of viewing the world as if it were art, see Marshall 2005. As the present essay demonstrates, this is not the only way to experience the world aesthetically. For more on this distinction, see Norton 2015.\n\n4 For a critique of the Kantian view, see Shusterman 1992, p. 52, and Leddy 2012, p. 28.\nprospect\u00bb with the \u00abproperty or possession of the land\u00bb (Shaftesbury 1999, p. 319). An even earlier - and more vigorous - expression of this idea can be found in the writings of the theologian and philosopher John Norris, who is perhaps best remembered for his early critique of John Locke\u2019s Essay Concerning Human Understanding and for his published correspondence with Mary Astell. One of the poems included in Norris\u2019s A Collection of Miscellanies, archly titled \u00abMy Estate\u00bb, reads:\n\nNay (what you\u2019d think less likely to be true)\nI can enjoy what\u2019s yours much more than you.\nYour meadow\u2019s beauty I survey,\nWhich you prise only for its hay\n[...]\nWhat to you care, does to me pleasure bring,\nYou own the cage, I in it sit and sing (Norris 1717, p. 58).\n\nEven more pointedly than Shaftesbury and Addison, Norris maintains that there is more \u00abpleasure\u00bb to be found in admiring a \u00abmeadow\u2019s beauty\u00bb than in owning the actual land. While we sometimes think of disinterestedness as a cool, almost indifferent detachment, this is not at all what we encounter in these passages. In developing what we have come to identify as the quintessentially modern aesthetic attitude, these thinkers expressly sought to articulate and promote a richer and more satisfying mode of being in the world.\n\nTo fully grasp these points, it is necessary to look beyond the \u00abImagination\u00bb papers to Addison and Steele\u2019s discussions of aesthetics in the wider Spectator. Especially illuminating here are Addison\u2019s \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essays, published on three consecutive Saturdays in May 1712 (the month preceding the \u00abImagination\u00bb papers). Although it may have fallen out of intellectual favour, cheerfulness was a vaunted character trait in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a key term in the moral lexicons of writers from Addison and Steele to Austen, Wordsworth, and Dickens. According to David Hume, it \u00abnaturally conciliates the good-will of mankind\u00bb and no quality \u00abmore readily communicates itself to all around\u00bb (Hume 1966, p. 86). Addison analyses cheerfulness from a variety of angles, \u00abwith regard to our selves, to those we Converse with, and to the great Author of our Being\u00bb, examining it in both its \u00abmoral\u00bb and \u00abnatural\u00bb dimensions (Bond 1965, vol. 3, pp. 430 and 451). Cheerfulness is not happiness itself, as Addison depicts it, but a dispositional outlook or attitude conducive to happiness. He counsels his reader to cultivate this \u00abHabit of the Mind\u00bb, an undertaking especially urgent for his \u00abCountrymen\u00bb, who, he acknowledges, have a notorious penchant for \u00abMelancholy\u00bb:\n\nEvery one ought to fence against the Temper of his Climate or Constitution, and frequently to indulge in himself those Considerations which may give him a Serenity of Mind, and enable him to bear up cheerfully\nagainst those little Evils and Misfortunes which are common to Hu-\nmane Nature, and which by a right Improvement of them will produce \n453-454).\n\nIn this passage we find Addison unmistakably musing on the good life, its \nnature and its challenges, and he is doing so in a way that is largely con-\nsistent with classical ethics. One must cultivate the \u00abHabits\u00bb necessary \nto withstand life\u2019s inevitable \u00abEvils\u00bb, thereby preserving the \u00abSerenity of \nMind\u00bb needed to keep working toward the venerable goal of \u00abHappiness\u00bb, \nor *eudaimonia*.\n\nWhat is striking about Addison\u2019s formulation is the crucial \nrole aesthetics plays in the project.\n\nAfter considering cheerfulness as a \u00abMoral Habit\u00bb in *Spectator* 381, \nAddison devotes the next two essays in the series to demonstrating how \naesthetic experience itself can promote cheerfulness. *Spectator* 387 posits \nthat the world is \u00abfilled with innumerable Objects that are proper to raise \nand keep alive this happy Temper of Mind\u00bb; it goes on to survey a wide \nrange of natural phenomena to illustrate the point, including \u00abLakes\u00bb and \n\u00abRivers\u00bb, the \u00abMusick\u00bb of the \u00abWoods\u00bb, the color \u00abGreen\u00bb, the \u00abVicis-\nsitude of Day and Night\u00bb, the \u00abChange of Seasons\u00bb, and even such \u00abgro-\n*Spectator* 393 focuses on \u00abSpring\u00bb, the season when the earth\u2019s \u00abBeauty \nand Delightfulness\u00bb are at their freshest and \u00abthe Mind of the Beholder\u00bb \nis especially apt to experience \u00abthose secret Overflowings of Gladness\u00bb \nupon \u00absurveying the gay Scenes of Nature\u00bb. The affective resources of na-\nture appear to be endless. \u00abThe Creation is a perpetual Feast to the Mind\u00bb \nthat can appreciate it, Addison maintains, \u00abevery thing he sees chears and \n\nParticularly fascinating to Addison is the gratuitousness of all this beau-\nty, or, more precisely, the lucky fit between our senses and the material \nworld. For Addison, as for Hume later, beauty is not a \u00abreal\u00bb or objective \nquality in things themselves: it is a perception of the mind, not a property \nof objects. Technically speaking, things in themselves are colorless, drab \nand mute, something Addison reflects on both here in the \u00abChearfulness\u00bb \nessays and in the \u00abImagination\u00bb papers. Drawing on Locke\u2019s distinction \nbetween the primary and secondary qualities of objects, Addison suggests \nthat it is largely the latter that please us aesthetically, speculating that \u00abif\n\n---\n\n5 Potkay 2010 makes a strong argument for the perseverance of *eudaimonism* in the eight-\neenthet century; Norton 2012 argues that the subjective nature of modern happiness strained \nthe *eudaimonistic* framework of traditional theories of the good life; see also Soni 2010, who \nsees a sharper break between modern happiness and classical *eudaimonia*.\n\n6 \u00abAddison envisions an infinitely renewable dynamic of pleasure between a man and his \nMatter had appeared to us endowed only with those real Qualities which it actually possesses, it would have made but a very joyless and uncomfortable Figure\u00bb. That things appear the way they do is a function of our perceptual systems, which bolsters Addison\u2019s conviction that the world was in fact made for our aesthetic pleasure: \u00aband why has Providence given [matter] a Power of producing in us such imaginary Qualities, as Tastes and Colours, Sounds and Smells, Heat and Cold, but that Man [...] might have his Mind cheared and delighted with agreeable Sensations?\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 453). In a very material sense, there is no beauty without a spectator. And perception itself, as Addison understands it, is a ruse of providence to enrich the affective life of the perceiver.\n\nOf course, we must meet the world halfway. If it is true that beauty promotes \u00abChearfulness\u00bb, Addison insists just as strongly that the full appreciation of beauty requires \u00abChearfulness\u00bb. This is, after all, the idea behind the claim that we need to view the world as \u00abin another Light\u00bb if we are to discover its hidden \u00abCharms\u00bb. But the \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essays can help us flesh out our understanding of how this works. The aesthetic attitude, as Addison depicts it here, involves more than an attentiveness to the mere look of things, a focus on such formal properties as line, proportion and color. As the concept of \u00abChearfulness\u00bb makes clear, there is an affective component to the aesthetic attitude, a way of feeling toward the world, a kind of joyful openness toward it.7 The individual \u00abpossessed of this excellent Frame of Mind\u00bb, Addison writes, \u00abcomes with a Relish to all those Goods which Nature has provided for him\u00bb and \u00abtastes all the Pleasures of the Creation which are poured about him\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 430). From this point of view, the primary function of aesthetics is to enlarge our capacity to enjoy the world. With the right \u2018Frame of Mind\u2019 the individual can find profound satisfaction even in life\u2019s ordinary things and experiences, what Wordsworth will call the \u00absimple produce of the common day\u00bb (in the Preface to The Excursion, l. 55; see Halmi 2014, p. 445). This is precisely where Addison and Steele look for it. According to Steele, \u00abThe Air, the Season, a Sun-shine Day, or a fair Prospect, are Instances of Happiness\u00bb; the spectator requires nothing \u00abextraordinary to administer Delight\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 2, p. 309). Addison concludes his \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essays on a similar note, declaring that this \u00abhabitual Disposition of Mind consecrates every Field and Wood, turns an ordinary Walk into a morning or evening Sacrifice\u00bb and consolidates \u00abthose transient Gleams of Joy\u00bb into \u00aban inviolable and perpetual State of Bliss and Happiness\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 476). The aesthetic thus does not transcend the everyday so much as\n\n---\n\n7 Something like this can be found in Tintern Abbey, where Wordsworth speaks of \u00abOur cheerful faith that all which we behold | Is full of blessings\u00bb (Schmidt 2006, p. 113).\nit reveals its immanent value. As we have seen, this transfiguration of the commonplace (which scholars tend to identify with Wordsworth) was a key component of early aesthetic theory and perhaps its chief aspiration. From it derives our modern belief that we can enrich life by simply attending to the ordinary beauty around us.\n\n3 Aesthetic Experience and the Ontology of Happiness\n\nAddison and his contemporaries refer to the affects that accompany aesthetic experience by a variety of names, including \u00abPleasure\u00bb, \u00abRefreshment\u00bb, \u00abEntertainment\u00bb, \u00abAmusement\u00bb, \u00abEnjoyment\u00bb, \u00abDelight\u00bb, \u00abChear\u00bb, \u00abGladness\u00bb, \u00abSatisfaction\u00bb, \u00abJoy\u00bb, \u00abBliss\u00bb, and \u00abHappiness\u00bb. The wide range of terms signifies a correspondingly wide range of feelings, from light \u00abPleasure\u00bb or \u00abRefreshment\u00bb to profound \u00abBliss\u00bb or \u00abHappiness\u00bb. They are not all synonymous or interchangeable and may differ from each other as much in quality as in intensity. I have no interest in reducing this multiplicity to a single theoretical model. But, at the risk of generalizing, I do want to reflect on the sense of good feeling \u2013 indeed, the sense of well-being \u2013 that accompanies more profound aesthetic experiences of nature. What follows is necessarily speculative; I offer it as an invitation to further inquiry.\n\nLet me begin by returning to Addison\u2019s \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essay on the powers of \u00abSpring\u00bb. After claiming that no season compares with spring \u00abfor Beauty and Delightfulness\u00bb, Addison attempts to explain the effects of this beauty:\n\nIn the opening of the Spring, when all Nature begins to recover her self, the same animal Pleasure which makes the Birds sing, and the whole brute Creation rejoice, rises very sensibly in the Heart of Man. I know none of the Poets who have observed so well as Milton those secret Overflowings of Gladness which diffuse themselves thro\u2019 the Mind of the Beholder upon surveying the gay Scenes of Nature (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 474).\n\nAccording to Addison, \u00abMan\u00bb here feels a form of \u00abPleasure\u00bb that is also felt by other animals. For the latter, this appears to occur spontaneously, with the \u00abopening of the Spring, when all Nature begins to recover her self\u00bb. For humans, by contrast, this enjoyment is mediated by aesthetics, triggered by the very act of \u00absurveying\u00bb the natural world. Aesthetic contemplation, in other words, is what enables humans to feel the \u00absame animal Pleasure\u00bb enjoyed by the rest of \u00abCreation\u00bb. This has important implications for the ways we think about both aesthetics and happiness.\nThat the good life is thought to have anything at all to do with \u00abanimal Pleasure\u00bb is historically significant. Indeed, it points to another important distinction between modern happiness and classical ideas of *eudaimonia*. Aristotle, for example, takes it for granted that the good life for humans must be distinctively human. The highest good, he maintains, cannot be mere \u00abliving\u00bb (which is \u00abapparently shared with plants\u00bb), nor can it be a \u00ablife of sense-perception\u00bb (which is \u00abapparently shared\u00bb with horses, oxen and \u00abevery animal\u00bb; Aristotle 1985, p. 16). It is on these grounds that Aristotle rejects \u00abpleasure\u00bb as a candidate for *eudaimonia*, dismissing it as a \u00ablife for grazing animals\u00bb (Aristotle 1985, p. 7). Addison and his contemporaries not only have a more sanguine view of \u00abpleasure\u00bb than Aristotle, they also have a more favorable view of animal enjoyment. This is especially evident in eighteenth-century nature poetry. The Scottish-born James Thomson, writing shortly after Addison, envisages \u00abThe whole mixed animal creation round / Alive and happy\u00bb (Sambrook 1984, p. 99), and the evangelical poet William Cowper, to cite a slightly later example, commends the \u00abhappiness\u00bb of animals, insisting that all creatures, even \u00abthe meanest things that are\u00bb, have the right \u00abto live and to enjoy that life\u00bb (Cowper 1785, p. 116). In contrast to Aristotle, who presupposes that animals are incapable of happiness, Thomson and Cowper see animal happiness not only as possible but in some ways as exemplary. Animals are able to find happiness in life itself: they are \u00abalive and happy\u00bb, they \u00ablive\u00bb and \u00abenjoy that life\u00bb. Even before Wordsworth, animal happiness exemplified the elemental joy of being alive, the felicity of sheer existence.\\(^8\\)\n\nOf course, it is not so easy for humans to hold onto this joy, a theme Addison and Steele return to again and again in their essays. In *Spectator* 93, Addison writes evocatively of how we \u00abhurry\u00bb through life without really savoring it: we \u00abtravel through Time as through a Country filled with many wild and empty Wastes\u00bb, he declares, wagering that \u00abIf we divide the Life of most Men into twenty Parts, we shall find that at least nineteen of them are meer Gaps and Chasms\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 395). Steele picks up this theme in *Spectator* 100, published just over a week later. Employing language that anticipates Virginia Woolf\u2019s \u00abcotton wool\u00bb of \u00abnon-being\u00bb, Steele asserts that most of our lives are spent in \u00abInstances of Inexistence\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 421).\\(^9\\) An individual \u00abadvanced in Years\u00bb who looks back on life, Steele proposes, and \u00abcalls that only Life which was passed with Satisfaction and Enjoyment\u00bb, \u00abwill find himself very young, if not in his Infancy\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 419). Addison avows that even \u00abReligion\u00bb, if it is without \u00abChearfulness\u00bb, deadens all the pleasures of\n\n---\n\n8 For more on the \u2018joy of being\u2019, see Potkay 2006, pp. 121-138.\n\n9 Virginia Woolf says: \u00abEvery day includes much more non-being than being\u00bb (Schulkind 1985, p. 70).\n\nIt is against this backdrop that Addison and Steele recommend aesthetics, offering it as a kind of therapeutic. In the first of his \u00abImagination\u00bb papers, Addison argues that \u00abDelightful Scenes [...] not only serve to clear and brighten the Imagination, but are able to disperse Grief and Melancholy, and to set the Animal Spirits in pleasing and agreeable Motions\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, p. 539). In the \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essays, he proposes that aesthetic contemplation stirs the \u00absame animal Pleasure\u00bb that makes the \u00abwhole brute Creation rejoice\u00bb and stimulates our \u00abRelish [for] all those Goods which Nature has provided\u00bb. It may even restore the \u00abRelish of Being it self\u00bb. This is Steele\u2019s preferred way of thinking about aesthetic experience, which he casts in strikingly existential terms. In the same essay in which he diagnoses our chronic \u00abInexistence\u00bb, Steele urges us to \u00abPreserve a Disposition in our selves to receive a certain Delight in all we hear and see\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 421). By becoming more responsive to our perceptual world, he suggests, we can intensify the feeling of living, enhancing the \u00abSatisfactions of [our] Being\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 420). With this \u00abDisposition\u00bb to \u00abreceive a certain Delight in all we hear and see\u00bb, we can live \u00abin such a Manner, that there are no Moments lost\u00bb and the \u00abheaviest of Loads (when it is a Load) that of Time, is never felt by us\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 1, p. 420). It is important to observe that Shaftesbury holds a similar view, claiming that without the experience of beauty, \u00abthe world would be but a dull circumstance, and life a sorry pastime. Scarce could we be said to live\u00bb (Klein 1999, p. 352). The earliest aesthetic theorists, like John Dewey more than two centuries later, explicitly argue that aesthetic experience makes us feel more \u00abfully alive\u00bb (Dewey 2005, p. 17).\n\nWhile in recent years literary scholars have become increasingly interested in questions of perceptual and affective experience, our understanding of this issue has not moved significantly beyond the ideas of Dewey and Pater: For further insight, we might look to current developments in aesthetic theory, particularly to those theorists who have begun to re-examine aesthetic experiences outside of art. I am thinking especially of Gumbrecht, who equates \u2018aesthetic experience\u2019 with \u2018moments of intensity\u2019, framing the latter in terms of a kind of \u2018presence\u2019 in the world (cfr. Gumbrecht 2004). Yet even Gumbrecht\u2019s ontology leans too heavily toward the subject to do justice to the objective or cosmological dimensions of early aesthetic theory. By so radically downgrading the object of aesthet-\n\n10 For an influential collection of this work on affect, see Gregg and Seigworth 2010.\n11 For everyday aesthetics, see Saito 2007 and Leddy 2012; for the aesthetics of engagement, see Berleant 1991 and 1997; for an updated pragmatist aesthetics, see Shusterman 1992; and for related approaches, see Gumbrecht 2004, 2006.\nics, thinkers from Kant to Stolnitz have made it difficult for us to recover this aspect of eighteenth-century aesthetic experience. As we will see, for all his notable subjectivism, Addison ultimately understood aesthetics to be a way of connecting with the larger order of things.\n\nThe first point I would like to make in developing this idea is that the spectator\u2019s pleasure in beholding nature is in some complex way a condition of nature itself \u2013 not just other animals, but \u00aball Nature\u00bb, including inanimate beings. Throughout the \u00abChearfulness\u00bb essays, Addison speaks of the \u00abgay Scenes of Nature\u00bb, Nature\u2019s \u00abSmiles\u00bb, and the \u00abChearfulness in our Fields\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 3, pp. 474-475), a practice he associates with Milton and Psalms, and which would go on to form a key trope of subsequent nature poetry. Thomson, for example, surveys the \u00abglad creation\u00bb, and Cowper ponders \u00abScenes of accomplished bliss\u00bb. The idea finds perhaps its definitive statement in Wordsworth\u2019s memorable line: \u00abin all things / I saw one life, and felt that it was joy\u00bb (Maxwell 1986, p. 94). To dismiss this as pathetic fallacy is to underestimate the complexity of the ideas involved, much as Heather Keenleyside (2009) has argued of personification in The Seasons. Through a masterful reading of the poem, she explores how Thomson\u2019s canny use of the figure destabilizes the boundary not only between humans and animals but between persons and things. While the main thrust of her essay works to collapse the notional distance between the human and the nonhuman, Keenleyside also considers the matter in practical (or experiential) terms, attending to the ways humans and nonhumans move and are moved by each other. This is particularly useful for thinking about early aesthetic experience and its attendant affects.\n\nCrucial to the aesthetic pleasure Addison describes, as we have seen, is that it is the \u2018same\u2019 pleasure animating the larger world of nature. Thomson makes this point even more directly, perhaps with Addison in mind, when he ruminates on the \u00abinfusive force of Spring on man\u00bb, asking: \u00abCan he forebear to join the general smile / Of Nature?\u00bb (Sambrook 1984, p. 26). Glossing this passage, Keenleyside notes that \u00abThomson imagines proper or social love not as an internal feeling but rather as an external force, which binds \u2018this complex stupendous Scheme of Things\u2019\u00bb (Keenleyside 2009, p. 464). I would argue that this kind of affective logic is at work in Thomson\u2019s and Addison\u2019s understanding of nature aesthetics in general: to experience happiness in aesthetically contemplating nature is to \u00abjoin\u00bb in the happiness of nature, to no longer stand apart. The feeling of connectedness is integral to the feeling itself, and a central part of its power and appeal.\n\nFor early aesthetic theorists and contemporary nature poets, there could be a decidedly numinous or sacred quality to such experience. As noted...\nearlier, Addison attributes the very possibility of aesthetic enjoyment to providence, for organizing our senses in such a way that we take pleasure in perceiving the natural world. He also puts forward a kind of aesthetic version of the argument from design, claiming that \u00abFaith and Devotion naturally grow in the Mind of every reasonable Man, who sees the Impressions of Divine Power and Wisdom in every Object on which he casts his Eye\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 4, p. 144). Addison develops his ideas about the divinity within nature more fully in his \u00abEssays upon Infinitude\u00bb (Spectators 565, 571, 580, 590), writing in Spectator 565 that the \u00abMaker\u00bb is in fact \u00abOmnipresent\u00bb in \u00abhis Works\u00bb: \u00abHis Being passes through, actuates, and supports the whole Frame of Nature\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 4, p. 531). Shaftesbury apostrophizes the \u00abSole animating and inspiring power\u00bb of Nature on similar grounds: \u00abThy influence is universal, and in all things thou art inmost\u00bb (Klein 1999, p. 307). This picture of a spirit-infused world would become a staple of the period\u2019s nature poetry. Thomson (sounding again like Addison) writes of the \u00abboundless spirit\u00bb that \u00abpervades, / Adjusts, sustains, and agitates the whole\u00bb (Sambrook 1984, p. 26). Cowper maintains \u00abthat there lives and works / A soul in all things, and that soul is God\u00bb (1785, p. 107); and Wordsworth, in the same passage of The Prelude quoted above, explains how \u00abwith bliss ineffable / I felt the sentiment of Being spread / O\u2019er all that moves and all that seemeth still\u00bb (Maxwell 1986, p. 94). Such ideas were widespread in the period, appealing to deists, Latitudinarians, and evangelicals, deriving from an eclectic body of intellectual sources, such as Stoic and Platonist cosmologies, the Psalms, Spinoza, Henry More, and even Isaac Newton.  \n\nWhat is interesting about Addison\u2019s take on this is the way the individual again appears to hover on the margins of the universal system. Consider this passage from Spectator 571, one of the \u00abInfinitude\u00bb essays, which I quote at some length:\n\nEvery particle of Matter is actuated by this Almighty Being which passes through it. The Heavens and the Earth, the Stars and Planets, move and gravitate by Vertue of this great Principle within them. All the dead Parts of Nature are invigorated by the Presence of their Creator, and made capable of exerting their respective Qualities. The several Instincts, in the brute Creation, do likewise operate and work towards the several Ends which are agreeable to them, by this Divine Energy. Man, who does not co-operate with this holy Spirit, and is of this power even for the secularly and atheistically minded and not merely for those who remain religiously inclined\u00bb (Diffey 1996, p. 57).\n\nAddison writes: \u00abBut the noblest and most exalted way of considering this infinite Space is that of Sir Isaac Newton, who calls it the Sensorium of the Godhead\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 4, p. 532).\nunattentive to his Presence, receives none of those Advantages from it, which are perfective of his Nature, and necessary to his Well-being (Bond 1965, vol. 4, p. 548).\n\nThis \u00abDivine Energy\u00bb is present everywhere in the \u00abCreation\u00bb, animating all the actions and forces of the universe, from the circling of planets to the commands of instinct; even the \u00abdead Parts of Nature\u00bb are sustained and \u00abinvigorated\u00bb by this \u00abgreat Principle\u00bb. And yet, as with the \u00abanimal Pleasure\u00bb of spring \u2013 and perhaps with \u00abBeing\u00bb itself \u2013 what is inexorable in the rest of nature is not so certain with us. Of all creatures, \u00abMan\u00bb alone is capable of standing outside the general system of providence, receiving \u00abnone of those Advantages\u00bb that are \u00abperfective of his Nature, and necessary to his Well-being\u00bb.\n\nSeen from this perspective, aesthetic experience serves to draw us back into the cosmic order, allowing us to \u00abco-operate\u00bb with the will of providence. Indeed, early aesthetic theorists held it to be one of the primary ways we fulfill our part of the divine plan. Henry Grove neatly captures this idea in the final Spectator paper, number 635, which can be read as a summation of the series as a whole: \u00abthe End for which [God] designed his reasonable Offspring is the Contemplation of his Works, the Enjoyment of himself, and in both to be happy\u00bb (Bond 1965, vol. 5, p. 170). Grove contends that humans were made to enjoy the world\u2019s beauty, not only in the sense that our \u00abFaculties\u00bb are providentially fitted to the world, but also in the sense that this defines our very purpose or \u00abEnd\u00bb. Reprising Addison\u2019s famous metaphor, Grove submits that God fashioned this \u00abimmense Theatre\u00bb for our \u00abEntertainment\u00bb, speculating further that \u00abhe is well pleased in the Satisfaction\u00bb we derive from it (Bond 1965, vol. 5, pp. 170-171). Here we see the teleological underpinnings to the period\u2019s belief that aesthetics can profoundly enrich life. Not only does aesthetic experience make us feel more alive and more connected to what is outside of us: it may be our very reason for being. As Grove puts it \u2013 and Addison and Shaftesbury would certainly agree \u2013 we are \u00abdesigned\u00bb to find our happiness in contemplating God\u2019s works. It is what we have been put here to do.\n\n4 Conclusion\n\nAs scholars, we have paid too little attention to the role aesthetics may have played in the Enlightenment\u2019s legitimization of earthly happiness, the \u00abgreat reorientation of the human gaze\u00bb described by McMahon (2006). Aesthetic theorists like Addison were on the leading edge of the new cultural understanding of happiness. At a moment when religious traditionalists continued to oppose the growing focus on temporal felicity, and even\nits supporters fretted over the links between subjective well-being and the objective good or virtue.\"\\(^\\text{14}\\) Addison\u2019s aesthetic writings show a remarkable lack of defensiveness on this score: not only do they take it for granted that humans are supposed to be happy, they clearly identify that happiness with affective pleasure or enjoyment, with feeling good. Roger Scruton observes that the \u00abexperience of natural beauty [...] contains a reassurance that this world is a right and fitting place to be \u2013 a home in which our human powers and prospects find confirmation\u00bb (Scruton 2011, p. 55). I submit that something like this took place on a cultural level: the fascination with natural beauty that defines the rise of aesthetics was inextricably bound up with the period\u2019s developing conviction that this is a \u00abright and fitting place to be\u00bb, that happiness need not wait until the next world. To recognize the earth\u2019s beauty is to recognize it as our proper \u00abhome\u00bb.\"\\(^\\text{15}\\)\n\nOf course, there are also important ways in which aesthetic ideas of the good life have long stood in tension with mainstream conceptions of happiness. I am thinking in particular of the view of happiness as a kind of pursuit, an unending cycle of desire-possession-desire that psychologists refer to as the \u00abhedonic treadmill\u00bb (see Bok 2010, pp. 145-147). The disinterestedness of aesthetic experience seeks to suspend or interrupt that dialectic; it is a way of enjoying the meadow without owning the land.\"\\(^\\text{16}\\) This is not a happiness of wanting and acquiring, but of experiencing and being, of what Jean-Jacques Rousseau describes as \u00abthe simple feeling of existence\u00bb (Rousseau 2004, p. 88).\\(^\\text{17}\\) A recurring theme in early aesthetic theory, as we have seen, is that we already have what we need to be happy \u2013 the trick is to appreciate it.\n\nAddison and Steele ultimately understand aesthetics to be a means of enriching life through sharpening our sensory experience of the world. The happiness that attends this experience, as they describe it, is a heightened sense of aliveness, of connecting to the cosmic order, and of being part of a common universe of existing things. What we find here, as with Rousseau later in the century, is an affective affirmation of being itself. After the art-centered and anesthetic tendencies of so much twentieth-century aesthetics, this kind of thinking has in fact made a resurgence\n\n\\(^\\text{14}\\) For more on the period\u2019s anxieties about the moral implications of subjective happiness, see Norton 2012, 2014.\n\n\\(^\\text{15}\\) For changing aesthetic appreciations of nature, see Nicolson 1959.\n\n\\(^\\text{16}\\) \u00abAesthetic joy is, as joy always is, desire at rest\u00bb (Potkay 2007, p. 140).\n\n\\(^\\text{17}\\) Jacques Ranci\u00e8re summarizes this \u00abhappiness\u00bb as follows: \u00abto enjoy the quality of sensible experience that one reaches when one stops calculating, wanting and waiting\u00bb. While Ranci\u00e8re calls Rousseau \u00abthe first theoretician of this disinterested sensible state\u00bb (Ranci\u00e8re 2013, pp. 45-47), Addison and his contemporaries precede him by half a century.\nin contemporary aesthetic theory.\\textsuperscript{18} Gumbrecht, for example, proposes that aesthetic experience \u00abmay help us recuperate the spatial and bodily dimension of our existence\u00bb, and perhaps give us back \u00aba feeling of our being-in-the-world\u00bb (2004, p. 116). Elaine Scarry maintains that beauty \u00abquickens\u00bb and \u00abadrenalizes\u00bb: \u00abIt makes life more vivid, animated, living, worth living\u00bb (Scarry 1999, pp. 24-25). And Arnold Berleant contends that the value of the aesthetic should be measured \u00abby perceptual immediacy and intensity in enhancing the intimate bond of person and place\u00bb (Berleant 1997, p. 36). Theorists are beginning to reflect again on the enhancive powers of aesthetic experience, its capacity to enliven being and contribute to a full and happy life. Although The Spectator is rarely acknowledged as a precedent, they are carrying on the original project of modern aesthetic theory.\n\n\\textbf{Bibliography}\n\n\nDiffey, T.J. (1996). \u00abNatural Beauty without Metaphysics\u00bb. In: Kemal,  \n\n\\textsuperscript{18} Of course, present day theories shed the language of divine presence and providence. Elaine Scarry, however, suggests that this does not fundamentally change the experience itself: \u00abWhat happens when there is no immortal realm behind the beautiful person or thing is just what happens when there is an immortal realm behind the beautiful person or thing: the perceiver is led to a more capacious regard for the world\u00bb (Scarry 1999, pp. 47-48).\nSalim; Gaskell, Ivan (eds.), *Landscape, Natural Beauty and the Arts*. 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+{"id": "253a2d0a8030f5fadf60928550e597b240ecbccb", "text": "To most well-informed readers Dante is mainly the poet of hell. The more direct appeal of that cantica is probably a sufficient explanation of this. Yet poets who use Dante in various ways in their poetry often turn to Inferno to the exclusion of Paradiso. This deserves to be looked at more closely, not merely in order to find out why this is so in an age when belief, and the poetry of belief, is the exception; but as a way of exploring from that angle the poetry concerned. One remarkable thing is that in the eighteenth century, as now, Dante became established as the poet of hell, and then, as now, this was in spite of the work of many artists, scholars and translators. We inherit a Dante tradition which includes names like Shelley, many of the Victorians, and Eliot, who all preferred and discussed at length the poetry of Paradiso. As for translators, it is true that the first translations from the Commedia (that is, the various versions of the Ugolino episode) mostly added gore and horror. But these translations were not particularly popular or well known. On the other hand, when we turn to the first complete renderings of the Divina commedia by Henry Boyd (Inferno, 1785; Commedia, 1802) and Henry Francis Cary (Inferno, 1805\u201306; Commedia, 1814), the very opposite is true. Boyd introduces the Commedia as a philosophical work, useful for moral instruction. As for Cary, in his preface he summarizes the Commedia in these terms: \u2018It comprises a description of the heavens and the heavenly bodies; a description of men, their deserts and punishments, of supreme happiness and utter misery, and of the middle state between the two extremes\u2019.\u00b9 This hardly stresses hell-fire. But in spite of these translations the informed reader at the beginning of the nineteenth century still saw Dante as the poet of hell. Macaulay describes his features in these terms: \u2018We think that we see him standing amidst those smiling and radiant spirits with that scowl of unutterable misery on his brow,\n\nand that curl of bitter disdain on his lips, which all his portraits have preserved, and which might furnish Chantrey with hints for the head of his projected Satan.\\(^2\\) From a satanic gothic hero, Dante very smoothly turns into the Byronic Dante, \u2018grim Dante\u2019, whose brow bears the mark of Cain. He is proud, never smiles and strongly disapproves of gaiety and levity. He enters with the same solid step into the battlefields in defence of his country, into his study to compose, and into hell. Dante the poet is Dante the traveller through hell; the poem is demonic.\n\nThe reception of Dante in England, therefore, seems to suggest that there is an added frustration to the task of a translator: in spite of his sensitive or careful rendering of the original, his readers \u2013 like the readers of Boyd and Cary \u2013 will read into the translation what their own preferences or prejudices enable them to recognize. One might hope that this was only true of the dark ages of the past, and that contemporary readers were well-enough equipped, through such informative magazines as the *Times Literary Supplement* or the *New York Review of Books*, with varied and flexible expectations, to be good readers of Dante. One would, in that case, be disappointed. What seems to be the paradox of the early reception of Dante in England seems to be still true of his reception in recent years. This becomes particularly clear when one looks at recent translations, and the use some perceptive readers of Dante have made of the Italian poet in creative writing. The aim of this paper is to explore the nature of some translators\u2019 and some poets\u2019 use of Dante in terms of the poetry of hell and of paradise.\n\nBetween 1980 and 1983 two versions of Dante appeared. The authors carefully considered the choice of verse-form and, as in the past, they judiciously weighed alternative readings for individual images and concepts. However, in addition the authors meditated upon the basic vision of the nature of Dante\u2019s work, and upon the function of translation. With their translations Allen Mandelbaum and Charles Sisson, one an American, the other British, have brought into the field of Dante translation the results of the scholars\u2019 work, the insights of Eliot and Pound, and their own gifts and skills as poets.\n\nIn his review of Mandelbaum\u2019s translation in the *New York Review of Books*, D. Carne-Ross quotes Freccero\u2019s indictment of it.\\(^3\\) According to Freccero, Mandelbaum stresses too much the idea of Dante\u2019s \u2018individualism\u2019, and thereby fails to show how Dante spoke to and from an old tradition. The reviewer comments that a\n\n\\(^2\\) Thomas Babington Macaulay, \u2018Criticism of the principal Italian writers\u2019, *Knight*\\(^1\\) Quarterly Magazine (January 1824); and in *Miscellaneous writings* (London, n.d.), 38.\n\ntranslator can get his scholarship wrong, but can still illuminate his author in a way scholarship never could. He decides to \u2018look at the matter more closely\u2019. This would indeed be particularly useful since what we see in Freccero\u2019s indictment is another example of the mistrust scholars feel towards poets as translators. Unfortunately, by this Carne-Ross means that he will observe how \u2018within your life\u2019 is unnecessarily literal for \u2018ne la tua vita\u2019, or that \u2018there is a place in hell called Malebolge\u2019 is weak compared to the \u2018harsh bulging sounds\u2019 of \u2018Luogo \u00e8 in Inferno detto Malebolge\u2019. The reviewer is still screwing up his eyes to examine the leaves and branches of the individual trees, rather than standing back and opening up his eyes and mind to view the forest as a whole. Had he trusted the translator, he would have seen how it is through the stress on \u2018individualism\u2019, or more precisely, what Mandelbaum calls Dante\u2019s \u2018aloneness\u2019, that this translation is a new and very much needed version of Dante.\n\nFrom very early on until quite recently translations provided an account of the experience of the protagonist travelling through hell, purgatory and paradise. Whenever a gap in the speaking voice was noticed, it was explained as a lapse by Dante the writer, who had forgotten that he was writing a poem and was giving vent to his anger against personal enemies. Only in the last fifty years have scholars consistently worked out the presence of two personas in the poem \u2013 Dante the protagonist, and Dante the narrator. The consequences of this view are far reaching; particularly central is the prophetic nature of the narrator\u2019s voice, and the prophetic mission of the protagonist moving towards the vision which he imparts to the reader. The arguments of these scholars imply that Dante\u2019s poem is a lesson in resisting intellectual and emotional persuasion and in freeing the will. This requires a great participative effort on the part of the reader, and great stress to be placed in the text on the voice of the narrator, the figure who appears superimposed on the figure of the traveller in the very first lines of the poem.\n\nIn that well-known opening, the first tercet describes the situation of the protagonist, but the second and third contain the present reflections of the writer; the fourth reconnects the reader smoothly with the forest, and the contrast in tense between \u2018non so ridir\u2019 (\u2018I cannot rightly tell\u2019) and \u2018v\u2019entrai\u2019 (\u2018how I entered there\u2019) stresses the distance in time, as well as the contrast between the telling and the experience. No translator can recreate the clash, in the fourth line, between the adjoining words \u2018era\u2019 and \u2018\u00e8\u2019 (\u2018was\u2019 and \u2018is\u2019); the first, a past tense connected to the tense in the previous tercet, describing the forest in which the protagonist found himself,\n\n---\n\n4 The edition used for Dante (specific references to passages are in the text) is La divina commedia, 3 vols, ed. Natalino Sapegno (Firenze, 1955-56); Inferno (1981); Purgatorio (1967), Paradiso (1981).\nand the second introducing the present tense of the following lines, describing the feelings of the narrator at the time of writing the poem. No translator can do that, but he must find a way of communicating the same basic idea. The importance of these apparently minor details only becomes clear when the difficulty of the writer's task, after steadily increasing throughout the poem, reaches its climax in the tension of the final lines, where the writer must find words to describe the indescribable.\n\nVery little of this emerges in most twentieth-century translations, even less in reviews. Yet this is exactly what Mandelbaum is trying to use as a guiding light in his translation. He refers to Dante's 'aloneness' in his introduction to the translation: \"'Io sol uno\" \u2013 \"I myself alone\"... is the first triple repetition of an \"I\" that we have in western literature\". This, according to Mandelbaum, undermines the reading of the journey as that of an Everyman, but substantiates two other possible major aspects of the poem: Dante's 'radical newness... which does require the Biblical warrant of the first-person prophet' (p. xv), and the moving impulse behind the poetry, the fear of death, whatever this means to the medieval or modern man. It is not surprising that this translator should analyse the nature of the 'aloneness' within the poem, and distinguish between the 'journey of the voyager' and the 'journey of the telling of the tale' (p. xii). The introduction shows how Mandelbaum is deliberate about his approach; the poem shows how he actually puts his choice into practice. In the first cantos this distinction is given a clear structural function, so that in the argument to the first canto a split is clearly indicated: 'The voyager-narrator astray by night in a dark forest. Morning and the sunlit hill. Three beasts that impede his ascent. The encounter with Virgil, who offers his guidance and an alternative path through two of the three realms the voyager must visit' (p. 3). The poetry dramatizes the two personas:\n\nWhen I had journeyed half of our life's way,\nI found myself within a shadowed forest,\nfor I had lost the path that does not stray,\nAh, it is hard to speak of what it was,\nthat savage forest, dense and difficult,\nwhich even in recall renews my fear:\n\nso bitter \u2013 death is hardly more severe!\n\n(Infemo, I, 1\u201316)\n\n'[W]hat it was' throws into question the actual existence of the forest, and the consonance of 'dense and difficult' underlines that it\n\n5 Allan Mandelbaum, The divine comedy of Dante Alighieri, 3 vols (Berkeley: Barry Mose 1980\u201383), xiii.\nis also a forest of words. This phrase is a small example of that 'close phonic packing' with which Mandelbaum attempts to stress the craft of the poet at work. Yes, it diverges from the original, but it does reproduce one main effect of the lines, that is, the clear impression that there is a speaking voice now, telling of the journey then, and that it is the poetry of this voice we hear. The stress is continuously on the speaking voice, on the poet's skill. The dash in line 7 is one of many, often including asides and further explanations, which in the original flowed with the rest of the text. This is Mandelbaum's contribution to the illumination of Dante for the modern reader, and connected with this is its consequence: that it is in Paradiso, where the prophetic voice of the narrator and the experience of the voyager approaching his prophetic mission come together, that Mandelbaum's poetry achieves its best effects. In the last canto of Paradiso Dante is perfecting his 'aloneness', his unique experience, and the personal tone and the music of Mandelbaum's lines add a sense of felt experience to the subject matter translated:\n\nIn its profundity I saw \u2014 ingathered\nand bound by love into one single volume \u2014\nwhat, in the universe, seems separate, scattered:\nsubstances, accidents, and dispositions\nas if conjoined \u2014 in such a way that what\nI tell is only rudimentary.\nI think I saw the universal shape\nwhich that knot takes; . . .\n(Paradiso, XXXIII, ll.85\u201392)\n\nThe tentativeness of the dashes and of the search for the right words ('separate, scattered') fit in with Dante's search for the right image, and with the tentativeness of 'I think I saw'. Mandelbaum's is poetry, as he expressly states in the introduction, which should be read aloud (something which is true of the original but which has seldom been appreciated even in Italy); this brings out the rhythm of the lines, but also the effect of a mind at work, creating and personally uttering the words and images, a mind which is very intensely at work in these lines, where the narrator is speaking. The clear but poised language Mandelbaum has used throughout the Commedia is particularly appropriate in these final passages:\n\nEternal Light, You only dwell within\nYourself, and only You know You; Self-knowing,\nSelf-known, You love and smile upon Yourself!\nThat circle \u2014 which, begotten so, appeared\nin You as light reflected \u2014 when my eyes\nhad watched it with attention for some time,\nwithin itself and colored like itself,\nto me seemed painted with our effigy,\nso that my sight was set on it completely.\n(Paradiso, XXXIII, ll.124\u2013132)\nThe perfect solipsism of the 'You' is soon superseded by the impotence of the solipsistic 'I'; the resolution only occurs when Dante, trying to mirror himself in the human image of the Trinity, is struck by the still undescribed vision. The consonance of 'f' in line 142 ('here force failed my high fantasy') underlines the enclosure within the circle of the self, resolved by the absorption into the eternal wheel of Love. The words are clear, the diction is simple; but the sentences and the phrases are structured into complex units. Mandelbaum's stress on the prophetic role of the two personas makes him choose a language which has poise and dignity, and is not colloquial; while the relevance of the poetry for our time is underlined with great effect by the accompanying illustrations by Barry Moser. His contrasts of light and shadow, the designs for the human frame are unmistakably recognizable for present-day readers, who are only too familiar with the pictures of the Nazi death camps.\n\nIn the same year that saw the publication of Mandelbaum's *Inferno*, Sisson's *Divina commedia* was published. The very look of the volume is a revolutionary gesture in Dante translations. The pages set out the poetry canto after canto, without interruption or mediation by summary, footnotes or diagrams. The scholar or commentator would not even find line numbers to help references: the translation is intended for the reader of poetry. And the poem on the page confirms the appearance of the page: Sisson gives us a modern poem, in direct, often colloquial language. Different as this translation is from Mandelbaum's, it is similar in that both translators have weighed and deliberately chosen and worked at a specific vision of Dante's work. In his translator's introduction, Sisson says:\n\n> [the translator] must 'make sense of' [his author] . . . in advancing line by line and tercet by tercet speaking in his own voice as modified by the presence of that august original - for it must still be his voice, even if his success is to be measured by the degree to which it resembles that imaginary English in which his author 'wou'd himself have spoken'.\n\nThe voice we hear is indeed Sisson's - a modern poet's; and the accuracy with which it lets itself be modified by the original can only be assessed, in this translation, on the basis of longer passages. Sisson's translation moves in long units of poetry, line after line, tercet after tercet:\n\n> Halfway along the road we have to go\n> I found myself obscured in a great forest,\n> Bewildered, and I knew I had lost the way.\n\n---\n\nIt is hard to say just what the forest was like,\nHow wild and rough it was, how overpowering;\nEven to remember it makes me afraid.\n\n(Inferno, I, 1\u20136)\n\nThe discursive tone, the description of emotions, without the exclamative to dramatize them, and the colloquial language turn these tercets into a modern utterance. The accuracy of effect is also there, both in details and in more general issues. So, to mention a few small points, if the protagonist has literally lost his way in a realistically present forest \u2013 \u2018wild and rough\u2019 \u2013 he is not only \u2018bewildered\u2019, but also, metaphorically, \u2018obscured\u2019. Both the literal and the allegorical levels are present. Similarly, the lack of rendered emotion in both personas is redressed by Sisson\u2019s very effective translation of the many visual pictures Dante gives. The description of the man who, \u2018practically winded,/ Staggers out of the sea and up the beach,/ Turns back to the dangerous waters and looks at it\u2019 reproduces with the simple monosyllabic speech a sense of slowness and tiredness, and recreates both the relief of the protagonist, and the distance of the narrator, with his choice of a simile, from the past experience. It is only in the composition of all these features that Sisson\u2019s version is \u2018accurate\u2019; his closeness to Dante cannot be pinned down within one line or even tercet, but is achieved within longer units of poetry. In fact, the accuracy of Sisson is in the very movement of the tercets. Dante\u2019s poem has been called one of the most fast moving of long poems, and Dante\u2019s language and rhyme and rhythm help the reader read on; Sisson\u2019s contemporary, clear language does exactly the same. Again this is part of Sisson\u2019s intention. He points out the \u2018luminous clarity of his [Dante\u2019s] lines\u2019 (p. iii). It is \u2018the great pressure of his matter which makes the clarity possible\u2019, but this does not provide the translator with \u2018a style to imitate\u2019 but with a lesson. It is a lesson in achieving great effect with only a few words, and it is \u2018a lesson in silence\u2019. Sisson has learned this lesson and it serves him particularly well in the canticas where silence, luminosity and clarity are central. Purgatorio is probably the cantica in Sisson\u2019s translation which is closest to Dante in tone and feel:\n\nIt was the hour when those who are at sea\nLong to be back, and when their hearts grow tender,\nThe day they have said goodbye to their gentle friends:\n\nThe hour when the new pilgrim\u2019s heart is pierced\nWith love, if he hears the far off bells\nWhich seem to weep for the dying day;\n\n(Purgatorio, VIII, l.1\u20136)\n\nThe music within the individual line is lost. But who could reproduce the lull of \u2018era gi\u00e0 l\u2019ora\u2019 in line 1, where \u2018era\u2019 and \u2018ora\u2019 echo each other in the undulating rhythm of the line. Still, the simplicity, directness\nand sincerity of language are there, and so is the central impulse of the similes, the slow movement throughout the six lines. Dante's directness communicates without trappings the sense of irretrievable loss and nostalgia in a unit of six lines. Since he cannot reproduce his effects in the way Dante did, Sisson uses whatever the modern poet has at his disposal, in this case, the varying length of the lines. The first tercet grows and lengthens and slows down, while the second tercet step by step withdraws into silence.\n\nDante's Purgatorio is filled with the nostalgia for earth, for the dawns and sunsets which offered such beauty, for the community of family and friends, and with the wonder of the pilgrim in a new place. Sisson recreates these impressions, feelings and correspondences in a sustained version of Purgatorio; but it is perhaps his Paradiso that becomes a modern poem in its own right. Sisson's closing of Dante's vision is, on its own, a modern poem of frustration and the struggle to create; it is a poem of vision with the awareness of the impossibility of vision. In a very interesting review of this translation, Roger Scruton says that:\n\n(There is) a kind of persistent undercurrent of despair. Sisson cannot quite believe in Dante's vision. Therefore he removes from his versification every rhetorical gesture, everything that might imply a self-induced afflatus of emotion. . . . Thus his translation is the most sincere, the most modern, and yet in some ways the most distanced from the original . . .?\n\nIs this so distant from Dante? Where in the original are the rhetorical gestures and self-induced afflatus of emotion? Maybe in a hundred years' time readers will be able to respond to some note of triumph now hidden in Dante's poetry; but even the present reader must admit to being fettered by those limits in perceptions which make one respond to the 'poetry of unbelief', to seeing in Dante's final movement the superhuman struggle of the creator with his medium, the slow nightmare of the attempt to overcome the limits of speech and communication, as well as of man's mind. Sisson's final lines are a poem of the mind:\n\nO how my speech falls short, how faint it is\nFor my conception! And for what I saw\nIt is not enough to say that I say little.\n\nO eternal light, existing in yourself alone,\nAlone knowing yourself; and who, known to yourself\nAnd knowing, love and smile upon yourself!\n\nThat circle which, conceived in this manner,\nAppeared in you as a reflected light,\nWhen my eyes examined it rather more,\n\nWithin itself, and in its own colour,\nSeemed to be painted with our effigy;\nAnd so absorbed my attention altogether.\n(Paradiso, XXXIII, 114\u201325)\n\nThe horror of exclusion from the smiling, perfectly self-contained knowledge, and the final relief of being caught in the movement of the wheel of love, of being struck by the still unexpressed vision are almost obsessively at work here. The poet as exile could find no better personification than in Sisson\u2019s version of Dante\u2019s Paradiso.\n\nThe remarkable poetry produced by both Sisson and Mandelbaum in their versions of the Commedia leads me to a general point about the status of translation. This is still greatly misunderstood. We have now realized that each period produces its version of the great poems, and that a final translation of a poem is not a possibility. We should also accept that, although, with regard to the source text (Dante\u2019s Commedia), translation is always a fallen version, with regard to the receiving culture the translation can in certain ways be as good as, or theoretically even better than, the original for its time, in terms of its chosen focus. But reader and critics still generally evaluate the product only in terms of the original. Of the examples I have mentioned, Freccero and Carne-Ross are both critics of this kind. They greatly outnumber critics like Roger Scruton, who looks at Sisson\u2019s work more objectively, and yet does not face the real issue of translation.\n\nI now move to the second part of my discussion \u2013 the use made of Dante by Davie in his poem \u2018Summer lightning\u2019 and by Heaney in three of his poems. I appear to be very selective in my choice of poets and of poems, and it would seem to be impossible to draw any valid conclusions from such a choice. But, first, the choice is only partly mine. The poems discussed form something like a daisy-chain of texts, and so they chose themselves. Secondly, it is my intention to explore intensively what these texts do with Dante, in order to shed some more light upon a particular process, rather than draw a general inference from a wider survey.\n\nOne of the first reactions to Sisson\u2019s version of Dante appeared in the Times Literary Supplement, and it was written by Donald Davie. In his poem \u2018Summer lightning\u2019, dedicated to Seamus Heaney, Davie says:\n\n... I think Sisson\nGot it, don\u2019t you? Plain Dante, plain as a board,\nAnd if flat, flat...\u00b3\n\nHere the first comment, that Sisson 'got it', is maybe more complimentary than the second, but one would in general agree. But Davie continues:\n\n... The abhorrent, the abhorred,\nAsk to be uttered plainly.\n\nIt seems that Davie chooses to take into consideration only Inferno, and to totally ignore Paradiso, where, in fact, Sisson's plain style comes into its own. Such a choice fits in with Davie's own poem, which focuses on the poetry of hell, both in terms of what is described and of the means of describing it. In the first part, Davie surveys and classifies the makers of the poetry. Here there is place only for images of damnation. The poet is fixed in hell, and is put there by poetry, the punisher. The Muse chooses its victim at random and 'he whom she picks, she clips indeed'. In the ensuing survey of poets, Davie uses Revelation as modified by Dante for the structure of his hell. Some poets are frozen, some burn in fire, some are the lukewarm. The first group of poets is that of the 'versifiers'; their work is 'all too cold, ice cold'. Others seem:\n\nIn their own sense of themselves, in an extreme\nConsumption of the fire. Whatever odd\nsense 'poet' has, they pass it on the nod;\nFed, for their part, on Terror, and on God.\n\nThe combination of 'Terror' and 'God' places these poets within the Gothic sublime of the eighteenth century. This visionary group of poets is also rejected. There is another group of poets, whose status is ambiguous. Like Dante's 'lukewarm', they seem unworthy even of being placed in hell, and are left, instead, in 'evening classes'. But the central image of this part of the poem is of the poet as the summer lightning of the title, burning briefly and vainly.\n\nThe second part of the poem worries about the nature of poetry. First it sets out the nature of present conditions, then the nature of the poetry which best fits it, and it is in this part that the reference to Sisson, and further references to Dante, occur:\n\nTragic plots are what,\nSo it was thought, some few great houses foster:\nPlantagenet, Gore-Booth, Adams, Malatesta,\nAtreus, Thebes. But ritual couplings, treasons,\nCondign kills and shames are for all seasons\nAnd all conditions. Thinking of your bog-queen\nIntact, tar black when disinterred, I've seen\nThis calls for Comedy, never more demonic\nThan when Divine, involved and unironic,\nPainful and pitying. (This she also knew,\nYour wife, who took the cannibal Ugolino\nAs type for poets: brain devouring brain,\nOne 'rabid egotistical daisy-chain').\nKnowing what's out of joint is our dilemma\nIn Ireland, Denmark, England, the Maremma;\nWhat is, what isn't. In your singing school,\nDante's and yours, the dreadful is the rule.\n\nDread; yes, dread \u2013 the one name for the one\nGame that we play here, surely. I think Sisson\nGot it, don't you? Plain Dante, plain as a board,\nAnd if flat, flat. The abhorred, the abhorred\nAsk to be uttered plainly. Heaney, I\nAppeal to you who are more in the public eye\nThan us old codgers: isn't it the case\nThe Muse must look disaster in the face?\n\nThe denial of the solemn in the tragic, and further down of the peacefulness and innocence of the georgics, leads the poet to find only the demonic and the comic muse appropriate for present conditions. And the poet of the demonic comedy expands and grows throughout the poem, starting from the limited 'your singing school,/ Dante's and yours', moving to the more general 'we' \u2013 'the game we play' \u2013 and ending on the universal 'The Muse'. Dante's infernal methods are, so the poem states, for all seasons and all conditions; there is no time and no place for paradise. Thus the poem takes us back into the 'dread' of the Gothic, and the picture an innocent reader would receive of Dante is again of the hellish, demonic poet, 'involved and unironic'. Yet irony within the *Commedia* is one of the recent discoveries about the *Commedia*.\n\nBut it is not just a question of ignoring the poetry of paradise because present conditions do not require it. In the very conclusion of the poem, the poetry of paradise is faced. Davie uses Heaney's own early poetry, 'your early georgics', to make his point. Such poetry should not be 'denigrated', but, as it recalls a 'pre-Dantesque Homeric virtue', it must be rejected in a post-Dantesque world. It is because of this that the main image of the second part is the one borrowed from Heaney, of poets as a daisy-chain of cannibal Ugolinos, consuming and regurgitating the previous poets' brains. 'Summer lightning' is written 'in imitation of Ronsard', and Davie not only picks up Heaney's image of a daisy-chain of cannibal poets, but produces such a chain himself \u2013 Davie, Ronsard, Heaney, Dante, Shakespeare, and further down Homer. I see two main implications in this image. First, poets have eaten of Dante's brain; and as a consequence there is no return to a pre-Dantesque virtue, and so 'The Muse must look disaster in the face'. Secondly, of the two images central to the poem, the first suggests burning and extinction, but the second implies some survival of the burning, if only into another's creations. Yet surely lightning suggests the spiritual energy of the individual poet, whereas the biting into the brain is the survival of matter. Life for the poet is hell, and all that survives is matter. Eternity, spiritual continuity do not exist. Not\nonly is a state of bliss not envisaged, or used negatively as material; it is not even wished for. All this poet prays for is the fulfillment of the prayer of Eliot's Magus:\n\n\\[\\text{... let me, after one death, have another, terminal.}\\]\n\nThe sub-title of Davie's poem was 'l'argument du Comicque est de toutes saisons'; but this comic mode hardly includes laughter or happiness. Paradise, or even purgatory must be denied. Throughout this poem there is a resolute rejection of whatever has traditionally offered consolation - in visions of the past, present or future. There is no sense of domesticity, no nostalgia for the past, no hope of afterlife, not even survival of poetry - except in the mouth of the next poet.\n\nThe poem by Heaney, to which Davie refers in this connection, the poem on 'your bog-queen', is similar in many ways. Here, too, there is no relief, no spiritual future. The bog-queen describes her own slow decomposition back into vegetal matter, and she describes her 'life' in the bog in terms of animal instincts, with no reference to spirit:\n\nMy skull hibernated in the wet nest of my hair.\n\nWhich they robbed.\\(^9\\)\n\nThus crime and evil break even into this state of existence, which is affected by hell rather than paradise. The paradox of the poem is that what is being described is a rising from the dead, but what rises is nothing but matter:\n\nThe plait of my hair, a slimy birth cord of bog, had been cut\nAnd I rose from the dark . . .\n\nThe dramatic presentation of the bog-queen describing this process, as an omniscient narrator, might suggest some surviving life. But, as Davie so clearly sees, the story told is an act of ventriloquism on the part of the poet. It is particularly here that Heaney's poem is Dantesque, for he animates the dead to make them reveal the true state of things. Davie also points to the theme of survival of matter when he summarizes the poem as describing the bog-queen as 'intact when disinterred'. Two other poems, 'Punishment' and 'Strange fruit', develop the same theme and are therefore relevant to my\n\nIn 'Punishment', the poet's metamorphic sight sees the young girl who has been disinterred as, in turn, the girl with flaxen hair and a beautiful face as she might have been; a submissive animal led by a halter with a noose round its neck; but mainly the vegetal thing she is now. Her hell, like Dante's hell, has revealed her true nature, it seems, by making her regress to the simplest form of being - vegetal matter. Her body is a sapling, oak, fir, stubble of black corn. She has become a fisher-queen of a wrong kind, an inverted corn-dolly portending death instead of fertility. She thus assumes the r\u00f4le of the scapegoat in a vegetation rite, but it is a rite which fails.\n\nHeaney inserts this figure also within the pattern of Dantean hell. The title of the poem is 'Punishment', and the nature of this punishment is further explained in the last words of the poem:\n\n... (I) would connive\nin civilized outrage\nyet understand the exact\nand tribal, intimate revenge.\n\nThe little adulteress died for love, and is punished with the algebra of revenge so many scholars - even recent ones - identify with Dante's hell. But this scapegoat refuses to turn into a martyr, and the ring of her noose only barely begins to suggest the form of a halo - the halo of her love. For we soon see that her audience does not recognize her death as a sacrifice. Neither those witnessing her death, nor the speaker and writer of the poem are true witnesses, accepting and consenting to a spiritual insight:\n\nI almost love you\nbut would have cast, I know,\nthe stones of silence.\nI am the artful voyeur\n\nof your brain's exposed\nand darkened combs\n\nInstead of offering a redeeming vision, art can only, it seems, expose matter, an exposure which fascinates and repels at the same time, the exposure of the true reality of human nature, as revealed in Dante's hell. The human frame, having become transparent, only reveals the workings of the body - there is no further reality more spiritual than that.\n\nThe same movement and argument is carried on in another poem by Heaney, 'Strange fruit'. The exposure here is of a beheaded girl's head, 'like an exhumed gourd', preserved by the bog:\n\n---\n\n10 Heaney, 'Punishment', in North, 37-8.\n11 Heaney, 'Strange fruit', in North, 39.\nthey unswaddled the wet fern of her hair\nAnd made an exhibition of its coil,\n\nThere is no reference, in the poem, to any spiritual force released by the exhumation. All that is shown is the preservation and revelation of matter. The revelation of what should be intimate, the exposure not only of the limitation of the body to the vegetal, but of the crime committed in the past, which could be forgotten, seems a denial of human dignity by those who expose. Here, too, the speaker just begins to make an idol of the human. But the girl's head silences the desire or even need to turn her into something more than the matter she is:\n\nMurdered, forgotten, nameless, terrible\nBeheaded girl, outstaring axe\nAnd beatification, outstaring\nWhat had begun to feel like reverence.\n\nBoth 'Punishment' and 'Strange fruit' deny the comfort of turning murder into martyrdom; of turning this strange fruit into an idol, an object of devotion. But the dignity of the human survives even this exposure, as it survives the attempt at ingratiating through rite and idolatry. It is the very truncated human form which commands respect. This is what art, all these poems suggest, can do: it bears witness and records the sheer existence of the human in spite of any emotional distortion caused either by feelings of reverence, or by the original evil which caused the death of that human being.\n\nHeaney's recurrent concern with the poem as exposure of the human body, and with the head and brain as a strange fruit, easily explain why he should have translated one episode from Dante's Divina commedia \u2013 the Count Ugolino passage.\n\n... I walked the ice\nAnd saw two soldered in a frozen hole\nOn top of another, one's skull capping the other's,\nGnawing at him where the neck and head\nAre grafted to the sweet fruit of the brain,\nLike a famine victim at a loaf of bread.\nSo the berserk Tydeus gnashed and fed\nUpon the severed head of Menalippus\nAs if it were some spattered carnal melon.\n'You', I shouted, 'you on top, what hate\nMakes you so revenous and insatiable?\nWhat keeps you so monstrously at rut?\nIs there any story I can tell\nFor you, in the world above, against him?\nIf my tongue by then's not withered in my throat\nI will report the truth and clear your name'.\n\nHeaney is strikingly effective in creating a dynamic picture of hell. Even the protagonist is rough and wild. The poetry of violence and horror is vivid; the curse of Pisa which closes the story of Ugolino even more so. In no other translation have I seen a more divergent, yet curiously literal (because corresponding to the basic sense of the original) rendering:\n\nPisa! Pisa, you sound like a hiss\nSizzling in our country's grassy language.\n\nHeaney has seized on the echo of 'si' and 'Pisa', and worked on it in terms of a similar image in English. It is almost a paraphrase of Dante's curse: here the very name of Pisa has become a term of abuse, a curse, a four-letter word.\n\nIs the translation of the episode as a whole based on a clear understanding of the original? Is Heaney's intention that of reproducing accurately the spirit of the original? Does Heaney see, as Dante scholars now see, that the protagonist has been corrupted by hell? Is that why Heaney makes him so aggressive, so absorbed by the experience of hell as to become a traitor himself? All one can say, on the basis of the one episode, is that the poetry of hell is powerful and horrifying - much more than Dante's was. Like early translators of the Ugolino episode, Heaney adds colour and gore where there was little or none. 'The sweet fruit of the brain' in line 5 of Heaney's version is a complete addition, and the words suggest that the speaker shares the appetite of Ugolino. Also, where Dante had been so careful as to only vaguely say 'il cervello e 'l'altre cose' ('the brain and the other things'), Heaney continues with his image of the sweet fruit of the brain. In fact he chooses a specific fruit, and adds the graphic image 'as if it were some spattered carnal melon'. This cluster of images makes very clear what it is that Heaney finds in the original: he sees Dante's text in terms of his own images. Reminding us of the gourd which was the strange fruit of the poem by that title, these images indicate that Heaney is not translating Dante, but giving voice to his own vision through the medium of Dante.\n\nHeaney's Dante is the poet of hell because Heaney is obsessed by the poet as Ugolino - an image to which Davie can obviously relate. In 'An afterwards' - the other poem to which Davie refers, the speaking voice of the poet actually takes up the role of Ugolino, one link in the 'rabid egotistical daisy-chain'. In fact, the poem closes as the speaker feels a bite in his own neck, but all through Heaney himself has been biting into Dante's - and some phrases are, in fact, lifted from Heaney's translation of Ugolino.\n\nShe would plunge all poets in the ninth circle\nAnd fix them, tooth in skull, tonguing for brain. 13\nWhat a horrid, graphic image these words present; what a specific physical sensation they suggest. The poem describes a possible future \u2013 a possible afterlife (\u2018An afterwards\u2019). It is, therefore, a vision, but the revelation it offers is very ambiguous. The reader is faced by the r\u00f4le of Ugolino, played by a poet, and by Dante, impersonated, in a curious choice of roles, by the poet\u2019s wife. The situation and the story pose two main contrasts: first, the status of the wife in this alternative universe is not singular, for she is accompanied by at least another wife \u2013 so it is a question of wives of poets judging their husbands. Secondly, what is at stake is the nature of poetry and of the poet:\n\nAnd when she\u2019d make her circuit of the ice,\nAided and abetted by Virgil\u2019s wife,\nI would cry out, \u2018My sweet, who wears the bays\nIn our green land above, whose is the life\nMost dedicated and exemplary?\u2019\n\nWho, indeed? The question, which is presented as one, consists surely of two separate parts, the first being: Which one of us (\u2018me\u2019 the poet, or \u2018you\u2019 the wife) is the poet? An added twist to the meaning is that it is unclear whether the \u2018me\u2019 is the poet, or Ugolino; and, more importantly, whether the \u2018you\u2019 is Dante, or the wife. The second question is: Which one of them is more dedicated? Here the poet challenges the traditional self-sacrificing status of wifehood and motherhood, and suggests that \u2018poethood\u2019 is even more demanding.\n\nThe mixture of r\u00f4les suggests further implications. The poet is seen by the wife as a traitor, and the reader must agree with this judgement because of his manipulation of words and exercise of power even from the pit, as revealed by the contrast between \u2018my sweet\u2019 and \u2018who wears the . . .\u2019. What this poem has which the others did not, is an ironic stance. The answers to the questions are clear, in their different ways, to the two protagonists of the poem (each putting himself/herself first), but not yet to the reader. But we soon arrive at some degree of clarity, for the wife (including, presumably, other poets\u2019 wives) has a different view of life, and even an alternative poetry \u2013 so that the question which invites us to choose between the poet and his wife as poets is not a rhetorical, but a real question. For the wife can imagine and describe a different life:\n\n\u2018Why could you not have, oftener, in our years\nUnclenched, and come down laughing from your room\nAnd walked the twilight with me and your children \u2013\nLike that one evening of elder bloom\nAnd hay, when the wild roses were fading?\u2019\nThis poem is also about the writing of poetry; it is a choice between the poetry of hell \u2013 that is, the Muse who \u2018must look disaster in the face\u2019, the poetry worked at with teeth and tongue in skulls and brains \u2013 and the lyrical twilight poetry of nostalgia and the family, of innocence, laughter, beauty and love \u2013 the poetry of purgatory and paradise. The question really is: why not the poetry of paradise?\n\nAs in the poem by Davie, so also in this text the question is faced and an answer provided \u2013 an answer which is final. Heaney has made a definite choice. Clearly, the wife \u2013 or is it Dante? \u2013 is deluding herself. The possibility she offers could not in actual fact materialize. The poetry she gives voice to offers a vision of paradise \u2013 bliss, laughter, the family, natural beauty \u2013 but it is a lost paradise, a finished harvest, darkness approaching: \u2018twilight\u2019, \u2018evening\u2019, \u2018fading\u2019. After all, it is the wife who does not see that that evening was the last. The poet, in Heaney, has no choice: he is a traitor by definition because he lives in a post-Dantean world, because he has eaten of the gourd, the sweet fruit of Dante\u2019s hell. Like Heaney and Davie the modern poet must look disaster in the face, and not delude himself with any form of consolation.\n\nPoets as creative translators of Dante give us the poetry of the inner movements of the mind; poets as readers and creative users of Dante give us the poetry of the body, and the poetry of hell. The opposition, however, is more one of mode than of kind. Sisson and Mandelbaum are only partly interested in providing the reader with an English version of Dante. They want to be possessed, and speak their words while being moved by Dante\u2019s vision. This gives them the opportunity of writing the poetry of paradise, the poetry of perfect spirituality, something which is more viable through translation. But, as Scruton points out, Sisson radically undercuts any possible triumph in the conclusion of the vision. Thus the translators\u2019 use of Dante is not dissimilar from Davie\u2019s and Heaney\u2019s in the poems discussed. Indeed, in a way, Davie and Heaney have a more positive stance than Mandelbaum and Sisson. For the latter leave the reader with the spiritual uniqueness of the poet, his aloneness, his status as an exile, but the former leave the reader with a sense of community, although this is only the community of the body and even of crime, and not of the spirit and of goodness. This is the truth behind Freccero\u2019s indictment of Mandelbaum\u2019s translation: its stress on individualism, its denial of the \u2018old tradition\u2019 from which the poem proceeded is a denial of an important sense of continuity, and a statement of the unique selfhood of the poet. Most modern readers, like Sisson, as Scruton has pointed out, cannot believe in art as the medium for offering a redeeming vision, which, as Heaney and Davie suggest, would be only a delusion and an attempt at self-consolation. By facing the poetry of paradise, the poetry of vision and prophecy of spiritual\nregeneration, and by rejecting it, Davie and Heaney in these poems give a view of the world of contemporary poetry. The prevalence of the poetry of hell, therefore, is not a question of preference, or ignorance; but it is a question of exploring the possibilities and juxtaposing the poetry of hell and the poetry of paradise in order to embrace the former and clearly and deliberately deny the latter. All in all, both the modern poets as translators and the modern poets writing their own visions find in Dante the language and the images which best express what they themselves want to say, and, behind the different material, their views are remarkably consistent.", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF&publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw%3A1m2146", "len_cl100k_base": 10063, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 18, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 34095, "total-output-tokens": 11061, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0001837015151977539, "__label__art_design": 0.0016622543334960938, "__label__crime_law": 0.00013685226440429688, "__label__education_jobs": 0.0011539459228515625, "__label__entertainment": 0.0012149810791015625, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00010114908218383788, "__label__finance_business": 0.0001195073127746582, "__label__food_dining": 0.00016295909881591797, "__label__games": 0.0003268718719482422, "__label__hardware": 5.501508712768555e-05, "__label__health": 0.00013113021850585938, "__label__history": 0.0004224777221679687, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00010132789611816406, "__label__industrial": 0.0001170635223388672, "__label__literature": 0.9892578125, "__label__politics": 0.00013148784637451172, "__label__religion": 0.0035190582275390625, "__label__science_tech": 0.0003862380981445313, "__label__social_life": 0.00020396709442138672, "__label__software": 9.381771087646484e-05, "__label__software_dev": 0.00014925003051757812, "__label__sports_fitness": 9.179115295410156e-05, "__label__transportation": 0.0001074075698852539, "__label__travel": 7.915496826171875e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 44809, 0.01074]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 44809, 0.34553]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 44809, 0.9633]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 2079, false], [2079, 4982, null], [4982, 8022, null], [8022, 10619, null], [10619, 13240, null], [13240, 15881, null], [15881, 18678, null], [18678, 21322, null], [21322, 23783, null], [23783, 26261, null], [26261, 29132, null], [29132, 31279, null], [31279, 33539, null], [33539, 35833, null], [35833, 38554, null], [38554, 41106, null], [41106, 44141, null], [44141, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 2079, true], [2079, 4982, null], [4982, 8022, null], [8022, 10619, null], [10619, 13240, null], [13240, 15881, null], [15881, 18678, null], [18678, 21322, null], [21322, 23783, null], [23783, 26261, null], [26261, 29132, null], [29132, 31279, null], [31279, 33539, null], [33539, 35833, null], [35833, 38554, null], [38554, 41106, null], [41106, 44141, null], [44141, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 44809, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 2079, 1], [2079, 4982, 2], [4982, 8022, 3], [8022, 10619, 4], [10619, 13240, 5], [13240, 15881, 6], [15881, 18678, 7], [18678, 21322, 8], [21322, 23783, 9], [23783, 26261, 10], [26261, 29132, 11], [29132, 31279, 12], [31279, 33539, 13], [33539, 35833, 14], [35833, 38554, 15], [38554, 41106, 16], [41106, 44141, 17], [44141, 44809, 18]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 44809, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-07", "created": "2024-12-07"}
+{"id": "75452abe859aef9ab2c335eae56f54efd1ab136a", "text": "Analogical associations in the frame of a \u201cneoclassical\u201d semiotic theory\n\nThis is the author's manuscript\n\nOriginal Citation:\n\nAvailability:\nThis version is available http://hdl.handle.net/2318/105019 since\n\nTerms of use:\nOpen Access\nAnyone can freely access the full text of works made available as \"Open Access\". Works made available under a Creative Commons license can be used according to the terms and conditions of said license. Use of all other works requires consent of the right holder (author or publisher) if not exempted from copyright protection by the applicable law.\n\n(Article begins on next page)\nAbstract. It has been a long time since the concept of iconic signs was proposed by C. S. Peirce. From that time on, we have been increasingly realizing that semiotic systems are for the most part established just on some type of similarity. But the more we see the sphere of analogical signification expanding its realm, the more we become aware of how inadequate is the notion of a simple relationship connecting locally a physical object with a second object, or with a mental entity. There is, on the other hand, the more refined theory of sign conceived by Ferdinand de Saussure, but this theory, by its very definition, addresses a restricted domain, and definitely does not include the field of those signs which rest on analogical associations.\n\nThe main purpose of this article is then to show how the more polished Saussurean model can act as a starting point for a general restatement, primarily intended to embrace the signs that rest on an analogical basis. We may so speak of a \u201cneoclassical\u201d, innovative semiotic theory, able to join the latest \u201csociosemiotic\u201d approach with the most precious foundations of our discipline.\n\nA different view on semiotic analogies\n\nThere is no doubt that semiotics has suffered a lot due to so many ambiguities about concepts such as \u201canalogy\u201d, \u201csimilarity\u201d or \u201cresemb-\nlance\u201d. Primarily, as we shall see in the next pages, we have to face unsatisfactory theoretical models concerning the semiotic correlations which rest on an analogical basis: more or less what traditional Peircean terminology calls \u201cicons\u201d. More generally, it seems unacceptable that, after a century from the establishment of the discipline, we still cannot refer to a unified theory about the most fundamental semiotic relations.\n\nReferring to an idea of semiotics fully conceived as a social science (a \u201csociosemiotics\u201d, according to the term nowadays largely used, mainly in Italy and in France), I think that we have to refer more closely to the perspective originating from Durkheim and Saussure. In the first instance, we can rethink the original Saussurean model in new terms, more consistent with the ways of seeing that we feel distinctive of social sciences. I am referring here to the perspective of a social foundation of semiotic systems, as in the Saussurean definition of \u201csemiology\u201d, or to the idea of a constitutive role of languages and symbolic systems in the very establishment of a social structure, as in the thought of \u00c9mile Durkheim.\u00b9\n\nThe main purpose of this article is to show how the more polished model by Ferdinand de Saussure, usually restricted to the linguistic field, can instead act as a starting point for a general restatement, primarily intended to embrace the signs which rest on an analogical basis. I can only mention here what we owe to scholars such as Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss or Luis Prieto, who both reworked some facets of the Saussurean thought, in a perspective more consonant with the vision of a social science.\u00b2\n\nFirst of all, we have to remark that any possible way of defining correlations of signs involving \u201canalogies\u201d runs into the multiplicity of\n\n\u00b9 See mainly his seminal work on symbolism, where languages play an essential part in a sociological reworking of the Kantian model (Durkheim 1912).\n\u00b2 For an in-depth discussion of the sign model in L\u00e9vi-Strauss, see Ferraro 2001; a shortest exposition can be found at www.etnosemiotica.it/programma_giornata_levi_strauss_guido_ferraro_levi-stauss_un_maestro_per_una_stradaancora_da_percorrere_contributo.php. For Prieto\u2019s model, see Prieto 1975.\ndifferent operations, different functions, different semiotic ranks that analogies may assume. On the other hand, there is no doubt that semiotics, from its very beginning, focused on the problematic crux concerning the interrelated concepts of identity, difference, and analogy. It is revealing to note how Saussure stressed the absolute centrality of analogical mechanism in language: central with regard to diachronical modifications, ways of learning our own tongue, and to morphological structuring, too. As he said, \u201cevery language at any time is nothing else but a whole of analogical patterns\u201d (Saussure 2002: 161). On the other hand, when he speaks about signs\u2019 identity, he disassembles the apparent level of analogies \u2014 \u201cpositive\u201d relations, seemingly recognizable in the \u201cthings\u201d themselves \u2014 pulverizing them in a mere illusionistic effect of what are the actual constitutive bricks of language: negative and differential relations. Well known is the case of the many possible ways of tracing the letter \u201ct\u201d in the Roman alphabet: if we have become used to saying that those graphic traces, even if objectively dissimilar, are effectively equivalent, this is not on account of what makes them positively similar, but on account of the differences they share, with regard to other units belonging to the same system.\n\nKeeping up a tradition starting from Saussure and later deepened, among others, by Luis Prieto (1975), we must therefore think that the different ways of manifesting a signifier are not equivalent because they are inherently similar, but that on the contrary they look similar because we assign them the same distinctive features, and accordingly we regard them as equivalent and interchangeable. From the point of view of a speaker, the effect of analogy is so immediately evident as to determine precisely the naive impression that the likeness is \u201cin the things themselves\u201d, and that the likeness could be the source, not the effect, of an assignment of identity. The analogies we perceive are actually the result of the work of semiotic systems: consequently, there cannot be any semiotic system \u201cfounded\u201d on analogies, but systems that build and work out analogies in different ways.\nAs we know, what applies to the signifier, applies to the signified in the same way. As the word \u201cblue\u201d, uttered by different voices, produces sounds objectively different \u2014 but we always subjectively recognize \u201cthe same word\u201d \u2014 so the chromatic representations coming under the category of \u201cblue\u201d are definitely different, but we feel them as \u201csimilar\u201d \u2014 when objectively they are not. Of course, as we all are familiar with the experience of at least one second tongue, we know that people speaking different tongues have partly different perceptions about what is \u201csimilar\u201d and what is \u201cdifferent\u201d, just because such an effect of similarity is created by the system.\n\nIn our straight relation with the surrounding world, we are always dealing with differences between things. There never was an ingenuous time when we na\u00efvely lived in a world of magical analogies, as Lucien L\u00e9vy-Bruhl (1910) could suppose, nor is it a matter of a specific \u201cpostmodern\u201d inability to recognize analogies, as in the perspective of Barbara Maria Stafford.\\textsuperscript{3} The focal point is, for us, that a system of signs \u2014 every system of signs, of any kind! \u2014 cannot work if not producing effects of similarity, starting from what actually is a network of differences. Usually, we do not underline enough the primary fact that any semiotic system \u2014 even if it has nothing to do with \u201ciconism\u201d \u2014 relies on a mechanism in some respects based on analogies: a consideration which partly explains the numerous confusions and perplexities in the theoretical treatment of the concept of \u201canalogy\u201d. In effect, as every system of signs rests on correlations between classes (on both sides of signifier and signified), and the common belonging to a class creates such a strong effect of \u201csimilarity\u201d, it follows that in all systems of signs the upshot of similarity always plays a leading role.\n\nIn order to distinguish this type of similarity from other, different types, I propose to employ the expression \u201cequi-similarity\u201d. So, \u201cequi-\n\n\\textsuperscript{3} \u201cToday, however, we possess no language for talking about resemblance, only an exaggerated awareness of difference\u201d (Stafford 1999: 10).\nsimilar\u201d are those entities that are perceived as analogous because they are semiotically equivalent, as possible ways of realizing the same signifier (as in the case of the many different ways of writing the letter \u201ct\u201d), or the same signified (as in the case of the many chromatic representations that belong to the signified of the term \u201cblue\u201d).\n\nThe core of the \u201cclassic\u201d semiotic view could then be stated as follows: signifier and signified should be conceived of as categorical structures set at a high level in the cognitive hierarchy. Operating into discursive practices, they generate working sets that are respectively sets of expressive variants (for the signifiers) and sets of senses (for the signifieds). The expressive variants manifest themselves in perceptible objects (sounds, colors, static or moving shapes, and so on), while on the other hand the specific senses find a definite correspondence in psychological entities (mental representations, emotional conditions, and so on).\n\nThis \u201cclassical\u201d theoretical model is not only stylish and refined but also operationally effective, and attentive to the functional dimensions of signs. Moreover, it is capable of linking very well the relational dynamics operating at the systemic level with the psychological reality that signs take in the mind of speaking people. For these reasons, it should be definitely preferred to the reworking carried out by Louis Hjelslev, that is too abstract and unrealistic from the very beginning, and later overwhelmed by too many inconsistent exploitations. The main problem is that, in its original view, the \u201cclassical\u201d model was conceived exclusively for the arbitrary signs, a case unquestionably very relevant but also quite atypical. The idea on which this article is founded is that there are no actual reasons to exclude the validity of\n\n---\n\n4 See the critical attitude taken by Luis Prieto (1975), and more recently by Fran\u00e7ois Rastier (2001: 58, ff). Concerning inconsistent exploitations, everyone could cite some examples, but I could start remembering a classical review by Cesare Segre, evaluating the many different and \u201chazardous\u201d suggestions around what could match the Hjelmslevian quadripartion in the domain of literature (chapter on Text in Segre 1985).\nthis model in any other semiotic field, in the framework of what I call a _neoclassical_ perspective.\n\n**Equi-similarity in the world of indices**\n\nA good starting point for such an extension can be thinking how this model could be adapted for those signs that the Peircean tradition calls \u201cindices\u201d. We know that a certain aura of oversimplification in the more popular definitions of those concepts are due to successive trivializations, but it is undeniable that their source is in the actual writings of the author. If we take into account the effective way we read indices in our surrounding reality, we can notice how we rely on our very essential habit of moving inside _chains of events_; but, if we examine the matter carefully, it is not a question of single events: we are building on settled patterns of events, structures set at a higher level (_scripts_, if you want).\n\nAs in the perception of our experience of life, according to models that we learn to apply in our very first months of life, events are _linked_ together in a sequence, this allows us to go back logically, passing from a link in the chain to another: something roughly similar to what in semiotics is called a \u201csyntagmatic chain\u201d. The form of the chain allows to both go upstream, from the effect to the cause (common examples are: from the footprint in the snow to the passing of the bear, or from the smoke to the fire, etc.), or to go downstream, from the cause to the effect (from the black clouds to the likelihood of rain). This is valid for \u201cnatural\u201d signs, as well as for human indexical behavior: if a lady wears very expensive clothes, this is the result of available money (upstream connection), while if it happens that our interlocutor is insistently looking at his watch, a downstream connection allows us to read his behavior as expressing a concern for a flow of time which leads him towards a subsequent occurrence.\nA typical pitfall is to think that the link between the index and its value sits at a local level. But what is happening in our mind when we see a black cloud in the sky, or a footprint in the snow, or a person who is insistently looking at his watch, is very much alike to what happens when we hear a word uttered. We do not operate a link between the perceived object and its meaning, but between the object we are perceiving and the class it belongs to. Physically, what I am seeing is a black cloud, or a person looking at his watch, but my interpretation of the specific perceived object or event arises because I recognize it as a particular occurrence of a general model: what carries for me the significance of \u201clikelihood of rain\u201d is not that specific black cloud which is now here in the sky (it is not a sign, then!), but the general class of black clouds which is stored in my mind. This is definitely far from the common version of the Peircean theory, where an index is something that has a real, physical connection with an object. \u201cThe index has no generality in itself. It does not depend on a mental association\u201d (WP 5: 379). But in the same article Peirce suggests that index can also be seen as a token of a general connection, as it happens when I know that it is raining because I notice a number of people with their umbrellas up (the open umbrella asserts rain by virtue of a \u201cmental association\u201d, ibid.). So we are probably not too far from other, brighter aspects of Peircean thought, when we propose that an index works in conformity with the \u201cclassical\u201d model; its signifier is not a single object at a local level (a cloud, for instance), but a model \u2014 in Saussurean terms, the \u201cmental image\u201d \u2014 which brings together all the possible, equi-similar black clouds: a mental entity of general value, of which the cloud I am seeing now is nothing but a local manifestation. All the possibilities of rain are \u201csimilar\u201d, as all the black clouds are \u201csimilar\u201d: the indexical relations cannot be grasped leaving aside the form of likeness that I call \u201cequi-similarity\u201d.\n\nThe triangulation objectual representamen \u2192 interpretant \u2192 object can therefore be usefully replaced with the more unequivocal and better developed quadripartite structure: physical or textual immediate\nentity \u2192 signifier (general class) \u2192 signified (general class) \u2192 specific mental content (it should be stressed that there is no acceptable correspondence here between Peircean and Saussurean categories). This model, as well as being more explanatory, matches better the psychological truth of what is actually happening in my mind when, in the above-mentioned case, I see a black cloud: the semiotic functioning of our mind follows correlations between classes, not between single objects.\n\nNow, we have to wonder if something like that can be true also for iconic correlations, that is, for semiotic correlations based on the establishment of an analogical link \u2014 here again in conflict with the Peircean principle denying generality to icons. However, we have to preliminarily remark that we are facing a huge and variegated universe. In fact, apart from language and its derived semiotic systems (primarily the alphabetical writing), almost all our expressive tools rest on an analogical ground. First of all, we have to go beyond the idea of a coincidence between analogical signification and visual expression. I agree with what G\u00f6ran Sonesson (1994: 74) wrote: \u201cin Peirce\u2019s view, there is nothing intrinsically visual about iconicity\u201d. So, we can see an analogical way of working in systems not strictly nor exclusively visual, like theatre, cinema and television, but also in systems that have nothing to do with the visual, like poetry, music, or the field \u2014 in its own right huge and diversified \u2014 of narrative production. Even though here we\u2019ll stick to visual instances, and more specifically to photographic or cinematographic images, we\u2019ll do so with the awareness of the extent and multiplicity of all that belongs to forms of semiosis based on analogical correlations.\n\nA light in the dark\n\nAccording to what I consider the brighter view of Peircean thought, the sign reference exists only in the mind of an interpreter, a \u201csome-\nbody\u201d (\u201cA sign, or representamen, is something which stands to somebody [\u2026]\u201d CP 2.22), whether we assume \u201csomebody\u201d as an individual or as a social entity (\u201cwe know that man is no whole as long as he is single, that he is essentially a possible member of society. [\u2026] It is not \u201cmy\u201d experience, but \u201cour\u201d experience that has to be thought of; and this \u201cus\u201d has indefinite possibilities\u201d, CP 5.402). Commenting on this passage, Peter Skagested (2004: 245) maintains that \u201ccommunication, to Peirce, is the context in which thoughts are formed, and is logically prior to thinking processes taking place in individual minds\u201d: a perspective which indeed shows remarkable affinities with the views both of Durkheim and of today\u2019s sociosemiotics. In any case, the icon may be regarded as resting on a subjective judgment of resemblance; the resemblance is not in the things themselves but in the way a person, or a community, chooses to look at things. This basic assumption immediately underlines how any recognition of analogies implies an actual process of interpretation. But this conception is also capable of saving us from the common idea that analogy could link a thing to another thing, making it easier to adopt the view that, also in the case of icons, the semiotic structure links two abstract and general mental configurations, the signifier and the signified.\n\nOf course, some common examples, as those of photos made for identity cards or documentary images, present us with cases where there is no doubt that an image refers to a specific object in the world. This is an interesting and yet particular use, which assimilates the iconic signs to what in the language are the \u201cproper nouns\u201d, designators of individual entities. But in most cases the ways we employ images are more complex, and in the semiotic real life the analogical configurations are conceived with expressive and interpretative aims, well beyond the aim of simply pointing to something there in the world.\n\nIt is not my aim here to discuss in detail the Peircean views about iconism, but I think they are too prone to a sort of \u201creferential illusion\u201d, speaking in Greimas\u2019 terms. I remember here the classic example by Nelson Goodman (1968: 50): \u201cBefore me is a picture of\ntrees and cliffs by the sea, painted in dull grays, and expressing great sadness\u201d. This picture \u201crepresents\u201d things, but \u201cexpresses\u201d certain feelings. According to Goodman, \u201ca picture must stand for, symbolize, refer to, what it expresses\u201d (Goodman 1968: 52). Although he does not embrace a fully semiotic view here, his idea about the meaning of a visual text is clearly of a metaphorical and emotional kind. Even more meaningful, Goodman claims that \u201crepresenting is a matter of classifying objects rather than of imitating them, of characterizing rather than of copying, it is not a matter of passive reporting\u201d (ibid, 31).\n\nAt this point, I think that we need an example, in order to better elucidate our matter. I choose a case quite subtle and refined, at first simple and evident but capable of showing how a sociosemiotic, systemic analysis can diverge from a textual inquiry, confined to a supposed local level. I will refer to the incipit of a film which manifests a special relevance from a semiotic point of view. The Sixth Sense, directed by M. Night Shyamalan in 1999, can be seen as a text about the ways we read our experience; moreover, anybody who saw it knows how the film plays with the reactions and the faults of its spectators, and with the slight boundary between what we see and what we know. The film incipit belongs to this subtle and meaningful game. Although almost nobody pays attention to it, at least when watching for the first time, the very opening of the text is an insistent shot which, for a full eighteen lengthy seconds, shows us an electric bulb gradually switching on, moving from total dark to light.\n\nAs (the author is right, indeed) we are actually fully miseducated to interpret what we see, we tend to take this shot as a somewhat stylish way of starting the story, immediately consenting to its prompt diegetic justification: it\u2019s the lighting of a cellar, where the wife of the main character is going to take a bottle of wine, in order to celebrate a special occasion. But if we pay more careful attention, we realize that the bulb turning on in the dark can be understood as an occurrence of a sign that, just in the beginning of the text, briefly points toward its\nmain topic: this scene opens a film which is going to tell us about how we may be able to find out things that at first seem incomprehensible.\n\nOnce started up, the interpretation machine, in this case, works really easily, all the more so because, say, both the world of comic strips or the one of common speech are full of \u201cbulbs switching on\u201d, not to speak, of course, of our ordinary direct experience of a lamp which, giving light to a dark space, makes it possible for us to find out what just a moment before was indiscernible. Therefore, the viewers can assign a meaning to *that* light because they have already seen other lights, from life or in drawings, and furthermore they have heard people speaking about metaphorical lights that \u201cswitched on in their minds\u201d, and so on. This means that, if that specific bulb is located *inside* the film, it is nevertheless nothing but a member of a larger class, known through different ways. So, we are facing a *token* of a culturally established *type*: the type \u201clight coming on in the dark\u201d, with its meaning \u201cprocess that conveys a knowledge in an area that was previously unclear\u201d. This general model is located *not in the film* but in the cultural system.\n\n**Where analogies live:**\n**beyond text-oriented semiotics**\n\nSo, we understand that there is a fundamental alternative between two greatly different modes of conceiving the sign. The first perspective assumes that semiotic relations are entities located inside the texts, and that therefore texts could be seen as \u201ccomposed of signs\u201d. As this view is not so easy to sustain, *text-oriented semiotics* (Greimas in the first place) often appears as fluctuating between two options. On the one hand, we notice a not fully rationalized tendency to laying aside the troublesome notion of \u201csign\u201d, along with the incorrect relegation of\nsigns in the realm of \u201cmanifestation\u201d.\\(^5\\) On the other hand, we see the actual identification of \u201csigns in the text\u201d as primary constituents of the semiotic backbones, especially evident in the analysis of *Maupassant* (Greimas 1976).\n\nThe other perspective, not textual but *culture-oriented*, is the one I call \u201cneoclassical\u201d, specifically conceived for the current sociosemiotic line of studies. In this view, we assume (as Saussure) that the level of existence for the semiotic relations is the same as the level of cultural systems. From this point of view, what sign structures have in the texts is a specific application and occurrence. As we can see, this is nothing more than a generalization of the well known (in linguistics) assumption that words, the morphemes, have their existence in a collectively shared system (the *langue*), having in the sentences their specific occurrences. In Peirce\u2019s terms, we could say that it should be sufficient to generalize to every kind of sign what the author said about symbols (such as in CP 2.249), stating that every sign signifies by virtue of a law, on the strength of an association of general ideas, hence qualifying as \u201ca general type or law, [...] a Legisign\u201d.\n\nOf course, this way of seeing deeply transforms our approach to textuality. Sure, in every semiotic system the specific textual realizations show inevitable and constitutive variations. In fact, also in the case of our example we are able to envisage a broad range of possible variants: instead of an electric bulb, we could see the headlights of a car, an electric torch, or maybe the rays of a rising sun. These variants can turn out to be interesting, and perhaps to be capable of adding some color, but they still remain variants that carry a common meaning and can therefore substitute each other. Thus, these different kinds of light constitute a case of what we call \u201cequi-similarity\u201d, and consequently a class of entities capable of expressing the same concept; therefore, they set up what we call a \u201csignifier\u201d, culturally linked to a given signified. At a theoretical level, we understand now that the\n\n---\n\n\\(^5\\) See the entry *Signe* in the *Dictionnaire* by Greimas and Court\u00e9s (1979).\nsignifier is not what we saw in the film, but the cultural entity that manifests itself in a specific mode in the film. But the trick is that, as we fall into the illusion to see \u201cwords\u201d in a sentence, so we believe we are seeing icons in a film, or in a painting. As it often happens, we take the reflections for the real thing, but it has to be this way in our direct experience of texts: the illusion is part of the game.\n\nFurthermore, the idea that things possess an intrinsic identity, so that their classification is objectively achieved, is a part of the same illusion. On the other hand, an act of classification is subjective and creative. As Nelson Goodman (1968: 32) states, a classification involves choices, so that, he says, the making of a picture is someway a manner of making the object which is pictured. If you want to know how Shyamalan develops the idea that we found at the very beginning of the film, well his central point is just that we tend to refer everything we see back to already known categories, a way of behaving which could stop any inventiveness and any discovery. We have to be open to what can surprise us, be willing to attach importance to relevant differences, and so be ready to reorganize our knowledge. As we see in the film, we can learn a lot from other people and their different ways of viewing. Therefore, we should bear in mind that classifications are temporary and relative, negotiated and inter-subjective; they can be as much conservative as innovative; it is the duty of the arts to show us that there are different ways of categorizing the world.\n\nIf we now want to make fully explicit the reason why a light switching on in the dark can be seen as a token of a signifier (a signifier related to a certain concept), there is no doubt that we are facing an association based on analogy: straightforwardly, the dark metaphorically expresses the concept of \u201cignorance\u201d, as the light expresses the concept of \u201cknowledge\u201d, so that darkness and ignorance on the one hand, and coming of light and opening of knowledge on the other hand, constitute two couples of analogs. And here, too, the effect of analogy (a culturally constructed analogy, of course) rests on\na differential ground: darkness and light take their meaning merely in their contrast, better said in the apparatus of differences and transformations where one is denied when the other is asserted.\n\nThe relation that, for instance, connects the darkness to ignorance, links an entity on the side of the signifier with an entity on the side of the signified. This is for us an actual case of a semiotic relation established upon an effect of analogy: we may call this type of analogy, to have a concise expression, \u201crel-analogy\u201d. As we saw \u2014 and as schematized in Fig. 1 \u2014 equi-similarity puts together variants belonging to the same whole (on the side of the signifier or on the side of the signified), and is therefore valid for every type of signs, while the rel-analogy is a specific kind of connection between signifier and signified, defining a specific type of signs (roughly what tradition calls \u201cicons\u201d): signs resting on associative correlations, in the sense that will be now better specified. Moreover, unlike equi-similar variants, the rel-analogous terms are not reversible: the darkness, which is an entity that can be easily manifested (textualized) in a perceivable and physical way, stands for an abstract concept as \u201cto not know\u201d or \u201cto not understand\u201d. Similarly, we can use a map as standing for the configuration of a territory, but there couldn\u2019t be any sense in using a territory as standing for a map. In general terms, we always see that the single case stands for the general type, the part for the whole, and so on. What\u2019s involved, then, is not a mere relation of similarity, as this connection implies a dissymmetry too, between simple and complex. We know very well that a map is useful just because it shows a schematization, reduced and simplified. But it is the same for a pictorial representation, that is always more essential in comparison with the represented scene or person: a reduction where, it has to be noted, a quantitative less corresponds to a more of significance and\n\n---\n\n6 This type of dissymmetry has already been remarked; see Wallis 1973 and Sebeok 1976: 128. G\u00f6ran Sonesson has discussed the question in detail, see Sonesson 1994, 1998.\nintelligence. Also in the case of a photograph \u2014 which could represent here a kind of extreme \u2014 we may notice that the image of better quality and greater meaning is often the one which performs the more severe *subtraction* in comparison with the scene it depicts.\\(^7\\)\n\n![Diagram](image)\n\n*Figure 1. Rel-analogy and equi-similarity.*\n\n---\n\n\\(^7\\) It is interesting to notice how this is a widespread idea, common also in popular handbooks for photography enthusiasts. See for instance: \u201cMaking camera photographs involves the practice of subtractive thinking. [...] Imagine being a sculptor of images who chips away at a monolithic block of reality until only what is absolutely necessary remains and then relies on each viewer to fill in the missing pieces to complete the meaning\u201d (Hirsch 2008: 34\u201335).\nLet the sense *happen*\n\nSo, the iconic elaboration *condenses* portions of the real, of the imaginary or of the conceivable, offering us a simplified image or, as we may also say, a *model*. This is an essential fact if we want to explain why we use forms of analogy in such an insistent and ubiquitous manner. Moreover, it must be emphasized that the analogical arrangement of our representation of the world does not indicate any mental simplicity or naivety, but a complex and refined thought. The forms of analogical association can reach modes of extreme subtlety and ductility, including calculated ways to produce polysemous values, which have little to do with the proverbial \u201cconstitutive ambiguity of the image\u201d. Furthermore, the analogical connections are not restricted to \u201csimilarities\u201d in a strict sense, but include cases such as the one which moves from an allusion to its reference, the modes which govern synesthetic connections and formal parallelisms, and so on. Analogical correlations may have a figurative nature or, as they say, a \u201cplastic\u201d one; they may stick to limited points in the text or rely upon features recurring in different parts (something like what Umberto Eco calls *expressive textures* (Eco 1976: 210)). This articulated variety of means still remains to be defined and analyzed, in the updated viewpoint of a grammar of the forms of analogical expression.\n\nA very effective type of analogical association (roughly corresponding to traditional \u201csynecdoche\u201d) is the one which links the single case to the *whole* it belongs to, a modus operandi common in photography, for instance in the field of reportage. This procedure allows analogical communication to operate through \u201cscraps\u201d: a form of great efficiency, able to thicken semantic values using, in a sophisticated manner, both types of analogy we are talking of. Let\u2019s see how it works. Schematically, the photographer investigates a given situation (a war scenery, an urban area presenting a particular social characterization, and so on), trying to understand it, sorting out the most relevant aspects, and so developing a *mental interpretation* \u2014\nwhich is, in practice, the *meaning* he therefore set himself to express. In this first phase, then, he is going from the observed world towards a constructed meaning. At this point, he will try to define how, extracting a scrap, or a facet, from the observed reality, and giving it a definite visual arrangement, it is possible to give rise to a proper support for the intended communicative performance. Now he is going from the side of the signified to the side of the signifier, indeed: so that the superficial \u201creference\u201d of the image to the \u201creal\u201d is a mere appearance, if not a deceptive effect.\n\nIt should be noted at this point how the legitimacy of this gesture of cutting out a fragment from the whole rests on the assumption that the portion of reality specifically caught in the photograph is not anomalous or uncharacteristic, since in such a case it could be seen as a deception. In principle, what is cut out should be comparable to other portions (in our terms, be \u201cequi-similar\u201d to them), and ultimately equivalent to the whole \u2014 what in current speech we call \u201cto be *representative*\u201d. Both in the relation part-to-part as in the relation part-to-whole, we see in action forms of *equi-similarity* that are far from being either simple or obvious. I mean that the author makes us understand that the photograph he produced could be semiotically equivalent to other photographs that, in the same place, he or someone else could have produced, as variants of a structured signifier that brings us a given concept (the intolerable cruelty of war, for instance).\n\nPerhaps, considering the example of the electric bulb, you could have thought that our theoretical model could apply only to images working as symbols or metaphors, but not to images more bound to a \u201creal\u201d starting point, like in the realm of journalism. But, if we give it a more serious attention, in the case of reporting, too, the making of every image departs from *a meaning that has to be expressed*. Sure, to the exclusion of instances where strictly, and maybe almost compulsory, someone set oneself \u201cnot to say anything\u201d. But of course, if there is an image fully devoid of any meaning, a mere impersonal replica of\nan object, it should be considered as not pertaining to the semiotic domain.\n\nBe they symbolic images or photographic reportages, visual portraits or grasps of some magic landscape, the analogical representations obey in any case the theoretical model that we tried to propose, with the aim of recovering an effective and brighter way to explain semiotic processes. \u201cProcesses\u201d, it should be emphasized. Let us see why. If we go back to our reporter, we realize that what he presents is not just an \u201cimage of something\u201d. Now, this is the point: the very meaning of his \u201cto be there\u201d, together with his way of looking and comprehending, selecting and framing, bounding and arranging, and his capability in processing things so as to make visible what hardly should be seen by a direct look, and finally his way of giving assurance about representativeness and equivalence\u2026 this whole sequence of steps and procedures, pacts and guarantees, *all that*, truly, is *engraved in the image* he is showing us, all that is exposed and presented as a part of the apparatus that ultimately sets up its meaning.\n\nWe perceive the reasons of his clipping, the logic of his choices, his search for that specific perspective, and so on. As John Berger pointed out, every time we look at a photograph, we are aware of the photographer selecting that sight; photographic images do not show things, but relations between things and observers (Berger 1972: 9\u201310). Not far from here are the words by Philippe Dubois (1983: 9): \u201c*avec la photographie, il ne nous est plus possible de penser l\u2019image en dehors de l\u2019acte qui la fait \u00eatre*\u201d8. Most images, as again John Berger (1995) said about photographs, look as *quotations of reality*; but it should be added that they are mainly pointing out just the ideal marks indicating the quotation. Under any creation of an analogical reference, peeps out a smouldering metasemiotic dimension (\u201cLook: this is a *way* someone *made* this image\u2026\u201d).\n\n---\n\n8 \u201cdealing with photographs, we cannot any more consider the images outside the action that creates them\u201d\nHere is one of the most remarkable differences between index and icon. While both seem to have a story to tell, nevertheless the index often pretends innocence and unintentionality, as if it was the footstep left behind by a mechanical device. The analogical sign tends instead to emphasize that it is intentionally made, showing off its process of construction and the manners (the rules) of its specific practice of production. We cannot understand unless we mentally repeat its course; we cannot discover its meaning unless we make its sense happen.\n\n**Making the world thinkable and the ideas visible**\n\nThis brings us to a last, crucial consideration. Let us go back to our example of the electric bulb switching on, in the incipit of the *Sixth Sense*. We gave to those images a perhaps convincing reading, but could they have more, different readings? Let us say that, looking to this black screen gradually brightening, we can definitely see an allusion to the very same process of the film projection: an assumption sustained by many subsequent mentions to the power of recorded images, or sounds, and by the amazingly symmetrical finale, where the image vanishes in a fully white light (as the protagonist \u2014 thanks also to another film showing inside the film \u2014 eventually realizes the unreachable and terrible truth).\n\nThen, could we say if the \u201cright interpretation\u201d is the one mentioned before (Topic: how we can understand the world), or the one suggested now (Topic: how cinema creates a representation of life)? Or perhaps the first one is a partial and provisional reading, and the latter brings us to the ultimate meaning? We could instead assume that crucial is just the way the analogical references stratify in parallel: this film talks about how knowledge arises, but cinema is in its own a vehicle of knowledge; the deepest meaning is in the concurrence of different levels: light equals knowledge, light equals cinema, then cinema equals knowledge\u2026\nIf we take this path, we could also notice that the same story shows us how can we understand who we really are only passing through the eyes of someone else; but, again, cinema is not just a means to see with someone else\u2019s eyes? Looking elsewhere, in a different way, not quite being who we are, not exactly from here where we are... Actually, if you saw the film, you remember how the protagonist first reaches a fragment of the truth. He listens to a tape recording (very similar to an exposed film, isn\u2019t it?), but selecting just an \u201cinsignificant\u201d fraction that he had never listen to, because there was \u201cnothing\u201d there, only \u201csilence\u201d, as he was not there at the moment of recording. Looking elsewhere, not through our eyes, listening into the silence of our absence, finding the truth where we are sure there is no meaning, learning from the voices of missing people... or \u2014 it is another key episode in the film \u2014 discovering a murderer from the void, useless section of a video tape: multiple parallel and equi-similar segments (and we could easily add more of them). Which one \u201cis the meaning\u201d, and which one is the mere vehicle of that meaning? We feel that the authentic meaning is not lying in a specific level, but in the same outline of their correspondence, and we could not tell the \u201cauthentic meaning\u201d, if not making use of another metaphorical vehicle: for instance, recognizing that knowledge is not merely \u201ca light\u201d, but a light at the moment it is breaking the darkness, like a divergent, anomalous presence where its absence is rule. The meaning of all those episodes may be clear to our mind, but it does not reside somewhere in a specific level: it exists only in the analogy that intersects them all. But perhaps this could bring us to the best definition for the concept of \u201csignified\u201d in the case of a complex iconic sign: signified is the shared abstract logic that underlies all the different expressive variants, as a common conceptual form.\n\nThere is a theory about it, incomplete but fascinating, as this way of working of semiotic systems with an analogical basis has been studied in depth by Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss, mainly in his books about American native mythologies. He lead us to think that such systems do not\nactually outline a final semantic plane, as their primary semantic value should better be seen in the same logical form through which they induce us to a certain way of reading the world, thanks to the logic of parallelisms they set up for us. With L\u00e9vi-Strauss\u2019 words, we could say that the meaning \u201cis not in a privileged content, but in logical relations devoid of content\u201d (L\u00e9vi-Strauss 1964: 246). I would be less extreme, but I think that analogies should be seen as more than a straightforward device to establish semiotic references: the cultural design that shapes the analogies we are lead to perceive, holds the order which rules our whole experience.\n\nSo, the general model of sign we talked about helps us to understand how iconic signs tend to make us perceive classes and crossings of analogical equivalence. While the usual model of icon considers it as a link between \u201cthis thing\u201d and \u201cthat other thing\u201d at a local and specific level, the actual outcome of analogical configurations seems to mainly move in a quite different direction. Even in the case of a photograph shot by a reporter in a definite place and situation, we are inclined to feel that, say, this child in the image had been put under our eyes not for what he personally is, but because he is similar to many other children, tormented in that war, a war whose cruelty is similar to the cruelty of any other war, and similar also to the cruelty of many other circumstances where violence overwhelms the innocent. A bitter truth, made visible in the face of this child, here and now. Our closing hypothesis is therefore that we use icons not just because of their aptitude to describe something but, more often than not, because of their powerful faculty of generalizing, categorizing, connecting, and so reassuring us that sense is not only thinkable in our mind but visible everywhere, widespread and truly present in the world: images do not show things, but thoughts.\nReferences\n\n\n\u0410\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u043c\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u043d\u0435\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439\u00bb \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438\n\n\u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0427\u0430\u0440\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u041d\u043e \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u0442\u0435\u043c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043f\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u0441 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u044d\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430. \u0421 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0435 \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0441\u044e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430, \u043d\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c, \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0441\u044e\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u044f \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0438, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044e \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u0412 \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043e \u00ab\u043d\u0435\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439\u00bb \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u00ab\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u0441 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0446\u0438\u043f\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b.\nAnaloogiap\u00f5hised assotsiatsioonid \u201eneoklassikalise\u201d semiootikateooria raamistus\n\nSellest kui C. S. Peirce pakkus v\u00e4lja ikooniliste m\u00e4rkide m\u00f5iste, on m\u00f6\u00f6dunud palju aega. Sealt peale oleme \u00fcha enam m\u00f5istnud, et semiootilised s\u00fcsteemid p\u00f5hinevad eelk\u00f5ige mingit t\u00fc\u00fcpi sarnasusest. Ent mida enam me n\u00e4eme analoogiap\u00f5hise t\u00e4histuse v\u00e4lja kasvavat, seda enam saame me teadlikuks sellest, kui ebapiisav on arusaam lihtsast suhest, mis \u00fchendab loogiliselt f\u00fc\u00fcsilist objekti teise objektiga v\u00f5i mentaalse entiteediga. Teisalt eksisteerib Ferdinand de Saussure\u2019i poolt loodud rafineeritum m\u00e4rgiteooria, aga see teooria on oma olemuselt suunatud piiratud ainevallale ning ei h\u00f5lma neid m\u00e4rke, mis p\u00f5hinevad analoogiap\u00f5histel assotsiatsioonidel.\n\nK\u00e4esoleva artikli peamine eesm\u00e4rk on n\u00e4idata, kuidas Saussure\u2019i teooria edasiarendus, mille esmase esem\u00e4rk on h\u00f5lma ka analoogial p\u00f5hinevaid m\u00e4rke, v\u00f5ib pakkuda v\u00f5imaluse m\u00e4rgiteooria \u00fcmberformuleerimiseks. Nii v\u00f5ime me r\u00e4\u00e4kida \u201eneoklassikalisest\u201d innovatiivsest semiootikateooriast, mis on suuteline endas \u00fchendama hilisema \u201esotsiosemiootilise\u201d l\u00e4henemise meie distsipliini oluliste p\u00f5hialustega.", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://iris.unito.it/retrieve/handle/2318/105019/13804/Ferraro%20-%20Analogical%20associations.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 10153, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 25, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 50763, "total-output-tokens": 12118, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0003771781921386719, "__label__art_design": 0.032745361328125, "__label__crime_law": 0.0003578662872314453, "__label__education_jobs": 0.0182647705078125, "__label__entertainment": 0.0013713836669921875, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0003979206085205078, "__label__finance_business": 0.0005583763122558594, "__label__food_dining": 0.0003833770751953125, "__label__games": 0.000576019287109375, "__label__hardware": 0.00030803680419921875, "__label__health": 0.0006518363952636719, "__label__history": 0.0014123916625976562, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0005207061767578125, "__label__industrial": 0.0006418228149414062, "__label__literature": 0.8974609375, "__label__politics": 0.0009641647338867188, "__label__religion": 0.0011835098266601562, "__label__science_tech": 0.037689208984375, "__label__social_life": 0.0011281967163085938, "__label__software": 0.0010023117065429688, "__label__software_dev": 0.0013370513916015625, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0001672506332397461, "__label__transportation": 0.0006060600280761719, "__label__travel": 0.00012743473052978516}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 48606, 0.01783]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 48606, 0.38354]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 48606, 0.91392]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 783, false], [783, 2101, null], [2101, 4351, null], [4351, 6570, null], [6570, 8746, null], [8746, 11024, null], [11024, 12941, null], [12941, 15235, null], [15235, 17181, null], [17181, 19432, null], [19432, 21649, null], [21649, 23497, null], [23497, 25721, null], [25721, 27934, null], [27934, 30126, null], [30126, 30934, null], [30934, 33081, null], [33081, 35286, null], [35286, 37367, null], [37367, 39340, null], [39340, 41589, null], [41589, 43542, null], [43542, 45708, null], [45708, 47472, null], [47472, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 783, true], [783, 2101, null], [2101, 4351, null], [4351, 6570, null], [6570, 8746, null], [8746, 11024, null], [11024, 12941, null], [12941, 15235, null], [15235, 17181, null], [17181, 19432, null], [19432, 21649, null], [21649, 23497, null], [23497, 25721, null], [25721, 27934, null], [27934, 30126, null], [30126, 30934, null], [30934, 33081, null], [33081, 35286, null], [35286, 37367, null], [37367, 39340, null], [39340, 41589, null], [41589, 43542, null], [43542, 45708, null], [45708, 47472, null], [47472, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 48606, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 783, 1], [783, 2101, 2], [2101, 4351, 3], [4351, 6570, 4], [6570, 8746, 5], [8746, 11024, 6], [11024, 12941, 7], [12941, 15235, 8], [15235, 17181, 9], [17181, 19432, 10], [19432, 21649, 11], [21649, 23497, 12], [23497, 25721, 13], [25721, 27934, 14], [27934, 30126, 15], [30126, 30934, 16], [30934, 33081, 17], [33081, 35286, 18], [35286, 37367, 19], [37367, 39340, 20], [39340, 41589, 21], [41589, 43542, 22], [43542, 45708, 23], [45708, 47472, 24], [47472, 48606, 25]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 48606, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-07", "created": "2024-12-07"}
+{"id": "24920482c8ebf9c8d333d84b0f5b39b01e55f8bf", "text": "The Modern in the Postmodern: Walter Mosley, Barbara Neely, and the Politics of Contemporary African-American Detective Fiction\n\nDaylanne K. English\n\nHe was a cop by trade and I was a criminal by color.\n\n\nDid white people have any idea how much energy and hope and downright stubbornness it took to live and work and try to find some fun in a place where you were always the first to be suspected, regardless of the crime?\n\nBarbara Neely, Blanche Passes Go (2000)\n\nSince 1990, Walter Mosley, Barbara Neely, Eleanor Taylor Bland, Anthony Gar Haywood, Nichelle Tramble, and Valerie Wilson Wesley, among other African-American authors, have chosen to write not just one detective novel but a series of detective novels. In response to that ever-expanding list of authors and works, quite a few essays and book-length studies of contemporary African-American and \u201cethnic\u201d detective fiction have been published in recent years. Despite this scholarly attention to African-American detective fiction, the reasons for its contemporary flourishing remain mysterious. Paula Woods, a groundbreaking scholar of the fiction, has argued that the use of black detective-protagonists \u201clets readers know that African Americans are not just the victims or perpetrators...\nof crimes but are also those who try to correct the balance that murder upsets\u201d (xv). In considering why so many writers are currently working in the genre, however, Woods only speculates briefly: \u201cPerhaps as an outgrowth of the hunger Americans of all colors have developed for black writing, African American mystery writers have also begun to claim the spotlight\u201d (xvii). Similarly, Stephen Soitos, in one of the earliest book-length studies of African-American detective fiction, notes the \u201crecent revival of interest in the detective novel by black writers\u201d but concludes about this revival simply that \u201cblack detective authors have gained a measure of respectability and recognition \u2026 as readership and acceptance of black detectives [have] become more diverse\u201d (225). In a more recent essay, Helen Lock goes farther, arguing that \u201cinterest in [African American] detective fiction \u2026 can be at least partially explained by \u2026 [its] relevance to the realities, concerns, and history\u2014indeed the entire epistemology\u2014of the African American experience\u201d (88). Although here Lock does start to get at the \u201cwhy\u201d of the question, she does not address the \u201cwhen.\u201d Nicole King considers the \u201cwhen\u201d in her examination of several African-American novels published in the 1980s\u2014a period, she asserts, that \u201ccalled forth a resurgence of nostalgic affirmations black community\u201d (212)\u2014but her consideration of the literary-racial politics of her chosen novels, which include Mosley\u2019s Devil in a Blue Dress, does not take genre, the \u201cwhat,\u201d into account. Doris Witt comes closest to solving the mystery, arguing that the detective work of Blanche White, Barbara Neely\u2019s serial protagonist, \u201cis very centrally a decoding of contemporary United States body politics, as inflected by sexuality, gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and (dis)ability\u201d (166). On the contrary, Witt\u2019s argument applies not to African-American detective fiction in general, but solely to Neely\u2019s novels, and, even more specifically, to Neely\u2019s novels in contradistinction to \u201cthe urban male-oriented writings of Walter Mosley\u201d (167). Certainly, the Blanche White series\u2014with its female detective, sometimes rural settings, and focus on Blanche\u2019s children and lovers\u2014does not fit comfortably into the masculinist \u201chard-boiled\u201d subgenre of detective fiction that clearly includes Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins series. But the crime genre, more broadly conceived, serves some of the same functions for both authors.\n\nMosley and Neely, along with a number of other African-American writers, have chosen a past genre because it suits their literary and political purposes. First, in writing crime novels, contemporary black writers are enacting a kind of literary-generic anachronism in order to comment on a distinct lack of progress regarding race within legal, penal, and judicial systems in the US. Walter Mosley uses crime fiction as the ideal form in which to expose and narrate the still-lived experience of what his detective\nEasy Rawlins terms being \u201ccriminal by color\u201d (*Little Scarlet* 235). Despite the Easy Rawlins novels\u2019 historical settings, the past is not past for the detective, and the series shows that much remains the same for him in Los Angeles even across decades. Along with such interracial political commentary, there is intraracial social commentary embedded in African-American detective fiction as well. In the late twentieth century, contemporary literary and cultural theory, social science, and biogenetics have undone race itself; as a result, the nature of modern and postmodern African-American identity has become an increasingly irresolvable mystery, one that invites use of the detective form. It is no coincidence that the very first African-American detective fiction emerged at the turn of the twentieth century in the short stories of Pauline Hopkins and then flourished in the 1920s with the novels and short stories of Rudolph Fisher and George Schuyler\u2014both periods when the nature of African-American subjectivity was being intensively investigated and reconstructed by African Americans themselves. Many contemporary African-American detective novels pose questions regarding the possibilities for collective black subjectivity, but Barbara Neely\u2019s novels in particular try, and generally fail, to figure out how to establish blackness outside the forces of the law. Across four novels, her detective, Blanche White, fails to sustain a healthy adult relationship with any African-American person other than her \u201chome girl,\u201d Ardell. In sum, Walter Mosley\u2019s and Barbara Neely\u2019s detective fictions operate precisely at the intersection of two ongoing mysteries regarding race in the US. Those mysteries\u2014one centering on color-coded justice, the other on elusive black identity\u2014ultimately resolve, in much contemporary African-American detective fiction, and its criticism, into a single stubborn, racially inflected mystery surrounding families and genealogies, both literal and literary.\n\nMosley has inherited the hard-boiled subgenre of detective fiction that originated with the novels of Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. As a number of critics have argued, the first hard-boiled fiction cannot be understood apart from the national, political, and social contexts of the 1930s and 1940s. In *Gumshoe America*, Sean McCann describes hard-boiled fiction as a Depression-era \u201ccultural complaint\u201d (5) about the \u201cpoverty of liberal theory\u201d (16). Arising out of \u201cpopulist cynicism and its air of fatality,\u201d (3) it exposes \u201cthe classic mystery tale\u201d as \u201ca political myth \u2026 [that] no longer corresponded to the complex realities of an urban, industrial society\u201d (18). According to McCann, if classic mysteries of the nineteenth century, such as the Sherlock Holmes stories, represented the genius-detective as triumphantly reasserting late Victorian legal and social order over and against the lawlessness of individual desires, the 1930s Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe novels represent\nthe philosopher-detective as cynically discovering that the modern legal and social order is neither redemptive nor consolatory. In fact, it may be both incompetent and malignant, particularly toward vulnerable individuals (89\u201391). Regarding Chester Himes, McCann concludes that the \u201ctraditional preoccupation\u201d of the hard-boiled genre with legal failures and injustices offered \u201ca perfect means to dramatize the intimate relations between racism and American democracy\u201d at mid-century, resulting in Himes\u2019s \u201cvision of American society as a violent and absurd racial carnival\u201d (252).\n\nSince the 1990 publication of the first in his series of detective novels, *Devil in a Blue Dress*, Walter Mosley has entered and expanded that carnival, along with the hard-boiled tradition. Despite the Easy Rawlins novels\u2019 1990 to early 2000s publication dates, their protagonist operates very much like the detectives in Hammett and Chandler\u2019s novels, as a few critics have argued. With a \u201clone wolf\u201d private investigator negotiating a complex and corrupt social landscape, the series even takes place, as did Mosley\u2019s predecessors\u2019 novels, in Los Angeles. Remarkably, however, the greater part of scholarship on Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins series has centered on the degree of *difference* it attains from white detective fiction and concomitantly on the extent of its formal subversion and social progressiveness. Gilbert Muller insists that \u201c[t]he most significant influence on the Mosley is not so much the pantheon of white writers of detective fiction as it is Chester Himes,\u201d and Muller calls the two authors \u201ctranscontinental twins\u201d (293)\u2014although Himes\u2019s crime novels were set in Harlem rather than in Los Angeles and they feature two police officers, Coffin Ed and Gravedigger Jones, rather than a lone private investigator. Similarly, Helen Lock insists that Easy Rawlins \u201cis a lot more than simply a darker-skinned version of Philip Marlowe or Sam Spade\u201d (77). For Lock, Mosley\u2019s detective novels represent an \u201cAfrican American experience of double-consciousness, especially in the urban America of the period\u201d (78). While reaching a very different conclusion, Roger Berger also carefully measures the novels as potential \u201ctexts of difference,\u201d arguing that their \u201cblack characters and locations \u2026 and their generic \u2018violations\u2019 of the hardboiled detective story\u201d do in fact produce difference from white antecedents (281). But Berger concludes that such literary-formal differences are not sufficient to \u201cdisentangle\u201d Mosley \u201cfrom the reactionary politics \u2026 embedded in the genre\u201d (292).\n\nCritics have been just as uneasy with the idea that Chester Himes could be like white writers. They have, for instance, long struggled with Himes\u2019s famous assertion that he wrote quite traditional detective stories and \u201cjust made the faces black\u201d (qtd. in Williams 48). Immediately after supplying that well-known quotation, Sean McCann counters it: \u201cGiven Himes\u2019s inventiveness with the\nModern in the Postmodern: African-American Detective Fiction\n\ngenre, that remark must be taken as one of the better examples of false modesty in the history of popular writing\u201d (252). But permitting Himes and Mosley their *sameness*, as well as their difference, will clarify the stakes in their return to a \u201cwhite\u201d genre born in and of the 1930s. If we agree with McCann that hard-boiled detective fiction of the 1930s functions as a period-specific \u201ccultural complaint,\u201d then we should understand Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins novels, and African-American detective fiction in general, in the same way. The \u201ccomplex meditation[s]\u201d of Hammett, Chandler, and Himes \u201con the hopes and disappointments of New Deal liberalism\u201d (308) are matched by Mosley\u2019s ongoing meditation on political, social, and legal promises, repeatedly made and repeatedly broken, within a pre- and post-Civil Rights era US. Mosley\u2019s and others\u2019 return to a quintessentially modern and quintessentially cynical genre *now* is to argue that we have not yet earned the \u201cpost\u201d in postmodernity. We have not solved the fundamental mystery of the liberal democratic state: how to achieve liberty and justice for each and for all. Same-ness just as much as difference becomes, then, a deeply political and historically engaged literary argument, with Mosley rightly taking his place alongside Chandler and Hammett, his literary \u201cancestors\u201d to use Ralph Ellison terms, in a genealogy of hard-boiled detective fiction writers.\n\nThat genealogy also throws into relief the fact that Mosley is writing, at once, detective fiction and historical fiction. Actually, he is writing *doubly* historical fiction: the Easy Rawlins\u2019s novels are historical at both meta-generic and local-content levels, with period mattering just as much as genre in each of the books. Mosley\u2019s ongoing, color-coded Easy Rawlins series began with *Devil in a Blue Dress* (1990) set in 1948, followed by *Red Death* (1991) set in 1951, *White Butterfly* (1992) set in 1956, *Black Betty* (1994) set in 1961, *A Little Yellow Dog* (1996) set in 1963, *Bad Boy Brawly Brown* (2003) set in 1964, and, most recently, *Little Scarlet* (2004) set in 1965. But temporal layers in and of themselves do not necessarily distinguish Mosley\u2019s from other detective fiction. Tzvetan Todorov, following Van Dine and Burton, has argued for a \u201cduality\u201d of narrative timelines in all detective novels. As Todorov puts it, the \u201cwhodunit \u2026 carries not one but two stories: the story of the crime and the story of the investigation\u201d (44). Throughout the Easy Rawlins series, however, Walter Mosley adopts *and supplements* that characteristic temporal duality of detective fiction; in each novel, we encounter not just two stories and two timelines, crime and investigation, but at least two additional timelines and stories resulting from Mosley\u2019s juxtaposition of the modern and the contemporary. And, to the degree that the contemporary turns out to look much like the modern\u2014in fact, to be the *same*\u2014Mosley\u2019s novels work as\nliterary-political statements. He chooses to return in the 1990s and early 2000s to a genre born of 1930s discontent in order to write novels set in the 1940s\u201360s, thereby enacting a complex process of literary anachronism that describes and inscribes present-day injustice and discontent.\n\nBlack Betty, for example, takes place in 1961 but was published in 1994. The plot turns on Easy\u2019s search for the missing title character, who had been working as a domestic servant for a wealthy white family. Easy is hired by the family to find Betty, ostensibly in order that she might receive an inheritance following the death of the family\u2019s patriarch. In his pursuit of her, Easy travels from Watts to a Beverly Hills gated community and back, encountering and uncovering police brutality and a great deal of white-on-black violence along the way. Clearly, the novel is commenting simultaneously on the Los Angeles\u2014and the US\u2014both of its setting and its publication date. Mosley\u2019s early 1960s Los Angeles, that will soon erupt in the 1965 Watts uprising, offers a clear parallel to the Los Angeles of thirty years later, which will erupt in 1992, again as a result of economic and judicial injustice. Yet the time in which Black Betty is set appeared to be a time of promise, particularly for African Americans. At the beginning of the story, Easy says, \u201cI tried to think of better things. About our new Irish president and Martin Luther King; about how the world was changing, and a black man in America had the chance to be a man for the first time in hundreds of years\u201d (45). His naming of Kennedy and King suggests that the narrative itself holds out little hope for real change. Just as readers are aware that both figures will be assassinated, Easy, with a kind of cynical prescience, abruptly checks his own optimism: \u201cI wanted to feel better but all I had was the certainty that the world had passed me by\u2014leaving me and my kind dead or making death in the dark causeways\u201d (46).\n\nThe time in which Black Betty was written and published, the early 1990s, also appeared to be a time of promise, and again, especially for African Americans. A man whom Toni Morrison would later famously and controversially term \u201cour first black president,\u201d was about to be elected (32). African-American writers had particular cause for optimism about this reading president. As the New York Times noted in December 1992, the Clintons \u201cread books of all sorts \u2026 [a]nd that is the most striking feature of a cultural profile of the first-family-to-be\u201d (Honan C15). Even before the election, Bill Clinton had been profiled as a voracious reader, with mysteries among his favorites. In August 1992, the then Boston Globe journalist Michael Frisby described a campaign flight with Clinton during which the candidate \u201cadmitted to being an avid book reader and cited two of his recent favorites as the mystery detective novels Devil in a Blue...\nIn his next novel, Mosley offered what I consider to be a response to the \u201cfirst fan,\u201d as well as a commentary on Clinton\u2019s 1992 campaign image as a common man and his political promises of expanded opportunities for all Americans. Frisby also covered a September 1992 political rally, noting that Clinton \u201cpromised yesterday to bring a new approach to government \u2026 [saying], \u2018I have done my best for more than a year now to offer the American people a new approach, one that goes beyond trickle-down economics without going back to tax and spend\u2019\u201d (27). In Frisby\u2019s words, the candidate was \u201creturning to a theme\u201d (27). Clinton was, after all, \u201cThe Man from Hope\u201d in the famous and extraordinarily effective video from the 1992 Democratic convention, with the very first words of the video spoken by Clinton himself: \u201cI was born in a little town called Hope, Arkansas.\u201d As if in direct reply to that candidate, soon to be president, Easy declares in the second chapter of the 1994 *Black Betty*: \u201chope is the harshest kind of dreaming\u201d (57). Easy\u2019s rather hopeless version of \u201chope\u201d reflects his restricted social position that in turn shapes his methods of detection: \u201cHunches,\u201d he explains, \u201care a desperate man\u2019s way to hope\u201d (330).8 Easy\u2019s livelihood, itself a mode of understanding and moving in a highly racialized urban American landscape, renders \u201chope\u201d unreliable either as an epistemology or a means of upward social mobility.9 Such riffing on Clinton\u2019s campaign rhetoric of birthplace-as-policy detects and discloses the nonuniversality of such narratives of bootstrapped success as the one that took the candidate from Hope, Arkansas, to the White House. Easy concludes that \u201ca better day might have been coming, for some people\u2014but not for everyone\u201d (46).\n\nIn the latest installment in the series, Easy even suspends his own moral code because of persistent racial injustice: \u201cIt hadn\u2019t felt right \u2026. But the denizens of Watts were under the law with no say \u2026. I would have put Mouse [Easy\u2019s ultra-violent best friend] in the White House if I could have\u201d (*Little Scarlet* 204\u20135). Mosley, through his detective narrator, seems to be replying not just to Clinton but also to Toni Morrison, reminding us that there remain substantive differences between a figure like Easy Rawlins or Raymond Alexander (Mouse) and one like Bill Clinton. For example, Easy describes a chillingly familiar encounter with the LAPD:\n\nSix men! Policemen. There were around the car and in the doors before I could even think.\nI was dragged from the front seat and thrown to the asphalt.\n\n\u201cSpread \u2018em!\u201d\n\n\u201cGet the keys. Search the vehicle.\u201d\n\nThey went through my clothes and cuffed my hands behind my back.\n\n\u201cHey, man! What\u2019d I do?\u201d I shouted.\n\nThat got me a nightstick pressed hard across the back of my neck.\n\n\u201cYou just shut up,\u201d an angry voice whispered in my ear (Black Betty 125).\n\nThe police take Easy to jail: \u201cMy chin sure hurt later when I woke up in my new jail cell. My chest hurt too, and my arm and the back of my hand. A big knot had swollen up above my diaphragm and my side ached awfully. He must have hit me after I was out. That\u2019s the only way I could understand it, all those bumps and bruises\u201d (133). These echoes of the Rodney King beating suggest that at least some things are liable to stay the same, across time, for poor and working-class black men in Los Angeles. As Easy says in Little Scarlet, \u201cno matter how far back you remember, there\u2019s a beatin\u2019 there waiting for you\u201d (48). However, we must acknowledge that while sameness helps produce the literary and political power of Mosley\u2019s and other African-American authors\u2019 detective fiction, so does difference.\n\nNot all critics have privileged the differences between Mosley and his protagonist and white hard-boiled detective fiction authors and their protagonists. Helen Lock explains that Easy, like all the classic hard-boiled detectives, \u201coperates in a frequently murky borderland between good and evil [and] is thus an essentially liminal figure\u201d (78). Just as Lock argues, Easy does possess the typical hard-boiled detective\u2019s liminality in that he dwells between regions, classes, and discourses, between legality and illegality, and between legitimacy and illegitimacy. However, I would extend and complicate her argument. Yes, Easy\u2019s liminality resembles Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe\u2019s, but it is, at the same time, both racially specific and highly individual. Easy\u2019s version of being \u201cin between\u201d actually sets him apart from Chandler and Hammett\u2019s detectives and permits him to exceed their cultural and racial scripts. His sameness\u2014in this instance at least\u2014is different. Theodore Mason agrees, asserting\nthat, for Easy, \u201cthe borders between \u2018races\u2019 and between genders\u201d are \u201cthe site not only of the criminal act but also \u2026 the site of culturally transgressive possibility\u201d (173).\n\nEasy crosses a number of borders over the course of the series. We learn at the beginning of the first novel that Easy is a black World War II veteran who has migrated from Houston to Los Angeles (Devil 2, 4). That collective, raced, and gendered experience of the Great Migration and of segregated wartime service is perhaps best represented by Easy\u2019s flexible speech, yet that speech also reflects the contingencies of his experience, intelligence, and personality. In each of the books, he can and does shift smoothly among various forms of black vernacular and to standard English when he needs to. In Black Betty, Easy says of wealthy white clients, \u201cI spoke in a dialect that they would expect\u201d (122) and, in Bad Boy Brawly Brown, he says of a young African-American revolutionary, \u201cMy diction and grammar slid into the form I wanted Junior to hear\u201d (49). Here, Junior and Easy share a racial identity, but Junior cannot detect or reproduce Easy\u2019s linguistic shifts any more than can the rich whites in Black Betty.\n\nEven more importantly, what Liam Kennedy terms Easy\u2019s \u201csocial \u2026 mobility\u201d far exceeds that of Sam Spade or Philip Marlowe, even if that mobility is, as Kennedy observes, \u201cmold[ed]\u201d by race (230). Throughout the series, Easy befriends and occasionally works with \u201cNegro\u201d (black and mixed race, African American, and Afro-Caribbean), white, Mexican, Asian, and Latino people; he even adopts a Mexican boy, Jesus, and a biracial girl, Feather. Such cross-racial alliances and family structures readily distinguish Easy from Hammett and Chandler\u2019s detectives. Suggestively, Easy often forges those alliances on the basis of a shared distrust of white power structures that are typically represented by and concentrated within the police. In Black Betty, when his friend the Japanese-American librarian Miss Eto is being stalked, Easy asks her, \u201cWhy don\u2019t you go to the cops?\u201d (78). \u201cOh, no,\u201d she replies, \u201cNever go to the police.\u201d Easy immediately declares, \u201cMaybe that\u2019s why I helped her\u201d (78). His declaration points to the ways that race and class make a difference in crime and in crime fiction\u2014in the case of race, so much so that even if Chester Himes and Walter Mosley both had simply \u201cmade the faces black\u201d in their novels, they would have necessarily altered the meaning and power of the genre.\n\nAt the literal center of Black Betty, Easy says, \u201cI\u2019ve never really been what you would call a friend to the LAPD\u201d (180). To paraphrase D. A. Miller, the police, along with the novel, mean differently when the main characters are black. To date, most criticisms of The Novel and the Police (1988) have centered on Miller\u2019s argument that the novel as a genre functions as part of the disciplinary\nmechanisms surrounding bourgeois subjectivity; Miller says of mid-nineteenth-century English novels: \u201cWhenever the novel censures policing power, it has already reinvented it, in the very practice of novelistic representation\u201d (20; emphasis in original). In Miller\u2019s view, the \u201cgenre of the novel belongs to the disciplinary field it portrays\u201d (21; emphasis in original). A number of literary scholars have objected to such a reading of the novel as essentially and always disciplinary, as being part of an overall social-regulatory system. Here I am less concerned with Miller\u2019s view of the novel as nonliberatory or nonprogressive than I am with his neglect of race. The Victorian novels on which he bases his argument were being published at the same time as the earliest African-American novels, yet both the genealogies and the criticism for the two sets of texts have been and generally remain quite separate, and only a handful of critics have targeted Miller\u2019s thesis in the context of his narrow racial, national, and temporal textual selections. Yumna Siddiqi, for one, challenges Miller by pointing to postcolonial novels, such as Arundhati Roy\u2019s The God of Small Things and Amitav Gosh\u2019s The Circle of Reason, that \u201ccast suspicion on the repressive apparatuses of the state\u201d (177). To the degree that there are always targets of colonial or racial policing who do not match the form of subjectivity desired by the state and produced by Miller\u2019s chosen novels, his theory cannot hold. As Siddiqi observes, in many postcolonial novels \u201cthe forces of police criminalize the protagonists\u201d (176). Likewise, as this essay\u2019s epigraphs suggest, quite a few contemporary African-American detective novels represent a protagonist who is both detective and perceived criminal because of race, thereby complicating Miller\u2019s conclusion about the novel\u2019s always-state-interested cultural and disciplinary work. Of course, Miller would be well within his rights to point out that both Siddiqi and I take his argument out of temporal context; his thesis, after all, pertained to Victorian novels. However, the intertwining of race and criminality that we find in Mosley\u2019s and Neely\u2019s novels did not begin with contemporary African-American detective fiction.\n\nFrom its very origins and on into the present, African-American fiction has articulated and analyzed the intersection of crime and color in the US. A character in Frederick Douglass\u2019s 1853 novella, The Heroic Slave, says of the black protagonist: \u201cHere is indeed a man of rare endowments, a child of God,\u2014guilty of no crime but the color of his skin\u201d (135). Half a century later, in Pauline Hopkins\u2019s 1900 short story \u201cTalma Gordon,\u201d a white man rejects his passing-for-white fianc\u00e9e, who is suspected of murder, crying, \u201cI could stand the stigma of murder, but add to that the pollution of Negro blood! No man is brave enough to face such a situation\u201d (16). Much later, Chester Himes turned the tables by declaring in his 1976 autobiography: \u201cI could not name the white man who was guilty\nbecause all white men were guilty\u201d (102). Now, contemporary\ndetective fiction offers a concentrated, extended means to investi-\ngate the continued construction of race via crime and its policing\neven as the fictionality of race has been largely accepted. In Barbara\nNeely\u2019s 1994 Blanche Among the Talented Tenth, the characters\nbond, despite their profound color and class conflicts, over distrust\nof the police; thus, the police themselves construct blackness. For\nexample, the dark-skinned working-class Blanche White \u201cshared\u201d\nwith the light-skinned wealthy academic Mattie a \u201clack of faith in\nthe police\u201d (122). \u201cIn her experience,\u201d Blanche explains, regardless\nof their circumstances, \u201cblack people who called the cops stood a\ngood chance of being abused instead of assisted\u201d (122\u201323). Even\nwhen they don\u2019t \u201ccall the cops,\u201d black people, Blanche knows, must\nalways view their own behavior from the perspective of the police.\nAs she says in the first novel of the series: \u201cA running black person\nwas still a target of suspicion\u201d (Blanche on the Lam 6). Just so, Easy\nRawlins, also in the first novel of the series, tells us: \u201cIt was fifteen\nblocks to John\u2019s speak and I had to keep telling myself to slow\ndown. I knew that a patrol car would arrest any sprinting Negro they\nencountered\u201d (Devil 76). Easy Rawlins has been shaped by racially\nmarked disciplinary structures not just in his reactions and his out-\nward behavior but in his inner being as well. His is a raced emo-\ntional and epistemological interior: he fears the police because he\nknows what they can and will do to him.\n\nOnce again, in Mosley\u2019s exploration of his protagonist\u2019s\nracialized psychological terrain, we can see a literary politics of\nsameness and difference at work. Easy spends time in altered or lim-\ninal states, seemingly just like the detectives who preceded him.\nSherlock Holmes had his opium fogs and his trance-like episodes of\nintense concentration; Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe had their\nmoments of ruminating and philosophizing, so often parodied now.\nEasy Rawlins\u2019s characteristic liminal states include fear, rage, and,\nmost of all, dreams. As of the first page of Black Betty, he is dream-\ning (43\u201344), and the novel as a whole is punctuated by his recurrent\ndreams and nightmares. Suggestively, Easy is not simply dreaming\nin Black Betty; throughout, he is dreaming of the past. The book\nbegins with Easy\u2019s dream of his past experiences with the title char-\nacter, Black Betty, and it ends with his telling us, \u201cI\u2019d been thinking\nabout the young people I remembered in my dreams\u201d (280). Unlike\npast detectives\u2019 altered states, Easy\u2019s also constitute liminal tempo-\nral states; he is suspended between past and present as he dreams,\nreinforcing and expanding the political commentary initiated by his\nresemblance to past hard-boiled detectives.\n\nEasy has lived through and observed World War II and the\npostwar years, the beginnings of the civil rights and Black Power\nmovements, the assassination of Kennedy, the Vietnam war, and the 1965 Watts riots. He thus embodies the memory and past of a particular community. His allegorical role becomes clear in *Little Scarlet*, set in 1965 Los Angeles:\n\n[I]t was as if there was a strong wind at my back. I had resisted it all through the riots: the angry voice in my heart that urged me to go out and fight after all of the hangings I had seen, after all of the times I had been called nigger and all of the doors that had been slammed in my face. I spent my whole early life at the back of buses and in the segregated balconies at theaters. I had been arrested for walking in the wrong part of town and threatened for looking a man in the eye. And when I went to war to fight for freedom, I found myself in a segregated army, treated with less respect than they treated German POWs. I had seen people who looked like me jeered on TV and in the movies. I had had enough and I wasn\u2019t about to turn back, even though I wanted to. (18\u201319)\n\nBoth author and protagonist seek to represent stories and characters often neglected by mainstream histories of American and African-American culture. Walter Mosley has said, \u201cI want to map that migration through the deep South and to the West of black people. Because one of the things\u2014and this is because we haven\u2019t been that involved in the center of the literary world, people of color\u2014a lot of our histories are left out of the fiction\u201d (Moyers). Analogously, Easy Rawlins knows he must live to tell the story, for if he fails, \u201cWho would have survived to be witness against [these] crimes?\u201d (129). Here, the urgent mission of the detective is not so much to solve the mystery as it is to investigate and narrate, to remember and relate a history of race relations in the US from the perspective of a common person. Easy notes and values not just the grand, public acts of the civil rights movement but the minor, private acts of resistance to white power and privilege. He describes one such moment as \u201ca little piece of history that happened right there in that room and went unrecorded\u201d (*Black Betty* 220).\n\nEasy is documenting a history that is national and familial\u2014and ongoing. Just as we cannot help likening his early 1960s Los Angeles setting to early 1990s LA, we cannot help connecting his history with our present. The plot of *Black Betty* turns on the disclosure of a secret interracial family. Betty, while employed as a maid by the wealthy white Cain family, bore two children as a result of rape by\u2014or, at the very least, coerced sex with\u2014the family\u2019s patriarch, Albert Cain. Upon his death, Cain leaves Betty nearly all his property, in atonement; yet, his white family breaks the will in a trial\nthat leaves her \u201cdestroyed,\u201d disinherited, and made \u201cto seem like a whore who had beguiled Albert Cain\u201d (359). Even when made public, the truth of the sexual exploitation of a black woman and the resulting interracial family cannot shake the legal genealogy of whiteness. This story should sound familiar to us, and it demonstrates that if literary history continues to insist upon racial separateness, then so does much political history. It was only quite recently that Strom Thurmond\u2019s own secret interracial family came to light. Essie Mae Washington Williams also \u201cwent unrecorded,\u201d publicly and formally, until December 2003 when she came forward after the senator\u2019s death. She was his first child, born in 1925 when Thurmond was twenty-two, as a result of an affair with his family\u2019s black maid, who was sixteen at the time. Though his mixed race family took priority in time, it certainly did not take priority in official narratives of Thurmond\u2019s personal or political history. Although his \u201cmixed\u201d past was a kind of open secret in Washington, none of his obituaries from the summer of 2003 mentioned what a Slate writer terms \u201cthe most interesting of his sundry racial legacies\u201d (McWhorter). Thus, the Easy Rawlins series travels back in time to recover and record a national genealogical history that remains in need of publication.\n\nTo complicate matters further, there is yet another kind of time travel taking place throughout the series. The detective is narrating each of the novels from some indefinite point in the future. Easy tells us, for example, what \u201cretired\u201d meant to black men at the time of Black Betty: \u201cBack in 1961 that meant you worked \u2018part-time\u2019 forty hours a week and paid your own insurance\u201d (64). This additional temporal layer permits Easy to comment on both the period of the novels and his own development. Easy does change and learn, despite the seemingly unchanging nature of his surroundings, and his most significant change regards gender. A number of critics have noted a troubling masculinism in the Easy Rawlins\u2019s novels; Doris Witt, for one, holds up Barbara Neely\u2019s novels \u201cas an alternative to the \u2018boys in the hood\u2019 fixation of much of early 1990s United States culture\u2014a fixation that contributed to the enthusiastic reception of Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins and his loyal, if violent friend Mouse\u201d (167). Black Betty in particular invites such feminist critique. In the book, Easy is perpetually searching for Betty, the mysterious pursued who is deferred until nearly the end of the novel\u2014she first appears on page 294 of a 360-page edition. At first, Easy describes her as \u201ca great shark of a woman\u201d desired by virtually all the men in the book (49). By novel\u2019s end, she is threatened and infantilized, exposed and defeated; she is rendered \u201cpitiful\u201d (344). Along the way, we learn that Betty constitutes the origin of Easy\u2019s own sexuality; he says that \u201cthe first time [he] had sex\u201d was with her (247).\nNote that here Easy is not referring to an actual sexual experience with Betty but to an experience of voyeurism. As a child, he once watched her having sex with a man, and his extreme arousal at the sight made it his \u201cfirst time\u201d (247). This simulacrum of a sexual experience points to the falseness that underpins Easy\u2019s pursuit of Black Betty as his fantasy, the embodiment of authentic, essential, and irresistible black female sexuality.\n\nBut we must not rush to an equation of Easy\u2019s troubling 1960s gender politics, written down in the 1990s, with 1930s hard-boiled masculinism. For one thing, Easy harbors a kind of nascent feminism; as he thinks back about his failures, he wonders, \u201cMaybe it was because I never learned to respect women\u201d (174). Here, the modern-in-the-postmodern African-American male detective realizes that what he most sorely lacked in 1961 was the second-wave feminism that was then emerging. In a sense, Easy Rawlins should be looking for Neely\u2019s Blanche White rather than his Black Betty. Both are dark-skinned women working as domestics for wealthy white families; both have been raped by men in those families (we learn in the very first novel of Neely\u2019s series about her detective-protagonist\u2019s earlier rape). But quite unlike Betty, Blanche, herself a product of the 1960s, is not rendered \u201cpitiful\u201d nor is she \u201cdestroyed\u201d\u2014as of the most recent installment, she successfully takes revenge on her rapist. In Mosley\u2019s two most recent Easy Rawlins novels, the detective seems to have learned the kind of lessons in black feminism that Blanche could teach, with powerful women of color occupying ever more of his time and attention. In Bad Boy Brawly Brown (2002), set in 1964, Easy reports that his new girlfriend, Bonnie Shay, \u201cwas in every way my equal\u201d (222). Little Scarlet (2004) ends with a sense of optimism, not on political or social grounds but on the grounds of friendship between a black man and a black woman: \u201cYou watch out, girl,\u201d says Easy, \u201cYou just might make me into a happy man\u201d (306). This uncharacteristically optimistic conclusion suggests that the personal, if not the political, could provide a site for change\u2014even hope\u2014for the black community that remains steadily at the center of the Easy Rawlins novels.\n\nEven as they revolve around a separate and vital black community, Mosley\u2019s novels do not posit a singular blackness. As Nicole King argues, Mosley \u201cuse[s] intra-racial class difference, especially middle-class aspirations, to refute the romance of grand narratives of blackness\u201d (211). The processes of migration and class differentiation so well documented in the Easy Rawlins series have characterized post-emancipation African-American historical experience, especially in the twentieth century; as a result, Easy\u2019s experiences metonymize the increasing elusiveness of an African-American community or identity. Once he leaves Houston\u2019s Fifth Ward, his\ncommunity rapidly expands to include not only cross-racial friendships and alliances but ever more varieties of blackness as well. His cherished girlfriend in the recent novels is not African American but Caribbean, and she represents for him yet another version of blackness; Bonnie \u201cwas born in British Guyana but her father was from Martinique, so there was the music of the French language in her English accent\u201d (2).\n\nMosley\u2019s novels are not alone within contemporary African-American detective fiction in functioning on this complex intraracial level. Barbara Neely, like Walter Mosley, is writing a series of detective novels that explore the nature, indeed the very possibility, of black community at a time when the idea of unified blackness has been discredited. It may be at least in part because of Neely\u2019s seemingly anachronistic, and even possibly reactionary, preoccupation with reforging black identity that her novels have remained largely outside current academic discourse. Mosley\u2019s novels, by contrast, have been the subject of a great deal of both popular and academic interest. Nevertheless, the two series have much in common. Like Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins novels, Neely\u2019s four Blanche White novels seek to represent, in allegorical fashion, a narrative of recent black history. They have followed Blanche\u2019s migration from her hometown of Farleigh, North Carolina, to urban, Northeastern black neighborhoods (Harlem and Roxbury), in a kind of contemporary reenactment of the Great Migration. In the most recent installment, Blanche Passes Go (2000), Blanche returns South, just as many African Americans are currently doing, suggesting that the series as a whole offers a kind of compressed version of twentieth-century and early-twenty-first-century migratory trends. Throughout her travels, Blanche encounters a great deal of white racism, but unlike Easy Rawlins, she finds intraracial conflict surrounding gender, color, and class exceptionally troubling. In Blanche Among the Talented Tenth (1994), the second in the series, Blanche commiserates with another dark-skinned woman, explaining that prejudice from other African Americans \u201churts more anything any white person could ever do to us\u201d (128). How to achieve black unity stands as the paramount mystery throughout the Blanche White series, and it clearly overshadows the actual crimes. Yet, for Neely, the detective form remains crucial because it suits her political and literary purposes; as she puts it, \u201cI realized the mystery genre was perfect to talk about serious subjects, and it could carry the political fiction I wanted to write. In a way, I feel the genre chose me\u201d (Collette).\n\nHer protagonist\u2019s identity permits Neely to, in her words, \u201cexamine race and class from the point of view of a working-class black woman\u201d (Lewis 24) and to investigate the nature of blackness, past, and present. Neely\u2019s doubly ironically named Blanche White is\na \u201cdeep black,\u201d size sixteen, forty-something domestic worker by choice, whose self-proclaimed nosiness repeatedly leads her into mystery and often into danger (Blanche Among 1). Blanche represents a new sort of detective: black and female and working class, with those social categories driving the novels\u2019 content. The title of Neely\u2019s 1994 Blanche Among the Talented Tenth testifies to the book\u2019s preoccupation with a color-coded and classed version of African-American experience and history. In the novel, Blanche is vacationing at Amber Cove, a long-standing upper-class African-American resort community in New England, likely modeled after Oak Bluffs on Martha\u2019s Vineyard. Another \u201cbrown-skinned,\u201d working-class woman also vacationing at the resort terms the residents \u201c[a]s hinty a bunch of Talented Tenths as you\u2019d ever want to see\u201d (65). In the world of the novel, Du Bois\u2019s term could not possibly include either Blanche\u2019s black companion, who loud-talks and wears bright colors, or Blanche herself (65). Deeply cynical about Amber Cove\u2019s class and color politics, Blanche approaches the community with her own version of blackness functioning as the measure of authenticity. She observes that she is \u201cthe only guest present with any true color\u201d (40) and concludes that at Amber Cove \u201cthe things, besides color, that made a person black were either missing or mere ghosts of their former selves\u201d (58). But such racial measuring does not go unchallenged in the text.\n\nAt Amber Cove, Blanche encounters mostly light-skinned middle and upper class African-American characters; all seem destined to fail her tests of racial authenticity. First, she encounters Mattie, a famous black feminist historian, whom she initially identifies, and identifies with, as a model of the strong black woman, a \u201cdiva\u201d in Blanche\u2019s words (25, 41). Mattie ultimately does not measure up to Blanche\u2019s standards for raced and gendered authenticity. Not only is she married to a white man, another academic, but we later discover that she has a son, born as the result of her years-earlier affair with a black man, whom she refuses to acknowledge publicly. As in Mosley\u2019s Black Betty, here too we see a secret racial family, but in this case the secret affair and child are intraracial and the official, documented family interracial. This twist testifies to the novel\u2019s\u2014indeed the entire series\u2019s\u2014fundamental preoccupation with the obstacles to black identity and community. In Blanche Among the Talented Tenth, repressed family history, even when uncovered, cannot successfully forge a unitary blackness any more than it can forge an official, public interracial history in Black Betty. When Blanche confronts Mattie with knowledge of the affair and the secret black son, Mattie abruptly severs their connection, as if it were a \u201cretractable bridge\u201d (220). Blanche, in turn, promptly rejects Mattie, in terms of gender and race and perhaps class: \u201cI see why\nnobody\u2019s ever called you girlfriend before. You don\u2019t even know what the word means\u201d (221).\n\nBlanche\u2019s second possible \u201cconnection\u201d in the novel does give her some hope for establishing a long-term relationship with another black person. While at Amber Cover, she meets Tina\u2014a young woman as dark as Blanche herself\u2014who grew up \u201cin the projects\u201d of North Philadelphia, has recently graduated from Brown University, and plans to teach poor children in Boston (93, 95). With her long braids, beautiful full features, and deep black skin, Tina looks, says Blanche, like a \u201cbronze head\u201d or like the face on an \u201cAfrican coin\u201d (67). Tina thus functions as a signifier of racial value; as she changes hands during the course of the novel, going from ally of Blanche to fianc\u00e9e of a light-skinned, bourgeois young man, her racial and gender value decreases, along with Blanche\u2019s interest in her. When Tina announces her engagement, all Blanche feels is \u201cdisappointment\u201d (208), because \u201cshe didn\u2019t think Durant was good enough for Tina\u201d (181). Blanche\u2019s \u201cinvestment\u201d (94) in Tina rapidly dwindles, and, as with Mattie, \u201cdistance \u2026 stretched between them\u201d in the end (229). Blanche\u2019s own ill-starred romance with the light-skinned Stuart, a long-time Amber Cove resident and Maine native, ends even more dismally when he is unmasked as the bad guy of the book (although not as a murderer). In the end, Blanche makes no new connections, and her friendship with her girlfriend Ardell remains the only relationship she keeps from the beginning to end of this novel\u2014indeed from the beginning to end of the entire series. Her failure to connect with other people, especially other black people, sharply distinguishes the Blanche White series from the Easy Rawlins series, where widely varied friendships and characters are sustained from novel to novel. As a result, Neely\u2019s novels appear far less sanguine, at least to date, about the interpersonal and familial as routes to sustained hope or stable community for African Americans.\n\nOf course, in addition to such vexed questions of race, family, and community that pervade Blanche Among the Talented Tenth, there is an actual mystery going on. A longstanding and widely detested member of the Amber Cove community, Faith Brown, has been mysteriously electrocuted while bathing in the tub in her cottage. The investigation surrounding her death is conducted by Blanche, who arrives at Amber Cove just after the death occurs. The novel does, then, include Todorov\u2019s dual narrative time lines of crime and investigation, but like the Easy Rawlins novels, Blanche Among the Talented Tenth deploys additional temporal layers. During her investigation of the electrocution, Blanche discovers that Faith\u2019s foremost hobby had been to collect compromising history about her fellow Amber Cove residents. Nearly everyone at the\nresort had an ugly secret from the past, it seemed, and therefore a motive for killing Faith. Remarkably, it turns out that Faith\u2019s death was accidental; there had been no murder at all, although neither the reader nor Blanche realizes that fact until nearly the end of the book. So if there was no murder, what is the true mystery in *Blanche Among the Talented Tenth*? It is tempting to conclude that the novel does really want to investigate who\u2014or what\u2014has \u201ckilled faith.\u201d\n\nThe narrative pivots on the painful reality of a fractured and tense African-American community, \u201ca place,\u201d Blanche explains, \u201cwhere none of the color codes could be ignored\u201d (227). An authentic mystery emerges from the fact that \u201ccolor codes\u201d still hold power, even as late as the 1990s, when race and color distinctions had been proven spurious. For Blanche, mystery inheres in the project of how to maintain that which she nonetheless urgently desires\u2014namely, an intact and healthy African-American community, along with unprejudiced, egalitarian love relationships between African-American women and men. Unlike Easy Rawlins, Blanche has not, as of the latest book in the series, settled down with anyone and does not derive much hope from her love life. In *Blanche Passes Go*, Blanche does have a somewhat successful romance with the railroad man Thelvin, but it is marred by his jealousy, and at the end of the book she decides to return to Boston, committing neither to the South nor to him (318). Overall, Blanche is left with no clear-cut solution to the mystery of how to sustain either black community or heterosexual black love. She even has a recurrent dream, just as Easy does, but her dream speaks of isolation rather than a communal past: \u201cThe people were gone; even their voices were gone. And in the way of dreams, she knew that they were gone forever. That she had seen and heard her last human being; that she was alone in a way that made her understand the word as she had never done before\u201d (*Blanche Among* 210\u201311). Her dream, she comes to understand, was at once about the \u201cfuture,\u201d about \u201cnow,\u201d and about \u201cmemories\u201d\u2014with each period characterized by people \u201cmoving farther and farther away\u201d (*Blanche Among* 223).\n\nBlanche fails to make connections with other African Americans because her rhetoric of authenticity cannot lead either to community or to solution. Authentic blackness is by definition a receding mystery, the ever-detected yet never-found. Nevertheless, the pursuit of that mystery remains a frequent subject of contemporary African-American detective novels. In Mosley\u2019s 2004 *Little Scarlet*, Easy notes of the aftermath of the 1965 riots: \u201cthat was the beginning of the breakup of our community\u201d (77). The Blanche White novels are preoccupied with that \u201cbreakup\u201d but date its origin differently. In *Blanche Among the Talented Tenth*, whose very title speaks of a mixture of time periods, Blanche responds to her \u201cbrown-skinned\u201d\nModern in the Postmodern: African-American Detective Fiction\n\ncompanion\u2019s use of the term \u201cTalented Tenth,\u201d by laughing and replying, \u201cIt\u2019s been long time since I heard that old DuBois\u2019s thing about the light-brights being the natural leaders of their darker brethren\u201d (65). Blanche is right, the term is an old one: W. E. B. Du Bois first used it in a 1903 essay to describe his model of modern elite racial leaders whose duty it was to uplift the race\u2014not only socially but politically and economically as well. Steeped in bourgeois social sensibilities but also in progressive politics, Du Bois\u2019s Talented Tenth model was neither simply elitist nor predicated simply on lightness of skin; indeed, it was not simple at all. Blanche misremembers and misapplies the term \u201ctalented tenth\u201d to Amber Cove\u2019s class- and color-struck vacationers, whose shallow materialism and doomed aspirations toward whiteness reflect only dimly and partially Du Bois\u2019s complex picture of racial uplift by a well-educated and progressive black leadership. In a sense, Blanche is doing the same thing that the dead Faith Brown had been doing: digging up and remembering an ugly, neither whole nor wholly accurate, version of an African-American past. By failing to take into account the full range of Du Bois\u2019s intellectual and political work (she remembers his elitism, but not his socialism; his own light skin tone, but not his expatriation to Ghana; his prudish tastes, but not his suffragism), Blanche cannot solve the numerous race-, gender-, and class-based questions that arise during the course of the novel. She wonders why she is treating Tina poorly once the dark-skinned young woman has declared her allegiance to her light-skinned and insufficiently black or masculine (according to Blanche\u2019s standards) fianc\u00e9. She wonders how she can get the white domestic worker who cleans her cottage to trust her. She wonders how a handsome, light-skinned African-American man could be attracted to her, a dark-skinned and not-thin woman. Blanche fails to provide answers to any of these provocative questions regarding social categories and allegiances because her own judgments and historical elisions echo Mattie\u2019s repression of her intraracial family.\n\nAs we continue to seek answers to such questions as those Blanche asks herself, the novel\u2019s blend of the modern and the postmodern\u2014after all, Blanche in 1994 is still among the \u201cTalented Tenth\u201d\u2014may offer a useful clue. Blanche embodies a black past; like Easy, she \u201cstill remembered the police beatings in the sixties\u201d (Blanche on the Lam 89). She represents the protagonist-detective as anachronism, implying that investigation and recovery of past political perspectives might be the solution required in the present. When her adoptive son Malik asks when she stopped straightening her hair, Blanche replies: \u201cIt was the sixties. I was lucky enough to be in on the tail end of a time when some black folks were saying our dark skin and kinky hair have to be beautiful because they are ours .... It\nwas more than a fad for me\u201d (*Blanche Among* 152). Blanche offers at once, paradoxically, a historied and atemporal alternative that challenges contingent stylings of blackness. As she tells us, via free indirect discourse, \u201cIn the sixties, women who looked like her became status symbols to be draped on revolutionary black arms like a piece of kitenge cloth. Now she mostly saw black couples of the same color and darker men with lighter women\u201d (*Blanche Among* 36). Black Power and the slogan \u201cBlack is beautiful\u201d should return, according to Blanche, but they must now consist of more than male-centered fashion statements. With her generous proportions, natural hair, dark skin, and self-designed version of ancestor worship (*Blanche Among* 61), the detective offers a possible solution to the mystery of black community, a solution that centers on prior cultural and bodily expressions of blackness yet cannot properly be termed nostalgic. Blanche is just as angry about the past as she is about the present.\n\nBlanche\u2019s temporal-political diagnosis and prescription point, once again, to the real mystery at the heart of the Blanche White series and to a provisional answer regarding the current flourishing of African-American detective fiction. The continued frustration of black community throughout Neely\u2019s Blanche White novels and the continued interracial injustice in the Easy Rawlins\u2019s novels result from an incomplete recovery of African-American and American political, intellectual, and family histories. Blanche White misremembers Du Bois even as she calls for a return to the past; Easy Rawlins shows us that the nation has often suppressed its interracial past, even as he lacks his own era\u2019s feminism. Both characters and both series logically operate via an anachronistic process that, though flawed, serves to imagine solutions that are literary and political and intraracial and interracial. We would do well to attend to Blanche and Easy\u2019s dreams of the past and present, because African-American detectives\u2019 liminal states offer us something more than those of past detectives. Even if their vision is not perfect, Blanche White and Easy Rawlins see more clearly than did Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe\u2014at least when it comes to solving our national, genealogical mysteries and diagnosing our early-twenty-first-century social ills. Both detectives uncomfortably insist on the continuing social reality and power of race\u2014what Houston Baker, following Baraka, has termed \u201creal-side referentiality\u201d (387)\u2014despite the postmodern fact that race is fiction. This is not to say that Blanche and Easy are ideal detectives; we should remain critical of their processes of detection. Nevertheless, they successfully investigate not just crime but family and literary histories\u2014by both being and detecting the modern in the postmodern.\nNotes\n\n\n2. A number of critics have identified Neely\u2019s Blanche White novels as examples of \u201ccozy\u201d detective fiction, a subgenre defined as mystery novels in which little harm comes to the detective or other characters (other than the initial murder), there is little sex or violence, and the setting consists of a confined, often rural place wherein the characters know one another. See, for example, Kathy Phillips, \u201cMystery Woman,\u201d *Women\u2019s Review of Books* 17 (July 2000): 43. Granted, three of the four novels in Neely\u2019s Blanche White series seem at first glance to fit this definition. But in the 1999 installment, *Blanche Cleans Up*, Blanche is living in Roxbury and negotiating racism and city-wide corruption in Boston; moreover, Blanche herself is quite tough\u2014mentally and physically\u2014throughout the series. But the fact that she is physically assaulted at least once in every novel and has been raped means that the books really cannot be considered \u201ccozy,\u201d even if they match some of the subgenre\u2019s characteristics. I would argue that they partake of both hard-boiled (Sam Spade) and cozy (Miss Marple) conventions.\n\n3. A great deal of current African diasporic and African-Americanist literary scholarship is pressing home the point that \u201cblackness\u201d has never been unitary and that it has always been constructed in particular ways in particular times and places. See Michelle Wright\u2019s *Becoming Black: Creating Identity in the African Diaspora* (2004) for a wonderful example. See also Madhu Dubey\u2019s *Signs and Cities: Black Literary Postmodernism* (2003) and Brent Hayes Edwards\u2019s *The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism* (2003).\n\n4. Crooks identifies Easy as typical of the hard-boiled hero in that he is \u201cthe most scrupulous and decent of the erring humans mired in the blindness of their cultural situations\u201d and further, that \u201c[i]n this respect Rawlins is hardly distinguishable from Philip Marlowe, Mike Hammer, or Kinsey Millhone\u201d (85). Mosley himself observes that \u201cEasy is a hard-boiled detective in as much as he works alone; he works by himself\u201d (bookreporter.com). Although Easy becomes a family man during the series, he is\u2014at least as far as his work goes\u2014generally (although not always) a \u201clone wolf,\u201d just as Mosley says. And, also like the traditional hard-boiled\nhero, Easy is in the business of negotiating and disclosing an intricate and essentially corrupt urban social landscape; his investigation serves to analyze and diagnose that space, though his diagnosis may not yield a particularly effective prescription. Liam Kennedy succinctly describes this investigative process: Easy, like the typical detective, is \u201cat once a liminal, rootless figure . . . and . . . a classless and self-reliant man,\u201d whose detection \u201crenders universal moral principles of truth and justice subjective and presages moral inquiry as the detective\u2019s singular response to the atomized urban scenes of modernity\u201d (225\u201326). As for the LA setting, quite a few critics have observed that the hard-boiled writers themselves have understood and even helped construct that role for the city. Paul Skenazy argues that, together, the LA hard-boiled novels have worked for decades to \u201ccreate and dominate many of our insights into the spirit of this city and its citizens\u201d (104). For Liahna Babener, Chandler delivers a \u201cvision\u201d of LA as \u201can empire built on a spurious foundation, decked in tinsel, and beguiled by its own spurious promises,\u201d while Marlowe \u201clikens\u201d the city to a \u201crepertory company of liars, cheater, and imposters\u201d (132). And now, over the course of Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins series, \u201c[t]he very landscape of Los Angeles becomes more emblematic of the evil lurking in the hearts and minds of its citizens\u201d (Muller 292). Thus, the hard-boiled detective, from Marlowe to Rawlins, is alone and cynical in the city\u2014indeed, because of the city\u2014and, ultimately, he discovers that his cynicism has been quite justified all along. Just so, Easy says early on in Black Betty (1994), \u201cThere was nobody I could trust\u201d (167), and again near the book\u2019s ending, \u201cYou can never trust what somebody tells you is true\u201d (278).\n\n5. Crooks argues similarly that Easy Rawlins\u2019s \u201cindividualism\u201d renders him like Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe and also therefore renders all of Mosley\u2019s novels politically suspect, even anti-progressive, because an individualist ethos \u201cremains crucial . . . for disarming collective resistance\u201d (72). See McCann\u2019s Gumshoe America for an extensive analysis of the complex politics, neither wholly reactionary nor wholly progressive, of hard-boiled detective fiction from the 1930s to the 1960s.\n\n6. Mosley has also published a \u201cprequel\u201d (Lock 2) in the series, Gone Fishin\u2019, published in 1997 but set in 1939.\n\n7. As Gilbert Muller aptly notes, \u201cIf Watts in particular or Los Angeles more generally is the point of origin in Mosley\u2019s fiction, that demographic point radiates outward to a national boundary or framework that is the province of the novel\u201d (289).\n\n8. Caroline Reitz has made a similar point about Blanche White, Barbara Neely\u2019s protagonist: \u201cBlanche\u2019s detective powers . . . are rooted in the social conditions of her existence\u201d (229).\n\n9. The sameness of political rhetoric in the 2004 Democratic convention is striking. With \u201chope is on the way\u201d the Kerry\u2013Edwards slogan, it seems that Mosley could write Black Betty yet again. We can only hope that Watts will not suffer again in the ways that it did in 1965 and 1992. And we can only hope that Easy\u2019s comment, \u201cHome is not the place to dream\u201d (Black Betty 31) will not always hold so true for so many.\n\n10. Easy crosses other borders (literal and figurative) as well. Over the course of the rest of the novels, he moves up and down the social and economic ladder, going from poor to working class to middle-class neighborhoods and going from renter to\nhomeowner to landlord and back. He also marries and divorces and becomes a bi-\nological and an adoptive father.\n\n\n12. An MLA bibliography search on 1 August 2006 yielded just nine critical arti-\ncles on Neely\u2019s Blanche White series but 31 on Mosley\u2019s Easy Rawlins series.\n\n13. A number of studies and newspaper and television stories have documented\nthis migratory trend. See Max Arax, \u201cIn a Reverse Migration, Blacks Head to New\nSouth,\u201d *Los Angeles Times* 24 May 2004 (A1); \u201cAfrican Americans Returning\nSouth,\u201d *NBC Nightly News*, 24 May 2004; \u201cSouth Attracts More People Than It\n\n14. Recently, when asked about her plans to extend the Blanche White series,\nNeely replied that she will continue writing the books, \u201cAs long as I have issues\nthat I want to harangue people about\u201d (Cary). The didactic quality of Neely\u2019s nov-\nels also goes some way toward explaining critical and scholarly disregard of the\nBlanche White series. Reviewer Kathy Phillips wonders, \u201cIs the mystery a useful\nforum for social attack? Presumably the mystery reader is looking for lighter, if not\nlightweight, fare, and the Blanche novels no longer provide anything of the sort, if\nthe first novel arguably did \u2026. While she may be succeeding as a novelist, it is less\nlikely that she is succeeding as a mystery novelist. One can only wonder if this is\nwhat she intended\u201d (43).\n\n15. This desire, writ large in the Blanche series, also helps explain the books\u2019\npopular appeal, along with their relative lack of academic appeal.\n\n16. See Joy James, *Transcending the Talented Tenth* (1997) and Kevin Gaines,\n*Uplifting the Race* (1996) for first-rate history and analysis of the term and concept,\nthe \u201cTalented Tenth.\u201d\n\n17. Easy Rawlins stops short of thoroughgoing feminism\u2014but so, too, I would\nargue, does Blanche, despite her strong black woman rhetoric. Blanche claims to\nvalue and to seek connection with African-American women above all others. But\nat no point in *Blanche Among the Talented Tenth* or in the series as a whole, does\nshe form any lasting positive connection with any woman other than her longtime\nbest girlfriend. Barbara Neely has referred to Blanche as a \u201cbehavioral [rather than\nan academic] feminist\u201d (Collette), and Blanche undeniably discounts the academic\nfeminism of Mattie; but Mattie\u2019s written works have had a profound and empower-\ning effect on Tina, the only other potential heroine of the novel. More importantly,\nMattie offers a compelling alternative to bourgeois male-centered models of racial\nuplift (such as Du Bois\u2019s) by advancing an academic theory of political and social\nchange accomplished via women\u2019s \u201cpower and ascendancy\u201d (188) and predicated\non unrestricted female sexuality (119, 188\u201390). By valuing academic as well as\n\u201cbehavioral\u201d feminism, by remembering the progressivism as well as the elitism in\nmodern African-American cultural and philosophical paradigms, Blanche may well\nhave found herself getting closer, faster to the solution of the mystery of who killed\nFaith.\nWorks Cited\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://works.bepress.com/daylanne_english/6/download/", "len_cl100k_base": 14155, "olmocr-version": "0.1.49", "pdf-total-pages": 26, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 59744, "total-output-tokens": 17778, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00028514862060546875, "__label__art_design": 0.001003265380859375, "__label__crime_law": 0.0019273757934570312, "__label__education_jobs": 0.005153656005859375, "__label__entertainment": 0.001827239990234375, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00017595291137695312, "__label__finance_business": 0.00026488304138183594, "__label__food_dining": 0.00016570091247558594, "__label__games": 0.0005211830139160156, "__label__hardware": 4.607439041137695e-05, "__label__health": 0.00019478797912597656, "__label__history": 0.001003265380859375, "__label__home_hobbies": 9.739398956298828e-05, "__label__industrial": 0.00012350082397460938, "__label__literature": 0.98193359375, "__label__politics": 0.00307464599609375, "__label__religion": 0.00029349327087402344, "__label__science_tech": 0.0005340576171875, "__label__social_life": 0.0006279945373535156, "__label__software": 8.738040924072266e-05, "__label__software_dev": 0.00013184547424316406, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0001245737075805664, "__label__transportation": 0.00017786026000976562, "__label__travel": 5.9545040130615234e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 71617, 0.02641]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 71617, 0.15572]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 71617, 0.94596]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 0, null], [0, 1292, false], [1292, 4275, null], [4275, 7273, null], [7273, 10245, null], [10245, 13280, null], [13280, 16205, null], [16205, 18720, null], [18720, 20890, null], [20890, 23788, null], [23788, 26834, null], [26834, 29796, null], [29796, 32531, null], [32531, 35483, null], [35483, 38408, null], [38408, 41341, null], [41341, 44288, null], [44288, 47143, null], [47143, 50094, null], [50094, 53133, null], [53133, 55983, null], [55983, 59756, null], [59756, 63309, null], [63309, 66579, null], [66579, 69306, null], [69306, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 0, null], [0, 1292, true], [1292, 4275, null], [4275, 7273, null], [7273, 10245, null], [10245, 13280, null], [13280, 16205, null], [16205, 18720, null], [18720, 20890, null], [20890, 23788, null], [23788, 26834, null], [26834, 29796, null], [29796, 32531, null], [32531, 35483, null], [35483, 38408, null], [38408, 41341, null], [41341, 44288, null], [44288, 47143, null], [47143, 50094, null], [50094, 53133, null], [53133, 55983, null], [55983, 59756, null], [59756, 63309, null], [63309, 66579, null], [66579, 69306, null], [69306, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 71617, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 0, 1], [0, 1292, 2], [1292, 4275, 3], [4275, 7273, 4], [7273, 10245, 5], [10245, 13280, 6], [13280, 16205, 7], [16205, 18720, 8], [18720, 20890, 9], [20890, 23788, 10], [23788, 26834, 11], [26834, 29796, 12], [29796, 32531, 13], [32531, 35483, 14], [35483, 38408, 15], [38408, 41341, 16], [41341, 44288, 17], [44288, 47143, 18], [47143, 50094, 19], [50094, 53133, 20], [53133, 55983, 21], [55983, 59756, 22], [59756, 63309, 23], [63309, 66579, 24], [66579, 69306, 25], [69306, 71617, 26]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 71617, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-11-24", "created": "2024-11-24"}
+{"id": "f55c48dc1a942dcf6898c879fa87a2744dbbb70b", "text": "Media theorists have long argued that an intrinsic connection exists between modern warfare and its media forms. For Friedrich Kittler, war can even be considered the \u201cfather of all things technical,\u201d because, he argues, it has been decisive in the formation and development of technical media\u2014from telegraph systems to typewriters and computers.\u00b9 Yet, in arguing for the relations between war and media, war has been principally discussed in relation to its visual media. In Paul Virilio\u2019s memorable phrase, \u201cwar is cinema and cinema is war.\u201d\u00b2 This emphasis on the visual media of war has not, however, been limited to discussions of twentieth- and twenty-first-century wars. Media theorists remain conscious of longer histories behind the emergence of these latter visual-media forms. Kittler, for example, has drawn attention to how such early modern media as the lanterna magica can be viewed as \u201cby-products or waste products\u201d of military research.\u00b3 More recently, scholars have focused on the particular importance of the Romantic era in the formation of modern media environments of war, insisting that our contemporary experience of watching war derives from the mass media surrounding the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars at the end of the eighteenth century.\u2074\n\nOne effect of this concern with war\u2019s visual media has been a limited attention to the role of sound in mediating war. Manuel De Landa has offered one of the few such accounts in his study of how radio transformed warfare during the Second World War. The technical capabilities of\n\n---\n\ntwo-way radio, he argues, were crucial in the development of modern network warfare, because they allowed dispersed forces to concentrate their actions through what was, in effect, a \u201cwireless nervous system.\u201d A longer history of how sound has been used and weaponized in war has also been undertaken by Steve Goodman and Juliette Volcler. Yet, while both of these authors\u2014Goodman in particular\u2014consider the relationship of war and sound through key moments in history, stressing in particular sound\u2019s relation to fear, their concern with war and sound has not been widely taken up. Neither have they, nor other theorists of war\u2019s medial forms, been concerned with understanding war and sound in the long eighteenth century.\n\nEven a very brief survey of military writing from the Romantic era, however, serves to demonstrate that the conduct and experience of war were inseparable from questions of sound and noise. If this period gave rise to modern mass media environments, it can also be situated at the origin of contemporary military thought through a burgeoning military literature and the writing of such military theorists as Carl von Clausewitz and Antoine-Henri Jomini. Two figures who fought in and wrote about the Napoleonic Wars, their writing continues to underpin military strategic thought. The media environment that developed at this time was as crucial for establishing our contemporary theoretical modes for understanding war as it was for their public dissemination.\n\nEngaging with this body of military writing, this article examines military theorists alongside military dictionaries, memoirs, and semiautobiographical military novels of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as some of the most central ways that military thought and the experience of war were explained or mediated to the reading public. Drawing out key questions of sound and noise, it locates military writing in relation to similar concerns with noise, sound, and orality that have concerned recent scholarship on Romantic print as a media form. It argues that while this writing exposes how war demanded a highly regulated and correct use of sound and silence, it equally shows that war persistently threatened to collapse back into noise, as it comes to be associated with fear, panic, wounding, surprise, uncertainty, and even the voices of those who attempt to speak about it. By turning to Jean-Luc Nancy\u2019s elaboration of an ethics of listening, this article concludes by questioning whether we might see an alternative view of war in this discussion of war\u2019s noise. Placed beyond the expert or eyewitness\u2014and his or her association with presence, experience, comprehension, and the control of media communication\u2014war\u2019s noise can point to an uncertain yet open and shared engagement with a history of war.\n\nTHE NOISE OF BATTLE\n\nAmong the most frequent references to sound in Romantic era military writing were discussions of martial music. Such music has been a neglected topic in studies of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century musical culture, but as Trevor Herbert and Helen Barlow have argued, it\n\n---\n\nexerted enormous influence over music more generally during this period. While there is a long history behind the use of music in war, military bands were officially incorporated into the British army by the 1770s, with musicians achieving full military rank. The army and navy thus became by far the largest employers of musicians in Britain. 10 Music served several military purposes. Most notably, it could be used to rouse soldierly emotions, working in the manner that Charles James attributed to Phrygian music, as a \u201cmartial sort of ancient music, which excited men to rage and battle.\u201d11 Music also served to mediate between the army and the public. Among the most striking and well-attended public events of the era, the performances of military bands were central to recruitment practices and the maintenance of public order. 12 As Nancy argues, music has been crucial to directing and giving form to military sentiments. 13\n\nMartial music was also central to the ways in which soldiers were commanded. Each company of infantry in the British army, for example, included two or more drummers, whose drum beats were used not only to signal commands but also to help maintain the tempo of the carefully choreographed and drilled marches conducted by formed bodies of soldiers. 14 In this way, music overlapped with the oral commands that were crucial to the operation of drilled companies of soldiers. Sir David Dundas developed a standardized approach to British drill routines at the end of the eighteenth century, which he published as Principles of Military Movements in 1788 and which was adopted as the official set of drill regulations for the British army several years later. 15 An adaptation of Frederick the Great\u2019s drill routines, it became the central work of British military drill during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. It conceptualized discipline in a markedly theatrical manner as a choreography of voices and bodies. His drill routines operated by breaking all maneuvers into eighteen basic choreographed movements and then prescribing precise vocal commands for the officers to perform, such as \u201cRight face\u201d and \u201cMarch,\u201d in order for each movement to be conducted by the soldiers.\n\nIn his military novel The Youth and Manhood of Cyril Thornton, Thomas Hamilton explains how these vocal commands worked in practice as he describes his eponymous character\u2019s experience at the battle of Roleia (the novel was in large part based on Hamilton\u2019s own experiences of war). While Hamilton limits our view of the battle to Thornton\u2019s immediate surrounds, he nonetheless highlights the clarity of spoken orders and addresses to the soldiers, commands that \u201cpealed loudly through the welkin.\u201d 16 In A Short Essay on Military First Principles, Thomas Bell emphasizes that vocal commands represented a continuation of classical traditions of war\u2014all\n\n11 Charles James, A New and Enlarged Military Dictionary, in French and English. In Which are Explained the Principal Terms, with Appropriate Illustrations, of All the Sciences That are, More or Less, Necessary for an Officer and Engineer. In Two Volumes. By Charles James, Major in the Royal Artillery Drivers, Author of the Regimental Companion; Comprehensive View; Poems, 3rd ed. (London: T. Egerton, 1810).\n12 Herbert and Barlow, Music and the British Military, 53.\n13 Nancy, Listening, 52\u201357.\ngreat soldiers in the classical era were great speakers.\\textsuperscript{17} Conversely, there was also a need for maintaining silence within military formations in order for discipline to be effective. As Michel Foucault has observed in his discussion of disciplinary military practices, discipline demanded instant and unquestioning response to words of command and thus required a constant suppression of noise.\\textsuperscript{18} In military drill, the officer may have been identified as a voice (albeit a highly regulated one), but the soldier was typically presented in graphic terms, as an abstract line or rectangle, his silence a critical factor in his capacity to operate as part of a mass formation.\n\nIf the soldier was to emit sound, it was meant to be only in a highly controlled and disciplined manner. Unregulated noise, in contrast, was linked to a disruption or even collapse of military discipline. In his semifictionalized memoirs, \\textit{The Subaltern}, George Gleig describes an engagement between French and British infantry as though sound, noise, and silence were the principal weapons. As they closed with the French, the British soldiers advanced in a solemn silence, while the French set up \u201cdiscordant yells\u201d as each soldier raised his voice independently of the others. When the British soldiers finally cheered in unison to announce their charge, the French fled in panic.\\textsuperscript{19} The regulation of sound and silence appears in the anecdote as a powerfully effective mechanism for attaining tactical advantage. The coordination of the British voices established their superior discipline over the uncontrolled and irregular noise of the French, \u201ca sort of shout, in which every man halloos for himself, without regard to the tone or time of those about him.\u201d\\textsuperscript{20} If this emphasis on voice seems curious in an age of firearms, James noted in \\textit{A New and Enlarged Military Dictionary} that what he termed \u201cwar whoops\u201d were still used by all armies, despite being \u201ca barbarous habit\u201d originating with savages.\\textsuperscript{21} However, he also condemned the habit, proposing that, in modern war, soldiers must fall silent in order to respond effectively to the word of command.\n\nSo while the control of sounds can direct them into a weaponized noise like a war whoop, noise is repeatedly identified in military writing as a source of disorientation and disorder. The \\textit{News-Readers Pocket-Book} even proposed that alarm in war is principally caused by \u201csome noise,\u201d\\textsuperscript{22} while James proposed that panic stemmed from the god Pan having commanded the soldiers of Bacchus\u2019s army to shout in order to surprise their enemy.\\textsuperscript{23} Military theorists often expressed their fears that the noise of war could cause battles to dissolve into meaningless or ineffective affairs. Maurice de Saxe noted that musketry could be useless in battles, as small arms often created \u201cmore noise than they do execution.\u201d\\textsuperscript{24} Dietrich Heinrich von B\u00fclow similarly remarked that the\n\n\\textsuperscript{17} Thomas Bell, \\textit{A Short Essay on Military First Principles} (London: T. Becket and P. A. De Hondt, 1770), 220.\n\\textsuperscript{19} George Gleig, \\textit{The Subaltern} (Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1825), 102.\n\\textsuperscript{20} Ibid., 103.\n\\textsuperscript{21} James, \\textit{New and Enlarged Military Dictionary}.\n\\textsuperscript{22} The \\textit{News-Readers Pocket-Book: or, a Military Dictionary. Explaining The Most Difficult Terms Made Use of in Fortification, Gunnery, and the Whole Compass of the Military Art. And a Naval Dictionary; Explaining The Terms used in Navigation, Ship-Building, &c. To Which is Added, a Concise Political History of Europe. With the Genealogies and Families of the Several Emperors, Kings, and Princes, Now Reigning; and Some Account of the Religions They Profess} (London: J. Newbery, 1759), 2.\n\\textsuperscript{23} James, \\textit{New and Enlarged Military Dictionary}.\n\\textsuperscript{24} Maurice, comte de Saxe, \\textit{Reveries or Memoirs Concerning the Art of War: By Maurice Count de Saxe, Marshal-General of the Armies of France. To Which is Annexed His Treatise Concerning Legions; or, A Plan for New-Modelling the French Armies. Illustrated with Copper-plates, Together with Letters on Various Military Subjects, Wrote by the Marshal to Several Eminent Persons and the Author\u2019s Reflections on the Propagation of the Human Species. Translated from the French. To Which is Prefixed an Account of the Life of the Author} (Edinburgh: Sands, Donaldson, Murray, and Cochran, 1759), 27.\nnoise of soldiers\u2019 shooting could drown out commands, thus making it impossible for officers to control their soldiers or direct the battle.\\textsuperscript{25} Clausewitz describes the confusion experienced by a novice at war principally by listing the innumerable noises of battle\u2014from the \u201cthunder of the cannon,\u201d to the \u201cnoise of our own guns\u201d and the \u201chissing\u201d of the bullets overhead.\\textsuperscript{26}\n\nAdmittedly, battles in the Romantic era were not yet as loud as those of the First and Second World Wars. The First World War in particular has begun to be viewed as an aural war, because the advent of machine guns and high explosives saw battle devolve into trench warfare that made it extremely difficult, and dangerous, to visually witness any fighting.\\textsuperscript{27} What rose to the fore for the soldier was the loudness of war\u2014its pervasive, deafening, and terrifying torrent of noise. Noise is referred to consistently by novelists of the war. Erich Remarque frequently describes the experience of being shelled in \\textit{All Quiet on the Western Front}, describing how \u201cabove our heads the air is full of invisible menace, howling, whistling and hissing,\u201d\\textsuperscript{28} while Edmund Blunden likewise repeatedly draws attention in \\textit{Undertones of War} to the \u201cdeafening noise\u201d of the \u201cshrilling,\u201d \u201cscreeching,\u201d and \u201cclashing tides\u201d of shells.\\textsuperscript{29} Loudness could nonetheless be a feature of Romantic era battlefields. Gleig noted that the most \u201cawful\u201d noise he ever heard was the sound of a mine exploding at the siege of Saint-Sebastian, a noise so loud it seemed to stupefy the combatants on both sides so that they temporarily suspended hostilities.\\textsuperscript{30} Attacked by cavalry, Gleig observed that they came on with a noise \u201clike thunder.\u201d\\textsuperscript{31}\n\nEarlier accounts of war also share with those of the First World War a concern with describing the wounded soldiers\u2019 cries, which often served in these texts as the starkest and most chilling revelation of war\u2019s suffering. Remarque repeatedly writes about the cries of the wounded after battle, even relating a story of a wounded soldier stranded in no-man\u2019s-land between the trenches whose screams lasted for two days until finally fading to \u201cgroans\u201d and a \u201cgurgling rattle.\u201d\\textsuperscript{32} Writing of the aftermath of battle around the French city of Bayonne, Gleig similarly found himself appalled by the cries of the wounded:\n\n\\begin{quote}\nIn the meanwhile six or eight spring-wagons arriving, such of the wounded as were unable to crawl to the rear were collected from the various spots where they lay mingled with the dead, and lifted into them, with as much care as circumstances would permit. It was a sad spectacle this. The shrieks and groans of many of these poor fellows sounded horribly in our ears; whilst the absolute silence of the rest was not less appalling, inasmuch as it gave but too much reason to believe, that they were removed from the field only to die in the wagons.\n\\end{quote}\n\nPierced by the horrible sounds of shrieks and groans, even the soldiers\u2019 silence appeared to Gleig as a foreshadowing of their imminent death. Gleig\u2019s fellow memoirist, Moyle Sherer, similarly\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item \\textsuperscript{25} Dietrich Heinrich Freiherr von B\u00fclow, \\textit{The Spirit of the Modern System of War}, ed. and trans. C. Malorti de Martemont (London: C. Mercier, 1806), 120.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{26} Clausewitz, \\textit{On War}, 159.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{28} Erich Maria Remarque, \\textit{All Quiet on the Western Front}, trans. Brian Murdoch (London: Vintage, 1996), 41.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{29} Edmund Blunden, \\textit{Undertones of War} (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 41, 104.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{30} Gleig, \\textit{Subaltern}, 54.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{31} Ibid., 188.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{32} Remarque, \\textit{All Quiet on the Western Front}, 86\u201387.\n\\item \\textsuperscript{33} Gleig, \\textit{Subaltern}, 183\u201384.\n\\end{itemize}\nregistered the suffering of war as a disturbing noise. He recounts his memories of the battle of Talavera in his *Recollections of the Peninsula* by describing how \u201cthe trampling horses, the shout, the cry, the prayer, the death stroke all mingled their wild sounds on this spot.\u201d In its aftermath, this chaos of noise gave way to a silence punctuated only by the cries of the wounded, becoming \u201cbut for a few fitful and stifled groans, as silent as the grave.\u201d\n\nA concern with noise also, however, works at a figurative level in military writing of the Romantic era. The term \u201cnoise\u201d described those who spoke or wrote about war but who lacked an authoritative military knowledge. *A New and Enlarged Military Dictionary* includes references to a \u201cpuppy,\u201d \u201cquizzers,\u201d and \u201cmilitary coxcombs,\u201d all of whom are described as individuals who make a \u201cnoise\u201d because they lack a formal or properly educated understanding of military operations. The military coxcomb or fool is even associated with the \u201cgrave doctor of the university,\u201d who is similarly seen to offer merely an uninformed commentary on war. Sounds might be weaponized\u2014but only through strict control and in relation to the rigid maintenance of silence. Military theorists still saw sound as an archaic device. Noise is viewed as something that falls outside, or that might even threaten to upset, a carefully controlled modern military order. Set against the military\u2019s institutional authority, noise is even that into which military order might collapse.\n\nTHE \u201cNOISELESS HARMONY\u201d OF MILITARY SCIENCE\n\nA number of Romantic scholars have begun to approach the period\u2019s print as a distinct media form, doing so in ways that have raised specific issues of its relationship to sound and noise. Building on the earlier work of such media theorists as Walter Ong and Marshall McLuhan, a primary concern has been to understand how print came to be naturalized during the Romantic era and thus served to displace or remediate a traditional oral culture. Celeste Langan, for example, proposes that Sir Walter Scott\u2019s *Lay of the Last Minstrel* marks a point at which a traditional oral poetry emerged as the content of a new prose-like poetics of blank verse. This remediation of the sound of ballads as the content of modern poetry identified with the printed page, Langan argues, can be viewed as a spectral poetics of silent reading in which the reader is invited to conjure audiovisual hallucinations out of the descriptive effects of Scott\u2019s poetry. In this she follows the work of Kittler, who views Romantic poetics as, in effect, an effort to redirect the noise of the world into the interiorized silence of writing and meaning. Like Kittler, Langan views this process of silent reading in terms of the physical materiality of books that underpinned Romantic forms of imagination and subjectivity.\n\nKevis Goodman and Mary Favret have proposed, in a related manner, that Romantic poetics can be understood, at least in part, as a noise that accompanies the mediation of history into print. Responding to Jerome McGann\u2019s assertions that Romantic poetry displaces history into idealized or spiritual terms, they read that history as a dissonant affect, discomfort, or\n\n35 James, *New and Enlarged Military Dictionary*.\ncognitive noise that accompanies poetry and other cultural forms. They propose that, as critics, we can regard this uncertainty or sense of discomfort as alternative structures of feeling that brush against the grain of a national history, seeing that history as a \u201cnoise that refuses to settle into stillness.\u201d Such concerns with Romantic poetics are admittedly somewhat distinct from my discussions here. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that Favret believes that the dissonant affects or noise she associates with Romantic poetics are principally affects associated with war.\n\nThe term \u201cnoise\u201d is used by media theorists to refer to disruptions or entropy produced by the physical medium of an act of communication. Kittler argues that noise, in this sense, is principally related to the emergence of \u201cindexical media\u201d in the twentieth century that register the imprint of the physical alongside the information that they communicate. The gramophone, for example, reproduced the sound of the human voice alongside the hiss or crackle of unfiltered noise, producing an effect that Kittler likens to the irruption of the Lacanian real into the symbolic realm of language and thus a fundamental disruption of the earlier Romantic belief that writing represented a pure emanation of the soul. Both Goodman and Favret have, however, aligned the operation of noise with Romantic print by drawing on longer histories of media forms that both recognize the physicality of print and expand the use of the concept of media to more adequately account for print forms. For example, in examining the genre of the georgic as a key site for early modern theorization of media, Goodman argues that we can see noise as an excess of idea or meaning within writing rather than simply an indexical record of physicality. Such excess, or \u201cnoise,\u201d is produced by words that lack or trouble ideational content and that thus complicate communication by producing, instead, a feeling of dissonance or painful discomfort.\n\nThe era\u2019s military writing can, in a similar manner, be thought of in relation to the dissonant affects or unsettling noises that accompany the mediation of war. Foucault argues that military science itself took shape at the juncture of \u201cwar and the noise of battle\u201d and the \u201corder and silence, subservient to peace,\u201d reminding us that military thought is as much bound up with the operation of discipline, control, and reason as with the violence of weapons and combat. But, to follow Kittler, we could see Romantic military writing as working by mediating battle\u2019s unsettling noise into the authoritative silence of print. A chaotic noise of voices, drums, guns, war whoops, alarms, shrieks, groans, military fools, and coxcombs was remediated into a modern military disciplinary knowledge based in the silent reading of print. A military literary world emerged by the end of the eighteenth century that had developed and expanded modern disciplinary knowledge about war, as a mass of reading and writing redirected an earlier understanding of war as bodily chaos into an activity, principally, of the mind.\n\nReflecting on such questions of war\u2019s relation to meaninglessness, Nick Mansfield argues that the Romantic era\u2019s most significant theorist of war, Clausewitz, developed his thought in relation to Kantian aesthetics in ways that register this basic conversion of meaningless noise into a form of meaning. For Kant, art allows the \u201cmeaningless to become meaningful,\u201d because it\n\n---\n\n39 Favret, War at a Distance, 57.\n40 Kittler, Discourse Networks, 219.\n41 Ibid., xvii.\n43 Goodman, Georgic Modernity, 63.\n44 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 168.\n45 Favret, War at a Distance, 180.\nbrings forth a feeling of knowledge without actually providing knowledge in the form of a defensible truth. It provides \u201cthe sense of the ecstasy of insight,\u201d but without furnishing meaning with a stabilizing \u201cdoxa or content.\u201d Clausewitz\u2019s writing on war is certainly replete with references to the aesthetic genius of generals and even descriptions of war as an artistic form. Explaining, for example, how a general\u2019s genius resides in the overall coherence of a military plan rather than in developing a novel strategy, Clausewitz offers an understanding of war that uncannily resembles this aesthetic reading of Romantic poetics as a processing of meaningless noise:\n\nA Prince or General who knows exactly how to organize his War according to his object and means, who does neither too little nor too much, gives by that the greatest proof of his genius. But the effects of this talent are exhibited not so much by the invention of new modes of action, which might strike the eye immediately, as in the successful final result of the whole. It is the exact fulfilment of silent suppositions, it is the noiseless harmony of the whole action which we should admire, and which only makes itself known in the total result.\n\nThe inquirer who, tracing back from the final result, does not perceive the signs of that harmony is one who is apt to seek for genius where it is not, and where it cannot be found.\n\nWar operates here with an almost organic totality of effect, a result of genius and talent that demands from its audience merely admiration. For a prince or general to wage war is likened by Clausewitz to the construction of a work of art. War even seems to be equated with the writing that gives it shape, its silent supposition only fully realizable or discoverable to an inquirer who is able to reflect and track back to see the results.\n\nYet even as he insists that the \u201cgreatest proof\u201d of military genius works through a silent harmony of operations, Clausewitz also intimates that a noise nonetheless surrounds any effort to achieve military authority and precision. A failure to fully understand war from a military theoretical point of view would be to be distracted and confused by its noise. Or, as Clausewitz argues, the correct operation of military critical thought works to protect \u201cthe silent sentence of higher authority from the noise of crude opinions.\u201d Clausewitz\u2019s contemporary, Jomini, for all his emphasis on the science of strategy, similarly saw war as a \u201csublime art\u201d requiring \u201cspecial talent\u201d or the \u201csublime character of a great general,\u201d because military theoretical principles must be deployed \u201camidst the noise and confusion of battle.\u201d For both thinkers, war is an art that works both with and against the noise of battle in order to disclose its essence and to produce its meaning. But what their comments also reveal is an anxiety that the border between military authority and noise may be unstable, that only through special talent and genius can even the best general\u2019s efforts rise above noise. As Clausewitz expands his thought, however, even the silence of authority itself begins to lose its sense, appearing as \u201ca deep mysterious relation\u201d that is not disclosed in any \u201cvisible form\u201d and that \u201chuman sagacity cannot discover.\u201d As with the Kantian aesthetic, war for Clausewitz seems to have a meaning that is nonetheless incapable of expressing itself as content or a defensible truth; it resides simply as the impression of meaning, a\n\n---\n\n\n47 Clausewitz, On War, 242.\n\n48 Ibid., 228.\n\n49 Jomini, Art of War, 344.\n\n50 Clausewitz, On War, 228.\nparadoxically silent harmony that the inquirer is liable to be unable to detect or is liable to imagine that it lies elsewhere than it really does. Even Jomini concedes that quite possibly \u201cno book\u201d can inform the general of the principles that allow him to rise above the noise of battle.51 However much military thought strives to push war toward \u201cthe silent sentence of higher authority,\u201d it appears to be inherently haunted by noise.\n\nLISTENING TO WAR\n\nNoise consistently appears in military writing, then, as a form of disorder or incoherence; it could even be suggested that noise is the most definitive marker of disorder within such writing. As military authors describe the noises of war, they turn their readers\u2019 attention to a dense field of uncertainty and confusion that military writing is always striving to render into sense. War\u2019s literal noises, its wild, mingled sounds, seem to leave an almost indexical trace upon military writing, such noises embedding themselves, to adapt Goodman\u2019s terms, as a painful discomfort or affective dissonance that resists the idea and meaning of military thought.52 But military writing is not only situated at the juncture of silent sentences and a perplexing and confounding noise but also appears curiously aware of itself as being so located. It remains confounded by the possibility that it might not be able to transcend this noise\u2014that discourse on war might itself produce only so much more noise. The general might be left expressing the noise of a military coxcomb.\n\nAlways at stake in war are questions of how abstractions are to become real. For war to have any rationality, the brute fact of injuring must be made to serve military policy. Jan Mieszkowski contends that war thus always exists in a twilight of materiality and discourse:\n\nWar\u2019s uniqueness among human endeavors has to do with the way in which it demands a new understanding of the concrete consequences that abstractions have in the physical world. Warfare constantly imposes rapid modulations between ideas and reality, between intelligible visions and sensible phenomena; at the same time, a military program unfailingly presents itself as a straightforward means to an end, ostensibly indifferent to the violent conflation of the physical and the metaphysical it demands. War seems to necessitate a reconsideration of every standard and measure of cost-benefit analysis, leaving some observers incredulous as to the madness of its existence, others relieved, if not pleased, by its practical utility. War creates a vexed relationship between actual and imagined violence.53\n\nWar might be viewed as an absurdly pointless physical contest of bodies and injury and yet equally as a clear and rational mechanism of policy, even a form of language or intercourse between states.54 To wage war means literally entering a field of battle at the same time that it means producing and framing ways of reading and mapping out a field of knowledge\u2014print, as much as muskets and artillery, served as a vital medium of combat in the Napoleonic era.55 Jean Baudrillard contends that because modern visual technologies are fundamental to the waging of war, so war today has merged with its media forms.56 If, however, we follow recent scholarship\n\n51 Jomini, Art of War, 345.\n52 Goodman, Georgic Modernity, 36.\n53 Mieszkowski, Watching War, 144\u201345.\n54 Clausewitz, On War, 402.\n55 Mieszkowski, Watching War, 5.\nto recognize the importance of earlier print forms to the mediatization of war, we can also see a longer history to this entanglement of media forms, information, and physical conflict.\n\nIf the concept of noise reminds us of how any form of communication is entangled with its concrete media substrate, noise might, then, be seen as an inherent quality or by-product of mediated war. Noise at the broadest level is entangled with questions of how any abstraction, such as a military plan, will function in the physical world.\\footnote{Kittler, Discourse Networks, xiv.} Read as a form of affective dissonance within the authority of military writing, war\u2019s noise could be seen to operate as something akin to Clausewitz\u2019s concept of the fog of war. Clausewitz uses the phrase \u201cfog of war\u201d to conceptualize the inevitable friction that accompanies any military action, as plans and strategies come up against the exigencies of the battlefield. The concept of the fog of war points to an underlying disjunction between military theory and its manifestation in battle, a friction that Clausewitz argued can never be entirely eliminated and that constitutes the real element in which war is waged. Mieszkowski explores how this key phrase in Clausewitz\u2019s thought is curiously positioned at the juncture of the figurative and the literal: fog on a battlefield will literally create a fog of war as much as fog figuratively refers to the effects of confusion in military strategy. Fog attempts to give an abstract form to that which is, by its very nature, formless.\\footnote{Mieszkowski, Watching War, 20. On Clausewitz\u2019s discussion of fog and war as a medium, see also Thomas H. Ford, \u201cNarrative and Atmosphere: War by Other Media in Wilkie, Clausewitz and Turner,\u201d in Ramsey and Russell, Tracing War in British Enlightenment and Romantic Culture, 183\u201386.}\n\nThe noise of war similarly lies at the boundaries of war\u2019s figurative and literal levels. It embodies the physical confusion of battle as much as it refers back to the possibility that military science will offer nothing more than confusion, the term itself suggesting a slippage between the battlefield and its abstraction. But if war\u2019s noise resembles its fog, it also demands to be seen as a concept with a contrary operation. Where the concept of fog takes us to a strategic reflection on uncertainty as a closing down of knowledge, noise takes us in the opposing direction\u2014to a certain opening up of war. Rather than the fog of war as mechanical friction that impedes military planning, noise is a nondirectional and unformed effluvium that always suffuses and yet escapes war. The philosopher of noise, Michael Serres, even proposes that noise \u201cdispenses with weapons,\u201d because it \u201coccupies space faster than weapons can.\u201d\\footnote{Goodman, Sonic Warfare, 105.} To think in terms of noise could be seen as one way of imagining access to war, a proliferation of uncertain knowledge and crude opinions with all their uncomfortable and dissonant affects.\n\nWriting on war ordinarily operates at either end of two distinct poles of a spectrum: of strategic abstraction, on the one hand, and sense datum, on the other.\\footnote{Fredric Jameson, \u201cWar and Representation,\u201d PMLA 124, no. 5 (2009): 1547.} War either fades into the pure abstractions of military theory and principles or presses to a closeness that defies vision altogether and produces, instead, stories of soldiers\u2019 personal experience and suffering that can be described only as what Yuval Harari terms \u201cflesh witnessing.\u201d\\footnote{Yuval N. Harari, The Ultimate Experience: Battlefield Revelations and the Making of Modern War Culture, 1450\u20132000 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 7.} One effect is that war is left as something either too obvious to require explanation or too obtuse to ever be explained. Described through the abstractions of military thought, war can present either a clear and simple operation of military policy or, alternatively, an impenetrably dense field that can be deciphered only by the general\u2019s sublime genius. Described as sense datum, a reader either is left resigned to\nan ironic reflection on suffering that we all know only too well or is otherwise held at bay from understanding war because it can be experienced only as a trauma that not even those who were there possess as conscious memory. Either way there is no room for comment on war\u2014war is silenced into imaginary visions or pained physicality.\n\nMilitary writing operates in a manner, then, that resembles how Nancy sees martial music. Expansive and invasive, such music seeks to overwhelm, capture, and penetrate identities as though enacting a territorial conquest of subjectivity. Military writing similarly strives to impose its sense upon the noise of battle and so direct its readers\u2019 attention and feeling into its silent authority. War is, in effect, pre-scripted by its media forms, which are as much about waging as watching war. To view war is to not only be held at a distance but to be effectively enlisted within war\u2019s totality. But could an audience invest its attention, instead, into the discordant noise that inevitably accompanies this scripting or sense making of war? A noise that might demand we listen rather than watch war? Nancy\u2019s proposal that we turn to listening rather than hearing and understanding as a way of affectively engaging the world might, therefore, be one way of rethinking our habitual deferral to either abstract rationalization of war or an ethics of presence and bodily suffering as a source of war\u2019s truth. Listening would be to introduce what Nancy views as a \u201cdistance\u201d between sound and sense that military writing, like martial music, seeks to collapse. Listening represents an effort to strain toward meanings that are not yet accessible or comprehensible.\n\nAt the very least, listening might be seen as a motif that had some currency in the Romantic era, as authors found themselves at a remove from distant wars yet nonetheless straining to listen. In A *New and Enlarged Military Dictionary*, James observes just how far the noise of war could travel by noting that guns in Holland during one battle of the Nine Years\u2019 War were heard in Wales. It is hard to credence this exactly: noise appears in the story to escape the bounds of reason or actuality by opening up war to uncertain knowledge. A similar sense of uncertainty can be found in accounts of listening to the distant artillery of Waterloo in William Thackeray\u2019s *Vanity Fair* or Fran\u00e7ois-Ren\u00e9 de Chateaubriand\u2019s *Memoirs* or of the rumors and stories of war, a figurative noise, circulating in newspapers and social circles that suffuse Jane Austen\u2019s *Persuasion* or William Cowper\u2019s *The Task*. Gleig describes the horrifying scene of the aftermath of Saint-Sebastian as \u201ca concert\u201d that demands such listening:\n\n> The ceaseless hum of conversation, the occasional laugh, and wild shout of intoxication, the pitiful cries, or deep moans of the wounded, and the uninterrmpted roar of the flames, produced altogether such a concert, as no man who listened to it can ever forget. Of these various noises, the greater number began gradually to subside, as night passed on; and long before dawn there was a fearful silence. Sleep had succeeded inebriety with the bulk of the army,\u2014of the poor wretches who groaned and shrieked three hours ago, many had expired; and the very fire had almost wasted itself by consuming everything upon which it could feed. Nothing, therefore, could now be heard, except an occasional faint moan, scarcely distinguishable from the heavy breathing of the sleepers; and even that was soon heard no more.\n\n---\n\n65 James, *New and Enlarged Military Dictionary*.\n66 Favret, *War at a Distance*, 23, 162. See also Mieszkowski, *Watching War*, 43, 56.\nPlaced at what Favret describes as a middle distance from war, he finds himself listening to an incoherent yet unforgettable noise that lingers on into a \u201cfearful silence,\u201d the moans of the dying fading into the oblivion of those who sleep. To speak of listening to war\u2019s noise might be to continue to indulge fantasies that we can as observers assume a power and control over war. But it might also mean stepping back from media forms and their coordination of war, to see war not as a totalizing force but as an unstable, inexplicable, and open realm of competing voices, noises, and concerns\u2014as discord or dissonance that works within and through war\u2019s media channels and that even leaves its mark on silence.\n\n68 Favret, *War at a Distance*.", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://arcade.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/article_pdfs/RofL_v06i01_Ramsey_03Pass.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 8375, "olmocr-version": "0.1.50", "pdf-total-pages": 12, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 28420, "total-output-tokens": 10318, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0002887248992919922, "__label__art_design": 0.0067596435546875, "__label__crime_law": 0.00133514404296875, "__label__education_jobs": 0.006244659423828125, "__label__entertainment": 0.003862380981445313, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00016021728515625, "__label__finance_business": 0.0005002021789550781, "__label__food_dining": 0.0002440214157104492, "__label__games": 0.0010204315185546875, "__label__hardware": 0.0001621246337890625, "__label__health": 0.00035309791564941406, "__label__history": 0.03570556640625, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0004498958587646485, "__label__industrial": 0.0005707740783691406, "__label__literature": 0.9169921875, "__label__politics": 0.0083770751953125, "__label__religion": 0.0007753372192382812, "__label__science_tech": 0.01318359375, "__label__social_life": 0.0010280609130859375, "__label__software": 0.0003020763397216797, "__label__software_dev": 0.000274658203125, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0005240440368652344, "__label__transportation": 0.0005846023559570312, "__label__travel": 0.00023245811462402344}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 43230, 0.05192]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 43230, 0.67298]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 43230, 0.94315]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 2148, false], [2148, 6250, null], [6250, 10297, null], [10297, 15088, null], [15088, 19345, null], [19345, 23322, null], [23322, 27173, null], [27173, 30997, null], [30997, 34522, null], [34522, 38651, null], [38651, 42448, null], [42448, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 2148, true], [2148, 6250, null], [6250, 10297, null], [10297, 15088, null], [15088, 19345, null], [19345, 23322, null], [23322, 27173, null], [27173, 30997, null], [30997, 34522, null], [34522, 38651, null], [38651, 42448, null], [42448, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43230, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 2148, 1], [2148, 6250, 2], [6250, 10297, 3], [10297, 15088, 4], [15088, 19345, 5], [19345, 23322, 6], [23322, 27173, 7], [27173, 30997, 8], [30997, 34522, 9], [34522, 38651, 10], [38651, 42448, 11], [42448, 43230, 12]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 43230, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-01", "created": "2024-12-01"}
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+{"id": "60fe236aff1bf348be37b3b807dfe7435247a650", "text": "Every picture tells a story: the language and function of French newspaper captions\n\nDulcie M. Engel\n\n1. Introduction\n\n'Taking photographs out of the boxes at random, he tried to look into the faces without seeking either signs or secrets...To keep himself from getting pulled into these faces' stories, he avoided reading the captions ...'\n\n\nThis paper explores the relationship between image and text, more specifically between press photographs and their captions in the French written press. The theory of image-text relationships has been shaped primarily by the writings of Roland Barthes, but there has been little in-depth corpus-based analysis of press photographs and captions. This study will analyse the function and language of captions in relation to the image, and also in relation to the headline and article. It is hoped to show that each of these elements has a very specific and complementary role to play in contributing to the intertextuality of the newspaper.\n\n2. Theoretical background \u2013 approaches to text / image relations\n\nThere have been many studies of newspaper language, often with reference to particular features such as genres, and of course to newspaper headlines. Studies of genre in French, include faits divers (Monville-Burston & Waugh 1985), sports reports (Engel & Labeau 2005), and obituaries (Simonin 1984). Newspaper headlines are discussed, with detailed references to previous studies, in Engel (2000).\n\nWith respect to picture captions, there has been research into the use of captions for the hearing-impaired, and their use as a teaching tool. In the first case, interest is more or less exclusively in television or film captions; in the second case, work has also focused on newspaper captions as in for example: Savino (1999). Photo captions have also attracted the interest of researchers in natural language processing, in particular, matching captions with photos from large online collections \u2013 see for example: Berg et al (n.d.), Elworthy et al (2001). And of course, newspaper captions are discussed in the field of journalism education by Furet (1995), Irby (1997) and Oglesbee (1998).\n\nTurning to more theoretical studies of the relationship between pictures and their captions or titles, our starting point will be the seminal work of Roland Barthes. Barthes considered the function of the media photograph in three highly influential essays in particular: 'Photos-choc' (in Mythologies, 1957), 'Le message photographique' (1961), and 'Rh\u00e9torique de l'image' (1964). 'Photos-choc' (1957) is a critique of an exhibition of news photographs in Paris. Barthes's main point is that these photographs, which are designed to shock the audience, do not in fact do so: by choosing to capture a particular moment or scene, the photographer has taken away our choice or interpretation:\n'on a fr\u00e9mi pour nous, on a jug\u00e9 pour nous, le photographe ne nous a rien laiss\u00e9 qu'un simple droit d'acquiescement intellectuel' (1957: 106).\n\nHowever, he finds some of the agency photos more successful because the photographer is more distant from the image:\n\n'le fait surpris \u00e9clate dans son ent\u00eatement, dans sa litt\u00e9ralit\u00e9, dans l'\u00e9vidence m\u00eame de sa nature obtuse...ces images \u00e9tonnent parce qu'elles paraissent \u00e0 la premi\u00e8re vue \u00e9trang\u00e8res, calmes presque, inf\u00e9rieures \u00e0 leurs l\u00e9gendes...le naturel de ces images oblige le spectateur \u00e0 une interrogation violente, l'engage dans la voie d'un jugement qu'il \u00e9labore lui-m\u00eame sans \u00eatre encombr\u00e9 par la pr\u00e9sence d\u00e9miurgique du photographe' (1957: 107).\n\nBarthes does not refer to captions here, nor to any journalistic text, since the photographs are removed from their original journalistic context. The reference to the relationship with the caption is a point which is developed more fully in subsequent essays.\n\nIn 'Le message photographique', Barthes points out that the newspaper photo is not an isolated structure:\n\n'elle communique au moins avec une autre structure, qui est le texte (titre, l\u00e9gende ou article) dont toute photographie de presse est accompagn\u00e9e' (1982: 10).\n\nThere is always some sort of written commentary associated with the photo, although this is not always a caption. For Barthes, the accompanying text is a parasitical message which illustrates the picture, rather than vice versa \u2013 or at least it had become so in the period in which he was writing:\n\n' autrefois l'image illustrait le texte (le rendait plus clair); aujourd'hui, le texte alourdit l'image, la gr\u00e8ve d'une culture, d'une morale, d'une imagination' (1982: 19).\n\nVis-\u00e0-vis the image, captions, headlines and articles have differing roles of connotation and denotation: the caption has a lesser degree of connotation and a greater degree of denotation (1982: 19). Often, the accompanying text does no more than amplify the connotations already present in the picture; however it can gain a new signification, an 'after the event' interpretation of the photo (1982: 20).\n\nIn 'Rh\u00e9torique de l'image', Barthes concentrates on the semiology of an advertising poster, but makes some important general comments on the relationship between image and text, which he traces back to the development of the book. It has however become more widespread in the era of mass communication:\n\n'il semble bien que le message linguistique soit pr\u00e9sent dans toutes les images: comme titre, comme l\u00e9gende, comme article de presse, comme dialogue de film,...on voit par l\u00e0 qu'il n'est pas tr\u00e8s juste de parler d'une civilisation de l'image: nous sommes encore et plus que jamais une civilisation de l'\u00e9criture' (1982: 30).\n\nHe distinguishes two functions for the accompanying text: 'ancrage' (anchorage) and 'relais' (intermediary) (1982: 31). The text anchors the image by naming it:\n'la l\u00e9gende...permet d'accommoder non seulement mon regard, mais encore mon intellection...le message linguistique guide non plus l'identification, mais l'interpr\u00e9tation...le texte dirige le lecteur' (1982: 31-32).\n\nThis anchoring function is the most common one, found both in news photos and advertising. The intermediary function is rarer, and used where there is complementarity between the text and image, where the text helps to move the action forward, as in cartoons and films. Savino (1999) uses these terms slightly differently from Barthes in her tutorial on press captions: 'les textes jouent un r\u00f4le d'ancrage (exemple: la photographie atteste les faits rapport\u00e9s dans la l\u00e9gende), et de relais (la photo pr\u00e9cise et compl\u00e8te les faits rapport\u00e9s)'. Barthes' definitions are the most widely used, but Savino's serve to differentiate functions of newspaper captions, which can be useful.\n\nRegarding the more specific text form of titles, Bosredon (1997) presents an analysis of the pragmatics of identification in the titles of paintings. The linguistic process of '\u00e9tiquetage' (labelling) identifies an object via a contiguous linguistic sequence, the title (1997: 14). The nature of this labelling can result in:\n\n'des l\u00e9gendes tant\u00f4t sous la forme de textes courts ayant une fonction d'explication ou de commentaire, tant\u00f4t sous la forme de SN3 d\u00e9signatifs. C'est sous cette forme pour l'essentiel que se d\u00e9veloppe l'intitulation picturale' (1997: 57).\n\nFor Bosredon, captions have one sole function:\n\n'servir d'interpr\u00e9tation linguistique...les vraies limites de la l\u00e9gende sont impos\u00e9es par l'image ou plus exactement par le r\u00f4le explicatif de la l\u00e9gende en relation avec l'image. En d'autres termes, les l\u00e9gendes ne peuvent designer, commenter ou expliquer autre chose que les figurations auxquelles elles s'attachent' (1997: 94).\n\nIn other words, the caption is subsidiary to and determined in some way by the image. This one function is similar to Barthes's 'ancrage'. The focus on the primacy of the picture rather than the text echoes Barthes's idea of the parasitical message in his 1961 essay (1982: 18-19, op.cit.), rather than that of the text directing the reader as presented in his 1964 essay (1982: 31-32, op.cit.). Of course, Bosredon's prime interest is in the titles of paintings, rather than press photographs.\n\nReturning to the written press, Stuart Hall (1972) analyses the different levels of meaning of newspaper photos, and their role in the production of news and the articulation of ideological themes. News photos often contain potential news elements, which are emphasized by the editor via a caption, and link to an article: it is this link that can turn a non-news photo into a news photo (1972: 54). Following Barthes, he sees the primary function of the caption as one of anchorage:\n\n'Anchorage has the function of 'selective elucidation' \u2013 it exerts a repressive force over the relative freedom of the signifieds of the photo. It is therefore (together with the headline, which frames both photo and text and embraces them) par excellence the level of ideological signification. Here, the connotive power of the image is most openly specified, cashed and closed' (1972: 60).\n\nBurgin (1983: 226) notes that photography is not a 'purely visual' medium:\n'I am not simply alluding to the fact that we rarely see a photograph in use which is not accompanied by writing (though this is highly significant); even the uncaptioned 'art' photograph, framed and isolated on the gallery wall, is invaded by language in the very moment it is looked at: in memory, in association, snatches of words and images continually alternate and intermingle' (1983: 226).\n\nPhotographs therefore represent a narrated world, a world of cause and effect, of activities and consequences. This world is not achieved in a linear manner as with language, but: 'in a repetition of 'vertical' readings, in stillness, in a-temporality' (1983: 243).\n\nNarrowing down relationship of word and image, T\u00e9tu (1990) discusses the development of the use of illustrations in newspapers, from early nineteenth century engravings to modern photographs. The link \u2013 and the nature of the link \u2013 between photo and text is crucial:\n\n'la photographie ne montre pas l'action, mais les acteurs, et c'est l'article qui comporte le r\u00e9cit de l'action; le texte d\u00e9finit le \"syntagme\" narratif, et la photographie tendra d'abord \u00e0 pr\u00e9senter le \"paradigme\" des r\u00f4les' (1990: 137).\n\nAnother dimension of the nature of the link is examined in the same collection, by Mouillaud (1990) who reminds us of the importance of layout in the newspaper: the use of borders, edges, columns, typefaces, and the juxtaposition of stories:\n\n'le texte du journal se pr\u00e9sente, d'embl\u00e9e, comme un \"inter-texte\"' (1990: 143).\n\nPress photographs are of course another element which contributes to this intertextuality. For Mouillaud, the only unifying meta-textual factor is the headline. He uses the same term as Bosredon (1997) to refer to headlines as labelling devices (1990: 149).\n\nScott (1999) devotes a whole chapter of his book on the relationship between photography and language to the functions of captions in the press. He uses a corpus of 10 British daily newspapers from 13th July 1993 as a source of observations (although he does not present any quantitative, statistical analysis of his corpus). He points out that photographs become photojournalism only by the process of being selected for the newspaper out of a whole range of potential photos (1999: 99-103). The function of the accompanying caption is to elicit a particular response in the reader (1999: 103). This is reminiscent of Hall's analysis.\n\nImages are part of the intertextuality of the newspaper; the very nature of newspaper coverage of the news means that we are given a snapshot of events day by day:\n\n'The newspaper is, in effect, a time-lapse camera that presents the non-sequential as sequential, that slows reality down from the second-by-second to the day-by-day' (1999: 107).\n\nFurthermore:\n\n'We can read the sequence of photographs in a newspaper as a shorthand or aide-m\u00e9moire for the current state of the news...even if the available photos can only show us the prelude or the aftermath of a particular event,\nthey have one advantage over the column: they preserve the present by assimilating it in their own 'thereness' (1999: 114-5).\n\nReading the photographic sequence is another example of the intertextuality of newspapers discussed by Mouillaud, and the question of 'thereness' echoes Barthes on the text as an 'after the event' interpretation(1982: 20, op.cit.).\n\nHall (1972) argues that the ideological message of the news photo is counterbalanced by its actualisation, i.e. the move from historical context to news. This is reflected in the tense usage in captions (and headlines):\n\n'The characteristic tense of the news photo is the historic instantaneous. All history is converted into 'today', cashable and explicable in terms of the immediate' (1972: 84).\n\nScott (1999) also singles out the present tense, including the present participle (1999: 113). This is a multifunctional present tense:\n\n'it participates not only in the omnitemporal present of the fictional/painted image, but also in the instantaneous present of the commentary...And thanks to the possibility of a temporal modifier of past time...it participates also in the historic present. The present tense of the photographic caption is thus a 'compound' and fairly complex tense' (1999: 116-7).\n\nIn a more direct (semantic) way than through use of tenses, the caption defines the photograph when imbued with an editorial function:\n\n'photographs are linguistically dominated by their captions, the language of the editor governs the actions of those in the news' (1999: 124).\n\nWe can illustrate how captions reflect this editorial function by considering two recent stories where captions caused a stir.\n\nThe first case refers to photos taken at the time of the New Orleans hurricane in 2005. One photo from Agence France Presse shows two white hurricane survivors wading through flood water, carrying food. The key phrase in the caption is: 'after finding bread and soda from a local grocery store'. The second photo, from Associated Press, shows a black man wading through flood water carrying food: 'after looting a grocery store'. After complaints of racism, AFP asked for their photo to be pulled from databases.\n\nSecondly, in February 2008, at the time of a controversial Japanese whale-hunt, the Australian ABC News website ran a story and photo with the caption: 'The body of a minke whale and its calf are dragged onto the whaling ship'. The Japanese authorities issued a statement saying that the two whales were not a mother and calf.\n\nThe point is that for the general reading public, in both cases, we only know in any depth what we are seeing when we read the caption. With respect to the whale story, Durrer (2008) comments:\n\n'Since the words that accompany pictures are of such importance, one might well wonder whether it is pictures or whether it is words that make us see' (2008: 2)\n\nA fitting conclusion to this general discussion of newspaper photos and captions,\nbefore we show how the above notions of anchorage, intertextuality, layout, place and time markers and editorialisation of captions can be applied analytically to a corpus of press images.\n\n3. Examining captions in a French newspaper corpus\n\n3.1 The corpus\n\nOur corpus consisted of 5 daily newspapers from 14th May 2008: Aujourd'hui en France (Auj), Le Figaro (Fig), France-Soir (FSoir), Lib\u00e9ration (Lib\u00e9) and Le Monde (Mond). These general 'news' papers comprise a range of political views and stylistic approaches, while covering more or less the same stories. The sample concentrates therefore primarily on news photographs.\n\n3.2 Analysis\n\nThe analysis consisted firstly of a quantitative analysis, considering each photograph in relation to its text. Does it have a caption? Is it associated with a headline? Is it linked to an article? These questions link to discussions of anchorage, intertextuality and layout, as discussed in section 2.\n\nThen more qualitative questions were asked. Which tenses do we find in the captions? What is the function of place and time markers in captions? Finally, how do different newspapers approach the same story in terms of photos chosen and captions used? These questions echo the comments of researchers discussed in section 2 re. the functions of anchorage and actuality.\n\n3.2.1 Quantitative analysis\n\nTable 1 Newspaper caption corpus: quantitative analysis\n\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Newspaper</th>\n<th>FSoir</th>\n<th>Lib\u00e9</th>\n<th>Fig</th>\n<th>Mond</th>\n<th>Auj</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Av. no photos per page</td>\n<td>2.34</td>\n<td>0.95</td>\n<td>1.63</td>\n<td>0.57</td>\n<td>1.70</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>% photos with caption</td>\n<td>58.67</td>\n<td>55.26</td>\n<td>96.15</td>\n<td>82.35</td>\n<td>89.71</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>% photos with headline</td>\n<td>97.33</td>\n<td>71.05</td>\n<td>88.46</td>\n<td>88.24</td>\n<td>73.53</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>% photos with article</td>\n<td>92.00</td>\n<td>68.42</td>\n<td>76.92</td>\n<td>82.35</td>\n<td>77.94</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>% photos direct link with text</td>\n<td>94.67</td>\n<td>65.79</td>\n<td>69.23</td>\n<td>64.71</td>\n<td>98.53</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>%</td>\n<td>40.91</td>\n<td>19.05</td>\n<td>72.00</td>\n<td>28.57</td>\n<td>34.43</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n\nTable 1 shows that the average number of photos per page varies enormously, from 0.57 in Le Monde to 2.34 in France-Soir. The two papers at each end of the scale should not surprise us: Le Monde prides itself on its seriousness, whereas France-Soir is known for its sensationalism, making it close in content and style to the British tabloid press. Lib\u00e9ration, is close to its fellow left-wing paper, Le Monde on the scale, while in the middle we find the right of centre Le Figaro and the mid-market Aujourd'hui en France.\n\nThe results for percentage of photos with caption place Le Figaro at the top, closely followed by Le Monde and Aujourd'hui en France, with much lower percentages for France-Soir and Lib\u00e9ration. This reflects different editorial policy on the use of photos: Lib\u00e9ration has the feature 'En Image', where a photo is placed with a headline and article, but no caption; also in both Lib\u00e9ration and\nFrance-Soir, there are lots of small items which just give a headline and article and dispense with captions.\n\nHeadlines seem to be more vital than captions: all percentages here are over 70%, and are particularly high for France-Soir, which scored low on the captions, but this reversal is not repeated as dramatically for Lib\u00e9ration.\n\nA similar pattern of relative frequency emerges in the figures for photos with articles. The low percentages for Lib\u00e9ration and Aujourd\u2019hui en France for this and the previous category are explained by the high frequency in these two publications of one article accompanied by more than one photo, which occurs much more in these two papers than the other three.\n\nRegarding the anchorage function, the direct link between photo and text is highest in Aujourd\u2019hui en France and France-Soir, i.e. the two more tabloid-like publications. Bearing in mind their more down market appeal, there is perhaps a tendency to be more literal and direct in the use of photos to accompany articles. These were also the two highest scoring publications on average number of photos per page, which would suggest an importance given to image relative to text, linking perhaps to a desire to avoid off-putting, dense columns of text which may impact on their attractiveness to their target audience.\n\nThis particular category is rather a subjective one, and it might be useful to consider some contrasting examples. Indirect links can be seen in Le Figaro, where an article about the founder of the Cirque du Soleil is accompanied by a photo of one of the Cirque\u2019s performances in Philadelphia earlier in the month, as well as a more direct link through a photo of the founder himself. In the same paper, a headline and article about foreign aid workers coming to help in the aftermath of the Chinese earthquake is accompanied by a photo showing Chinese rescuers at work (of course, the foreign aid workers have not yet arrived). In contrast, in Le Monde, a similar photo (in fact the same scene from a different angle), has a caption starting: \u2018Des sauveteurs chinois s'affairent autour d'une jeune fille'. Another direct link, this time in France-Soir. The subtitle reads: 'Nicolas Sarkozy a d\u00e9fendu hier dans l'Is\u00e8re le projet \u201cLME\u201d, destin\u00e9 \u00e0 faire baisser les prix'. The picture shows the president in mid-speech, surrounded by factory workers, and the caption reads: \"C'est pas foutu\", a d\u00e9clar\u00e9 Nicolas Sarkozy, hier, \u00e0 Vienne'.\n\nThese examples show how anchorage can vary, from the extremely literal to the tangential.\n\nThe final column in our table provides preliminary data for our discussion of tense usage, quantifying the use of present tense in the captions.\n\nTable 2 Newspaper caption corpus: tense usage\n\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Newspaper</th>\n<th>present</th>\n<th>no finite verb</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Le Figaro</td>\n<td>72.00%</td>\n<td>4.00%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>France-Soir</td>\n<td>40.91%</td>\n<td>27.27%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Aujourd\u2019hui</td>\n<td>34.43%</td>\n<td>31.15%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Le Monde</td>\n<td>28.57%</td>\n<td>50.00%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lib\u00e9ration</td>\n<td>19.05%</td>\n<td>66.67%</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\nUse of present tense ranges from 72% in *Le Figaro* to just over 19% in *Lib\u00e9ration*. In the latter, most captions contain no finite verb, which is also common in *Le Monde*, and *France-Soir*. In *Aujourd'hui en France* however, there are quite a range of tenses used. These results put into question the various comments noted in section 2 on the prevalence of the present tense in the language of captions. Although it is by far the most commonly found tense, in most cases there is no finite verb present. This reflects findings on tenses in a corpus of French newspaper headlines (Engel 2000 - below). However, whereas a similar pattern emerged across the different newspapers for headlines (table 3), for the captions, there is a more varied picture (table 2):\n\n**Table 3  Newspaper headline corpus (Engel 2000) : tense usage**\n\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Newspaper</th>\n<th>present</th>\n<th>no finite verb</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><em>Le Monde</em></td>\n<td>31.7%</td>\n<td>61.4%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><em>Aujourd'hui</em></td>\n<td>26.9%</td>\n<td>60.6%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><em>France-Soir</em></td>\n<td>20.6%</td>\n<td>73.8%</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td><em>Le Figaro</em></td>\n<td>18.2%</td>\n<td>78.6%</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n\nWe will explore this feature in more depth in the section below.\n\nTo summarise, our quantitative analysis has shown much variation between the five newspapers in terms of frequency of photos, captions and headlines, also in terms of direct links between tense and text, and use of the present tense. These variations reflect differences in ideological stance, editorial policy, newspaper design and layout, and target audience. The differences also serve to illustrate that some of the generalisations made about captions in terms of function and linguistic features need perhaps to be modified. Our qualitative analysis of three specific aspects of captions on our corpus will serve to reinforce this perspective.\n\n### 3.2.2 Qualitative analysis\n\n*Tense usage in captions*\n\n'A photograph captures a moment in time. Whenever possible, use present tense. This will create a sense of immediacy and impact' (Irby, 1997: 1)\n\nDespite the comments of Irby and others, many French captions in our corpus seem not to favour the present tense, avoiding finite verbs, or using other tenses, the exception being *Le Figaro*. Where it is used, as with newspaper headlines, the present tense tends to refer to the recent past: a photo by definition is something that has already taken place. Here are some examples from the corpus:\n\n1. Hier Jean-Paul Mouren (\u00e0 gauche) et Laurent Pellecuer (\u00e0 droite) *f\u00eatent* leur victoire \u00e0 bord de leur monocoque, \u00e0 Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy (*Le Figaro* 14.05.08)\n\n2. Juan Carlos d'Espagne *\u00e9pouse* Sofia de Gr\u00e8ce (Headline: Ce jour-l\u00e0...le 14 mai 1962, *Le Figaro* 14.05.08)\n3. Paris (IVe), hier, Jacques et Bernadette Chirac arrivent au Centre Pompidou (Aujourd'hui en France 14.05.08)\n\nThese examples illustrate clearly the importance of temporal markers in the caption or associated headline which situate the event in the past, despite the use of present tense.\n\nIn other cases, the present is used as a general form, for a universal truth (example 4), or to describe a current situation (examples 5, 6):\n\n4. Gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 l'autopostage, utilisation n'est pas synonyme de possession! (France-Soir 14.05.08)\n\n5. La messagerie instantan\u00e9e MSN est utilis\u00e9e par 70% des jeunes internautes fran\u00e7ais (Aujourd'hui en France 14.05.08)\n\n6. Cet h\u00f4tel social de Montpellier sert de lieu de transit aux jeunes homosexuels rejet\u00e9s par leur famille et n'ayant pas de place au Refuge (Lib\u00e9ration 14.05.08)\n\nWe also find a range of other tenses in the captions:\n\n7. Nicolas Sarkozy, qui a visit\u00e9 hier l'usine Yoplait dans la banlieue de Vienne, a d\u00e9velopp\u00e9 ses arguments en faveur de la concurrence (Le Figaro 14.05.08)\n\n8. Kalistra a \u00e9t\u00e9 tromp\u00e9e par un homme qui se faisait passer pour une adolescente sur un forum de discussion (Aujourd'hui en France 14.05.08)\n\n9. Hier les secours arrivaient \u00e0 l'\u00e9picentre du s\u00e9isme dans le province du Sichuan (France-Soir 14.05.08)\n\n10. L'\u00e9quipe parisienne devra \u00eatre sacr\u00e9ment unie pour sortir du match pi\u00e9geux \u00e0 Sochaux (France-Soir 14.05.08)\n\n11. Abdeslam Ouaddou avait re\u00e7u le soutien du ministre des Sports, Bernard Laporte (France-Soir 14.05.08)\n\n12. \u201cLe Chant des Oiseaux\u201d du Catala Albert Serra, qui fut r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9 \u00e0 la Quinzaine 2006 avec \u201cHonor de Cavalleria\u201d (Lib\u00e9ration 14.05.08)\n\nThe effect of these captions is primarily to pick up the narrative in the text (examples 7-9), to pass comment (example 10), or to fill in background (examples 11-12). All serve to give the reader a 'taster' of the story in the article, and thus contribute along with the headline and photo, to draw the reader in. The photo can often be the first thing that captures the reader's attention: the accompanying text (headline, caption) provides a context for the photo and helps the reader decide whether it is worth reading the whole article (see Oglesbee 1998:2, cited below). These tensed examples illustrate Hall's concept of 'selective elucidation'(1972: 60, op.cit.) : the very specific captions limit potential interpretations, in marked contrast to the following, where there is no finite verb in the caption:\n\n13. A Beyrouth, une affiche du g\u00e9n\u00e9ral Michel Sleiman, commandant en chef de l'arm\u00e9e et candidat \u00e0 la pr\u00e9sidence de la R\u00e9publique (Le Monde 14.05.08)\n\n14. De gauche \u00e0 droite: Ryszard Ronczewski (l'ancien d\u00e9tenu) et Alexandre Fehling (Sven) (Le Monde 14.05.08)\n15. Pique-nique sans OGM \u00e0 Paris, hier, quelques heures avant l'examen du projet de loi sur les organismes g\u00e9n\u00e9tiquement modifi\u00e9s (*Lib\u00e9ration* 14.05.08)\n\n16. S\u00e9gol\u00e8ne Royal, le 4 juin 2007, \u00e0 Nantes (*Lib\u00e9ration* 14.05.08)\n\nThese are prime examples of the labelling function of captions, relying heavily on noun phrases, and time and place markers: they do not offer readers a taster of the story to the same degree as many of the tensed examples we have examined, rather they classify the picture, designating its function on the page, allowing for a more open interpretation.\n\n*Place and time markers in captions*\n\n\u2018La l\u00e9gende, le texte d\u2019accompagnement pr\u00e9cisant et orientant une lecture parfois trop flottante de l\u2019image\u2019 (Savino, 1999: 1)\n\nWe have already noted the importance of place and time markers in captions, particularly when the present tense refers to past time (examples 1-3), or where there is no finite verb (examples 13-16). Indeed, there is a general tendency in caption writing to supply the place and time. This is not surprising: many people annotate their photo albums (or the backs of photos) with similar information. In the press, it is even more important to give such details on news photographs, emphasising the vital function of anchorage.\n\nThis is particularly noticeable in *Aujourd\u2019hui en France*:\n\n17. Esplanade des Invalides (Paris VIIe) hier\u2026Vienne (Is\u00e8re), hier...\n\nBeyrouth (Liban), hier apr\u00e8s-midi\u2026Beichuan (Chine), hier\u2026Kalagysiu (Birmanie), hier\u2026\n\nEach photo is categorised in time and space, in varying degrees of precision: for Parisian photos, the *arrondissement* is given in brackets, for elsewhere in France, the *d\u00e9partement*, and for outside France, the country.\n\n*Photo and caption choices for the same story*\n\n\u2018We almost always look at the photos first. The caption is a natural extension of this curiosity. For this reason, great captions can hook readers and keep them interested long enough to read the related material\u2019 (Oglesbee, 1998:2)\n\nIn this section, we consider treatments of one particular news story in the five newspapers: the devastating earthquake in China. We will start by summarizing the coverage in each paper in terms of headlines, photos and captions used:\n\n18. *Le Monde*\n\n**Page 1**\n\n*Headline*: Chine. Dans le sud-ouest du pays, le plus violent s\u00e9isme depuis 1976\n\n*Photo*: (colour) Girl on stretcher surrounded by rescue workers.\n\n*Caption*: Des sauveteurs chinois s'affairent autour d'une jeune fille. Elle vient d'\u00eatre extraite, mardi 13 mai, \u00e0 Juyuan, province du Sichuan,\ndes d\u00e9combres d'un \u00e9tablissement scolaire...(5 more lines) NO\n\n**ARTICLE: 'Lire page 4'**\n\n**Page 4**\n\n**Surtitle:** Chine. Un bilan provisoire fait \u00e9tat d'une dizaine de milliers de morts et de disparus\n\n**Headline:** Le pouvoir chinois confront\u00e9 au s\u00e9isme du Sichuan\n\n**Photo:** (black and white) A man walking past a collapsed building.\n\n**Caption:** Mardi 13 mai, un immeuble effondr\u00e9 situ\u00e9 \u00e0 Dujiangyan, une ville situ\u00e9e non loin de l'\u00e9picentre, au sud-ouest de la Chine. Le tremblement de terre a atteint une amplitude de 7,8 sur l'\u00e9chelle de Richter\n\nPLUS ARTICLE, MAP, LIST OF WORST EARTHQUAKES\n\n**19. Le Figaro**\n\n**Page 1**\n\n**Headline:** Apr\u00e8s le s\u00e9isme, la Chine laisse entrer l'aide internationale\n\n**Photo:** (colour) Girl on a stretcher surrounded by Chinese rescue workers (same scene as 18, but from a different angle)\n\n**Caption:** none.\n\nPLUS SHORT ARTICLE, THEN: \u2018Pages 5 et 15\u2019\n\n**Page 5**\n\n**Headline:** S\u00e9isme: P\u00e9kin prompt \u00e0 envoyer du secours\n\n**Subtitle:** Extr\u00eame-Orient. Le bilan du tremblement de terre du lundi faisait \u00e9tat hier soir de 20 000 morts et plusieurs milliers de personnes encore sous les d\u00e9combres\n\n**Photo:** (colour) Same girl as on page 1, on a stretcher, but still under rubble (i.e. taken before page 1 picture).\n\n**Caption:** Des sauveteurs tentent de d\u00e9gager une jeune fille des d\u00e9combres d'une \u00e9cole de Juyuan, hier dans la province du Sichuan, au lendemain d'un s\u00e9isme mesur\u00e9 \u00e0 7,9 sur l'\u00e9chelle de Richter\n\nPLUS ARTICLE\n\n(Page 15 is an editorial on the earthquake, with no photos)\n\n**20. Lib\u00e9ration**\n\n**Page 8**\n\n**Surtitle:** Chine. Les secouristes, aid\u00e9s par la population, peinent \u00e0 rejoindre la zone la plus d\u00e9vast\u00e9e\n\n**Headline:** Mobilisation g\u00e9n\u00e9rale au Sichuan\n\n**Photo:** (colour) A couple embrace next to the covered corpse of their child.\n\n**Caption:** A Dujiangyan, des victimes du s\u00e9isme aux c\u00f4t\u00e9s du corps de leur enfant, tu\u00e9 par l'effondrement de son \u00e9cole\nPLUS ARTICLE, MAP\n\n21. Aujourd'hui en France\n\nPage 1\n\nHeadline: S\u00e9isme en Chine\nPhoto: (colour) Young child in arms of rescuer.\nCaption: L\u2019angoisse des survivants\n\nPage 9\n\nSubtitle: Chine\nHeadline: Les survivants vivent dans la peur des r\u00e9pliques\nPhoto: (colour) A young man trapped in the ruins.\nCaption: Beichuan (Chine), hier. Ce gar\u00e7on sous perfusion, prisonnier des ruines d\u2019un b\u00e2timent qui s\u2019est effondr\u00e9 apr\u00e8s le tremblement de terre de lundi, attend d\u2019\u00eatre d\u00e9gag\u00e9\n\nPLUS ARTICLE, MAP, and 2 associated articles on same page (concerns for nuclear facilities in China)\n\n22. France-Soir\n\nPage 17\n\nSubtitle: Chine. Un dernier bilan d\u2019environ 12.000 morts, selon les autorit\u00e9s\nHeadline: Le Sichuan dans la crainte de nouvelles secousses\nSubtitle: Dans cette importante r\u00e9gion \u00e9conomique du pays, les survivants cherchent \u00e0 se prot\u00e9ger des r\u00e9pliques annonc\u00e9es, suite au terrible tremblement de terre de lundi. Une catastrophe \u00e9cologique pourrait \u00e9galement survenir\nPhoto: (colour) A hand juts out of the ruins; two rescuers attend.\nCaption: Hier, les secours arrivaient \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9picentre du s\u00e9isme dans la province du Sichuan\n\nPLUS ARTICLE, and 1 associated article on same page (on missing foreign tourists)\n\nWhat points of interest emerge from the treatment of this news story in five different papers? Firstly, we are examining here the 'hooks'; the elements which draw the reader in, rather than the detail of the articles. Therefore position in the paper is worth noting. In 18 (Le Monde), 19 (Le Figaro), and 21 (Aujourd'hui en France), we are offered a taster on the front page, and a direction to the inside pages. In 20 (Lib\u00e9ration), the article appears on page 8 out of 40, therefore fairly near the front; in 22 (France-Soir), it appears on page 17 of 32, so in the middle. The largest page 1 photo is in 18 (Le Monde).\n\nFour newspapers use a photo of a person being rescued (18,19,21,22), others show survivors (20) or damage (18). All the colour photos are emotionally laden,\nshowing people in distress, the colour adding to the drama. This recalls T\u00e9tu's point (1990: 137) that photos show the actors rather than the action.\n\nThere are variations in the approach as expressed in the headlines and captions: some emphasise the rescue efforts (18,19,20), others the fear of aftershocks among survivors (21,22), or the ecological effects (22). There is not always a direct link between the photo and the accompanying text: for example, in 19 (page 1 text), the headline refers to international aid, but the photo shows Chinese rescuers; in 20 the surtitle and headline refer to the rescue effort, but the photo highlights an individual family\u2019s tragedy; in 21 (page 9), the headline refers to fear of aftershocks, and the photo shows a young man trapped in ruins; there is a similar combination in 22.\n\nFinally, the linguistic structure of the captions further illustrate our points on the use of tenses, place and time markers, from the specificity of 22, where the imparfait draws the reader into the narrative, to the generality of 20, where the lack of finite verb lifts the individual tragedy up to a universal level.\n\nIn summary, we can note the importance of place and time markers in captions, particularly when present tense is used to refer to past time, or no finite verb is present. Although these are the two most frequent types of tense usage, other tenses can transform the caption into a mini-narrative, or supply background detail. In the case of varying treatments of the Chinese earthquake story, it seems that the key to photo selection is emotional power, even when the photo may not relate directly to the headline and subsequent article.\n\n4. Conclusion\n\nNewspaper photo captions are an excellent example of the image-text relationship. This mini-study suggests that newspaper photos are the most salient hooks which draw the reader into a story; their captions anchor these photos in relation to the story. Captions feed the reader with information on people, time and places, tantalising snippets of detail which make the reader want to read more. Captions transform a photo into a 'news photo'. Furthermore, they place a particular interpretation on the image, shaping the reader's understanding of that image.\n\nIn our small corpus of French newspaper captions, we have shown the variations across the five newspapers in their general use of captions, and in their approaches to specific stories. The use of tense appears to be more varied than suggested by many commentators. Furthermore, in terms of degree of anchorage, a more complex picture emerges. It is not uncommon for there to be minimal links between the photo and the accompanying text, and captions themselves range from general labels to detailed narratives. These points tend to support the idea that the text (caption), rather than the picture, directs the reader.\n\nAbove all, this paper has provided an insight into a rather neglected area of newspaper language. It would be particularly useful to follow on from this study with a cross-linguistic comparison. Comparative studies of newspaper headlines have highlighted both similarities and differences across languages, and I would suggest the same would be true for newspaper captions.\n\nReferences\n\n\nBurgin, V. 1983. 'Seeing sense' in Davis & Walton (eds.), pp.226-244.\n\n\nOglesbee, L. 1998.' Captions. Looking at a picture without a caption is like watching television with the sound turned off', *Communication: Journalism Education Today* 32,2: 2-6.\n\n\nT\u00e9tu, J.-F. 1990. 'Mises en page et illustrations au d\u00e9but du XXe si\u00e8cle', in R\u00e9tat (ed.): 111-140.\n\nNotes\n\n1 This research would not have been possible without the resources and the help of colleagues at the School of Languages, Literatures and Performing Arts and the library at Queen's University Belfast, February \u2013May 2008. I would particularly like to thank Nigel Harkness (QUB) for collecting the newspaper corpus in Paris. I am also very grateful to the editors and reviewers of WJFMS for their valuable and detailed comments which have made this a much better paper. Any remaining errors or omissions are my own.\n\n2 For these latter two articles, page references will be to the 1982 essay collection, L'obvie et l'obtus.\n\n3 SN = Syntagme Nominal (Noun Phrase, NP)\n\n4 Often a distinction is made between the term 'title' (titre), which is merely indexical, and 'caption' (l\u00e9gende), which is editorial.\n\n5 On how to interpret newspaper layout, see also Peytard (1975).\n\n\n8 Story filed online by Raw Story, 09/02/05.\n\n9 Story reported in Durrer (2008).\n\n10 For the purposes of this study, additional supplements to the main papers were not analysed. This concerned three of our five titles: Le Figaro, France-Soir and Le Monde.\n\n11 Not included: byline photos, advertisements, photos in TV listings, maps, diagrams, cartoons or drawings.\n\n12 There is also a variation of fact: was the earthquake 7.8 (Le Monde) or 7.9 (Le Figaro) on the Richter scale?", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "http://wjfms.ncl.ac.uk/engel.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 9498, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 15, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 38695, "total-output-tokens": 11620, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0003981590270996094, "__label__art_design": 0.0562744140625, "__label__crime_law": 0.0007100105285644531, "__label__education_jobs": 0.073974609375, "__label__entertainment": 0.00518798828125, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0006403923034667969, "__label__finance_business": 0.002849578857421875, "__label__food_dining": 0.0004925727844238281, "__label__games": 0.0008730888366699219, "__label__hardware": 0.0004532337188720703, "__label__health": 0.0004935264587402344, "__label__history": 0.0029506683349609375, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0005130767822265625, "__label__industrial": 0.000553131103515625, "__label__literature": 0.83154296875, "__label__politics": 0.001434326171875, "__label__religion": 0.0007939338684082031, "__label__science_tech": 0.01383209228515625, "__label__social_life": 0.000583648681640625, "__label__software": 0.003055572509765625, "__label__software_dev": 0.001178741455078125, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0002894401550292969, "__label__transportation": 0.0005435943603515625, "__label__travel": 0.0003085136413574219}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 40979, 0.05227]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 40979, 0.36181]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 40979, 0.69507]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 2878, false], [2878, 5786, null], [5786, 9083, null], [9083, 12058, null], [12058, 15009, null], [15009, 17820, null], [17820, 20881, null], [20881, 23602, null], [23602, 26313, null], [26313, 28868, null], [28868, 30794, null], [30794, 32780, null], [32780, 36045, null], [36045, 38574, null], [38574, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 2878, true], [2878, 5786, null], [5786, 9083, null], [9083, 12058, null], [12058, 15009, null], [15009, 17820, null], [17820, 20881, null], [20881, 23602, null], [23602, 26313, null], [26313, 28868, null], [28868, 30794, null], [30794, 32780, null], [32780, 36045, null], [36045, 38574, null], [38574, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 40979, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 2878, 1], [2878, 5786, 2], [5786, 9083, 3], [9083, 12058, 4], [12058, 15009, 5], [15009, 17820, 6], [17820, 20881, 7], [20881, 23602, 8], [23602, 26313, 9], [26313, 28868, 10], [28868, 30794, 11], [30794, 32780, 12], [32780, 36045, 13], [36045, 38574, 14], [38574, 40979, 15]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 40979, 0.0875]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-06", "created": "2024-12-06"}
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+{"id": "e2591970c3ed7f435d004883f1c4afb1507c95fd", "text": "At long last\n\nDavid Graeber\n\nFor anyone in the Chicago anthropology department in the 1970s, \u201980s, and \u201990s, *The fire of the jaguar* holds a legendary status. I mean this in the almost literal sense: it was wondrous; it had strange and awesome powers; no one was entirely sure if it really existed. Terry refused to publish it. Or even to show it around. Yet the very fact of its hiddenness made it a kind of talisman of secret potency.\n\nTerry had a peculiar aversion to publishing. There were rumored to be anywhere between three and half a dozen brilliant monographs in his closet, all of them effectively finished, all in a kind of permanent state of final revision. There were many stories as to where this aversion to publishing came from. At Cornell\u2014again, I am repeating the legend here\u2014he had been a close personal friend of his namesake Victor Turner, even though in many ways the two could hardly be more different theoretically, and they had a kind of understanding that they wouldn\u2019t stray too far from one another. When the University of Chicago offered Terry a job as assistant professor in 1968, he said he\u2019d only\n\n---\n\n1. I know three definitely existed: the *The fire of the jaguar*, a collection called *Critique of pure culture* contracted to Berg but endlessly delayed, and *The Kayap\u00f3 of eastern Para*, a manuscript prepared for \u201cCedi, Povos Ind\u00edgenas do Brasil, Volume VIII\u201d of which I still have a copy of the first 56 pages\u2014I can\u2019t for the life of me figure out what happened to the rest of it. Other rumored volumes may or may not be mythical.\ncome if Victor accepted his offer too; they both arrived, and Terry quickly won tenure there on the basis of what was to be his first monograph, hailed by his colleagues as a brilliant work which proposed an entirely new approach to structuralism and the interpretation of myth. This was *The fire of the jaguar*, and the book had already been accepted and existed in galley form when he submitted it to tenure review. The moment he actually received tenure, he withdrew it from publication. Ever since, the story went, he had been tinkering away at perfecting it, along with anywhere from three to half a dozen other books (it varied with the narrator) he was rumored to have somewhere in his closet, all of them not quite ready for publication.\n\nPeople used to beg him to just release the books. He always found some reason not to.\n\nTerry\u2019s lectures were mesmerizing. He appeared to have an absolute mastery of social theory, to have read everything there was to read, and\u2014almost uniquely among those with that kind of comprehensive knowledge\u2014whatever the topic, also had something startling and creative to say about it. He had an uncanny ability to listen to another anthropologist deliver a ninety-minute paper, then stand up afterward and say, \u201cThat\u2019s an interesting interpretation. But you know, you could equally well see that material from another point of view . . .\u201d and then proceed to take every single ethnographic detail the paper contained and reorganize it into a grand synthesis that seemed\u2014and I\u2019m pretty sure in most cases usually was\u2014ten times more theoretically sophisticated than the presenter\u2019s own.\n\nNeedless to say, a lot of people hated him.\n\nHe was also notoriously contentious.\n\n***\n\nI used to say it sometimes seemed as if Terry had spent twenty years coming up with a theoretical synthesis that resolved all outstanding problems in social theory, and now he was going to have to spend another twenty years trying to figure out how to explain it to anyone else. At least, how to explain it in writing. I remember being quite impressed (in a horrified sort of way) when I first encountered two of his essays as an undergraduate. There were plenty of anthropologists who could write sentences I didn\u2019t understand a word of; I knew of a few who could write incomprehensible paragraphs; but here, uniquely, was one who could write entire pages where I simply had no idea what was going on at\nany point. Therefore, it was all the more startling when I met the man, began taking his classes, and found in person he had a remarkable ability to make the exact same (still extremely complicated) ideas sound like matter-of-fact common sense, and even to render them fairly straightforward. It was putting it on the page that seemed to be an issue. I well remember one seminar when he was explaining an idea\u2014I think it was about polyphony\u2014and a student asked if there was anything more on the subject she could read. \u201cWell, I wrote a paper a few years ago,\u201d Terry said, \u201cbut to be honest, it\u2019s a little rough going. I was looking over it the other day and even I couldn\u2019t figure out half of what I was saying.\u201d Terry was occasionally accused of being \u201cParsonian.\u201d This is a slander: really he took only one idea from Talcott Parsons, that of a generalized symbolic medium; in almost every other respect his approach was the exact opposite. However, he does seem to have absorbed something of Parsons\u2019 impenetrable prose style.\n\nHe tried to fight it. These essays, largely unpublished in his lifetime, might be seen as the products of a struggle to render his ideas transparent. He reworked some of them again and again. He did publish quite a number of essays, some for edited volumes, others when friends took over journals and compelled him, but mainly when he felt it would make a political difference, either in Brazil, or, particularly, for the Kayap\u00f3. (Thus, from the \u201890s onwards, he was much better known as a writer on indigenous video activism than as a social theorist.) The majority of his most important theoretical essays were never published, but only shared with friends, students, and colleagues\u2014including a few which acquired a legendary status in their own right, like his magnificent 1984 essay, \u201cValue, production, and exploitation in noncapitalist societies\u201d\u2014and floated about, sometimes in multiple versions. At the time, it was possible to place unpublished papers on reserve as course readings at the Regenstein Library at Chicago, and there they\u2019d remain afterward in special file cabinets until the professor found out and usually had them instantly removed and destroyed.\u00b2 Some of us would copy them at the time; others such as myself worked in the library and knew about the file cabinets. As a result, different versions of some of Terry\u2019s unpublished theoretical interventions would sometimes circulate, often in copy-of-a-copy-of-a-copy form, invariably with handwritten headers by the author saying\n\n\u00b2 I once got my hands briefly on a draft of Marshall Sahlins\u2019 \u201cPeloponnesian and Polynesian Wars\u201d book this way, but the manuscript was so enormous that my library wages were not adequate for me to be able to afford the costs of photocopying it all. I was already living on ramen noodles at the time there were no more corners to be cut.\nthings like \u201cdraft: for god\u2019s sake do not quote.\u201d Later they were pdf\u2019d and exchanged by email. Everyone had their own collection.\n\nThese essays did have an impact on the discipline. I am speaking not just of my own work. My first published monograph (the second one I actually wrote), *Toward an anthropological theory of value*, was largely inspired by Terry\u2019s ideas and, I will now admit, was written with half an eye to coaxing him out\u2014I thought if he saw his theories expressed in another anthropologist\u2019s words, he would immediately say something to the effect of \u201cthe fool, the fool, he got it all wrong!\u201d and, as a result, some of the unpublished texts would actually see the light of day.\n\nIt didn\u2019t work.\n\nHis lectures and published and unpublished essays did, certainly, have a profound effect on anthropologists of many generations\u2014one thinks here of anyone from Dominic Boyer to Michael Cepek, Jane Fajans, Jonathan Hill, David Holmberg, Nancy Munn, Fred Myers, Sasha Newell, Suzanne Oakdale, Stuart Rockefeller, Stephen Sangren, or Hylton White. (Some of them, of course, were just as much an influence on him.) But at the same time, the core concepts have really not become the common coin of the realm in the way many of us felt they should; the overwhelming majority of anthropological theorists active today, in fact, have barely heard of Terry.\n\n***\n\n*The fire of the jaguar* is Terry\u2019s most sustained attempt to carry out the structural analysis of a single myth. It may well be the most sustained and detailed analysis of a single myth that any anthropologist has ever carried out. Obviously, any anthropologist dealing with Amazonian mythology must be at least in tacit dialogue with the work of Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss, and, for Terry, this was very explicitly the case. To put it bluntly, Terry felt that L\u00e9vi-Strauss had set off from a brilliant set of insights on a project that could hardly be more important for social theory and then went completely off the rails.\n\nWhat follows is my own take on the matter, but very much inspired by Terry\u2019s (I was, after all, his student.)\n\n***\n\nMuch of L\u00e9vi-Strauss\u2019 later work can be seen as a cautionary tale of the effects of extreme hierarchical social arrangements on human thought. The French\nacademy is structured in such a way that there is typically one man (at least, it is almost always a man) on top of the field in any given discipline. L\u00e9vi-Strauss became the king of the anthropologists and, while of a modest and unassuming character personally, was entirely comfortable with this role. As a result, in the second part of his career, he remained largely unchallenged by alternative perspectives, which allowed a brilliant creative mind to devote most of its intellectual life to working out the equivalent of crossword puzzles. Contrast here the startling insight of his early essays with the four massive volumes of *Mythologiques*. While the latter has proved a delight to fellow Amazonianists, other scholars have labored in vain to find a point in them. By detaching myths from social life and rendering them into a series of formal elements, he could rearrange those elements in an endless variety of fascinating patterns, but did anyone learn a single thing of interest to humanity by the process of doing so? Mainly we learned that there was a very powerful French professor who claimed to despise the cult of individualism and creativity, but demanded an individual monopoly of all creative production so he could indulge the fantasy of being engaged in an ongoing dialogue with primitive philosophers on topics of interest largely to himself.\n\nThe result of this massive intellectual self-indulgence was predictable: a frenzied cult of personality and attempts to decipher the true meanings of the master\u2019s oracular pronouncements, along with the usual arguments abroad about who was the truest disciple, followed by the inevitable ritual abjuration. The entire project of structuralism was tossed out the window except insofar, of course, as its replacement (\u201cpoststructuralism\u201d) was in most important ways exactly the same thing.\n\nI know I am being unnecessarily harsh: L\u00e9vi-Strauss was kind and encouraging to his students and can hardly be held personally responsible for either the structure of French academia, or the fate of a movement that included everyone from Jacques Lacan to Pierre Vernant or Edmund Leach. It is, rather, written out of a sense of frustration with what might have been. Terry represented an\n\n---\n\n3. This is why Pierre Bourdieu had to move from anthropology to sociology, as there was basically no room for another theorist, and anyway, L\u00e9vi-Strauss did not approve of the theoretical direction he was taking.\n\n4. Terry insisted to me he\u2019d once heard L\u00e9vi-Strauss actually say that he was entirely comfortable with an arrangement where other French anthropologists would work primarily to gather and organize data, and he would interpret it. I\u2019m just reporting. Terry\u2019s memories were not always entirely accurate, but sometimes they were.\nunrealized alternative form of anthropological structuralism that never quite came into being. Like L\u00e9vi-Strauss an Amazonianist, he made himself in many ways his exact structural inversion. Perhaps we can best see this by using a classic Rodney Needham-style binary table:\n\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th><strong>Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss</strong></th>\n<th><strong>Terry Turner</strong></th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>painfully effete</td>\n<td>gleefully embraces manners of common man</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>delicate</td>\n<td>athletic</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>politically conservative</td>\n<td>politically radical</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>static models</td>\n<td>dynamic models</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>academically all-powerful</td>\n<td>academically marginal</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>endlessly prolific</td>\n<td>never published a book</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n\nThe power of the structuralist approach is that it provides a uniform set of tools that can allow one to at least begin to put apparently disparate aspects of human culture\u2014kinship and social organization, myths and rituals, economics, poetics, and so forth\u2014on the same conceptual table, as it were, so that each can provide insight into the other. This holism was always part of the special promise of anthropology, and it cannot be denied that its loss would empty the discipline of much of its raison d\u2019\u00eatre. If we can\u2019t say that it\u2019s impossible to understand forms of musical improvisation on a Greek island without also understanding the structure of their cheese making, courtship rituals, or knife fights, then we might as well throw in the towel and just become sociologists. Since poststructuralism, as I note, actually is a form of structuralism, this has not been entirely lost\u2014but it has certainly been endangered in some quarters, and there has been a noticeable tendency within the discipline to fragment back into subfields.\n\n***\n\nL\u00e9vi-Straussian structuralism never quite answered this promise\u2014or not in the hands of the Master himself. L\u00e9vi-Strauss did not, in fact, end up using his techniques to compare different domains of the same social or cultural orders, to come up with the kind of holistic analysis the Boasians, for instance, had always dreamed of but never figured out quite how to produce\u2014or at least he never did so systematically. His interests lay elsewhere. Partly as a result, the structuralist project largely fizzled out, only to be replaced by a poststructuralism that, rather than resolving any of these dilemmas, effectively abandoned them.\nPoststructuralism, as the discipline knows it now, largely through the works of Deleuze and Foucault, took aim largely at the very ability to render elements comparable, to put them on the same table\u2014or even, really, to say there was a table in the first place. To put the matter bluntly, while Deleuze, its main theoretical avatar, rejected the static models typical of classical structuralism and insisted that he was working in the dynamic, Heraclitean ontological tradition rather than the static, Parmenidean one favored by almost all analytic and most Continental philosophers, his primary philosophical project appears to have been to preserve its core insight (that objects are processes, that individuals are sets of relations . . .) while absolutely rejecting every aspect of the work of the one man most identified with it\u2014Hegel. In the context of the French intellectual left of the late \u201960s, it\u2019s easy to see why Hegel would become the particular object of ire and disdain. At the time, it seemed as if all radical thought was trapped between Koj\u00e8ve-inspired master\u2013slave dialectics (whether in its Lacanian or existentialist variety) or some form of slightly more or slightly less dogmatic Marxism. This had become depressing fare. And the political implications were dire.\n\nDeleuze worked his way through almost every available alternative Heraclitean tradition, from Spinoza and Nietzsche to Bergson and (at least tacitly) Whitehead, in order to create his own anti-Hegelian synthesis. It is not at all clear, however, that he succeeded. Obviously he succeeded magnificently in setting the intellectual agenda for fellow academics in the years to come, at least in anglophone countries\u2014most \u201csocial theorists\u201d in the United States or the United Kingdom, for example, are familiar with the ideas of European philosophers like Spinoza, Leibniz, Bergson, and many others almost exclusively through Deleuze, and many seem unaware that Deleuze did not invent them. In fact, his political success within academia is so complete that I rather feel like writing what I am about write counts as minor heresy. But let me say it anyway.\n\nThe key objection to Hegelian dialectics in Deleuze, but increasingly on the part of almost all French thinkers who came to be identified with \u201c\u201968 thought,\u201d was twofold. First of all, Hegel\u2019s emphasis on negation, or, in structuralist terms, binary opposition, was seen as denying the real complexity of the play of positive forces that constitutes natural, social, or human life. We are not really talking about subject/object, self/other, nature/culture, and so on\u2014all this is reductionism; we are talking about degrees of pressure, gravitational fields, converging and contradictory flows of matter and energy. Second of all, the notion of subsumption, of the maintenance of the dynamic tension between any such\nopposition (subject/object, self/other, nature/culture, etc.) as the subordinate moment in a higher synthesis, which could then be part of a further opposition and further synthesis, was denounced as leading inexorably to authoritarian outcomes. Again, it\u2019s not surprising that, in the context of the \u201960s Left Bank, radical theorists should have thought this. Subsumption is a hierarchical notion, and it had been put to hierarchical uses: whether by Hegel, to posit the nation as a higher subject encompassing the various contradictions of the classes and factions that make it up, or by various communist parties, to pose themselves as the revolutionary subject. However, the question was how to ditch all this baggage and still retain the key insight, which is that subjects, or objects, are in no sense fixed substances but are really just particular perspectives on processes of action.\n\nI know I\u2019ll likely lose some friends by saying this, but, honestly, I don\u2019t think Deleuze really pulls it off. The advantage of a dialectical approach is that it not only allows one to see what seem to be objects (\u201cforms\u201d) as being composed, on another level, of elements in dynamic tension with one another (their \u201ccontent\u201d), but it also allows us to realize that, on a different level, those forms are themselves the dynamic content of some higher level of organization or form, and so on. We are all made up of atoms that have a constant patterned motion we know as \u201cmatter\u201d (form), but, on another level, we are all ourselves atoms that have dynamic relations with each other that make up something even more concrete\u2014say, a social system. And so forth.\n\nThe problem, of course, is that the result is a series of hierarchical layers, with higher and higher forms, where all contradictions would appear to be eventually subsumed and overcome. This not only has disturbing political implications, but it doesn\u2019t correspond to what life is actually like. Contradictions and tensions are not really overcome. To the contrary, the world seems rather a mess. Obviously you can look at the degree to which they do seem to be overcome and say, \u201cWell, that\u2019s the structure,\u201d but then the word \u201cstructure\u201d no longer tells you very much\u2014it just means \u201cthat tiny portion of reality that seems to make some sort of sense.\u201d Alternately, you can say matters are still in the process of working themselves out. To put this in more formal language: you can posit the results as a formal logical system, but, in that case, there is some ultimate equilibrium where everything is coordinated by the highest level, which is a very conservative perspective with little explanatory power. Or you can, like Hegel in the Phenomenology, or Marx, see the dialectic as a historical progression, with a resolution perhaps to come in some redemptive future. Both have unfortunate\npolitical histories, and it\u2019s not surprising that, after May \u201968, intellectual rebels were beginning to think about how to move away from them.\n\nStill, it seems to me, all the poststructural rejection of this logic of subsumption really ends up doing, in most cases, is to divide the static forms and the dynamic content into two camps and set them at war with one another. Myself, I just can\u2019t see this is an improvement. Certainly, in the hands of masters like Deleuze and Guattari, the results are always provocative and extremely sophisticated\u2014so much so it allows professional academics in 2017 to propound on concepts that have been circulating for half a century and still feel they\u2019re doing something vaguely naughty. But in the final analysis, it always comes down to the same thing: whether it\u2019s the juxtaposition of open-ended, free-flowing, polymorphous \u201cdesire\u201d versus the fixed form of the Oedipal triangle, the dynamic \u201cwar machine\u201d versus the bureaucratic state, or rhizomes versus trees, its end result is a rather New-Agey opposition between (good) dynamic energy and (bad) constraining structures. Foucault (who disliked the way Deleuze and Guattari framed desire in *Anti-Oedipus* for this reason) tried to overcome the tendency to dichotomization by declaring that everything was power and hence dynamic, but this didn't really solve the problem, since it left him no cogent way to say power was objectionable, and anyway, the bad constraining forms still lingered in his analyses, just pushed into the background, like all those walls and guns and truncheons keeping the prisoners from fleeing the Panopticon.\n\n***\n\nTerry Turner\u2019s theoretical corpus can be read as an attempt to overcome such predicaments. To do so, he looked to a different, dialectical variation of structuralism for a way to think his way out of this dilemma. We see it as received wisdom now that structuralism means privileging the synchronic \u201ccode\u201d over diachronic process. It resembles dialectical thought in that it sees relations as intrinsic and constituting\u2014it\u2019s not as if there are already-existing objects that then come into relationship in one way and not another; these objects are the relations they have with one another\u2014but structuralism departs from it in that it does not see the play of those relations as a dynamic process with the potential of generating higher totalities that can then themselves enter into relations with one another, and so forth. It is, as Bruno Latour (2007) was later to put it in an only slightly different context, a \u201cflat ontology.\u201d\nFor a Hegelian, this would have meant structuralism was, quite literally, meaningless. Hegel once remarked that reducing everything to equations essentially means reducing everything to tautologies, since all equations can be ultimately reduced to a simple statement that $A = A$. We already know that $A = A$. If you want to say something you don\u2019t already know\u2014that is, if you want to begin to think\u2014you have to look at the degree to which terms are not self-identical and thus break out of the level where $A = A$ and generate a higher one. And Turner would entirely agree that structuralism is, in that Hegelian sense, meaningless. In fact, L\u00e9vi-Strauss would occasionally admit this too: he was not interested, he said, in questions of meaning, in the classic hermeneutic sense, where meaning is the message that some author or speaker is trying to convey, the intention lying behind a statement. He was interested in langue, not parole; language, not speech; and intentionality, therefore meaning, fell into the latter category. His work was to look at the elements that made meaning possible. Other people could worry themselves with trying to figure out what a given author or text was trying to say.\n\n***\n\nSo Turner\u2019s project was first of all to reinsert meaning\u2014intentional action\u2014into the equation. Which meant to go beyond just equations. He tried to create a different structuralism, which fused together the German tradition, wherein the basic units of analysis are actions, and the insights of classical French structuralism, about working out the possible formal permutations of a set of logical terms (raw/cooked, left/right, matrilateral/patrilateral, etc.). In order to do this, he traced a different theoretical genealogy, originating in Hegel\u2019s Logic (rather than his Phenomenology), proceeding through Marx\u2019s Capital (more than, say, his historical or ethnographic works), and culminating in Jean Piaget\u2019s Genetic epistemology.\n\n***\n\nNow, the importance of Piaget here cannot be understated, so it\u2019s worthwhile to dwell on it a moment, since his presence might otherwise seem odd. Nowadays, Piaget is remembered as a theorist of child development and one who, however significant his ideas to mid-twentieth-century thought, is now considered somewhat pass\u00e9, since he tended to downplay both the existence of\ninnate structures of the mind and cultural variation. As a result, he might seem an unlikely savior for anthropological theory. For Turner, though, what was important about Piaget\u2019s work was much less the particular stages of moral or intellectual development he came up with but, rather, the way he went about it and what he thought those stages and structures in general ultimately were. In a way, Hegel\u2019s *Logic* and Piaget\u2019s *Genetic epistemology* are very similar books: they are both meant to demonstrate how, even if one starts from nothing else, no presuppositions whatsoever other than an acting subject confronting the universe, it would still be possible to generate all the most sophisticated categories of human thought simply by their interaction. Abstractions arise from the way that we are forced to reflect on the process of our interactions; these allow more sophisticated interactions; those more sophisticated interactions, in turn, allow more sophisticated reflections, and so forth. In the course of describing the process, Piaget manages to develop a genuinely dynamic version of structuralism. This is the model Turner adopts.\n\n***\n\nWhat makes Piaget\u2019s structuralism so different from the L\u00e9vi-Straussian variety is that the elements that are organized into more and more complex structures, the \u201ccontent,\u201d as it were, are not ideas or objects but *actions*. We may imagine that we start with an abstract set of numerals, 1, 2, 3, and so on, and then start adding and subtracting them, but, in reality, numbers do not exist outside the process of counting, adding, subtracting, and so on. Just as no action can take place without thought, all thought is an element in some schema of action. So the materials being organized in a structure are always \u201coperations,\u201d conscious or potentially conscious attempts to transform the world in some way. So whereas in classical structuralism, everything ultimately comes down to a tautological equation, in dynamic structuralism, even equations are really actions. A \u201cstructure,\u201d it follows, is a way a particular group of actions coordinate with one another. Hence, structures are forms of \u201cself-regulation\u201d or \u201cself-organization.\u201d Nowadays, most social theorists seem to think the latter term is derived mainly from complexity and chaos theory, but, in fact, in the \u201860s, when Piaget was writing, it had already emerged from cybernetics, and while the principle was only beginning to be applied in the natural sciences, it was already the object of experimental applications by social scientists with training in the natural sciences, such as Gregory Bateson or Piaget himself.\nFew of these experiments ended up leading to full-blown social theories, because, by the time ideas like self-organization did become dominant in the natural sciences\u2014and they only really began to take off in the \u201970s\u2014the most creative branches of anglophone social science, at least, had largely abandoned the idea that they were engaged in science of any kind at all. Social scientists had already begun to redub themselves \u201csocial theorists,\u201d drawing largely on Continental philosophers for inspiration and ignoring developments in science (which they increasingly characterized as if it were still stuck in nineteenth-century positivism, so as better to dismiss it.)\n\nSo the potential opening of the \u201960s was not pursued.\n\n***\n\nSelf-organization sounds like the sort of notion that would be embraced enthusiastically by radical social theorists, and there are occasional, if usually rather wistful, calls to do so. But nothing much ever seems to come of it. The main reason, I suspect, is that the notion of self-organization is inextricably bound up with notions of totality as well as of hierarchy. Both terms immediately raise the suspicions of anyone with antiauthoritarian instincts\u2014who are, of course, precisely those who would otherwise be most attracted to the notion that structures can regulate themselves.\n\nA self-organizing structure has to be a totality with respect to its own self-organization. There may be all sorts of overlapping and contrasting totalities operative in different situations or even in the same one, but to understand something as a structure means to understand it as a whole that is larger than the sum of its parts. You can\u2019t have self-regulation without a self. But that also means a hierarchy between a higher level of \u201cinvariants\u201d that coordinate the transformations and a lower level of the transformations themselves. Usually, it means a hierarchy of a whole series of levels in which that invariant structure becomes a mere dynamic element (\u201cabstract content\u201d) in a larger structure, and so forth. The existence of logical hierarchies of this sort in no sense implies the existence of social hierarchies; but one reason I think left-wing scholars have avoided this kind of thinking is the assumption that on some level, one must imply the other. This idea is promulgated on the right, where conservatives like Louis Dumont have had remarkable success in convincing their fellow anthropologists that all conceptual systems imply the superiority of some terms (and hence some people) over others, and on the left, where \u201chierarchies\u201d of any\nsort are often treated as equally objectionable. The two positions play off one another, with the typical result (I\u2019ve seen this) a veering back and forth from a kind of extreme poststructural rejection even of spontaneous self-regulating order and a resigned acceptance that even social hierarchies (say, the elaborate administrative chains of command in contemporary universities) are probably inevitable after all.\n\n***\n\nPiaget agreed with L\u00e9vi-Strauss (who, at least in the early part of his career, also drew on scientific models) in seeing structures as, to quote Turner, \u201cgroups of transformations bounded by invariant constraints\u201d (p. 209, this volume)\u2014the invariants being the rules that govern the arrangement and rearrangement of the elements. But where L\u00e9vi-Strauss was content to see those rules as givens, part of the elementary structures of the human mind, Piaget, who started from action, could not. As a result, as he put it, \u201cthe idea of structure as a system of transformations becomes continuous with that of construction as continual formation\u201d (Piaget 1970: 34, original emphasis)\u2014the structure is always building itself, and, as soon as it seems to have reached the top, it always must necessarily create an even higher degree of coordination of which the actors cannot be entirely conscious, because it is the self-regulating mechanism that\u2019s making it possible for them to think about such questions in the first place:\n\nG\u00f6del showed that the construction of a demonstrably consistent relatively rich theory requires not simply an \u201canalysis\u201d of its \u201cpresuppositions,\u201d but the construction of the next \u201chigher\u201d theory! . . . The pyramid of knowledge no longer rests on foundations but hangs by its vertex, an ideal point never reached and, more curious, constantly rising! In short, rather than envisaging human knowledge as a pyramid or building of some sort, we should think of it as a spiral the radius of whose turns increases as the spiral rises. (Piaget 1970: 34)\n\nThis is why we\u2019re not dealing with some kind of authoritarian, closed system here. Structures are always open. But critically, they are always open at the top. Even those who think they\u2019re operating at the very top of a conceptual (or social) system cannot, by definition, completely understand what they\u2019re really up to. Turner supplemented Piaget\u2019s insights in this regard with those of Soviet developmental psychologist and educational theorist Lev Vygotsky\u2019s\nnotion of \u201cproximal level of development\u201d\u2014that is, that all of us are always necessary operating on one level of sophistication higher than we can consciously explain. This is why, for instance, it is possible to speak in grammatical English sentences even if one is completely incapable of explaining the difference between a past participle and a gerund, or even never actually heard that past participles or gerunds are things that are supposed to exist. It\u2019s obvious why such approaches should be of interest to anthropologists, because, in a way, this is the key question in any cultural analysis. How do people operate with tacit codes of which they are not consciously aware? Structuralism just makes this problem explicit. Even if we are able to demonstrate that a Greek musical performance or courtship ritual is really an exact inversion of the symbolic code on display in a typical knife fight, one still has to eventually get to the question of where this code actually resides. Is it somewhere in the actors\u2019 heads, some unconscious level of the mind? Would that be an individual or collective unconscious? Is it inscribed in the architecture, as it were, so that people absorb the tacit categories and associations by which they live\u2014hot/cold, wet/dry, high/low, male/female\u2014simply by moving about in culturally appropriate ways through the physical environment? Or is it somehow implicit in their language?\n\nThe solution proposed in \u201cThe fire of the jaguar\u201d\u2014and the other essays collected in this book\u2014is not just to see structure as emergent from action, as the forms in which action self-organizes, but to see what we call \u201cmythic thought\u201d as the way that the highest level of self-organization appears, as it were, from below. A very simple example might suffice. The moment one does the same thing twice\u2014say, gives food to a child\u2014that is, the moment one not only performs a specific action again, but does so with the understanding that it is \u201cthe same\u201d action as one has performed before, one generates, through the repetition (of an action that, like any, has both material and mental dimensions), a kind of hierarchy, since there is a more abstract level at which those actions are both tokens of the same type. But the moment one says a different kind of repeated action is not the same\u2014say, giving food to husband or to a rival at a competitive feast\u2014one is generating a third level, where different types are being compared. At the same time, by defining certain types of action in this way, one is typically generating certain identities (child, husband, rival), kinds of person who typically perform or are the objects of such actions (a nurse and patient, a dishwasher, a heavy drinker, a student, and so forth). This isn\u2019t just a matter of abstract reflection, it\u2019s practical. There has to be a way\nof arguing about who is a heavy drinker and who isn\u2019t; who\u2019s a real husband or a real child; there have to be ceremonies for matriculation as a student or qualification as a nurse. This brings us into the domain of ritual, since, at least for the really important categories, this is how such transitions are effected. But as anthropologists have long noted, rites of passage, where one passes from one status to another (\u201cstatus\u201d here defined as a person seen as typically performing or who is allowed to perform certain kinds of action), have a peculiar quality: even if they mark the transitioning from child to adult, there is always a stage in between, where all the usual distinctions (boy/man, girl/woman, alive/dead, inside/outside, freedom/authority) seem to be thrown into complete disarray, all social rules suspended . . . For Victor Turner, this was a moment of \u201cantistructure.\u201d For Terry Turner, in contrast, it is \u201cmetastructure\u201d\u2014this is simply what the proximal level of development, that level which we can never completely understand (at least, without creating a new level which we also won\u2019t be able to completely understand), will always look like. The effect is the same as it would be if two-dimensional creatures were staring at a three-dimensional object; some aspects will simply not make sense. But in this case, even if they could enter into a 3D world, they would be immediately confronted by the fourth-dimensional objects that had allowed them to do so, and so on . . .\n\nThis is exactly why myths (such as the fire of the jaguar) so often deal with origins of social institutions. It is easy to understand arranging a marriage or conducting a wedding ceremony as simply something people do. These are human actions that the people involved chose to do the way they did and could have decided to do otherwise. But in arranging marriages in the same way over and over, those same people are also continually re-creating the institution of marriage\u2014which, after all, only really exists as the form of those actions\u2019 self-regulation. Yet once again, it is almost impossible to keep track of this level of social reality\u2014and, of course, the authoritative effect of the ritual largely depends on the fact that we generally don\u2019t. This is why institutions like marriage, chiefship, or the culinary arts are typically said to originate from creative acts not now, but in a one-time mythic past, what Mircea Eliade referred to as the illo tempore, a time of creation characterized by an apparently random kaleidoscopic collection of subject/object inversions, talking animals, and strange powers, in which the social and natural laws we know today appear to have been almost entirely suspended. This is, again, what the ever-disappearing top of the pyramid looks like from below.\nThe essays collected here are all in one way or another about myth, and one can see them as Turner\u2019s unique effort to come up with a radical\u2014in the sense of politically left-wing\u2014theory of mythology. It is interesting to reflect on the fact that, as academic subjects go, the study of myth has been overwhelmingly dominated by conservatives. The great triumvirate that dominated theory about myth in the mid\u2013to late\u2013twentieth century, C. G. Jung, Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Campbell, all considered themselves right of center in one way or another: Jung was a Burkean; Campbell considered himself a free-market libertarian; and about Eliade, who was a member of the Iron Guard in his youth, probably the less said the better. Georges Dum\u00e9zil was close to the Nazi party, and the only left-wing theorist who fully embraced the power of myth as a means of revolutionary struggle, Georges Sorel, ended his life an admirer of Mussolini. L\u00e9vi-Strauss was an \u201capolitical\u201d conservative pessimist. There are a handful of exceptions, from feminists like Jane Harrison, to anti-fascists like Karl Kerenyi, to leftist structuralists like Jean-Pierre Vernant and Pierre Vidal-Naquet, but, from the days of William Blake and Percy Bysshe and Mary Shelley to those of Robert Graves, left-wingers entranced by the power of myth have been far more likely to put their hands to creating new myths than interpreting old ones.\n\nI suspect there are good reasons for this. If left-wing thought, whether in its romantic or Marxist variants, has always been a celebration of creativity, then myth poses it a problem. Mythic thought is endlessly creative. The corpus of world mythology is essentially a vast compendium of human creativity. Yet most myth consists of elaborate arguments why we latter-day humans can no longer be genuinely creative. The great foundational gestures were all performed in the misty past; in these lesser days, we are no longer capable of anything truly new. Myth, then, is creativity turned against itself. To celebrate myth as the deep structure of human society or human thought is to say that all the important things have already been established: all heroic narratives, all ways of conceiving gender relations, all conceptions of authority, all are already given, and even history, as Eliade so famously argued, should be conceived as an eternal return of the same archetypal gestures and characters. Obviously it\u2019s possible to avoid this conclusion: to see myth instead as, for instance, ideology, or, in a more positive light, as a well of self-denying creativity that can and should be drawn on to\ncontinually revolutionize society. But it\u2019s unsurprising that few of those drawn to dedicate their lives to the study of myth have embraced such an approach.\n\n***\n\nTerry Turner\u2019s basic question, then, with regard to myth was: Why have so many human societies embraced such conservative conclusions? Certainly this was true of the Kayap\u00f3. As Turner writes in \u201cThe fire of the jaguar\u201d:\n\nThe question becomes this: why should the Kayap\u00f3 regard the very power to create and maintain their social order . . . as itself, in origin and essence, an asocial (\u201cnatural\u201d) power? The answer is that they do not regard the structure of society itself as within their power to change, or, therefore, within their power to create. It follows that the basic forms, that is, the basic transformative mechanisms upon which their society rests, must derive from an extrasocial source. (p. 30, this volume)\n\nHence his embrace of Marx and the fundamental insight\u2014one seen nowadays as so intrinsically suspicious by poststructuralists\u2014that there is a necessary link between humans\u2019 misunderstanding of the process of their own creativity and forms of authority and exploitation.\n\nThe great moral danger of any such approach is (as Bruno Latour, for instance, emphasized) condescension: Are we really prepared to say that the people we study are fundamentally wrong about the workings of their society and that we know better? This sounds like a very serious charge until we consider that, by doing so, we are really just reducing the Kayap\u00f3 (or whatever group we are analyzing) to the same status as our professional colleagues, whom we accuse of being fundamentally wrong about the workings of society all the time. Turner would no doubt add: while Kayap\u00f3 folk understandings of their own society are in many ways more sophisticated than those of most social scientists (certainly, than most structuralists), they\u2019re not social scientists, have no interest in becoming social scientists, and Kayap\u00f3 social order is in no sense an attempt to resolve intellectual problems. (As Terry notes, when he attempted to outline some of the interpretations developed in this book to Kayap\u00f3 friends, their main reaction was not disagreement, but indifference. They simply didn\u2019t find such questions interesting.)\n\nFinally, there is a degree\u2014already noted\u2014to which such questions can never really be answered anyway.\nThis might seem somewhat contradictory: How can one both say that myth is the product of an intellectual puzzle and, simultaneously, that it is not an attempt to solve that puzzle? What, for Turner, are myths actually about? Here, at least, he is considerate enough to spell the matter out:\n\n\\[ \\ldots \\text{the basic notion of the function of myth put forward in this study [is] that of directly connecting the \u201csubjectivity\u201d of the social actor with the objective structure of the socioeconomic system to which he or she belongs. (p. 146, this volume)} \\]\n\n\u201cSubjectivity\u201d here is meant in the literal sense: it is about the formation of the subject, as an entity disposed to act and capable of acting in a certain way. Myths provide those who hear, learn, and retell them not only with tacit models for how to act but, even more, with a tacit guide to how to feel about the process by which we do so, with all its attendant dilemmas, tensions, and contradictions, what it is justifiable to fear and to desire.\n\nThis focus not just on the intellectual but also on the \u201caffective\u201d dimension, on \u201cpatterns of feeling and motivation,\u201d is, of course, extremely unusual for the structural analysis of myth. Most of those who study myths would never be able to attempt such an analysis, except perhaps speculatively, since they deal with stories told long ago or far away, often in languages no one has spoken for centuries. We would have little way of knowing if there were certain incidents in the story of Inanna and Dumuzi, or the Labors of Hercules, that Babylonian or Greek audiences considered particularly amusing or terrifying. The response is to create forms of mythic analysis where such questions don\u2019t really matter. Terry\u2019s many decades of fieldwork, in contrast, meant that he had heard the same stories over and over from different narrators and, as a result, knew exactly what parts were supposed to be funny, which scary, as well as what was idiosyncratic in any given performance and what essential to the narrative itself. This in turns allows him to read myths in their social context as oriented to shaping desires and sensibilities in a way that more intellectualist readings simply can\u2019t.\n\nHere, too, Terry saw himself as positioning himself in much the same way as did Marx: as synthesizing the best of the French and German traditions. Marx admired French Enlightenment thinkers because they understood one had to see humans as existing in the material world and meeting material challenges; however, since they started by basically plunking down a collection of\npurposeless humans fully grown into a world of objects, they ended up seeing them as simply reacting, Marvin Harris-like, to material conditions. German Hegelian philosophy started from action and therefore understood humans as creating themselves through their projects: objects were by definition objects of action, even when that action was mere contemplation. This was much better, Marx believed. The problem is that German philosophers tended to forget there even was a material universe. Terry entirely agreed with this assessment. He just carried the same work of synthesis over into the analysis of myth, where his project was to combine a static French theory of signification (L\u00e9vi\u2013Straussian structuralism), which admitted it had nothing to say about meaning, with a dynamic German theory of meaning (Schleiermachian hermeneutics), which saw texts as intentional forms of action. In the latter, the meaning of a text was what an author was trying to say.\n\nFor this reason, the analysis of \u201cThe fire of the jaguar\u201d proceeds on two levels simultaneously: it deals first with structure, the \u201cformal aspects of the logical relations among [a myth\u2019s] symbolic elements\u201d\u2014the level with which all structural analysis necessarily deals\u2014and second, with its subjective meaning to the actors, \u201cthe type of message it conveys\u201d (p. 4, this volume). On the one hand, a myth \u201clay[s] down a pattern of action.\u201d On the other, it is about \u201cknowing and experiencing and deeply feeling that structure of social relations\u201d (p. 146, this volume), which said pattern of action creates. The power of myth, however, does not lie in either one of these two levels. The power of myth lies in the implicit proposition that they are both the same. Ultimately, the meaning is the structure. The structure is the meaning. The inevitable becomes desirable. Hence inevitable.\n\n***\n\nTo demonstrate how this can be the case and what it means in practice, Terry develops his own unique theory of narrative. It bears little resemblance to narratology as it currently exists and, to my mind at least, is far more promising than anything the semiologists have yet managed to come up with. His approach was first outlined in a piece in the classical journal Arethusa, published in 1977, called \u201cNarrative structure and mythopoesis,\u201d which argues that the plots of stories can themselves be seen as self-organizing structures. Ostensibly, it does so through a reanalysis of the Oedipus myth. Unfortunately, the piece is so long and presented in such an obscure style that it seems to have left most classical\nscholars scratching their heads, was missed completely by anthropologists, and nowadays has been almost completely forgotten.\n\nStill, it\u2019s an important essay, if only for the reason that it introduces Terry\u2019s notion of the minimal episodic unit. This notion of an elementary structural unit actually is key to Turnerian structuralism (if we can call it that) more generally. To understand any structure, Terry held\u2014whether a poem or story, or a social system\u2014one must first identify what he sometimes called, in typically ungainly fashion, its \u201cminimal modular unit\u201d of structure, the smallest unit that nonetheless contained within itself all the key relations operative within the larger whole. In the case of a narrative, mythic or otherwise, this minimal unit is the episode. Each episode that makes up a story is organized around an action or set of actions. A plot is, after all, as Aristotle insisted, \u201can imitation of action,\u201d the episodes that make up a plot, its minimal units, are each in each case acts in which characters change something (the world, themselves, their social relations with other characters\u2014usually all three at the same time). It\u2019s only over the course of the story that it becomes clear that each episode shares a common structure, which also becomes the principle that regulates the relation of the episodes to each other.\n\nTo illustrate, Terry took the Oedipus story, so famously reinterpreted by L\u00e9vi-Strauss as a meditation on the relations of eyes and feet, and applied a model of triangular structures inspired by Roman Jakobson\u2019s phonemics, defined by reciprocal transformations of its elements. (This is the same triangular model that reappears in this book.) There are always two key axes, and in every case, one change along one of them will trigger a complementary transformation of some kind: that is, the old king dies, his warrior usurps the throne. With the first episode, the key relevant features (foreign/indigenous, loyalty/ambition, etc.) might not be entirely apparent, but the moment there is a second episode and other transformations along the same axes recur, then the very comparison that allows them to be seen as similar necessarily generates a higher level of structure, which becomes a \u201cgeneral principle or force responsible for creating the common pattern it manifests\u201d (1977: 142). To put it more simply, each episode marks an action that changes the overall situation, but, as the story continues, a common pattern in those changes emerges, and that emergent pattern becomes the governing principle\u2014or, as Terry once puts it, \u201ccosmic demiurge\u201d\u2014that generates the plot as a whole. So, just as each episode contains a complementary transformation, so does the story as a whole: that is,\nthe narrative begins with Oedipus as an infant, having pins stuck through his feet, and ends with him as an old man, sticking pins in his own eyes. It is similar, in a way, to the hermeneutic circle, where one reads each episode in a work of fiction as a way of understanding how they together form an overall totality, that totality being seen as identical with the intention of the author\u2014the meaning of *Hamlet*, that which binds all the episodes together, is assumed to be what Shakespeare is \u201ctrying\u201d to say. (\u201cShakespeare,\u201d in this sort of analysis, is not even really a person, but also a demiurge; the author is just conceived as that unifying intentionality.) In a myth, however, there is no single author, even as an abstraction. The story writes itself.\n\nTrue, the audience doesn\u2019t typically notice this, instead following the apparent back and forth of episodes with apparently contradictory messages as the plot weaves between them, but it\u2019s the emergence of this \u201cdemiurgic\u201d power of self-regulation that allows the reader to feel that a satisfying story has been told. And doing so allows the audience to not just think through, but feel through, the quandaries and contradictions of family life\u2014in each case (the fire of jaguar, the Oedipus myth) in a way sufficiently compelling that the story has been repeated for thousands of years.\n\n***\n\nSome stories endure. Most theories tend to be a lot more ephemeral. I hope this book will prove an exception.\n\n*The fire of the jaguar* should, in my opinion, be considered one of the great achievements of anthropological theory. It deserves a place among the classics. It was a book that had the potential of opening doors that no one has been able to walk through, since the doors were dangled in front of us only *in potentia*, like the kind of shimmering dimensional doors one might see in a science-fiction story, always lingering ghost-like above our heads. One such door has now materialized. Will anyone now choose to pass through it? Has it materialized too late? Does anyone even now care about the possibility of a truly dynamic structuralism?\n\nWell, pendulums do swing. It\u2019s possible that the current adamant hostility to the L\u00e9vi-Straussian project, the rejection of any dream of reconciling advances in scientific understanding with social understanding, might be showing signs of giving way. Perhaps the belated appearance of *The fire of the jaguar* will encourage anthropologists to think about such big questions once again.\nREFERENCES CITED", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://haubooks.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Turner_foreword.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 11284, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 22, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 40976, "total-output-tokens": 12165, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00019633769989013672, "__label__art_design": 0.0019044876098632812, "__label__crime_law": 0.0001710653305053711, "__label__education_jobs": 0.0279693603515625, "__label__entertainment": 0.0006060600280761719, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00015282630920410156, "__label__finance_business": 0.0002397298812866211, "__label__food_dining": 0.00017082691192626953, "__label__games": 0.0002837181091308594, "__label__hardware": 7.94529914855957e-05, "__label__health": 0.0003826618194580078, "__label__history": 0.001739501953125, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00015723705291748047, "__label__industrial": 0.0001767873764038086, "__label__literature": 0.95556640625, "__label__politics": 0.0011796951293945312, "__label__religion": 0.0006966590881347656, "__label__science_tech": 0.006374359130859375, "__label__social_life": 0.00118255615234375, "__label__software": 0.00020432472229003904, "__label__software_dev": 0.0003428459167480469, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0001462697982788086, "__label__transportation": 0.00018262863159179688, "__label__travel": 9.065866470336914e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 54008, 0.00334]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 54008, 0.43991]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 54008, 0.97351]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 1570, false], [1570, 3988, null], [3988, 6861, null], [6861, 9122, null], [9122, 11917, null], [11917, 14302, null], [14302, 17162, null], [17162, 20010, null], [20010, 22582, null], [22582, 24912, null], [24912, 27556, null], [27556, 30142, null], [30142, 32601, null], [32601, 35430, null], [35430, 38232, null], [38232, 40843, null], [40843, 43226, null], [43226, 45810, null], [45810, 48390, null], [48390, 51141, null], [51141, 53643, null], [53643, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 1570, true], [1570, 3988, null], [3988, 6861, null], [6861, 9122, null], [9122, 11917, null], [11917, 14302, null], [14302, 17162, null], [17162, 20010, null], [20010, 22582, null], [22582, 24912, null], [24912, 27556, null], [27556, 30142, null], [30142, 32601, null], [32601, 35430, null], [35430, 38232, null], [38232, 40843, null], [40843, 43226, null], [43226, 45810, null], [45810, 48390, null], [48390, 51141, null], [51141, 53643, null], [53643, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 54008, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 1570, 1], [1570, 3988, 2], [3988, 6861, 3], [6861, 9122, 4], [9122, 11917, 5], [11917, 14302, 6], [14302, 17162, 7], [17162, 20010, 8], [20010, 22582, 9], [22582, 24912, 10], [24912, 27556, 11], [27556, 30142, 12], [30142, 32601, 13], [32601, 35430, 14], [35430, 38232, 15], [38232, 40843, 16], [40843, 43226, 17], [43226, 45810, 18], [45810, 48390, 19], [48390, 51141, 20], [51141, 53643, 21], [53643, 54008, 22]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 54008, 0.07477]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-08", "created": "2024-12-08"}
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+{"id": "7c121dac692ee7e1bfbf15cbd83578f885cf132c", "text": "\u201cWe will always wonder what, in this *mal d\u2019archive*, he may have burned\u201d: thus, in remarking on the effects of Freud\u2019s \u201carchive fever,\u201d does Jacques Derrida speak to the dilemma inherent in literary scholars\u2019 relationship with the concept of the archive. Freud was \u201cburning with the desire to know, to make known, and to archive the very thing he concealed forever\u201d: the archive is both the repository of those remnants of the past from which history can be written and an indelible reminder, precisely on account of its selectivity, of how much must be excluded, burned, if it is to exist at all.\u00b9 Derrida points out that \u201cthe meaning of \u2018archive,\u2019 its only meaning, comes to it from the Greek *arkheion*: initially a house, a domicile, an address, the residence of the superior magistrates, the *archons*, those who commanded,\u201d but that home is not open to all: \u201cThe archons are first of all the documents\u2019 guardians. They do not only ensure the physical security of what is deposited and of the substrate. They are also accorded the hermeneutic right and competence.\u201d\u00b2\n\nA pertinent question for modern literary scholars, says David Greetham, is whom we are to recognize as those Derrida calls the *archons*.\u00b3 Its pertinence derives in large part from the fact that the work of these guardians is the foundation for any concept of the author, on which so much literary research is still based. Michel Foucault famously pushed the question to the limit by imagining a limitless authorial archive: \u201cBut what if, in a notebook filled with aphorisms, we find a reference, a reminder of an appointment, an address, or a laundry bill, should this be included in his works? Why not? These practical considerations are endless once we consider how a work can be extracted from the millions of traces left by an individual after his death.\u201d\u2074 Foucault\u2019s questions are intended to bring about recognition of just how fragile are the concepts at the heart of literary study. \u201cThe Author\u201d and \u201cthe Work\u201d are arbitrary figments, not securely identifiable entities. And so they are. But if the exclusionary practices of the archive are the basis for such assertions, Middle English\nscholars, at least, have more pressing worries. Would that we had the laundry bills of William Langland, the address book of Margery Kempe! The *Chaucer Life-Records* volume is a substantial exception to the absence and loss that are our era\u2019s most striking characteristics, yet it hardly leads anyone to fret over whether *Troilus and Criseyde* is a work, or Chaucer its author. Medievalists tend to see themselves as guardians only, protecting from any further destruction what has survived the assaults of fire, neglect, Cromwell, and so many other powerful forces.\n\nYet this sense allows for a much more fine-tuned assessment of the forces behind the creation and maintenance of the literary archive at large, whether or not those forces entail the death drive and the pleasure principle, than do the archives of more modern eras. For Derrida\u2019s diagnosis of the \u201ctrouble\u201d of the archive remains partial in its very gesture toward comprehensiveness: it is, he says, \u201cthe trouble of secrets, of plots, of clandestineness, of half-private, half-public conjurations, always at the unstable limit between public and private, between the family, the society, and the State, between the family and an intimacy even more private than the family, between oneself and oneself.\u201d This whole list might well ring true for students of modern, especially modernist, literatures. Scholars of Joyce\u2019s life and works are always coming up against some powerful combination of these forces. Yet most medievalists would encounter only the final item in this catalogue, by far the most important: those secrets at the unstable limit between oneself and oneself. This is the case because for the most part the medieval literary archive is relatively transparent and well defined. A working definition of the Langland archive as generally accepted, the focus of this book, would be the collection of the fifty-plus extant manuscripts of *Piers Plowman*, the history of the poem\u2019s reception and criticism; and those more abstract beliefs that have attained the privileged status as near facts, external guarantees, as it were, of other interpretations, such as statements regarding the authorship, localization, and political valence of *Piers Plowman*. Once in a while, to be sure, the other forces Derrida identifies do come to the fore. An important early manuscript, formerly owned by the duke of Westminster, for instance, is now in anonymous private hands, and has been on deposit at the University of York (Borthwick Institute for Archives, Additional MS 196) \u2013 but only on the strictest of conditions. This situation pushes the unstable limit of public and private to the breaking point.\n\nYet the relative absence of such dramas from Langlandians\u2019 engagement with the medieval literary archive to date offers them no promise of exemption from the questions Derrida and others have raised, or modernists\nexemption from considering the challenges of the medieval archive. For as The Myth of Piers Plowman will argue, this seeming tranquillity highlights our own role as the archive\u2019s archons, those guardians of knowledge whose interpretations create rather than emanate from a study of the archive. Derrida himself recognizes, if at one remove, that it is in the modern confrontation with the distant past that the mal d\u2019archive presents itself most acutely. His final case study is a novel, Jensen\u2019s Gradiva, contemporary with Freud, one indeed that fascinated him, but whose protagonist, Hanold, is an archivist trying to bring the ancient past to life via his occupation as classical archaeologist. Hanold, writes Derrida, dreams of \u201creliving the singular pressure or impression which Gradiva\u2019s step [pas], the step itself, the step of Gradiva herself, that very day, at that time, on that date, in what was inimitable about it, must have left in the ashes.\u201d In Derrida\u2019s account, the dream turns out to be bibliographical in nature:\n\nHe dreams this irreplaceable place, the very ash, where the singular imprint, like a signature, barely distinguishes itself from the impression. And this is the condition of singularity, the idiom, the secret, testimony. It is the condition for the uniqueness of the printer-printed, of the impression and the imprint, of the pressure and its trace in the unique instant where they are not yet distinguished the one from the other, forming in an instant a single body of Gradiva\u2019s step, of her gait, of her pace (Gangati), and of the ground which carries them.8\n\nIt does not take much of a stretch to see that Piers Plowman, too, fits this description, perhaps even more interestingly than Jensen\u2019s novel does. Derrida obsesses over the pas; Langland, over his poem\u2019s passus, the same term, here denoting the \u201csteps\u201d that the dreamer, or the reader, takes en route to the conclusion. Hanold\u2019s Gravida is Will\u2019s St. Truth or Conscience\u2019s Piers the Plowman, an elusive figure who leaves behind traces, impressions, footsteps. And as Emily Steiner has argued, \u201cPiers Plowman reveals the conditions of God\u2019s contract with humanity as the unpacking or unfolding of an archive of redeeming texts\u201d: Meed\u2019s charter, Truth\u2019s pardon, Moses\u2019s maundemaunt, and so forth.9 The need for a contract between God and humanity, which is the need for Piers Plowman in its author\u2019s mind, arises from the division of unity into plurality. This is what instills in Hanold and Will, and in their readers, the desire for that moment, that unique instant, in which the separation has not yet occurred. The fall generates the work in the first place.\n\nThe dilemma is replicated in more secular form in literary studies, especially of the pre-print era. Dozens of medieval manuscripts of Piers\nPlowman survive, but they almost never provide the basis of literary studies of the poem. Critics instead opt for editions, reproducing them down to the letter, out of a desire, it would seem, to recreate that instant before the author\u2019s words were distinguished from their representation by later scribes. More transparently with Middle English literature than anything later, the process of literary interpretation is the archaeological enterprise Derrida and Foucault, the latter in The Archaeology of Knowledge, pronounce it to be. Indeed, given its extraordinarily complicated textual history, Piers Plowman has a fair claim to be the work that most intensively puts the status of the archive to the test. What is the relationship between the texts attested in the surviving manuscripts and the author\u2019s original? How many authors were there? How did original audiences respond to early forms of the poem, and how did the poet in turn revise the work? It would be difficult to imagine any interpretative approach to Piers Plowman that is not somehow implicated, often quite deeply, in certain answers to these questions. And given the poem\u2019s historical importance in its day, whether in the Rising of 1381, its influence on Chaucer, or engagement by the Lollards, certain interpretations of the Langland archive underpin a substantial amount of scholarship into late medieval English culture, religion, and politics.\n\nWhen Derrida indulges in one of those lists intended to encompass everything \u2013 \u201cthe trouble of secrets, of plots, of clandestineness, of half-private, half-public conjurations, always at the unstable limit between public and private, between the family, the society, and the State, between the family and an intimacy even more private than the family, between oneself and oneself\u201d \u2013 the \u201cwork\u201d itself, say, Freud\u2019s Delusion and Dream in Jensen\u2019s Gradiva, is merely one of the constitutive items of that archive, rather than the contested product of its interpretation. The constitution of the Langland archive, then, is no less fraught and contested, and no less subject to the powers of the archons, than is, say, the Freud or Joyce archive. Major differences lie in the facts that where the moderns might anguish over whether Joyce\u2019s laundry bills would undermine Ulysses\u2019s status as a \u201cwork,\u201d medievalists almost never have access to any authorial document; and that the archons, who determine the definition and users of the archive, are for Langlandians identical to those doing the interpreting: there is no unstable limit to speak of between the public and private, between the individual researcher and the State or the estate.\n\nThe most powerful archons of the Langland archive have been its editors, whose interpretation of the textual evidence as attesting three (or four) versions of Piers Plowman, A, B, and C (and possibly Z), all\nby a single poet, has been accepted wholesale as the single issue on which every critic must have a judgment. In my previous book I argued that certain assumptions about the archive predetermined the results of such investigations, with devastating results. The particular debate in which I there engaged suggests that the main argument of the current book holds true even at the most fundamental level: our field is engaged not in a negotiation between the transparent archive of historical facts and the ingenuity of the modern interpreter, but rather in the continual production of that archive in the first place. But the process plays itself out over and over, as is seen quite precisely where the terms of the debate seem to present themselves as straightforward questions of how we are to interpret the factual data constituted by the Langland archive.\n\nIt might thus be more accurate to say that literary scholars \u201cfabricate,\u201d rather than \u201cconstitute\u201d or \u201cconstruct,\u201d the archive. Any of these terms would acknowledge that archives do not come into being of themselves, from which point they merely await consultation and interpretation. But literary history has easily appealed only to those archival materials that in turn support its assumptions, a circularity that justifies the less innocent connotations of the term \u201cfabricate,\u201d which will appear in various guises throughout this book. My point is not that criticism has somehow engaged in fraudulent behavior, but that in general it has not subjected the archive to the sort of intensive examination that it applies to just about everything else. In this sense, the only true fraud, if a fascinating and appealing one, discussed in this book, the early-nineteenth-century literary forger William Dupr\u00e9, renders visible, simply if extremely, the modern archon\u2019s role in fabricating, creating, the archive.\n\nBut if this book does not see the archive as a retreat from theory into a supposed repository of transparent facts, neither does it urge some postmodern abandonment of the archive as a positivist fantasy. That would result in intellectual paralysis, or, at best, the easy and implicit endorsement of the fabrications that have produced current paradigms, within rather than against which it would operate. Instead, I will advocate the incorporation of a self-aware, historically responsible study of the processes of archive formation into any attempt to interpret the archive. Among the particular projects such an approach would entail are a rigorous analysis of all the agencies behind stages of the text, including the authorial, scribal, readerly, and editorial; a nuanced definition of the text, which accommodates not just the manuscripts upon which editions are based, but also the lively traffic in excerpts and the evidence of oral transmission; the bracketing of received narratives that have taken on the veneer of fact\n(e.g., Langland wrote the C version in the site where its \u201cbest\u201d manuscripts are localized) so as to follow the evidence; and an appreciation of the ways in which the histories of literary production and the rise of institutional archives created the circumstances in which we work today.\n\nThe rest of this Introduction will lay the groundwork for this book\u2019s pursuit of such questions by treating three episodes in the history of *Piers Plowman*\u2019s production and reception, together, crucially, with the modern construction of the frame of reference that has granted, or obscured, the episode\u2019s meaning. The basic point is that these two seemingly separate realms are indivisible: it is not just the rather banal fact that the archives are subject to competing interpretations, but that they are to greater or lesser degrees determined by those interpretations in the first place. Literary scholars cannot help but fabricate the archive to some degree, whether in the term *fabricate*\u2019s neutral or negative connotations. To tip the balance more favorably toward the neutral, we need to recognize the degree to which what we have taken to be interpretations of the received archive have been involved as well, or instead, in its fabrication.\n\n### The melancholy of Joseph Ritson\n\nThe element of the Langland archive that has, together with the authorship controversy, proved most contentious over its critical history is the issue of versions: A, B, C, Z, ur-B, and so forth. With this topic any division between the manuscripts themselves (the foundational archive) and the modern study of them dissolves: the versions are what Langland wrote; the versions are the results of the modern interpretation of the evidence. Both have reasonable claims to be true, which is why critics addressing the questions of how many versions and/or authors there were must also confront the history of those very questions: must confront the archive of *Piers Plowman* criticism, which is what renders the archive of *Piers Plowman* texts comprehensible.\n\nThe figure cited most frequently as the first to identify in print the existence of three authorial versions is Joseph Ritson (1752\u20131803), whose reputation as an \u201cimpudent libeller\u201d and \u201cabominably conceited and impudent writer\u201d (the hardly disinterested judgment of the Shakespearean scholar Edmond Malone, among Ritson\u2019s prime targets) has put him on the outskirts of British literary history. But Ritson\u2019s centrality to Langland studies is cemented by what George Kane has called his \u201cradical insight,\u201d in the *Bibliographia Poetica* (1802), into the nature of the poem\u2019s manuscript variation: \u201cit appears highly probable that the author had\nrevised his original work, and given, as it were, a new edition.\u201d\u00b9\u00b2 This conclusion is the result of his grouping of the witnesses to Piers Plowman into, first, the \u201cprinted copys, and (in substance) the Harleian MSS. 3954, 875, and 6041; the Vernon MS. in the Bodleian, Hales, in Lincolns-inn, and others\u201d \u2013 that is, B and A, whose versions of Prol.1\u201310 all agree; and second, those with our C. Prol.1\u201311, which appear in the \u201cMSS. Vespasian B.xvi, Caligula A [x1], [Royal] 18 B xvi[i], Harleian, 2376, Mr. Douce\u2019s and others.\u201d\u00b9\u00b3\n\nGiven its subsequent reputation, it would be easy to imagine this announcement as a major claim, worthy of special attention. In fact the comment appears only in a footnote in one of the many entries in Ritson\u2019s large-scale bibliographical survey of pre-1600 British literature, on which he had been collaborating with the antiquarian Francis Douce. \u201cHave the goodness to look over the inclosed, & make as many additions, alterations, corrections, remarks, &c. as you possibly [sic] can,\u201d Ritson wrote to Douce in December 1798; and Douce\u2019s additions and corrections in red ink dot the pages of Ritson\u2019s notebook, BL Additional MS 10285.\u00b9\u2074 This collaboration had collapsed in acrimony in early 1801, when \u201ca little girl who was in the room\u201d as the staunch vegetarian Ritson was lunching on bread and cheese in Douce\u2019s home \u201cvery innocently looked up in Ritson\u2019s face and said \u2018La! Mr. Ritson, what a quantity of mites you are eating!\u2019 Ritson absolutely trembled with passion \u2013 laid down his knife, \u2013 and abruptly quitted the room!\u201d\u00b9\u2075 Their relationship was irrevocably severed. In the Advertisement of the Bibliographia Poetica Ritson acknowledges \u201cthe kind attention, and literary exertions, of a very learned and ingenious friend,\u201d whom it is left for Douce to identify in his copy: \u201cOriginally F.D. but he afterwards cancelled the name from a bit of spite.\u201d\u00b9\u2076 Any hopes for reconciliation were dashed when Ritson died a year later, in the grip of madness in his chambers at Gray\u2019s Inn, where he was attempting to burn all his papers. The mal d\u2019archive had claimed another victim.\u00b9\u2077\n\nThe footnote regarding the \u201ctwo editions\u201d was enough to guarantee Ritson\u2019s importance to the history of Piers Plowman criticism. But there is more to the story, for many modern critics have preferred to look to what they take to have been his earlier musings, in that notebook with Douce\u2019s red annotations (BL Additional MS 10285), on the textual state of the poem: \u201cThe difference as well between the printed copies on the one hand and most if not all the MSS. on the other, as between the MSS. themselves is very remarkable. Of the latter indeed there appears to be two sets, of which the one has scarcely 5 lines together in common with the other\u201d (fol. 247v). E. Talbot Donaldson influentially interpreted this as providing\n\u201cevidence for supposing that Ritson had at one time\u201d \u2013 that is, before the depressing final chapter of his life \u2013 \u201cdistinguished three forms of the poem.\u201d\n\nIn this rendering, Ritson first gathers the printed copies and those B manuscripts that agree with them, then divides them from the remainder of the manuscripts, and finally finds \u201ctwo sets\u201d of \u201cthe latter,\u201d which means that the \u201csecond sentence must be a reference to the differences between the A- and C-Versions.\u201d\n\nThe question of why Ritson later abandoned this insight has never been explained, but the seeming fact that he did has been supported as well by an appeal to the materiality of the archive: Vincent DiMarco says that the notebook entry is \u201cwritten on paper which elsewhere in the manuscript bears a watermark of 1795,\u201d that is, as many as seven years before his published comments.\n\nBut a new entry to the Langland and Ritson archives reveals this to be just sloppy syntax rather than critical insight: Ritson only ever identified two, not three, \u201ceditions\u201d of the poem. This is his copy of the first of Robert Crowley\u2019s three 1550 editions (known as sigil Cr'), now Lehigh University Library 821.1 L265p 1550, available in facsimile on that library\u2019s website, which includes substantial annotations on the opening and closing flyleaves. Its final entry reads: \u201cThere is such a difference between Cal. A.x1 & 6041 (both ancient MSS.) that there are scarcely 5 lines together the same in any part of the poem: of which, in fact, there appears to be 2 sets. The P.CC. agree with 6041.\u201d The phrases that received so much attention in the notebook appear in identical form here: \u201cscarcely 5 lines together\u201d; \u201cthere appears to be 2 sets.\u201d The printed copies are unambiguously included with the sets, not separated from them as previously assumed: \u201cThe P.CC. agree with 6041.\u201d And while Ritson certainly did enough work on his own to confirm this reading of the situation, his conclusion and even its wording had already appeared in a catalogue he consulted, that of Cambridge Corpus Christi manuscripts by James Nasmith, who says that MS 293, a C text, \u201cdiffers greatly from Roger\u2019s [sic] edition of 1561 (the only one that I have seen) the orthography is much more antique, and the variation so numerous that I seldom found three lines together the same in both,\u201d followed by a printing of its Prol.1\u201313.\n\nNeither is there any possibility of any substantive gap between Ritson\u2019s inscription and the Bibliographia Poetica. At all stages of his engagement with Piers Plowman Ritson distinguished two editions, as it were, and never three. Yet it is still worth looking more closely at the context of this annotated Cr\u2019, which illuminates chapters of the poem\u2019s critical history that are much more interesting than the one that has occupied attention to date. As the sale catalogue of Ritson\u2019s books says, this copy contains...\n\u201cMS. notes and Index, and specimens of the various MSS. of Pierce Plowman\u2019s Vision; likewise mentioning where they are deposited, and accounts of the different printed Editions.\u201d These features together offer a comprehensive and representative picture of Langland scholarship c.1800: musings on the poem\u2019s authorship (Ritson denies ascription to either Robert Langland or John Malvern, the two main candidates; see Conclusion); a survey of its history in print (he deems Cr\u00b2 superior to Cr\u00b9); a judgment regarding the correct reading of Prol.1 (Crowley\u2019s \u201cset\u201d vs. MS \u201csoft,\u201d discussed by just about all eighteenth-century critics); a bibliography of Piers Plowman criticism; and, most remarkably, two indexes, one a list of nearly 300 words, and the other, just beneath it, a briefer list of \u201cmemorable particulars,\u201d from Ale to Waltrot (see Figure 1). Such lists pervade the annotated copies of the sixteenth-century editions (the three by Crowley, plus that by Owen Rogers in 1561, taken mainly from Cr\u00b3). The best example appears over four front flyleaves of the copy of Cr\u00b9 that is now Cambridge University Library (CUL) Syn. 7.55.12, which, like Ritson\u2019s list, is arranged alphabetically, listing fifteen items beginning with \u201cA\u201d alone, from Absolucyoun to Averice. Others, such as the Cr\u00b3 that is now Duke University D.9 L282V, are a bit shorter and proceed sequentially through the text rather than alphabetically.\n\nAmong all this material in Ritson\u2019s copy, the most extravagant and valuable are the inscriptions from the manuscripts on which basis he distinguished the two groups: \u201cThe MSS. marked B agree with the PCC,\u201d he explains, with the excerpts from all the A and A/C splices thus marked; those marked \u201cA,\u201d by implication, our C manuscripts, are set apart. The Bibliographia Poetica already shows that Ritson collated the opening passage of the Prologue, whose versions in these copies are included here \u2013 something we now know was first done in print by Nasmith thirty-five years earlier. The new information is that Ritson also transcribed the final seven lines of those manuscripts he deemed complete (A MSS being described as \u201cimperfect\u201d): C 22.380\u20136 (beginning five lines earlier for Harley 2376), and, for Harley 3954, the six-line conclusion comprising two unique lines followed by received A 11.312\u201313 and the explicit (see Figure 2). Ritson attempted faithful transcriptions of the manuscripts, preserving original orthography and abbreviations. This is the activity that eventuated in the analysis presented in the Bibliographia Poetica.\n\nLike all great textual scholars, Ritson also recognized and spoke eloquently of the literary and historical merit of the literature under discussion. In the same notebook page that includes his famous classification of the manuscripts, he observes that the poem\u2019s satirical passages\nRitson's list of difficult words and \"memorable particulars.\"\n\nLehigh University Library 821.1 L265p 1550 [Endmarter 4]\nconcerning the clergy \u201care the most curious, not only on account of their poetical merit, but from the insight they afford into the manners & customs of those times.\u201d But it turns out that he was of the C. S. Lewis school of *Piers Plowman* criticism: \u201cIt must be confessed, however, that excepting particular instances, the work is but a dull performance and scarcely merits the care of a modern impression.\u201d31 Perhaps if he had looked elsewhere than the opening and closing lines and noticed the extensive textual variation, that would have been enough to tip the balance. Seeing Ritson as a constituent rather than, or in addition to, interpreter of the Langland archive alters not just his story, but the field\u2019s.\n\n**The gentleman\u2019s *Piers Plowman*: John Mitford and the authorship controversy**\n\nThe decades following Ritson\u2019s work on *Piers Plowman* would witness the dawn of the modern editorial era. Our next case, like Ritson\u2019s, shows how the printed sixteenth-century editions served as the foundations for the more widely recognized published scholarship on the poem \u2013 here, in an important piece never brought to light. While Ritson is less of an innovator than previously assumed, the gentleman scholar to whom we now turn merits a notable place in critical genealogy of Langland criticism. The story begins with an apposite observation from the April 1843 issue of *The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine*:\n\nTo the lovers of English poetry a more acceptable present could scarcely be made than a careful and critical edition of the Vision of Piers Ploughman . . . The poem is among the earliest and the most curious in the language; it is, in fact, the earliest original poem in English, \u2013 it appeared nearly thirty years before the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer \u2013 it became excessively popular, as\nthe numerous manuscripts attest; subsequently several editions of it appeared, \u2013 it was referred to by the early writers in our language, it was subsequently submitted to critical examination by Warton, Percy, and other critics, but it still was cased in its rough and almost impenetrable doublet of black letter,\n\nuntil, that is, the editor whose volume is here under (anonymous) review, Thomas Wright, exercised his \u201ccourage and good taste\u201d to change black letter \u201cfor a more appropriate and commodious form.\u201d32 Thomas Whitaker\u2019s 1813 edition was of a quality to prompt its reviewer for The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine \u2013 again, not identified in the text, but now known to be Thomas Wright himself \u2013 to take on the \u201cinvidious\u201d and \u201cunpleasant\u201d task of concluding that \u201cthe text which Dr. Whitaker has published, is not one with which we can be satisfied.\u201d33 No wonder the appearance of a proper new edition of this important poem was seen to constitute such a welcome present to the lover of English literature in 1843.\n\nThe review of Wright\u2019s own edition just quoted was by the Rev. John Mitford (1781\u20131859), and has never been known to historians of Langland\u2019s editing and reception. This is on account of its absence from Vincent DiMarco\u2019s invaluable Reference Guide, the catalogue-of-record for the Langland archive, probably on account of its absence in turn from the index volumes of The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine.34 Mitford, too, annotated his Crowley, a second edition, in which he signed his name and inscribed two dates, \u201c1806\u201d and \u201cDecember 1825,\u201d and which is the only sixteenth-century copy of Piers Plowman known to have made its way to the southern hemisphere, where it is now in Melbourne\u2019s State Library of Victoria. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography paints a picture of a man whose marriage was unhappy, and whose membership of the priesthood ill suited him. Instead, he \u201cgratified his love of shrubs and books by planting a great variety of ornamental and foreign trees, and by forming an extensive library, mainly of English poetry\u201d: in sum, as Charles Lamb put it, Mitford was \u201ca pleasant layman spoiled.\u201d35 He produced the first serious edition of Thomas Gray, and between 1830 and 1839 edited numerous poets (Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Swift, et al.) for the Aldine edition. All of this made him well placed to take on the editorship of The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine in January 1834, shortly before it published Wright\u2019s review of Whitaker.\n\nMitford, like Ritson a few years before him, used the flyleaves of his Crowley as a compendium of Piers Plowman scholarship, ranging from the sixteenth-century literary historian William Webbe (read in a reprint), who believed \u201cPiers Ploughman\u201d to be the poet (and \u201ca very fitting\u201d one, if harsh and obscure), to Ritson\u2019s rejection of Langland\u2019s or Malvern\u2019s\nauthorship of the poem. There is also some room to make this copy a celebrity scrapbook, in the form of a pastedown of the catalogue entry for the Rogers owned by Alexander Pope (and, after him, Thomas Warton), which is found in other copies as well. The final front flyleaf adds a few more items from scholarly authorities, but also enlivens things with excerpts concerning Piers the Plowman from two of George Gascoigne\u2019s poems.\n\nThe appearance of Wright\u2019s edition in 1842 finally enabled Mitford to put these materials to good use in the public arena. Indeed his \u201creview\u201d is more an overview of the poem with supporting scholarly apparatus, most of which appears in the flyleaves of his Crowley, than an engagement with Wright\u2019s editorial procedures.\n\nIts appearance in The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine guaranteed the review\u2019s influence, despite the lack of much original thought. Yet the Crowley edition contains other marks of Mitford\u2019s engagement with the poem that are not replicated in the review. For one, like so many others of this era, especially the protagonists of Chapters 5 and 6, he sporadically cross-referenced this volume with another text, in this case Whitaker\u2019s 1813 edition of what we now call the C version. Most often he signals where the equivalent passage appears in Whitaker, but sometimes he records variant readings, such as at sig. Dd.iii\u201d (B 19.238), \u201cAnd some he taught to tylye, diche and to hegge,\u201d where he writes \u201cv. Whit. ed. p. 378. \u2018leche, and to coke.\u201d As in Ritson\u2019s copy, the back flyleaf contains a list of items that caught Mitford\u2019s attention, keyed to folio, from \u201cWalsingham\u201d (ii) to \u201cBrybors, Pylors, and Pikehennes\u201d (cxvi).\n\nMitford\u2019s engagement with Piers Plowman was taking shape just as recognition of the wild textual variation in its manuscripts was entering critical consciousness. Prior to Whitaker\u2019s 1813 edition, the informed general reader could know from Tyrwhitt that some manuscripts seemed to differ from the Crowley text, which was so corrupted, he wrote, \u201cthat the Author, whoever he was, would find it difficult to recognize his own work,\u201d or, as we have seen, from Nasmith that scarcely three lines together are found between Corpus Christi MS 293 and Rogers\u2019s edition, or from Ritson that the variant forms of a few passages indicate \u201cthat the author had revised his original work, and given, as it were, a new edition.\u201d Whitaker\u2019s text confirmed that sense for most readers, and Richard Price, in his 1824 revision of Warton\u2019s History of English Poetry, announced the existence of a \u201cthird version\u201d of the poem. In his review, Mitford\u2019s own take on the textual variation found in the manuscripts of Piers Plowman (if it is indeed his \u2013 the bulk of his review is sourced from\nelsewhere, but I have not found the following in these sources) differs quite significantly:\n\n> From a comparison of the readings of the different manuscripts of this poem, it is our opinion that they are far too various and remote from each other to have proceeded by way of revision from the original author; but we consider that the poem was so popular, and so much in demand, as to lead persons of talent and leisure to make important variations in their transcripts.\\(^{39}\\)\n\nAlthough it is buried in a note, far from the focus of Mitford\u2019s energies, and never mentioned by subsequent scholars of the poem\u2019s reception, this is an important item in the history of *Piers Plowman* textual scholarship. Wright, too, had speculated that a single poet was not responsible for both his and Whitaker\u2019s texts (Wright seems not to have known of Price\u2019s \u201cthird version\u201d): \u201cit is my impression that the first [i.e., text printed by Crowley] was the one published by the author, and that the variations were made by some other person, who was perhaps induced by his own political sentiments to modify passages, and was gradually led on to publish a revision of the whole.\u201d\\(^{40}\\) Although this comment probably influenced Mitford, he goes much further, seeming to posit, quite accurately, the existence of more than two textual states, and certainly suggesting, in the phrase \u201cpersons of talent and leisure,\u201d that more than the two authors identified by Wright were responsible for this massive variation from Crowley\u2019s text.\n\nSuch a belief would become quite prominent in the first half of the next century, when debate raged over whether *Piers Plowman* was \u201cthe work of one or of five.\u201d\\(^{41}\\) While no advocate of multiple authorship ever cited the Gentleman\u2019s Magazine review of Wright\u2019s edition, it does seem to have had an impact on an important scholar who would figure in that controversy: George P. Marsh, the American philologist, environmentalist, and diplomat who by this point, 1862, had been appointed United States Minister to Italy by President Abraham Lincoln, and who wrote of *Piers Plowman*:\n\n> The number of early manuscripts of this work which still survive proves its general diffusion; and the wide variations which exist between the copies show that they had excited interest enough to be thought worthy of careful revision by the original author, or, as is more probable, of important modification by the numerous editors and transcribers under whose recension they subsequently passed.\\(^{42}\\)\n\nJohn M. Manly, who had instigated the authorship controversy in 1906, cited this in support of his cause, noting in his 1916 essay \u201cThe Authorship of *Piers the Plowman*\u201d \u201cthat Marsh\u2019s views are much more precise and\ndefinite than those of Thomas Wright, and contain in effect, though not in\ndetail, the conclusions for which I have contended. I am glad to have the\nsupport of an independent utterance from a scholar so distinguished for\nsoundness of taste and sanity of judgment as was Mr. Marsh.\u201d\n\nSubsequent critics have seen Marsh\u2019s comments as signs of his indebted-\nness to Wright, but Manly is quite correct to point out that some\ndifferences separate the two, ones that suggest that Marsh had the Gentle-\nman\u2019s Magazine review of Wright at hand as well. Wright\u2019s remark that \u201cas\nmight be expected in a popular work like this, the manuscripts in general\nare full of variations\u201d certainly lies behind the similar remarks of both later\nscholars; but where he proceeds to isolate \u201ctwo classes of manuscripts\nwhich give two texts that are widely different from each other.\u201d Mitford\nand Marsh instead identify \u201cimportant variations in their transcripts\u201d by\n\u201cpersons of talent and leisure,\u201d and \u201cimportant modification by the\nnumerous editors and transcribers,\u201d respectively. This attribution of the\nvariant texts to multiple, conscious agencies rather than scribal corruption\n(as in Tyrwhitt\u2019s analysis) is a new idea, one that Manly attributed to\nMarsh alone, but which at least belongs first to Mitford as chronologically\nprior, and probably as source of his successor\u2019s idea. It is unlikely that\nsomeone as well informed and intelligent as Marsh would not have\nconsulted the review of Wright\u2019s edition in The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine,\nand there are no other known sources for the idea until Manly resurrected\nit the following century.\n\nThe Piers Plowman Electronic Archive: how many manuscripts?\n\nIf Mitford saw Wright as a worthy archon after earlier missteps, many of\ntoday\u2019s critics would prefer none at all. Thus the editors of the Piers\nPlowman Electronic Archive (hereafter PPEA), launched in 1990, played\nthe heroes of Charlotte Brewer\u2019s book on their kind because they intended\n\u201cto make accessible to their users the essential data which underlies a\ncritical edition but is usually obscured by it: facsimiles and transcriptions\nof all the individual manuscripts, and the reconstructed archetypes of\nA, B, and C.\u201d This is among the generation of projects that has breathed\nnew life into the concept of \u201cthe archive.\u201d No longer does the Modern\nLanguage Association give a prize for best bibliography: now it is for a\nbibliography, archive, or digital project, a shift in which the PPEA played a\nprominent role.\n\nIn light of its reputation for presenting \u201ceach manuscript unmediated\nby predetermined assumptions,\u201d in a more recent critic\u2019s judgment, the\nPPEA\u2019s original aims are easy to forget: \u201cWe can promise readers of Piers Plowman a text substantially better, more true to what the poet wrote than any of the editions now available.\u201d50 Perhaps sensing a change in the wind, the project\u2019s editors now do not even mention the poet in their recent revision to the website. Authority is now vested in its users, who are provided \u201cwith unprecedented access to each manuscript we edit,\u201d and allowed \u201cto decide for themselves how to interpret the complexity of the raw data, while also giving users the option of approaching the poem with a more traditional editorial apparatus.\u201d51 What remains missing is any clear definition of \u201cthe archive,\u201d the \u201craw data\u201d to which the project intends to provide wide access. The qualifier in the first sentence above \u2013 \u201ceach manuscript we edit\u201d \u2013 hints at a process of selection, of the omission, the burning, on which Derrida muses. But all the other rhetoric here suggests quite the opposite, that \u201cwe\u201d edit all the manuscripts. Thus the project\u2019s list of manuscripts includes three items left out of A. V. C. Schmidt\u2019s equivalent list, ones that he says \u201chave no textual value\u201d: \u201cthe sixteenth- and seventeenth-century transcriptions and excerpts in Bodleian mss James 2, Wood donat. 7, the BL ms Sloane 2378.\u201d52 Since the PPEA is not bound by such notions as \u201ctextual value,\u201d that is, the need for any manuscript to have the potential to provide independent witness to the authorial text, it pursues the more democratic aim of offering all users access to the \u201craw data\u201d of even such productions, which are worthwhile in their own right as witnesses not to the author\u2019s text but instead to \u201cthe richness and complexity of the textual tradition of William Langland\u2019s Piers Plowman,\u201d which can be gained \u201cby providing a transcription of the text of each manuscript.\u201d\n\nThe sticking point is the phrase \u201ceach manuscript.\u201d For Schmidt and other author-based editors, the entity would comprise those witnesses of potential textual authority (hence the inclusion of one non-manuscript, Crowley\u2019s text, also included in the PPEA\u2019s list). But once those limits are gone, and items omitted by Schmidt on those grounds are now included, what can \u201ceach\u201d mean? The PPEA editors do not mention the fourth item Schmidt explicitly excludes: Cambridge, Gonville and Caius MS 201/107, a complete MS of the B version, copied from Rogers\u2019s 1561 edition \u2013 which is also missing.53 And this just scratches the surface. There are also:\n\n- Cambridge, Trinity College MS R.2.36, a complete MS of the C version;54\n- BL Additional MS 29490, another complete MS of the C version;\n- the list of Piers Plowman\u2019s Latin lines in a fifteenth-century hand immediately after the conclusion of an A-text MS;\nthe same (a different selection, hand c.120 years later) on the blank page facing the first page of text in a Cr\u00b2;\n\n- the single line on a flyleaf of Bodley 851 (not taken from the \u201cZ-version\u201d text elsewhere in the volume);\n- the line in a margin of a Canterbury Tales manuscript;\n- Prol.1\u20134 at the conclusion of Huntington MS Hm 143;\n- four lines at the top of a page after the end of the main text of London, Society of Antiquaries MS 687;\n- any of the lines added to the extant MSS by the \u201cother hands\u201d mentioned throughout the Athlone apparatus;\n- the completion of defective BL Additional MS 10574 in the hand of Dr. Adam Clarke (1760\u20131832), probably copied from Huntington Hm 128 (this will probably be included in the PPEA edition of that MS; but other than its location it is of equal status to the following, which will not be);\n- the completion of any number of defective printed editions (e.g., Southern Methodist University 00712; Boston Public Library G.406.32; UCLA PR210 A1 1550) via manuscript facsimiles;\n- Joseph Ritson\u2019s transcriptions as discussed above;\n- the transcriptions, by other eighteenth-century figures, like Thomas Tyrwhitt, John Urry, Frederick Page, and William Burrell, of lines and passages from other MSS in their printed copies.\n\nOn the one hand, there is no evidence that the PPEA editors even knew, or know, of any of this material, all of which is discussed somewhere either in footnotes here or elsewhere in this book. On the other, any project that identifies itself as \u201cthe Piers Plowman archive,\u201d one unconstrained by the strictures of former archons, might seem obliged to fulfill its promise first and foremost via the definition of that archive, by seeking out all manuscript witnesses to that tradition\u2019s richness. As it stands, the criteria behind these exclusions, if such they are, are difficult to identify, and inconsistently applied. If date is important, the cut-off lies somewhere in a 220-year period (between c.1647 and 1867), for no stated reason; textual authority does not matter in the case of James 2, Wood donat. 7, and Sloane 2578, and cannot if the rhetoric of inclusiveness is to be taken at face value, but seems to be silently all-powerful in excluding the items in this list; proximity with other items already counted as \u201cmanuscripts\u201d somehow matters, given that one Prol.1\u20134, jotted in a late-fifteenth-century account book (Kew, National Archives E101/516/9), is in while another, earlier Prol.1\u20134 is out; and on and on. And when we consider that the same applies to all medieval literary texts, especially Chaucer\u2019s (and a previously\nunknown MS line from the *Romaunt of the Rose* in a print copy of Langland\nwill come to light here, joining ones from Gower and \u201cJohn of Bridlington\u201d I\ndiscovered earlier in a Langland MS), the assumption that statements like\nthe following relay an \u201carchive of factual evidence\u201d cannot easily stand: \u201cThe\nfact that enough manuscripts survive for *Piers Plowman* \u2013 59, including\nfragments and extracts \u2013 to make it the third-ranking Middle English poem\nafter *Prick of Conscience* (over 115) and the *Canterbury Tales* (82, including\nfragments and extracts), can no longer be construed solely as a function of\naesthetic tastes detached from other cultural factors.\u201d\n\nSuch appeals to the number of \u201csurviving manuscripts\u201d pervade medi-\n\neval literary scholarship, but I have rarely seen anyone explain what\nmeanings one hopes to extract from them. These statistics seem to be\nused as indications of the relative popularity of given works. As such they\nrely on a faith that the ratio of surviving-to-lost manuscripts is consistent\nacross different works and eras. That problem aside, it remains unclear\nwhy only the extant manuscripts are included. If there is no question that,\nsay, MSS R and F of the B version descend from a now-lost copy, why not\nadd that copy to the tally? Why not the rest of the now-lost but securely\nidentifiable manuscripts? And to get to the fundamental issue, what is the\nvalue accorded a \u201cmanuscript\u201d as opposed to a printed copy? The PPEA\neditors do include the Crowley editions (if not their extant copies) on\naccount of their textual authority, a reminder that such lists are not usually\nof \u201cmanuscripts\u201d at all, but of witnesses. But if these are no longer\nnecessarily witnesses to authoritative texts (hence the inclusion of James\n2 etc.), it is unclear to what entity they bear witness. If that entity is \u201cthe\nrichness and complexity of the textual tradition of William Langland\u2019s\n*Piers Plowman,*\u201d then the question of why the excerpts written out by MS\nJames 2 merit consideration, where those printed by James Nasmith in his\ncatalogue of Corpus Christi MSS do not, calls for explication.\n\nNow, if the editors had been as true to their stated purpose as they\nmight have, they would never have started on the project or received any\nfunding for it. I am not at all saying they should have, and I am full of\nadmiration for the project and its aims. My edition of National Library of\nWales MS 733B will be part of the project soon. What I am urging is, first,\na more serious approach to the concept of \u201cthe *Piers Plowman* archive\u201d\nthan that project (which had the opportunity to take up that challenge) or\nanyone else has pursued, and second, a broader recognition of what these\nheroic practitioners already know, that the *archons* are creating the archive\nto which they devote their energies, and that the collection of data they\npresent is not, and could never be, raw and unmediated.\nThe fabrication of Langland\n\nThe cases of Ritson, Mitford, and the PPEA are especially instructive in that each of these interpreters of the archive is both its creator and, no less, its constituent. Each case shows that the recreation of the instant before the foot left behind its trace entails the interrogation as well of the means of our recreation. Doing so no doubt ensures the futility of any hope not just for direct access, but even for any reliance on the transparency or integrity of the archives apart from our desires. It is my contention that this aspect of the literary archive is clearest where there are by far fewer other archons at whose feet to lay any charges of distortion, that is to say, in the medieval literary archive, within which the Piers Plowman event offers the best hope for a clear recognition of the situation.\n\nIn setting out the case in detail, The Myth of Piers Plowman will treat all the major components of the production and reception of a literary work: questions of authorship, oeuvre, localization, oral transmission, editorial history, forgery, and translation play equal roles in the story I will tell. The first half focuses on the pre-print era, before modern modes of editing become prominent. Chapter 1 instantly queries the absolute dominance of Piers Plowman as governing principle of this sizable proportion of the Middle English archive, asking why critics have been so content to identify that poem\u2019s author so completely with the poem itself. To put it another way, a slight shift in our identification of the archival evidence \u2013 paleographical, linguistic, historical, and prosodic \u2013 brings the fanciful romance William of Palerne, with its werewolf and lovers in bear-suits, into the picture as a potential piece of Langlandian juvenilia.\n\nThe idea was first mooted by George Kane, and has begun to be taken seriously in some quarters, but the Langland archive, so I argue, will have to shift much more fully from the demonstrative to the subjunctive as its dominant mood if it is to maintain its integrity as the foundation for studies of the works and productions closely associated with its namesake. This chapter presents the flip side, as it were, to C. David Benson\u2019s interrogation of \u201cThe Langland Myth,\u201d the treatment of Piers Plowman \u201cas a record of an individual poet\u2019s life and views.\u201d61 Benson\u2019s discussion of the dangers of such an approach is apt, but the replacement of the single author \u201cWilliam Langland\u201d with a single title, \u201cPiers Plowman,\u201d incurs its own set of risks. What Chapter 1 inaugurates is similar in spirit, if not in the particulars of its approach, to Benson\u2019s questioning of the creation of our field of study: it is no surprise that the concept of \u201cmyth,\u201d which he\ndefines as \u201ca narrative that explains what is unknown and perhaps unknowable,\u201d features so prominently in both studies. The main difference is that my focus is on how \u201cthe unknown\u201d so often turns out merely to be \u201cthe unlooked for\u201d or \u201cunconsidered,\u201d such as the idea that Langland could have composed William of Palerne.\n\nWhere Langland wrote has long loomed about as large as what he wrote: and as with the concept of authorship, it is both the foundation for and product of the interpretation of the Langland archive. Few literary works invite localization more persistently than does Piers Plowman, which in so many ways suggests that its meaning is to be found not only in its words and manuscripts, but also in the site of its composition and early circulation. Among Chapter 2\u2019s central claims is that the surviving manuscripts of Piers Plowman embody no \u201cevidence,\u201d per se, whether in their dialects or the sites of production, for the location of the poet when he was writing. But their words still might, a possibility I follow up in proposing a previously unnoticed reference to the London riots of 1384 in the C version. Chapter 3 turns to the murky ground between the authorial and the scribal in the production of Piers Plowman: a ground most clearly signaled wherever Latin tags that could easily stand apart from the poem appear. It was the poem\u2019s Latinity, precisely because of its status as the lingua franca of the literate, that enabled a substantial proportion of its audience most directly to come to terms with its message. The poem was to them not so much a brilliant poet\u2019s vision as a site open to audience contributions not found elsewhere in the canon of major medieval English poetry.\n\nThe second half of the book concentrates on the era in which the modern \u201cPiers Plowman\u201d came into being, beginning with the sixteenth century. Chapter 4, \u201cQuod piers plowman: non-reformist prophecy, c.1520\u20131555,\u201d begins with a six-line sixteenth-century excerpt of \u201cthe hunger prophecy\u201d from B passus 6, in the staunchly Catholic/recusant Winchester Anthology, which is among the six independent productions, together constituting the great bulk of sixteenth-century witnesses to the B version, that juxtapose or draw particular attention to two of the poem\u2019s \u201cprophecies,\u201d and that have a character similar to that of the detachable Latin of the manuscripts: both part and not part of \u201cPiers Plowman,\u201d especially in failing to fit within the standard narrative of \u201cPiers Protestant.\u201d The Langland archive has mistaken as the mainstream a mode that in fact constituted a rearguard attack on the predominant approach.\n\nThe era between 1550 and Whitaker\u2019s first modern edition of 1813 is commonly assumed to be \u201ca comparatively fallow period for Piers\nPlowman textual scholarship.\u201d\u2076\u00b3 Not at all, Chapter 5 shows. Using the fortunes of San Marino, Huntington Library MS Hm 114 as its focus, it uncovers extensive evidence of collation, and of the movement of items in and out of collections and libraries. These items\u2019 resistance to any accommodation by the historians and fabricators of the Langland archive only underscores the imperative not to write them out of our story. Chapter 6 brings the concept of \u201cfabrication\u201d to the forefront of the book, here literalized in the career of the first translator of Piers Plowman into modern English, who came of age during the controversies surrounding the Shakespeare fabrications of the 1790s, in the realms of both portraiture and document.\n\nThe Conclusion brings together the main strands of the book by tracking the creation of the previously unnoticed belief that Chaucer wrote Piers Plowman. Both in its formation and in its effects, this belief underscores the fact that the archive is our fabrication. Michel Foucault asserts that we must recognize that such concepts as the \u201c\u0153uvre,\u201d the \u201cbook,\u201d and even \u201cliterature\u201d may not, in the last resort, be what they seem at first sight. In short, that they require a theory, and that this theory cannot be constructed unless the field of the facts of discourse on the basis of which those facts are built up appears in its non-synthetic purity.\u201d\u2076\u2074 While by no means rejecting Foucault\u2019s insistence on the imperative to theorize, The Myth of Piers Plowman urges an empirical application of such theorizing, a testing of the case, which will certainly confirm that the categories we have inherited are not quite what they seem at first sight, but are still within view, even if only via the footsteps and traces they have left behind for us to follow.", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/B49EE37A2B760C3D4980DD6FB1B38336/9781107338821int_p1-21_CBO.pdf/introduction-archive-fever-and-the-madness-of-joseph-ritson.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 11707, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 21, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 61123, "total-output-tokens": 12688, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00015234947204589844, "__label__art_design": 0.0004482269287109375, "__label__crime_law": 0.00015819072723388672, "__label__education_jobs": 0.0027980804443359375, "__label__entertainment": 0.000293731689453125, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00010836124420166016, "__label__finance_business": 0.00014209747314453125, "__label__food_dining": 0.00010722875595092772, "__label__games": 0.00020551681518554688, "__label__hardware": 4.76837158203125e-05, "__label__health": 0.00011342763900756836, "__label__history": 0.0010833740234375, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00011873245239257812, "__label__industrial": 9.66787338256836e-05, "__label__literature": 0.9921875, "__label__politics": 0.0002357959747314453, "__label__religion": 0.0004284381866455078, "__label__science_tech": 0.0003905296325683594, "__label__social_life": 0.00022804737091064453, "__label__software": 0.0001023411750793457, "__label__software_dev": 0.00013577938079833984, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00010091066360473631, "__label__transportation": 9.948015213012697e-05, "__label__travel": 6.872415542602539e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 53365, 0.00899]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 53365, 0.37383]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 53365, 0.96101]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 2170, false], [2170, 5060, null], [5060, 7861, null], [7861, 10729, null], [10729, 13633, null], [13633, 16319, null], [16319, 19165, null], [19165, 22059, null], [22059, 24907, null], [24907, 25027, null], [25027, 26824, null], [26824, 29641, null], [29641, 32379, null], [32379, 35118, null], [35118, 37761, null], [37761, 40519, null], [40519, 43127, null], [43127, 46047, null], [46047, 48805, null], [48805, 51570, null], [51570, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 2170, true], [2170, 5060, null], [5060, 7861, null], [7861, 10729, null], [10729, 13633, null], [13633, 16319, null], [16319, 19165, null], [19165, 22059, null], [22059, 24907, null], [24907, 25027, null], [25027, 26824, null], [26824, 29641, null], [29641, 32379, null], [32379, 35118, null], [35118, 37761, null], [37761, 40519, null], [40519, 43127, null], [43127, 46047, null], [46047, 48805, null], [48805, 51570, null], [51570, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53365, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 2170, 1], [2170, 5060, 2], [5060, 7861, 3], [7861, 10729, 4], [10729, 13633, 5], [13633, 16319, 6], [16319, 19165, 7], [19165, 22059, 8], [22059, 24907, 9], [24907, 25027, 10], [25027, 26824, 11], [26824, 29641, 12], [29641, 32379, 13], [32379, 35118, 14], [35118, 37761, 15], [37761, 40519, 16], [40519, 43127, 17], [43127, 46047, 18], [46047, 48805, 19], [48805, 51570, 20], [51570, 53365, 21]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 53365, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-09", "created": "2024-12-09"}
+{"id": "06cef828bce53ee530b48a13af768e0606364dca", "text": "January 2010\n\nOn the Trail of the First Professional Female Detectives in British Fiction\n\nDagni A. Bredesen\nEastern Illinois University, dabredesen@eiu.edu\n\nFollow this and additional works at: http://thekeep.eiu.edu/women_faculty\nPart of the English Language and Literature Commons\n\nRecommended Citation\nBredesen, Dagni A., \"On the Trail of the First Professional Female Detectives in British Fiction\" (2010). Faculty Research & Creative Activity. 3.\nhttp://thekeep.eiu.edu/women_faculty/3\n\nThis is brought to you for free and open access by the Women's Studies at The Keep. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Research & Creative Activity by an authorized administrator of The Keep. For more information, please contact tabruns@eiu.edu.\nIntroduction\n\nOn the Trail of the First Professional Female Detectives in British Fiction\n\nIn 1864, British commuters passing by a W. H. Smith railway bookstall might have noticed something new on display: two fictional detective casebooks. What distinguished these yellowbacks\u2014cheaply produced volumes with brightly illustrated covers and (often) yellow-tinted protective wrappers\u2014from similar collections of detective memoirs was that they featured the first representations of professional women detectives in British fiction. Although there has been some debate over which of the two was published first, if only to assign pride of place, book advertisements suggest that Andrew Forrester, Jr\u2019s The Female Detective and Revelations of a Lady Detective, attributed to W. S. Hayward, were produced almost simultaneously. The earliest book notice for The Female Detective so far discovered appeared on 16 May 1864 in the Caledonian Mercury. One day earlier, Reynolds Newspaper advertised the release of Revelations of a Lady Detective under the publisher\u2019s name, J. A. Berger. The trade journal, Publisher\u2019s Circular, however, did not announce the publication of Revelations of a Lady Detective until October, and then the publisher credited is George Vickers, not J. A. Berger. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that Revelations of a Lady Detective was ready for press at the earlier date, but that the publisher, J. A. Berger, was absorbed into George Vickers, which itself was soon to become a subsidiary of Ward and Lock, the publishers of Forrester\u2019s The Female Detective.\u00b9\n\nConcern over which came first has, at times, overshadowed the larger significance of these groundbreaking professional women sleuths: the female detective, \u201cG,\u201d and the lady detective \u201cMrs. Paschal.\u201d\u00b2 Further, the fact that\n\n\u00b9 As Chester W. Topp indicates in his work on yellowback publishers, takeovers of one publishing company by another were not uncommon. See, for example, his discussion of Ward and Lock (1995).\n\u00b2 See Ellery Queen (1957).\nthey had real-life counterparts has been completely overlooked. This introduction addresses their previous obscurity while also demonstrating why those interested in nineteenth-century studies or Victorian detection might take a closer critical look at these early representations of professional female detectives.\n\nThese two casebooks have received limited critical attention, in part, because of their publishing format. \u201cYellowbacks,\u201d or \u201crailway fiction,\u201d as they were also called, were produced for quick sales and consumption, designed to meet the demands generated by an increasing readership among lower- and middle-class commuters.3 *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective* proved quite popular as both casebooks went through several reprints.4 Regarded as \u201clight\u201d reading rather than literature\u2014Victorian pulp fiction\u2014until recently, yellowbacks have commanded the attention of specialist collectors like Michael Sadleir (1951, 1967) or bibliographers like Chester W. Topp (1995), but they have been neglected by literary scholars. Scholars, however, notably have widened their scope. The increased interest in gender over the last fifty years and, more recently, popular culture has enlarged the audience for these two remarkable examples of nineteenth-century crime fiction.\n\nRarity has also hindered scholarly consideration of these casebooks. Yellowbacks were cheaply produced and seldom archived; extant copies of *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective* are rare and in fragile condition, available only in the special collections of a few research libraries. Thus, even scholars interested in Victorian popular culture have\n\n---\n\n3. Simon Eliot writes that yellowbacks sold \u201cat 2s or less with a racy illustration on a (usually yellow) background, it was the airport lounge novel of its day\u201d (293). For more information on yellowbacks, see Stephen Colelough; Stephen Knight; Michael Sadleir.\n\n4. In the course of reprinting, one notes that both the titles and the publishers of the volumes were subject to change. For example, *Revelations of a Lady Detective* (advertised as *The Lady Detective* in 1864) reappeared under the same title but different publisher in 1868, and again in 1870 with a different title *The Lady Detective: A Tale of Female Life and Adventure*; in the 1870 edition in the usual place of a publisher\u2019s name was the attribution \u201cSold by all booksellers in London.\u201d Another printing occurred in 1870 and again in 1884, with a different cover as *The Experiences of a Lady Detective* published by C. H. Clarke. *The Female Detective* mutated less but was truncated more. Whereas all the same cases appear in all the editions of *Lady Detective*, the *Female Detective*\u2019s cases were broken up in subsequent editions. Only three cases appear in an 1868 edition (\u201cTenant for Life,\u201d \u201cGeorgy,\u201d and \u201cA Mystery\u201d) while another edition under the title *Tales of a Female Detective* published that same year included only the two cases \u201cThe Unraveled Mystery\u201d and \u201cThe Unknown Weapon.\u201d\nhitherto depended on the two or three anthologies of detective fiction that have included one of G\u2019s or Mrs. Paschal\u2019s cases. This new edition makes the full texts of both books readily available.\n\nMore damaging to the casebooks\u2019 reputations is the long-held perception that the two heroines are literary oddities. Although detective-type memoirs and casebooks had attracted readers since the 1840s, these were the first two, as mentioned, to feature women as detectives/narrators. In the introduction to a collection of stories about women detectives, Michele B. Slung cautions readers not to dismiss these early women detectives on the grounds that the primitive beginnings of a more established detective fiction can be found in their stories. Nevertheless, Slung tempers her advice by noting that Mrs. Paschal\u2019s revelations \u201chave not stood up well to the test of time\u201d and adds that \u201c[c]ritics have held them to be stylistically tedious\u201d (xviii). Their value has been discounted further by the absence of professional women detectives in novels following the respective 1864 appearances of G and Mrs. Paschal until the fin de si\u00e8cle. For although later literary detectives like Conan Doyle\u2019s Sherlock Holmes refer back to Edgar Allan Poe\u2019s Auguste Dupin and fictional detectives who followed in his tracks allude to Holmes, the fictional women detectives that proliferate in the 1890s do not glance back at G or Mrs. Paschal. This apparent lack of imitators has led critics like Kathleen Klein to argue that these yellowback heroines had a negligible literary impact.\n\nThe lack of professional female detectives in Victorian novels may seem less remarkable when one remembers that, until the rise of New Woman fiction, professional women seldom appear in a genre that generally focused\n\n5. E. F. Bleiler published one of Forrester\u2019s female detective\u2019s cases, \u201cThe Unknown Weapon,\u201d in his Dover edition of Three Victorian Detective Novels and Laura Marcus included the first of Mrs. Paschal\u2019s cases, \u201cThe Mysterious Countess,\u201d in her 1997 collection of female detective stories. Subsequently, several articles and chapter essays emerged that engage with the actual texts. Almost all of Klein\u2019s analysis of Forrester\u2019s \u201cG,\u201d whom she calls Mrs. Gladden, is based on \u201cThe Unknown Weapon.\u201d Two more recent essays on Mrs. Paschal\u2014one by Carolyn Dever (2002), the other by Geri Brightwell (2005)\u2014draw on \u201cThe Mysterious Countess.\u201d\n\n6. Fictional fin de si\u00e8cle and Edwardian professional female detective heroines include: Clarice Dyke (1889); Loveday Brooke (1894); Dorcas Dene (1897); and Dora Myrl (1900) and Lady Molly of Scotland Yard (1910).\n\n7. In the first genuinely scholarly treatment of the figure of the woman detective, Klein (1988, 1995), argues that G and Mrs. Paschal \u201care anomalies; these novels apparently led to neither imitators nor followers. Certainly the lack of additional similar characters and the absence of further British female private detectives until the 1890s diminishes the status of these precursors through silence and omission\u201d (29).\non middle- and upper-class women. Professional women detectives, as will be discussed shortly, do make their appearance in the wider world of Victorian popular print, the ephemeral or pulpy quality of which may be one reason their impact has been devalued. The chief evidence of their anomalous nature, however, stems from the insistence by police historians and literary critics alike that there were no women hired as police officers, let alone detectives, for at least another generation. Consequently, when both G and Mrs. Paschal are made to claim professional relationships with the police, scholars have viewed their authors as \u201cengaging in a fantasy of female empowerment completely at odds with actuality\u201d (Kestner 13). According to this view, these two yellowbacks were imaginative feats, the pot-boiling of two hack writers cashing in on the success of the detective casebook genre. This presumed absence of real-life antecedents diminished scholarly interest in these two heroines.\n\nWhile women probably were not accepted into the official ranks of the Metropolitan Police until the twentieth century, mid-nineteenth century newspapers and court records indicate that there were actual women who\n\n8. Slung, in discussing the two yellowback heroines, remarks that, \u201cThere were no women actually attached to the Metropolitan Police in London until 1883, when two women were appointed to oversee female prisoners\u201d (xviii, 1975). Other critics from Patricia Craig and Mary Cadogan (1981) to Joseph Kestner (2003) have traced this same history.\n\n9. See Chloe Owings (1925). Owings traces the conception of a female police officer as far back as the eighteenth century. She writes that \u201cduring the hearing on a case in court\u2014R. v. Briggs\u2014there was a discussion of the legality of women to serve in a certain compulsory office. A judge remarked: \u2018I do not know why a woman should not be appointed to be a constable.\u2019 However a century passed before women were employed in police departments. In 1883 the Metropolitan Police in London appointed two women to supervise women convicts. Later, it was considered that one woman could quite easily manage the amount of work which existed\u201d (2). Martin Fido and Keith Skinner claim that Commissioner Sir Neville Macready took credit for having \u201cinvented\u201d women police when he claims responsibility for \u201cfollowing a Home Office Select Committee\u2019s recommendation that the Met regularize the position of the volunteer Women Special Police Patrols and Women Police Service in London\u201d (165). These volunteer organizations had been founded only a few years earlier and their primary responsibilities focused on patrolling areas frequented by prostitutes. Women Police were only given limited powers of arrest in the 1920s and it was not until 1973 that Women Police integrated directly into the main force (289).\nidentified themselves or were designated by others as female detectives. As early as 1853, a brief news account described a Scottish woman\u2019s determination and ingenuity in tracking down a fellow factory worker who had stolen her clothing. The clever way in which the woman pursued the thief prompted the headline \u201cA Female Detective.\u201d In this early instance, a woman demonstrates detective-like behaviors. In 1855, newspapers covered two events in which women were hired specifically to do the work of female detectives. The first was a criminal conversation case, Evans v. Robinson, in which a Mr. Evans employed ex-Chief Inspector Charles Frederick Field to collect evidence of his wife\u2019s adultery. Field, in turn, employed several women to infiltrate the house that Mrs. Evans and her lover frequented; he gave them rudimentary training in spying and a special gimlet with which to bore holes in a door so that they could spy on the adulterous pair. As a result of \u201cocular testimony\u201d these women procured (along with Field\u2019s own observations), Evans v. Robinson led to Evans v. Evans. In its report on the divorce proceedings, The Daily News reminded readers of the earlier case, \u201cin which a husband, suspecting his wife\u2019s fidelity, hired the services of several female detectives, under the orders of Mr. Inspector Field\u201d (June 11, 1857). Another female detective made news in 1855 when she was hired by the Eastern Counties Railway to halt luggage theft from the first-class waiting room. Although the papers do not name her, court transcripts from the Old Bailey identify her as Elizabeth Joyes.\n\nWomen detectives were reported working in the colonies as well as in the metropole. In 1859, Lloyd\u2019s Weekly picked up a story from the Bombay Gazette that included a feature on female detectives hired to detect the crimes of infanticide and abortion. The Friend of India also cited the Bombay Gazette in their \u201cWeekly Epitome of News\u201d:\n\n10. Recently established online searchable databases allow scholars to cross the \u201clead desert\u201d of nineteenth-century newspapers and periodicals and, thus, find evidence that challenges the claim that these two books are historically anachronistic and literary anomalies. Gale-Cengage\u2019s British Library Newspapers and Nineteenth Century UK Periodical databases have been particularly valuable in tracing the figure of the woman detective in Victorian print culture.\n\n11. Nottinghamshire Guardian (December 08, 1853).\n12. The Times (April 4, 1855).\n13. The Morning Chronicle (December 3, 1855).\n15. Lloyd\u2019s Weekly Newspaper (March 27, 1859).\nTwo female detectives have been added by the Deputy Commissioner to the Police force. They wear the Police belt, but under the \u201csaree\u201d[\u2026] It certainly involves a refinement of espionage not yet thought of in England, though we believe the French Police numbers several females, and is assisted by scores of female spies.\\(^\\text{16}\\)\n\nNewspapers carrying stories of women detectives in the 1850s consider them to be novelties; nevertheless, they do provide evidence that women operated as detectives both in Britain and in the colonies in the decade prior to the publications of *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective*.\n\nSuch evidence gives scholars reason to consider these yellowbacks afresh in terms of their representations of actual working women rather than merely fantastic or titillating innovations. The representations of both G and Mrs. Paschal, when combined with contemporaneous newspaper reportage and court records, indicate that women worked as \u201cdetective police spies\u201d (*FD 2*). Although it would be \u201canother fifty years before there was a Women\u2019s Police Service and longer still before they were permitted to perform a detective function\u201d (Worthington 170), Victorian popular print suggests that women worked as detectives\u2014both for the state and privately\u2014long before they show up in official documents, even if that work was off the record and assigned on an ad hoc basis.\n\nFrom at least 1875, advertisements for private inquiry offices appear in such papers as *The Times* (London) touting the services of women detectives. For example, ads for confidential agencies such as Arthur Cleveland Montagu\u2019s began running in *The Times* (March 2, 1875) and mention having available \u201cexperienced detectives male and female.\u201d Over the next twenty years and with increasing boldness, advertisements promoted women detectives. In a series of ads, Henry Slater\u2019s detective agency offered \u201cSLATER\u2019S FEMALE DETECTIVES of all ages\u2014The finest organization of female detective talent in the world for divorce, secret watchings and secretly ascertaining private addresses\u2026.\u201d This ad was followed by others, one with the copy, \u201cSLATER\u2019S WOMEN DETECTIVES. Many men say women have been their downfall but Henry Slater owes his success to his lady detectives for secret watchings, secret inquiries, &c\u2014a specialty of which he is the pioneer\u2026.\u201d\\(^\\text{17}\\)\n\n---\n\n\\(^{16}\\) *The Friend of India* (March 3, 1859).\n\n\\(^{17}\\) Both Slater ads appeared in *The Times* (April 2, 1896).\nAdvertisements such as these may have piqued the interest of women looking for work. One such woman, \u201cZilla,\u201d received the following response in the journal *Hearth and Home* (October 13, 1892) to her query concerning detection:\n\nWe should have imagined this employment would have been a most objectionable one to well-brought up girls but to our regret we have received several letters, evidently from well-educated ladies, respecting it. On making enquiries on their behalf, we learned that the profession is overcrowded and that one firm alone received eighteen hundred answers in response to a few advertisements for assistants\u2026. However, as we answer all questions relating to the employment of women as far as we are able, we will inform \u201cZilla\u201d that we believe from five to ten shillings a day, with expenses, are paid to female detectives. Of their duties, we cannot speak accurately.\\(^\\text{18}\\)\n\nThe discouraging tone evident in this response is amplified when, several years later, a columnist in the same journal responded to another query concerning \u201cDetective Careers,\u201d more specifically about the kind of work involved:\n\nYou would not sit at home, \u00e0 la Sherlock Holmes, working out beautiful theories. You would have to go among difficult\u2014often unpleasant\u2014surroundings, and, undercover of service or friendship, find out matters you will later on betray. Do you not see what hideous work a woman detective would be employed for?\\(^\\text{19}\\)\n\nRegardless of the expressed disapproval, both of these responses indicate that by the end of the century detection was a possible if not wholly desirable professional opportunity for women. Judging from instances of the female detective in advertisements, advice columns, and elsewhere over the course of the nineteenth-century, professional female detection became an increasingly pervasive and, to some extent, naturalized idea in popular print and culture.\\(^\\text{20}\\)\n\n---\n\n18. Over the next two years, *Hearth and Home* ran a series of short articles on women\u2019s occupations. The series eventually was published under the title, *What Our Daughters Can Do For Themselves: A Handbook on Women\u2019s Employments*, and included a section on detection (63-64).\n\n19. *Hearth and Home* (January 11, 1900)\n\n20. John Sutherland connects the rise of sensation fiction not only to the professional-ization of the London Metropolitan police force but also to changes in marriage and divorce laws. He argues that the 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act \u201cmobilized a whole new\nIn addition to real-life antecedents, *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective* had literary and dramatic successors for which they have not been sufficiently credited. Ephemeral and periodical publications as well as theatrical manuscripts and notices that proliferated in the second half of the nineteenth-century reveal the contribution that these yellowbacks made to a growing awareness of and fascination with the figure of the female detective. Within a year of the publication of Forrester\u2019s *Female Detective*, theatrical notices heralded a new play called *The Female Detective*. From 1865 onwards notices in *The Era*, for example, report and review numerous productions that use either \u201cFemale Detective\u201d or \u201cLady Detective\u201d in the title or prominently cast a woman detective character. In addition to the popular theatrical female detectives, one can find jokes, poems, cartoons, short or serialized stories that feature women detectives, especially in the 1880s and \u201990s.\n\nThese, then, are reasons why we have been inhibited in seriously considering these two yellowback collections of detective stories: their relative army of amateur and unofficial detectives: namely the suspicious spouse and his or her agent (244). The already cited *Evans v. Robinson* involving Ex-Chief Inspector Field and his \u2018female detectives\u2019 offers an early manifestation of suspicious spouses and their agents at work, an alliance that figures in the pages of newspapers and periodicals throughout the second half of the nineteenth-century.\n\n21. The play, *The Female Detective, or Foundling in the Streets* (soon referred to simply as *The Female Detective*) was successfully staged in London, toured the provinces, and was performed in New York from 1865; it was still being revived well into the 1880s. From the 1860s on, in addition to the revivals of *The Female Detective*, at least twelve other productions featured women detectives either as heroines or as \u201cgods in the machine\u201d thus resolving outstanding problems (sometimes they serve as both): *Ordeal by Touch* (1872), *A Mother\u2019s Dying Child, or the Female Detective* (1875); *Old Knockles* (1884), *The Lucky Shilling* (1888); *The Judge* (1890\u201391), *England\u2019s Defenders* (1895) (contains the musical number, \u201cThe Widow of Sherlock Holmes\u201d); *Honour Bright* (1897); *Frolicsome Fanny* (1897); *The Tiger\u2019s Grip* (1898); *A Stranger in New York* (1898); *The Wrong Mr. Wright* (1899\u20131900). One play started out as *Bilberry of Tilbury* (1898) but soon had its title changed to *The Lady Detective*. The British Library holds the Lord Chamberlain\u2019s collection, which contains many of these plays in manuscript.\n\n22. Popular print references to women detectives include this witticism, \u201cA female detective\u2014a blush,\u201d (*Fun*, October 8, 1864). A later humorous \u201cDiary of a Female Detective\u201d (*Funny Folks*, October 20, 1888) derisively depicts a woman detective, whose \u201cfeminine\u201d interests in fashion, her own looks, and romance distract her from her work. Again, new word-searchable databases such as Gale-Cengage\u2019s Nineteenth Century UK Periodicals open popular print culture to an exciting variety of questions concerning social perceptions of female detectives specifically, and professional women more generally.\nrarity, their outsider relationship to previous canons, and the difficulty of establishing context for the stories prior to word-searchable databases. I have also suggested why these reasons no longer need apply. But, assuredly, the most persuasive evidence of their value as windows into the emergence of a profession and a genre can be found in the texts themselves.\n\nThe detective profession itself was\u2014throughout the nineteenth-century\u2014being created, both in the \u201creal\u201d world and in literature. This invention found one vehicle of expression in yellowbacks. Although detective fiction can be traced to Richmond: Scenes in the Life of a Bow Street Runner (1829), the 1849 publication of Recollections of a Police Officer by \u201cWaters\u201d (the pen-name of William Russell) popularized detective stories. This memoir launched a line of generic successors like Russell\u2019s own Recollections of a Detective Police Officer (1856), Thomas Delf\u2019s The Detective\u2019s Notebook (1860), and The Diary of an Ex-Detective (1860) as well as a third by Russell, The Experiences of a Real Detective (1862). That these last three were published as yellowbacks indicates the popular interest in what was a fairly new profession, the first plain clothes Detective Branch of London\u2019s Metropolitan Police having been formally established only in 1842. Accounts of crimesolving capabilities gratified the growing appetite of a reading public infected with what Wilkie Collins would soon call \u201cdetective fever.\u201d\n\nAndrew Forrester, Jr.\u2019s Revelations of a Private Detective (1863) built upon what was by that time well-covered ground. In literary terms Forrester\u2019s male detective had both English and French antecedents beginning as early as the 1820s with Richmond, Scenes in the Life of a Bow Street Runner and the Memoirs of French thief-taker-turned-head-of-the-S\u00fbret\u00e9, Eugene Vidocq. This tradition continued into and beyond the 1850s and \u201960s and reached its apotheosis in Sherlock Holmes. Forrester\u2019s great fictional innovation, then, was not his male private detective, but his female professional detective.\n\nThe emphasis on professional is important because of a tendency to call anyone who functions like a detective, a detective. Wilkie Collins\u2019 seamstress heroine Anne Rodway (1856) has been hailed by some as the first fictional\n\n23. The detective notebook has its roots in the memoirs and ersatz recollections of the 1820s attributed to a variety of thieves turned thief-takers, Bow Street runners, and police officers. See Knight (2004) on this generic tradition. See Bleiler (1976) on \u201cRichmond.\u201d See Emsley (2006) on Vidocq.\n\n24. By mid-century, novelists begin appropriating detective characters as crucial but limited parts to a novel\u2019s large whole. Such detective characters include, famously, Charles Dickens\u2019 Inspector Bucket in Bleak House (1852) and Wilkie Collins\u2019 Sergeant Cuff in The Moonstone (1868).\nwoman detective because she deftly pieces together the evidence that leads to the identification of her friend\u2019s murderer. An even earlier candidate can be found in Dickens\u2019 character Mrs. Bucket, who has a \u201cnatural detective genius\u201d and ably assists her husband, Inspector Bucket, in apprehending a murderess (Bleak House 804). Yet, neither Mrs. Bucket nor Anne Rodway call themselves detectives, nor do they get paid for their work. Forrester\u2019s female detective G (like the lady detective, Mrs. Paschal) does both; she self-identifies as a police detective and receives payment for her detection. In the course of one case, \u201cThe Unknown Weapon,\u201d G reinforces her connection to the police; not only does she identify herself numerous times as a detective but also as as \u201can old police-constable\u201d (FD 115) and a \u201cpolice officer in petticoats\u201d (FD 125). As if to accentuate the authenticity of her experiences and her authority as a police detective to tell her own story, Forrester takes credit only as the editor of these cases.\n\nVirtually nothing is known about Andrew Forrester, Jr., except that the name was likely a pseudonym. His anonymity is not surprising since a host of writers, about whom we know little, wrote original works to be published as yellowbacks. Writers like Mary Braddon, Wilkie Collins, and Walter Besant had their names emblazoned on their novels reissued as yellowbacks. Others, however, either used pseudonyms or would not be named at all; their books would be designated simply as \u201cby the author of\u201d followed by a list of titles to their credit. Scholars, thus, have speculated concerning the innovative\n\n---\n\n25. Both Bleiler (1978) and Kestner (2003) nominate Collins\u2019 Anne Rodway as the first female detective because of her clever pursuit of her friend\u2019s killer.\n\n26. Neither of these fictional women detectives reveals how much she gets paid. When asked by a private client how much remuneration G expects, she requests reimbursement for her expenses \u201cand payment for my time at the ordinary pay I receive from the Government\u201d (FD 36). The woman detective\u2019s income appears to comprise government wages, pay from private cases, and special rewards for solving crimes such as robbery. Without exact sums either in the casebooks themselves or from official accounts, it is difficult to compare the woman detective\u2019s income with what other (actual) women earned. But, in the world of the casebooks at least, it seems as if she had the potential to earn considerably more than other professional women. Suffragist and member of the Langham Place Group, Bessie Raynor Parkes writes that in a semi-mechanical occupation such as working in a telegraph office, a professional woman might hope to earn annually between \u00a350-\u00a375 (183). An educated woman working as a governess could expect to earn \u00a350 or more per year (\u201cA Year\u2019s Experience in Women\u2019s Work 1860).\n\n27. For example, Revelations of a Lady Detective is advertised as having been written by the author of other yellowbacks such as Anonyma and Love Frolics of a Young Scamp (see n. 1).\nAndrew Forrester\u2019s identity. E. F. Bleiler has posited that the pseudonym \u201cForrester\u201d may have derived from the two Forrester brothers, John and Daniel, who were \u201cdetectives for the City of London and were pioneers in the application of scientific method\u201d (Three Victorian Detective Novels viii-ix). Stephen Knight proposes \u201ca female candidate for authorship\u201d in a Mrs. Forrester, who began publishing gentry-romances a few years after new works by Andrew Forrester ceased appearing (36). Most recently, Judith Flanders has offered persuasive evidence that \u201cAndrew Forrester, Jr.\u201d was the pseudonym of writer/editor James Redding Ware (14-15).\n\nAuthorial speculations aside, Forrester\u2019s works have held interest long after their initial publication. The legal specificity in Revelations of a Private Detective helps explain why microfiche copies can be found in law libraries across the country. The Female Detective bears comparison with Forrester\u2019s earlier casebook, in part, because we can more easily discern the latter\u2019s similarities and its departures from the traditional male casebook memoir. Such a comparison also makes apparent that detection was gendered as masculine or feminine in the early development of the genre.\n\nNeither of Forrester\u2019s casebooks offers a sustained narrative nor can they be classified as novels. Instead, they each comprise a succession of unrelated cases. Both present these cases as based in real-life experience. The Private Detective\u2019s narrator prefaces his cases with the claim \u201cthat the narratives which occupy the following pages are true in substance and in nearly every point of detail.\u201d The detective narrator qualifies this claim by adding that names and places have been \u201caltered and suppressed and here and there, in order to conceal an identity, an incident has been varied\u201d (Preface). As mentioned above, a comparable claim for the veracity of The Female Detective can be found on the frontispiece which says \u201cEdited by Andrew Forrester, Jun.,\u201d a credit that implies that the cases have an actual source.\n\nForrester\u2019s first-person narrators reveal little about themselves. The narrator of Revelations of a Private Detective never discloses his name, while the female detective reveals (well into her first case) that she uses the name \u201cMiss Gladden\u201d when she adopts the identity of a seamstress; we also learn that her colleagues in the police force call her \u201cG.\u201d28 Little personal information means that both memoirs are less character than plot driven. Often cases involve fairly complicated set ups of an actual or attempted crime, followed by a quick denouement. Neither of Forrester\u2019s narrators have \u201csidekicks\u201d\u2014that is, observers who serve as helpers and, more importantly,\n\n28. Some critics refer to her as Mrs. Gladden, but she never designates herself thus.\nbear witness to the detective\u2019s brilliance\u2014but both occasionally summon assistance, as in the private detective\u2019s case \u201cMrs. Fitzgerald\u2019s Life Policy\u201d or the female detective\u2019s case \u201cThe Unknown Weapon.\u201d Without a sidekick, the narrator has to make claims for his or her own talents or reveal these through the plot. Both of Forrester\u2019s detectives, consummate professionals, express more interest in the case than in puffing themselves.29\n\nDespite these parallels, differences between the male detective and his female counterpart extend beyond their professional positions: his as a private detective, hers as a police detective. One obvious difference is their sex and marital status. The private detective reveals his private life, while hers remains a complete mystery. Though anonymous, the narrator of Revelations of a Private Detective is most certainly male. He twice mentions having a wife. Although generally reticent about his personal life, in \u201cThe Forger\u2019s Escape\u201d he offers a peek at what looks like a cozy domestic circle: \u201cOne evening as I was chatting with my wife, playing with my two children at home, I was called upon\u201d (134). This humanizing glimpse of the detective\u2019s domesticity ends abruptly when, after being told the forger had been spotted in Southampton, he comments, \u201cIt was the work of a few minutes to put on my coat, fill a carpet bag, hail a cab, and make my way to the South-Western station in time to catch the next train.\u201d A hundred pages and several cases later, he again refers to his wife:\n\nOne day, as I sat quietly musing in my offices, with comparatively little to do, and was planning a nice trip to Ireland with my wife, solely for the purpose of our mutual enjoyment, and with no concealed or latent professional intent, I was called upon by a person who bore a letter of introduction from a solicitor who had some time previously made use of my services in probing and extinguishing a gigantic fraud upon young scions of the aristocracy. (235)\n\nThis is the last mention the narrator makes of Mrs. Private Detective.\n\nLike her male predecessor, the narrator of The Female Detective remains nameless. Giving even less personal information than the private detective, G deliberately underplays her sex, her marital status, and the circumstances that led her to detection. As if to avoid being stereotyped, she enigmatically calls attention to and then dismisses central markers of Victorian femininity\u2014marital status, motherhood, age, respectability\u2014as she introduces herself:\n\n29. Mrs. Paschal, in Revelations of a Lady Detective, does not have a sidekick; but she does have an admiring superior in Colonel Warner.\nWho am I?\nIt can matter little who I am.\n\nIt may be that I took to the trade, sufficiently comprehended in the title of this work without a word of it being read, because I had no other means of making a living; or it may be that for the work of detection I had a longing which I could not overcome.\n\nIt may be that I am a widow working for my children\u2014or I may be an unmarried woman, whose only care is herself.\n\nBut whether I work willingly or unwillingly, for myself or for others\u2014whether I am married or single, old or young, I would have my readers at once accept my declaration that whatever may be the results of the practice of my profession in others, in me that profession has not led me towards hardheartedness. (FD 1)\n\nHere, the female detective differs exceptionally from her fictional male counterparts. Forrester\u2019s private detective shows no anxiety about how the state of his heart is judged and, earlier, Poe\u2019s Dupin prides himself on his ratiocinative abilities. At the same time, G\u2019s self-defense from the charge of hardheartedness seems peculiar since she seldom exhibits sentiment. Indeed, G shows less anxiety over her womanliness than she does over public perceptions of the detective\u2019s profession itself. As Dickens wrote to allay public concerns and curiosity regarding the recently established Detective Branch and its members in *Household Words*, so G asserts that she writes \u201cthis book to help to show, by my experience, that the detective has some demand upon the gratitude of society\u201d (FD 2).\n\nForrester\u2019s two detectives also justify their work differently. The private detective explains that he is employed as a measure of last resort. For example, he introduces \u201cThe Forger\u2019s Escape\u201d with a brief account of the problem and then the explanation, \u201cOrdinary means, such as the offers of rewards and employment of common detectives, having failed to discover the delinquent, I was set to work, being told to spare no expense, as the stake was very high\u201d (134). Frequently hired by solicitors, the private detective handles many cases that concern legal issues, some theft and often fraud. He seems particularly...\nadept at dealing with inheritance and insurance fraud. In this regard, the private detective is a conservative figure, one that protects capitalist institutions. Forrester\u2019s private detective never deals with murder or violent crime, which are evidently police concerns. Generally, the private detective takes on cases out of economic interests rather than an abstract sense of justice; but, occasionally, private citizens hire the private detective as in the case \u201cFarmer Williams and his Bride, or the Matrimonial Agency.\u201d\n\nThe private detective seems able to take for granted that his cases are matters of general interest. Forrester\u2019s female detective, in contrast, positions herself defensively. She declares that she writes \u201cto show, in a small way, that the profession to which I belong is so useful that it should not be despised\u201d (FD 1) and then argues for the necessity for women detectives as well as men:\n\nI am aware that the female detective may be regarded with even more aversion than her brother in profession. But still it cannot be disproved that if there is a demand for men detectives there must also be one for female detective police spies. Criminals are both masculine and feminine\u2026and therefore it follows that the necessary detectives should be of both sexes. (FD 2)\n\nBeing a woman who works outside the home for pay rather than in the home for love might well evoke aversion in the 1860s. Forrester is writing, after all, in the decade following Coventry Patmore\u2019s paean to Victorian domestic femininity, \u201cThe Angel in the House\u201d (1854). G not only works as a paid professional, she uses her womanhood as a guise in order to infiltrate homes, eavesdrop, and observe those who least suspect her. As the columnist of Hearth and Home described it, the woman detective\u2019s \u201chideous\u201d work requires that she lives \u201cupon the sins or misfortunes of [her] fellow-\n\n32. That case concerns the liabilities of coverture. A man advertises for a wife, only to discover after he gets married that he is responsible for his wife\u2019s debts including those contracted before as well as during their marriage and even after she has left him. The farmer hires the detective to trace her location so that he can gain a divorce. Even here, the detective operates conservatively in the sense that the results of his investigation protect the farmer\u2019s fortune.\n\n33. Hellerstein et al. (1981) write that \u201cThe phrase the angel in the house is now much more famous than the poem from which it derives, but in Victorian England\u2014and America\u2014\u2018The Angel in the House\u2019 (1854-56) by Coventry Patmore sold better than any other poetic work except Tennyson\u2019s \u2018Idylls of the King\u2019\u201d (134).\nIn her status as a \u201cfemale detective police spy,\u201d G transgresses gender norms and violates the ideal of a free and private citizenry, a national characteristic the British enjoyed and one that distinguished them from other countries, particularly the French. The aversion, or perhaps more accurately, the anxiety generated by the professional female detective may explain why she is so seldom the hero of her own tales.\n\nIn a casebook entitled *The Female Detective*, one might expect that the cases would be success stories and that the eponymous narrator would play a major part in solving the crimes. Surprisingly, the female detective participates actively in only four of the seven cases in the first edition. The reader may come away with the satisfaction that a mystery has been solved, but few of the seven cases resolve conclusively. The female detective\u2019s efforts seldom result in culprits being brought to trial or victims receiving reparation. Nevertheless, on her own terms she succeeds. In the first case, \u201cTenant for Life,\u201d G states, \u201cIndeed it may be said the value of the detective lies not so much in discovering facts, as in putting them together, and finding out what they mean\u201d (*FD* 17). Despite what, to modern readers, seem like needless complications, the plots themselves warrant our attention not only because they are the first in the genre, but because they reveal something about the epistemic role of this female detective: she is allowed to find satisfying explanations of surprising events, but, often, that is as far as it goes.\n\nG introduces her casebook by pointing out that\n\n\u2026 in a very great many cases women detectives are those who can only be used to arrive at certain discoveries\u2026. But without going into particulars, the reader will comprehend that the woman detective has far greater opportunities than a man of intimate watching, and of keeping her eyes upon matters near which a man could not conveniently play the eavesdropper. (*FD* 2)\n\nWhether women or men are better as detectives or spies is worth the reader\u2019s consideration. G strives to convince the reader of the viability of professional female detectives as she demonstrates her skill in penetrating into the heart of a household to gather information and carefully observe, especially in her two longest narratives, \u201cTenant for Life\u201d and \u201cThe Unknown Weapon.\u201d In that latter case, G not only performs detective work herself but requisitions from\n\n---\n\n34. See n. 16.\n35. Carolyn Dever (2002) discusses the literary fascination with the *agent provocateur* during the period that *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective* and other detective stories and memoirs were written.\n\u201cheadquarters \u2026 one of our own people;\u201d specifically, she asks for another female detective, who then poses as a maidservant in order to gain entrance into a suspect household.\n\n\u201cThe Unknown Weapon\u201d deserves special notice. In the course of this complex case (as in others), G relies on quick, acute perception, the careful assembling together of evidence, cunning stratagems, occasional flashes of intuition, some histrionic skills\u2014female detectives pride themselves in their abilities to act\u2014and, most often, the convenient gift of getting people to disclose the precise information she needs. E. F. Bleiler describes this story as \u201c[r]emarkable for its period, it offers the germs of scientific detection in its use of the microscope to analyze dust, and it centers on a very original colorful crime, considerably more advanced thematically than the exploits of Forrester\u2019s contemporaries\u201d (Three Victorian Detective Novels, x). By the story\u2019s end, the reader thoroughly understands what happened but is not allowed to witness any punishment because the culprit escapes.\n\nWhile G does not disdain the economic rewards accompanying detection, they do not primarily motivate her. Unlike her male counterpart, for whom economic incentives and professional pride dominate, G seeks knowledge in spite of cost or ultimate outcome and regardless of mistakes made along the way. This may explain the inclusion of two tales of ratiocination in which the female detective\u2019s role is minimal and a final sealed-room mystery in which she doesn\u2019t appear at all. The cases that use Dupin-esque powers of ratiocination spring from contemporary headlines. The first, \u201cThe Unraveled Mystery,\u201d is based on the unsolved \u201cWaterloo Bridge Mystery.\u201d On October 9, 1857, a dismembered body was discovered in a carpet-bag on an abutment of Waterloo Bridge. The body was never identified, and no one was accused or arrested for the murder. The case became a cause c\u00e9l\u00e8bre, one puzzled over for many years afterwards. In Forrester\u2019s fictionalized version, G serves as the interlocutor to a medical man who infers from evidence that the body belonged to an Italian nationalist and that he was killed by one of his comrades. G appears in the second tale of ratiocination only as the recipient of a manuscript by the same medical man, and she carefully qualifies its inclusion:\n\n36. I wish to thank Judith Flanders for pointing out the connection between the \u201cThe Unraveled Mystery\u201d and the Waterloo Bridge mystery. For a graphic description of what was found in the carpet-bag, see the report on the Coroner\u2019s inquest in The Times, October 13, 1857, p. 7.\nI have had great doubts as to the desirability of printing the following narrative. I do so, because I think it worth record. Strictly speaking, it is no experience whatever of mine. It was given to me in manuscript by the medical man who induced me to follow up the Bridge mystery. Perhaps flattered by the respect I paid his first communication, he offered me a second (FD 92).\\textsuperscript{37}\n\nThis case, entitled \u201cChild Found Dead: Murder or No Murder,\u201d retells the Road Hill Mystery in which the body of young Saville Kent was found brutally murdered. At the time of The Female Detective\u2019s publication in May 1864, the murderer had not yet confessed. In Forrester\u2019s version, Hardal, an old school chum of the medical man (who is here called Roddy), convincingly explains that the clues all point to a sleep-walking nursemaid, who must have killed her charge in an unconscious fit of homicidal monomania.\\textsuperscript{38} The story breaks off with Roddy and Hardal (the ratiocinative genius) rushing off to tell the father of the dead child, \u201cMr. Cumberland,\u201d what they believed happened. Not only does it end inconclusively, but contemporary readers would have known that the murderer was still at large. Saville Kent\u2019s half-sister, Constance, did not confess to the murder until April 1865, though Inspector Jack Whicher of Scotland Yard suspected her almost from the start of his investigation.\\textsuperscript{39}\n\nThe female detective\u2019s concern for full professional disclosure also explains why several stories show her taking false steps (\u201cTenant for Life\u201d), mistaking appearances (\u201cGeorgy\u201d), or misreading evidence (\u201cThe Judgment of Conscience\u201d). When comparing Revelations of the Private Detective to The Female Detective it is unclear why the outcomes in these two casebooks\u2014that is, types of closure achieved\u2014differ. One might assume that fulfilling conventional ideas of success\u2014such as property restored, reparations made, or wrong-doers caught and punished\u2014would be imperative in both a private detective\u2019s business and a police detective\u2019s work; however, while male private detective typically \u201cgets his man\u201d or recovers the loot, the first of the\n\n\\textsuperscript{37} Although Heather Worthington (2005) only glances at The Female Detective in her conclusion, her second chapter, \u201cMaking a Case for the Professionals,\u201d demonstrates the close connection between the work of physicians and that of detectives.\n\n\\textsuperscript{38} The footnote to this story insists that the case is not the same as the Road Hill murder though it is like it in practically all the pertinent details. Although the surname is changed from Kent to Cumberland, the two older half-siblings of the murdered child are called Constance and William, which were the names of the two Kent children suspected of murdering their younger brother.\n\n\\textsuperscript{39} See Kate Summerscale\u2019s account of the murder, the mystery and the scandal that surrounded the death of Saville Kent (2009).\nwoman detectives does not achieve the same material successes. Nor is she a ratiocinative genius; she works hard to figure out the truth. In her willingness to admit \u201cthe blanks [s]he may have drawn\u201d (FD 59), she shows herself to be ordinary. At the same time, this ordinariness as a respectable if lower-class woman facilitates her detective work, allowing her to slip into homes, secretly watch and listen, and finally make sense of the sometimes horrific crimes she encounters. Perhaps, too, her ordinariness accounts for the popularity, the market appeal, of her unusual but still everywoman adventures. On the other hand, G\u2019s limited successes serve to offset her pioneering position by reassuring readers that not only was the female detective not about to displace her male detective associates, but that detection itself, though \u201ca necessary business,\u201d was not the efficient \u201csystem of spymdom\u201d and social control that the mid-Victorian British public feared (FD 60).\n\nThe female detective G was joined on the bookstall shelves by the lady detective, Mrs. Paschal. Revelations of a Lady Detective invites numerous comparisons with The Female Detective. One similarity lies in the uncertainty concerning authorship attribution. Some critics have cited \u201cAnonyma\u201d as the author of Revelations of a Lady Detective. \u201cAnonyma,\u201d (subtitled \u201cFair but Frail: A Tale of West End Life, Manners, and \u2018Captivating\u2019 People\u201d) was the first in a \u201cseries of stories about the smart world, the half-world, and the underworld of Victorian London\u201d (Sadleir 8). The British Library catalogue does not name the author of Revelations of a Lady Detective. It does, however, list W. Stephens Hayward as the author of Skittles and The Soiled Dove, both part of the \u201cAnonyma Series,\u201d and Revelations of a Lady Detective is advertised as part of the same series. While critics have attributed authorship of this series to E. L. Blanchard as well as W. S. Hayward, Michael Sadleir believes Bracebridge Hemyng is the most likely author. Sadleir qualifies his informed guess by adding that the series was \u201cin all probability, developed into a product of a syndicate\u201d (8). In other words, the writers or publishers (or both) saw an advantage in associating Revelations of a Lady Detective with the licentious \u201cAnonyma\u201d series by implying that they shared the same source.\n\nWith both casebooks, we see the publishers seeking to spur sales by linking to past successes. The publishers Ward and Lock use the advertisements for The Female Detective to position it as a companion to\n\n40. See n. 3.\n41. For further information on the Anonyma \u201cseries,\u201d see Rachel Sagner Buurma (2008).\n42. See, for example, an advertisement in Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle December 17, 1864.\nForrester\u2019s earlier casebooks *Secret Service* and *Revelations of a Private Detective*. The newspaper ad copy refers to all three books as part of \u201ca series of revelations, startling and tragic in their domestic interest and extraordinary ingenuity.\u201d\\(^{43}\\) The yellowback cover illustration of the 1864 edition shows a woman entering a room where a male figure lies prone on the floor, while another woman kneels nearby. The second woman\u2019s distressed expression and the clasped hands situate this apparent murder in the realm of the sensational, but the impression conveyed by the woman entering the room in the upper-left quadrant of the illustration is one of calm seriousness as she surveys the scene rather than melodrama. The words \u201cUniform with Secret Service,\u201d in a smaller font placed directly above the title\u2014*The Female Detective*\u2014forge a link with the previous works of professional memoir by Andrew Forrester, Jr.\n\nIn contrast, advertisements for *Revelations of a Lady Detective*, along with the cover illustration, place Mrs. Paschal\u2019s casebook in the racy company of \u201cSkittles,\u201d \u201cIncognita,\u201d and \u201cThe Beautiful Demon,\u201d previous publications of George Vickers. In addition to the list of chapters, further ad copy seems to take a swipe at *The Female Detective*: \u201cThe very curious revelations in this book surpass anything ever before published.\u201d\\(^{44}\\) The oft-commented upon cover shows a woman with a lit cigarette in one hand while with the other hand she raises her skirt to expose her quilted red petticoat up to her calves; her direct gaze coolly assesses passersby. Despite these sexy signifiers, Mrs. Paschal never works undercover as a prostitute. At times, she admits to maintaining dubious associates and in her last case she attributes her deft skill in opening a bottle of soda water to having worked in her youth as a barmaid in a railway refreshment station (*RLD* 132). When she feigns conversion in order to gain entrance to a convent, Mrs. Paschal remarks that \u201cdetectives, whether male or female must not be too nice\u201d (*RLD* 73). While she may dispense with fastidiousness, it is always in the line of duty, and thus the cover belies the professionalism that makes *Revelations of a Lady Detective* an important companion text to *The Female Detective*. Taken together, the cover illustrations of both books suggest that no standardized picture of the professional working woman existed for an artist to draw on, hence the recycling of more *outr\u00ea* images.\n\nTheir respective titles also warrant comment. Although *The Female Detective* specifies G\u2019s gender, it conveys nothing else about her, which corresponds to her deliberately evasive introduction. In practice, G avoids\n\n---\n\n43. *Bell\u2019s Life in London and Sporting Chronicle* (June 11, 1864).\n44. *Bell\u2019s Life in London and Sporting Chronicle* (October 15, 1864).\ndistinguishing herself according to class. In her various cases, she mingles easily with cabbies, shoemakers, and housemaids; but she also approaches gentry with confidence. G\u2019s use of language and intellectual interests suggest her education, but she never pretends to be a gentlewoman. If she needs to don a guise she presents herself as a seamstress. In contrast to G\u2019s lack of pretension, the title Revelations of a Lady Detective implies a superior status. Mrs. Paschal claims to be \u201cwell born and well educated, so that, like an accomplished actress, I could play my part in any drama in which I was instructed to take a part\u201d (RLD 2). This well-born status would seem in accord with the genteel title of her casebook. Nevertheless, the parts she plays\u2014a lady\u2019s maid, an out of work servant, a post-office letter-sorter, or even a convent novice\u2014seem more consistent, at best, with impoverished respectability rather than the refined gentility suggested by the word \u201clady.\u201d Further, Mrs. Paschal plays the paramour of a French con turned informant with a gusto that belies her claims to class superiority, as does her confession that she worked as a railway station barmaid in her youth. \u201cLady\u201d may be an unstable signifier of class as far as Mrs. Paschal is concerned, but it carries a cachet that may well have served as a marketing strategy to distinguish her from her merely \u201cfemale\u201d competitor.\n\nTurning from the casebooks\u2019 covers to their contents, one finds points of fruitful comparison. Both casebooks show the literary influence of Edgar Allan Poe. As mentioned earlier, The Female Detective borrows from the Dupin stories in the inclusion of two tales of ratiocination; the detective work in \u201cThe Unraveled Mystery\u201d and \u201cChild Found Dead\u201d is almost all based on inferences made far from the scenes of the original crimes.45 Although ratiocination is not Mrs. Paschal\u2019s strong suit, she, too, owes a debt to Poe. The case \u201cFound Drowned\u201d is an anglicized and melodramatic reworking of \u201cThe Mystery of Marie R\u0153get.\u201d Both G and Mrs. Paschal have dealings with foreign secret societies (G\u2019s \u201cThe Unraveled Mystery\u201d and Mrs. Paschal\u2019s \u201cThe Secret Band\u201d). G\u2019s \u201cTenant for Life\u201d and Mrs. Paschal\u2019s \u201cWhich is the Heir?\u201d address similar crimes involving inheritance fraud. G actively solves murders in \u201cThe Judgment of Conscience\u201d and \u201cThe Unknown Weapon,\u201d while Mrs. Paschal tracks and apprehends a suspected murderer in \u201cFound Drowned.\u201d But Mrs. Paschal\u2019s casebook includes more cases\u2014in which she participates fully\u2014and, it deals with a wider variety of crimes: bank robbery (\u201cThe Mysterious Countess\u201d), jewel theft (\u201cThe Lost Diamonds\u201d), mail theft\n\n45. G also refers to Poe\u2019s narrative strategy of hiding something in plain sight, which he used in \u201cThe Purloined Letter,\u201d as she seeks to solve the mystery of \u201cThe Unknown Weapon\u201d (152).\nIntroduction\n\n\nIn addition to a greater number and variety of cases, Mrs. Paschal differs significantly from Forrester\u2019s female detective in what she reveals concerning herself and her institutional affiliation. Mrs. Paschal is far more transparent. Though she does not disclose much, by the second page we know her name and, by the third, that she is a widow whose widowhood precipitated her adopting a career in detection. In addition to more personal details, Mrs. Paschal\u2019s narratives markedly depart from G\u2019s in the extent to which her professional relationship to the police overtly shapes her cases. Although both Mrs. Paschal and G identify with the police in almost identical terms\u2014G, as mentioned, refers to herself as a \u201cpolice officer in petticoats\u201d (FD 125) and Mrs. Paschal speaks of being one of many \u201cpetticoated police\u201d (RLD 1)\u2014a much more vivid picture of what that business entails emerges in Mrs. Paschal\u2019s cases. For instance, it is not always clear who authorizes G\u2019s investigations; often she acts on her own initiative. While textual evidence exists apart from G\u2019s own claims to be a member of the police force (the police she encounters recognize her as a peer, \u201cheadquarters\u201d supplies her with another female detective to assist her in an investigation, and for one of her cases she obtains a warrant for her activities), the details of G\u2019s assignments and how she receives them remain opaque.\n\nIn contrast, Mrs. Paschal\u2019s professional relations seem quite straightforward. Mrs. Paschal receives most of her assignments from a man she regards as her superior, Colonel Warner, \u201chead of the Detective Department of the Metropolitan Police.\u201d Mrs. Paschal tells us\n\nIt was through his instigation that women were first of all employed as detectives. It must be confessed that the idea was not original, but it showed him to be a clever adapter, and not above imitating those whose talent led them to take the initiative in works of progress. Fouch\u00e9, the great Frenchman, was constantly in the habit of employing women to assist him in discovering the various political intrigues which disturbed the peace of the first empire (RLD 1).\n\nIn this characterization of Colonel Warner, Mrs. Paschal accomplishes two things: she introduces her employer and she connects her own position to\n\n46. For a discussion of ways in which Mrs. Paschal\u2019s detection is facilitated by her widowhood see Bredesen (2006).\nhistorical antecedents. The progressive Colonel Warner appears in nine of her ten \u201crevelations,\u201d either authorizing directly or advising her behind the scenes. Even when Mrs. Paschal takes on a private case\u2014that is, when she is hired to do detective work by a private citizen\u2014she invariably consults with the Colonel at crucial junctures. His presence in these cases suggests an institutional affiliation, whether contractual or salaried.\n\nImportantly, Colonel Warner does not order Mrs. Paschal to take on assignments; instead, he offers cases to her, which implies that she could forego any she found objectionable. In fact, in the first case, after asking if spying on a spendthrift countess would appeal to her, Colonel Warner adds, \u201cIf not, pray decline it at once. It is always bad to undertake a commission when it involves a duty which is repugnant to you\u201d (RLD 3). Similarly, her second case, \u201cThe Secret Band,\u201d opens with Mrs. Paschal looking forward to a return to active service after a two-week break. Her desire is gratified when she receives a letter from Colonel Warner: \u201cMy dear Madam\u2014I have a little affair to propose to you which I think will be congenial to your feelings\u201d (RLD 19). In a later case, \u201cMistaken Identity,\u201d he asks \u201cif [she] would like the handling of these rogues?\u201d (RLD 85). The provisional manner in which Colonel Warner offers these assignments suggests a professional relationship consistent with the evidence we find in contemporary papers of real-life female detectives operating in Britain in the mid- to late-nineteenth century.47\n\nWhile Colonel Warner does not exert overtly his authority over Mrs. Paschal when presenting assignments, he does use monetary gain to motivate her. In her first case, Colonel Warner assures Mrs. Paschal, \u201cYour services, if successful, will be handsomely rewarded, and you shall have no reason to complain of my parsimony in the matter of your daily expenses\u201d (RLD 2). Similarly, when encouraging her to take on a private case that requires extricating the son of a wealthy widow from an undesirable romantic entanglement (\u201cIncognita\u201d), Colonel Warner\n\n47. In two examples cited earlier, women who are identified as female detectives in court or in newspapers had police affiliations. Prior to her work for the Eastern Counties Railway as a female detective, Elizabeth Joyes worked at a local police station as a searcher of female prisoners. The female detectives who are mentioned in the news account of the criminal conversation case Evans v Evans, were under orders of Mr. Field, former chief-Inspector of the Detective Branch. Frequently, women identified as female detectives in newspaper accounts, are married to policeman or detectives. Reynolds\u2019s Newspaper (January 22, 1860), in an article, \u201cA Female Detective,\u201d reported the apprehension of two men observed by a Mrs Sarah Dunaway trading in stolen sugar. Mrs. Dunaway (described as \u201ca very intelligent woman\u201d) was married to a police-constable. As she testified in court, she was \u201cacting under [the] directions\u201d of her husband.\nremarks, \u201c[Mrs. Wareham] will be pleased beyond measure if you succeed. She told me she was rich and would reward you liberally. You are like a gold-digger at Ballarat who is in luck; you have an auriferous claim, and it only requires work and perseverance to bring out the nuggets\u201d (RLD 128). Elsewhere, he incites her to succeed by appealing to her professional pride, \u201cUpon my word, Mrs. Paschal, we shall have you at the top of the tree soon \u2026 All our fellows have been at fault, and I shall think more than ever of the Lady Detectives if you accomplish what you lead me to suppose you can\u201d (RLD 49). As it turns out, Mrs. Paschal never refuses work. The incentives in the way of salary, rewards, and enhanced reputation, not to mention her own commitment to this career, makes turning down such opportunities unthinkable.\n\nYet another important distinction between these two representations of Victorian women detectives concerns the results each achieves. *Revelations of a Lady Detective* follows a more conventional, less abstract course than *The Female Detective*. Unlike G\u2019s endeavors, Mrs. Paschal\u2019s detective activities may actually lead to arrest: in \u201cThe Stolen Letters,\u201d two mail thieves are arrested, and in \u201cFound Drowned,\u201d a murderer is caught and hanged. Although on occasion she may cut deals with shady characters, overall, the social or judicial order that has been disturbed is restored by the conclusion of each case Mrs. Paschal undertakes.\n\nThe differences in the outcomes may be related to the ways each book was marketed. Both Forrester\u2019s private detective and his female detective present their cases as professional memoirs. Forrester\u2019s casebooks may contain sensational elements here and there, but the emphasis is upon rational, even intellectual, and realistic approaches to the urban challenges and mysteries the protagonists encounter. In contrast, Mrs. Paschal\u2019s revelations provide adventures, rather than armchair detection, that can be presented and resolved in the space of a round-trip ride on the train. Fans of the Anonyma series would have had their interests gratified by the extremes of London\u2019s high life and low life depicted in *Revelations of a Lady Detective*; but, instead of the flashy if imperiled member of the demimonde as heroine, they would have found the plucky Mrs. Paschal solving problems and saving the day.\n\nMuch scholarly writing on G and Mrs. Paschal has concerned either their transgression of or support for gender norms. Of the two, Mrs. Paschal (ironically, given her origins as part of the \u201cAnonyma\u201d series), seems most committed to patrolling the precincts of respectability. Yet, even at their most\n\n---\n\n48. See, for example, Kestner (2003) and Klein (1995).\nconservative, these two heroines participate in the development of a new professional identity. While they may be concerned with salvaging the home-lives of others, they nevertheless avoid being identified with homes of their own. In the course of her cases, G takes up temporary lodgings as each situation demands. And although Mrs. Paschal seems to have a permanent residence, home for her is where she waits for her next assignment. Without work, she feels herself \u201cbecoming rusty and inert, not to say obese and stupid\u201d (*RLD* 19). G evades any scrutiny of her private or emotional life; Mrs. Paschal\u2019s only known relative\u2014her husband\u2014lies in his grave. For both of them, their profession as detectives provides the substance of their narratives and, we are meant to understand, their lives.\n\n*     *     *\n\nIn the Victorian period the separation of spheres was more ideological than fully operative. But women were rarely represented as having associations with white collar professions apart from governesses, teachers, or companions. On this basis alone, these two women detectives are important imaginative constructs. Literary scholars have found these two heroines interesting in their use of early forms of forensics (Bleiler 1978; Thomas 1999) and their work as agents of the state (Kayman 1992; Dever 2002). Mrs. Paschal, the lady detective, has been studied in terms of class (Young 2008) and, as mentioned, the gender of both women detectives has been examined. The varied readings these texts have generated thus far indicate a range of interpretive possibilities as well as the cultural and narrative riches they contain. Work remains to be done that considers more fully the formal characteristics of their narratives and the relation of these popular yellowbacks to the more recognizably canonical works of detective fiction. The yellowback, as a publishing format and popular entertainment, has been garnering critical attention as evidenced in Buurma\u2019s study on the \u201cAnonyma series\u201d and Guest\u2019s work on the male protagonists in the yellowback detective casebooks by Waters and Forrester.49 This new availability of the texts of *The Female Detective* and *Revelations of a Lady Detective* opens up fields of study for social historians, book historians, literary scholars and detective aficionados. And, besides, the stories\n\n49. Kristen Guest\u2019s current study considers issues of class in detective fiction by Dickens, Waters, and Forrester.\nthemselves are fun. Taken together, with recourse to the digital archives of Victorian popular print, these two casebooks prove to be not merely interesting anomalies, but important signifiers of a world in which nineteenth-century women detectives were beginning to take their place.\n\nDAGNI BREDESEN\n\nEastern Illinois University\nA Note on this Edition\n\nThe text of this edition comes from transcribed copies made of the two yellowbacks. The text of *The Female Detective* comes from an 1864 first edition, published by Ward & Lock; it is part of the Ellery Queen collection held by the Harry Ransom Humanities Center at the University of Texas, Austin. *The Female Detective* was first published in \u201csmall format\u201d (i.e., small crown octavo); its height was approximately 17cm, its length 316 pages. The copy of *Revelations of a Lady Detective* from which this edition\u2019s text was drawn was published by E. Griffiths; it is held by the Lilly Library, Indiana University. Copies of two missing pages in that volume were supplied from an edition in the Sadleir Collection at the University of California, Los Angeles. Collector Michael Sadleir claims that the E. Griffiths imprint is a first edition. While it may be a first edition that Griffiths published, it should be kept in mind that the first publication of *Revelations of a Lady Detective* was produced by George Vickers in 1864 and the E. Griffiths imprint did not appear until 1867. Like *The Female Detective*, *Revelations of a Lady Detective* was published in \u201csmall format\u201d; its length ran 308 pages.\n\nDigital copies of these two yellowbacks were made with the aim of producing a facsimile reprint edition. However, because pages of the originals had been degraded by foxing and \u201cbleed-throughs,\u201d making it impossible to obtain clean copies for reproduction, it was decided to produce an entirely new, conflated edition of both books. In the transcription, typographical errors that inhibit meaning have been silently changed. Punctuation errors that do not inhibit meaning such as irregular use of contractions and comma splices have been allowed to stand.\nWorks Cited\n\n\nI am grateful for support this project received from Eastern Illinois University\u2019s Council of Faculty Research, the College of Arts and Humanities, and the English department. I wish to acknowledge the following people at Eastern Illinois who provided funding and support for acquiring the necessary electronic database and print resources: Dr. Allen Lanham, Dean of Library Services, Marlene Slough, Head of Acquisitions, and also Dr. Robert Augustine, Dean of the Graduate School, and Provost Blair Lord. I appreciate greatly subject librarian Karen Whisler\u2019s resourcefulness in hunting down references and acquiring needed texts. In many ways, she could serve as the model lady detective.\n\n\nPeter Grant, Digital Media and Multimedia Specialist for the Center for Academic Technology Support, manipulated the original digital images of *The Female Detective* and helped convert them into word texts. Norman Mangouni, editor and publisher of Scholars\u2019 Facsimiles & Reprints, suggested creating a new edition instead of a facsimile; I am grateful he had the patience to wait for it. Students enrolled in Dr. Terri Fredrick\u2019s English 4785: Professional Editing class\u2014Lindsay Durbin, Naomi Evans, Noel Lucero, and Ashley Wright\u2014reformatted and helped edit the new edition. Devin Black, a graduate student in that class, proofread an early version of the introduction and bibliography.\n\nI have received much personal encouragement from a generous community of friends and colleagues: Kristen Guest from a distance and, closer to home, Teresa Britton, Terri Fredrick, Chris Hanlon, Ruth Hoberman, Robin Murray and Angela Vietto. The introductory essay benefited from Kellie Holzer and Jeannie Ludlow\u2019s insightful reading and comments.\n\nI especially wish to thank my mother, Genevieve Bredesen, for her material and immaterial support. 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+{"id": "b313c62065e5dd01bb1b97f7de51c52fe47761b7", "text": "\u2018Tissue of making\u2019 in practice-led research: Practi-care, prepositional thinking and a grammar of creativity\n\nFrancesca Rendle-Short\n\nAbstract:\nThis paper, as essay, elaborates on Barbara Bolt\u2019s notion of the \u2018double articulation\u2019 of practice-led research and its relationship to knowledge, and also draws on the work of Ross Gibson and the insider-outsider view of the artist-researcher; the restlessness of narrative acknowledgment. It builds on ideas of practice, where the primary focus of practice-led research is \u2018to advance knowledge about practice, or to advance knowledge within practice\u2019 (Candy & Edmonds 2018: 65). Where this leads is to a definition of a prepositional mode of articulating knowledge through practice, where the relations between are key, the abouts, the withins, the ofs; how the different parts of the process or \u2018tissue of making\u2019 (to use Bolt\u2019s term) connect with, interrelate, link, belong, resist. It does this by mapping a series of iterative creative works that have been created and/or made over time through the workings of a specific practice. It traces intersecting lines of thought as a way to explore the processual nature of research; the space of, and value in thinking prepositionally; and the syntax or grammar of creativity.\n\nBiographical note:\nFrancesca Rendle-Short is Associate Dean Discipline Writing and Publishing at RMIT University. She is an award-winning novelist, memoirist and essayist, and has published five books, including the anthologies The near and the far Vol I and II (Scribe). Her work has appeared in books and anthologies, literary and academic journals, online and in exhibitions. She is co-founder of WrICE (Writers Immersion and Cultural Exchange) and the non/fictionLab Research Group.\n\nKeywords: practice-led research, prepositional thinking, process, creative method, eisegesis, PRS (Practice Research Symposium)\nPractice-led research in the creative arts, including Creative Writing, has a sometimes muddled and varied history, signified by terms such as practice-led, practice-based, practice research and creative research being used interchangeably (Candy & Edmonds 2018; Magee & Brook 2012; Green 2018; Green & Williams 2018). At the heart of practice-led research is a practice of some kind, where the primary focus of the research is \u2018to advance knowledge about practice, or to advance knowledge within practice\u2019 (Candy & Edmonds 2018: 65, emphasis added). This kind of practice research is not dependent upon the creation of an artefact per se, although artefacts often form part of the practice; it is founded in practice, whatever that practice is, or however it is defined (Candy & Edmonds 2018: 65). Barbara Bolt in \u2018The magic is in the handling\u2019 speaks of the \u2018double articulation\u2019 that is central to practice-led research, \u2018whereby theory emerges from a reflexive practice at the same time that practice is informed by theory\u2019 (Bolt 2010: 29). This process, she argues, \u2018enables a shift in thought itself\u2019 (29), where thinking about practice \u2013 which in the case of Creative Writing is writing and thinking and writing about the thinking of writing \u2013 allows the practitioner to consider practice from different perspectives, to demonstrate \u2018a very specific sort of knowing, a knowing that arises through handling materials in practice\u2019 (29). For Bolt, who is a visual artist who draws, her materials are pencils and pens and paper, \u2018hand, eye and mind\u2019 (30); for writers, this is writing, this is fingers on a keyboard, pencils making letters and marks in a notebook. Also: hand, eye and mind. Central to Bolt\u2019s working theory, is this concept of \u2018material thinking\u2019 (Carter 2004: xiii), or as she likes to put it (taking it further than Carter), the materials and processes of production that \u2018have their own intelligence that come into play in interaction with the artist\u2019s creative intelligence\u2019 (Bolt 2010: 30). In other words, the collaboration that is forged is between the artist and her materials. The hand, eye, mind that comes into play is in relation to the processes of practice, the handling of materials, and bifold intelligences.\n\nBolt\u2019s measure of success for practice-led research is the articulation and enunciation of the relations between that take place \u2018within the very process or tissue of making\u2019 (Bolt 2010: 29). It is, as I argue in this paper-as-essay, a prepositional space and practice, where the relations between are key, the withins, the ofs, and abouts; how the different parts of the process or \u2018tissue of making\u2019 connect with, interrelate, link, belong, resist.\n\nIn the essay that follows, I test this idea by situating my study in a symposium-led model of practice-led research in Creative Writing \u2013 the Practice Research Symposium or PRS [1]. In this model, where the practice is the research (Aung Thin et al 2020), creative researchers, PhD students and their supervisors allow their practice to grow and evolve through reflection, self-interrogation and rediscovery. The challenge in the PRS is to define the practice (as practised over time), to capture the tacit knowledge embedded in specific practice, and to consider how that practice situates the practitioner in a body of knowledge and community of practice (The Practice is the Research 2019). If we were to think of this practice-led research challenge in Bolt\u2019s terms (not that she references the PRS), it is through the handling of the\n\u2018thing\u2019 \u2013 the thing being practice \u2013 that we gain access to the world \u2018in an originary way\u2019 (Bolt 2010: 30). In this study and context, by mapping a series of iterative creative works that have been created or made over time through the workings of a specific practice, I interrogate the processual nature of practice-led research, the space of, and value in thinking prepositionally, and the syntax or grammar of creativity in coming to some sort of knowledge. I do this through Bolt\u2019s notion of \u2018double articulation\u2019 and bifold intelligences, or to use Ross Gibson\u2019s term when referring to the \u2018mystery\u2019 of knowing, the insider/outsider \u2018double compulsion\u2019 (Gibson 2010: 4).\n\nThis paper-as-essay is a working experiment where supervisor becomes student (where the PRS is flipped, so to speak), where a creative writing researcher who is also a PRS supervisor submits their own practice to scrutiny, in order to reflect and frame that practice, and to rigorously engage with the next phase or rising possibility.\n\nShe wants to compose cartography but in writing. In the end, I come to share her anguish \u2013 if that\u2019s right \u2013 in her father\u2019s death and his strong creationism, but cartography seems to be her way of suggesting \u2026 knowledge. (Wood 2014)\n\n**Using our colleagues to help us in making good work [2]**\n\nI want to approach this task of thinking about my practice as research head on (I want to employ first person too), allow practice (and practise) to inform, direct, shape the research and these findings. Give practice \u2013 even the making of this flipped slice-through of writing-as-research \u2013 its place, its friendship circle, its centre and outside rim. Be an outsider and insider to the making of stuff and then insider/outsider to the thinking about the making and the making of thinking of stuff: an insider- outsider-insider view watching things \u2013 how they grow creatively, ethically, materially, critically. Be a student to/of my own practice. Be a researcher-practitioner in the presence of other researcher-practitioners, other peers, a community of practice. Engage in Ross Gibson\u2019s \u2018double compulsion\u2019 by stepping \u2018both outside and inside the mystery\u2019 (Gibson 2010: 4): \u2018Inside \u2013 but also outside \u2013 but also inside \u2013 but also outside \u2013 but also inside. The rhythm of this narrative acknowledgement is restless. And it\u2019s necessary\u2019 (10). Necessary. Must do.\n\n**Help us think and test our practice and thinking and making**\n\nA beginning point is to think about what practice is as definition \u2013 the practice is the research \u2013 where practice becomes the application of ideas, beliefs and method (as opposed to theory about practice). Practice is the carrying out, the way/s of doing something, repeated exercise or performance, such as, in simple terms, weekly choir practices or Auslan lessons or walking; a period of time to give to something \u2013 skills, activity, experience, method. You\nput into practice \u2013 there is movement, direction, action, a change of state. \u2018[P]ractice connotes doing something that extends beyond everyday thinking into actions that may lead to new outcomes\u2019 (Candy & Edmonds 2018: 64, original emphasis). Practise practice as both verb and noun, from the Old French practiser or medieval Latin practizare, which is an alteration of practicare \u2018perform, carry out\u2019. Practi-care: where there is always and must be care (related etymologically through Old High German to grief and lament: chara). Where there is also a sense of renewal and change, optimism; the practice of care to make things better.\n\n**Practice is the research is the practi-care is the provision of what is necessary**\n\nFor us writers our practice is a writing practice, the application and/or performance of writing and making work as daily routine: writing exercises, drafting of work, experimentation, crafting, re-drafting, the process of writing itself, what happens with pen and paper, keyboard and fingers, dictaphone and iPhone, grammar and syntax, vocabulary choice, register, cadence and so on. A practice that then translates and transforms into genre and form, into poetry, nonfiction, fiction, poetic prose, novel, memoir, essay, editorial, article, reportage, theatre, short form and extended long form, elongated haiku, autofiction, creative/critical work, critical scholarly work, performance, performance-as-critical, poetic-prose-as-creative-critical and so forth.\n\nCoupled with this everyday routine of writing practice, there are the umbrella research practices or practi-cares \u2013 thinking through what unites or joins together ways of doing and imagining things, where the revisiting of previous work and/or appraising of current work and thinking longitudinally about practices and practises enables a joining up and expanding of ideas, allows growth and movement, the shifting of gears \u2013 \u2018joining eye, hand and mind in a process of material thinking\u2019 (Carter 2004: xiii). How experimentation and trying and failure can extend and trouble and contest and move and generate even more. Research as \u2018immersion and then somewhat by exertion and reflection\u2019 (Gibson 2010: 5). Then, too, the sharing of these findings near and far with others like us, like here, like now, across borders and back again. Encounter and exchange. Praxical knowledge as Bolt would say, where tacit knowing and the generative potential of process have the potential to reveal new insights: both those insights that inform and find a form in artworks and those that can be articulated in words. (Bolt 2010: 31)\n\n**Have satisfying, high level discussions about what we are doing creatively**\n\nWhat I have been thinking about and developing, and now recognise as a thing (voicing it out loud), is what I am calling my prepositional practi-care. It is a relational practice or care-as-doing spelt out and performed in prepositions \u2013 through, across, towards, concerning, against,\nathwart and so on. It is a kind of thinking, an approach, a creation of space, even a formulation of method/s (from meta expressing development and hodos meaning way). It is about elevating practice, then thinking through how practice has progressed over/ across time and the nature and connection of the different material parts and processual knowledge \u2013 how the process or tissue of making interrelate, belong, resist, within, of, and about. How, in my case, in going back to my own doctoral work as a starting point, perhaps to the very first piece of creative-critical writing published before examination \u2013 \u2018To the smell of pineapples; writing a Queensland auto-bio-graphie\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2007a) \u2013 I set out theoretical understandings, relational thematics and tropes. To ask: am I able to piece together in this work and then over time (over a writing-research career) different body parts from which I can establish something of a prepositional method employed in the practice and to claim it as a shift in knowledge or \u2018acknowledgement\u2019 (Gibson 2010: 5): a prepositional \u2018hodos\u2019 or meta-tissue?\n\nIn Bite Your Tongue, my DCA thesis (Rendle-Short 2008), by way of illustration, I interrogate the process of language, now framed latterly through a prepositional method, and consider how to language a body \u2013 how to preposition the body, although at the time I didn\u2019t know I was doing this \u2013 through voice (finding voice), the idea of tongue (unbiting tongue), silence and sound (where you can\u2019t have one without the other), the impact of voice/silence and shame/familial love on interpersonal relations (between a daughter and a mother), and the nature of acceptance (possibilities and limitations). How writing, when conceived relationally, makes the writing of a linguistic body possible: \u2018writing as a way of thinking: thinking about growing up, about speaking up; thinking through writing about a story to make your heart contract\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2007a: 3, original emphasis).\n\nThis doctoral work experiments with form and narration, imagined interlocutors, writing/reading as transgression, the employment of a narrating \u2018disobedient subject\u2019 (Whitlock 1996: ix). It intervenes into/through history, story and culture, with/concerning/against a very particular history of Queensland at a very particular point of its history to do with censorship and book banning and the politics of power through religion and controversial anti-pornography campaigns. It does this via a series of inventions, into and out of the imagination: \u2018writing/coughing/vomiting\u2019 the story into existence to live on/beside/near/within the page (Rendle-Short 2007a: 6).\n\nThere are all sorts of doublings here, crossing overs, all sorts of revelations, resistances, athwarts. Reflexivity at work. The point being, when employing Gibson\u2019s doubled compulsion to step \u2018outside and inside the mystery\u2019 (Gibson 2010: 4), what emerges allows creative elaborations and translations of such kind to be reconsidered across time (which is what I am doing here: reconsidering my doctoral work where time shifts perspectives and positionalities) and for it to be rediscovered in research terms also. The praxical knowledge arising begins to form a logic and argument or kind of \u2018sight\u2019 (Bolt 2010: 30).\nWithin the field of ideas that shape our practice\n\nIntrinsic to this practice-led research is the realisation that the work of the book was being made as the work came into existence, characters/narrators coming alive on the page as interlocutors, where the making was as important or as interesting as the thing itself being made; in other words, \u2018both backwards and forwards, as the work is in progress: writing about process as the thing is being processed\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2007a: 9, original emphasis).\n\nIn another early experiment, with a box of family slides and nerves at the ready, I performed work called \u2018Illicit desire\u2019 for the National Library of Australia, which was later published in Overland (Rendle-Short 2007b). In this piece, on love, shame and family slides, I began by riffing off Susan Sontag\u2019s notion of photographs being *memento mori*, how to take a photograph is \u2018to participate in another person\u2019s (or thing\u2019s) mortality, vulnerability, mutability\u2019 (Sontag 1977: 15). How ideas of being vulnerable and unprotected connect with writing and reading and the possibility of redemption: \u2018how writing and books can open us up to the idea of \u201cmaking different\u201d\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2007b: 1). How: in making work and in thinking about the making of work, writers put themselves in the way of something \u2013 at least this one did \u2013 it is a waiting experience: \u2018waiting until what\u2019s inside crosses with outside, outside with in\u2019 (1). Conceptually, this notion of doubling and *crossing over* and *with* underpins this work \u2013 the pairing and relationship of/between shame and desire, light and dark, fiction and nonfiction \u2013 *alongside* the reflexive push-and-pull of the creative-critical-creative dialogue. Ideas of growing a body, in skin and bones, in language, and being nurtured in the process of making the work, are expounded in a set of theoretical annotations written on the novel, titled *A book of pineapple*. In the abstract to these theoretical annotations, the \u2018movement of thought\u2019 takes shape (Bolt 2010: 33), how it is through inventions (and interventions) of a writerly kind that a different calibre of place to be becomes possible. This acknowledgement or \u2018meta-tissue\u2019 takes shape on the page creatively as well as theoretically. That is to say, advancing knowledge *through* practice, *off* practice, *because* of practice.\n\nWe are motivated by the desire to take creative risks\n\nWhat interests me now, jumping ahead and thinking about contribution and knowledge and the question of situational field in this slice-through, is the presence of acrossness and throughness in the early work \u2013 *across* the windowsill, *through* the glass, *through* invention or fiction (the imaginary) \u2013 and the value of prepositions when thinking about a grammar or ethics of seeing, what these parts of speech in the syntax of writing and/or research give to thinking \u2013 in, out, with, without, into, under, following, and so on. How to navigate subterranean spaces, how to subvert language, perhaps.\nBelow is a rough sketch or ideogram [3] I drew in Ho Chi Minh City at the PRS Asia in September 2018 [4] in response to the provocation \u2018draw your practice\u2019 (everyone in the writing-research workshop was asked to do this, PhD students and supervisors and visitors alike). It puts together some recent around/concerning thinking.\n\n![Figure 1. Ideogram (by author)](image)\n\nYou can read shadow and light in this diagram, words and design. There are kernels of new ideas: applied creative writing, delicios, \u2018desert thinking\u2019. Notice the boat (or ship) sailing away to the right, the intersecting circles and universal sign to suggest the mathematics and relational aspects of a Venn Diagram, useful lists and the cataloguing of thought, the word ship in friendship above Noah\u2019s Ark, and questions asking where is the body?, \u2018How do we body language?\u2019, \u2018How to language the body?\u2019. Perhaps the idea of body (this ideogram-as-body) is being used (thought of) in different ways: body of work, body of knowledge, and the body-as-flesh itself. (Drawing writing-research is a useful, repeatable exercise to do at different intervals.)\n\nPrepositional thinking/practice \u2013 what I see now as an approach-as-glue holding my practice together \u2013 is processual by nature (with progressive and interdependent steps); it needs time; it can\u2019t be cooked quickly. You could also call it an eisegetical practice [5] \u2013 how to language the body not through explanation or explication (exegesis) but through loose thinking, faulty interpretation, submission to ongoing change in the process of writing and reading: reading forwards, reading back; reading in, reading outwards (Rendle-Short 2010).\n\nSome of this thought-thinking through practice and across time or because of time \u2013 that is to say, thinking within and around my own writing practice as durational exercise (through and\nbeyond: insert a suitable preposition) \u2013 has progressed over time in various guises (both as critical and creative works) to interrogate such things as:\n\n- how to parse an ethics of seeing\n- the archive as residue and experience as a way of working-through\n- the curating of proximities as an ethical project\n- the you-you space of collaboration and cartographies (ethics of exchange and collaboration)\n- nonfiction as prepositional space\n- the essay as a prepositional project (not being \u2018about\u2019 but *through, into, across* etc)\n- the nears, besides, towards, beyonds, includings of practice.\n\nI continue to be attracted to the idea of \u2018relations-between\u2019 (the in-betweens, the out-betweens, the across/with-betweens, including-betweens etc) and find myself doing more and more thinking about prepositions, the affordances of these very small connecting words in the English language and what these small interstitial words can do, the weight they hold/bear/carry not just in sentences but in terms of thinking and space(ing) and threading and a grammar or syntax of being \u2013 how *we be* and *are being*, how we human beside other humans \u2013 and what this methodological space of preposition might look like in research terms (Rendle-Short 2020).\n\n**To articulate how our creative work and our research are aligned**\n\nPrepositional thinking is an examination of relations through the prism of prepositions, thinking about how prepositions orientate nouns and pronouns, in a technical sense, how they indicate the relationship of these nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence. As discussed elsewhere (Rendle-Short 2020), prepositional thinking is invitational, to think and do something, it takes you on a journey, it invites the writer/researcher to think relationally \u2013 near, without, across, behind \u2013 about what is being investigated. A preposition provides a sort of schema or metaphor, a picture of what\u2019s being said or indicated. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue \u2018such metaphoric orientations are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience\u2019 (Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 20). Prepositional thinking is an ethical project. It is \u2018a way of seeing things \u2013 for example, how to inhabit non-acquisitional space, the intricacies of mapping cartographies of relationships through inventory and list, enlisting the practice of *eisephrasis*\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2020: 10).\n\nAn everyday example of enacting prepositional thinking by way of illustration is what I call \u2018a beer moment\u2019, unpicking the complexity of a personal exchange after a gig singing gospel at Federation Square in the Melbourne CBD on a hot summer night, when it is over thirty degrees when the sun goes down \u2013 so glad it is not still above blood temperature. What follows is a preposition story, which then can be subjected to the inside-outside-inside methodological work of prepositional thinking.\nThe heat makes us sweat and that\u2019s before the stage lights come on. We all have drink bottles hidden behind our legs. We\u2019re all wearing summer dresses. There is a lot of hanging around before and between sets, precision timing for the medley set itself of six gospel songs, set to a bespoke animation. Between songs in an on-stage-whisper one of my lovely gospel friends from the altos asks me whether I\u2019d like to grab a drink after. Isn\u2019t this how this sort of thing goes? A hot night, socialising, drinking? I\u2019m thinking this is how you make friends, establish nearness, relations, how you sally across, in a good way, how you thicken a relationship? There is something wonderful here, attractive, a not-far-awayness of something sweet. But \u2013 I\u2019m trying to quickly figure out how to do this \u2013 this is not in my DNA, not part of my natural habitat \u2013 do I ask others to come too? Would anybody care for it? Do I want a drink anyway (I can\u2019t decide) or do I just want to go home? I don\u2019t even drink beer! Would cider do? Is this what it means to be with friends? She\u2019s asked me. How does this go again? What\u2019s the next move? What happens following this first move? Do I go around to ask others? How is it done? What happens if they say no? What if I\u2019m left exposed, wanting, without?\n\nIn using this as an example of how to think prepositionally, I\u2019m not interested in how socialisation here is a second language; how it doesn\u2019t come instinctively. I\u2019m interested in prepositional thinking as a way of processing the process of thinking through thought and language, how thinking patterns itself, the self-talk, self-noticing, the inter-personal awkwardness that comes with it, and how one might map out the relations that draw bodies together to be in relation through language. A slowing down of reaction to take it in, respond, to work out the next step.\n\nOur concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people\u2026 Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like. (Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 1-2)\n\nHow prepositions work and what they can and can\u2019t do metaphorically and as a part of speech in the grammar and structure of language is a way of thinking about this exchange. If I get close or near or work through, at what point of the exchange is there a with, a without? How close do you have to get to be near? What happens around? Or between? Also, how different prepositions work differently, each one maps a divergent sense of what any one relations-between means for what is going on here, how it works, what the nature of the exchange is about in emotional and psychological terms. Prepositions as cartography. They\nare nuanced parts of speech, each one characterised by a subtle shade or shift of meaning as to what it can and cannot do. For example, in a film (I can\u2019t remember the name of it), one character says to another character: \u2018I can work with Nat but I can\u2019t work for Nat, it\u2019s a preposition thing\u2019.\n\n**We want to make work that keeps us satisfied as creative people, which, of course feeds our productivity**\n\nWhere this is leading is into a subtle, delicately balanced space. We might, for example, think of prepositional space as a new form of clearing, of camp (Veijola et al 2019), but if so, we have to ask what does this felt-body-experience or writing of experience (the experience of writing) look/feel/sound/ear like in this space of contemplation and openness, headroom? How camp (tent-camp not queer-camp) gives us something not normally experienced in the everyday. How it is a \u2018shoreless time\u2019, how \u2018there, on the verge, one dwells\u2019 (Veijola et al 2019: 24) \u2013 \u2018while experiencing, simultaneously, both the permission to make a move and a release from an obligation\u2019 (24, original emphasis). For example, thinking about creationism and Noah\u2019s Ark (my current project) and the parade of queer animals going two-by-two into the Ark: because fur, between fin, through wings, near beak. How do you float or breaststroke towards Noah\u2019s Ark, towards something you would rather not acknowledge is there, rather not believe in? Noah\u2019s Ark is a fairytale, right?\n\nAnother example of what could be meant by this \u2018preposition thing\u2019 comes out of dialogue a number of us had in a practice-is-research flipped workshop at the Abbotsford Convent in Collingwood when presenting new drafts of research thinking to each other. Specifically, the group of peers talks to me about my work, a Noah\u2019s Ark project, and how to preposition my father. A comment is made about my father\u2019s library, how it sits above my desk in my library in my house where I work, but how I don\u2019t open the books to read these books in this library, and yet how important it is that the library of his books is there, with/alongside me as I write, in close proximity.\n\nYou won\u2019t open them, really?\nBut are they interesting?\nWill you open the door to the devil if you open them?\nHave you ever opened them?\n\nHow for this writer-researcher, at least up until the point of writing these words, this world that I am seeking to write about \u2013 as contained in/by these books, My Father\u2019s Library \u2013 this world that I have all my life tried to escape, this world that I eschew, this world, HIS world, is a closed book. No matter how near I am. This is research and writing that pushes into a space of vulnerability, in my case into, through, away from my father. It is exactly what we ask of\nour students in the PRS, as Alvin Pang writes: \u2018uncertainty, vulnerability and humility in the face of the new are powerful sources of innovation\u2019 (Aung Thin et al 2020: 13).\n\nAfter, I go back to my desk and look again at what readers might be looking at through my writing, to notice things again. Do some prepositioning. This sort of noticing is a process of writing and thinking too \u2013 the process of re-engaging with text and the stuff of that text that I have already written about (stuff I have already made something of, once off, but in draft form \u2013 maybe work is always in some sort of draft form) to reconsider, rethink, re-vision it, to re it (once more, afresh, anew) to see, notice, listen in for a second third fourth fifth time to pick up the threads and dance with them in a different way to a different tune maybe the same tune but shift key and modulate from C to A major to A minor. This time, for this reconsidering, I don\u2019t want to simply think about what this is about in terms of subject matter; I want to submit myself to the process of noticing again and allow a different set of relations to take hold, relations made possible when thinking about certain prepositions. See what happens next, after, beyond. Bring the artist in close proximity to her materials; enact a tissue of making.\n\n*\n\nThe body of my desk dances like this. Over. Towards. Across. On its surface in amongst knick-knacks and fountain pens and different coloured inks and teacups and bicycle helmets and old VHSs and plastic roses and small artworks and Dad\u2019s handkerchiefs, there are piles of manuscripts with pages bound together in rubber bands (the writer Carrie Tiffany gave me that tip) and drafts of things receipts to the books I have bought in the year Quill LockerClip Files with my mother\u2019s writing on the box Dad\u2019s file: JOHN: All Business Letters & Queries a folder of artwork I\u2019ve done collaboratively with a visual artist flyers and brochures to Noah\u2019s Ark How Can I Become a Child of God? and From Creation to the Cross a book on climate change published by Answers-In-Genesis \u2018A biblical perspective to the controversy\u2019 Moleskine notebooks with lots of notes in them a book on Big Bone Lick, a national park up the road from Noah\u2019s Ark in Kentucky, the birthplace of American palaeontology a copy of an IQ test I did when I was seven years old marking me as \u2018Superior\u2019 at 122 (on the Binet Intelligence Scale) which my parents gave me because they worried I was mentally deficient in some way because I didn\u2019t talk until I was five the vocabulary I knew back then (as defined by this Binet test) shrewd lotus\ndisproportionate\ntolerate\nregard\npriceless\n\nthe tests I did across years VII to XII on\ncomprehension\nverb absurd\n\u2018fall in the mud\u2019\ndays of the week\nrhymes\nword naming (twenty-eight words in one min and I got twenty-five)\nabstract words\nfinding reasons\n\n*\n\nI like the play of ironies here, how the threading through of ideas brings me, or perhaps more accurately puts me, in relation to my father in new and sometimes difficult ways. Plus, following, concerning. Gets me asking questions, such as, how do you reconcile difference? How can you be proud and ashamed at the same time? What are the ethics of noticing? And I haven\u2019t even looked above once at My Father\u2019s Library, sitting in the floating bookcase over my head. Looming.\n\nHow do you hold these complexities within, without? How do you language feelings? How do you preposition this experience? Preposition a library? Make this felt experience become \u2013 including? Despite? Until?\n\nIs love this difficult?\n\nThen, just above the top edge of the computer at eye-level there are two books that I love, that I read again and again, propped up on a small sixties wooden desktop bookshelf. I have been staring at them as I have been writing these words not noticing them or seeing them there, right in front of me: staring through them, beyond them, except them. Roland Barthes\u2019s Mourning Diary. John Berger\u2019s Confabulations.\n\nIn Confabulations, there is a quote from Berger on the back-cover blurb taken from the opening essay that speaks directly:\n\nA spoken language is a body, a living creature, whose physiognomy is verbal and whose visceral functions are linguistic. And this creature\u2019s home is the inarticulate as well as the articulate. (Berger 2017: 5)\nI think here of this spoken language-body I am playing with (and making), my living creatures of the articulate and inarticulate, Noah\u2019s Ark as method \u2013 collecting plastic animals in plastic bags, restaging Noah\u2019s Ark as a station of the (very) cross as Peripatetic Panel, re-staged for the Digital Writers Festival (Rendle-Short et al 2018), re-figuring Noah\u2019s Ark as a way of finding voice, queering Noah\u2019s Ark, thinking of pairings, likelies and unlikelies: likely pairings like straight opposite gendered pairings and unlikely pairings of the same and cross queer kind, two by twos. I\u2019m also thinking of the nineteen-year-old who has sex with her lover while menstruating in the very small bathroom in a shared house in Barney Street who knows it is her mother who is at the front door knocking wildly, bible in hand, because she has flown across the border to be angry with her daughter because she is living in sin. (A different kind of encounter and exchange, this.) Coupled with the story of doing a bowel test when turning fifty: blue sticks and red sticks, faecal material everywhere, Float Collection Sheets, and Transport Tubes. You write: \u2018This free bowel test is more difficult than writing\u2019 (Rendle-Short 2018: 47).\n\nQuestions \u2013 How can you preposition the body like this? Is it even possible? Human body, animal body? A mother\u2019s body? A Noah\u2019s Ark body? How does it look on the page? What are the variables? How spoken? Performed (a circle of plastic animals found in local junk shops are starting to emerge)? What implications does prepositional practi-care have on questions of form \u2013 what does it mean to carry out (to practice) / perform? To be vulnerable? To doubt? What, if any, connection is there between prepositions and affect (loosely: feeling, emotion) \u2013 thinking here how there is movement in prepositions, a relational movement or dance from site to site (beside, under, between, across) \u2013 and affect as defined as \u2018complexity of the world in movement\u2019 (Freud defined affect as somatic as against the psychic). Affect as intensities, coming together, moving each other; affect as situational. What happens but what does not happen also: \u2018Affect as a series of forces that are in-between bodies, within bodies, and between bodies and world\u2019 (Murphie 2010: 1).\n\n**To be challenged, to be pushed to the edge of our capabilities**\n\nIn a recent work which forms part of my \u2018Cemetery Work\u2019, in order to come close to prepositioning the father, in order to search out a way to relate to him \u2013 to language difficult love \u2013 I find myself prepositioning the poet Anne Carson. Second person. I feel a bit sick doing this, making excuses. Getting this close to notice skin, touch finger, hear breath. Feeling the magnetism, an equal and opposite force drawing me in but pushing me away also. Newton\u2019s third law is very simple. When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the first body. In other words, the exertion of force between two bodies is the same size or magnitude on or against each body and points in opposite directions in terms of force on/to/against the other. That is to say, for every action, there is an equal and opposite\nreaction. You could say this is also the law of prepositions, the exertion of force for these function words, the push and pull, equal and opposite. I/me/him/her/they: why this, now, when this morning writing Dad, writing Anne Carson, I was writing you/you. Distance. Proximity. And purpose. The world is a small place.\n\nI can\u2019t get to sleep. Anne Carson is in my head. I think I\u2019m talking to her in understandable sentences. One at a time. But I know it\u2019s all gibberish\u2026 Or does she like those nights on her own when he can\u2019t sleep, when she has the double bed all to herself? When she can lie crossways like a starfish? When she prepositions the bed. (Rendle-Short 2019)\n\nThere we have it. Where breath becomes the air around us, where \u2018we allow meaning to unfold\u2019 (Yoo 2019: 405). Bodywork. The nearness, throughness, never-complete-ness of friendship. And rising possibility.\n\nNotes\n\n[1] The PRS (Practice Research Symposium) is a PhD program in Creative Writing at RMIT University, a higher degree research model in practice-led research for professional practitioners to: reflect on their practice; frame their practice; and rigorously engage with the next phase of their practice. It is a symposium-led PhD program (the Creative Writing program began in 2016, with its first graduates in 2020) having its antecedents in the RMIT School of Architecture and Design where the PRS has been running successfully in Asia, Europe and Australia for more than thirty years. The focus of the PRS PhD is on a holistic investigation and development of a candidate\u2019s established and ongoing creative practice rather than on an individual project (Aung Thin et al 2020).\n\n[2] Section epigraphs in this essay come from email correspondence with a group of academic peers concerning what it is we researcher-writer-artists are doing \u2013 as creative researchers \u2013 in what we call the \u2018Flipped PRS\u2019: practising the PRS model on each other as an experiment and model of practice in \u2018reverse pedagogies\u2019; that is to say, articulating what it is we are doing in our practice and why, just like we ask our PhD students to do.\n\n[3] Ideograms are a common practice or method in architecture; they are a way of thinking out loud, thinking as process. Leon van Schaik, a founder of the PRS, is famous for drawing ideograms as a way of explicating ideas. In fact, he writes a history of the PRS in ideograms in The pink book (2011).\n\n[4] RMIT PRS Asia Creative Writing students and supervisors meet at a symposium every six months in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.\n\nAcknowledgements\n\nThanks to Jess Wilkinson, Michelle Aung Thin, David Carlin, Toni Roberts and Ronnie Scott for their friendship, support and creative-critical eye. Thanks to the blind reviewers also who threw light on/into/through this work.\n\nWorks cited\n\n\nBarthes, R 2011 Mourning diary, Notting Hill Editions, London\n\n\nBolt, B 2010 \u2018Magic is in the handling\u2019, in E Barrett and B Bolt (eds) Practice as research: Approaches to Creative Arts inquiry, IB Tauris, London: 27-34\n\nCandy, L & E Edmonds 2018 \u2018Practice-based research in the Creative Arts: Foundations and futures from the front line\u2019, Leonardo 51, 1: 53-69\n\n\nLakoff, G & M Johnson 1980 Metaphors we live by, The University of Chicago, Chicago & London\n\nRendle-Short  \u2018Tissue of making\u2019 in practice-led research\n\nMurphie, A 2010 \u2018Affect, a basic summary of approaches\u2019, 30 January:  \n\nRendle-Short, F 2007a \u2018To the smell of pineapples; Writing a Queensland auto-bio-graphie\u2019, TEXT:  \nJournal of Writing and Writing Courses 10, 2 (October):  \n\n\nRendle-Short, F 2010 \u201c\u2018Loose thinking\u201d: Writing an eisegesis\u2019 TEXT: Journal of Writing and Writing Courses 14, 1 (April):  \n\n\nRendle-Short, F 2019 \u2018Towards poetic address: Anne Carson slag\u2019, Overland, 25 July  \n\n\nRendle-Short, F, P Murray, M Cappello, A Hawkins & P Shiner 2018 \u2018The Peripatetic Panel: nonfiction as (queer) encounter\u2019, Digital Writers Festival, 30 October-3 November:  \n\n\nThe Practice is the Research 2019, symposium, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University\n\nvan Schaik, L & A Johnson 2011 The pink book: by practice, by invitation design practice research at RMIT, 1986-2011, Sixpointsixone, RMIT University, Melbourne\n\n\nWhitlock, G 1996 (ed) Autographs: contemporary Australian autobiography, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia QLD\n\n16\nWood, D 2014 \u2018Katy?\u2019, *NANO: New American Notes Online 6*:  \n\nYoo, J 2019 \u2018Learning to write through an awareness of breath\u2019, *Qualitative Inquiry* 26, 3-4: 400-406", "metadata": {"Source-Url": 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+{"id": "603ddd8450dde7b3805885ecebd0befcbd9fb382", "text": "Spring 2016\n\nThe Shadow of the War: PostWar Destabilization, Nostalgia, and Fragile Truth in the Works of A. A. Milne\n\nSarah E. Johnson LaBarbera\n\nJohn Carroll University, sjohnsonlabarbera17@jcu.edu\n\nFollow this and additional works at: http://collected.jcu.edu/mastersessays\n\nPart of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons, and the Literature in English, British Isles Commons\n\nRecommended Citation\nhttp://collected.jcu.edu/mastersessays/38\n\nThis Essay is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Essays, and Senior Honors Projects at Carroll Collected. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Essays by an authorized administrator of Carroll Collected. For more information, please contact connell@jcu.edu.\nTHE SHADOW OF THE WAR: POST-WAR DESTABILIZATION, NOSTALGIA, AND FRAGILE TRUTH IN THE WORKS OF A. A. MILNE\n\nAn Essay Submitted to the\nOffice of Graduate Studies\nCollege of Arts & Sciences of\nJohn Carroll University\nin Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements\nfor the Degree of\nMaster of Arts\n\nBy\nSarah E. Johnson LaBarbera\n2016\nThe essay of Sarah E. Johnson LaBarbera is hereby accepted:\n\nAdvisor \u2014 Brian Macaskill\n\nMarch 31, 2016\n\nI certify that this is the original document\n\nAuthor \u2014 Sarah E. Johnson LaBarbera\n\n3/31/2016\nThe Shadow of the War: Post-War Destabilization, Nostalgia, and Fragile Truth\n\nin the Works of A. A. Milne\n\nAnyone attempting to begin a literary analysis of A. A. Milne's writing faces the delicate challenge of both strategizing a compelling entry and locating an interested audience. However, given current status of Milne studies, not many find themselves navigating these issues. This is the true problem in Milne studies: there are none to speak of. While it is true that Milne\u2019s works have found a small place in the growing field of children\u2019s literature studies, even there he is usually grouped with other writers in broad, thematic criticism. Focus rarely settles on Milne exclusively, and never on his writing outside of children\u2019s literature. The trouble is rooted not in Milne\u2019s own abilities as a writer, but rather, as I claim here, in field-created obstacles and a failure to see past Milne's popular whimsical style and best-selling children's literature, both of which contribute to the impression that Milne was a slight or inconsequential writer. A closer look at his varied and copious collected works suggests otherwise. What is wanted, then, in order to encourage Milne studies is a means of approaching Milne's work that provides a critical center lens through which to examine his writing and launch more significant and specific research concerning his writing for adults. By using World War I as a locus of investigation of Milne\u2019s writing, I hope to avoid what have previously been obstacles to further Milne studies. Employing this method, I argue that\u2014despite limited direct confrontation with the war in his writing\u2014Milne\u2019s personal experience of World War I is reflected in his literature through a changed perspective of the present. While Milne\u2019s early writing demonstrates a playful and unquestioning immersion in the present, his\npost-war writing explores a disrupted and destabilized present\u2014glancing back, every now and then, to reflect on the past.\n\nLiterary critics sooner or later run into the same obstacle thwarting Milne studies, typically by way of *The Pooh Perplex* and the attitude it represents. Written by Frederick Crews in 1963, *The Pooh Perplex* parodies the field of literary theory and various avenues of literary criticism using Milne\u2019s *Winnie-the-Pooh* and *House at Pooh Corner* as vehicles in order to do so.\\(^1\\) While it could be argued (as Paul Wake does) that Crews effectively killed any potential academic interest in Milne, it may also be that *The Pooh Perplex* merely made use of an unspoken, yet widespread feeling that Milne fails to meet certain literary standards. Regardless of whichever is the case, whether Crews caused this negative reaction to Milne or simply represented one already in progress, we are left with a current neglect and dismissal of Milne\u2019s writing, as indicated by Crews\u2019s second parody collection, *Postmodern Pooh*, published nearly four decades after *The Pooh Perplex*.\n\nMany will argue that the real trouble hindering Milne studies now is the lack of interest or momentum, but some still point to *The Pooh Perplex* as the direct instigator of these trends; Paul Wake, for instance, comments that \u201cthe subsequent embarrassment of pursuing ideas so effectively parodied has led to a relative paucity of critical studies of Milne\u2019s works for children\u201d (27).\\(^2\\) I would hasten to expand on Wake\u2019s statement concerning the lack of current research, since the lack of work done on Milne\u2019s children\u2019s\n\n---\n\n\\(^1\\) It must be emphasized that Crews\u2019s project does not reflect any real sense of interest in Milne\u2019s work as serious content for analysis; in fact, the very use of Milne\u2019s *Winnie-the-Pooh* and *House at Pooh Corner* is meant to embarrass the field of literary theory.\n\n\\(^2\\) This exact situation occurs in Wake\u2019s \u201cWaiting in the Hundred Acre Wood: Childhood, Narrative and Time in A. A. Milne\u2019s Works for Children,\u201d in which he finds himself arguing against an interpretation of Milne raised by one of Crews\u2019s fictional critics.\nliterature has effectively barred any movement into analysis of his writing for adults, Milne\u2019s currently lesser known literature collection.\n\nThose who do venture into examinations of Milne\u2019s work for adults face the complicated situation of placing Milne as a writer, whether in terms of genre, audience or affiliation. Before and after the explosive debut of his children\u2019s verse and the *Pooh* books (all published between 1924 and 1928), Milne wrote as a humorist, playwright, novelist and essayist. Approaching him exclusively as a children\u2019s writer ignores the issue of his complicated writing identity. David Galef categorizes authors writing for both adult and child audiences into three possible camps: adult fiction writers who deviate to children\u2019s literature, child fiction writers who deviate to adult\u2019s literature, and what Galef terms \u201cpolygraphic writers,\u201d or those who write for both audiences equally and simultaneously (29). Galef identifies Milne as a representative polygraphic writer \u201cwho penned nursery rhymes and box-office hits with equal facility\u201d (29), although Milne himself would have likely classified himself in the first of Galef\u2019s groupings. Looking back on the monumental success of his four children\u2019s volumes in his autobiography, Milne observes that\n\n> it is easier in England to make a reputation than to lose one. I wrote four \u2018children\u2019s books\u2019, containing altogether, I suppose, 70,000 words\u2014the number of words in the average-length novel. [\u2026] These last ten years in which I have been writing plays, novels and invocations against war are littered with affiliation orders on behalf of all the \u2018juveniles\u2019 born so lovingly and with such complete absence of labour into the book-world. (*It\u2019s Too Late Now* 224)\nHowever, despite Milne\u2019s underhanded insistence that his children\u2019s works had unduly overtaken his reputation, the juvenile verse and Pooh stories resulted from the very trend in Milne\u2019s career that makes it difficult to classify him now. As he puts it, \u201cIt has been my good fortune as a writer that what I have wanted to write has for the most part proved to be saleable. It has been my misfortune as a businessman that, when it has proved to be extremely saleable, then I have not wanted to write it any more\u201d (It\u2019s Too Late Now 225).\n\nMilne wrote When We Were Very Young, the first of his children\u2019s literature, while he was still under contract to write a second mystery novel to follow his successful detective debut, The Red House Mystery (Thwaite 239). Instead of fulfilling his contract, Milne became distracted with his new children\u2019s literature venture, which yielded greater returns than his detective fiction, only to lose interest again after the fourth children\u2019s volume. Milne\u2019s collected literatures include serial comedy, essays and daily columns, light verse, plays for adults, plays for children, novels, a short story collection, nonfiction/philosophy, revised fairy-tales, works that he admits are neither specifically for children or adults, the already mentioned detective fiction and, of course, his children\u2019s literature. Approaching Milne as only a children\u2019s author fabricates an identity that Milne never had; Milne himself claimed to have invested little effort for his craft into his juvenile writing.\n\nLacking any critical depth concerning Milne\u2019s adult fiction, a wide range of avenues could present themselves to guide analysis; entry by way of Milne\u2019s experience in World War I, however, allows both for a textual analysis of particular texts and a broader view of Milne\u2019s personal history. By centering evaluation of his work on a\nsignificant contemporary event in which he participated, the complication of Milne\u2019s varied output may be consolidated around a specific center. Addressing the war also provides an opportunity to examine intersections with contemporary writers that have otherwise proven elusive. How Milne fits into the dominant strains of modern consciousness (or if he does at all) is not immediately apparent in his common themes or style, in which case turning to catalyzing events of the era may prove useful.\n\nA similar method has been used by critics examining J.R.R. Tolkien\u2019s *Lord of the Rings*. Another writer whose work is not easily categorized among that of his contemporaries, Tolkien\u2019s personal experience in World War I was strikingly similar to Milne\u2019s. Tolkien himself claimed that World War I had few direct manifestations in the *Ring* series, while still admitting that \u201can author cannot of course remain wholly unaffected by his experience\u201d (*The Lord of the Rings* xvii). Critics such as Michael Livingston and Steven Brett Carter have applied Tolkien\u2019s war experience in order to align *The Lord of the Rings* within particular parameters. Analysis such as Livingston\u2019s and Carter\u2019s demonstrates how the Great War can be used to center readings of Milne as it has benefitted inquiries into Tolkien.\n\n---\n\n3 Both Tolkien and Milne served on the front for most of the Battle of the Somme, mirroring each other\u2019s warfront experiences. Tolkien entered the battle on July 14, 1916 after waiting in the British reserve forces (Livingston 80), and Milne joined a few weeks later after a stint teaching at a military signalling school (Thwaite 172). Shortly before the battle\u2019s end on November 1, Tolkien was sent home with \u201ctrench fever\u201d on October 27 (Livingston 81); the same ailment caused Milne to be sent back to Britain to be hospitalized on November 8 (Thwaite 180). The Battle of the Somme consisted of almost all of either Tolkien\u2019s or Milne\u2019s frontline experience with the war.\n\n4 Michael Livingston takes a psychoanalytical approach to trace moments of veteran survivor\u2019s trauma in Frodo after the destruction of the One Ring. Specifically, Livingston views these reflections of the war as tied to Tolkien\u2019s experiences in the Battle of the Somme, a particularly traumatizing event for Franco-British Imperial forces (78). In a similar vein, Steven Brett Carter investigates Tolkien\u2019s portrayals of heroes in *Lord of the Rings* against the backdrop of \u201ca conflict that was both psychologically and technologically different from any war that had previously occurred in history\u201d (90), claiming that the character of Faramir represents a new type of hero for the modern era (92).\nThis example of how a war focus can be beneficial must be taken broadly, despite the close similarity of Tolkien\u2019s and Milne\u2019s war experiences. Perhaps as a result of the differences in their experiences before the war, Tolkien brushes aside overextended association of his works with the war while Milne avoids the question of war\u2019s influence on him or his writing nearly entirely. Milne\u2019s path to war was uncommon. Long before he reached the frontline or war was even declared, Milne\u2019s pacifism was already well-developed despite the unpopularity of such attitudes in the months leading to the conflict. However, the growing crisis and rhetoric of the time convinced him that \u201cthis (I thought with other fools) was a war to end war\u201d (Milne, *It\u2019s Too Late Now* 195). Thwaite comments that Milne \u201chad some faint hope that England was fighting for a more democratic world, for many things symbolized by the end of the top hat. But the war failed to kill the top hat\u201d (163). With these hopes and beliefs in the war aims, Milne fell in with the effort, was assigned to the 4th Battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment, and \u201cthrough a variety of accidents\u201d was eventually made a signalling officer (*It\u2019s Too Late Now* 196). Once he would reach the front, after serving as a signalling instructor at training camps, his position as a signalling officer kept Milne from the expectation of offensive violence in the field.\n\nWhen it comes to his actual war experiences, Milne glosses over much of what he saw or lived through at the front. Opening the chapter \u201cAmateur Soldier\u201d in his autobiography, he writes: \u201cI should like to put asterisks here, and then write: \u2018It was in 1919 that I found myself once again a civilian.\u2019 For it makes me almost physically sick to think of that nightmare of mental and moral degradation, the war\u201d (*It\u2019s Too Late Now* 196).\nYet, to fill out his account he preserves only a few heartwarming token stories about favorite colonels or the lance-corporal who shared his admiration for Jane Austen (200\u20131). In the most action-filled story he includes, the \u201cnightmare\u201d episodes are softened: the wounding of the first signalling officer is rendered as \u201cwe fell into a burst of whizz-bangs and Harrison was knocked out. We got him back to the first aid post\u201d; and the death of the sergeant-major in the shelling of their headquarters is retold as \u201c[he] went up the steps with some idea, I suppose, of getting information, and was blown out of existence before he reached the top\u201d (202). In his accounts sent back home to be published in *Punch*, later collected in his personally published collection *Those Were the Days*, the stories are even less direct, although still heartfelt; at his most personal, Milne describes with affection his horse Toby used in place of the signalling officer\u2019s traditional bicycle (\u201cToby\u201d 756\u20139). While Milne refrains from being flippant about the war, he rarely speaks seriously about it. Presumably, this interpretation falls in line with how he felt about war in general, as he recounts that in response to his commanding officer\u2019s demand that he use his \u201ccommon sense\u201d in attempting to establish phone lines, he \u201cpromised, but felt quite unable to distinguish between common-sense and cowardice. The whole thing was so damned silly\u201d (203).\n\nAlthough his battle experience was limited, Milne took part in a battle that, as Modris Eksteins describes it, \u201cembod[i]es the logic, the meaning, the essence of the Great War,\u201d contributing to the \u201cstandard imagery we have of the Great War\u2014the deafening, enervating artillery barrages, the attacks in which long lines of men moved forward as if in slow motion over a moonscape of craters and mud, only to confront machine guns,\nuncut barbed wire, and grenades\u201d (145). In a letter to Rayner Unwin, Tolkien writes that although the war did not influence the plot of *Lord of the Rings*, its presence was felt \u201cperhaps in landscape. The Dead Marshes and the approaches to the Morannon owe something to Northern France after the Battle of the Somme\u201d (*The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien* 303). It is this bleakness and palpable despair that surfaces again in Eksteins\u2019s speculation on seemingly contradicting accounts of both horror and boredom at the French front:\n\nIf one insists that horror is the sensation aroused solely by the *unexpected* contradiction of values and conditions that bestow meaning on life, and that in turn boredom is the inevitable upshot of routine, even of routine slaughter, then the question can never be resolved, because no sense of horror, even one caused by this war, can remain constant. After several weeks of frontline experience there was little that could shock. Men became immunized, rather rapidly, to the brutality and obscenity. (154)\n\nFrom Milne, the closest we get to seeing this side of the war is in his single chapter-opening line, \u201cthat nightmare of mental and moral degradation, the war.\u201d Beyond this impression, the war Milne experienced exists in the silhouette of his writing rather than in the heart of it.\n\nThis is not to say that Milne did not write about the war at all. It is helpful here, however, to distinguish between Milne\u2019s actual war experience and the British idea of the war. Of Milne\u2019s war experience, there is little written beyond what appears in his autobiography. It is the British idea of the war that we encounter in works like his\nwar-related *Punch* articles (specifically in installments such as \u201cArmageddon\u201d) or *The Boy Comes Home*. Seldom does Milne allow glimpses of his war experience, and usually these moments have been carefully screened. Considering again his *Punch* account of \u201cToby,\u201d his horse at the front, he concludes his fond thoughts of the horse writing, \u201cThis is a beastly war. But it has its times, and when our own particular bit of the battle is over [\u2026] I doubt even in England [\u2026] you will find two people more contented with the morning than Toby and I, as we jog along together\u201d (759). Even as Milne clarifies to his audience that he has had to sift through the war experience to present a positive episode, he succeeds in ending on a hopeful note that undermines the horror of war even while acknowledging its presence lurking in the background of the scene.\n\nWhen dealing with the idea of the war, Milne is less cautious. In \u201cArmageddon,\u201d a *Punch* short piece published the day after war was declared (Thwaite 161), Milne presents a mythoparody of the beginning of war, attributing the event to a divinely ordained club member named Porkins, who\u2014\u201cleaning back and puffing at his cigar\u201d\u2014opines:\n\n\u201cwhat England wants is a war. (Another whisky and soda, waiter.) We\u2019re getting flabby. All this pampering of the poor is playing the very deuce with the country. A bit of a scrap with a foreign power would do us all the good in the world.\u201d He disposed of his whisky at a draught. \u201cWe\u2019re flabby,\u201d he repeated. \u201cThe lower classes seem to have no sense of discipline nowadays. We want a war to brace us up.\u201d\n\n***\nIt is well understood in Olympus that Porkins must not be disappointed. [\u2026]\n\nAccordingly the gods got to work. (751)\n\nThe purposely convoluted plot that follows, in which the gods orchestrate small political occurrences that eventually lead nations to war, demonstrates Milne\u2019s belief even then that war was, inevitably, \u201csilly.\u201d This sentiment is continued in Once On a Time, despite Milne\u2019s claim in the foreword to its reprint that the novel is not directly representative of the war.\u2075 His exasperation with war\u2019s silliness transforms into a more direct bitterness and social inquiry in the poem \u201cO.B.E.,\u201d which was not published in the conservative and pro-war Punch, but added into the publication of Milne\u2019s collection The Sunny Side in 1921 (Thwaite 172). After describing several civil donors at home who, as result of their patriotism, \u201cthank God!\u2014ha[ve] the O.B.E.,\u201d the final stanza draws the cut that was too deep for the pages of Punch:\n\nI had a friend; a friend, and he\n\nJust held the line for you and me,\n\nAnd kept the Germans from the sea,\n\nAnd died\u2014without the O.B.E.\n\nThank God!\n\nHe died without the O.B.E.\n\n(750)\n\n---\n\n\u2075 A fairytale written, Milne claims, in partnership with his wife Daphne, Once On a Time takes place within the war context of two imagined countries, Euralia and Barodia. The king of Barodia interrupts the king of Euralia\u2019s breakfast, leading the king of Euralia to order that his archers shoot off one of the king of Barodia\u2019s whiskers. A drawn-out war ensues. The entire premise glances at the minute (and, Milne would say, silly) political movements that lead to massive war, regardless of Milne\u2019s claim that the narrative is not about World War I.\nThese intensely left-leaning moments of Milne\u2019s occurred mostly during the early part of the war. After his service on the front, he would refrain from overly political statements until the onset of World War II.\n\nWhile Milne may have avoided direct politics in most of his writing, the disparity between the experiences of the civilians back in England and the veterans of the war expressed in \u201cO.B.E.\u201d resurfaces again in his one-act play The Boy Comes Home. Concerned with the friction-filled return of a young soldier to civilian life in his uncle\u2019s house, The Boy Comes Home attacks less the policy of the war than the public\u2019s understanding of the war experience. However, even in this personal characterization of the effects of war, Milne pushes the drama beyond its central relational dynamic through what Thwaite describes as \u201cone moment of electrifying drama\u201d (182): the veteran Philip draws a revolver on his demanding uncle James. That \u201celectrifying\u201d moment forces audiences beyond the narrative of an uncle and nephew and into an awareness of the larger social conversation. When James nervously protests, \u201cYou settle your arguments by force? Good heavens, sir! This is just the very thing that we were fighting to put down!\u201d Philip quickly responds, \u201cWe were fighting! We! We! Uncle, you\u2019re a humorist\u201d (121). After the initial shock of the scene, though, Milne reveals that the whole encounter was a dream. Although the gravitas of the moment relies on the dynamic between Philip and James, the fantasy element of this scene as a dream creates the necessary distance to turn the narrative into a discussion. While the stage notes indicate that James is unsure whether he truly did dream (\u201cWas it a dream, or wasn\u2019t it? He will never be quite certain\u201d [127]), some added staging would seem necessary to communicate completely this\nambiguity to an audience. The uncertainty preserves the abstraction of the issues Milne raises, making the tense moment between nephew and uncle a prophetic warning, a vision doubly removed from the audience.\n\nOutside of his works that deal directly with the war, a change in perspective arises that I read as resulting from his service in the war, specifically a shift in how Milne represents\u2014and seems to understand\u2014the present. Before examining this shift, though, I should acknowledge a specific difficulty in analyzing trends across Milne\u2019s writing during World War I. Before war was declared, Milne had already begun a transitional process from producing light magazine humor to more serious writing. The arrival of war allowed him to smoothly disengage from his career at *Punch* and begin pursuing ventures as a playwright (Milne, *It\u2019s Too Late Now* 193\u20134). Because of this transition over the course of the war, analysis of transcending trends in Milne\u2019s writing must be executed carefully. Not only did Milne\u2019s preferred genre change, but his audience and publishing context were reoriented as well.\\(^6\\) These contextual shifts cannot be ignored. That said, many of these changes in Milne\u2019s writing can be attributed to a natural maturation: the growing desire to refine his craft or to tackle more serious writing projects. Differences in his writing processes between writing columns and serials and writing for the stage are contrasted starkly in his autobiography. While writing regularly for *Punch* as an assistant editor, he claims that \u201cFriday was my busy day. I sat down after breakfast to make my own personal contribution [\u2026] I might have sat down for this purpose on Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday morning; I regretted now that I hadn\u2019t; but it\n\n---\n\n\\(^6\\) Milne freely comments in his autobiography on his struggle to maintain political balance while at *Punch*, a traditionally conservative publication. Milne\u2019s progressive views (including, but not limited to, his pacifism) often put him at ideological odds with the magazine\u2019s official political position.\nwas too late\u201d (*It\u2019s Too Late Now* 175). This last-minute approach appears to have been abandoned by the time Milne describes his process as a playwright: \u201cThe most exciting form of writing is the writing of plays. [\u2026] For one who insists on full value [in writing] a play is the thing. So strongly do I feel this that, when I write a play, I write all the dialogue first, without a single stage direction, and then reluctantly turn novelist\u201d (*It\u2019s Too Late Now* 226, 228). Milne\u2019s changing contexts reflect this development from a sporadic writer to a thoughtful one.\n\nDetermining trends in Milne\u2019s writing, then, requires care and awareness in tracing both Milne\u2019s developing career context and transcending thematic patterns. I find that Milne\u2019s thematic shifts can be traced back to a common thread of destabilized reality, either through a new element of reflection and gaze turned to the stable past or an increased questioning and suspicion of established truths, values, and social realities. While the root cause of Milne\u2019s destabilized reality is likely never to be definitively determined, I speculate that his experience in WWI contributed substantially to this change in perspective and worldview, signified both by the timeframe in which we see these changes occur and the correlation of these changes to Milne\u2019s war experience. Though Milne obscures most of his specific war experience, we know that he compromised his convictions of pacifism in order to enlist for the purpose of achieving a supposed greater good: war\u2019s end. Milne may not explain what happened to his beliefs in\n\n---\n\n7 Gabriel Josipovici has expressed similar prioritization of dialogue in narrative. In an interview with literary arts magazine *Num\u00e9ro Cinq*, Josipovici comments that his dialogue-exclusive style allows him to avoid the \u201cdead wood\u201d of description meant to orient readers: \u201cI wanted [*The Inventory*] to be alive from start to finish, from the first word to the last. And in dialogue it could be alive, for what dialogue did was provide words where (in the fiction) the characters would be providing words. Why the words are spoken, how speaking them affects the situation and what they \u2018mean\u2019 can be left as open as in any encounter in real life\u201d (\u201cMind of the Modern\u201d).\nthe war, but we do know\u2014particularly from his 1934 manifesto, *Peace with Honour*\u2014that his pacifist convictions were not swayed by war, but strengthened. What Milne must have experienced at the front, then, would be a drastic destabilization of his own beliefs and values that allowed for his self-compromising enlistment. Perhaps Milne avoids confronting the war personally in his writing because he viewed himself as complicit in the horror he witnessed at the Somme, even if he never inflicted harm himself. The incongruity between Milne\u2019s noble goal of \u201cthe war to end war\u201d and the grisly reality of the French front in light of his own choice to participate willingly in the conflict might plausibly lead to shame, avoidance, and an inescapable distrust of a reality that used to seem much more sure.\n\nPerhaps the clearest transformation within Milne\u2019s *Punch* writing is in terms of theme and reflection, best seen in his series starring characters Ronald and Celia. Clearly the most autobiographical of Milne\u2019s magazine writing, Ronald and Celia\u2019s lives thinly mask episodes taken from those of A. A. and Daphne Milne. These vignettes follow Milne from his bachelorhood to courting Daphne to their marriage and through the war. His earliest writing in the series, often concerning wedding planning or early marriage concerns, showcases some of Milne\u2019s sharpest comedy, characterized by a breathtaking quickness that leaves the author winking at the audience rather than pausing for the effect of the joke: \u201c\u2018I want,\u2019 I said jauntily to a sexton or a sacristan or something\u2014\u2018I want\u2014er\u2014a wedding.\u2019 And I added, \u2018For two.\u2019 He didn\u2019t seem as nervous as I was. He inquired quite calmly when I wanted it\u201d (\u201cGetting Married: The Day\u201d 532). At this early\nstage, Milne writes with concern for sports ventures in cricket, croquet, and golf, the\ncarefree adventures of young socialites, and light-hearted young love.\n\nAfter Milne\u2019s return from the front, the comedy was revived, but inevitably\naltered. \u201cThe Joke: A Tragedy,\u201d which recounts the failed journey of a joke written home\nto Daphne about the rat-catching cats in the trenches with Milne, is delivered with\nMilne\u2019s characteristic deftness and charm (\u201cAnd then [Celia] had another brilliant\ninspiration. \u2018In fact, you might write an article about it.\u2019 And, as you see, I have\u201d [786]).\nThe backdrop of the vermin-ridden trenches acts immediately to dull the wit of the piece\nwith the reality of the French front, but even beyond this the obvious change in tone is a\nnew element of reflection lacking in his earlier writing. Where Ronald and Celia\u2019s daily\nadventures originally read at a hurried pace in the present that can hardly be bothered\nwith either past or future, \u201cThe Joke\u201d purposefully turns a past event into a parodic\ntragedy, which Milne communicates both in tone and in formation of the piece into\n\u201cchapters\u201d and an \u201cepilogue.\u201d What might have once been spontaneous realization is now\nthoughtfully planned.\n\n\u201cThe Patriot\u201d continues this look to the past as Milne shares the story of Ronald\nand Celia\u2019s attempt to get rid of their pianola. While his fare for *Punch* still includes\ninconsequential daily occurrences, the comedy shares equal weight with commentary.\nThe piece opens with the history of Ronald\u2019s pianola and its role in the couple\u2019s\ncourtship, as well as Ronald\u2019s preoccupation with playing \u201cThe Charge of the Uhlans\u201d by\nKarl Bohm in a manner that created \u201ca whole battle scene\u201d (802).\\(^8\\) When the couple\n\n\\(^8\\) Despite the fact that a pianola is not \u201cplayed,\u201d Milne persistently describes the operation of the instrument\nin terms of a traditional piano. Presumably, this is a reflection on the speaker, Ronald, who would like to believe he is the performer, rather than the pianola.\ndecides to hand off the instrument to someone else after Ronald has returned from war, they reminisce together on the instrument\u2019s role in their lives and decide to play a sending off song, only to discover a change: \u201cIt really was wonderful. For the first time in its life my pianola refused to play \u2018The Charge of the Uhlans.\u2019 It had played it a hundred times before the War, but now\u2014no!\u201d (804). Tellingly, Ronald/Milne is unable to recreate \u201ca whole battle scene\u201d after his stint in the war, but is instead able to reflect on his experience both in the war and before it.\u2079\n\nOver the course of the war Milne\u2019s plays also demonstrate his shift in theme and approach, and even more so the change in his representation of the present. However, the change is more difficult to establish in his drama than in his magazine writing. Unlike his writing for Punch, Milne began writing plays during the war, making it impossible to establish a pre-war baseline. In fact, Milne only wrote one play before his assignment to the front, Wurzel-Flummery (Thwaite 170). Situated amidst both Milne\u2019s switch from humorist to playwright and his trend toward a more troubled understanding of the present, Wurzel-Flummery bridges the various changes in Milne\u2019s writing: it is both lighter and more humorous than his later works, and more systematically cynical than his magazine humor. Like Milne\u2019s later dramas, the play demonstrates a growing suspicion of social institutions and values. The play pits social dignity and legacy against money and ambition, considering \u201cthe unlikely question: Would anyone be willing to assume the name Wurzel-Flummery, in order to receive an inheritance of \u00a350,000?\u201d (Thwaite 170).\n\n---\n\n\u2079 The title \u201cThe Patriot\u201d itself quietly comments on the war and calls into question the nature of patriotism. \u201cThe Patriot\u201d within the story is not Ronald, Celia, or the person they are going to give the pianola to; it seems to be a label for the pianola which refuses to play war-oriented music after Ronald returns from his service. To Milne, true patriotism involves a rejection of war activities, as he outlines in Peace with Honour (1934).\nCharacter Denis Clifton offers two members of Parliament, Robert Cranshaw and Richard Meriton, sizable inheritances from his deceased uncle on the condition they each adopt the family name of \u201cWurzel-Flummery.\u201d The ruse, as revealed by Clifton, was designed by his departed uncle to prove that \u201cthere was nothing, however contemptible,\u201d that men, even rising politicians with name recognition, \u201cwould not do for money\u201d (24).\n\nWhile the play does probe social issues, the idea that real stakes are involved for either politician is undermined by light-handed treatment of both characters\u2019 values and sensibilities; like Milne\u2019s *Punch* writing, *Wurzel-Flummery*\u2019s premise unfolds more as a game than as a theoretical exploration. In particular, Meriton\u2019s decision reveals the lack of depth in the play\u2019s development, as Milne turns to a favorite popular exploit\u2014young love\u2014in order dismissively to justify the younger MP\u2019s decision to adopt the name as a means of funding his marriage to Cranshaw\u2019s daughter Violet. Such antics and love-plots echo Milne\u2019s \u201cRabbits\u201d column, or his Ronald and Celia series. Due to these trivial diversions, the play fails to truly consider the issue at hand, but to manipulate it instead for the sake of comedy; as a result, the limited stakes of the play curtail the potential of generating a probing social commentary.\n\nDespite its tendency to undermine its own conversation on social values, *Wurzel-Flummery* sets the stage for Milne\u2019s later, more effective plays. His plays shortly following the war\u2014particularly *The Lucky One* (written 1917, produced 1922), *Mr. Pim Passes By* (written and produced 1919), and *The Truth About Blayds* (written and produced 1921)\u2014also revolve around thematic questions as *Wurzel-Flummery* does, but within much more disrupted contexts with much more at stake. Where *Wurzel-Flummery*\nunravels like a carefully planned game, plays like *The Lucky One* dance around far more complicated and elusive problems. *The Lucky One* carries overt autobiographical tones in relation to Milne\u2019s family: Gerald, the lucky son, appears to be a thinly veiled version of Milne himself, while the struggling Bob seems to be a projection of Milne\u2019s older brother Ken. Milne regularly referred to Ken as a better person than himself, but Bob represents how Ken might have responded to Milne\u2019s consistent successes if Ken had been a worse man. The play refuses to act as either a comedy or tragedy, turning convention at the end when the girl goes home with the wrong man (in this case, Bob). Thwaite theorizes that \u201cthe probable reason why *The Lucky One* did not find a producer in 1917 was the fact that the plot was so disturbing and unconventional\u201d (182). It remains unclear if each or neither brother is intended to garner the audience\u2019s support by the play\u2019s conclusion.\n\nPamela, the love interest of both Gerald and Bob, functions throughout the play as a source of stability to those around her, while simultaneously catalyzing a rift between the brothers. In the final scene, as Pamela confesses her decision to break her engagement to Gerald in order to marry Bob, she claims that \u201cGerald, you couldn't really have loved me; you don't really now\u201d (93). Until this point the audience has been led to trust Pamela's insight. When Bob is first introduced, Pamela quickly informs both Gerald and the audience that she senses something is wrong: \u201cHe\u2019s worried about something. I tried to get him to tell me as we came from the station, but he wouldn\u2019t\u201d (51). Gerald automatically believes her, encouraging the audience to do the same, and his subsequent conversation with Bob reveals the legal issues that have arisen at Bob\u2019s firm in the city. This pattern of Pamela\u2019s correct intuition continues throughout the play. Even though\nPamela clearly changes and develops over the course of the play, she still functions as a stable element for both the main characters and the audience. Yet at the moment when Pamela declares that Gerald cannot really love her, the truth of the matter is obscured: Pamela claims Gerald does not and cannot love her, but the play ends with a focus on Gerald's jilted despair, giving him the final word and the appearance of finality. An audience is denied a true conclusion of dramatic tension, left wondering who was really right. Throughout *The Lucky One* thread tensions of dysfunctional, yet necessary relationships: Gerald and Bob\u2019s competitive legacy, Bob\u2019s hopeless career gaffes, unequal parental expectations, and Pamela\u2019s conflation of love, friendship, and caregiving. The lack of resolution of any of these strains in the play leaves audiences with only the precariously unstable landscape of human interactions and very little hope on the horizon.\n\nDespite the potentially bleak picture painted in *The Lucky One*, Milne frequently drew on more stable relational situations as the bases of other plays, particularly focusing on marriage. In his initial 1919 foray probing the topic, *Mr. Pim Passes By*, Milne tests the stability and relationship of legal marriage and marital love, disrupting the assumption that one signifies the other, hence problematizing the existence of either. Previously, Milne\u2019s treatment of love, while prolific, existed in light, casual terms (in, for instance, his serials) or within a fairy tale context (as in *Once On a Time*). In *Mr. Pim*, however, love and marriage are regarded not as developments but as stakes to be lost.\n\nWhen George Marden discovers that his wife Olivia's late first husband has been\n\n---\n\n10 In addition to *Mr. Pim Passes By*, Milne notably wrote on the theme of marriage in *Michael and Mary* (play, 1930), *Two People* (novel, 1931), and various essays. Earlier in his writing, young love and marriage had been frequent themes in his *Punch* series, but never addressed with much seriousness.\ndiscovered alive (nullifying the Mardens' marriage), differences in interpretation arise as the couple attempts to sort out the crisis. George laments that Olivia can discuss the option of divorcing her now-living first husband \u201cso calmly, as if there was nothing blameworthy in being divorced, as if there was nothing unusual in my marrying a divorced woman, as if there was nothing wrong in our having lived together for years without having married\u201d (104). In response, Olivia reveals Milne's counter to the limiting legal understanding of marriage: \u201cWhat seems wrong to me,\u201d Olivia says, \u201cis that I lived for five years with a bad man whom I hated. What seems right to me is that I lived for five years with a good man whom I love\u201d (104).\n\nBeneath this play\u2019s comedy of unintentional bigamy lurks an uncomfortable view of the ability of social institutions to dictate values. Milne complicates the relationship between social values, love, and marriage as a means of testing what constitutes true marriage; his answer seems to leave no room for either religion or law. This question is revisited in his 1929 play *Michael and Mary*, in which the title characters knowingly commit bigamy after Mary\u2019s first husband abandons her and leaves no means by which she may divorce him. In the lengthy introduction to the play, Milne suggests \u201cthat a marriage ceremony is something more than a formal compliance with the Law of Man or the Law of God. It is something in itself\u201d (xiv). In *Mr. Pim*, the fact that Olivia views the Mardens\u2019 marriage as \u201csomething in itself\u201d allows her to deem the marriage right, regardless of legal or religious sanction. Unlike the relational outlook in *The Lucky One*, in Milne\u2019s marriage writings there seems to be hope for healthy conclusions, but even this hope is troubled. Even if Milne\u2019s redefinition of marriage is primarily hopeful, his\nplays demonstrate the dismal outlook of truly escaping traditional conventions of marriage. Milne\u2019s true marriage must always navigate and, at times, combat social definitions of marriage. Tradition offers little help in adequately explaining what marriage should look like, and Milne\u2019s emphasis on marriage as a specific type of love suggests that marriage must be defined within individuals. But as Mr. Pim shows us in the characters of George and Olivia Marden, two individual selves\u2014even two in love\u2014cannot rely on naturally aligning with each other. When George and Olivia fail to resolve their differences over their marriage crisis, the two threaten to separate. However, when Olivia learns that her first husband actually has died, she comments to herself that \u201cGeorge is the only husband I have\u201d (134). With this acknowledgement, Olivia reconciles with George. Although she allows George to believe that the nature of her first husband\u2019s death requires that they legally renew their marriage, Olivia never attempts to rectify George\u2019s socially traditional definition of marriage. This unsatisfying ending disrupts even Milne\u2019s revision of marriage, which already must operate in a destabilized social context.\n\nIn The Truth About Blayds, Milne turns from discussing belief in marriage to the nature of belief itself. Blayds is Milne\u2019s heftiest theoretical exploration from this period of writing, taking on the question: \u201cWhat happens in a religious community when its god is discovered to be a false god?\u201d (It\u2019s Too Late Now 230). While he phrases his theme in religious terms, Milne does not mean to investigate religion exclusively. The play focuses on a great national poet, rather than a pope or saint. The literary legacy of Oliver Blayds is revealed to his followers and family as a farce, built on the work of a contemporary\nwho died before having the chance to publish his verse. Each family member struggles to reorient their identities, often acknowledging irreparable injury along the way. Blayds\u2019s caretaker daughter Isobel, who first learns the truth and shares it with the family after Blayds\u2019s death, realizes the true extent of her sacrifice:\n\nWhat has my life been? Look at me now\u2014what am I\u2014a wasted woman. [\u2026] Ah, but I was doing it for Blayds, for the sake of his immortal poetry.\n\n(She laughs\u2014such a laugh.) And look at me now, all wasted. The wife I might have been, the mother I might have been. How beautiful the world was, all those years ago\u201d (164-5).\n\nUnlike the rest of the family, Isobel has known the truth for weeks and been allowed to dwell on its implications. William, Blayds\u2019s son-in-law and personal assistant, must respond immediately and oscillates between acceptance and denial. He begins to question the proofs of Blayds\u2019s legacy, asking, \u201cHis friends, Isobel. The great friends he had had. The stories he has told us about them\u2014were those all lies too? No, they couldn\u2019t have been. I\u2019ve seen them here myself\u201d (155). To William, admitting his own deception is one thing; admitting the deception of other \u201cgreat\u201d literary figures is quite another. In light of the uncovered truth about Oliver Blayds, the whole system of value surrounding the Blayds family suddenly collapses, and the wider sphere of British culture and values begins to teeter.\n\nAfter the initial shock of the revelation passes and the family comes to terms with what has amounted to years of misguided devotion, Milne appears to postulate that in such a situation the (religious) community will elect to resurrect its false god. The family\nchooses to continue the charade. While Milne\u2019s disapproving voice enters through Blayds\u2019s granddaughter Septima (\u201cI think it\u2019s rot, trying to deceive ourselves by making up a story about Grandfather just because we don\u2019t like the one which he told Aunt Isobel. [...] I am quite content with the truth\u201d [182-183]), the play ends on the disturbing note that \u201cYou know, the trouble is that the Truth about Blayds won\u2019t seem very beautiful. There\u2019s your truth, and then there\u2019s William\u2019s truth, too. [...] Hadn\u2019t we better just leave [Blayds] with the poetry?\u201d (185). The truth becomes a matter of convenience, and the moral debate that has been raised for the majority of the play is quietly put aside as the previous champions of justice\u2014specifically, Septima and Isobel\u2014acquiesce to the ongoing facade. Blayds may, in this sense, be the most troubling of Milne\u2019s plays: not only do both the past and present prove to be unstable, but the implication of humanity\u2019s convenient truth threatens to cloak the disruption and forestall any hope of negotiation. As Blayds\u2019s daughter Marion asks, \u201cCould a man who wrote so beautifully about truth as [Blayds] did, tell lies and deceive people as Isobel says he did?\u201d (154). The answer, as Blayds never wrote about truth in the first place, must be circular and consequently useless.\n\nIn each of these three plays, we find a questioning that pushes beyond the inquiry of Wurzel-Flummery. Where Wurzel-Flummery premises a conflict of social values for the sake of comedy, real stakes are raised in The Lucky One, Mr. Pim Passes By, and The Truth About Blayds, even as comedy weaves through the narratives. Characters lose, or stand to lose, meaningful relationships or identities as the result of disrupted contexts and values rather than through their own actions. Reality, knowledge, and even morality\nbecome suspect as Gerald, George and Olivia, the Blayds family, and even the audience realize that what once seemed true or safe is no longer impermeable. In this pattern I suggest we find the shadow of Milne\u2019s war, in which he discovered the same thing about his own reality, beliefs, and self. The disruption occurring in his post-war writing reflects the destabilization of understood reality that Milne experienced as a result of his WWI experience.\n\nWhat we see in Milne\u2019s writing before, through, and after World War I is a growing distance from the present, both in the development of reflective glances at the past and increasingly persistent questioning of assumed stable truths. His progression as a writer toward more serious content\u2014even in comedic wrappings\u2014signals not only the development of a maturing author, but, within only a few years, a writer whose worldview has been significantly disrupted. Perhaps it is due to the moral compromise Milne felt himself involved in by enlisting and participating in World War I that he consistently avoided representing personal reverberations of the war in his writing; whether or not Milne consciously acknowledged the personal complications caused for him by war, the ramifications of the event still remain in his work. Using the war as a centerpoint allows us to see more accurately this shift and disturbance in Milne\u2019s worldview, this discomfort with the present. At the same time it also raises a new question: How does Milne\u2019s altered worldview manifest in his children\u2019s literature?\n\nEven without a focus on Milne\u2019s wartime experience and shifted worldview, the nostalgia of Winnie-the-Pooh and House at Pooh Corner is so marked that critics writing on his children\u2019s literature rarely fail to comment on it. Jackie Wullschl\u00e4ger even credits\n\n24\nMilne\u2019s pervasive nostalgia in *Pooh* with his own fall from fame: \u201cThe Pooh books rested on an appeal to nostalgia, so that in a sense Milne was old-fashioned even when he was the height of fashion, a fact which proved to make Pooh endurably popular while Milne was soon seen as hopelessly out of date\u201d (197). Reading with an imperial focus, Daphne Kutzer similarly observes that \u201cMilne is nostalgic about lost childhood, both his own and his country\u2019s, and this nostalgia pervades the world of the Hundred Acre Wood\u201d (95).  \n\nBoth Wullschl\u00e4ger and Rebecca Knuth locate Milne\u2019s nostalgic and sentimental tone within the greater public reaction to the Great War as audiences sought means to escape a dreary post-war reality. Even though both the Pooh stories and the poetry of *When We Were Very Young* and *Now We Are Six* were inspired initially by Milne\u2019s son Christopher Robin after the war, the gaze of all four books turns to the past when an adult readership finds in them access to the forgotten innocence of childhood. Thwaite observes that Milne\u2019s early drama success resulted from his awareness that \u201cmany people going to the theatre just after the war did not want anyone to be serious\u201d (198); with the introduction\n\n---\n\n11 Although Kutzer identifies the same nostalgia that other critics do, overall she argues for a revised reading of the Pooh stories. Kutzer prioritizes what she reads as imperialist moments in the text of *Winnie-the-Pooh* and *House at Pooh Corner*, although she still reads Milne\u2019s focus on childhood as a retreat. In her book *Empire\u2019s Children*, Kutzer proposes that as an adult appropriating ownership of a child\u2019s sphere and narrative, Milne colonizes Christopher Robin and silences his voice (96). She also takes Kanga and Roo, Tigger, and the invisible Heffalump, as exotic animals from imperial regions, and treats them as exemplary symbols of empire (100-101). David Rudd, in his book *Reading the Child in Children\u2019s Literature*, rightly criticizes Kutzer\u2019s view, specifically her claim that Milne colonizes Christopher Robin without elaborating what the alternative\u2014Milne not assuming the role of narrator\u2014might feasibly look like (66). I would also respond to Kutzer\u2019s claim that Christopher Robin\u2019s \u201cexpedition to the North Pole\u201d represents an adoption of adult imperial behaviors (102). While Milne most likely is referencing the pattern of national discoveries and achievements following World War I, his mocking tone hardly conveys approval: \u201cexpedition\u201d is butchered into \u201cexpotition,\u201d and the Hundred Acre Woods\u2019 \u201cNorth Pole\u201d is actually a stick in the ground. If anything, Milne seems to be once again glancing critically at social achievements and values.\nof Milne\u2019s children\u2019s literature, novel new opportunities for escapism presented themselves to his adult audience.\n\nTo be sure, the children\u2019s books were only loosely motivated by Christopher Robin\u2014Milne claimed his own childhood as much of the inspiration for his writing. In \u201cThe End of a Chapter,\u201d Milne explains his decision to end his short stint as a children\u2019s writer and insists that\n\n> Now there is something about [*When We Were Very Young*] that I must explain; namely, that the adventures of a child as therein put down came from three sources:\n\n1. My memories of my own childhood.\n3. My observations of the particular childhood with which I was now in contact. (196)\n\nFrom here Milne elaborates on the extent to which Christopher Robin is absent from the children\u2019s stories. Doubtless Milne\u2019s insistence on Christopher Robin\u2019s inconsequentiality in the children\u2019s books can at least partially be credited to the unforeseen international fame that had rapidly descended on his young son after the publication of [*When We Were Very Young*], but this is not to suggest that Milne overstates his case. The same critics who enjoy pointing out Milne\u2019s overt sentimentalism also comment on his unusually pleasant life, his youth in particular. Knuth comments that \u201cunlike many of his Victorian predecessors, such as Burnett, Milne enjoyed a happy childhood\u201d (128), and Wullschl\u00e4ger contrasts Milne starkly with other children\u2019s writers.\nas having grown up \u201chandsome and clever, well-off and well-liked\u201d while others were \u201cmavericks, lonely, eccentric, emotionally unbalanced or odd in appearance\u201d (177). It seems evident that Milne enjoyed an idyllic childhood, which he depicts both in the children\u2019s books and, more directly, his biographical writing. In his autobiography, he devotes 82 pages to its fond memory, making the section \u201cThe Child\u201d by far the longest of seven in a 248-page volume. Childhood as it is depicted in the children\u2019s books is idealized, yet familiar and comfortable.12\n\nI agree with the general critical consensus that Milne\u2019s children\u2019s literature indicates a retreat to the past and view toward childhood, but I also find\u2014simultaneously\u2014a destabilized present as we see in his adult literature, particularly in the Pooh books. Wullschl\u00e4ger has commented that the \u201ctoys [of the Hundred Acre Wood] are breathtakingly simple figures who mirror typical child characteristics or moods\u2014timid Piglet, bouncy Tigger, sulky Eeyore\u201d (188). I recognize how this interpretation of the Hundred Acre Wood characters (barring Christopher Robin) might be tempting, but it does not probe Milne\u2019s writing adequately. The animals in the Hundred Acre Wood do not act the way Milne\u2019s children act in his literature, even on a reduced scale. There is a significant difference established between Christopher Robin and the animals; when they falter, Christopher Robin provides safety and direction. When\n\n12 Paula Connolly has suggested that Milne both criticizes and exemplifies William Wordsworth\u2019s idea of the child in the Pooh books. Connolly finds a subtle parodying of Wordsworth in Christopher Robin\u2019s position in the Hundred Acre Wood: to the animals, he occupies the intuitively connected space of a Wordworthian child, yet readers are made aware through narrative clues that Christopher Robin is not nearly as aware as the animals believe he is (194). At times Christopher Robin is even at odds with nature in the Hundred Acre Woods. Connolly views Pooh as Milne\u2019s \u201cemblem of Romantic notions in childhood,\u201d since he engages with his landscape through imagination and prizes feelings over knowledge; Christopher Robin, on the other hand, is a \u201cvery real boy\u201d (196).\nTigger and Roo get stuck in a high tree, Pooh and Piglet helplessly try to comfort them from the ground until Christopher Robin and Eeyore arrive. \u201cIt\u2019s Christopher Robin!\u201d said Piglet. \u2018He\u2019ll know what to do\u2019\u201d (215). Pooh, Piglet, and the other characters defer to Christopher Robin to the point that action is not taken without his direction.\n\nI do agree with Wullschl\u00e4ger that the characters may be \u201cbreathtakingly simple figures,\u201d but I find that they mirror Milne\u2019s adults rather than his children. Like Milne\u2019s adults, the Hundred Acre Wood characters navigate a (seemingly) changing and unstable reality, although in vastly simplified terms. Rather than confronting a false idol as the Blayds family does in The Truth About Blayds, the Hundred Acre Wood characters must prepare to deal with Heffalumps and Woozles that may or may not even exist. As George and Olivia Marden sort through a possibly invalid marriage in Mr. Pim Passes By, Pooh tries to make sense of a world where usually stable objects\u2014such as donkey tails, houses, and even Christopher Robin\u2014can be lost, relocated, or even redefined. Milne flips the traditional roles of adults and children, and casts Christopher Robin\u2019s childish self-confidence as a leadership quality in the face of his anxious and unsure animal \u201cadults.\u201d\n\nThe destabilization in Milne\u2019s children\u2019s literature is not perfectly parallel to that which occurs in his adult fiction since it takes place within a context that Milne simultaneously sentimentalizes: childhood. Does Milne\u2019s nostalgic look at childhood adequately accommodate the inclusion of a disrupted adult present? One way to reconcile these two aspects is in terms of communal and political morality. Niall Nance-Carroll suggests that the Pooh stories should be read as not primarily sentimental, but moral.\nSpecifically, and referring to Mikhail Bahktin\u2019s idea of everyday ethics that prioritize flexible negotiation within specific situations over concrete moral boundaries, Nance-Carroll argues for a prosaically ethical interpretation of *Winnie-the-Pooh* (89). Instead of reading *Winnie-the-Pooh* and *House at Pooh Corner* as sentimental fluff, Nance-Carroll views both books as Milne\u2019s demonstrations of what prosaic communal ethics can look like from the vantage point of childlike simplicity:\n\n> The universality of [prosaic ethics] extends throughout the forest; all must be accepted within it on their own merits because so long as they have no malice, even if they are troublesome, they are [as Pooh says] \u2018all right really.\u2019 While Kanga, Roo, and Tigger all start as outsiders, they do not remain peripheral to the forest, but become central members. Eeyore\u2019s homelessness is alleviated, which ensures that everyone achieves some level of security. (91)\n\nChristopher Robin, as the child figure in the stories, may even be the root of this ethical system. Nance-Carroll observes that \u201cfor Christopher Robin, helping others is an expectation; it does not require celebration. He makes proper and ethical choices and does not have to confuse them with heroism to make them worthwhile\u201d (93). I locate Christopher Robin as the significant child figure in these stories, with the animals functioning as caricature adults. Yet, as the animals all turn to Christopher Robin for guidance and leadership, by emulating him they adopt his ethical system that Nance-Carroll has identified. It is possible for us to read Milne\u2019s prosaic ethics as more inherent to children than adults, yet still applicable and beneficial to both groups.\nThis idea of prosaic ethics can be seen in Milne\u2019s 1934 book *Peace with Honour*, outlining his pacifistic beliefs. A pacifist manifesto may seem to contradict Nance-Carroll\u2019s view that Milne\u2019s prosaic ethics is rooted in a rejection of systematized belief, but a closer look at *Peace with Honour* shows otherwise. Milne does prescribe a fairly rigid order of pacifism in the book, but much of the book is dedicated not to promoting pacifism per se, but to rejecting an even more rigid and detrimental belief system: nationalism. As a non-religious individual, Milne\u2019s pacifistic beliefs originate not with religious doctrine, but with a logical and pragmatic reality. In response to an increasingly nationalistic rationalization for war, Milne responds that \u201cNo nation can give its word of honour to another nation, because no nation has a word of honour to give. It is as meaningless for a nation to talk about its honour as it would be for a cholera germ to talk about its honour; or a bath-mat; or the Multiplication Table\u201d (111). Milne\u2019s concern for pacifism is that it should replace illogical systems such as nationalism that inevitably lead to destruction and death. Just as Christopher Robin does not equate doing the right thing with heroism, so Milne does not assign heroism to pacifism and rejects any heroic association with nationalism; to him, pacifism simply represents doing the right thing. As Nance-Carroll points out, Milne himself is fairly flexible even within his own staunch pacifistic views, as he followed *Peace with Honour* with *War with Honour*, in which he advocated war in light of Hitler\u2019s growing threat.\n\nWhat we can see in this construct of prosaic ethics and Milne\u2019s rejection of nationalism is a quiet response to his experience in the Battle of the Somme as well as to his personal destabilization resulting from that event. Milne\u2019s convictions both in the\nprimacy of peace and an untrustworthy reality are reconciled in the safety of the Hundred Acre woods. While both of these themes thread through many of Milne\u2019s works, it is in his adult literature that his questioning becomes most insistent and his conclusions fail to satisfy. Perhaps this is why Milne deprioritized his children\u2019s literature. Without the safe environment found in childhood, the questions of adulthood become increasingly pressing issues. Adulthood requires facing complex truths, uncertain identities, problematic relationships, and the reality of war.\n\nThe enduring allure of Winnie-the-Pooh serves as a testament, albeit an unwanted one, to Milne\u2019s insight into the heart of his audience; but the stories of Pooh or House at Pooh Corner and the poems of When We Were Very Young and Now We Are Six allow readers to revel only in the nostalgia of innocent childhood. Milne\u2019s less comforting work\u2014always witty and quick, yet with disquieting tensions lurking underneath a veneer of cleverness\u2014has, for the most part, been left on the shelf. While I do agree that Milne has earned his place among the canon of children\u2019s literature, I also believe that room should be made for him in the broader sphere of literary criticism. I have tried in these pages to indicate what one possible approach might be to Milne as not only a notable children\u2019s writer, but also as an adult author of scholarly interest. Within a broader view of Milne as a writer, particularly in light of his involvement in World War I, we find not only a more accurate understanding of his work, but a more nuanced reading of Winnie-the-Pooh, and a doorway into his forgotten writing for adults.\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://collected.jcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1037&context=mastersessays", "len_cl100k_base": 13187, "olmocr-version": "0.1.50", "pdf-total-pages": 38, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 83694, "total-output-tokens": 16352, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00012314319610595703, "__label__art_design": 0.0011796951293945312, "__label__crime_law": 0.0001252889633178711, "__label__education_jobs": 0.00872802734375, "__label__entertainment": 0.0015821456909179688, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00012153387069702148, "__label__finance_business": 0.000255584716796875, "__label__food_dining": 0.00010913610458374023, "__label__games": 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+{"id": "4dec9c5c5fe328dff4a129e3b620fc4e968cf605", "text": "December 2014\n\nAnalysing literary journalism: Twentieth century stories: objectivity and authority in Wilkerson and Hersey\n\nBret Schulte\nUniversity of Arkansas\n\nFollow this and additional works at: http://ro.uow.edu.au/currentnarratives\n\nRecommended Citation\nAvailable at:http://ro.uow.edu.au/currentnarratives/vol1/iss4/3\nAnalysing literary journalism: Twentieth century stories: objectivity and authority in Wilkerson and Hersey\n\nAbstract\nIsabel Wilkerson\u2019s award-winning *The Warmth of Other Suns* (2010) is an evolutionary marker for transparency and authority in a genre that remains in flux. This paper examines the presence/absence of the narrator in this masterwork, in particular how Wilkerson negotiates the journalistic goal of objectivity and the inevitable confrontation with subjectivity. This paper argues that Wilkerson taps the literary tradition of John Hersey\u2019s *Hiroshima* (1946). Like *Hiroshima*, Wilkerson\u2019s *Warmth* embodies the soundest of journalistic conventions: third person point of view, extensive sampling/interviews, and secondary research. Structurally, *Warmth* also mirrors *Hiroshima*. Wilkerson chose characters that span spectrums of privilege, age, and circumstance, winnowed down as emblematic of a cast of millions who fled the Jim Crow South. Just as in *Hiroshima*, the camera eye rotates among them, providing alternating vignettes in an advancing chronology. However, Wilkerson breaks from Hersey in important ways, namely the authorial detachment that has come to be known as *Hiroshima\u2019s* hallmark. Wilkerson, on the other hand, has been praised for her empathy and transparency. She lays bare her connection to the story, her techniques, and her decision-making process in an extensive methodology section written in first-person. In a historical moment marked by increased reader anxiety and distrust of the press, the reception of *Warmth* has rewarded this subjectivity and increased transparency.\n\nThis journal article is available in Current Narratives: [http://ro.uow.edu.au/currentnarratives/vol1/iss4/3](http://ro.uow.edu.au/currentnarratives/vol1/iss4/3)\nTwentieth century stories: objectivity and authority in Wilkerson and Hersey\n\nBret Schulte\nUniversity of Arkansas\n\nABSTRACT: Isabel Wilkerson\u2019s award-winning *The Warmth of Other Suns* (2010) is an evolutionary marker for transparency and authority in a genre that remains in flux. This paper examines the presence/absence of the narrator in this masterwork, in particular how Wilkerson negotiates the journalistic goal of objectivity and the inevitable confrontation with subjectivity. This paper argues that Wilkerson taps the literary tradition of John Hersey\u2019s *Hiroshima* (1946). Like *Hiroshima*, Wilkerson\u2019s *Warmth* embodies the soundest of journalistic conventions: third person point of view, extensive sampling/interviews, and secondary research. Structurally, *Warmth* also mirrors *Hiroshima*. Wilkerson chose characters that span spectrums of privilege, age, and circumstance, winnowed down as emblematic of a cast of millions who fled the Jim Crow South. Just as in *Hiroshima*, the camera eye rotates among them, providing alternating vignettes in an advancing chronology. However, Wilkerson breaks from Hersey in important ways, namely the authorial detachment that has come to be known as *Hiroshima\u2019s* hallmark. Wilkerson, on the other hand, has been praised for her empathy and transparency. She lays bare her connection to the story, her techniques, and her decision-making process in an extensive methodology section written in first-person. In a historical moment marked by increased reader anxiety and distrust of the press, the reception of *Warmth* has rewarded this subjectivity and increased transparency.\n\nThe protection of journalism\u2014and to a degree, journalists\u2014is enshrined in the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, meaning that as a constitutionally protected practice, journalism is nearly as old as the United States itself. But what it is, and who does it, and how, remains a work in progress. You might say the final version is still unpublished.\n\nThis ongoing rewrite of journalism is striking when viewing two groundbreaking works of long-form journalism published 64 years apart: John Hersey\u2019s *Hiroshima*, first published in 1946 and Isabel Wilkerson\u2019s *The Warmth of Other Suns*, in 2010. The books invite comparison because of striking similarities in content, theme, and structure. But the juxtaposition reveals changing notions of narrative authority, accountability to audiences, journalistic transparency, and an ongoing evolution of ideas about objectivity.\n\nObjectively Speaking\n\nNearly a century after the term \u201cobjectivity\u201d was first associated with journalism, scholars and practitioners are still debating its merit\u2014even its very definition (Munoz-Torres 2012, p. 579). Frequently, objectivity is linked to August Comte\u2019s theory of positivism, which provides a utilitarian view of epistemology that is tailor-made for delivering the news: What your senses tell you is pretty much all you know. With positivism as its guide, modern mainstream news came to focus on facts, such as who, what, where, when\u2014and, with a bit more trouble\u2014how and why. Journalism scholar Charlotte Wien has argued that \u201cmost journalism, as is the case with\n\n---\n\n1 Bret Schulte is assistant professor, print and multimedia journalism, Walter J. Lemke Department of Journalism, University of Arkansas. Contact: bjschult@uark.edu\nmost of the scientific world, continues to utilize a positivist concept of objectivity\u201d (Wien 2005, p. 3).\n\nThere are two generally recognized methods of achieving said objectivity, an epistemological approach and an ethical approach. The first manifests as a neutral recitation of facts. The second emphasizes a reporter\u2019s integrity, in other words, presenting a story in a way that is fair, with balance given to opposing sides. However, as Juan Ram\u00f3n Mu\u00f1oz-Torres (2012) puts it in his discourse on the subject, \u201cOf course one cannot draw a line separating the epistemological side from the ethical one, since are both related, as mind and will are in all human beings\u201d (p. 570).\n\nThe unifying idea is that by and large values should be separated from facts. In 2001, sociologist Michael Schudson, who has written perhaps the most extensively about the culture of American news media, described objectivity as \u201ca moral ideal\u201d (p. 149). He identified an objectivity norm, which calls on the journalist to be cool, rather than emotional, in tone and report news \u201cwithout commenting on it.\u201d\n\nObjectivity\u2014or notions thereof\u2014is ubiquitous in the American press. Although Jay Rosen (1993, p. 48) is a strident critic of traditional interpretations of objectivity as balance he still called it \u201cone of the identifying features of journalism in the United States\u201d and perhaps its most important contribution to journalism worldwide. Scholar Wolfgang Donsbach\u2019s work confirms the idea. \u201cThe United States is the country where the ideal of objective journalism was born\u201d (1995, p. 18).\n\nHow and why the objectivity norm was established with such force in American journalism\u2014much more so than in Europe or other parts of the globe\u2014remains a topic of debate. Some have argued it was the result of newspapers finding greater commercial success appealing to general audiences than partisan ones. In the years leading up to the Revolutionary War, Samuel Adams helped turned the colonial press from a largely passive machine into a political and propaganda-breathing monster. His partisan columns excoriating the British crown\u2019s taxation of the colonies first appeared in the Boston Gazette in 1764. Eventually, he created a system of distribution across the colonies for anti-British news and commentary that historian Rodger Streitmatter (2012, p. 4) called \u201ca precursor of today\u2019s Associated Press.\u201d\n\nPartisanship of the press continued well into the 19th century, at which point a growing national economy turned newspapers into money machines with large circulations and a broad range of advertisers. Publishers soon found that advertisers were their best revenue source. And advertisers wanted to reach as big an audience as possible, Democratic or Republican. \u201cAccordingly, reporters writing news came to focus more on making stories and less on promoting parties\u201d (Schudson 2001, p. 156).\n\nAnother explanation hinges on technological innovation, namely the telegraph, which allowed copy to be sent over the wire, forced uniformity and put a price on word count. The telegraph broke wire services of partisanship by forcing them to write articles that could be used by any paper across the country, according to the theory\u2019s chief advocate, James Carey (1992). And that wasn\u2019t all. \u201cThe wire services demanded a form of language stripped of the local, the regional; and colloquial. They demanded something closer to scientific language\u201d (Carey 1992, p. 210). Furthermore, words cost money. Facts were at a premium; commentary was slashed.\nBeyond these arguments, Schudson (2001) says the norm of objectivity was articulated, not just embraced, by journalists, editors, and publishers in the early 20th century who sought to standardize reportage, create an occupational community, and, significantly, to endow a once-lowly profession with integrity. Schudson notes that once newspapers ceased operation as solely partisan organs, journalists faced an onslaught of propaganda from public-relations wings of corporations and governmental entities. By closing ranks around the values of objectivity, they asserted their professionalism (Schudson 2001, pp.162-163). A testimony to that new sense of professionalism: The American Society of Newspaper Editors, formed in 1922. Its code of ethics included the principles of \u201ctruthfulness, accuracy and impartiality (Schudson 2001, p. 163).\u201d By 1928, the word objectivity also appeared in ASNE public proceedings (Streckfuss 1990, p. 974).\n\nProgressivism In The Press\n\nObjectivity also made sense at a historical moment of progressivism, an age of social reform dominated by rapidly developing scientific research, technology, and an emphasis on reason. Scholar and journalism professor Richard Streckfuss (1990) described the era as one of \u201cflourishing naturalism,\u201d which saw the development of a \u201cschool of thought holding that there are no a priori truths, that attempts to explain the universe in metaphysical terms foster not understanding but ignorance and superstition\u201d (p. 975). Born from this progressive pursuit, the ideals of objectivity directed journalists away from speculation, emotion, and sensationalism and toward the real and the tangible, of what could be supported with evidence. Streckfuss argued, \u201cit was inevitable\u201d that scientific principles would be applied to journalistic practice. \u201cThe term objectivity described this effort. In its original sense, objectivity meant finding the truth through the rigorous methodology of the scientist\u201d (p. 975)\n\nModern-day scholars credit Walter Lippmann, the era\u2019s great public champion of liberalism, with advancing the ideals of what he called \u201cobjective testimony\u201d in his 1920 collection of essays, Liberty and the News, out of concern that \u201cthe press was whipping up a jingoistic, right-wing fever in the country\u201d (Lippmann, cited in Streckfuss 1990, p. 978). Lippmann blasted the press for repeating propaganda as truth, salivating over tabloid-style stories, and covering government only inasmuch as a source for scandal. He regarded the press as too populist, i.e. too sensationalist, in its taste to be trusted to provide an accurate measure of the health of civic affairs and to elevate the public and its institutions. In his 1922 essay, Public Opinion, Lippmann argued, \u201cIt is because they are compelled to act without a reliable picture of the world, that governments, schools, newspapers and churches make such small headway against the more obvious failings of democracy, against violent prejudice, apathy, preference for the curious trivial as against the dull important, and the hunger for sideshows and three-legged calves\u201d (Lare & Rossiter eds. 1963, p. 422). In the essay he seemed to have abandoned any hope for a better press, or better government, but he made the case that the more \u201cobjective criteria\u201d that are introduced, \u201cthe more perfectly an affair can be presented as news\u201d (p. 401).\n\nBy 1931, however, Lippmann\u2019s mood had improved. Why? The press, in fits and starts, had started taking his advice. In Lippmann\u2019s estimation, \u201c\u2026the most impressive event of the last decade in the history of newspapers has been the demonstration that the objective, orderly, and comprehensive presentation of news is a far more successful type of journalism today than the\ndramatic, disorderly, episodic type\u201d (p. 405). Lippmann praised what he called this \u201cnew journalism\u201d as being more independent and for drawing a broader audience, which in turn, attracted more advertisers. Such journalism would continue to gather strength, he believed, because it would attract more educated folks to the industry, or what he called \u201ctrained intelligence in newspaper work\u201d (p. 405).\n\nHersey And Hiroshima\n\nIt is true that the prestige of journalism swelled in the first half of the 20th century, thanks to the groundbreaking work of muckrakers and, later the rise of so-called \u201csmart magazines,\u201d such as The New Yorker, which mirrored the concerns and tastes of a rising class of bourgeoisie. Stylistically, journalism continued to evolve, moving beyond reports simply focused on facts and into the realm of literary storytelling. The evolution of style and the elevation of the press spawned a generation of celebrity journalists: John Hersey, Lillian Ross, Joseph Mitchell, A.J. Liebling, James Agee and more. (The mystique of journalism grew so great that even novelists\u2014long considered the sole occupants of a literary Olympus\u2014lowered themselves to try their hands at the emerging genre. Ernest Hemingway and John Dos Passos took turns as war correspondents.)\n\nA journalist himself for such magazines as Life and Time, Hersey famously exhibited the ideals of progressive American objectivism in \u201cHiroshima,\u201d his dispassionate yet painstakingly detailed account of six survivors of the atomic bomb\u2014what Hersey scholar David Sanders (1967) called \u201ccarrying the theme of survival to the limits of human possibility\u201d (p. 50). Despite the technological terror of the bomb, despite the agony of the Japanese survivors, despite Hersey\u2019s talent for chilling images, Hiroshima is nearly devoid of emotion. Hersey gives no analysis and largely abstains from indulging his subjectivity. He not only obscures his own point of view, he obscures his country\u2019s. Readers get nothing about U.S. motivation for the bomb. History and context are scant. What little information readers do get about the United States ends the moment the bomb drops. From there, the story belongs to the Japanese.\n\nHersey\u2019s lack of interest in the American version of events surrounding the atomic bomb\u2014a version already well known by his audience\u2014puts him squarely in the \u201cepistemological\u201d camp outlined by Mu\u00f1oz-Torres rather than the \u201cethical\u201d one. American points of view\u2014that the bomb was fitting retribution for the attack on Pearl Harbor and/or was a swift and justifiably powerful end to Japanese aggression\u2014are not only absent in Hiroshima, they are countermanded by that very absence. Writing in 2012, as Japan struggled with the radioactive fallout of the crippled Fukushima nuclear power plant, essayist Dan Gerstle (2012) called Hiroshima a \u201cchallenge to the narratives of martial triumph and technological utopianism surrounding the bomb\u201d (p. 90).\n\nWhile the so-called ethical view of objectivity might dictate that Hersey give voice to an American viewpoint as well as a Japanese one, an epistemological approach allowed Hersey to devote himself to a clinically detached, albeit painfully visual, re-creation of the hours and days after the atomic bomb. That demonstrably impassable style is not only a signature of the book but Hersey\u2019s chief contribution to the development of literary nonfiction. \u201cToday, when you read an artful, unsentimental magazine article or book about grunts in a firefight or cruising\ndown an IED-infested street, you are reading Hersey\u2019s journalistic patrimony\u201d (Gerstle 2012, p. 91).\n\nAs the curtain lifts on Hiroshima, the audience sees six residents of the city at the moment the bomb is dropped. A doctor carries a blood sample; a German priest reads a Jesuit magazine. From the narrator, readers learn that they will be among the survivors of a bomb that killed a hundred thousand people. Readers expecting apocalyptic atmospherics will be disappointed. Hersey\u2019s naturalistic narrative continues, an unblinking camera eye that absorbs the objective details of what was said and what was done. Hersey scholar David Sanders (1967) commends the author for writing that is \u201ccompact, tightly but not quite contrivedly organized, with many of the hardest maxims of expository writing carefully obeyed\u201d (p. 44). Sanders also remarked on what Hersey doesn\u2019t provide: elaboration, analysis and commentary. Hersey\u2019s stranglehold on his own subjectivity spills over into his treatment of his subjects, favoring for his re-creation of events what the survivors said and did rather than what they thought or felt. Sanders calls the writing \u201cutterly unmarred by any lingering impulse that Hersey may have had to say more about the first atomic bomb than the details themselves conveyed\u201d (p. 44).\n\nHersey\u2019s commitment to minimalism can be found in even the most anguishing passages of Hiroshima. The night of the bombing a woman complaining of being cold despite the heat from the city\u2019s fires, approaches Father Kleinsorge:\n\nShe began to shiver heavily, and again said it was cold. Father Kleinsorge borrowed a blanket from someone nearby and wrapped her up, but she shook more and more, and said again, \u201cI am so cold,\u201d and then she suddenly stopped shivering and was dead. (1989, p. 45)\n\nHersey offers no comment on her death. Instead, the camera swings immediately to Mr. Tanimoto, a Methodist priest, as he works to save injured men and women in danger of drowning in a rising tide:\n\nHe reached down and took a woman by the hands, but her skin slipped off in huge, glove-like pieces. He was so sickened by this, he had to sit down for a moment. (1989, p. 45)\n\nHersey relied on Tanimoto\u2019s actions to convey the natural\u2014and, no doubt, widely shared\u2014response of revulsion to the widespread human mutilation. The simple act of sitting down, which interrupts Tanimoto\u2019s frantic efforts to help as many victims as possible, carries the emotional freight that Hersey declined to carry as narrator. Later in the passage, Hersey writes that Mr. Tanimoto:\n\n\u2026lifted the slimy living bodies out and carried them up the slope and away from the tide. He had to keep consciously repeating to himself, \u201cThese are human beings.\u201d It took him three trips to get them all across the river. When he had finished, he decided to have a rest, and he went back to the park. (1989 pp. 45-46)\n\nThe passage provides one of the rare occasions when Hersey enters the mind of a subject. But even Hersey\u2019s decision to reveal Tanimoto\u2019s interior monologue\u2014\u201cThese are human beings.\u201d\u2014is clipped and framed as an action. The words are not merely presented as a thought.\nThey run through Tanimoto\u2019s mind over and over, as if on a spool, while he saves what lives he can. What readers do not learn are the more ineffable aspects of this moment. No attempt is made to put words to the feelings, the sensation, or the subjectivity of Tanimoto\u2019s experience. In this objective account, the actions\u2014what was done and what was said, even if it was only to himself\u2014stand as the truth of that day.\n\nWhen Father Kleinsorge sees the \u201cterrible flash,\u201d he is convinced he is right under the bomb, meaning certain death. \u201cThen, for a few seconds or minutes, he went out of his mind\u201d (p. 13). The description of Kleinsorge\u2019s psychotic episode ends there, presumably Kleinsorge couldn\u2019t be trusted to give an accurate account of his actions or his thoughts while \u201cout of his mind.\u201d The objective truth\u2014one grounded only in what facts are available and what can be perceived through the senses\u2014means that what happened next is unknowable and cannot be written. The result is a strangely affecting scene that forces readers to imagine the hysteria on their own. By providing less, one could argue that Hersey requires his audience to do more, involving readers in the text by making them actively imagine rather than passively read.\n\n**Hiroshima Hits The Public**\n\nThe sensation created by \u201cHiroshima\u201d is almost impossible to overstate. When it appeared in the Aug. 31, 1946 issue of *The New Yorker*, it was (and still is) the only story to occupy an entire issue of magazine, replacing even its popular cartoons (Sharp 2000, p. 434). The article quickly dominated the public sphere. ABC Radio hired actors to read the story word-for-word in a broadcast that spanned four days, resulting in an honorable mention for \u201cOutstanding Educational Program\u201d from the Peabody Awards (Peabody Awards 2013). In book form, *Hiroshima* was published nearly worldwide, with the notable exception of Japan (Hulse 1983, p. 37.) In the United States, The Book-of-the-Month Club distributed copies for free. Club president Harry Scherman said, \u201cWe find it hard to conceive of anything being written that could be of more importance at this moment to the human race\u201d (Sanders 1967, p. 49). Purportedly, Albert Einstein and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch combined to buy 1,500 copies. The book has become standard reading in high school and college classrooms (Hulse 1989, p. 37).\n\nBut Hersey\u2019s style\u2014what might be called radicalized objectivity when set against the face of tragedy on such an unfathomable scale\u2014had an unintended effect on at least some readers. They were turned off by his impersonal tone, his flat and exhaustive depiction of facts and details, and the fact that Hersey left moral questions only to his characters. Scholar Kingsley Widmer suggested *The New Yorker* editors were to blame for the style, which he considered \u201cweirdly understated and depersonalized\u201d (Widmer, cited in Frus 1994, p. 93). The reviewer for the *Times Literary Supplement* felt that Hersey\u2019s understated response to the atomic bomb wasn\u2019t up to the task, writing that Hersey \u201clet the facts speak for themselves, and they have not spoken loud enough\u201d (Frus 1994, pp. 93-94). Critic Dwight Macdonald (1946) called it a \u201cmoral deficiency\u201d (p. 308). Some readers, meanwhile, perceived the stoicism of *Hiroshima* as rather racially stereotypical portrayal of the Japanese (Frus 1994, p. 94). Phyllis Frus said Hersey\u2019s style falls into definitions of sensationalism by treating the characters as spectacles. She accused Hersey of exploiting the subjects, and \u201cbecause Hersey refuses to analyze or consider his relation to his\nsubjects, we end up with a depoliticized journalism that reproduces \u2018the way things are\u201d (1994 p. 95).\n\nFurthermore, Hersey achieved that objectivity, in part, by keeping invisible his own connection to the story and the methods he employed to report it. That decisions stands in stark contrast to the one made by his contemporary, James Agee. In his landmark work, *Let Us Now Praise Famous Men* (1941), Agee wrote in the first-person and acknowledged that his subjectivity limited his ability to fathom human nature in general, and the subjects of his book. Hersey, for his part, maintained a conventional third-person narrative that delivered a level of omniscience, albeit one limited to the actions of his six subjects. The purpose of that omniscience\u2014the unblinking camera eye that understands the worlds through its material details\u2014was revealed in 1986 in an essay Hersey wrote for the *Yale Review*: \u201cIn fiction, the writer\u2019s voice matters; in reporting the writer\u2019s authority matters\u201d (Hersey 1986, p. 308). Clearly, Hersey believed that his objective approach to the story provided the authority the book needed. Such was Hersey\u2019s belief in the authority of the text that he declined to answer questions about the book until the 1980s. It wasn\u2019t until interviews with *Publishers Weekly* in 1984 and *The Paris Review* in 1986, that readers learned how the reporting occurred and how editorial decisions were made regarding a story that had a profound impact on the public\u2019s understanding of the atomic bomb. In *The Paris Review*, readers saw what was as close to a methodology as Hersey could offer. His idea, inspired by Thornton Wilder\u2019s novel *Bridge of San Luis Rey*, was to \u201ctake a number of people \u2013 half a dozen, as it turned out in the end \u2013 whose paths crossed each other and came to this moment of shared disaster. So I went to Hiroshima and began right away to look for the kinds of people who would fit that pattern\u201d (Dee 1986, n.p.). The process led to interviews of 40 to 50 candidates. He narrowed it down to six. Hersey said that in three weeks, he had their stories. It took him about a month to write the article.\n\nHowever, Wilder wrote with flair; Hersey chose to be \u201cdeliberately quiet in the piece\u201d in order to present the horror directly to the reader (Dee 1986, n.p.). The idea that the reader could relate to the character without interference from the narrator was also borrowed from fiction. In journalism, Hersey said, \u201cthe reader is conscious of the journalist presenting material to him. This was one of the reasons why I had experimented with the devices of fiction in doing journalism, in the hopes that my mediation would, ideally, disappear\u201d (Dee 1986 n.p.). Of course, mediation can be limited but not eliminated. Mediation occurs with every editorial choice the writer makes: the selection of facts, details, and quotes, by bringing one character to life, and by leaving another in obscurity. And Hersey\u2019s subjectivity appeared in telling fashion. Contemporary historian and critic John Hartsock (2000), notes that on rare occasions Hersey made himself visible in the text\u2014an apparition that would quickly, if faintly appear, such as in this passage: \u201cIt would be impossible to say what horrors were embedded in the minds of the children who lived through the day\u201d\u2014an acknowledgement of the author\u2019s subjective limitations (p.187). It is an acknowledgement, albeit characteristically understated, remarkably similar to Agee\u2019s.\nThe Warmth Of Subjectivity\n\n*The Warmth of Other Suns* is in many ways both a celebration and a critique of *Hiroshima*, sharing much in the way of its origins, purpose, structure, and themes. Isabel Wilkerson, however, takes the idea of subjectivity in the face of mass human suffering much further than Hersey. *The Warmth of Other Suns* can be viewed as a response to changing notions about objectivity, transparency, and authority as a norm of journalistic professionalism.\n\nThe shared heritage of the books can be traced back to the careers of the writers. Both were working journalists trained in mainstream American newsrooms. Hersey, who had grown up in China as the son of missionaries, wrote primarily for *Time* and *Life* as a war correspondent in the 1940s. Sanders (1967) notes that Hersey\u2019s first novel, *Men on Bataan* (1942), carried all the hallmarks of a traditional journalist accustomed to \u201creducing piles of notes and cabled material to truncated columns\u201d (p. 23). Later in the decade, as a Far East correspondent, Hersey added *The New Yorker* to his portfolio. The magazine sent him to Hiroshima to cover the aftermath of the bomb in any way he chose. He emerged with the tales of a handful of survivors told with dedication to detail and an unshaken commitment to journalistic detachment.\n\nIsabel Wilkerson, born and raised in Washington, D.C., spent the majority of her news career at *The New York Times*. While the Chicago Bureau Chief in 1994, Wilkerson won the Pulitzer Prize for feature writing\u2014the first Pulitzer won by a black woman. A natural at narrative nonfiction, Wilkerson soon turned her attention to a massive book-length work of journalism, *The Warmth of Other Suns*, which would take her 15 years to report and write (Newkirk 2013). It didn\u2019t create the sensation of *Hiroshima*, but it got within striking distance. Her book appeared on eight bestseller lists, ten book-of-the-year lists, and won The National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction, The Mark Lynton History Prize, The Hillman Book Award and many others. Several cities, including Chicago, selected it for a community reading program (Chicago Office of the Mayor 2013). The book has entered college classrooms (C-SPAN 2011); made Oprah\u2019s Book Club \u2013 a kingmaker in the publishing world \u2013 and was on the summer reading list of President Barack Obama (Tartar 2011.)\n\nThe shared experience at traditional American news outlets is evident in the two books, which feature such sound journalistic conventions as news worthiness, multiple sources, extensive interviews, and outside research. They chose topics of tremendous magnitude and found individuals to represent masses of people difficult to conceptualize in their entirety. Hersey plucked six characters from the survivors in Hiroshima, then a city of 245,000. Wilkerson anointed three to stand for the six million migrants from the South. To re-create those lives, both writers interviewed subjects at length\u2014days, weeks, and in Wilkerson\u2019s case, months and years.\n\nThough Hersey and Wilkerson have relatively little in common\u2014they are of different generations, race, and sex\u2014they engaged the same thematic material, the reality of human annihilation, physically and morally. Their journalism documents the survival instinct while striking notes of universal humanism as they sought to disabuse readers of racism.\n\nIn *Warmth*, Wilkerson seeks to dispel the stigma of \u201cthe other\u201d that separated African Americans from the immigrant heritage of white Americans. The parallels are too great, she\nargues. Like immigrants sailing across the Atlantic, black Americans moving north and west faced a new life as a foreigner. Of black migrants, Wilkerson writes:\n\nThey would cross into alien lands with fast, new ways of speaking and carrying oneself and with hard-to-figure rules and laws. The New World held out higher wages but staggering rents that the people had to calculate like foreign currency. The places they went were big, frightening and already crowded\u2014New York, Detroit, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and smaller, equally foreign cities\u2014Syracuse, Oakland, Milwaukee, Newark, Gary. Each turned into a \u201creceiving station and port of refuge,\u201d wrote the poet Carl Sandburg, then a Chicago newspaper reporter documenting the unfolding migration there. (2010, p. 9)\n\nThe Japanese in Hersey\u2019s journalism are not monolithic. Individuals act within a spectrum of courage, fear, disbelief, altruism, and self-preservation. A Japanese mother is so traumatized that she holds onto her dead infant for days, irrationally believing that her soldier husband will appear to say good-bye. In another act of despair, a diocesan secretary runs into a burning home to immolate himself. Dr. Fujii frees himself from his collapsed hospital, rescues two nurses and then quite rationally seeks to recover at a friend\u2019s house in a nearby village. Mr. Tanimoto, meanwhile, desperately tries to aid every victim in his path, barely acknowledging the miracle of finding his wife amid the chaos before returning to his work. Hersey\u2019s grandest gesture of pluralism was simply telling the story from the perspective of the Japanese.\n\nBy employing the points of view of marginalized groups, Hersey and Wilkerson both defied dominant narratives. Hersey\u2019s focus on victimized civilians resisted the idea that the Japanese deserved what they got, while challenging American celebrations of victory.\u201d And while some scholars had long made the case that life for black Americans did not much improve after the Civil War, Wilkerson took that idea to a mass audience. A review of Warmth in the academic journal Contemporary Sociology commended Wilkerson for making the point that six million people fleeing a region amounted to more than \u201cjust a demographic shift, but an action of then-unparalleled black agency\u201d (Hughey 2012, p. 380):\n\nWarmth does not aspire to sociological rigor in terms of theory or methodology. Properly, it is narrative non-fiction. Yet, it demonstrates both a wealth of data and well-founded analysis without either hubris or conjecture\n\n\u2026 the reader is reminded of the heterogeneity of both black socio-economic status and migratory motivations that were sewn together by the nightmare of race-based violence and the class-angst of the elusive American Dream. (Hughey 2012, p. 380)\n\nThe narratives in Warmth and Hiroshima are presented largely without concern for counterbalance. Just as Hersey abandoned American narratives of the bomb in favor of an isolated Japanese experience, Wilkerson gives little give voice to the white Southerner in the Jim Crow era, except as players in the story of Southern blacks. In this passage, white Southern planters enter black sharecropper Ida Mae\u2019s world, literally in a show of force in a search for a suspected thief. The violation of privacy, and the threat of violence proves pivotal to the decision of Ida Mae and her husband, George, to leave Mississippi for Chicago:\nLater that night, around nine or ten o\u2019clock, the pounding started on Ida Mae\u2019s door. It was like the sound of wild dogs trailing raw meat. It seemed far away at first, and then it drew closer, mad fists beating the bare face of the cabin. The cabin was dark, and Ida Mae was asleep.\n\n...Ida Mae cracked open the door and saw the men, four or five of them with chains and shotguns. She recognized the boss man, Mr. Edd. And she recognized his friend Mr. Willie Jim, another planter, but could not make out the faces of the others standing before her in the middle of the night (Wilkerson 2010, p. 125).\n\nThroughout the text, Wilkerson engages in the same epistemological approach to objectivity as Hersey, saturating her book with details of character, place, and plot. Wilkerson\u2019s specifics accumulate to create a sense of realism in the same way Hersey sought: to bring life to a particular experience\u2014individually idiosyncratic but together representative of a larger, more coherent whole. Both reporter/writers sought to enhance their understanding of their respective casts by consulting secondary texts. For *Hiroshima*, the documents Hersey read en route to Japan included a letter laying out the bomb\u2019s moral quandary to the Holy See by Father Kleinsorge, who was eventually selected as a character for the book (Dee 1986). Wilkerson\u2019s use of secondary sources\u2014far more expansive\u2014included consulting scores of previous news reports, historical documents, and sociological and anthropological research (Wilkerson 2010 pp. 555-587).\n\nIn addition to inviting comparisons of authors, themes, and journalistic conventions, the books\u2019 very structures are a near mirror of one another. What *Hiroshima* borrowed from *The Bridge of San Luis Ray*, Wilkerson\u2019s *Warmth* seems to borrow from *Hiroshima*. Both follow multiple protagonists and alternate among them as the chronology advances. Dan Gerstle (2012) describes the structure as \u201ccutting at climactic moments from one character to another, as if he were editing a movie. The result is a report that speaks for a city, and even a nation, and that retains its immediacy to this day\u201d (p.90). Gerstle was speaking of *Hiroshima* but he could just as easily be speaking of Wilkerson\u2019s *Warmth*.\n\n### Wilkerson\u2019s Voice Of Authority\n\nAlthough the books pursue similar ideas of an epistemological objectivity, Wilkerson found opportunities to engage the authorial subjectivity that Hersey so ardently avoided. Wilkerson rejected neutrality and detachment\u2014central tenets of conventional objectivity and prized by Hersey, who passed no such judgment on the atomic bomb. She articulated a clear position on the brutal legacy of the Jim Crow era, the violence of which gave African Americans no choice but to leave. Wilkerson recounts the lynching of Claude Neal in Florida for allegedly raping and killing a white woman. The man was castrated, tortured, hanged nearly to the point of death, cut down to be burned with irons, and dragged to death. The man\u2019s digits were made into souvenirs; so were images on postcards. Later, it was revealed the woman and Neal were lovers and her family may have been responsible for her death. Wilkerson concludes the grisly passage with analysis and perspective conspicuously absent from *Hiroshima*, calling that lynching and others in Florida as \u201camong the most heinous acts of terrorism committed anywhere in the South\u201d (p. 62).\nCurrent Narratives 4: 2014\n\nWhereas Hersey sought to erase the journalist as a mediator of subject and audience, Wilkerson embraced and made evident her role of analyst, researcher and storyteller, easing modern concerns about media transparency and integrity. And, early in the text \u2013 just a dozen pages into the hard-back edition \u2013 Wilkerson acknowledged her connection to the story and her reporting methods. To do this, she broke from the traditionally journalistic third-person point of view used to introduce readers to her three primary characters. In first-person voice that reveals her own subjective experiences and perceptions of the Great Migration, Wilkerson described a sepia-colored photograph she found in her childhood home that helps explain why this story is personal. The picture showed two young, black women:\n\nThe one in the pearls used to greet the train when she was little and dream of going with it. She would become a teacher, and years later, my mother. As a girl, I found the picture in a drawer in the living room, where many of those artifacts of migration likely ended up. I stared into the faces, searched the light in their eyes, the width of their smiles for clues as to how they got there. (2010 p. 12).\n\nAlmost above all else \u2013 and in contrast to Hiroshima \u2013 The Warmth of Other Suns emphasizes methodology. In an interview with Columbia Journalism Review, Wilkerson said: \u201cThe methodology is an extension of who I am\u201d (Newkirk 2012). She likened it to a mix of ethnography, anthropology, sociology, and journalism. The methodology is explained on page 13 of the hardback edition, interrupting the conventional third-person point of view and employing a first-person explanation that addresses potential reader questions and/or anxiety about the validity of the material. She writes:\n\nThe stories in this book are based on the accounts of people who gave hundreds of hours of their days to share with me what was perhaps the singular turning point in their lives. They were among more than twelve hundred people I interviewed for this book in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, and Oakland. All of them journeyed from the South during the Great Migration, and it is their collective stories that inform every aspect of this book. (2010 p. 13)\n\nVerifiable details, she continued, were corroborated by documentation. The methodology is elaborated upon at the back of the book, where it is joined by five pages of selected interviews and sources as well as 33 pages of annotated notes detailing and expanding on research and interviews presented in the book. It was central to the book\u2019s marketing\u2014appearing on the home page of the book\u2019s website and the first paragraph of the summary in the hardback\u2019s dust cover, which entices potential readers with assurances of Wilkerson\u2019s hard-gained and exclusive knowledge of the material: \u201cWilkerson interviewed more than a thousand people and gained access to previously untapped data and official records, to write this definitive and vividly dramatic account\u2026\u201d Much the same appears in the Q&A with the author on her website. The methodology is also the focus of ruminations in feature article about and reviews of the book. The New Yorker dubbed Wilkerson\u2019s indefatigable pursuit of the Great Migration stories a \u201cone-woman W.P.A project,\u201d a reference to the Depression-era Works Progress Administration, which\nemployed more than six thousand writers in its Federal Writers\u2019 Project tasked with documenting the lives of ordinary people (Lepore 2010).\n\nWilkerson\u2019s methodology, while not scientific, was rigorous and meticulous. She traveled the north and west, interviewing more than 1200 people who shared \u201cpreliminary versions of their experiences\u201d (Wilkerson 2010, p. 540). She narrowed that list down to three dozen before settling on \u201cthree complementary subjects through whose lives I hoped to re-create the broad sweep of the movement\u201d (Wilkerson 2010, p. 540). She found subjects who spanned spectrums of privilege, age, sex, socioeconomic status, and geography\u2014a male doctor from Louisiana, a female sharecropper from Mississippi, a male citrus picker from Florida\u2014carefully selected as emblematic of a cast of millions.\n\nHersey\u2019s methodology, it should be noted, was far less sophisticated and entirely unknown to the audience. He did not seek the most representative survivors of the atomic bomb, he sought survivors \u201cwhose paths crossed each other and came to this moment of shared disaster\u201d\u2014ala the Bridge of San Luis Rey, whose structure inspired Hiroshima (Dee 1986 n.p.). In the methodology section of Warmth, Wilkerson explains how the making of the book continued after the exhaustive search for the perfect stories. Then came the \u201cdistillation of those oral histories into a narrative of three protagonists,\u201d and finally, \u201can examination of newspaper accounts and scholarly and literary works of the era,\u201d both historic and contemporary. In the spirit of transparency, or perhaps in an effort to establish her authority of the topic, Wilkerson included the length of the interviews \u2013 often dozens, usually hundreds of hours \u2013 and that she visited the places of origin of her main characters for interviews with locals.\n\nWilkerson herself travelled all or part of the migration route of the three main characters. If the goal of the methodology is to establish trust with readers, she furthered those efforts by asserting her personal link to the story through the use of a subjective first-person experience \u2013 even within the methodology section. She sought to re-create a grueling car ride across the American southwest \u2013 with her parents, themselves members of the Great Migration \u2013 taken by one of her characters who was unable to find a motel that would allow him to stay the night. Wilkerson shares the moment with her parents:\n\n\u201cYou know he must have been ready to cry right about in here,\u201d my mother said as the car I had rented, a new Buick as was his when he made the crossing, hurtled into hairpin curves in total darkness with hundreds of miles to go. As it turned out, I was not able to reenact to the letter one of the most painful aspects of the drive. I was nearly ready to fall asleep at the wheel by the time we reached Yuma, Arizona. My parents insisted that we stop. We got a hotel room, of course, with no trouble at all\u2026\u201d (2010 p. 540)\n\nIn this moment and others, Wilkerson provides the reader with an entirely subjective experience of human flight in the face of persecution and demonstrates Wilkerson\u2019s attempt to make the Great Migration personal for her readers. These moments can be viewed as a nod to audience expectations and anxieties in an age far different from Hersey\u2019s. While Hersey sought to have Hiroshima accepted as \u201cthe real\u201d because of its clinical portrayal of details, Wilkerson seeks to deliver truth through an acknowledgment of her own subjectivity as well as through a\ndemonstration of her methodology. This comparison highlights a shift from conventional journalism toward meta-journalism; in other words, that the storytelling and newsgathering process is shifting away from black-box objectivity and toward historical and factual rigor, combined with a personal subjective authority and methodological transparency. What was accepted as \u201creal\u201d from Hersey was not the same as what was accepted as \u201creal\u201d from Wilkerson.\n\nThe flexible use of objectivity and the movement toward a more engaged authorial subjectivity in *Hiroshima* and *The Warmth of Other Suns* might signal a larger shift occurring in journalism at large. Hersey\u2019s use of objectivity\u2014achieved by evacuating his own subjectivity from the piece\u2014reflected the rationalistic, scientific vision of his age. Wilkerson\u2019s embedded subjectivity\u2014what one might call methodological subjectivity or evidentiary subjectivity\u2014dovetails with an increased emphasis on the personal in the Internet age, in which the voices of masses have been unleashed across media platforms, lending new importance and credence to the importance of subjective experiences.\n\nAt the same time, those voices are empowered to create journalism thanks to enabling technology, such as blogs and social media. The cultural shifts and technological shifts that enable flexible news creation may be requiring journalists who employ narrative structure to identify their own subjective positions to establish their credibility. Wilkerson shows it is not enough to simply give audiences the story; she provides the story behind the story. By revealing her motives and connection to the piece as well as how the journalism was made, she invites and trusts audiences to make their own assessments. Perhaps that sort of compact with the reader is needed in an era of growing audience disenchantment with journalism. Critic and journalist James Fallows (1996) opens his book, *Breaking the News*, with this candid assessment: The public\u2019s \u201cdisdain for the media establishment has reached new levels\u201d (p. 3). There are any number of reasons, including the rise of bloggers; the advent of meta journalism; crowd sourcing that has blurred the line between audiences and reporters; the victory of pundits over reporters, a renaissance of overtly partisan media; the legacy of defrocked journalists Stephen Glass and Jayson Blair, as well as the scandal-stained books *A Million Little Pieces* by James Frey and *Three Cups of Tea* by Greg Mortenson. Through *Warmth*, Wilkerson suggests that while journalists must speak the truth, they can speak only one of several truths, and then they have to back it up.\n\n**References**\n\nC-SPAN 2011 *Lectures in History: The Great Migration*, online video, viewed 29 September 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5oFT2hxe5TI.\n\n\nCurrent Narratives 4: 2014\n\nHartsock, JC 2000, *A History of Literary Journalism, the Emergence of a Modern Narrative Form*, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.\nIsabel Wilkerson, website, viewed 27 September 2013, http://isabelwilkerson.com/about.\nRosen, J 1993, \u2018Beyond Objectivity. 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+{"id": "e370e221fbb3428ec126818cb88b2720a2d9a5a2", "text": "CHAPTER V\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nThe Asian population in America has grown and diversified in recent decades as a result of changes in US immigration and naturalization laws. Four generations of Japanese Americans are now scattered in cities and suburbs, mostly in Hawaii and California, while new immigrants from Hongkong, Taiwan, South Korea, the Phillipines, and Southeast Asia particularly India are making their homes in new and already established communities, adding new dimensions to the needs and interests of the already existing populations. Contemporary Asian American writers and more particularly many women writers of Indian origin reflect increasingly diverse perspectives among the people of these changing groups in their writings. Increased social integration and new ethnic awareness among Asian Americans have helped encourage the publication of Asian American writing in recent years. Andre Maurois explains how the crosscultural exposure of displaced writers activates their creative writing:\n\nIn literature as in heredity, cross breeding is a source of health. The mind thus presented with standards of comparison is strengthened.... Gide has noticed that the best critics and the best artists are actually found amongst those who have inherited a mixed strain. In them, opposing strains co-exist, grow to maturity and neutralise each other. Those whom every impulse drives down the same road become men of fixed views.\nThose who, on the other hand, carry with them a conflict of tendencies are endowed with an intellectual life which is to an unusual degree, rich and fluctuating.\u00b9\n\nFrom this point of view the literature about immigrants and by immigrant writers appears to be a by-product of cultural displacement and its traumatic effect on the displaced writers.\n\nThe problem of how Asians can find a place for themselves in a predominantly white society where discrimination against racial minorities exists, therefore continues to be addressed as a major concern in Asian American literature. Popular images of Asians as sinister villains, comical servants, loyal sidekicks, exotic aliens, or sex sirens can be found in radio and television programmes and films, in advertising, and in children's literature and comic books as well as in pornographic materials. Such stereotypes of Asians in American popular culture are a vivid reflection of the attitudes that have helped shape the Asian experience in the United States and as a legacy Asian American writers are obliged to contend with if they hope to be understood and appreciated.\n\nUnfortunately, in Indian diasporic literature an awful lot of exilic writers, the expatriate writers, are continuing to provide the kind of portraits, moods, positions, and problems with which the readership, the publishing industry, and the scholars or critics are familiar and comfortable. The confrontation between the East and the West, the strange love-hate\nrelationship that exists between the two, the cultural alienation and the loss of identity faced by the expatriates are some of the aspects that are presented with a deep insight by Indian women writers like Kamala Markandaya, Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Anita Desai and Nayantara Sahgal. These expatriate writers, some of them sharing the predicament of multiple (dis)locations, respond to the chaotic state of the New Man with bicultural exposure. The negation and aimlessness in their characters is due to the nostalgic preference for their native cultures and the failure to accommodate themselves to the new forms of culture to which they are exposed. All the expatriate characters with \"affected psyche\" face one major problem - that of an assertion of freedom and free will. Their companions in the new adopted countries are \"pain\" and \"fear.\" The regressive tendencies in these expatriates are suggestive of the psychological tension they undergo owing to their choice to remain expatriates.\n\nHowever, there are a few writers fortunately, who are obliterating this particular kind of discourse between Third World and First World, margin and centre, or minority and mainstream by creating triumphant women characters who survive and flourish as boundary breakers. These writers have a much harder time being understood or being recognized.\n\nOne such writer who avoids stereotyping and identifies herself as an immigrant writer and resists being classified as an exilic or expatriate writer is Bharati Mukherjee. In her epilogue to Days and Nights in Calcutta Mukherjee proclaims the spirit that motivates her writing:\nEven more than other writers, I must learn to astonish, to shock.\u00b2\n\nMukherjee has indeed produced a body of work that sustains wonder and evokes surprise.\n\nAs a Calcutta-born writer who now calls the United States her home after having spent many bitter years in Canada, Bharati Mukherjee is part of a variety of rich literary traditions. Her works can be read in the national context of Indian Writing in English and in the international context of the literature of the Indian diaspora. Some of her short stories and works of non-fiction that relentlessly expose and challenge Canadian racism are powerful enough to make her an important figure in the literature of the multicultural Canada. Her major works of migration, of course, have earned her a significant place in the contemporary literature of the United States.\n\nIn spite of sharing the predicament of multiple displacements with other Indian women writers like Anita Desai, Kamala Markandaya, Jhabvala and Nayantara Sahgal, Mukherjee unlike them determinedly rejects the emotional paralysis of exile and enthusiastically affirms the immigrant condition - a condition that celebrates breaking away from one's ethnicity and absorbing the culture of the adopted country. If Mukherjee's works are different, refreshing and fascinating, her remarkable success lies in her forging a coherent vision out of the chaos of her multiple displacements, and the ability to articulate that vision in a voice that is as subtle as it is insistent, as graceful as it is provocative.\nAfter more than a decade in Canada where she finally rejected the hardship that was the lot of \"a dark-skinned non-European,\" Mukherjee came to the United States with a lot of faith in the American Dream and made it work for her. Rather than go through life with a chip on her shoulder about racial discrimination, as some academic expatriates to the United States do, Mukherjee chose to celebrate her new found identity and carved out a career as a brilliant contemporary American writer and a professor of creative English. In Days and Nights in Calcutta which she co-authored with her husband Clark Blaise, Mukherjee not only exposes the predicament of women in a decidedly patriarchal Indian society; on the other hand, she also attempts to define her own multiple (dis)locations, examine her increasing discomfort with a variety of Indian cultural practices, and come to terms with her growing realization that the \"real\" India is vastly different from the imagined \"home\" of her expatriate nostalgia. It systematically destroys, not without considerable anguish, the illusion of \"home\" in a bold attempt to forge a new home and a new identity in another country. The book, in fact, poses several personal questions of identity - who was I? where did I want to live? and as Mukherjee points out in an interview in The Times of India \"made me aware that I was no longer an 'expatriate' but very much an 'immigrant' who needed to belong wherever I was, putting down emotional and psychic roots in new soil. It was an urgent painful process.\" Today she will not be labelled Asian-American. Not for her the half measures of hyphenation. Though some see this as race disloyalty and a denial of her roots, she is very vocal in her assertion - \"I'm an American writer of Bengali Indian origin.\" The\nstatement underlies simultaneously the pioneer's capacity to be shocked and surprised by the new culture and the immigrant's willingness to de-form and re-form that culture.\n\nIndia thus emerges as the narrator's midpoint between her position as an expatriate in Canada and her decision to establish herself as an American immigrant. These personal details assume great relevance because the transformation in Mukherjee's personal life closely parallels the radical transformation of her as an artist - from an aloof and alienated expatriate author in emotional and artistic alignment with exiled writers like V.S. Naipaul to a confident storyteller who has now enthusiastically redefined herself as an artist in the immigrant tradition of American writers such as Bernard Malamud. There is thus a discernible movement from the theme of expatriation to immigration, from alienation to integration, in Mukherjee's fiction.\n\nThe two early novels, The Tiger's Daughter and Wife are both narratives that are grounded on select autobiographical facts of Mukherjee as an expatriate. In The Tiger's Daughter Mukherjee voices her initial loneliness and how she grappled with problems especially in Canada as she negotiated the no-man's land between the country of her past and the continent of her present. The protagonist, Tara Banerjee Cartwright, is a young Bengali woman who returns to her native Calcutta after having lived and married in the United States. There is a strange fusion of the Americanness and Indianness in the psyche of Tara. She can neither take\nrefuge in her old Indian self nor does she find any sanctuary in the newly discovered American self. The outcome of this confrontation is her split up psyche. The attitude of her friends in Calcutta who approve of foreign manners, foreign etiquette, foreign fashions but not the foreign marriage makes a criticism of the conservative attitude of the Indians, who feel crazy for foreign things, dresses and items but do not approve of marriage with foreigners. Besides Tara expects to find the city she fondly remembers from childhood, but she is shocked by Calcutta's poverty and squalor and by violent political events. More and more it seems as if her liberal American husband, who has stayed home, is right in seeing Calcutta as \"the collective future in which garbage, disease, and stagnation are man's estate\" and in warning her that a bloody caste-and-class struggle is on the way. Tara's journey to India proves frustrating, leading to disillusion, alienation, depression, and finally her tragic end. The Tiger's Daughter is the conventional return of the expatriate fiction, structured on the familiar pattern of trembling expectation, shock of unrecognition, episodic disillusionment, and final sad acceptance of one's alien position between two worlds.\n\nThe terms \"identity\" or \"self\" can be interpreted in Erich Fromm's words:\n\nThe \"self\" in the interest of which modern man acts is the social self, a self which is essentially constituted by the role the individual is supposed to play and which in reality is\nmerely the subjective disguise for the objective social function\n\nof man in society.\n\nWhen the loss of this \"self\" is felt by the expatriate he is in danger of becoming insane, if he does not save himself by acquiring a \"secondary sense of self\" which fits into one of the current patterns accepted by the society he chooses to live in. This precisely is what happens to the protagonist in Mukherjee's next novel *Wife*. Dimple Dasgupta, the wife, is the most unstable of dreamers - she day dreams. She entertains movie stars, she walks through fire for love; and because she takes the myths of her culture for literal truths, life is always betraying her. Marriage, which should bring her freedom, cocktail parties, and love, brings her instead a marriage contract with Amit Basu, an engineer who lacks the wealth and inclination for high life and passion. Under the passive posture of Amit's wife, there is a considerable accretion of violence. Dimple lives with her fermenting frustrations and puts her faith in the New World.\n\nViolence is Dimple's fundamental experience of New York. News papers, car radios, and casual conversations announce murders in alleys and ice cream parlours. When the fun of parties and new friends wears off, Dimple finds herself stranded in a fully furnished, fully applianced apartment in Greenwich village, terrified of the city outside. She kills time watching soap operas and Johnny Carson, gradually losing the ability to separate fantasy from event. Television introduces her to love, American\nstyle, making her feel Amit had betrayed her. In Calcutta he had been an emblem of strength, now he seems weak and vulnerable. He has none of the features of TV heroes, and he prevents her from metamorphosing from an obedient wife into an independent Westener.\n\nTelevision becomes the voice of conscience in her head. Dimple has a streak of subterranean violence in her which the novelist takes great pains to emphasize. She is uprooted from her family and her familiar world and projected into a social vacuum where the media becomes her surrogate community, her global village. New York intensifies her frustrations and unhooks her further from reality. Unable to cope with the conflicting pressures of the New World, Dimple ends up eliminating the most obvious among them - her husband. Mukherjee sees the final act of murder as \"self assertive,\" as a desperate bid to discover her \"self.\" If Dimple had remained in Calcutta she would have ended up committing suicide. She commits murder instead.\n\nThe novelist paints America as a great seducer, tempting the ordinary men and women to acts of psychotic violence. Coming from a \"Nothing place\" Dimple resorts to a bold, ruthless murder because of her contact with the New World. The journey from a coy, docile, Indian housewife to a killer in Dimple's character offers a glimpse into the pressurized psyche of an expatriate. The focus is upon a sensitive protagonist who is displaced, who lacks a stable sense of personal and\ncultural identity and who is a victim of racism, sexism and other forms of social oppression. A lacerated and anguished spirit, Dimple is the nowhere woman, trapped between two cultures questing for an identity.\n\nTara and Dimple are the protagonists of Mukherjee's early works, reflecting the rootlessness, pain, and anguish of expatriates that the novelist herself underwent during her years in Canada. Their lives are chaotic, unstable, and wretched as a result of isolation or loss of identity. In the words of Carlyle:\n\nIsolation is the sum-total of wretchedness in man. To be cut off, to be left solitary, to have a world alien, not your world; all a hostile camp of you; not a home at all of hearts and faces who are yours, whose you are! It is the frightfullest enchantment: too truly a work of the Evil one.... Man knows no sadder destiny.... It was not a God that did this, no!8\n\nTo feel uprooted is against man's nature because as a physical being, a man needs to be located in space. Man's individuation is a process of socialization itself. Ashley Montagu emphasizes this when he states:\n\nNo living organism is either solitary in its origin or solitary in its life. Every organism from the lowest to the highest is normally engaged in some sort of social life. The solitary animal in any species is an abnormal creature.9\nThe feeling of being in limbo and the self imposed \"leave me alone\" sort of solitariness that the expatriates experience is rather abnormal then. It is the \"impossibility of living\" which proves very oppressive. It gives rise to a feeling within them of hanging between something which is ending and something which is yet to begin.\n\nIf this is true, then it is also an undeniable factor that the present age is characterized by mass migration. It is a well-established historical fact that empire creation and colonization have resulted in people journeying from one world into a new one. Another reason for migration is man's appetite for 'progress'. Either he wants to secure more knowledge or he wants more money, which in turn causes displacement. Such geographical dislocation introduces new conditions of living and new modes of thinking, helping the break-up of the settled ways of life with assured peace and sanity resulting in an atmosphere of strong denial in which the expatriates live.\n\nThis irremedial isolation need not be the condition of modern life. A formula of adaptation has to be discovered according to need and scale of survival. What then should a migrant do and how should he relate to his new surrounding? In the midst of the abundant literature of isolation produced in this century, Bharati Mukherjee after her initial works of expatriation, diagnoses the problem and offers the solution. She identifies nostalgia - the retreat into the family home; the concerted refusal to engage with a wider notion of the 'public,' and the mindless replication of\n\"timeless\" traditions - as the most distressing characteristics of the expatriates abroad, particularly in the affluent West. The solution suggested is a farewell to one's past, one's culture, even one's parents - leaving home forever in exchange for a place in American society. The only choice seems to be to melt like raindrops in the ocean of white society. The loss of 'self' or 'identity' according to her, is therefore chiefly related to the expatriate's working very hard to artificially hang on to the past and remove himself from the present. Mukherjee finds this distressing and observes:\n\nAn expatriate works very hard to artificially hang on to the past. I say let the old self die, if it must, if the new self must be born.10\n\nThis realization corresponds with Mukherjee moving away from Canada in 1980 where she suffered \"persistent hurt\" as an expatriate and choosing to settle down in the United States with her husband Clark Blaise and her two sons because \"America, with its melting pot theory of immigration, has a healthier attitude toward Indian immigrants than Canada.\"11\n\nTrue to her conviction, one discovers that she gradually moves away from themes of expatriation and nostalgia for old homes to focus on changing identities and the formation of emotional ties to North America. For Mukherjee, her past identity as an Indian, from now on, is something she has left behind, although she has internalized it. In an interview with Ameena Meer she situates herself firmly within American culture and asserts:\nI totally consider myself an American writer... now my roots are here and my emotions are here in North America.\\textsuperscript{12}\n\nHer later fictional works are a part of her process of becoming and creating a \"new self.\"\n\nMukherjee's next novel \\textit{Jasmine} written in the United States is no longer about an expatriate but about an immigrant who just doesn't believe that one should hang on to an old culture, an old life just out of fear, paranoia or cultural arrogance. Moving away from themes of expatriation to immigration, what is suggested here is that breaking away from ethnicity and absorbing the new culture is the only way of survival. The novel carries the same title as one of the best stories in \\textit{The Middleman and Other Stories}. Mukherjee shifts the narrative into the first person and places her heroine's origin in the Punjab rather than Trinidad, where the added weight of tradition makes the love affair with the possibilities of America all the more exhilarating. The protagonist Jyoti / Jasmine is widowed in a violent confrontation she witnesses and then raped in her attempt to sneak into the United States. Despite these difficulties she survives with grace, holding on to her capacity to make a new life for herself and saying at one point, \"For me, experience must be forgotten, or else it will kill.\"\\textsuperscript{13} From Florida to the stifling old-world Indian community of Flushing, then work as an aupair on the Upper West side where she falls in love \"with the pleasures of being unconsciously American,\"\\textsuperscript{14} and on to Iowa. From Jasmine Vijh to Jane Ripplemeyer - though remembering the astrologer's prediction of her\nwidowhood keeps her from marrying the middle aged Iowian banker whose name she takes and whose child she bears and whom she leaves at the end of the novel moving on to California \"greedy with wants and reckless from hope,\"\\textsuperscript{15} in love with \"adventure, risk, transformation\"\\textsuperscript{16} through which she has redefined herself as an American.\n\n\\textbf{Jasmine} stands as one of the most suggestive novels we have about what it is to become an American. It celebrates Mukherjee's emotions and projects her as a writer of the Indian diaspora who cherishes the \"melting pot\" of America. It is a story of dislocation and relocation as the protagonist continually sheds lives to move into other roles, moving further westward while constantly fleeing pieces of her past. Jasmine is not in the grip of nostalgia but eagerly involved in the process of finding her \"new self.\" It is a process of assimilation which the novelist is celebrating.\n\nAn important aspect of Mukherjee's evolution as a writer in the immigrant tradition is a portrayal of the story of a changing America as well. Having defined the process of adaptation and assimilation she focuses her attention on the condition of not just the Indian immigrants but Asian immigrants in North America, with particular attention to the changes taking place in South Asian women in the New World. The immigrants go through extreme transformations in America and at the same time they in turn alter the shape of American society. In fact, along with their creator they become part of that long procession of people who have over the years redefined America. Mukherjee herself draws attention to the shift in focus:\nI am in fact writing about America more than about dark-complexioned immigrants. My focus is on the country. On how its changing minute by minute. My stories explore the encounter between mainstream American culture and new one formed by the migrant stream. I'm really writing about the seams joining two cultures. Many expatriate writers are destroyed by their duality, I personally feel nourished by it.\u00b9\u2077\n\nMukherjee's collection of short stories, The Middleman and Other Stories justifies this claim of being an American literary mainstream writer. It has a tone of affirmation, of belonging. Immigration is seen now as a process of transformation and net gain. It is a fascinating collection that depicts the problems of the people emigrating to America and the dream of a new life which tempts them to go there. It presents a rich vision of the New World through a variety of characters who hail from different countries of the world - China, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Iraq, Trinidad, Sri Lanka, Italy, Germany, and Phillipines. The stories in the collection are a kind of summing up of Mukherjee's beliefs and have a dual aspect - they present the experience of the migrants before and after their entry into the New World. The emigration to America is achieved at a heavy cost. This is followed by a process of adjustment and transformation of the personalities who in turn redefine America.\n\nThe book which won Mukherjee the coveted National Book Critics Circle Award, presents the new, changing America which is the result of the\ninflux of the migrants from the Third World countries. In an interview with Alison B. Carb, Mukherjee points out how even the American family has become very different, not just because of social influences and new sexual standards, but also because of the interaction between mainstream Americans and the new immigrants.\u00b9\u2079 In the story entitled \"Fathering,\" for instance, the secure life of Jason living with his girlfriend in a small town in Upstate New York is disrupted when the half-Vietnamese child he had fathered in Saigon comes to visit him.\n\nThere also appears a generous sprinkling of sexual encounters which proves to be an ephemeral bond connecting most of the characters. In many of the stories the protagonists are women who have an inclination to form relationships which terminate in sexual misadventure. The emphasis is on casual sex, ruthlessness, and the struggle for survival which is a disintegrating characteristic of the American society right from its inception. The stories portray the anxieties and disappointments afflicting the American society, but the immigrant experience is not shown as trauma or pain. The immigrants are not Americans in the making but are presented as part of the mainstream culture.\n\nFrom expatriation to immigration, and from here onwards Mukherjee's fictional world aims at exposing Americans to the energetic voices of new settlers in the United States:\nI am inventing an America for myself. I am writing on America that hasn't been written about. The \"frontier\" is up there, in front of me. I am pushing it back all the time. This is what makes the new stories so different. They are a natural outgrowth of where I am. I feel it's the writer's business to write about his or her environment, whatever that maybe.19\n\nThis sums up Mukherjee's convictions about a writer's obligation. We have here a novelist whose voice tells the tales of her own experience to demonstrate the changing shape of American society. An immigrant often has the clearest view of what is really happening on both sides of the divide and Mukherjee sets herself the task of writing about how these energetic and diverse immigrants are altering the face of the United States.\n\nIn the transition from expatriation to immigration one cannot help but notice the force of violence that pervades Mukherjee's fictional world. Violence is a key word, a leitmotif in her works and the \"psychic violence\" that she thinks is necessary for the transformation of character is often emphasized by an accompanying physical conflict of some sort. As Jasmine claims, in violent destruction may lie the seeds of creation.20 The level of violence escalates as one moves from Tara's horror in The Tiger's Daughter, where she is, in two climactic scenes, seduced by a middle-aged politician and stranded in the midst of a bloody political riot, to Dimple's frenzied killing of her husband in Wife, and finally to Jasmine's\nreincarnation as an avenging Kali in her desperate bid to find a foothold in the American way of life.\n\nLewis A. Coser argues that violence plays an important threefold role in society - as a \"road to achievement,\" as a danger signal, and as a catalyst for social change, all of which can be seen in Mukherjee's works. It is definitely a gross truism and simplification to suggest, as some have done, that it is a mere \"reflection\" of what is after all a violent world. In The Tiger's Daughter, violence is always just beyond the carefully maintained order of middle-class life. Individual actions are shaped by, and/or reactions to the Naxalite revolution in Calcutta, and the imminence of the establishment of a Marxist government in West Bengal state. Tara, tutored by nuns in Calcutta, having studied in America and married an American returns to a violence-ridden Calcutta to recognize the impossibility of repatriation: specifically, the difficulty of resuming the role of a wealthy patriarch's daughter - over protected and escorted, hemmed in by the privileges accorded to women of her class. The novel ends with the expatriate protagonist, unable to establish her identity, hanging between two worlds. The climax finds Tara locked inside a car while a violent revolutionary demonstration surges through the Calcutta streets. She is convinced by these violent happenings that she needs to discard her past and embrace her home away from home and to her this is a physical wrench.\nViolence is intrinsic with Dimple in *Wife*. It is a constant lingering tendency in her which waits for an opportunity to be expressed. Very early in the novel she contemplates abortion:\n\n...she would have used something flashy - a red hot poker from the kitchen or large sewing scissors.... Who would have thought you could skip your way to abortion?\u00b2\u00b2\n\nIn America she repeatedly imagines murdering her husband because Amit has been the cause of her disorientation and had thwarted the promises of a fanciful world. She plans to hide his body in the freezer - a scheme whose extravagance she \"delights\" in, making her \"feel very American somehow, almost like a character in a T.V. series.\"\u00b2\u00b3 These ill concealed sadomasochistic compulsions are precipitated by the violence-ridden and individualistic American life and culminate in her killing Amit. Mukherjee considers it a necessary experience for the remaking of the self in terms of the new immigrant aesthetic. She sees it as progress and considers Dimple's act as \"self assertive.\"\u00b2\u2074 Caught in the gripping quest for a new female American identity, Dimple needs to murder in order to be reborn. She is frustrated at other people's inability to understand her changing needs and desires, now that she is no longer confined to the social and cultural patterns of her past. She finds herself a prisoner of the ghetto in Flushing, Queens, and being an educated and thinking woman, she is unable to accept the contradictions of this existence: hence her descent into\ndepression, madness, and murder. Violence here becomes essentially symbolic of Dimple's assertion of power at a critical juncture.\n\nThe functionality of violence in Mukherjee's novel *Jasmine* is both complex and ambivalent as it is in her earlier novels and short stories. Violence is the central theme of *Jasmine* and the protagonist is drawn both as a victim and as an agent of violence. In rural Hasnapur, violence is almost a necessary element of a woman's life. Girls are regarded as \"curses\" and strangled at birth. Dowryless wives and barren women \"fell into wells, they got run over by trains, they burned to death heating milk on kerosene stoves.\" The ongoing transformation of postcolonial India too is punctuated by sectarian violence. The violence associated with the militant Sikh factions agitating for a new Khalistan in Punjab refuses to disappear. The Khalsa Lions terrorize and dominate the area. Even Masterji, Jasmine's progressive teacher, meets a violent reward for his mild advocacy of peaceful change. Sukkhi and his fellow revolutionaries scoff at his rationality; they chop off his beard and pump bullets into him. Again, it is a Khalsa Lion bomb that kills Prakash on the eve of the young couple's scheduled departure for the West. Transformed into a bloodthirsty woman, Jasmine demands the assassin Sukkhi's death from the police. As already stated, the novel's association of violence with transformation is its leitmotif. It steels Jasmine for a heroic self-destruction as a feudal wife and for her making abroad. Violence thus becomes the matrix of Jasmine's emancipatory struggle.\nJasmine's journey of self-discovery, taking her from a feudal condition to her migrancy and exile in the West, is marked by violence. If in rural Hasnapur she was a victim of violence, in the West she becomes an agent of violence. The imperative to control her life, to establish stability and identity justifies, in Jasmine's mind, her pragmatic readiness to use violence. In fact, she views recourse to violence as an affirmation of the will to live. In killing her rapist, Half-Face, she experiences an epistemic violence that is also a life-affirming transformation.\n\nJasmine forsakes a root identity and thrills as she shuttles between differing identities of her new postcolonial self: Jyoti / Jasmine / Kali / Jase / Jane. The destruction of each of the momentary condensations of self into particular named identities follows violence. In New York, as Jase, her burgeoning family intimacy with Taylor and his daughter Duff is shattered by a chance encounter with Sukkhi who shows up blandly pushing a hot-dog cart. Jasmine/Jase escapes to Iowa where she believes miracles can still happen; but there too, she learns that violence is a constant wolf at the door. The usually placid Harlan, angered at having had a loan request turned down by Bud shoots him in the back before turning the gun upon himself, fatally. Living with Bud, Jasmine takes on the identity of Jane Ripplemeyer, certainly destroying Karin's marriage to Bud not out of malice or groping acquisitiveness but out of a desperate will to preserve a precarious and interminably mutable sense of self.\nViolence is also the strongest bond between Jasmine and her adopted Vietnamese son Du. Du's tinkering is a projection of his violent past onto his repressed and outwardly calm present and is linked to his future. Even before becoming an immigrant in America, Du has had two other lives - a violent one in Vietnam and another in a refugee camp. Now he is on his way to study engineering at Iowa State University. As Jasmine states, while violence in her case brought in a \"genetic\" transformation, in the case of Du it was \"hyphenated.\"26\n\nThere is something spectacular and sensational about the violence associated with Mukherjee's characters especially her women. In acknowledging or even embracing violence they seem to mockingly state that it is not only men who can wield power. This may account for the puzzling fact that women, normally less prone to violence than men, have often played leading roles in revolutionary movements. At least in Mukherjee's works, participation in a violent world or violence once assumed seems to offer opportunity to the oppressed, the downtrodden, and the lonely for affirming identity and for claiming full womanhood hitherto denied to them. The functionality of violence is therefore obvious and cannot be dismissed merely as a sensational element or as a reflection of the violence which is an integral part of the West.\n\nIt is perhaps inevitable that considering Mukherjee's fictional universe is steeped in violence, it should at times elicit a response of fear and loathing in the reader. This is particularly true of her short stories. In\na story called \"A Father\" for instance, Mr. Bhowmick, driven mad by his modern daughter's betrayal of his most cherished traditions, batters her artificially inseminated but nevertheless pregnant belly with a rolling pin.\n\nIf violence is integral to Mukherjee's women progressing from being expatriates to self-willed immigrants, so is sex. Desire for material advancement and a thirst for sexual fulfilment become the central motif in the South Asian immigrants' self-fashioning in the New World and is a recurring theme in Mukherjee's short fiction, particularly in The Middleman. Quite a few of the stories have some kind of a sexual conquest in them. Sucheta Mazumdar's observation provides an explanation to the immigrant's attitude towards sex:\n\nFor immigrant women arrival in America can be liberating. Societal norms of the majority community frequently provide greater personal freedom than permitted in Asian societies.27\n\nThis is corroborated by Mukherjee herself who states in an interview with Runar Vignisson that a number of Asian women characters in the West coming as they are from very traditional and over protective background discover for the first time their sexual power and for many of them sexuality becomes a way of rebelling and wielding power.28 The momentary ecstasy when Dimple Dasgupta in Wife indulges in an afternoon's extramarital digression with a \"genuine\" American is a case in point.\nJasmine, the illegal immigrant of a short story in *The Middleman* is an aupair in a professor's home who is seen making love at the end of the story on the rug in front of the fireplace in the room that she cleans during the day everyday. She has had many affairs before in Trinidad, but she is enjoying her sexuality, she is discovering her own power as a social creature and she really is in control of the whole situation. In the act of making love she thinks how she has \"no visa, no papers, and no birth certificate. No nothing other than what she wanted to invent and tell.\" For the diasporic Asian, sex symbolizes the anarchy of the self and the birth of a \"new self.\" By this process Mukherjee's immigrants confront their own concealed desires and discover the new identities that they have fashioned in the new country.\n\nThis brings us to the question whether Mukherjee sees herself as a feminist. Before drawing a conclusion one needs to understand the term. \"Feminism\" in the present day context has come a long way from Simone de Beauvoir's petulant complaint in 1948:\n\nThis humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself but as a relative to him, she is not regarded as an autonomous being.... She is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the subject, he is the Absolute - she is the Other.\nOver the decades the term has come to denote an entirely new concept. Alice Jardine defines feminism as \"a movement from the point of view of, by, and for women.\" Chaman Nahal further elaborates:\n\nI define feminism as a mode of existence in which the woman is free of the dependence syndrome. There is a dependence syndrome: whether it is the husband or the father or the community or whether it is a religious group, ethnic group. When women free themselves of the dependence syndrome and lead a normal life, my idea of feminism materializes.\n\nThus as \"a philosophy of life, 'feminism' opposes women's subordination to men in the family and society, along with men's claims to define what is best for women without consulting them; thereby offering a frontal challenge to patriarchal thought, social organization and control mechanisms.\" Going by this definition Dimple Dasgupta, the protagonist of Wife represents a new kind of feminism in a new kind of America. She is by no means a passive person. Simply to withhold eating which is what Dimple does is to rebel. She is neither docile nor submissive and is portrayed as a rebel throughout the novel. She shows, in fact, the makings of a feminist quite early on, when she aborts her child in the privacy of her bathroom before the couple leave for America. She arrives in America naive and untrained certainly, but psychologically prepared to broaden her perspectives. She learns to ask herself \"self\"-oriented questions. Am I\nhappy? Am I unhappy? Mukherjee views this as progress. In an interview with Runar Vignisson, Mukherjee clarifies her stand on this issue and answers a question on whether she views herself as a feminist:\n\nI don\u2019t call myself any \u2018ist\u2019 and I don\u2019t follow any \u2018isms\u2019. I think that my women characters are strong, they\u2019re durable, things don\u2019t always work out for them but the ones that I like, the ones that do alright, like Jasmine, are doers and they shy away from too much self-analysis, too much verbalising about the state of being. They dislike rhetoric, indulging in feminist rhetoric too often, but they end up really changing their lives.... Jasmine... ends up changing continents, changing cultures, coming from a feudal village world in Northern India, handling global terrorism and hurtling into a twenty first century which more or less has forced her into violent acts such as murder, mayhem, blackmail, forgery and in the end she even sacrifices or abandons the crippled lover in Iowa ... people like me have no ready made role models to follow... (no) tradition of feminism... we have to make the rules up as events occur...34\n\nIn this sense Jasmine is a very real feminist perhaps more than the self-proclaimed feminist. She is intelligent, she knows what she wants and she is able to change her life. She rebels not only against age-old traditions and\nsuperstitions, she also effects a proper balance between tradition and modernity. As she takes on the perilous adventures in the New World the archetypal image that Bharati Mukherjee uses to bring out the protagonist's feminist trait is that of Kali, the Goddess of Strength, the deity of avenging fury - 'Death incarnate.' As Jasmine walks away with Taylor and Duff towards the end of the novel leaving Bud whose child she is carrying she retorts:\n\nAdventure, risk, transformation: the frontier is pushing indoors through uncaulked windows. Watch me reposition the stars... 35\n\nThis is the final affirmation of a true feminist.\n\nMukherjee's Indian men by contrast are often unromantic, overwhelmingly acquisitive and slightly comic. Their rejection by their romantic, sensual, sensitive, and strongminded women especially in her short fiction emphasize the crumbling masculine power structure in the South Asian immigrant community in the United States. The present-day feminist thought seeks to destroy masculine hierarchy, is necessarily pro-woman but this does not mean that it has to be anti-man, and Mukherjee is definitely not one. Whatever be the character, both her women and men are survivors, hustlers, 'wheelers and dealers' like the title story in The Middleman. They are victims of New World exploitation but they are resilient victims.\nAlthough they are often hurt or depressed by setbacks in their new lives and occupations they do not give up. Mukherjee quotes the example of the Professor in *Jasmine* who used to be a doctor in his home country and is forced to sell human hair for making wigs or electronic equipment in some basement video store in Queens. The novelist presents him not as a pathetic character but as a resilient hero who will face all odds to survive.\n\nThus to discover, create, and retrieve America's multicultural myths and histories, Mukherjee rejects the expatriate's nostalgia. Her immigrant characters are settlers, Americans \u2014 not sojourners, tourists, guest workers, foreigners. She rejects the hyphen and the acceptable stories it generates \u2014 stories about immigrants struggling between two incommensurable worlds. As Mukherjee observes:\n\n> Wherever I travel in the (very) Old World, I find 'Americans' in the making, whether or not they ever make it to these shores ... dreamers and conquerors, not afraid of transforming themselves, not afraid of abandoning some of their principles along the way.36\n\nMukherjee's fiction does not simply promote American multiculture or celebrate assimilation. To confront \"the historical circumstances of ethnicity and race in the United States\" and \"the complexities of diasporic subject formation,\"37 she not only represents the violences and pleasures of cultural\nexchange, she fabulizes America, and Hinduizes assimilation. America is held accountable for its promises and favourite myths about itself: the nation and its people are diverse dreamers, generous, heroic, hard working, democratic, lovers of truth and defenders of equal opportunity for all. This American Dream offers possible worlds, unleashes the imagination. Despite its actual failures as Mukherjee represents in some of her short stories, this is its transformative power, and Mukherjee's work engages this most generous aspect.\n\nAssimilation or the radical transformation from \"the Other\" into a mainstream American, to Mukherjee, is essentially an act of the imagination. Arjun Appadurai terms imagination as \"now central to all forms of agency... a social fact and the key component of the new global order.\" Mukherjee's protagonist Jasmine passionately argues,\n\nI do believe that extraordinary events can jar the needle arm, jump tracks, rip across incarnations, and deposit a life into a groove that was not prepared to receive it.\n\nAnd again,\n\nJyoti of Hasnapur was not Jasmine, Duff's day mummy and Taylor and Wylie's aupair in Manhattan; that Jasmine isn't this Ripplemeyer having lunch with Mary Webb at the\nUniversity Club today. And which of us is the undetected murderer of a half-faced monster, which of us was raped and raped and raped in boats and cars and motel rooms?40\n\nOnly imagination as social practice and social fact can explain how people become \"individuals\" living out complex collective histories. It can also explain how people live in the midst of everyday epochal violence, instantaneous change. Mukherjee's belief in this power of the imagination to change, to transform, to assimilate arises out of her cultural tradition and religious upbringing:\n\nAs a Hindu, I was brought up on oral tradition and epic literature in which animals can talk, birds can debate ethical questions, and monsters can change shapes. I believe in the existence of external realities and this belief makes itself evident in my fiction.41\n\nIn the concluding sections of her book Days and Nights in Calcutta this is further emphasized. Mukherjee delineates her personal aesthetics as an immigrant writer and claims that her aesthetic \"must accommodate a decidedly Hindu imagination with an American craft of fiction.\" She states:\n\nA Hindu writer who believes that God can be a jolly, potbellied creature with an elephant trunk, and who accepts the\nHindu elastic time scheme and reincarnation, must necessarily conceive of heroes, of plot and pacing and even paragraphing in ways distinct from those of the average American. 42\n\nThis would mean that her narrative structures influenced by the Hindu imagination are radically different from those of the Western writer. Though her past identity as an Indian is something she has left behind, because she must, she has internalized it and sees the loss of the old culture\u2019s storytelling and rich imagination as an impoverishment. The story should entertain, instruct, and witness as her own fiction does. In the short story \"The Imaginary Assassin\" from her collection Darkness, the narrator, a young man born in California, to Sikh parents, worships his grandfather, who was the first to come to the valley, to work as a farmer. The narrator loves to listen to his grandfather, who tells tales of old India. He doesn\u2019t want to take up the ordinary life as an engineer which his parents plan for him; instead he dreams of the Sikh warrior tradition. His grandfather\u2019s tales have magic and miracles in them - \"headless ghosts, eager to decapitate, could hide in trees along dark country lanes.\" 43 After his grandfather\u2019s story he has hallucinations and nervous spells that keep him from an aerospace scholarship, as Mukherjee portrays the poverty of imagination in American culture faced by Indians from a tradition rich with magic. In fact, Mukherjee filters her insistently American stories through what she describes as \"a Hindu imagination; everything is a causeless, endless middle.\" 44\nAs an immigrant writer Mukherjee's \"transformation-not preservation\" theory is located not only in the rich imaginary worlds of Hindu epics, it is also grounded in the visual logic of the Moghul miniature paintings that so inform her aesthetic. As she observes:\n\nMy image of artistic structure and artistic excellence is Moghul miniature painting, with its crazy foreshortening of vanishing point, its insistence that everything happens simultaneously, bound only by shape and color. In the miniature paintings of India, there are a dozen separate foci, the most complicated stories can be rendered on a grain of rice, the corners are as elaborated as the centers. There is a sense of the interpenetration of all things.\n\nHistorically, Moghul miniatures signify cultural clash and exchange. This painting tradition was brought to India by Islamic invaders and conquerors. Moghul miniature paintings gather stories of India and Moghul rule together to create a multifocal field of vision, even as the different tableaux within each painting compete with each other for the viewer's attention. In a similar way Mukherjee's writing feeds off the freedom that \"America\" allows her to imagine and the different perceptions of reality that \"India\" allows her to imagine. As she suggests, \"I want many stories going on simultaneously to distract, to crowd the reader's consciousness.\" Mukherjee's stories are about \"every\" character and detail in them, no matter how small.\nThe short story \"Orbiting\" in The Middleman is perhaps the best example of this argument. The setting is the Thanksgiving dinner, the all-American ritual family gathering, and the description of each character tells many stories. Rindy deMarco is a Jersey girl, first generation Italian American on her mother\u2019s side, third generation Italian American on her father\u2019s side. Her parents\u2019 stories illustrate the process of assimilation over time; her father is \"very American, so Italy\u2019s a safe source of pride for him... (He) had one big adventure in his life, besides fighting in the Pacific, and that was marrying a Calabrian peasant.\" Rindy\u2019s mother took a while to \"find herself,\" stayed in the house for years, but now she\u2019s taking a class at Paterson, and has given up her stories about the wolves, unlit outdoor privies, and hard work of her mountain village. Content living in her studio apartment and selling funky jewellery she doesn\u2019t design, Rindy resists her mother\u2019s immigrant faith that children will do better than their parents. Rindy\u2019s sister Cindi is married to Brent who \"in spite of the obvious hairpiece and the gold chain is a rebel. He was born Schwartzendruber, but changed his name to Schwartz.... His father\u2019s never taken their buggy out of the country.\" Rindy\u2019s ex-boyfriend, Vic, a romantic, just left her to follow a hunger for places. And now Rindy has fallen in love with Ro (Roashan), whom the family will meet for the first time at Thanksgiving. Ro has fled from Kabul and has been in the States for three months. He wants to take classes at NJIT and become an electrical engineer. A friend of Ro\u2019s father, a man called Mumtaz, runs a fried chicken restaurant in Brooklyn in a neighbourhood Ro calls \"Little Kabul.\"\nAs this supposedly assimilated American family gathers for Thanksgiving dinner, they bring together several incarnations, many cultures and histories and names. The details that Mukherjee chooses to describe Rindy's family result in the creation of several new stories which, like Moghul miniature paintings, revel in detail and juxtaposition. Questions race through the reader's mind - What machinations of fate, or international violence twinned with international commerce, locate the deMarco family's stories in the same frame? How does a famed warrior from Khyber Pass who keeps halal get involved with a Catholic Italian American from New Jersey? Once again, in America, past selves and their stories don't disappear; they get assimilated and transformed into new stories and Mukherjee resorts to detail and juxtaposition to focus attention on lives that have become a little more complex than our abilities to describe them. Like the Moghul miniatures, Mukherjee's writing creates fullness in short takes, crams a world of detail into fragments of story, compresses constant motion, travel, discontinuous overload. This is how immigration feels; this is how America feels; and this is how Mukherjee's stories represent the density of contemporary American experience.\n\nIf Mukherjee resorts to this narrative structure to establish a vast sense of perspective, it is because as she explains, contemporary Anglo-American fictional works fail to provide forms, and vocabularies, that can do this detail-oriented, noncausal work.\nI'm interested in finding the right form for me and my characters, who are the kinds of Americans who haven't been written about before. So the characters of, say, an Ann Beattie are significantly different from mine because they have not been dislocated in such severe and traumatic ways. An oceanic or social view rarely creeps into contemporary American fiction. It is simply - well, not simply, predominantly - fiction about personal relationships. Even someone like Raymond Carver, whose work I admire very, very much, and whose stories are obviously meant to be tragic, is talking about small disappointments. Whereas in talking about Jasmine's life, I'm really talking about the history of current America too.51\n\nIt would be apt to recall here the similarities between the writings of Bernard Malamud and Bharati Mukherjee. Though their stories are set in different times - the 1930's and 1940's in Malamud's, the 1970's and 1980's in Mukherjee's - each speaks about the diasporic experience of cultural alienation and addresses the remaking of oneself as an American. Malamud describes the lives of East European Jewish immigrants and Mukherjee writes about a minority community from the Third World which escapes the ghetto and adapts itself to the patterns of the dominant American culture. Mukherjee's husband, Clark Blaise, studied with Malamud at a Harvard Summer School Writing Workshop. Mukherjee herself acknowledges the debt:\nImmersing myself in his work gave me the self confidence to write about my own community.\\textsuperscript{52}\n\nBoth speak about the post World War II immigration from the East to the United States and allow us to see the narrative of Americanization from both the male and female perspectives. Malamud\u2019s fiction is essentially tragic and his male immigrant losers earn our empathy through their humanity. Mukherjee brings to her fiction, despite its often tragic tenor, a joy that has much to do with her open-ended plots. Every story ends on a new point of departure. People are last seen walking out through an open door, planning an escape, or suspended on the optimistic brink of a blissful sexual transport. America is a receding infinity of fresh beginnings; they keep aloft on luck and grace.\n\nAdopting Malamud as a Western literary model is an important factor in Mukherjee\u2019s development from an expatriate to an immigrant writer, for in doing so she distances herself from her former diasporic literary models, V.S. Naipaul in particular, to accelerate her assimilation into the American cultural centre. Her literary journey is from the East of her first two novels \\textit{The Tiger\u2019s Daughter} and \\textit{Wife}, to the West of her two collections of short stories, \\textit{Darkness} and \\textit{The Middleman}. \\textit{The Tiger\u2019s Daughter} has rather a British feel to it. In this novel Mukherjee adopts the omniscient point of view and a great use of irony. This is because her concept of language and the notions of how a novel was constructed were based on British models. The education that she received was\nessentially British and she felt fascinated by English writers like Jane Austen and E.M. Forster.\n\nBy the time Mukherjee wrote Darkness and The Middleman she had adopted \"American English.\" In her first collection of stories, Darkness, which she dedicates to Bernard Malamud, Mukherjee says she writes \"as an American writer in the tradition of other American authors whose parents or grandparents had passed through Ellis Island.\" 53 Not only does she move away from her exilic identity, as mentioned earlier, she separates herself from the postcolonial expatriate writer, V.S. Naipaul in whom she \"imagined a model,\"54 as well as other women writers of the Indian diaspora like Anita Desai and Kamala Markandaya who also maintain a voice of ironic detachment in their novels about Indian immigrants in England. On the other hand, she admires Walt Whitman and states:\n\nIt's possible - with sharp ears and the right equipment - to hear America singing even in the seams of the dominant culture. In fact it may be the best listening post for the next generation of Whitmans.55\n\nIt is remarkable that Mukherjee should come to see herself so clearly as an immigrant American rather than an expatriated Indian. Even more remarkable that she should declare:\nLanguage gives me my identity. I am the writer I am because I write in North American English about immigrants in the New World.\\textsuperscript{56}\n\nMukherjee's immigration is not so much her move from the Calcutta of the East to the Calcutta of the West (as she affectionately calls New York) by way of Canada, as it is her move from the English of Jane Austen to the American of Walt Whitman and a desire to be mainstreamed, to be seen as \"the next generation of Whitmans.\"\n\nIn her later fiction, not only has Mukherjee vastly enlarged her geographical and social range, she has generally sharpened her style too. Her writing gets quicker in tempo, and certainly more confident. The spoken language of the characters corresponds to their actual thinking process. Commenting on Mukherjee's skill in handling the American language especially in \\textit{The Middleman}, Jonathan Raban states:\n\nMost of the stories are monologues, spoken by compulsively fluent talkers whose lives are too urgent and mobile for them to indulge in the luxury of the retrospective past tense. They hit the page in full flight, and they move through the stories as they move through the world, at speed, with the reader straining to keep up with them. Throughout the book, the idiom of America in the 1980's is handled by Ms. Mukherjee.\nwith much the same rapturous affection and acuteness of ear that Nabokov, another immigrant, brought to the idiom of America in the 1950's in Lolita. On one level, The Middleman is a consummated romance with the American language.  \n\nThere is an obvious change in her style because of her Americanization or acculturation. Use of words such as *indies* or *gringles* which may be familiar to the American ear but which must appear as slang to non-American ear, have a significance only for readers acquainted with West American literature. Similarly, the profuse employment of abbreviations such as NJIT, BMW, Ren Cen, Sci-fi novel, MCI, MTV, JFK can often prove an obstruction to the reader. Often in her short fiction, the conversations between characters do not proceed logically, one takes time to locate the speaker because one short statement by the speaker is unexpectedly followed by another sentence from the same speaker which upsets expectation and jolts the reader. Alongside this linguistic variety is the diversity and multiplicity of groups and organizations which assert their presence in America. They make the United States a mini-world infested with contrasting shades of religious and political idealogues such as anti-Khomeini Iranians, Hare Krishnas, American Fascists and so on. One gets the impression that United States is bustling with life of all sorts.\n\nIn short, while writing from first-hand experience of what she calls \"the process of immigration,\" she writes not only as one born naturally to\nthe language, but to the culture as well. Its more than a matter of tell-tale little phrases and images - the pick up, the Braves, Ted Turner, finished basements, Tab and Reeboks, and Corning casseroles - it is a certain casual, street-smart, tough guy inflection that derives its slangy tone from television, films, and other forms of popular culture. Elizabeth Ward, who describes herself as a fellow immigrant occasionally having trouble with Mukherjee's rapid colloquial patter observes:\n\n\"In changing gears,\" somebody in one of her stories observes of his aristocratic Filipino girl friend, \"she's right up there with Mario Andrett.\" How long do you have to have lived here before being able to throw off a perfect, all-American sentence like that?58\n\nAs far as Mukherjee's characters are concerned most of them, not all, are both socially marginalized and an enormous, heterogeneous range of rural groups belonging mainly to the lower rungs of society in their countries of origin. The women, Jasmine and Dimple, for instance, grow up in a traditionally repressed society. An important factor and perhaps deliberate, for it helps to bring out Mukherjee's belief in the New World by suggesting the desire of her characters to eradicate past lives, assimilate themselves in the new country of their dreams and acquire a new \"self\" or identity. With this in view she frames \"stories of broken identities and discarded languages, and the will to bond oneself to a new community, against the\never present fear of failure and betrayal.\" The expatriates of Mukherjee's stories arriving from Asian countries confront displacement, alienation, financial insecurity being in a strange land without friends or a speakable tongue. Mukherjee speaks for them; she creates their voice and makes them collectively and instantly adapt to American values as immigrants, especially in many of her short stories.\n\nSome ethnic and gender stereotyping remains in Mukherjee's delineation of characters. Her sympathetic Indians are largely female. The Indian men are unromantic, overwhelmingly acquisitive, and slightly ridiculous. However, it is noteworthy that as a writer, Mukherjee exhibits no problem while using male protagonists and writing many of her short stories in a first person account through a male person. The novelist attributes it to her skill in taking on other genders, other races:\n\n...I am a sort of mimic, an unconscious mimic. If I hear an Irishman in a room for fifteen minutes I am very likely, whether I want to or not, to end up talking like an Irishman. I have that ability. I have a very acute ear I guess. I'm nosy as a writer. If I have decided to write about a person from a particular region or class then I will make sure I have every detail of speech, mannerisms, clothing, of trivia, sociology at my finger tips in order that just the right detail comes out at the right time.\nDespite Mukherjee's abilities as a writer and her conviction that \"there are people born to be Americans,\" she has not had an easy time commercially and critically with just being accepted. The material is too new and she doesn't do what is expected of an hyphenated American, of an Asian American writer. She refuses to acknowledge ethnicity, refuses to write about ghettos and her minorities are not endowed with a victim-status.\n\nThis is also where Mukherjee differs from the post colonialists. In an essay entitled \"In a Free State: Postcolonialism and Postmodernism in Bharati Mukherjee's Fiction,\" Gail Ching-Lang Low describes a seminar she convened on \"the creative ways in which women of colour countered racist and sexist erasure in mainstream white culture.\" The group emphasized the importance of \"re-memory,\" the struggle of memory against forgetting,\" recovery of \"lost ancestral and cultural lines.\" When the group turned to Mukherjee's work they found that they could not fit her writings into the model of post-colonial and diasporic texts which they had collectively chalked out as important. Mukherjee seemed not to be concerned with preserving cultural identities and did not want to be labelled an \"Indian\" writer. She seemed wholeheartedly unapologetic about her celebration of cultural dislocation. Instead of consolidating cultural specificities against a dominant white urban America, she seemed to positively reject the \"mothering tyranny of nostalgia.\" Mukherjee upholds this distinction and defends her immigrant spirit rather vehemently:\nThose who decide, \"all right, I'm going to go on with my life, the past is going to color my present and the present is going to color my future, but here and now, I'm a different person,\" these people reflect the spirit of immigrant writing by keeping themselves open to new experiences and responding second by second. They're changing and being changed. You are a new person every second of your life depending on how you act and whether you are open to bruisings and dentings. This energy is completely opposed to the postcolonial, who, if he or she is not within the immediate post colonial context, is simply talking about the past and ignoring or obliterating the present because it's so much safer to talk about a dead debate.64\n\nUnlike the post-colonials who see migration as a loss of communal memories, the erosion of an original culture, Mukherjee sees assimilation as progress, as an emancipation, and as gain.\n\nIn taking this stand, one may say that her fiction is not divorced from social and political considerations. Her fiction is \"a meditation on whole peoples on the move and how America is or is not responding to the fact of de-Europeanisation.\"65 In this decade of continual large-scale diasporas, scapegoating of immigrants can always become the politicians' easy remedy for all that ails the nation, by pitting a phantom \"us\" against a demonized \"them\". Multiculturism, as it has been practised in the United States in the\npast years implies the existence of one central culture, ringed by peripheral cultures that are treated as aberrations. Mukherjee feels this can lead to the proliferation of ethnic ghettos which can prove very dangerous because embittered by racism and alienation the Indo-American, African-American, Latin-American and Asian-American segments of the population can easily \"become the seething hot bed of terrorism, trouble or potential violence.\" At the same time she is also aware of some first-generation Indo-Americans who construct a phantom-identity more-Indian-than-Indians-in-India, as a defence against marginalization. Mukherjee's fiction demands that these expatriates discourage the retention of cultural memory which must lead to cultural balkanization. In this age of diasporas, one's biological identity may not be one's only identity. Erosions and accretions come with the act of emigration. Mukherjee advocates cutting oneself off from the biological homeland and settling in the adopted homeland. The immigrant should invest his energy and resources in revitalizing America's disadvantaged residents and neighbourhoods by fighting discrimination. He must make his voice heard choosing the forum most appropriate to him. In the case of Mukherjee that is what made her the writer that she is today. The immigrant writer, she argues, must transfer allegiance to the contemporary scene exclusively. In her enthusiasm to consecrate the melting-pot theory of assimilation that America subscribes to, Mukherjee declares the demise of material from the Third World in an article:\nAnd (Third World) material is dead.\n\nLet it die. I want to shout. We're all here and now, and whatever we were raised with is in us already.... That's enough. Turn your attention to this scene, which has never been in greater need of new perspectives.67\n\nWith the growth and diversification of Asian population, America has come to include people of many races, ethnicities, languages, and religions. Transformation is a two way process. If America can transform an expatriate into an immigrant the immigrant as an American citizen is also transforming America minute by minute by acknowledging his constitutional rights, seeking redress when they are violated and by making his vote count. Herein lies the social and political considerations of the novelist as an immigrant writer.\n\nTo conclude, Mukherjee's inability to return to India and the sense of her difference from other women novelists of Indian diaspora find resolution in her art - the marriage of the American and the Hindu imagination. It is the blending of two disparate imaginations that vitalize Mukherjee's craft. As a writer living and writing on the cultural divide she does not write about a lost home like a writer in exile. Mukherjee feels that as an immigrant writer she needs to focus on her present surroundings.\nLike her fictional characters, she looks forward, since to deal with her present reality, she feels that reinvention of self without taking recourse to nostalgia is her strength. Although India will be part of the life of her imagination, it will not be central to her writing for her literary agenda is to explore new epics in the country of immigrants she will be living in. This realization becomes a defiant announcement - \"I am one of you now\" to her American readers. In that one sentence she asserts herself as an American in the immigrant tradition and consents to be part of that long procession of people who have over the years redefined America.\nWORKS CITED\n\n\n5. Ibid.\n\n\n15. Ibid., p.241.\n\n16. Ibid., p.240.\n\n\n18. Alison B.Carb, p.351.\n\n\n23. Ibid., p.195.\n\n\n26. Ibid., p.222.\n\n\n34. Runar Vignisson, p.6.\n\n\n209\n\n\n40. Ibid.\n\n\n46. Ibid., pp. 27-28.\n\n210\n\n\n49. Ibid., p.62.\n\n50. Ibid., p.64.\n\n\n52. Alson B.Carb, p.650.\n\n53. Bharati Mukherjee, Darkness, p.3.\n\n54. Ibid., p.2.\n\n55. Ibid., p.3.\n\n\n59. Bharati Mukherjee, Darkness, p.3.\n\n60. Runar Vignisson, p.7.\n\n\n66. Ibid., p.4.\n\n\n68. 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+{"id": "a2952747dd4a2cf0d14c684e4e16bd0cd4c3b4a2", "text": "BEHIND THE CURTAIN OF PHYLOGENY: FROM THEATRICAL ANTHROPOCENTRISM TO INTERSPECIES APPRECIATION\n\nJAN MOTAL\nTheatre Faculty, Jan\u00e1\u010dek Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno\n\nAbstract: The theoretical essay discusses the horizontal (cultural) and the vertical (speciesism) dominance of theatre studies, i.e. its Eurocentrism and anthropocentrism. In the context of the global environmental crisis, the essay presents a critique of the field in question and suggests a benchmark of ecological relevance (Glen Love). The fallacies prevailing in theatre scholarship \u2013 especially those implicated by the current popularity of the concept of theatricality (Theatralit\u00e4t) and the usage of the term \u201ctheatre\u201d to explain other cultures\u2019 phenomena \u2013 are shown, and the arguments for transgressing speciesism (Peter Singer) in theatre are presented (animal\u2019s mimesis, mirror neurons, theory of mind, zoosemiotics). Physiological faculties which make Homo sapiens able to perform and understand theatre are discussed in phylogenetic scope, and the interspecies continuity (homology, Ernst Haeckel) is presented as an unconscious archetypal heritage (Carl Gustav Jung, Anthony Stevens). The author argues that a revitalization of katharsis is necessary. The new formulation of the term based on interspecies empathy (Frans de Waal) should extend the boundaries of a community to include non-human individuals. The article concludes that theatre studies should contribute to the reintegration of humans to the wider environmental landscape. Possible ways how to achieve this are discussed.\n\nKeywords: the environmental crisis, theatre theory, theatricality, speciesism, Eurocentrism, anthropocentrism, mirror neurons, mimicry, mimesis, katharsis, empathy\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe presented essay aims to outline the critique of theatre studies\u2019 foundations, which, in the following interpretation, are understood as ethnocentric and. The concept chosen for this deconstructive endeavor is to be the notion of theatricality (Theatralit\u00e4t), even though the term is hardly universally accepted. However, it allows us to grasp the suppressed ontological conditions of theatre studies. My critique arises from the present-day recognition of the overwhelming consequences of longstanding anthropocentrism and Eurocentrism of late modern knowledge.1 Despite the boastful\n\n---\n\n1 Enrique Dussel, for example defines the Eurocentric paradigm as follows: \u201c[\u2026] modern subjectivity develops spatially, according to the Eurocentric paradigm, from the Italy of the Renaissance to the Germany of the Reformation and the Enlightenment, to the France of the French Revolution; throughout, Europe is central.\u201d Beyond Eurocentrism: The World-System and the Limits of Modernity. In JAMESON, F. \u2013 MIYOSHI, M. (Eds.). The Cultures of Globalization. Durham \u2013 London : Duke University Press, 1998, p. 4. This is in accord with the prevailing periodization of the history of theatre. The concept of theatre in the modern sense comes from Greek origins, rooted in the \u201cclassical\u201d Athenian drama of 5th Century BCE. As Dussel argues, \u201cthe unilinear diachrony Greece\u2013Rome\u2013Europe is an ideological construct that can be traced back to late-eighteenth-century German romanticism,\u201d and a conceptual by-product of the Eurocentric \u201cAryan model\u201d. The modern attitude follows Kantian \u201cAusgang\u201d and postulates an ideal of rational \u201cego cogito\u201d.\nproclamations of postmodern theorists, there is hardly any apparent thoroughgoing\nshift even in the field of humanities.\n\nWhile postcolonial thinking has dissolved some of the Eurocentric canons, many\npostmodern authors, by contrast, have contributed to the erosion of human aware-\nness of broader environmental context. As the scholar of literature Glen Love shows,\nhumanities in their anachronistic crusade against biological sciences have presented\nevolutionary approach as a mere \u201csocial construct\u201d, and therefore they have main-\ntained the idea that \u201chuman behavior is [\u2026] an empty vessel whose only input will\nbe that provided by culture.\u201d I would like to join Love in claiming, \u201cbiological sci-\nences are not just another cultural construction. Rather, they are the necessary basis\nfor a joining of literature with what has proven itself to be our best human means for\ndiscovering how the world works.\u201d\n\nVis-\u00e0-vis the global environmental catastrophe, it is evident that this community\nof academia Umwelt\u2019s inhabitants should include non-humans, who used to be ex-\ncluded from humanities for a long time (and maybe it has always been so). In har-\nmony with Glen Love\u2019s aim to revitalize literature studies, I would like to introduce\nthe benchmark of ecological relevance to theatre studies: \u201cIn a real world of increas-\ning ecological crisis and political decision making, to exclude nature except for its\ncultural determination or linguistic construction is also to accept the continuing de-\ngradation of a natural world that is most in need of active human recognition and\nengagement.\u201d\n\nThe ontological foundations of theatre studies as a form of modern scholarship\ncan be criticized from various points of view. I adapt both horizontal and vertical\napproach. The former is to reveal the field\u2019s Eurocentric grounds (Greek theatre,\nmodern European theatre), the latter shows that theatre scholars are misleadingly\ninterpreting originally universal and the boundaries of human species transgressing\nphenomena (rituals, mimetic behavior, mirror neurons) as an evidence of specific\ntheatricality, which is in consequence used as a justification of the field\u2019s importance.\n\n**1 Eurocentrism**\n\nIn textbooks, e.g. in Brockett\u2019s History of the Theatre, students read that theatre\nas a universal human phenomenon has its anthropological origins. It should be pos-\nsible to trace rudimental forms of theatre in (almost) every culture \u2013 especially in its\nrituals. One of the vivid examples of this theatre prehistory for scholars and teach-\ners usually is the \u201cAbydos Passion Play\u201d (occurred annually 2500\u2013550 BCE). There is no dramatic text of this play available, and scholars rely only on an account left by an ancient Egyptian treasurer Ikhernofret, who was a witness of the celebration of Osiris, an Egyptian god. The academic effort to prove that the Abydos ritual was performed in a somehow theatrical way says more about theatre studies than about ancient Egyptian culture. It is overall anachronistic and Eurocentric. Analyzing ancient Egyptian concept of \u201cheka\u201d (\u201cmagic\u201d), Alan Sikes proves that it is impossible to use modern semiotics and mimetic theory to understand Abydos rituals: \u201c[\u2026] the labelling of the Ikhernofret Stela event as a theatrical \u2018Passion Play\u2019 is an imposition of our own terminology onto practices ill-suited to receive it.\u201d\n\nFor the argument of this article, this is a vivid example of the field\u2019s horizontal effort to dominate. It is horizontal because it uses a particular, modern European concept of theatre, as it was coined in the late 18th Century, to understand and even explain other cultures\u2019 phenomena. If we would like to reintegrate theatre studies to the wider environmental landscape, we should start with shrinking the theatre empire, which has recently considerably expanded.\n\nThis imperial expansion of the research is overwhelming. After World War II, theatre scholars have discovered an entirely new field of interest \u2013 other cultures and public space (Theatralit\u00e4t). It is understandable that in accord with the postwar generation of activists, experimentalists and social prophets such as Jerzy Grotowski and Richard Schechner, theatre scholars recognized that the essentialism of their field of study is unmaintainable. In the 1970s and later, mainly German researches led by Joachim Fiebach, Rudolf M\u00fcnz and Erika Fischer-Lichte aimed to perform the same shift, which was apparent in the theatre itself \u2013 to include everydayness, rituals and social life into their work. However, what can nurture artistic work can be risky in academia. Instead of deconstructing the ontological entitlements of theatre studies and elaborating their genealogy, the aforementioned scholars and their followers have extended the use of the concept of the theater (as theatricality) with all its withheld ontology. This endeavor is persistent to date.\n\nIn Czech theatre studies, we can observe a young, but a tenacious tradition of the \u201ctheatricality of public events\u201d. Public gatherings, religious celebrations, politi-\n\n---\n\n6 Ibid., p. 7.\n9 In this essay, I disregard the differences between performance studies in Polish and German theatre studies\u2019 tradition. The former is more based on anthropology (e.g. Richard Schechner employing Victor Turner\u2019s theories); the latter uses the notion of Theatralit\u00e4t. The history of the regional fields of study, their genealogy, and theoretical problems differ greatly. For the sake of simplicity, I focus solely on the issues of the German concept.\ncal trials, or folk fairs are analyzed under the canopy of theatre studies. The aim of the researches is hardly to extend theatre theory. It is instead an attempt to expand its boundaries (and researchers\u2019 field of competence). The theatre scholars use their \u201cnative\u201d methods and theories to putatively enrich the understanding of the well-described and frequently analyzed phenomena (by cultural anthropology, sociology, political marketing, religious studies, media studies and other). However, this enrichment is merely speculative. What is \u2013 or should be \u2013 a useful conceptual metaphor or figure (\u201ccostume\u201d, \u201cscene\u201d, \u201cgesture\u201d, or other) becomes an instrument for an explanation. It is obvious that a public event resembles theatre and any theatrical analysis can hardly transgress this apparent fact. On the contrary, it should rather be said that any theatre resembles a public event. It is barely plausible to use a narrow, historically and geographically determined phenomenon such as theatre to explain or interpret universal phenomena (which are hardly exclusively human, as the chimpanzee\u2019s \u201crain dance\u201d suggests).\n\nTo conclude, the main argument against the use of theatricality to grasp anything else than theatre is that it reverses the relationship between the set and its elements. The set of social phenomena includes theatre as an institution originating in ancient Greece, adapted by European nations, developed by Elizabethan theatre and classical German dramaturgy leading to the concept of national theatre (and avant-gardes, afterwards). In the colonial era, this institution was recognized by Europeans even in other civilizations, no matter what \u201cnative\u201d cultural function it had. Europeans have also influenced non-European theatre during those times. In retrospect, we can trace phenomena that resemble theater in the history of many cultures \u2013 and we can also find elements of theater outside of them. However, none of this gives theatre researchers the right to proclaim one cultural tradition as an interpretative framework for other traditions. The set of social phenomena cannot be entirely defined by its element (\u201ctheatre\u201d), only if it is a synecdoche pars pro toto (as it is in Goffman\u2019s theory). It is, therefore, better to shift the question to \u201chow to describe theatre as a social phenomenon\u201d, i.e., how to use a set to characterize one of its elements. Research into the relationship between theatre and other elements of the set (synchronously and diachronically) is a serious and important work, which unfortunately is still waiting for theater scientists. Understandably, scholars aim to avoid it \u2013 rather than to expand their holdings, they would have to extend the boundaries to foreign scientists, nations, and theories. Instead of colonialism, they would have to open borders and let defeated nations to go inland. Only then, we could learn to live together in our realm of \u201ctheatre.\u201d\n\n---\n\n2 Anthropocentrism\n\nThe critique of the horizontal dominance of theatre studies is hardly new, although now it slightly resembles the proverbial storm in a teacup than a serious attempt to audit the field\u2019s fundamental assumptions. To conclude that the term \u201ctheatre\u201d (and its adjectives and substantive adjectives) should be used to label narrower (and culturally and historically limited) rather than wider group of phenomena is not enough to be environmentally relevant. It helps the field to reintegrate itself to the human landscape (i.e. to reduce its cultural ambitions). What we need now in the sense of ecocriticism is to take another step and reintegrate the study of theatre to broader non-human perspective \u2013 that is what I would call \u201cto suspend field\u2019s vertical dominance.\u201d\n\nIt is evident, yet marginally reflected fact, that theatre scholarship is anthropocentric. At first sight, it seems to be counterintuitive to say that theatre studies should not be anthropocentric \u2013 who (or what) else than humans are performing theatre events? However, this vertical problem is analogous to the previously discussed horizontal one. Of course, dogs, chimpanzees or vervets do not play theatre. Just as we admit that ancient Egyptian rituals are not theatre, it cannot also be e.g. chimpanzee\u2019s \u201crain dance\u201d. However, the problem remains that the prevailing theatre ontology understands performative faculties of human species as something evolutionary exclusive. This exclusivity serves to justify the study of theatricality, itself putatively being a manifestation of human evolutionary dominance (as a paramount cultural phenomenon). But to say that theatre is human phenomenon sui generis (and has nothing at all to do with animals) means to contribute to the proliferation of division between nature and culture as it was described in Bruno Latour\u2019s blistering work.\n\nUna Chaundri calls for the revision of the anthropocentric fundamentals of the field: \u201cEmbodiment, presence, process, event, force: these performative themes of contemporary zoootenology invite a recollection of theatre\u2019s roots in zoomorphic cults and theriomorphic rituals and of the animalizations of classical and folk performance forms around the world.\u201d\n\nIn fabulae saturae, Attelan farces, Kalarippayatt or Teyyam in Kerala, Korean Naraye Agamben humans imitated goats, wolves or Shibishen (the twelve animals of the Chinese calendar), performed animal postures, and so on. These performances are hardly \u201ctheatre\u201d in the modern sense; their social functions and form were different.\n\n---\n\n\nWe can say that they are homologous to the European theatre because they employed dancing, acting, or wearing costumes. It means that the oldest human performances were not separated from nature, rather that they were part of it. They aimed to reintegrate humans into the ecosystem, not to manifest their exclusivity and dominance: \u201cPresent in ritual and festive forms of expression since time immemorial, animals were integral in the evolution of performance practices\u2014and above all dance\u2014right up until the cultural and social separation of species consigned them to rural milieus of a traditional kind.\u201d\n\nTo reintegrate humans back to their environmental landscape requires avoiding presenting the universal faculties (such as mimesis, as I would like to argue later) as species exclusive. They are somewhat archetypal in the sense of species homology\u2014every actor, every audience member employs in their endeavor similar (but hardly the same) physiological and mental processes to their non-human fellows.\n\nAnthropocentrism affirms human\u2019s exclusion from nature. From Darwin onward, we should understand every human individual as a part of the measureless evolutionary path. \u201cIt makes no more sense (and no less) to aim our historical narrative towards Homo sapiens than towards any other modern species \u2013 Octopus vulgaris, say, or Panthera leo or Sequoia sempervirens,\u201d Richard Dawkins pointedly remarks. We should hardly see mirror neurons as an exclusive instrument of theatre mimesis. There is no necessity for the theatre phenomenon; it is hardly a goal (even partial) of evolution to make humans be able to play theatre. Mirror neurons do not \u201cwant\u201d to play theatre\u2014 they serve other functions. Fortunately, they are prepared to play theatre, when a specific human culture wants to perform a piece. Therefore, we should see theatre performance rather as an event in which non-theatrical faculties are involved, and what more\u2014 they are interspecies. Theatre is archetypal in the sense that it involves phylogenetic memory of our species, not only that it represents mythical archetypes. That is how Ernst Haeckel has described the law of homology in nature.\n\n2.1 From homology to archetype\n\nHaeckel formulated his concept of an archetype (he uses the term \u201cUr-Typus\u201d) during his study of Radiolaria and especially Heliosphaerea, which he identified as comparable to the Ur-type of the phylum\u2014 \u201c[\u2026] he hypothesized that this kind of organism was the archetype whence all of the fifteen families might be derived,\u201d proposing an idea, that \u201cdescent relationships might operate according to various mathematical deformations of the basic sphere.\u201d In his work and especially in his breathtaking illustrations, Haeckel produced representations of standard organisms, based on his experience with particular examples and judgment, with archetypes created by scientist\u2019s mind.\nIt was Haeckel\u2019s monism, abandoning mind-body dualism (in favour of nature), which \u201cexerted a profound influence\u201d on a group of intellectuals, like D. H. Lawrence, Herman Hesse or C. G. Jung, visiting Asconia on the Swiss shore of Lake Maggiore, where they were dwelling at \u201cMonte Verita\u201d, the \u201cmountain of truth\u201d. Unfortunately, any influence on theatre theory is marginal. Only theatre practitioners like Rudolf Laban or Isadora Duncan (both of them dancers) were convinced by this evolutionary deconstruction of anthropocentrism. Nevertheless, even they were far from recognizing humanity as a part of a wider ecosystem and they did not knock their art off the pedestal (even though Duncan refused to label herself \u201cdancer\u201d). For instance, for Duncan dance was an instrument of social betterment and progress to a higher level of development, not transgressing human boundaries to the ecosystem.\n\nHow can we conceptually grasp the phenomenon of homology and be able to understand interspecies continuity? I propose to employ a theory of collective unconscious (das kollektive Unbewusstes), as the term was coined by C. G. Jung. Jung was influenced by the biological concepts of homology and evolutional archetype, and he elaborated on Freud\u2019s notion of the unconscious. Freud already conceived the term in accord with phylogeny: \u201cThe content of the Ucs [unconscious] may be compared with an aboriginal population in the mind. If inherited mental formations exist in the human being\u2014something analogous to instinct in animals\u2014these constitute the nucleus of Ucs.\u201d\n\nFor Freud, the unconscious content is physiological, consisting of \u201cinstinctual representatives which seek to discharge their cathexis; that is to say, it consists of wishful impulses.\u201d Jung overcame Freudian reductionism (which limited the collective heritage to instincts) and extended the image of the unconscious to the archetypal landscape. For Jung, the unconscious has gradually detached from instincts in human evolutionary history, but it still retained its instinctual character. Modern humans have lost the connection with this inner nature and have succumbed to the myth of autonomy of ratio. However, from the Jungian point of view, autonomous are archetypes, not conscious rationality.\n\nAs psychiatrist Anthony Stevens argues, the unconscious has its physiological base. The \u201carchetypal memory\u201d is inherited in the biological sense of meaning \u2013 archetypes are units of the natural mind. An archetype is not an idea, but for Stevens, it is \u201ca pattern of behavior\u201d, the inherited experience of species, which transcends the \u201cnature-versus-nurture\u201d debate and heals \u201cthe Cartesian split between body and mind\u201d. What Stevens labels \u201cthe Paleolithic inner world\u201d is the human phylogenetic link to ancestors, which binds all the nature to form one community on the basis of (certainly differentiated) homology. This is not only a philosophical assumption \u2013 it implies serious consequences in psychology. The \u201ccultural\u201d (higher, cognitive and creative processes especially in the neocortex) and \u201cnatural\u201d human self is intercon-\nnected, as Antonio Damasio shows: \u201cThe hypothalamus, the brain stem, and the limbic system intervene in body regulation and in all neural processes on which mind phenomena are based, for example, perception, learning, recall, emotion and feeling, and [...] reasoning and creativity. Body regulation, survival, and mind are intimately interwoven.\u201d\n\nThe research proves that archetypes should be understood as our phylogenetic memory imprinted on biological tissue using chemical and electrical signal pathways and ancient parts of the human body (especially the \u201creptilian\u201d and \u201cpaleomammalian\u201d complexes of the brain). Current neuroscience supports these assumptions with the developing research on the transgenerational transmission of trauma implying that some experiences (such as PTSD) can be epigenetically inherited \u2013 transforming individual unconscious into the collective (or shared, at least). The multigenerational transmission of ancestral phenotypic responses is documented even on plants and animals.\n\n### 3 Animal mimesis\n\nWhen an ethologist Jane Goodall has seen the chimpanzee\u2019s \u201crain dance\u201d for the first time, she was amazed. It has been splendid to watch animals to perform a ritual, and Goodall was furthermore lucky to see chimpanzees to perform collectively, which is even rarer. \u201cThe actor taking his final curtain,\u201d she wrote later in the final sentence of the ritual\u2019s description. These words \u2013 performance, actor, curtain, ritual \u2013 are startling when used in the context of animal behavior. Yet, they are hardly mere noble metaphors. In the animal realm, we surely can find faculties, which are homologous to human mimesis.\n\n#### 3.1 \u201cActing\u201d animals\n\nThe prevalent animal form of \u201cacting\u201d is mimicry, which is not limited to mere changing of skin colours, for example displaying of eyespots. Mimicry usually in-\nvolves resembling of other animals\u2019 markings or even behavior, as David McFarland shows. For instance, coral snake Lampropeltis elapsoides mimics the colors of poisonous Micrurus fulvius, some snakes of the genus Dasypeltis perform the warning display of the African carpet viper Echis carinata producing specific noise, \u201csome hole-nesting birds hiss like a snake if disturbed on the nest.\u201d\n\nThis form of deceit is of evolutionary importance, being a form of defence against predators. For our cogitations, it is important to admit, even if this behavior is not conscious in the sense of human\u2019s free will and we say that it is instinctive, it shows that the performance of imitation is not exclusive to humans. To imitate, i.e., to act like other being and try to persuade spectator that the imitator is another being (\u201cillusiveness\u201d), is prevalent in nature. Aristotle\u2019s famous claim from Poetics that humans have \u201ca natural instinct for representation [mimesthai]\u201d should be amended \u2013 \u201can instinct for representation is prevalent in nature.\u201d\n\nAnimal\u2019s mimicry is a form of communication using visual, acoustic and gestic signs \u2013 the very same resources of actor\u2019s work (the animal communication is studied by zoosemiotics, a science established by Thomas A. Sebeok in the 1960s). What is more remarkable is that mimicry can even serve as a communication among species. For example, the trumpetfish Aulostomus uses camouflage to infiltrate schools of yellow sturgeon \u2013 this strategy is called commensalism. Other examples of this animal \u201cacting\u201d involve dogs\u2019 tooth-baring or male-female communication in the situation of possible reproduction.\n\nAll of these are examples of ritualized behavior, which is aimed to gain an advantage for the \u201cacting\u201d animal. The principle is still the same \u2013 there is an animal, which imitates other\u2019s behavior or uses visual, acoustic or gestic signs to present a threat or a demand to another animal (\u201cspectator\u201d). Even if this behavior is not voluntary, it involves all that is familiar for those who deal with theatricality \u2013 costumes, gestures, makeup, sound effects, even dancing (e.g. animal courting). Intra- and intersexual choice of mates in nature involves a lot of this \u201cacting\u201d, and not only in the case of attracting females. \u201cMale rivalry involves ritualized combat, bluff, assessment of the rival\u2019s fighting potential,\u201d and this rarely leads to real fighting. Animals are performing a great \u201ctheatre\u201d for their companions and potential mates. Their art of mimesis has to be superior to professional human actors, because unlike for people, it is survival what is at stake for the animals.\n\n3.2 Symbolic play versus make-believe\n\nThe difference between human and animal mimesis seems to be in a difference between true symbolic play and feature-dependent make-believe, as Jesse M. Bering claims. Bering argued that humans are able to represent objects, scripts and mental events \u201cin the absence of any perceptual eliciting stimuli\u201d, whereas other animals in\n\n---\n\n36 Ibid., p. 126.\ntheir imaginative plays do not involve \u201ca clear detachment from the perceptual cues of the incorporated objects.\u201d\n\nResearch shows that this division is not only between Homo sapiens and the rest of the animal realm. Judy A. Ungerer with her colleagues investigated developmental differences in the way children impersonated objects and found that children between 18 \u2013 34 months of age are using feature-dependent make-believe rather than symbolic play. Therefore, we cannot say that the \u201csymbolic divide\u201d lies between humans and animals. This assumption is untenable.\n\nConcerning Peter Singer\u2019s theory of speciesism, it is barely possible to claim the superior status of humans based on their cognitive abilities. What about little children, who are not able to understand language, play symbolically, perform abstract thinking? What about people with psychic disabilities, who are not even capable of speech or rational argument? Does it mean that they are not Homo sapiens in the proper sense (from the biological point of view that is hardly true)?\n\nNot at all \u2013 that only proves we should not define our position in nature on the basis of the finest skills we possess. Moreover, we cannot say that theatre is typical for humans when most of us do not attend theatre regularly, and only a fraction of Homo sapiens watch non-commercial, artistic performances theatre scholars consider valuable.\n\nTherefore, we should adjust our assertion. There is not a difference between human and non-human mimesis, but between mimesis of those with higher cognitive abilities and those without them. This implies very serious inferences: a) we should refuse the assumption that any theatre performance is (inherently) accessible to a general audience because it excludes people with cognitive disabilities, b) the ability to understand theatre as symbolic play should not define humanity. Non-symbolic forms of theatre, i.e. certain types of dance and performances involving feature-dependent make-believe could be (presumably) accessible even to a non-human audience.\n\n### 3.3 Mirror neurons and empathy\n\nThanks to Erika Fischer-Lichte\u2019s remark in her \u00c4sthetik des Performativen, mirror neurons have recently become a huge hype in the field of theatre studies. Contrary\n\n---\n\n\n40 This is only a hypothesis, of course. Its accurateness is to be proved by experimental methods (if that is possible at all).\n\n\nto the general opinion, the neurobiological evidence gives hardly any hope for theatre scholars that on the neuronal level we can recognize any specifically theatrical mental processes. Quite the reverse, the available research (although being fragmentary) shows that the existence of \u201cmimetic\u201d neurons documents interspecies nature of mimesis and proves its evolutionary significance as one of the underlying mechanisms of understanding others\u2019 behavior. It underlines our assumption that theatre is only one culturally determined form of universal behavior transgressing the boundaries of species.\n\nMirror neurons are \u201cinherently \u2018multimodal\u2019 as they respond to more than one modality\u201d\\(^{43}\\), meaning that the firing of a single neuron involves the action-concept recognition in the brain (parietal-premotor networks). This assumption is coherent even with the findings of experiments with animal\u2019s F5 brain area conducted by Rizzolatti and his coworkers. Most of the examined neurons discharged \u201cin association with goal-directed actions, such as grasping, manipulating, tearing, holding\u201d and the researchers claim that the mirror neurons are not involved in mere imitation but action understanding.\\(^{44}\\) Other scholars provide evidence that mirror neurons (in area 7B, monkey Macaca fuscata inferior parietal cortex) respond differentially to identical actions embedded in different contexts and this can be understood as to be a component of protolanguage coding mechanism in the ancestral primate brains.\\(^{45}\\) Experiments with ventral premotor cortex mirror neurons of Macaca nemestrina showed that the mirror neurons were active even when the action was not in monkey\u2019s full vision.\\(^{46}\\) This study supports the hypothesis that the neurons serve action recognition because animals had to infer the goal of the action.\n\nIn the human brain, there are areas corresponding to monkey cortical areas with the recorded activity of mirror neurons \u2013 the left superior temporal sulcus (STS), the left rostral part of the inferior parietal lobule (area 40) and the left interior frontal cortex (area 45).\\(^{47}\\) The latter, together with area 44, forms Broca area being responsible for semantic tasks and control of the production of intelligible speech. It lies near the region of the motor area responsible for mouth and tongue movements.\\(^{48}\\) There is experimental evidence that left inferior frontal gyrus (where BA45 lies) enables the selection of relevant information from competing semantic knowledge.\\(^{49}\\) As Tsuji et\n\n---\n\nal.\\textsuperscript{50} showed, the inferior frontal cortex (IFC) also plays a role in belief-bias reasoning, when stimulation of the left IFC eliminated the belief-bias effect making subjects not suffer from interference by irrelevant semantic processing.\n\nThe STS is presumably an important factor in social perception, because it is possible that \u201cover the course of evolution and development, the multisensory anatomy of the STS has been recruited for social processes, such as theory of mind, that make use of information from multiple modalities.\u201d\\textsuperscript{51} Especially in social neuroscience and developmental psychology, there is fruitful research on the theory of mind (ToM) available up to date.\\textsuperscript{52} The term was coined in 1978 by David Premack and Guy Woodruff in order to describe a system of inferences, which an individual employs to impute mental states to himself and others. The researchers proved that even chimpanzees could recognize actions on a videotape as representing a problem, they could understand the actor\u2019s purpose, and choose alternatives compatible with that purpose.\\textsuperscript{53} The fact that there are mirror neurons present in STS implies that the neurons play a role in this understanding of other\u2019s actions. The ToM concept provides a plausible explanation of the mirror neuron\u2019s function. Rather than to \u201ccopy\u201d behavior, it seems that they serve to help animals to experience mental states of others: \u201cWhat makes the neurons special is the lack of distinction between \u2018monkey see\u2019 and \u2018monkey do.\u2019 They erase the line between self and other, and offer a first hint of how the brain helps an organism mirror the emotions and behavior of those around it.\u201d\\textsuperscript{54}\n\nAs Frans de Waal argues, this identification \u201copens the door for empathy\u201d, leading even to the refusal of the popular philosophical (and entirely fallacious) Hobbesian idea of the natural state being bellum omnium contra omnes. What scholars of theatre see as a condition of theatricality is from a more comprehensive, phylogenetic point of view the physiological ground of empathy and bonding.\n\nThe concept of theatricality involves a presumption that in human society a specific \u201ctheatrical\u201d behavior exists and the analysis of this kind of behavior can help to explain other phenomena (such as are religious rituals, political gatherings or trials). My argument is that we should reverse our point of view and see theatre as a phenomenon explainable by other concepts and theories (transgressing the field boundaries). The specific theatre mimetic behavior (involving professional actors and audience) should be understood as an instance of mental strategies and cognitive faculties, which makes us able to live in a community. This notion of a community should not be only human, as I would like to conclude later. For this conclusion, I have to provide a brief revision of the notion of katharsis, enabling me to show how the non-anthropocentric and non-ethnocentric theatre studies can contribute to solving our prevailing environmental crisis \u2013 and reach its political importance.\n\n\n4 Katharsis Pruning Rather than Purifying\n\nKatharsis is maybe one of the most proliferated terms in modern aesthetics, although we have only partial evidence of what it meant for Aristotle. The philosopher uses the term katharsis only in his Politics, where he promises explanation in his study of poetry, and in Poetics, where we can read that it is an effect of experiencing pity and fear while watching the tragedy. An extensive tradition of interpretation is based on these incomplete and inadequate remarks of \u201cthe Philosopher\u201d, usually ignoring that Aristotle mentioned the term not only in relation to tragedy, but to music as well \u2013 making rhythm and melody important generators of katharsis.\n\n\u201c[F]orm conferred upon the matter of emotional experience stirs, excites, carries the soul along; and then\u2013because it is form\u2013it gratifies, satisfies, purges away unhealthy perturbation, induces peace at the last, leaving the soul uplifted and serene.\u201d\n\nIt is useful to employ the broader philosophical context in the interpretation of the term, and I do not mean to quote only Plato, who blamed art rather than praised. For example, James Highland used the work of one of Aristotle\u2019s students, Theophrastus of Eresus, to interpret katharsis \u2013 on the basis of Theophrastus\u2019 botanical works. Highland not only shows that katharsis in Aristotelian tradition can hardly be reduced to an ethical or medical purification, but that katharsis has a biological context. Theophrastus used the term when referring to pruning, proper transforming a tree\u2019s nature. This kind of \u201ctherapia\u201d (training) effects \u201cphysis\u201d (nature) of the tree, guiding \u201cthe food that rises from the roots of trees to nourish them and promote the growth of fruit.\u201d Katharsis is therefore used not in a mere ethical, but in a developmental sense of meaning \u2013 it helps nature to be fructiferous (or, as Highland implies, to live according to nature).\n\nAs W. F. Trench claims, in Aristotle\u2019s aesthetics the aim of katharsis is eudaimonia, the well-being. Theophrastus\u2019 work shows a wider biological sense of the meaning. If we recognize emotions and empathy as faculties transgressing humanity, shared with (at least some) animals, we should reformulate this anthropocentric goal. The healing effect should not lead only to integration of human into society and achieving happiness, it has to re-integrate Homo sapiens back into a wider ecosystem, liberating his mind from \u201cpure reason\u201d, making him again able to use and cultivate his \u201cprimordial\u201d heritage (emotions, instincts) to flourish, understand him or herself as a part of nature (being an animal), and cooperate with other living beings.\n\nThe reductionist, anthropocentric interpretation of katharsis roots in Renaissance moralistic criticism, which used Aristotle\u2019s aesthetics as an instrument for a disciplining of human according to the mind-body dualism. This modern preference of reason diminishes emotions, instincts, and drives: \u201cRenaissance critics were consistently moralistic, never approached aesthetics without relating it very closely to\n\n55 ARISTOTLE. Poetics, 1449b28. For English reference see the footnote No. 25.\n56 \u201cPity and fear are resolved, through the melodic, harmonic rendering of them in terms of form, into peace at the last.\u201d TRENCH, W. F. The place of katharsis in Aristotle\u2019s aesthetics. In Hermathena, 1938, Vol. 26, Issue 51, pp. 125 \u2013 126, quotation p. 130.\n57 Ibid., p. 123.\n59 See WAAL, F. The Age of Empathy.\nethics, and felt sure that Aristotle was with them in this. But their own ethical outlook was deplorable, inhuman, in a most important respect, and they were far astray in thinking they had Aristotle with them in it. I charge with inhumanity leading scholars of the sixteenth century whose views went on permeating culture far beyond that century. They held that the philosopher could promulgate without blame, that the passions were diseases of the soul!\\textsuperscript{60}\n\nI agree with W. F. Trench that it is definitely time to abandon the outdated Lessing\u2019s, Bernays\u2019 and Bywater\u2019s moralism\\textsuperscript{61} and admit that human unconscious (and his or her emotions, even the collective ones) is not to be purged in katharsis, but should brighten up.\\textsuperscript{62} In order to be a fructiferous and cooperative part of nature, human beings have to immerse in their collective unconscious. In theatre katharsis, it is possible because the form of artwork (rhythm, melody) prevents spectator to fall into unconsciousness and rather than to suppress his or her reason, it reintegrates it with psyche\u2019s subbase \u2013 the unconscious. Therefore, theatre can train humans in empathy not only towards the individuals of their own species but even beyond its frontiers.\n\n\\section*{5 Conclusion}\n\nEmploying the benchmark of ecological relevance, how can theatre studies contribute to the environmental healing process? Hardly by using its anthropo- and Eurocentric anachronisms and proliferating their deficiencies to the other regions of culture and society than the theatre itself. The presented examples of interspecies homology are only partial and hardly represent a compact picture. Moreover, theatre scholars should not want to be biologists. They understand theatre and theatre is their field of expertise. It should remain as it is. However, we can use our own concepts to transgress reductionism of humanities and promote artistic contribution to the environmental healing process.\n\nFor me, the key concept is katharsis. I profess that we need the reevaluation of katharsis in theatre theory, being more ecological. We should be better disciples of Aristotle and Theophrastus, both being the first philosophers investigating an organism as a part of the environment.\\textsuperscript{63} Both plants and animals (and human beings) flourish in \u201coikeios topos\u201d, the habitat, which can become home. Late modernity prefers economy \u2013 but we should rather understand ourselves in ecological terms. Maybe it seems to be inconceivable, but I believe that properly transformed theatre theory can contribute to the process of ecological \u201ctherapia\u201d and a) show that even in \u201cnoble\u201d artistic forms we are first and foremost animals (and part of nature); and b) teach us how to use the (shared) faculties to achieve interspecies understanding.\n\nFor theatre and performance studies, the building of community usually mean humans engaged in a performative event \u2013 such as it was in the case of \\textit{Dionysus in 69}\nby Richard Schechner\u2019s The Performance Group. This point of view exploits the anthropological theory of ritual (especially Victor Turner\u2019s concepts) and tries to resuscitate mythical \u201clost theatre\u201d, forgotten by modern humans. Of course, every theatrical event forms a kind of community \u2013 no matter whether it was the leftist Theatre of the Oppressed or theatre in the Third Reich. It is because theatre involves faculties, which makes individuals experience others\u2019 mental states and sees them behave like themselves. When we dive into our inner depth (phylogenetic memory), when we admit that these faculties are to some degree shared, we can understand ourselves as a part of long phylogenetic history and reintegrate ourselves into the environmental landscape. Theatre studies should transgress the narrow interpretation of what the community means and show how theatre engages the non-human ground of humans. It requires the scholars to abandon concepts such as theatricality and listen to biologists, neuroscientists, and ethnologists, who can provide a broader perspective. Our aim as scholars in humanities is to inform artists, audiences, and critics that in every theatre event, humans reach to their evolutionary heritage, instead of proving themselves to be masters of creation.\n\nThe question of the day is: how our \u201ctopos\u201d can be \u201coikeios\u201d, better inhabitable, for all beings living in it? This appeal aims not only to artists but to researchers as well. I believe that we are obliged to provide plausible evidence and theories that can explain theatre not as an instrument of dominance (cultural, speciesism), but also as an opportunity to empathy, understanding, and cooperation. This essay tries to raise some questions and it should be followed by the formulation of hypotheses and their testing.\n\nTranslated by the author, edited by Kl\u00e1ra \u0160krob\u00e1nkov\u00e1\n\nLITERATURE\n\n\nJan Motal\nDivadeln\u00ed fakulta Jan\u00e1\u010dkovy akademie m\u00fazick\u00fdch um\u011bn\u00ed\nMozartova 1\n66215 Brno\nCzech Republic\nE-mail: motal@jamu.cz", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/10140819SD03-2019-240.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 8739, "olmocr-version": "0.1.49", "pdf-total-pages": 18, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 51897, "total-output-tokens": 15651, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00060272216796875, "__label__art_design": 0.12408447265625, "__label__crime_law": 0.0010385513305664062, "__label__education_jobs": 0.0660400390625, "__label__entertainment": 0.03472900390625, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0009336471557617188, "__label__finance_business": 0.00115203857421875, "__label__food_dining": 0.0006628036499023438, "__label__games": 0.001944541931152344, "__label__hardware": 0.0006513595581054688, "__label__health": 0.00235748291015625, "__label__history": 0.004657745361328125, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0010509490966796875, "__label__industrial": 0.001064300537109375, "__label__literature": 0.5751953125, "__label__politics": 0.0030117034912109375, "__label__religion": 0.001885414123535156, "__label__science_tech": 0.17333984375, "__label__social_life": 0.001758575439453125, "__label__software": 0.0014200210571289062, "__label__software_dev": 0.00135040283203125, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00044465065002441406, "__label__transportation": 0.0005750656127929688, "__label__travel": 0.0002810955047607422}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 57550, 0.05202]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 57550, 0.7307]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 57550, 0.89528]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 3392, false], [3392, 5933, null], [5933, 10187, null], [10187, 14186, null], [14186, 18148, null], [18148, 21025, null], [21025, 24128, null], [24128, 25968, null], [25968, 29398, null], [29398, 33160, null], [33160, 36983, null], [36983, 41116, null], [41116, 44799, null], [44799, 47813, null], [47813, 51021, null], [51021, 54972, null], [54972, 54972, null], [54972, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 3392, true], [3392, 5933, null], [5933, 10187, null], [10187, 14186, null], [14186, 18148, null], [18148, 21025, null], [21025, 24128, null], [24128, 25968, null], [25968, 29398, null], [29398, 33160, null], [33160, 36983, null], [36983, 41116, null], [41116, 44799, null], [44799, 47813, null], [47813, 51021, null], [51021, 54972, null], [54972, 54972, null], [54972, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 57550, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 3392, 1], [3392, 5933, 2], [5933, 10187, 3], [10187, 14186, 4], [14186, 18148, 5], [18148, 21025, 6], [21025, 24128, 7], [24128, 25968, 8], [25968, 29398, 9], [29398, 33160, 10], [33160, 36983, 11], [36983, 41116, 12], [41116, 44799, 13], [44799, 47813, 14], [47813, 51021, 15], [51021, 54972, 16], [54972, 54972, 17], [54972, 57550, 18]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 57550, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-11-24", "created": "2024-11-24"}
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+{"id": "3bc1a68526564514c4ce6c7bfbf89542a4b3aed5", "text": "HANDSOME HUSBAND:\n\nA COMIC DRAMA IN ONE ACT.\n\nBY\n\nMRS. PLANCHE,\n\nTHOMAS HAILES LACY,\nWELLINGTON STREET, STRAND,\nLONDON,\nFirst performed at the Royal Olympic Theatre, Feb. 15, 1836.\n\nCHARACTERS.\n\nMR. WYNDHAM .................. MR. C. MATHEWS.\nHENRY FITZHERBERT .............. MR. VINING.\nSTEPHEN .......................... KERRIDGE.\nSERVANT .......................... MADAME VESTRIS.\nMRS. WYNDHAM ................ MADAME VESTRIS.\nTHE HON. MRS. MELFORD ....... MISS E. LEE.\nMRS. TWISDEN .................... S. MACNAMARA.\nLADY'S MAID ....................\n\nTime\u201450 Minutes.\n\nC O S T U M E S .\n\nFashionable Dresses of the day.\nA HANDSOME HUSBAND.\n\nSCENE I.\n\nA drawing-room elegantly furnished\u2014folding doors at back\u2014doors right and left\u2014cabinet, sofa, table, chairs, &c. As the curtain goes up, a loud double knock is heard at hall door; enter SERVANT, shewing in MR. WYNDHAM and MRS. MELFORD. SERVANT places chairs, and exit.\n\nWYND. I beg, madam, you will be seated. (she sits) Rather curious, that our post-chaises should arrive at the same door at the same instant; that we should both alight, and at the same time ask the same question of the same porter:\u2014\"Is Mistress Wyndham at home?\" Odd, wasn't it? I offered you my arm; you did not refuse it;\u2014we entered the house, and ascended to the drawing room; I presented you with a chair; you did me the favour to accept it. And now, madam, after all this, perhaps you will condescend to inform me to whom I have the honour of speaking.\n\nMRS. M. To Mrs. Melford, sir.\n\nWYND. Mrs. Melford! what, the Hon. Mrs. Melford! friend and schoolfellow of Mrs. Wyndham?\n\nMRS. M. The same, sir; though we have not met for some years. When I last saw her, she was Laura Twisden; now she has the honour of bearing the name of Wyndham. I haven't the pleasure of knowing Mr. Wyndham; but I esteem, nay, love him, with all my heart.\n\nWYND. Madam! (aside) Bless my soul, how very odd.\n\nMRS. M. It's very true, sir; he must be such a good\u2014such a charming man!\n\nWYND. Madam! madam! you overpower me! Really, my natural modesty and diffidence\u2014\n\nMRS. M. You, sir!\n\nWYND. Yes, madam, I am he!\u2014the pure, unadulterated, veritable Mr. Wyndham, just returned after an absence of two years.\nMRS. M. How, sir? you left your wife after\u2014\n\nWYND. Two months of bliss, which flew past with most frightful rapidity. It's really astonishing the wonderful difference there is in two months spent with a lovely woman in a comfortable home, and sixty days passed in the \"Spitfire\" with a pack of men.\n\nMRS. M. But may I take the liberty of asking, sir, what induced you to leave England?\n\nWYND. A lawsuit, madam, in which our interests were vitally concerned; and which, I rejoice to say, has terminated favourably.\n\nMRS. M. And I rejoice to hear it, and to make your acquaintance; for, in spite of your excessive modesty, I repeat what I just now said.\n\nWYND. No, madam! pray don't, I entreat!\n\nMRS. M. Your conduct to my dear Laura proves to me that you are a noble, generous man.\n\nWYND. Noble and generous, madam! what? because I marry a lovely girl, highly gifted, and\u2014\n\nMRS. M. And blind!\n\nWYND. And blind\u2014the greatest, best gift of all.\n\nMRS. M. Sir!\n\nWYND. Yes, ma'am; it may seem odd to you, but so it is; she was made for me.\n\nMRS. M. Really, sir, you are quite an enigma; do me the favour to explain.\n\nWYND. I will. Condescend to turn your eyes this way, madam; look at me, and tell me candidly,\u2014no flattering now,\u2014do you think me a handsome man?\n\nMRS. M. A handsome man! Why, sir, I\u2014I\u2014\n\nWYND. Say no more, madam; you hesitate\u2014'tis enough. I see how it is, you perfectly agree with me; you would say\u2014\"I am well enough; that is, I am not positively frightful; I might pass in a crowd; my sudden appearance would not alarm a sensible hackney-coach horse.\" But that is not enough: to find favour with the fair sex, a man must be decidedly handsome; character, talent, temper, all are secondary considerations with them. Excuse me, madam, 'tis a melancholy fact, founded upon my personal experience, that the intrinsic value of a man signifies little, provided Nature has been externally bountiful.\n\nMRS. M. Oh, Mr. Wyndham, you are severe upon us.\n\nWYND. But correct. Pardon me, but I have proved\nit. I have, in my time, made love to many women; my addresses have been received\u2014encouraged for a time, when in has stept some handsome dandy, with no other qualification but intrepid assurance, which,\u2014pardon me again, madam,\u2014if there is a doubt, generally settles the question. Continually jilted, I had made up my mind never to marry, until a lucky chance introduced me to your lovely and deliciously blind friend, Laura Twisden. For her, beauty and ugliness were mere words; she could neither see her husband, however frightful, nor any other of the sex, however charming; the woman of all others for me. I endeavoured to make myself agreeable;\u2014I suppose I succeeded; for I had the felicity of persuading her to change the somewhat vulgar name of Twisden for that of Wyndham.\n\nMRS. TWISDEN. *(speaking off, R. H.)* Where is he? in the drawing-room?\u2014the dear creature! *(enters, and throws herself in WYNDHAM\u2019S arms)* My dear Wyndham! come back at last! I am so rejoic\u2019d, that I\u2019m ready to cry; and, what do I see, Mrs. Melford here also! Oh! it\u2019s too much\u2014too much happiness! *(they both take her hands, give chair, &c.)*\n\nMRS. M. Compose yourself, my dear madam; I am come to stay with you for a short time, if you will allow me.\n\nMRS. T. Oh! my dear, with the greatest pleasure. *(she gets up, and turns to WYNDHAM)* And now that I am a little recovered, I must give you a bit of a scolding; for not a line have we received from you for some\u2014oh! shocking quantity of months; I don\u2019t know how many.\n\nWYND. Dearest Mrs. T.\u2014*(aside)* I hate the name in full. *(aloud)* I couldn\u2019t write when I was being tossed about on the restless bosom of Mr. Neptune; and on board the \"Spitfire\" there was no *post*, except the captain. But we are talking of captains and \"Spitfires\" instead of my wife, who has nothing I\u2019m sure to do with either, bless her! How is the darling?\n\nMRS. T. Well\u2014quite well.\n\nWYND. Go, then, madam, and inform her gently of my arrival; or shall I at once fly to her?\n\nMRS. T. Stay, my dear Wyndham, you can\u2019t do that, for she is out.\n\nWYND. Out\u2014how unlucky!\n\nMRS. T. So it is; and as she is gone shopping it is very\nuncertain when she will return. I dare say you haven't forgotten the time such matters occupy.\n\nWYND. Oh, no! Who is gone with her?\n\nMRS. T. She is gone alone.\n\nWYND. Alone!\n\nMRS. T. Oh, yes! she wouldn't trust anybody to purchase ribbons, &c, &c, for her; she prefers to choose her own colours; and she is perfectly right, for her taste is exquisite, I assure you.\n\nWYND. What on earth do you mean? (aside) The woman is surely out of her mind. ( aloud) Choose her own colours, madam?\u2014do you really mean what you say?\n\nMRS. T. Of course I do. What makes you stare so? you know what has occurred!\n\nWYND. I, madam! No, madam! what has occurred?\n\nMRS. T. What!\u2014goodness preserve me!\u2014Didn't you get my letter, dated in May last?\n\nWYND. Never!\n\nMRS. T. Mercy on me!\u2014then you really do know nothing of the famous German doctor?\n\nWYND. Doctor! Has she been ill, then?\n\nMRS. T. The cleverest creature on earth! I was so delighted with him, that\u2014would you believe it, Mrs. Melford?\u2014I positively embraced the dear man!\n\nWYND. But what did he do?\u2014For heaven's sake, tell me!\n\nMRS. T. What did he do!\u2014gave light and life to our dear Laura!\n\nWYND. What do you mean, madam?\u2014What do you mean?\n\nMRS. T. Don't be agitated, pray. I should have broken it to you more gently\u2014the happy news\u2014but I thought my letter\u2014The fact is, my dear Mr. Wyndham\u2014control your transport,\u2014our dear Laura has regained her sight!\n\nMRS. M. Is it possible?\n\nWYND. It's all over with me\u2014I'm a lost man!\u2014(falls in a chair)\n\nMRS. T. A lost man!\u2014How?\u2014What?\u2014When?\u2014Where?\n\nWYND. (starting up) Have you now to learn, Mrs. T., that my greatest inducement for marrying your daughter was what you thought her misfortune.\nMRS. T. But my dear Mr. Wyndham\u2014\n\nWYND. Didn't she take it in her head, that I was a handsome man?\u2014and didn't I suffer you to keep up the delusion, because I thought it couldn't possibly signify? And now that she can see for herself, her eyes will indeed be opened.\u2014Horrid, execrable German doctor!\u2014Let me fly the house!\n\nMRS. T. What!\u2014will you not see your wife?\n\nWYND. Now that she can see me!\u2014No, no; not, at least, till you have prepared her for the real truth. I shall hear how she receives it, and shall act accordingly. Not a word of my arrival.\n\nMRS. T. But how to prevent her knowing it? She is, I assure you, very suspicious; for she has an idea that she is always being deceived\u2014more particularly about your return. She constantly rummages my desk and drawers, to seek for any letters of yours. Every morning, at breakfast, her first question is sure to be\u2014\"Do you think Edward will come to-day?\"\u2014then fixes her eyes on me, as tho' she would read me thro' and thro': I couldn't tell her a story for the life of me. The other morning a young man happened to get out of a coach, at our door: she started up\u2014the blood rushed to her face\u2014and she exclaimed\u2014\"Is that my husband?\"\n\nWYND. Some cursed handsome dog, no doubt. No! my mind's made up\u2014I will not let her see me until after she has been warned of my appearance. Now, do your best in this; and you, madam (to MRS. MELFORD) as her friend, will perhaps kindly interest yourself in this affair? Reason with her\u2014soothe her\u2014encourage her.\n\nMRS. M. Depend on my doing everything in my power.\n\nMRS. T. And what do you intend to do with yourself?\u2014where do you mean to spend the day?\n\nWYND. In an omnibus!\u2014that will distract my attention. Good by; I leave my fate in your hands. Ah! a good thought\u2014make me out much plainer than I really am! infernally ugly!\u2014downright disgusting!\u2014you understand; then perhaps she may be agreeably surprised.\n\nMRS. T. But are you really going?\u2014and where shall we find you?\n\nWYND. I tell you, in an omnibus!\u2014somewhere between Paddington and Mile End!\nMRS. T. But where will you dine?\n\nWYND. No where\u2014any where. I'll get a plain dinner at an ordinary! Exit C. D.\n\nMRS. T. What a strange man!\u2014what a strange fancy!\u2014for he really is not so very plain, is he?\n\nMRS. M. Not at all. I rather like his appearance. He is not, perhaps, what people call good-looking\u2014but he looks\u2014good!\n\nMRS. T. And he is what he looks; a kinder-hearted creature never breathed.\n\nMRS. M. I fear, my dear Mrs. Twisden, my visit has been unluckily timed\u2014that it may be inconvenient to you to receive me just now?\n\nMRS. T. Not at all, my dear,\u2014not at all; but I must confess that I was rather surprised at seeing you; for I could not have supposed that your cross old husband could ever have been prevailed upon to let you come to town by yourself.\n\nMRS. M. It is no longer in his power to prevent my doing as I like.\n\nMRS. T. Indeed!\u2014separated! I thought it would come to that.\n\nMRS. M. Eternally! I have been a widow nearly eighteen months.\n\nMRS. T. Dead!\u2014dead, is he? (aside) And a very good thing, too. (aloud) I always said something of that sort would happen, for I was sure you couldn't live together. To speak the plain truth, he was a most disagreeable man!\n\nMRS. M. My dear Mrs. Twisden!\n\nMRS. T. Oh, my dear, you know that pretty well, I should think!\u2014a quarrelsome\u2014malicious\u2014mean\u2014miserly\u2014jealous\u2014gouty old man!\n\nMRS. M. Mrs. Twisden!\n\nMRS. T. Well, my dear, out of respect to your grief, I'll say no more; but I could, a great deal more. Do you remember the day when you came to me to protect you against his violence, because he found the portrait of a young man in your hands?\n\nMRS. M. Indeed I do! I shall never forget your kindness upon that occasion.\n\nMRS. T. Oh! don't mention that! I've got the picture quite safe\u2014carefully put away there, ever since.\nMRS. M. I have suffered much on the original's account. I was fondly attached to him, when I was forced into a marriage with my late husband.\n\nMRS. T. And now, you mean to marry him?\n\nMRS. M. It is not impossible!\n\nMRS. T. Then you are very wrong. I have told you, over and over again, that Henry Fitzherbert is a dissipated young man of fashion; and is that, let me ask you, the sort of person likely to render a woman happy and comfortable in the married state? My dear, he'd make a deplorable husband! As he happens to be my nephew, you see I know some little about him. His family were most anxious to bring about a marriage with him and his cousin Laura; but no, no, I had such a good opinion of him, that I begged leave to decline the honour; and, in case of accidents, as cousins are sometimes exceedingly fond of each other, I have never allowed them to meet.\n\nMRS. M. Is it possible that they are not known to each other?\n\nMRS. T. Indeed, no! After Laura's marriage, I didn't much care about it, and would have invited him to the house; but Mr. Wyndham would not hear of it.\n\nMRS. M. But I think I have influence enough over him, to make him correct all his little errors.\n\nMRS. T. Oh! I've no doubt you think so\u2014we shall see. Well, I'll find you his precious picture, now that you can retain it with propriety; in the mean time do you retire to your own room, which shall be this\u2014(pointing to room L.H.) I will order up your things, and some refreshment, after your journey\u2014which, I'm sure, you must require.\n\nMRS. M. Thank you! and pray let me know as soon as Laura comes home!\n\nExit Mrs. MELFORD, L.D.\n\nMRS. T. I will. Now for the picture! (goes to cabinet, and hunts for it) Silly, silly Mrs. Melford! Providence has no sooner kindly untied one knot for her than she allows that stupid Cupid to tie another. Well, that's her affair!\u2014what in the world have I done with his beautiful phiz?\u2014in the secret drawer, perhaps! Ah! here it is, sure enough! 'pon my life he is a good-looking fellow!\u2014one can excuse a great deal from such a face as this: these are the men that do the mischief!\u2014such grace and softness, combined with the im-\nA HANDSOME HUSBAND.\n\nPudence of\u2014of\u2014I don't know what to compare it to. There is nothing like the impudence of some men, and this one, I should say, in particular!\u2014(she looks with delight on the picture)\n\nEnter LAURA: she stops on seeing MRS. TWISDEN, then comes forward on tiptoe, and snatches portrait from her.\n\nLAU. Ah, ah! I've got it!\n\nMRS. T. Laura! my dear Laura, give me back that portrait directly!\n\nLAU. (running from her) No, no, no! I was sure you were hiding something from me! What a shame, you dear, darling, kind, cruel mamma, to have his likeness in your possession all this time, and never to shew it to me, when you knew I was dying to see what he was like.\n\nMRS. T. (aside) Mercy on me! I do believe she thinks\u2014\n\nLAU. (hugging up the portrait) And now that I can look upon his portrait, I declare I'm more than half afraid. Shall I?\u2014I will! Now then (she opens, and looks at portrait) Oh, what a love he is! Oh! dear mamma, I am so delighted! I was dreadfully afraid that you had been deceiving me all this time, and that my dear Edward was in reality a perfect fright.\n\nMRS. T. (aside) She does think it's her husband!\u2014(aloud) Indeed, my love, you are mistaken\u2014that is not a likeness of your husband!\n\nLAU. (sorrowfully) Not my husband! Who is it, then?\n\nMRS. T. (aside) What shall I say?\u2014she seems so charmed with it. It will never do to tell her it is her cousin Henry, whom they wished her to marry\u2014that will be worse than all.\n\nLAU. Well?\n\nMRS. T. (aside) I'll tell her it's an old lover of mine! No! she'll never believe that!\n\nLAU. (as though a sudden thought had struck her) Ah! I know\u2014I see how it is\u2014this is his picture, and he has brought it himself, and you are hesitating how to break it to me. It is so, I'm sure it is\u2014I know he's come!\n\nMRS. T. No! my love\u2014indeed, no!\n\nLAU. Then he has sent his likeness, to say that he himself is coming!\n\nMRS. T. Yes, he sent it; that is\u2014no! he did not lend\nit! *(aside)* I declare I don't know what I'm saying: there's no fear of her seeing the original, that's one comfort.\u2014*(aloud)* I tell you, my dear Laura, that it is no such thing\u2014it is *not* your husband!\n\nLAU. Then who is it?\n\nMRS. T. I don't know\u2014it's nobody!\n\nLAU. Then, nobody is a very delightful-looking person; and I no longer wonder that nobody always does so much mischief!\n\nMRS. T. *(aside)* Mischief, indeed!\n\n*Enter STEPHEN, C.*\n\nSTE. A letter for you, ma'am, and the bearer waits.\n\nMRS. T. *(aside, and opening letter)* I know this hand\u2014Henry Fitzherbert\u2014and at such a moment? What can he possibly write to me for? *(she reads, low and quickly\u2014LAURA seats herself at the table, and contemplates the portrait with delight)* \"My dear Aunt,\u2014You have hitherto refused to admit me into your house\u2014me\u2014your affectionate and devoted nephew, who have ever been most anxious for your good opinion.\" Oh, hang his flummery. \"As I passed your house just now, I saw Mrs. Melford alight and enter. You are aware of my attachment for that lady; I entreat you to admit me: you can now with propriety!\" Can I!\u2014What on earth shall I do? Ah! *(shudders)* I tremble at the thoughts of the consequences!\n\nLAU. *(puts the portrait on the table and comes forward)* Something's the matter! What is it, mamma\u2014this letter?\n\nMRS. T. Nothing, my love\u2014nothing!\u2014*(aside)* They are waiting for an answer; I can't let him come just now, that's certain. Well, I must go and write him an answer, at all events\u2014and, Stephen, *(speaking in a low voice)* don't admit strangers at all, particularly gentlemen; in short, don't admit any but those you know perfectly well!\n\nSTE. Very well, ma'am!\n\n*Exit MRS. TWISDEN, R.*\n\nLAU. What is all this mystery about? I'm pretty sure that mamma is deceiving me, and that my husband *is* arrived. I'll try and find out.\u2014Stephen! *(who is just going out)*\n\nSTE. Yes, ma'am!\n\nLAU. *(carelessly)* What time was it when Mr. Wyndham arrived?\nSTE. Why, ma'am, I think it was between three and four, or thereabouts.\n\nLAU. (aside) Then I was right!\u2014(aloud) Did you see him, Stephen?\n\nSTE. No, ma'am, I didn't see him. I don't know Mr. Wyndham. I hav'n't been here long; but the porter told me he was come, and I saw his name upon lots of trunks.\n\nLAU. He is here, and I am about to see him! What a flutter I'm in! I hear a step on the stairs\u2014'tis he, perhaps!\u2014Stephen, run!\n\nSTE. Yes, I must run, and see that no strangers are let in.\n\nEnter HENRY FITZHERBERT, C.\n\nHEN. I can wait no longer!\n\nLAU. Ah!\u2014tis he\u2014'tis he! (throws herself into his arms)\n\nSTE. Oh, that's all right!\n\nHEN. (aside) Holloa! where the deuce am I? I have got into the wrong house, surely\u2014some lunatic asylum!\n\nLAU. What delight, at length to behold you!\n\nHEN. (aside) What can she mean? some strong resemblance, I suppose!\n\nLAU. Now, let me look at you, for the first time. I have waited long for this. You are agitated also; I don't wonder at it; and you would have hid your arrival from me! fie, fie! But I have got you now\u2014you shall not easily escape! But you don't speak to me\u2014you don't seem glad to see me\u2014you care nothing about me!.\n\nHEN. With the greatest pleasure, madam!\n\nLAU. Madam! what do you mean by \"Madam?\"\u2014Don't you love me any longer, then?\n\nHEN. Love you? certainly;\u2014my life! my soul! my treasure!\n\nLAU. Ah! now you speak like my own dear husband!\n\nHEN. (aside) Her husband! Oh, I shall humour this mistake, unquestionably! (aloud and taking her hands) My darling little wife, here I am, you see; what joy to be again with you!\n\nLAU. Particularly after so long an absence!\n\nHEN. Ah! so long an absence! (aside) How long, I wonder? (aloud) Do you know how long it is?\nLAU. Of course I do!\u2014It is two years, three months, four days, and, *(looking at her watch.)* five minutes!\n\nHEN. Bless me!\n\nLAU. *(reproachfully)* You seem surprised! Didn't it appear so long to you?\n\nHEN. On the contrary, it appeared much longer!\n\nLAU. *(smiling.)* Oh! that's quite another thing! *(she pauses, and looks at him.)* Well?\n\nHEN. Well?\n\nLAU. Have you nothing to say to me?\n\nHEN. Oh, yes, my love! a vast deal\u2014after so long an absence!\n\nLAU. So much, that you are at a loss where to begin?\n\nHEN. That's it, exactly! *(aside.)* What the devil shall I say? I wonder where I am! I must have made a mistake; this can't be Aunt Twisden's house!\n\nLAU. But you don't *look* at me, as much as I expected!\n\nHEN. Don't I? well then, I will!\n\nLAU. *(going close to him, and putting up her face.)* Do you think it has made much change in me?\n\nHEN. Change? Oh no! not in the least!\n\nLAU. Ah, you dear creature, that's so kind of you!\u2014you love me for myself alone. But you must confess that it has made a great improvement in me!\n\nHEN. Why, yes! yes, certainly!\u2014I didn't like to say so just at first, but I think it *has* improved you infinitely.\n\nLAU. It was a dreadful operation, though!\n\nHEN. Dreadful? Ah! it must have been excruciating!\n\nLAU. But I didn't mind it, when I thought I should *see* you! Do you think them good? *(looking up at him.)*\n\nHEN. *(aside.)* What the devil does she mean? *(aloud.)* Good! Lovely\u2014delightful\u2014delicious! *(aside.)* One of those must be right!\n\nLAU. Now I shall have such pleasure in walking about with, and shewing my handsome husband. Silly thing that I am\u2014as though everybody hadn't seen him before me!\n\nHEN. *(aside.)* How will all this end?\n\nLAU. But, still I shall be very proud of him! Hanging on your arm, we shall pay visits together; go to the opera, ball, play, park. Oh! it will be delightful! We'll always walk; never, never drive! Suppose we go now\u2014it's very fine\u2014and call on Lady Leicester; she has always been so kind to me! *(takes her shawl.)*\nHEN. Has she? (aside.) Go out with her? impossible (aloud.) But, my darling, I think not yet\u2014not to-day!\n\nLAU. Oh, well! if you don't like it, certainly not! (throws shawl on sofa\u2014Bell rings.)\n\nMRS. TWISDEN. (speaking from room, R. H.) Stephen! Stephen!\n\nHEN. (aside.) Now, what's to be done? A mother, or an aunt, or some such thing. I shall get into a fine scrape here; I had better go and pay the visit. I shall get out of the house at all events! (aloud, and taking his hat.) My love, I think we may as well go out.\n\nLAU. Oh! you've changed your mind, have you? I'm glad of that! There\u2014help me on with my shawl\u2014and now give me your arm. Every one will say, as we pass, what a handsome couple!\n\nHEN. SO they will! Come along, my love. (they go out, arm in arm; at the same time-\n\nEnter STEPHEN, C.\n\nSTE. Not a bad-looking chap, our new master! How happy they seem. (goes to table and looks at portrait.)\n\nEnter MRS. TWISDEN, R., with a letter in her hand.\n\nMRS. T. Stephen! Oh! there you are. (aside.) I never had so much trouble in writing a letter in all my life. I didn't know how to put him off; I made six different beginnings. (aloud.) There's the answer! Where's my daughter?\n\nSTE. Just gone out, ma'am.\n\nMRS. T. Gone out again?\n\nSTE. Yes, ma'am, with Mr. Wyndham:\n\nMRS. T. With Mr. Wyndham? Impossible!\u2014what was he like?\n\nSTE. Like, ma'am? as like his picture, there, as two peas. (pointing to portrait on table.)\n\nMRS. T. His picture! that picture? It can't be, Stephen; you must be mistaken! And yet, I shouldn't wonder\u2014it's just like him\u2014he has impudence enough for anything. Where are they gone? Oh! of course you don't know! Well, give me back the letter; and do you\nThomas to go another! Overtake them, and tell my daughter she must return immediately. D'ye hear?\u2014run, Stephen, run! (he runs out, C.) Gone out together! Here's a pretty business\u2014and she'll introduce him everywhere as her husband, no doubt! Poor Wyndham! he little thinks what's in store for him! I declare I don't know what to do or say: I shall go out of my senses! Some one on the stairs\u2014Laura, I hope! (WYNDHAM peeps in, c.) Heavens, it is Wyndham!\n\nWYND. (speaking low) She isn't here, is she?\nMRS. T. No, no! she is not, indeed!\u2014\n\nWYNDHAM enters, C.\n\nWhat in the world has brought you back so soon?\n\nWYND. A thought\u2014a capital thought; I don't know what's to prevent my seeing my wife, and speaking to her, without her being aware that I am her husband.\n\nMRS. T. It can't be, Mr. Wyndham!\n\nWYND. Oh, yes, yes, it can; I'll tell you\u2014\n\nMRS. T. It is of no use your telling me anything; for, after what has happened\u2014\n\nWYND. Nothing can have happened to prevent that.\u2014\n\nEnter MRS. MELFORD from room L.H.\n\nAh! madam, you are the very person I was most anxious to see.\n\nMRS. M. Indeed, sir! I am rather surprised at\u2014\n\nWYND. At seeing me here, no doubt; but a thought\u2014a most happy thought has just occurred to me, in the execution of which you can be of essential service to me.\n\nMRS. M. Me, sir!\n\nWYND. Yes, you, madam; but first let me ask if you have seen my wife?\n\nMRS. M. No, sir, I have not.\n\nWYND. That's all right. You are a widow, I believe?\n\nMRS. M. Yes, sir, I am.\n\nWYND. Then I am going to give you a husband.\n\nMRS. M. Sir!\n\nWYND. Don't be alarmed!\u2014the husband I destine you to is neither more nor less than your humble servant!\n\nMRS. M. Pray explain, sir!\n\nWYND. I will. Mrs. T. has already, I see, caught my meaning. All I ask of you, madam, is to consent to become my wife for a few hours or so, that I may be allowed to see Laura and talk to her, so that she may get accustomed to\nme; for if I come suddenly before her, she will expect to see\na downright handsome man. Do you understand?\n\nMRS. M. Oh, perfectly; and I shall be most happy, I'm\nsure, if I can be of the slightest use.\n\nWYND. You are very good. Well, Mrs. T., what do you\nthink of my plan?\n\nMRS. T. That it is a very good one; but\u2014\n\nWYND. Oh, no buts, dear Mrs. T., but assist me.\n\nMRS. T. (going close to MRS. MELFORD, and speaking in\nher ear) When you know what has happened, you will be in\na fine way.\n\nMRS. M. Why, what's the matter?\n\nMRS. T. This morning Laura found me looking at the\nportrait of a young man\u2014(aside to MRS. M.) It was Henry's.\n\nWYND. Well, what's the harm of that?\n\nMRS. T. The harm!\u2014why, she thought it was your hus-\nband's!\n\nWYND. And you immediately undeceived her?\n\nMRS. T. I couldn't; for all that I could say, she would\ninsist upon it that it was yours.\n\nWYND. Oh, nonsense, Mrs. T., you have done it on pur-\npose; I'm sure you have. He was handsome, of course, and\nall that sort of thing.\n\nMRS. T. Oh, my poor dear Wyndham,\u2014charming, horridly captivating!\n\nWYND. Confusion! Now such a thing as that would not\nhave happened to any one else; I am the most unlucky\nfellow in the world!\n\nMRS. T. And that's not all\u2014(aside to MRS. MELFORD)\nI scarcely dare tell him.\n\nWYND. Not all!\u2014Go on, go on, madam, pray.\n\nMRS. T. He has been here! and they are gone out\ntogether.\n\nWYND. Gone out together!\n\nMRS. M. (aside) What, Henry?\n\nMRS. T. (aside) And Laura.\n\nWYND. Speak out, Mrs. T., or you will drive me mad!\n\nLAU. (speaking off) Is it so late, Martin?\u2014then I shall\nnot dress for dinner.\n\nEnter MAID, C.\n\nMAID. Very well, madam.\n\nExit R.D., taking shawl, bonnet, &c.\n\nMRS. T. Here they come\u2014I shall sink!\nWYND. Sink!\u2014I shall sink, burn, and destroy everybody and everything!\n\nMRS. M. Be calm, I entreat you. She comes,\u2014and alone.\n\nMRS. T. Alone! Oh, then don't fly out,\u2014she has found the mistake!\n\nEnter LAURA, C.\n\nLAU. Oh, my dear mamma!\u2014I beg pardon, you have company.\n\nMRS. M. Laura!\n\nMRS. T. Your old friend, Mrs Melford, my love.\n\nLAU. Sophy! my dear Sophy! (they embrace)\n\nWYND. (aside) Oh, Mrs. T.! Mrs. T.! how sweet she looks, with her eyes!\n\nMRS. M. How well you are looking, dear Laura.\n\nLAU. I am well, and so happy! (seeing WYNDHAM, curtsies)\n\nMRS. M. Allow me to introduce you to my husband.\n\nLAU. (aside) La!\u2014he won't do at all after mine!\u2014That, dear Sophy! I always understood Mr. Melford was an old man.\n\nMRS. M. That Mr. Melford is no more, Laura; I have been a widow nearly two years, and have just re-married.\n\nLAU. Indeed! and your name is now, then\u2014\n\nMRS. M. Still Melford,\u2014my present husband is a distant relation.\n\nLAU. Dear me! dear me!\u2014what changes since we met! But now you are here, I shall not part with you very quickly. I'm sure my husband will be delighted.\n\nWYND. (aside to MRS. T.) Her husband, Mrs. T.! I shall fly out!\n\nMRS. T. (aside to him) Don't! pray don't! (aloud to LAURA) Where is your husband, my love?\n\nLAU. He is coming.\n\nWYND. (aside) Coming! I must fly out!\n\nMRS. T. (aside) So must I, out of the way,\u2014and leave you to settle it, my dear Mrs. Melford, for I am completely at my wit's end.\n\nMRS. M. (aside to her) Well, well, do go and leave it to me: you know I am as much interested as yourself.\n\n(MRS. TWISDEN steals out L.H.D.)\n\nLAU. (aside) Bless me! how Mr. Melford stares at me!\n\nMRS. M. And where have you been, my dear?\nLAU. We went to call on Lady Leicester, but she was from home.\n\nMRS. M. (aside) That's a comfort!\n\nLAU. And I was not sorry, for I was not in a very good humour.\n\nMRS. M. Indeed! how was that?\n\nLAU. Why, you'll hardly believe it when I tell you. I don't think that we went through a single street without Wyndham's speaking or bowing to some one in it; a great many men,\u2014but the women!\u2014there was no end to them! He has been away so long that I can't conceive how he could possibly know so many!\n\nWYND. (aside) Ah! Now I know nobody, (gets round to L.H.)\n\nLAU. And then I have discovered a fault in him that I hadn't the least idea he possessed:\u2014he is jealous!\u2014very, very jealous!\u2014for as we were coming home, I happened to ask him if he would now consent to receive my cousin Henry in the house, as I was most anxious to know him,\u2014when he turned as sulky as possible, left off calling me his love and his dear----\n\nWYND. and MRS. M. (aside) His love, and his dear, indeed!\n\nLAU. And, in short, was quite cross and disagreeable.\u2014Here he comes; now I'll question him before you.\n\nWYND. (aside) This is pleasant 'pon my honour!\n\nEnter HENRY, C.\n\nLAU. Come here, sir! (as he advances he sees MRS. MELFORD, which LAURA observes)\n\nHEN. Mrs. Melford!\n\nLAU. What, Sophy! do you know my husband, too?\n\nHEN. (aside) Confusion! (to MRS. M.) Circumstances alone, I swear!\n\nLAU. (aside) Why he's speaking to her in a whisper!\u2014(aloud) Edward\u2014Edward Wyndham, I say! come here, my love! I wish to speak to you. How ridiculous your affecting to be bashful before people, and those married people!\n\nHEN. (to WYNDHAM) Sir, are you this lady's husband?\n\nWYND. And why not, sir?\u2014have you any objection?\n\nHEN. Objection! oh dear, no. I\u2014(aside) Married! then I'll be revenged!\n\nLAU. You seem annoyed at it, my love.\n\nWYND. (aside) Her love!\nHEN. Annoyed! oh dear, no, not in the least. I assure you I am too fond of my own little wife to care a straw for any other woman. (*puts his arm round LAURA\u2019S waist*)\n\nWYND. Holloa sir! what are you about?\nHEN. About, sir? I'm about\u2014I'm embracing my wife, sir! Have you any objection?\nWYND. Objection! Oh dear, no.\u2014(*aside*) I can't and I won't bear this!\n\nMRS. M. (*aside*) Provoking assurance! \u2014(*To WYNDHAM*) Never mind\u2014never mind.\nWYND. (*to her*) Never mind, indeed! why it's enough to make a man eat his\u2014\n\nEnter STEPHEN, C. from R.\n\nSTE. Dinner! Dinner is on table.\nWYND. (*aside*) Thank heaven! I'll offer her my arm now.\u2014(*aloud to LAURA*) Allow me, madam. (*she takes his arm*)\n\nLAU. Edward, give Mrs. Melford your arm.\nMRS. M. I can't eat any dinner; I don't feel very well. I have had some refreshment. No, indeed, I can't; I couldn't sit at the table, really.\nHEN. (*aside*) Capital! I'll endeavour to speak to her.\n(*aloud to LAURA*) My love, I'll follow you immediately. (*to WYNDHAM*) Excuse me for a moment, I have an order to give.\n\nWYND. (*quickly*) Oh, by all means.\u2014Now, madam.\nLAU. Don't be long, Edward, dear.\n\nExeunt MR. and MRS. WYNDHAM, C. and R.\n\nHEN. (*to MRS. MELFORD, as she is going to her room*) Stay, Sophy, for one moment, stay, and give me some explanation of your strange and cruel conduct.\nMRS. M. Cruel conduct, what do you mean?\nHEN. You are married! and you ask me what I mean!\nMRS. M. Why really, sir, I don't think that you have much to reproach me with on that score; for it appears that you are married also, sir!\nHEN. It does appear so, certainly, I confess; but suppose that I am not married; suppose that I have never ceased to love you; suppose that, in coming into this house for the express purpose of seeing you, I suddenly find myself converted into a married man, without knowing why or wherefore; suppose\u2014\nMRS. M. I cannot suppose any such absurdity.\nHEN. I perfectly agree with you; it is absurd\u2014ridiculously absurd! But, nevertheless, it is true. A young and lovely woman falls\u2014from the clouds, I believe\u2014into my arms; is that my fault? how could I possibly help it? I was obliged to receive her; my gallantry you know. Oh! I could not do otherwise. Well, well, have patience, I have since learnt that she is my cousin! the cousin that I always had a horror of; but, my cousin; consequently I treated her with all due respect.\n\nMRS. M. Yes, sir; but before you found she was your cousin, you were not quite so particular, and I will never forgive it.\n\nHEN. Never! then how do you think I can forgive you your broken promise\u2014your unkindness\u2014your\u2014\n\nMRS. M. Recrimination is not justification, sir! But there's an end of it, sir: go to your wife, pray; I to my husband, whom I love dearly.\n\nHEN. This is too much. Yes, madam, I will go, and offer to another that heart which you did not know how to appreciate.\n\nEnter LAURA, C. from R.: she stops short at hearing his last words, and, listens.\n\nI'll console myself for your perfidy; I'll make love to every woman, old and young, who will be fool enough to listen to me.\n\nMRS. M. And make a fool of yourself into the bargain! and all for love of me! Ha! ha! ha!\n\nHEN. Farewell, madam!\n\nMRS. M. Oh, farewell, sir!\n\nExit HENRY, L. H., MRS. MELFORD to her room, R.\n\nLAU. What have I heard! my husband in love with Sophy Melford! Oh, the wretch! the monster! this, then, was the cause of his confusion--his coldness; but I'll confront and confound him. (Rings bell)\u2014Stephen! Stephen!\u2014\n\nEnter STEPHEN, C.\n\nWhere's your master?\n\nSTE. Master's gone out, ma'am.\n\nLAU. Gone out\u2014what, out of the house?\n\nSTE. Yes, ma'am, and banged the door after him so that it frightened the cook, and the cook scalded the Tom cat, and the Tom cat jumped through the kitchen window.\n\nLAU. Run after him, Stephen\u2014fetch him back immediately!\nSTE. The cat, ma'am?\nLAU. No! your master, booby! Stop\u2014go and find Mrs. Twisden, and say I must see her directly.\nSTE. Yes, ma'am.\nLAU. No, no, I'll speak to Mr. Melford himself. \u2014 Stephen, go down stairs this moment, and stay there till I call you.\nSTE. Master's gone mad, and bit missus, to a certainty. Exit.\n\nLAU. (calling) Mr. Melford! Mr. Melford!\n\nEnter WYNDHAM, C. from R., hastily.\n\nWYND. My love,\u2014I beg pardon! My dear madam,\u2014what is the matter\u2014you are agitated?\nLAU. Agitated! Oh, sir! so will you be, when you know all! Mr. Wyndham\u2014\nWYND. Yes, madam\u2014that is\u2014What of him, madam?\nLAU. I have made a dreadful discovery; I have been deceived, sir!\nWYND. Deceived! discovery! \u2014 (aside) Somebody has told her!\nLAU. Yes, sir, a frightful discovery!\nWYND. A frightful discovery! \u2014 (aside) It's all over with me! \u2014 (aloud) Don't say frightful, dear Mrs. Wyndham! that's a strong expression.\nLAU. No expression can be too strong, sir! I have found him out!\nWYND. (aside) I knew it\u2014I knew she would! \u2014 (aloud) Found out\u2014\nLAU. That Mr. Wyndham is\u2014\nWYND. What, madam,\u2014what?\nLAU. A monster!\nWYND. (aside) Oh, confound that old Mother Twisden, she has overdone it; but it's my own fault, I told her to make the worst of it\u2014 (aloud). Madam, I\u2014allow me\u2014I know something of Mr. Wyndham; and though I should be the last man to flatter him, I will venture to say that he is not quite so horrible a personage.\nLAU. He is more horrible than tongue can describe him, sir. He has the face\u2014\nWYND. The face, madam! well, madam, at the worst, the face.\u2014 (aside)\u2014Damn it, they've persuaded her I'm a rhinoceros!\nLAU. The face to declare that he will make love to every\nwoman, young or old, that will be fool enough to listen to him!\n\nWYND. Is that all?\u2014(aside)\u2014Oh, that's putting a better face on the matter.\n\nLAU. That all, sir!\u2014Good heavens! Is that all!\u2014But no, sir! since you don't seem to think that enough, it is not all. He is in love with your wife, sir; with Mrs. Melford! I heard him make the declaration to her, on this spot, not five minutes ago! What do you say to that, sir?\n\nWYND. That\u2014that it is certainly very wrong.\n\nLAU. Very wrong! very wrong! Why, Mr. Melford, do do you know what I said, sir? Your conduct, surely\u2014it's horrible! infamous!\n\nWYND. Yes, to be sure, so it is; that's what I meant to say. It is horrible\u2014infamous! and I'm surprised that Mrs. Melford\u2014\n\nLAU. Oh! I'll acquit her, sir; she certainly did not encourage his advances; but then nobody knows what may happen, he is so very handsome.\n\nWYND. Oh! abominably handsome.\n\nLAU. It's very true, sir, that has done it; and then she is my most intimate friend, that's always the way. I shall never know a moment's peace; for I have several intimate friends, and they are all pretty, and are all fond of handsome men. I shall have to quarrel with them all.\n\nWYND. You must, indeed.\u2014(aside) Delicious!\n\nLAU. If he does this the very day of his arrival after a long absence, what will he not be guilty of by and by? Oh, it is horrible!\n\nWYND. It's always the case with these handsome men.\u2014(aside) I'm in such raptures I can scarcely contain myself.\u2014(aloud) Beauty, madam, is all very well; but for myself, if I were a woman, I should prefer, infinitely prefer, a commonly decent-looking man for a husband, to the handsomest fellow in the world: such a man is almost always devoted to his wife. There are exceptions, I dare say; but he has found one to love him. He fears, or is doubtful, whether he might succeed with another; he is contented, and appreciates the treasure he has won; and, for fear of losing the prize, he redoubles his attentions daily.\n\nLAU. (aside) What a delightful, amiable person he is; I wish Edward were like him.\nA HANDSOME HUSBAND.\n\nWYND. Whereas, your handsome man fancies he has only to shew his face, that the women may look and die! He gives himself no trouble; rather expects than bestows attention; in short, he is all self! Never thinks of such a thing as taking his wife out with him. Oh! no, no!\u2014he must amuse himself; he goes to opera, ball, and play alone.\n\nLAU. Oh, sir! I care little for public amusements: I prefer\u2014\n\nWYND. His reading to you in the evening\u2014singing and playing to you in the morning\u2014holding your netting silk\u2014watering your flowers\u2014nursing your pet dog, as I used to do\u2014I mean as I do, do with my wife.\n\nLAU. (aside) Oh, what a treasure of a husband!\u2014(aloud) Oh, Mr. Melford, that's what my husband used to do. Heigho! it's some people's lot to be blessed, indeed; but I \u2014oh! I am a miserable woman!\n\nWYND. (aside) And I, am a happy man!\u2014(A double knock at street door.) Hark! there's a knock at the street door; some strangers, perhaps. You would not like to see anybody at this moment: retire, my dear madam, and compose yourself: Leave all to me; I'll speak to Mrs. Melford, to your mother, to Mrs. Wyndham.\n\nLAU. Oh! my dear sir, you are, indeed, a kind friend; (gives him her hand, he kisses it eagerly) but I repeat it, sir, I am a very miserable woman.\n\nExit L.\n\nWYND. And I repeat\u2014I am a happy man\u2014tol de lol, tol de lol. She put me in a devil of a fright, though; I thought it was all over with me. But odd-so\u2014it's my double come back\u2014my handsome substitute, as I live. Oh, I'll wind up the business now as quickly as possible.\n\nEnter HENRY, C. from L.\n\nHEN. (aside) I must speak to her. (sees WYNDHAM) Ah! her husband!\n\nWYND. So you have come home again, sir.\n\nHEN. Sir! (aside) By his manner, he seems inclined to pick a quarrel with me: with all my heart. I should like to shoot him, prodigiously, (puts his hat and gloves on the table, and throws himself on the sofa)\u2014Yes, I have come home again, sir; and what of that?\n\nWYND. Nothing, sir, nothing; only that I am glad to see you, as I have something to say to you.\n\nHEN. (aside) As I suspected, he has overheard us, and\nwants satisfaction. Oh! he shall have it.\u2014\\((\\text{aloud})\\) Well, sir, and what have you to say to me?\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} That you are \\textit{not} the husband of the lady whom you call your wife!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} Well, sir, what of that?\u2014what is that to you?\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} (\\textit{aside}) That's a good question.\u2014\\((\\text{aloud})\\) And the husband, sir, the \\textit{real} husband?\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} I know nothing about him, and care nothing about him. It's all his own fault; he is rightly served, sir. Why does a man leave a lovely woman? What else can he expect? I don't pity him in the least,\u2014he ought to have been here.\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} He is here, sir; \\textit{I} am that individual!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} (\\textit{starting up}) You!\u2014you!\u2014you, sir! can it be, and the lady you call your wife is\u2014?\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} A widow!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} A widow! is it possible?\u2014is it true?\u2014are you \\textit{sure} of it, 'pon your life? 'Come to my arms, my dear Mr. Thingumbob! You are the most charming man on the face of the earth! You are my friend!\u2014my guardian angel!\u2014and my cousin!\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} Your cousin!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} Yes, for I am Henry Fitzherbert.\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} The man, of all others, that I had the greatest horror of admitting into my house!\u2014How very odd!\u2014Now such a thing as that would not\u2014\\textit{could} not have happened to any one but me. You were my greatest plague.\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} Now, your greatest pleasure. What can I do for you? I'll go through fire and water to serve you!\u2014fight for you!\u2014die for you!\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} Be \\textit{quiet} for me, do, and listen\u2014for you \\textit{can} do me an essential service, if you will. My wife is already very angry with you; you must make her more so\u2014she must hate you!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} With the greatest pleasure! She shall loathe me in five minutes!\u2014that is, if it is possible.\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} (\\textit{aside}) Oh, rot it!\u2014there are the good looks again\u2014don't induce me to doubt it. She is coming, I do believe!\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} Hide yourself, then!\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} And you?\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} I must be left alone with her.\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} Humph! I don't much fancy that, let me tell you.\n\n\\textbf{HEN.} (\\textit{drawing himself up}) Mr. Wyndham!\n\n\\textbf{WYND.} Enough; but where shall I go?\nHEN. (looking about) Never mind\u2014any where!\u2014here; there!\n\nWYND. But\u2014\n\nHEN. Hold your tongue!\u2014she's coming! (he throws himself on sofa. WYNDHAM gets behind it)\n\nEnter LAURA, L.\n\nLAU. How's this? I thought I heard\u2014\n\nHEN. Is that you, my love?\n\nLAU. Oh! you are there, are you, sir? Pray, may I ask where you have been?\n\nHEN. By all means, my love. I have been out to dinner\u2014a most delightful and convivial dinner, I assure you.\n\nLAU. The monster is positively intoxicated!\n\nHEN. We sat down, nine of us, to table\u2014capital dinner! There was turbot\u2014and turtle\u2014and\u2014\n\nLAU. Don't tell me about your nasty dinner, sir.\n\nHEN. Oh! I beg pardon\u2014I thought you'd like to know; most ladies do. Well, as I said, there were nine of us\u2014all choice spirits, I assure you\u2014all of us, to a man, up to anything!\n\nLAU. I don't wish to hear anything at all about it, sir; you had far better hold your tongue\u2014you are not in a fit state to talk!\n\nHEN. I can't see your pretty face, my charmer; but, from the tone of your voice, I should say, that you were annoyed; if so, you are wrong, my love. Be a little reasonable\u2014one's friends, you know\u2014one must consider one's friends.\n\nLAU. You don't consider your wife, sir!\n\nHEN. My love! my love! if you reproach me\u2014\n\nLAU. I could have forgiven you for going out\u2014even for returning home in the state you are, which you know disgusts me; but, deceiving me\u2014making love to another woman in the same house with me, before my face! Oh, it's too bad!\n\nHEN. Oh! you are there, are you? Now, any other husband would deny the fact. I shall be more candid with you, and acknowledge it. What can I do, my love?\u2014it's my misfortune, not my fault, to be so cursedly captivating! If all the women fall in love with me, at first sight, what am I to do?\u2014I can't run away, you know\u2014poor little dears!\n\nLAU. Is it come to this?\n\nWYND. (aside) Bravo! Bravo!\n\nLAU. You want to be the death of me, sir!\nHEN. Not at all, my love. I assure you women never die under such circumstances\u2014it\u2019s a mistaken notion; besides, you are wrong about it, altogether; for, in spite of all this, I adore you, positively!\n\nLAU. Impossible, sir! impossible, or you would not\u2014\n\n(weeping)\n\nWYND. (aside) The dear fellow!\u2014he has made her cry!\n\nHEN. I do, really. You must remember, my love, the sort of man I am; you ought to be proud of me. If I was such a person as\u2014as, for instance, your friend\u2019s husband; if I were like him, indeed\u2014\n\nLAU. (quickly) Indeed, I wish you were like him, then I might stand some chance of being a happy woman! then, indeed, I might be proud of you! He thinks of no one but his wife\u2014you of no one but yourself! He is kind, and good, and faithful!\u2014his is the beauty of the heart!\u2014would that you were like him!\n\nHEN. Then I suppose you mean to say, that you would, if you could, change places with your friend Sophy?\n\nLAU. I would, indeed!\u2014I wish it were possible!\n\nHEN. What! give up such a man as I am, for a husband like that?\n\nLAU. Willingly!\n\nHEN. Very well\u2014I pity your taste; but since it is so, have thou thy wish, fair lady!\n\nLAU. What do you mean, sir?\n\nHEN. To give you the husband you desire, madam! Come forth, thou model for all married men!\n\nWYNDHAM comes forward, and falls at LAURA\u2019S feet.\n\nLAU. Who is this?\n\nWYND. Your husband!\n\nLAU. Mr. Melford!\n\nWYND. Not Mr. Melford, but Edward Wyndham, your own true, devoted, doting husband!\u2014\n\nHEN. Banished your presence by one stratagem, and brought to your feet by another. The ladies shall vouch for the truth of it. (Rings bell violently.)\n\nEnter MRS. TWISDEN and MRS. MELFORD. R.D.\n\nMRS. T. and Mrs. M. What is the matter?\n\nLAU. (in great agitation) Mamma!\u2014Sophy! I have\nbeen deceived! I knew it. I always said so. Tell me\u2014who is that? *(pointing to WYNDHAM)*\n\nMRS. T. Edward Wyndham, my love; and your husband!\n\nLAU. And that? *(pointing to HENRY)*\n\nMRS. T. Your reprobate cousin, Henry Fitzherbert.\n\nLAU. Is it possible?\n\nWYND. Yes, love, yes! your *reprobate* cousin, Henry; and that's the lady who does him the honour to love him.\n\nMRS. M. Mr. Wyndham!\n\nWYND. Pardon me, Madam,\u2014I understood so; and if I *might* be allowed an opinion on the subject, I should say, that it was so, certainly.\n\nLAU. Yes!\u2014yes! I see it is, dear Sophy\u2014dear cousin Sophy! *(takes her hand, and is about to put it into HENRY'S)* May I?\u2014That smile's enough\u2014I see I may. *(she joins their hands)*\n\nMRS. T. *(aside)* Poor Mrs. Melford!\n\nHEN. Dear, dear Sophy!\n\nLAU. *(turning to WYNDHAM)* And now, Edward, let me hear you speak to me as you were wont formerly: say-something to remind me of by-gone days\u2014recall to me the sound of your voice, as when I heard it in my helpless state of blindness! *(she shuts her eyes, and listens attentively)*\n\nWYND. *(after a pause)* \"To you there are many like me; yet to me, there are *none* like you. There are numerous groves of night-flowers, but the night-flower sees nothing *like* the moon\u2014*but* the moon\u2014\u2014\"\n\nLAU. Oh! I remember those lines\u2014they were the words of an Indian to Sir William Jones; you read them to me the *first* day you saw me! That, indeed, is the voice!\u2014this, indeed, is my husband! But, may I take the liberty of asking, *why* I have been so deceived?\n\nWYND. *(quickly)* No, love, no! not now, at least\u2014another time!\n\nLAU. La! *why* not?\n\nWYND. *Why?* because I am a bashful man, and shouldn't like the reason to be given to my face!\n\nLAU. Well, well! I won't press you; but it was rather a dangerous experiment, Edward! You know *(leaning on his shoulder, and tapping his cheek playfully)* this might have been a very ugly affair!\n\nWYND. *Eh!*\nLau. Oh! I don't say it is, as it has turned out; I only say it might have been\u2014Henry being one of the family, alters the complexion of it altogether!\n\nWynd. Oh, quite! It made me look confoundedly blue!\n\nLau. Never mind how you look, provided you always act as well as you have done to-day.\n\nWynd. No! do you say so, really\u2014and from your heart?\n\nLau. Indeed, yes!\n\nMrs. T. Bless her! the darling!\n\nLau. 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+{"id": "a0b9df0b4ea61d327bfcd06ca1089a970374d6de", "text": "Engendering the Nation: Women, Islam, and Poetry in Pakistan\n\nAnita Anantharam\n\nFollow this and additional works at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws\n\nPart of the Women's Studies Commons\n\nRecommended Citation\nAvailable at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol11/iss1/14\n\nThis item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts.\nThis journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Authors share joint copyright with the JIWS. \u00a92022 Journal of International Women's Studies.\nEngendering the Nation: Women, Islam, and Poetry in Pakistan\n\nAnita Anantharam\n\nAbstract\n\nIn this essay I offer some examples of reading feminist agency in Pakistan through an analysis of the poems of two of Pakistan\u2019s preeminent feminist poets, Fahmida Riaz (b.1946) and Kishwar Naheed (b.1940). Rather than gesture to their poetry in a strategy of recuperation I contend that their powerful narratives compel us to reevaluate the parameters of contemporary feminist historiography and discourses of nationalism in South Asia. The poems of Fahmida Riaz and Kishwar Naheed are informed by a different set of paradigms about self and community (Islam) and at the same time reflect an archive (poetry) as crucial to feminist critiques of nationalism. They have thus been able to reach a large audience of women and articulate an explicitly feminist politics in Pakistan. Their poems necessarily take center-stage in this essay. However, a detailed analysis of the larger context and space their work occupies sheds light on how they, as feminists, have used poetry to revise subtly the complex relationships between women and men, and gender and nationalism in Pakistan.\n\nKeywords: Transnational feminism, poetics, Islam, Pakistan, Urdu\n\nWhat are the limits of feminist inquiry, or to put it another way, what is the yardstick one uses to evaluate women\u2019s agency and autonomy? If we can assume that feminism, as it has developed over the last century-and-a-half in the United States and Europe, has thrived on liberal notions of agency, self-determination, and autonomy (Benhabib 1987, Brown 2002, Freedman 2002, Mahmood 2005, Scott 1988), what standards should we uphold to evaluate feminist agency in countries like Pakistan, where notions of self and sovereignty emerge from a different set of motivations and traditions? As Saba Mahmood (2001) has forcefully articulated, liberal notions of feminist agency, which seek to locate a self-actualized subject acting in her own self-interest \u201csharply limit our ability to understand and interrogate the lives of women whose desire, affect, and will have been shaped by nonliberal traditions\u201d (p. 203). Alternate rhetorical traditions like Islam, for example, serve as the wellspring of social consciousness for the women poets discussed in this essay. Far from the \u201cnativism\u201d and parochialism often associated with Muslim women, this essay illustrates that women in Pakistan have sustained a vibrant women\u2019s movement and have articulated a nuanced feminist consciousness quite outside of liberal notions of women\u2019s agency and sovereignty. If the touchstone of contemporary feminist analysis necessitates the triangulation of liberal, radical, or transnational notions\n\n1 Anita Anantharam is an Assistant Professor of Women\u2019s Studies at the University of Florida. Her doctoral dissertation at the University of California, Berkeley was a comparative study of women\u2019s anti-state poetry from India and Pakistan during key moments of religious revitalization in the twentieth century. She is the editor of Mahadevi Varma: Political Essays on Women, Nation, and Culture, a volume of translations and her book manuscript titled Bodies that Remember: Women\u2019s Indigenous Knowledge and Cosmopolitanism in South Asian Poetry is forthcoming with Syracuse University Press\u2019 series in Gender and Globalization. Email: aanita@ufl.edu\nof feminism alone, voices of women who do not ascribe to these positions will be relegated to the \u201cimaginary waiting room of [feminist] history\u201d and regarded as \u201cnot yet\u201d ready as self-actualized subjects of historical inquiry but rather, as feminists in the making (Chakrabarty, 2000, p. 8).\n\nIn this article, I offer some examples of reading feminist agency in Pakistan through an analysis of the poems of two of Pakistan\u2019s preeminent feminist poets, Fahmida Riaz (b.1946) and Kishwar Naheed (b.1940). Rather than gesture to their poetry in a strategy of recuperation I contend that their powerful narratives compel us to reevaluate the parameters of contemporary feminist historiography and discourses of nationalism in South Asia. The poems of Fahmida Riaz and Kishwar Naheed are informed by a different set of paradigms about self and community (Islam) and at the same time reflect an archive (poetry) as crucial to feminist critiques of nationalism. This is not to rule out liberal feminist analyses as unimportant or as irrelevant to women\u2019s lives and experiences in Islamic states; nor do I want to suggest that their poems are not \u201cresistant\u201d to hegemonic constraints of gender, class, religion and nation--because I believe that they are on all these registers. I seek to highlight that the point is to not foreclose Islam, and the women who embrace it, as fundamentally at odds with notions of feminist agency, or dismissed because they seem to be advocating for \u201ca movement that seems inimical to their \u2018own interests and agendas,\u2019 especially at a historical moment when these women appear to have more emancipatory possibilities available to them\u201d (Mahmood, 2005, p. 2). This liberal image of Islam and Muslims parallels that projected by the mainstream media: more, both institutions take for granted a static understanding of the category of \u201cMuslim\u201d and present, in turn, with remarkable cohesion, divergent and oppositional Muslim voices, as a unified whole. This monoglossic Muslim voice is often posited in contradistinction to the heteroglossia of the \u201cAmerican\u201d experience. Finally, this representation is intended to provoke (in citizens of liberal democracies), feelings of horror and outrage over random acts of Islamic terrorism, Muslim sectarian violence, and a universal conspiracy to curtail the rights of women.\n\nThe second argument this essay makes is that this monoglossic voice is gendered in such a way that women\u2019s experiences within nationalism are noticeably absent. That nations and nationalisms betray their patriarchal prejudices is nothing new; numerous studies since Orientalism (Said, 1979) have made this point convincingly (McClintock, 1995; Parker et al., 1992; Stoler, 2002). This essay nuances this point in order to illustrate that because poetry has not been claimed as the archive of historical, political, and national consciousness, a crucial component of the story of nationalism and feminism in Pakistan, has not yet been told. Finally, women\u2019s sustained engagement with both politics and religion has occurred through writing--their triumphs and failures recorded and circulated in poetic metaphors; communities are imagined through linguistic appropriation; and filial piety severed through words uttered at the right moment.\n\nFahmida Riaz and Kishwar Naheed have used poetry at critical historical moments to discuss intimate issues of self, emotions, and sexuality that could not, in their socio-historical contexts, be otherwise expressed. They have thus been able to reach a large audience of women and articulate an explicitly feminist politics in Pakistan. Their poems necessarily take center-stage in this essay. However, a detailed analysis of the larger context and space their work occupies sheds light on how they, as feminists, have\nused poetry to revise subtly the complex relationships between women and men, and gender and nationalism in Pakistan.\n\nChallenging Man and Community\n\nEven if my eyes become the soles of your feet\nEven so, the fear will not leave you\nThat though I cannot see\nI can feel bodies and sentences\nLike a fragrance\n\nEven if, for my own safety,\nI rub my nose in the dirt till it becomes invisible\nEven so, this fear will not leave you\nThat though I cannot smell\nI can still say something.\n\nEven if my lips, singing praises of your godliness\nBecome dry and soulless\nEven so, this fear will not leave you\nThat though I cannot speak\nI can still walk.\n\nEven after you have tied the chains of domesticity,\nShame and modesty around my feet\nEven after you have paralyzed me\nThis fear will not leave you\nThat even though I cannot walk\nI can still think.\n\nYour fear\nOf my being free, being alive\nAnd able to think\nMight lead you, who knows, into what travails. (Naheed & Farrukhi, 2001, p. 58)\u00b2\n\nIn the above poem titled \u201cAnticlockwise,\u201d Kishwar Naheed challenges the capacity of society, God, and Islam to restrict her movement. In the original Urdu there is a palpable rhythm to the way in which the poet reflects on the many ways she has been confined and controlled by her relationship with her beloved, and proceeds to rebuke them openly. Even the title of her poem speaks to the kinds of reversals that the poet seeks to trace, playing with the rhythmic movements of ticking time but in a counter-clockwise direction. While the opening lines of the poem invoke the image of a woman bent at her lover\u2019s feet, an image that at once invokes a namazi (a person who is in the act of prayer), the next line dismisses any simple reading of power between the lover and beloved. Even if the woman\u2019s eyes were to merge into her lover\u2019s feet, even then, the\n\n---\n\n\u00b2 Translated by Kishwar Naheed and Asif Farrukhi.\npoet suggests, the lover would continue to fear his beloved. The lover fears his beloved\u2019s power because it cannot be shackled by familial expectations and social norms. Every fetter he throws in her way she subverts into an act of power; even if she may not be able to see, smell, or walk, he cannot control her mind and her thoughts. Despite his repeated attempts to control her senses, ultimately Naheed suggests, he has no control over who she is\u2014he can control her body, but not her mind.\n\nWhen I spoke to Naheed Naheed in Berkeley, California, she reflected on her life as a woman coming into her own; her shotgun wedding at the tender age of twenty to her fellow classmate and poet Yusuf Kamran; her family\u2019s disapproval of the relationship and of the consequences of giving up the liaison. Many of the sentiments expressed in her poems, like the one cited above, have come out of a direct engagement with the seclusion (pardah) imposed on her as a result of married life within a conservative family in Pakistan. The lines, \u201ceven after you have tied the chains of domesticity/shame and modesty around my feet/even then this fear would not leave you/for though I cannot walk/I can still think\u201d raise the issue of an embodied resistance from within\u2014both conceptually and literally. For women like Naheed who are committed to life within Pakistani society, resistance cannot be measured with the yardstick of liberal feminism, but must be understood as complicating any simplistic reading of how Muslim women negotiate and mediate such constructions of center and periphery, insider and outsider, writer and activist.\n\nPoetry facilitates intimate self-expression, as it allows an author to explore sensitive issues of identity, kinship, marriage, and sexuality (to name just a few) under the protective blankets of metaphor, symbolism, and literary convention (Abu-Lughod, 1986; Narayan, 1986; Raheja & Gold, 1994). Moreover Urdu poetry, as it has throughout its history in the South-Asian sub-continent, thrives in the social sphere. It is recited at opening ceremonies, at conferences, appreciated and spread through mushairahs (poetry gatherings), set to music and performed in concerts, and its performative nature makes it a useful medium through which to spread political messages.\n\nGeneral Zia ul-Haq\u2019s military dictatorship, Martial Law, which lasted from 1977 to 1988, has shaped profoundly the life-long political commitments that these two poets have made, each in her-own way. Naheed and Raiz were able to articulate in their poetry critiques of the State-regulation of women\u2019s bodies and sexualities under Zia\u2019s application of the Hudud Ordinances beginning in 1979, at a time when such bold-faced resistance to the State was deemed illegal. It was seen as treason, and carried the punishment of imprisonment and death by hanging. I argue that the critiques voiced by\n\n---\n\n3 My interviews with Kishwar Naheed took place at the Durant Hotel in Berkeley, California, during the period March 17-22, 2003, when she visited the campus as a part of the AIPS Pakistan Lecture Series.\n\n4 Iqbal, the poet-laureate of Pakistan, used poetry as a means to spread his vision of Islam and Pakistan during the early 20th century. So also did Faiz Ahmad Faiz (1914-1978), who wrote numerous poems critiquing Partition and violence in the name of religion and the state.\n\n5 Hadd is the singular form of Hudud, literally it means \u201cBoundary, term, limit, extreme, extremity, a restrictive ordinance or statute, castigations or punishments.\u201d John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English (Delhi: Urdu Academy, 2000). Hudud punishments are an integral part of the Islamic penal code. Hudud punishments are meted out to people who are regarded as transgressing the prescribed modes of conduct under Shari\u2019a (Islamic law). Some of the things for which one would face Hudud punishments include: \u201coffenses of prohibition (consumption of drugs and alcohol), zina (rape, adultery, fornication), theft and qazf (perjury).\nNaheed and Raiz, as distinct and unique as they are in their contribution to the field of Urdu poetry, are part both of larger literary movements; not coincidently, Martial Law also saw the birth of a formal Symbolist movement in Urdu literatures, and the burgeoning anti-state, feminist movement. The ways in which each poet has negotiated her space between these movements is deeply influenced by their individual experiences of Martial Law in Pakistan. Concomitant with their distinct experiences during General Zia\u2019s political regime in Pakistan and the specific ways in which it disrupted their personal and professional lives lie the strategies that they have developed, experimenting with different modes of creative expression in order to both tell their stories of survival, and make possible public dissent as an integral part of civil society.\n\nUnder Zia\u2019s administration, individual civil liberties taken for granted under the elected populist government of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto were threatened. Categories of family, citizenship, kinship, work, and sexuality came under direct control of the state insofar as Zia sought to reformulate these categories through the moral lens of a conservative Islam. Zia\u2019s Islamization scheme was a reformulation of both religion and gender vis-\u00e0-vis the state. The strongest support for Zia\u2019s regime came from Maulana Maududi of the Jamaat i-Islami party (a conservative religious party that had been formed in 1941 as an independent offshoot of the All-India Muslim League) and, although tensions between the Jamaat leadership and that of Zia\u2019s administration would eventually lead to the factionalization of religious groups within the government, for a time Zia\u2019s meteoric rise to power was concomitant with the Jamaat\u2019s (Nasr, 1994). With the promulgation of the Hudud Ordinances,6 offences such as drinking alcohol and drug use, pre-and-extra marital sexual relations, rape, and murder were seen as crimes against the state and carried with them the severest of punishments, including public floggings and death by stoning.\n\nWhile the Hudud Ordinances would have severe repercussions for women\u2019s social standing in Pakistan, this moment in Pakistani political history between the years of 1977-1988 would mark, for the first time, women\u2019s direct participation and protest en masse against the state\u2019s regulation of the hadd (singular of hudud) punishments especially as it pertained to women\u2019s bodies and sexualities. The administration\u2019s means of affecting such laws involved a step-by-step reduction of women\u2019s power in matters of economic, legal, and educational representation (Weiss, 1985, p. 1). It is important to note here that I do not wish to present a monolithic idea of Islam in direct opposition to feminist agendas. Quite the contrary, women\u2019s participation in Islamic revitalization during this period was complex and often contradictory; partial and reconciliatory in approach and tenor. Yet, it would not be incorrect to note that the movement for women\u2019s rights in Pakistan has remained \u201cright from the country\u2019s inception\u201d in the hands of a \u201cminiscule proportion of women\u201d who predominately came from the middle-and-upper-middle classes of Pakistani society: these women of the \u201curban, educated middle and upper classes\u201d\u2014at least in the nascent stages\u2014\u201ccould be counted on the fingers of one hand and almost invariably belonged to political families\u2019\u201d(Mumtaz & Shaheed, 1987, p. 55).7\n\n---\n\n6 Hudud is the plural form of hadd, which means literally \u201climit or extremity.\u201d In the context of legislature, hudud implies the maximum punishment enforceable for transgressing the law.\n\n7 As Nighat Said Khan (2000) notes, while great strides were made in the heydays of the WAF, movements for women\u2019s rights in Pakistan today (post 1980s) has fallen under the purview of NGOs (5). As such, \u201cthe\nIn 1983, the passing of the Law of Evidence would limit and reduce a woman\u2019s testimony in a court of law to half the value of a man. The implications of such laws on women are worth exploring briefly because in matters of rape and sexual violence (zina) women were profoundly affected. Even if, as Anita Weiss (1985) notes in her study of the women\u2019s movement in Pakistan, the punishment meted out to offenders of zina regardless of sex was constitutionally the same (p. 8), since women\u2019s power of testimony in zina cases was inadmissible in court, the legislation of zina in fact had serious gender biases built into it. When women were convicted for zina offences there was little room for appeal; men, by the same token, were by and large acquitted (Weiss, 1985, p. 9). In fact, Fahmida Riaz\u2019s poem \u201cStoning\u201d (maybe some quotes here??) makes reference to the extremity of punishment that one could receive for transgressing zina, namely, being stoned to death in public. Cases such as that of an elderly married couple Fehmida (unrelated to the poet) and Allah Bux whose punishment for transgressing the Zina Laws constituted the very first public death-by-stoning case that Pakistan had witnessed, and the example of Lal Mai, in which a \u201cthirty-five year old woman in Liaquatpur (Bahawalpur district), was the first woman publicly whipped for adultery on September 30, 1983\u201d(Weiss, 1985, p. 9) forced feminist organizations to intervene on behalf of all women by organizing public protests over cases such as these (R. Ahmad, 1990, p. 13).\n\nThis is why Kishwar Naheed\u2019s poem \u201cAnticlockwise\u201d, with which this essay opened, is all the more powerful, not only because of its spirited resistance to hegemonic socio-political structures, but also because it grants power to women\u2019s voices within those very subjugating social structures of Islam or Pakistani modernity.\n\nOf Poetry and Politics\n\nBoth Kishwar Naheed\u2019s and Fahmida Riaz\u2019s commitments to women\u2019s issues become apparent through even the most cursory of readings of their poems. But are we to understand their solidarity with the \u201cwomen\u2019s movement\u201d as synonymous with an explicitly feminist stance? If so, what are the type of \u201cfeminisms\u201d they advocate? These questions are important to ask because the feminist movement in Pakistan during the 1970s and early 1980s was undergoing serious transformations from within, wherein women activists were continually challenging the capacity of the movement to include all women across class and regional divisions. The question of Islam and its discursive role in governing the socio-political lives of women within Pakistani culture was at the heart of these debates (Gardezi, 1994). By this I mean that women were actively constructing Islamic discourse as much as they were being interpreted by it.\n\nFeminist scholarship about the Pakistani women\u2019s movement of this period reflects this very question, so that some scholars, such as Shahnaz Rouse (1992), argue for a feminist social critique outside of Islamic discourse, while others like Khawar Mumtaz and Farida Shaheed reiterate the centrality of Islam to Pakistani culture, arguing that \u201cin order not be perceived as alien, there is a need to operate within Pakistani culture, movement itself has lost its political sharpness and its energy.\u201d (5) Feminist activists find themselves competing for recognition and validation from transnational actors and in many ways have had to position themselves alongside liberal feminist ideologies to not be seen as regressive or outdated. Thus, in fact, middle-class and elite women from urban centers continue to influence and dictate the agenda for the women\u2019s movement overall which has led to a skewed perception of women\u2019s issues in countries like Pakistan (Khan 1999).\nand, therefore, within Islam\u201d (p. 52). Based on her interviews with members of Women\u2019s Action Forum (Lahore chapter), Fauzia Gardezi (1994) argues that wielding Islam as a way to unite women across class, ethnic, and linguistic communities did not in fact get to the heart of women\u2019s day-to-day subjugation and material oppression (p. 53).\n\nThe question of whether to adopt the feminist label or not further complicated this already fraught debate about religious discourse. What were the implications of the feminist label and what were the benefits of identifying it as a \u201cwomen\u2019s movement\u201d instead? Gardezi\u2019s study (1994) suggests that the Women\u2019s Action Forum\u2019s (WAF) inability to articulate a clear position regarding these issues has lead to not only its exclusionary practices, but to its haphazard choice of political battles (p. 55). Ultimately, the failure of the WAF is its inability as an organization to reconcile internally and put-forth publicly multiple feminist subjectivities both from within and outside of Islamic discourse.\n\nSince Zia\u2019s Martial Law regime dealt with any affront to the state in the severest manner, Riaz\u2019s and Naheed\u2019s strategic use of metaphors became a necessity for translating their political visions, and more importantly, crucial to their survival. While both Raiz and Naheed found the poetic mode of expression a safe space where they could address some of the larger social debates about women and Islam, feminism and nationalism, tradition and modernity, their individual poetic voices reflect their distinct political visions.\n\n**Lovers as Sinners: Materiality and Aesthetics**\n\nWhen Martial Law was declared in 1977, Naheed and Raiz were 37 years and 31 years old respectively. Both women were married with children and enjoyed professional lives in journalism, in addition to practicing their full-time craft as poets. Their solidarity with women\u2019s empowerment in both the household and workplace was manifest through the kinds of themes that they were exploring in their writing. Raiz had published two collections of poetry by this time\u2014Patthar ki zaban (The Stone\u2019s Tongue) and Badan darida (The Body Lacerated)\u2014and Naheed had also published her poetry collections of Lab-i goya (The Speaking Lip) and Be-nam musafat (Nameless Journey). In addition to her two books of poetry, Naheed had also begun compiling and translating into Urdu a series of legal referendums and ordinances that concerned women directly such as Muslim Family Laws, the Law of Evidence, and Family Planning. The involvement of both poets in the public sphere of print capitalism as editors of literary-political journals found creative expression in their poetry.\n\nThe link between women\u2019s poetic expression and politics has been articulated most forcefully by feminist poets Audre Lorde and Adrienne Rich. Arguing that far from being a luxury that women indulge in flights of fancy, self-actualization and political consciousness begins from the naming of it in poetry. As Rich (1984, 1986) explains it, poetry is \u201cthe art of so many others uncannonized in the dominant culture--[and it] is not produced as a commodity, but as part of a long conversation with the elders and with the future. Such artists draw on a tradition in which political struggle and spiritual continuity are meshed. Nothing need be lost, no beauty sacrificed. The heart does not turn to a stone\u201d (p. 187). Similarly, Audre Lorde has insisted that poetry is \u201cnot a luxury\u201d but a necessity \u201cthrough [which] we give name to those ideas which are--until the poem--nameless and formless, about to be birthed, but already felt\u201d (Lorde, 1984, p. 36).\nIn the context of South Asian society, this last point is all the more relevant as poetry has been the medium for religious expression. In devotional poetry, for example, metaphors provide that immediate transfer out of the mundane, everyday life to the realm of the transformative, transcendental and divine (Hawley, 2005; Minault 1974). While the metaphor\u2019s referent might actually be the banality of civic life in modern-day Pakistan (or India), centuries of cultural history and literary convention allow the poet to remain perfectly safe in her articulation of subjects which would otherwise seem impetuous or insolent when uttered by women. To return to the question with which this essay opened: how can resistance be understood or qualified under these circumstances, when the poetic imaginary (and thus by extension the political) portends alternate forms of freedom outside the liberal underpinnings of feminist agency?\n\nKishwar Naheed, for example, comes to terms with her experiences of love (and its correlative, grief) in her first collection of poetry, Lab-i goya (Speaking Lips). She begins to question tentatively (as if unsure of the full repercussions of her statements), the complexity of emotions women experience within the constrained space of familial domesticity, the urban-professional workplace, and she charts the emergence of these experiences in the representational space of the ghazal (couplet; form of classical Urdu poetry). The second couplet of her ghazal from this collection (1985) tells us about her experience of love:\n\nI am disgraced in the prison of my body, you are in my capture\nBearing on your body the scars of a painless imprisonment. (p.15)\n\nRight from the outset of the poem Naheed tells us that the power relationship between the lover and the beloved is uneven. While she is disgraced because of her body, he remains unharmed. She hides her body behind the curtain of seclusion. He too is imprisoned (tu qaid men meri) because he is bonded to her. But he does not have any outward signs (dagh: scar) of his bondage like she does. The difference between their respective bondages highlights their distinct experiences as men and women.\n\nThe emotions to which the poet alludes\u2014a woman\u2019s dissatisfaction within a love relationship, her recognition of the double standards for men and women and of how women\u2019s bodies are abused through domestic responsibilities and childbearing\u2014are all themes specific to women\u2019s experience.\n\nHer use of the image of imprisonment (qaid) is a common poetic trope to signify the state of being a lover or beloved: one cannot help but love yet one is imprisoned by the emotion of love. The heart is physically imprisoned inside the body of the lover, which makes ignoring or denying it equally impossible. Imprisonment functions in this ghazal (on both the gross and subtle level) as a marker of gendered subjectivity, particularly as the feminine position is somehow contingent on an ability to ensnare or \u201ccapture\u201d a lover, underlining female imprisonment in the body.\n\nThis couplet\u2019s poetic voice is striking in that it articulates this perspective of the \u201ccapturer\u201d (the ensnaring women). In so doing, it departs from and simultaneously reaffirms the conventions of the classical ghazal. Classically, the poet speaks as the oppressed, the murdered, or the imprisoned lover in a scenario of hopelessly unrequited love, never as the captor, or the love object. Here, the poet speaks back to society and to\n\n---\n\n8 All translations herein are mine, unless otherwise cited.\nthe whole ghazal tradition in the voice of the idealized, stylized love object who is otherwise rarely individuated and all but mute. But she does more: she speaks as lover and beloved, prisoner and captor. Rather than simply shifting perspectives, she is interrogating who and what are implicated in these concepts.\n\nAs the ghazal progresses, more aspects of this gendered subjectivity come to the surface. For example in another couplet of the same ghazal, Kishwar Naheed contemplates the stages of the journey through love:\n\nThe journey from prayer to the purification of the self is long\nEven if (on its path) you change your many clothes of necessity. (1985, p. 16)\n\nInvoking images of the steps of spiritual questing in mystical Islam, Naheed recognizes the numerous compromises she must make and the multi-faceted personae that she must display on this journey to the self. But even as the poetic voice reflects embodied oppression of the lover and beloved simultaneously, the poetess challenges any static understanding of gendered subjectivities when she asks later in the same ghazal:\n\nIn whose hands are the reins of the world\u2019s activities, O God!\nEven the demands of humanity have changed. (p. 16)\n\nIn the first line, Naheed\u2019s phrasing echoes a stunning verse by the mid-twentieth-century poet Iqbal, the literary figure most associated with Pakistan. In a key expression, Kar-i-jahan daraz hai (\u201cthe activities of the temporal world are numerous/demanding\u201d), Iqbal takes Allah to task for exiling Adam from paradise and stresses the power of human agency. This very line was appropriated by prolific, outspoken female writer Qurratulain Haider for the title of her memoirs. Naheed\u2019s question or exclamation about the control of the world, then, converses intertextually with daring intellectual precedents. The question may be a despairing plea, but is also fruitfully read as a query about human will and free choice, one keenly attuned to the idea of \u201cspeaking back to the almighty,\u201d or to the (political) powers that be.\n\nThe word she chooses (admiyat) is a feminine abstract noun meaning \u201chuman nature, humanity, civility, politeness\u201d as opposed to a gender specific noun. If the demands on or requisites of human nature have changed in the historical present of her ghazal then, according to Naheed, so too have our assumptions about knowledge/power structures in the world. But it seems, at least for the poetic present, Naheed is unsure of whether the transformation of these social structures has had a positive effect or not. Her uncertainty is reflected in the closing couplet of the ghazal:\n\nIf sickness stalks the world, so what Naheed?\nThe pearls of labor have continually become scattered. (p. 16)\n\n/Bagh-i bahisht se mujhe humk-e safar diya tha kyon/\n/Kar-i jahan daraz hai, ab mera intizar kar/\nWhy did you exile me from the garden of heaven?\nThe work of the (temporal) world is lengthy \u2013 so you now wait for me!\nIn keeping with the literary conventions of the ghazal genre, Naheed refers to herself in the closing couplet. She asks herself what the consequences would be if the whole world seemed to close in on itself (and her). Perhaps the closing line portends her strategy of intervening in this process\u2014the pearls of labor and toil have always been strewn about. The use of the word moti (pearl) is itself an interesting image\u2014the oyster toils through its entire life in order to produce its gift to the world, the pearl. Its sacrifice and, ultimately, death produces a rare gem for others to enjoy. The tone of the poem is thus bitter-sweet; it does not valorize the poet\u2019s own struggles to find her voice, but seems to suggest a strategy of compromise integral to her survival. In other words, she admits that her contradictory behavior and impulses may lead to necessary self destruction.\n\nIf the feminist subject is constituted through these performances of resistance--and interpellations in verse--Naheed\u2019s ghazal from the preceding pages, allows us a glimpse into the often conflictual and paratactic style of mediating social life in Pakistani society.\n\n**Veiled Sentiments of Eroticism and Agency**\n\nThe poems in Fahmida Riaz\u2019s *Badan darida* (The Body Lacerated) explore the multiple ways a female lover experiences eroticism and sensuality\u2014the voice of the \u201clover\u201d in the poems (as in the ghazals of Naheed) is distinctly feminine. A woman\u2019s agency to choose and deny her suitors at will is emphasized. To class her work in the most general of ways, her poems in this collection are about love. In the introduction to the work, Raiz anticipates criticism of her book and responds to it:\n\nMy first collection was published in 1967. The name of the work was *Patthar ki Zaban*. The present book contains nearly all of my poems from 1967-1972. The nearly fifty-odd poems encompass six years. You will find this collection different than *Patthar ki Zaban*. Some people have a lot of objections to many of the book\u2019s themes. In their opinion, this is obscene, or was written to startle people. Let us consider first why I write. I do not write to shock or startle. I do not seek fame. This is simply not true. In reality, a poet narrates the self (*khud-kalami*) while breaking his [sic] head up against a wall. (p. 13)\n\nWhile she may not have expected the sensationalism that followed the publication of *Badan darida*, she could not have been unaware (as her own authorial preface reveals) of her own complicity in facilitating such attitudes. She suggests that her poems are merely personal reflections because she is \u201ctalking to herself\u201d (*khud-kalami*). At the same time, however, one cannot ignore the fact that her book sales probably skyrocketed with each onslaught of negative criticism. Towards the end of her introductory essay she asks about the possible provocation her poems may cause. Her answer only affirms the political nature of her poetic voice that she veils behind every metaphor and literary convention:\n\nBut when one is prohibited from living life according to one\u2019s heart, then why bow your head down and walk away? Why not make that place of slaughter a field of battle? Wage war until the last-breath. So, I too could not bow down my neck. My poems are such a battle as if, by reading them in a loud voice, I survived my own slaughter. From this perspective, \u201c*Badan darida*\u201d is a battle-cry. If by reading them people are roused or startled, then what\u2019s the harm in that? (p. 15)\nIn Raiz\u2019s *nazm* (free-verse) \u201cLove, the Wanderer\u201d (\u201cIshq, Awara Mizaj\u201d) from this collection, for example, the emotion of love is depicted as frivolous. The political power of this poem lies in a fundamental shift in how the poet views \u201clove.\u201d The poet locates what love used to mean to her\u2014the anguish or pain it used to cause her, and then moves on to voice her present feelings about love. Rather than adhering to a belief that love lasts forever, Raiz explores the extent to which love changes over time and is sometimes lost.\n\nLove, the wanderer  \nThe traveler is gone!  \nNot even his fragrance lingers that would give away his whereabouts  \nNor a footprint  \nNor any sign of him  \nNot even bitterness at the bottom of a goblet did he leave behind  \nLife remains!  \nA serious laugh  \nLike a thought settling in the heart  \nThe rapid breaths  \nA snared thought in the mind, intermittently, throbs like a splinter  \nAnd in the aching heart,  \nAn afflicted wound  \nBut it is not a terrible wound  \nThe pain does not remain.  \nBut it cannot be persuaded  \nA remorseful heart  \nUpon changing its mind  \nSurprised itself.  \nWhat does it know about its own self?  \nSuch is the human heart  \nIt is not a stone!  \nUpon which, once a line is drawn, it cannot be erased. (pp. 20-21)\n\nThe last few lines of her poem capture the fickleness of love, and mark a shift in the poet\u2019s consciousness regarding love. The heart, in Raiz\u2019s poem, is not a stone. If a line is drawn on a stone it cannot be erased, but the resilient heart can heal itself from lost love. This neatly inverts the usual oppositions drawn between \u201chearts\u201d and \u201cstones\u201d in everyday speech and in Urdu literature, which depict the stone or the stone-hearted beloved as immune to pain, and the lover\u2019s heart as ever-vulnerable. For Raiz, the poet/lover is neither excessively fascinated with love nor deluded by it; love between the lover and the beloved is mutual and reciprocated. Her reading of love suggests that even after the relationship ends, the individual can move on, and is capable of loving again. The poetic voice is one of defiance\u2014the poet refuses to become defined by love; she has learnt from her experiences and exhibits agency to love or to not love.\n\n---\n\n10 e.g. Ghalib\u2019s famous,  \n/Dil hi to hai na sang o khisht dard se bhar na aye kyon/  \n/Ro\u2019enge ham hazar bar, ko\u2019i hamen sataye kyon/  \nIt\u2019s a heart after all, not rock or stone; why wouldn\u2019t it fill with pain?  \nI\u2019ll weep a thousand times as it is; why would anyone (go out of her way to) torment me?\nThe analysis of the poems in the previous two sections should illustrate the breadth in the topics these poets have explored. The boldness with which they have sketched their visions\u2014and this too during Martial Law\u2014could have been achieved, without punitive and juridical consequences, only in poetry.\n\n**Raiz\u2019s Crossing, Naheed\u2019s House Arrest, and the Emergence of Transnational Poetics**\n\nIn his book, *In the Mirror of Urdu: Recompositions of Nation and Community between 1947-1965*, Aijaz Ahmad argues that the imagined community Benedict Anderson invokes in *Imagined Communities* is too vague for understanding how the Urdu-speaking literary community was recomposed after the Partition of the South Asian subcontinent in 1947. In the wake of Partition, writers in Pakistan imagined themselves as belonging to larger communities that crossed geographical boundaries and the emotional baggage of Partition. Ahmad\u2019s query into the particularity of nationalism and language politics as it unfolded within the Urdu literary community was based on his questions of why Qurratulain Haider\u2019s monumental novel *Ag ka darya* (River of Fire, 1956) was so popular in Pakistan given its \u201cstrident anti-Partitionist\u201d stance. He suggests that the majority of writers in Pakistan identified with the character\u2019s internal struggle, caught as they were between India and Pakistan. Given the novel\u2019s ideological framework, grounded as it was in a romantic portrayal of Nehruvian nationalism, \u201cKemal\u2019s [the male protagonist of the novel] choice\u2014to go to Pakistan\u2014[could] only be seen as a betrayal\u201d (A. Ahmad, 1993, p. 10). This is because, in Ahmad\u2019s words:\n\n> The bulk of the writers of Urdu at the time of Partition constituted, regardless of religious or regional origin, an identifiable social group, i.e., a community with a dense and shared structure of feeling, which lasted far beyond the Partition itself, despite the massive demographic dislocations in the ensuing years; that a secularist belief in the composite culture of Hindus and Muslims in India was the predominant ideological position in this community; and that decisive shifts came later. Despite the scale of human suffering at the time of Partition, in other words, the factors leading up to the Partition did not decisively break up the emotional structure of this community, even though it was demographically much dislocated and recomposed. (A. Ahmad, 1993, pp. 11-12)\n\nIn more recent postcolonial exigencies of the politics of national space and place, these divisions became fixed and \u201cappeared to be irrevocable\u201d (A. Ahmad, 1993, p. 12) If we accept Aijaz Ahmad\u2019s claim about the real way in which Urdu speakers imagined themselves as belonging to a community that transcended the exigencies of geographic boundaries, of India and Pakistan, then the incorporation of Hindi vocabulary, folk-songs (*gits*), regional dialects of Sindhi and Punjabi in the poems of Raiz and Naheed could be understood as working within and through these extended notions of community and nation.\n\nAijaz Ahmad\u2019s study ends in 1965, at about the time when the two poets of interest in this essay begin to take on writing as a serious professional career. Because I have been unable to do the kind of archival (and census) work that Ahmad is able to do in his book *In the Mirror of Urdu*, my conclusions about the path that these poets have taken with respect to the language issue are tentative and speculative in so far as the conclusions that I draw from a close reading of their poems in the original Urdu are...\ncontextualized not through extant archival research, but based on personal correspondence and communication with the poets themselves. As such I fully recognize that what the poets have chosen to tell me may itself be tainted by how they wish to be represented in my book, as well as the formulation of my questions regarding their work is influenced by my own agenda of situating their work in the politics of Martial Law in Pakistan. Despite these parameters that may seem to limit my argument, I suggest that Raiz\u2019s and Naheed\u2019s desire to be represented in a particular (and distinct) way is a sufficiently compelling reason to examine the theoretical implications of language politics embedded in their poetry.\n\nRaiz and Naheed take to task different sets of social issues in their poetry, and as I suggested earlier in this essay, based on their unique experiences during Martial Law in Pakistan, the two have reflected different sensibilities in their poetry. Raiz\u2019s crossing the border into India under the cover of night in order to escape an arduous prison term helped shape the political choices she made in India. Kishwar Naheed, on the other hand, did not have to leave Pakistan. Instead she became confined to the home, unable to leave without police surveillance and a motorcade to match. She reflected on this experience years later when we met in Berkeley, saying that when the surveillance stopped and the police stopped following her around, she actually felt lonely! (Naheed, 2003). A comparison of their poems from this time period reflects the divergent political choices that Raiz and Naheed made; it is further mirrored, as I show in the subsequent sections, through the language and metaphors of their poetry.\n\nRaiz\u2019s poem \u201cThe Cloud Messenger,\u201d (Megha-Duta) is a retelling of Kalidasa\u2019s classical Sanskrit poem and a reference to the Quranic story of Hajira.\n\nThundering\nRumbling\nHe arrived!\nSeated on the chariot of the wind\nMy cloud-god\nOn the shoulders of the winds\nHis free-flowing hair\nHis purple (jamuni) body\nSpread across the sky\nThe thunder echoed for miles\nThe ground trembled\nThe sky recoiled\nWith an impenetrable thunder\nIt burst forth with rain\nAnd I closed my eyes\nWith palms outstretched\nRan away\nTouching with my body\nThe blue of his body\n\nI am the daughter of separation (hijr)\nThere is such a fire in me\nFor me\nEven union is separation\nI have such a thirst\nSoaked in the juice of the dark cloud\nBreathless, in the moment\nMy heart says\nThis is it\nThe time of the sweetness of union. (Riaz, 1974, pp. 35-36.)\n\nThe first part of the poem plays with the poem by Kalidasa. In Kalidasa\u2019s version a Yaksha (banished for his misconduct) sends his message of love for his wife\u2014left behind in the city of Ujjain\u2014through the cloud. He asks the cloud to be gentle when conveying his message because if he thunders it might scare her (Kalidasa, Meghduta, 1973). Riaz\u2019s modern Urdu retelling presents the other side of the scenario. It is told through the voice of the woman, upon the arrival of the cloud on her rooftop. In this version, the woman embraces the cloud, infused with the essence of love\u2019s message. The blue and purple colors of the rain clouds further play with the symbolism of the god Krishna\u2014who is blue/black, hence Krishna in Sanskrit\u2014who is often associated with the rainy season of love and longing, and also with emotions of playfulness and sensuality.\n\nThe second half of the poem weaves in the story of Hajira, the mother of Ismail and wife of Ibrahim. Ibrahim left his wife and son in the desert at the request of his other wife Sarah. When Hajira ran out of breast-milk, she began to run back and forth across two hills of the desert (Safa and Marwa) in search for water for her son. After doing so seven times, she saw her crying baby thrashing his feet on the ground. At once a spring, Zam-Zam, gushed forth from the ground.11 In the poem, the thirst that the poet feels is likened to Hajira\u2019s desert trial\u2014\u201cI am the daughter of separation/ there is such a fire in me.\u201d\n\nRaiz\u2019s \u201cMegha Duta\u201d interweaves the stories of two different classical traditions of South Asia\u2014Perso-Arabic and Sanskrit\u2014and brings them both into dialogue within the space of this poem. This also universalizes the theme of love, by bringing it into a larger South Asian context, rather than a unitary religious framework. The beginning of the rainy season (of Savan) symbolizes the awakening of love and sensuality\u2014all of which are alluded to in Kalidasa\u2019s Meghaduta and Raiz\u2019s re-telling. But in the Urdu version of this poem, the union is as much a physical one as it is metaphoric. There is a palpable sensuality in the poem\u2014\u201cburst forth with rain,\u201d \u201cI closed my eyes/with palms outstretched/ ran away/ touching with my body/ the blue of his body\u201d\u2014intensified further by the heat of separation and an absence of physical intimacy.\n\nFeminist scholarship on the \u201cspecificities of national and sexual categories\u201d has built on Benedict Anderson\u2019s formulation and definition of \u201cnation\u201d as a \u201crelational [category] whose identity derives from its inherence in a system of differences\u201d (Parker et al., 1992, pp. 4-5). In the context of Pakistan, as Rouse notes,\n\n---\n\n11 The Hajj is related to the word Hajira, and one of the rites that one performs on the Hajj includes walking back and forth between the two hills of Safa and Marwa, in remembrance of Harija\u2019s sacrifice. I am indebted to Huma Dar for pointing me to this reference.\nDiscourses of nationalism, anti-imperialism, and Islam coincide in constructing gender as a secondary issue [and] condemning in advance women who strive to achieve transformation in their personal lives. Individual experience and subjectivity are repressed [and] the collective is privileged. (1992, p. 102)\n\nGender is primary to the construction of discourses of nationalism and anti-imperialism, I suggest, not secondary. A gendered reading of the writings of Raiz and Naheed reveals the complicated web of social relationships based on perceived differences between men and women and their rewriting of gender is a primary way of signifying power. In looking for \u201cspaces or places of resistance\u201d scholars of nationalism have focused almost exclusively on prose genres\u2014the novel, the short story\u2014rather than on poetry; the exception to this being the works of Dipesh Chakrabarty (2000) and Ann McClintock (1995). If we imagine poetry, to borrow Teresa de Lauretis\u2019 words, as a \u201cconceptual and erotic space where women could recognize women concurrently as subjects and as objects of female desire\u201d (de Lauretis cited in Parker et al., 1992, p. 7), we can see how Raiz and Naheed have strategically used this genre to give voice to issues of self and sexuality and to write themselves into the nation.\n\nThe voices of women have no place in the imaginings of the nation. At best, they are a secondary issue. In these poems, however, women reinvent themselves, carving out of their day-to-day experiences, a carefully constructed feminist theory of community. This is evident through use of works like \u201cham\u201d (we/us), \u201chamare halat\u201d (our predicament), \u201chamari zaban\u201d (our language/tongue) \u201cbibi\u201d (sister), and so forth. More, their metaphors reflect and draw upon a common storehouse of memories and experiences which transcend political geography, national belonging, and the linearity of history measured by \u201cclock and calendar\u201d (Benjamin as cited in Anderson, 1991, p. 24).\n\nPoets, Borders, and Poetic Language\n\nIn this essay I have pointed out the ways in which women have used the genres of poetry to write their stories of bodies and sexualities during a critical period in their nation\u2019s history. Shahnaz Rouse (1992) makes an interesting observation here when she says, \u201cPakistani women have organized and mobilized most concertedly during this same period [and] have made the most significant organizational strides precisely during periods of dictatorial rule\u201d (p. 103). Women\u2019s divergent personal struggles and aspirations gave rise to a vibrant movement for women\u2019s rights in Pakistan during the Martial Law period of the 1970s and 1980s, and women from many walks of life felt inspired to challenge authoritarianisms in all its manifestations (in the home, within the community, and in the nation at large).\n\nSo as to not collapse the poetic voices of Raiz and Naheed into a unified narrative of Islamist thinking, differences in their politics should be underscored here. Naheed\u2019s insistence for juridical rights for women in Pakistan and Raiz\u2019s vision of a global sisterhood are endemic to their poetic expression. As demonstrated earlier, their choice of genres in which to write: the classical couplet or the free-verse are based on the limits of each respective genre to constitute feminist (and feminine) subjectivity. Additionally, the ghazal is self-referential and the landscape it cultivates is enclosed within itself while the nazm (free verse) is often not; the ghazal, as Naheed has used it, is critical of nationalist (and local) interpretations of Islam and femininity while the other genre lends itself to Raiz\u2019s transnational critiques of religious conservatism. Taken together though their\nMartial Law poems sketch a portrait of women\u2019s mobilizing in Pakistan that is a far cry from the image of Muslim women (as passively capitulating to patriarchal structures) perpetuated in liberal discourse.\n\nIn the poems of Kishwar Naheed and Fahmida Riaz, a new nation is imagined\u2014one that transcends state politics and policies\u2014and bridges the gap between diverse communities of women divided by its geopolitical and linguistic borders. The poetry of these two women makes possible an understanding of the genres of poetry as \u201cconceptual and erotic places\u201d that facilitate a rewriting of nation and nationalism. In this way, women\u2019s voices can be understood as coming out of and embedded in the very political fields that define and limit them. I read the poems of Fahmida Riaz and Kishwar Naheed as places where battles are waged and won.\n\nReferences\n\n\n---. Personal Interview. 19 March 2003.\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1157&context=jiws", "len_cl100k_base": 11226, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 18, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 44882, "total-output-tokens": 14012, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0005478858947753906, "__label__art_design": 0.001781463623046875, "__label__crime_law": 0.0006670951843261719, "__label__education_jobs": 0.005191802978515625, "__label__entertainment": 0.0008544921875, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0004355907440185547, "__label__finance_business": 0.0003905296325683594, "__label__food_dining": 0.0004603862762451172, "__label__games": 0.0005445480346679688, "__label__hardware": 8.982419967651367e-05, "__label__health": 0.0004296302795410156, "__label__history": 0.0029621124267578125, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00018107891082763672, "__label__industrial": 0.00026702880859375, "__label__literature": 0.919921875, "__label__politics": 0.0416259765625, "__label__religion": 0.0178985595703125, "__label__science_tech": 0.0013399124145507812, "__label__social_life": 0.0029449462890625, "__label__software": 0.00017392635345458984, "__label__software_dev": 0.0005116462707519531, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00027871131896972656, "__label__transportation": 0.0003633499145507813, "__label__travel": 0.00022840499877929688}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 56666, 0.01577]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 56666, 0.32823]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 56666, 0.94881]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 924, false], [924, 4291, null], [4291, 8092, null], [8092, 9983, null], [9983, 14017, null], [14017, 17875, null], [17875, 21650, null], [21650, 25294, null], [25294, 28846, null], [28846, 31873, null], [31873, 35381, null], [35381, 37920, null], [37920, 41482, null], [41482, 43882, null], [43882, 46944, null], [46944, 50663, null], [50663, 53654, null], [53654, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 924, true], [924, 4291, null], [4291, 8092, null], [8092, 9983, null], [9983, 14017, null], [14017, 17875, null], [17875, 21650, null], [21650, 25294, null], [25294, 28846, null], [28846, 31873, null], [31873, 35381, null], [35381, 37920, null], [37920, 41482, null], [41482, 43882, null], [43882, 46944, null], [46944, 50663, null], [50663, 53654, null], [53654, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56666, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 924, 1], [924, 4291, 2], [4291, 8092, 3], [8092, 9983, 4], [9983, 14017, 5], [14017, 17875, 6], [17875, 21650, 7], [21650, 25294, 8], [25294, 28846, 9], [28846, 31873, 10], [31873, 35381, 11], [35381, 37920, 12], [37920, 41482, 13], [41482, 43882, 14], [43882, 46944, 15], [46944, 50663, 16], [50663, 53654, 17], [53654, 56666, 18]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 56666, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-08", "created": "2024-12-08"}
+{"id": "aeec9e5fd14fb06e936fcbc96eef57c080cb4e27", "text": "Andr\u00e1s L\u00e1nyi  PhD\n\nAssociate professor at the E\u00f6tv\u00f6s Lor\u00e1nd University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Human Ecology\nBudapest, Hungary\n\nThe moral fundaments of sustainability in the European ethical tradition\n\nEnglish translation: Ivan Nyusztay\n\n1 This essay was written as a philosophical summary of a research conducted by Our Common Heritage Research Group (ELTE University of Budapest) in 2009-2010 and supported by the Norwegian Financial Mechanism.\nAnthropocentric ethics is possible only when \u2018Thou\u2019 replaces \u2018I\u2019 in the center of moral thought. This essay argues that attempts at the foundations of modern \u2018man-centered\u2019 ethics, bereft of the metaphysical handhold, failed due to the lack of this recognition, and that role has actually been filled by law \u2013 either Natural Law or the Law of Reason. The privileged ontological status of man reappears in the philosophy of phenomenology. There, the discussion of intersubjectivity reveals that it is a whole world that belongs to the Self, and it takes but one further step to discover that this world does not merely belong to him, but it is his concern. Environmental ethics does not demand the surrendering of anthropocentrism, but rather, its radical reformulation.\n\n1.\nLet me confess I never understood how the faith in the righteousness of God can be reconciled with God\u2019s excessive fury, bringing fire and flood upon the Earth for the sin of man, destroying all its innocent inhabitants together with the sinner. I am not familiar with the standard position of eco-theology on the divine destruction of the environment. So far it seems they still owe us a reassuring explanation for the strikes afflicting blameless nature. The obvious reason that it is only man that matters (\u201cif the hamster dies the terrarium is also thrown out\u201d) is incompatible with an eco-ethics dedicated to the extension of the ethical universe. Historical ecologist Jeanne Kaye, examining the concept of nature in the Old Testament, by-passes pernickety issues when she considers common expiation as the proof of an intimate relation between man and nature, and points out that nature is not merely a sufferer but often also the means of punishment which afflicts the sinner in the forms of natural disasters, drought, plague of locusts and floods. (Kaye 1988) Even more astounding is the fact that the arguments for the responsibility for the coming generations do not include any reference to the justice of the Old Testament punishing the sons for their fathers\u2019 sins unto the seventh generation. However, the retrospective responsibility of the descendants for the deeds of their ancestors do seem to force the recognition of mutual accountability between generations subject to common fate. Our doubts concerning divine justice \u2013 or the responsibility of the authors of the holy scripts \u2013 evaporate briskly when we realize that these passages from the Old Testament are to be read not in a normative but in a descriptive sense! They do not contain a judgement, but warn us of a factual development, which, alas, we discovered too late, even though truth was staring us in the face. Now we see clearly that the Earth is dying for man\u2019s sins, and that unfathomable suffering will afflict the coming generations for the fathers\u2019 sins unto the seventh generation. So far we could not understand, but now it needs no explanation, so evident this has become in our days.\n\n2.\nI think it would be misleading and perhaps unnecessary to trace back a characteristically modern issue, the question of anthropocentric ethics, to the moral thought of antiquity. The man of archaic civilizations and ancient societies was an organic part of the tribal world, the people, the caste or the polis. In all its sensible aspirations the self identifies with the models offered by a certain community. He considers the rule of law as an obvious manifestation of the cosmic order in the world. Consequently, ethics from which he seeks guidance on his activities, helps him acquire virtues and rules of behaviour that make sure he successfully copes with the social roles accessible to him. In this functionally arranged world the purpose of a good life cannot be other than the recognition, sustenance and following of order. The question is not what \u201cI\u201d should do, but what a warrior, a wife, a monarch, a Levite or an Athenian citizen ought to do in the given situation. The significance of individual choice and the alternatives of good and evil are comparatively low, even if there are mutually exclusive, but prevalent liabilities. This is what makes the situation of the Greek tragic hero fateful. Tragic sin is not a crime, it is partly a virtue: it has to do with the hero\u2019s moral commitment at least as much as it is in conflict with this commitment. The sinner is not \u201cresponsible\u201d for his sin in the modern sense of the word \u2013 the trap is laid by the gods, and the hero\nlacks the liberty to avoid falling into it.\n\nHowever, more or less during the golden age of Greek tragedy and philosophy, we find the first models of anthropocentric ethics in the Eastern Mediterranean: in the Jewish tradition of the Old Testament. Indeed, in the center of human existence here we find human choice together with its good and bad consequences. What is at stake in making decisions is the moral status of the human being. The subject is the man chosen by God (Abraham, Job), and the difficulty presents itself in the autonomy of ethical questioning. That there is a chasm between true knowledge and good deed. While the Greeks are guided by the knowledge of truth along the way to good life, meaning that ethical perspectives vary according to cosmological and epistemological views, the most important documents of Jewish religious thought reveal the recognition of the difference between what is good and what is true. Or, to put it more coarsely, these documents betray an awareness of the irrationality of goodness. It derives from the good God, therefore, the love of God and obedience to God are both superior to truth. Mercy is above justice, faith is above knowledge. This underlying idea of Jewish religious thought is perhaps most vividly expressed by the first lines of Psalm 72:\n\nGive the king thy judgements, O God, and thy righteousness to the king\u2019s son.\nHe shall judge thy people with righteousness, and thy poor with justice.\nThe mountains shall bring peace to the people, and the little hills, by righteousness.\n\nOne idea in three different formulations: God stands above righteousness; righteousness is not enough for the poor, only mercy is righteous to them (is not poverty a synonym of the human condition?); peace is greater than righteousness among people, as the mountains are greater than little hills. The Jewish tradition contrasts the order of love to the Greek love of order. But how can God\u2019s infinite goodness be reconciled with human suffering? This is at the center of the story of Job in the Bible \u2013 but it gives no explanation. The faith and moral integrity of God\u2019s chosen one are not shaken by the calamities he has to suffer, however, the bet with Satan on Job\u2019s spiritual salvation has two losers, and Satan is only one of them. Job defends his moral dignity \u2013 the basis for his chosenness \u2013 by insisting on his innocence. He turns against the deity that smote him, and calls his Lord to be witness and judge in this affair. God\u2019s proclamation will justify his innocence, but also leave his question unanswered: what is the sense of unmeasurable suffering brought upon the righteous man? According to the majority of commentators this suffering is the proof of man\u2019s uprightness: that he chooses what is good not out of scheming or for hope of reward, but for itself. This is what makes him deserving of his mission to be an equal partner of his creator in the construction of an ethical universe. This explanation may be true as an explanation, but it cannot be accepted by one who espouses the priority of love over righteousness. The response of love is that I share the suffering of the sufferer. It seems that C.G. Jung was right, when he claimed that God\u2019s response to Job is not found in the Old, but in the New Testament: that God became man and suffered martyrdom for man. (Jung 1973)\n\nOne of the most often cited work on environmental ethics, an article by Lynn White Jr. on the historical roots of environmetal crisis was published in 1967, in the renowned journal, Science. White\u2019s starting point is that from among all worldviews, the Christian doctrine, which laid the\n\n---\n\n2 As Gregory Bateson claims, the source of the dividedness for the European spirit is this contrast between the two legacies. How can an expanding world power deal with the ideas of the ethical revolution of a backward and defeated, remote province, he asks. (Bateson 1973)\n\n3 In the words of the Hungarian Jewish theologian, Simon Hevesi who lived a hundred years ago: \u201csuffering is the stylistics of God\u2019s words addressed to the chosen one\u201d. (Hevesi 1943, 152)\nfoundations of Western civilization, drew the sharpest dividing line between man and nature. Their belief in the immortality of the soul, and in the contrast between the material and the spiritual world, together with the power granted to man by the first book of Moses over all other living beings, authorize Christians to render nature a mere tool in the service of their purposes, denying it any form of self-value. Accordingly, they exploit its resources following the dictates of their interests or fancies. (White 1967) At the same time, White\u2019s critics rightly pointed out that other civilizations have damaged their environment with similar ruthlessness, and what is more, the power of white man did not become a threat to nature because of religious prejudices. (Livingstone 1994) Most of them find the explanation in the extremely effective technological systems capable of large-scale intervention, and in the expansive logic of profit-oriented market economy. The debate acquired a significance reaching beyond itself, inasmuch as it placed man-centeredness in the pivot point of the emerging ecological discourse, which, independently from the relations between the history of religion and technology, proved a watershed in the judgement of ethical concepts relevant to environmental issues.\n\nAt the same time everyone agreed that man is at the center of the ethical worldview of modernity \u2013 whatever that means. On the one side, we find those who wished to preserve the rich variability of living world in the sole interest of the only moral being: man. Their arguments were in harmony with the concept of modern European ethics. The novelty was that in contrast with the classics, they founded their ethical system not on presumptions related to the divine order of the world or the political order of the city-state, but on their ideas on human nature. However, their critics inspired by the ecological crisis of the second millennium hope to defend and save dying nature by endowing our fellow beings, in David Abram\u2019s words, the \u201cmore-than-human world\u201d with an intrinsic ethical value. (Abram 1979) According to them, man is not the sole inhabitant of the ethical universe; he is not even in the center. It is precisely the arbitrary designation of the center that misled our species in defining its existential position and ethical duties. There is a variety of deep ecological trends which share this approach. The bio-egalitarian would extend ethical accountability and the prohibition on causing suffering, even legal capacity to other sensitive living beings, or all living organisms, which though unconsciously, but \u201cstrive for their own good in their own way\u201d. The bio-social trend and land ethics argue for the ethical significance of coexistence beyond individual species, which include man. If it is true that morals are nothing but social instincts or learned behaviour, which are responsible for the indispensable self-regulation securing the survival of communities, then this role has to be fulfilled also with regard to ecosystems, \u201cmixed communities\u201d affected by man. Finally, followers of transpersonal ecology and ecofeminists have worked out the strategy of radical identification with other beings. Instead of questioning the unique existential position of man, certain deep ecologists influenced by Buddhism and Hinduism, together with others inspired by the philosophy of phenomenology, have volunteered to reassess his status. According to this, the road of moral evolution leads to the acceptance of the radical alterity of nature, the surrendering of the selfish chauvinism of our species, and to the recognition of our cosmic responsibility. This time I refrain from the brief introduction of these trends. (I attempted it in the prefatory essay of an anthology on Environment and Ethics). (L\u00e1nyi \u2013 J\u00e1vor 2005) Instead, I would like to examine the shared presumptions of the followers of deep ecology, or the \u201creal\u201d eco-philosophy a little closer, according to which both what they surpass and what they deny, namely, the ethics of modern European individualism is \u201canthropocentric\u201d.\n\n4.\n\nThe background of the foundations of modern ethics is well-known. The triumph of natural sciences brought about the degradation of the knowledge of the ancients to a heap of confused prejudices and superstitions. Man found himself placed on a remote out-of-the-way satellite, confined lifelong to a biological mechanism, the workings of which was claimed to be identical with that of other mammals. The rise and fall of empires, the utter devastation caused by wars between mercenary\nforces, the increasing role of plain and brutal despotism have shattered the belief in the divine source of social order and feudal society. The sacred doctrine of religion itself became the source of infinite discord between denominations trying to destroy each other. The general mood of life in the age was characterized by despair and exaltation. By intellectual awaking indeed, under a collapsing roof at a dark day-break, at the light of blazing fire, to nightmarish experiences. With regard to the real nature of Cartesian doubt, Calderon\u2019s play, Life is a Dream is more informative and profound than the icy intellectual-methodological discussions. It is about awakening from reality which turns out to be a dream. The escape of disillusioned souls to the shelter of the tangible; the struggle for lost certainty, which the pioneers of empirical research attempt to grasp not in the changing human experience, but rather in the coercive power over subdued nature, granted to them by the knowledge of its law, that is, the consistent recourse to scientific methods.  \n\nHowever, to become power, knowledge had to change, too, and this affected the foundations of ethics most profoundly. Before, knowledge was basically the knowledge of good and evil, but later in the new world of natural sciences a sharp dividing line was inserted between statements about facts and values, between \u201cis\u201d and \u201cought\u201d. What exists is not good or evil in itself, but necessary: it exists, because it cannot be otherwise. It is measurable with quantitative relations, its law of operation can be fully defined with causal relations verifiable by logical or empirical means, and through the knowledge of the law it can be put into the service of any optional goal, it can be used and used up without restraint. But how do we measure the goodness of objectives? How do we justify the correctness of our actions? Who legislates for the legislative will?\n\nThose who recognized the novelty of the situation from the perspective of moral philosophy, and elaborated the problem for us, are practicing natural scientists and - in their own way \u2013 pious souls and more or less loyal subjects. However, quite simply, they could no longer rely on the religious and political presumptions which had made possible the conceptualization of general rules of behaviour and ethical commandments. While in their own way each maintains a new, autonomous legitimacy beyond moral confirmation, in this age scientific worldview, social order and religious belief no longer incline to establish a moral world order. Science insists on the value-neutrality of its laws. The legal system relies on the principle of the political necessity of absolute power. The churches reformed according to the spirit of the age emphasize the inscrutability of God, though at the same time, the meaning of revelation becomes de facto questionable, and, indeed, it is questioned throughout Europe. These changes simply forced ethics to try to stand on its own feet. But those who strived to establish the science of ethics (\u201cmore geometrico\u201d) autonomously, did not actually place \u201cman\u201d at the center as a substitute for God, tradition or political community, but rather \u201claw\u201d, in the same sense that contemporary scientific thought sought to trace the workings of nature back to final explanations. While previous ethical systems considered their main objective the analysis of virtues necessary for leading a good life and for actions that appeal to God, modern ethicists have examined whether there is a specific law of human action consequent upon or independent from divine predestination, besides or beyond the laws of nature and social institutions, the following of which can be considered good, its violation a sin.\n\n5.\n\nThere seemed to be two solutions. For empirical investigations history and everyday life provided countless examples of the fatally degraded nature of man. It is no coincidence that its deformed, repugnant representations gained a foothold in early modern age. Contemporary political philosophy considered both base and noble emotions of man as power factors, whose source was to be measured by unbiased calculations. The wise prince was to make use of them in his struggle for\n\n---\n\n4 And it was Francis Bacon himself, the first theorist of empiricism, who draws attention to the parallelism between experimental academia and torture, as it is quoted by Fritjof Capra, in his The Turning Point (Capra 1983) 41\npower. The scientific method obliged the researcher of the real meaning of human action to take a generally accepted notion of goodness as his starting point, instead of an abstract notion. People in general considered the avoidance of suffering, as well as intellectual and carnal pleasure to be good. They put all their efficiency (power) in the service of obtaining these goods, at each other\u2019s cost, if there interests were at stake. But even if they united or obeyed a common authority, it seemed they do that out of selfishness, too, for the sake of the individual profit expected from cooperation.\n\nSince the objective of scientific knowledge is the understanding of the laws of nature, the science of ethics can have no other objective than the understanding of the laws of human nature. If ethics grounds itself on the natural aspirations of man, and fails to give credit to a concept of the good - which is independent from the former and of absolute value \u2013 as a standard, it has no other choice but to admit to the goodness of following these natural, and then, consequently, lawful inclinations. Doing good is equal to serving our interests the best we can. It is bad to suffer restraints. It is good to avoid suffering, if possible, except when we take on suffering for the sake of higher interests or in hope for greater pleasure. We either entrust the weighing of the expected profit and the choice of goals to the natural inclinations of the individual \u2013 including, according to some, social instinct or altruism which balances selfishness \u2013 or we do not rely on them, and considering the obvious benefit, what is more, the necessity of social interaction, we set a limit to the variety of contradictory individual goals. Instead, we make our choices depending on which brings greater happiness for the greater number. This is the course we should take knowing either that God implanted the laws of human nature in us, or that there is no God, and no superior values, in the name of which we could question the equality of rivaling lifestyles, and impose our moral convictions on others. The elaboration of the naturalist approach lasted for centuries, so here I leave aside the dynamics of its development. I also avoid using the concept of freedom, because its harmonization with natural necessity was accomplished not by naturalist but by rationalist ethics.\n\nThis differentiation can only be relative, needless to say, since the examination of human nature aims at understanding a being capable of rational behaviour. Even if we forbear from making a moral obligation of one of the particular convictions of human destiny or of the real nature of man, and set a standard for human behaviour, probably everyone would agree that there are rules for proper cognition, and that these rules can be understood and acquired. Further, it can hardly be questioned that the consideration of these rules should precede the ascertaining of the laws of interaction between rational beings. All other claims may be enforced at the tribunal of the legislative mind. From this evidently follows the first principle of Cartesian ethics: if we want to avoid self-contradiction, we cannot deny anyone the right to use one\u2019s own mind. It is the inalienable, fundamental right of man to take advantage of this capacity, and freely determine the goals of his actions, which is the privilege of conscious being. Freedom is the attribute of thinking, not of being, because thinking is capable of transcending the given reality and questioning it, opting for it or denying it, intending or ignoring it. What are the goals of those who have freed themselves from the bondage of prejudices, of fears, passions and delusions, and are led instead by pure rationality? Their goals will be the perfection inherent in natural laws, says Spinoza, the author of the first great system of rationalist ethics: the peace of this perfection is the greatest happiness for the mind. \u201cSince reason demands nothing contrary to nature, it therefore demands that every man should love himself, should seek his own advantage (I mean his real advantage) [\u2026] to sum it all up, that each man, as far as in him lies, endeavour to preserve his own being. [\u2026] From this it follows that men who are governed by reason, that is, men who aim at their own advantage under the guidance of reason, seek nothing for themselves that they would not desire for the rest of mankind; and so are just, faithful and honourable.\u201d(Spinoza 1982, Part 4 Proposition 18)\n\nWith regard to the present investigations the basic principles of Kantian philosophy can hardly say more. Whose will is determined by universal rationality cannot will anything other than what\nanyone else would will in a similar situation in case (s)he is capable of rationally defining the purpose of his/her actions. The maxim of action should work as a principle of universal law (Kant 1983, 30), because whatever (s)he desires (s)he also wishes for other human beings (Spinoza). It follows that who is incapable of this has an evil intent, or at least, a wrong attitude, and therefore, his narrow-mindedness may be curbed in the name of universal reason (the common good). In certain cases (s)he may even be compelled to be free, says Rousseau. For the autonomy of moral choice Kant pays a literally inhuman price. In the definition of the possible goals of good will he has to exclude all kinds of specific goals and interests which constitute the self-identity of the Ego. By their nature, they cannot be generalized. Consequently, in the absence of these determinants, as many have pointed out, Kant\u2019s moral legislator is led only by abstract rationality, an impersonal fulfilment of duties, which aims at the Other only as an occasional representation of the general idea of humanity.\n\nKant\u2019s grandiose mistake has to do with the concept of autonomy. Ecologists and experts in the theory of living systems have recently agreed that living organisms are capable of autonomous sustenance (of maintaining and renewing their patterns) just because they are not independent of their environment. Instead, they are in active interaction with it, and in the course of this interplay they modify their inner state in response to the environmental challenges. For Kant, this would qualify as a heteronomous behaviour. However, autonomy is not independence, but a type of mutual interdependence, which may or may not be attained within social or/and environmental interaction, and which is not possible, not even theoretically outside them. Clever selfishness and submission to the order of necessity in Spinoza, and obedience to the law of freedom in Kant: the experimental foundation of rationalist ethics produced embarrassing results. Still, the task set for themselves cannot be evaded: in the absence of an ethics which can be rationally understood and exacted, but which respects the freedom of conscience, and is based on solid principles, our value preferences remain unjustifiable, and cannot be defended against the threat of absolute relativism and nihilism. At the same time, we have come to realize that both the mixed texture of desires and passions of human nature, and the laws of reason together with the normative consequences drawn from them are generally inappropriate basis for moral judgement. They could not replace at a satisfactory way divine revelation, the idea of the greatest good, or the \u201ceternal\u201d virtues securing the recognition of the goals of good life. It seems that we have to agree with those who, like Alasdair MacIntyre, concluded that the enlightenment program for the rational foundation of the moral world has failed. Man is the knower of good and evil, but we still have not come closer to understanding where this knowledge comes from. The rationalists clearly saw that they cannot base the doctrine of moral autonomy on individual inclinations most influenced by natural and social constraints. The sensualists clearly saw that the law of freedom cannot be established after the model of physical laws, or deducing it from axiomatic presuppositions according to the rules of mathematical logic. (MacIntyre 1985) Recently, referring to ecological insights, the failure has been attributed to the fact that the Ego was placed in the center of the program: the individual as its own goal and legislator, but no definition of individual goals and duties, and no recognition of the substantial contingency of the human condition could answer the requirements of the task. However, we cannot be sure that this is what really happened. It is possible that it is the question itself, concerning the existence of a moral being, or in other words, the foundations of the moral universe that has not been reassuringly clarified. Perhaps this explains why in the center of the conceptual framework of diverse experiments the Self was replaced by something else: by pleasure, utility and related ideas and emotions in a sensualist or utilitarian way. By necessity in Spinoza, by the concept of humanity in its abstract universality in Kant. Finally, by the yawning gulf of negative freedom in liberalism. The later are the ones who in the 19th century and beyond succeeded to harmonize the variety of individual goals with Kant\u2019s demand for autonomy, in the framework of a political, rather than an\nethical concept. The principle of the independence of individual choice promises an undisturbed possibility of becoming sovereign legislators in our private sphere. If we want to. In any case, it guarantees the \u201cmaximum degree of non-interference compatible with the minimum demands of social life\u201d, according to Isaiah Berlin. (Berlin 2002, 207) This is a modest, attractive and still unfeasible program. The independence of individual choice is a nonsense. The majority of choosable goods is indivisible and unenjoyable individually. Moreover, individuals choose each other above all: there is nothing more important for them than their fellows\u2019 approval, understanding, love and agreement with regard to the meaning of action and the value of achievements. Our greatest good is the good itself \u2013 and it can only be common. There is no narrow circle of freedom in which we could become independent from each other\u2019s choices. If there were, it would be like a prison for us. Freedom is not a distancing of ourselves from each other, but a relation to others; not an inborn capacity, but a way of association, the only one, actually, worthy of man, and the result of our common efforts.\n\nIn fact, this recognition should be the first step in the ethical career of the concept of freedom. Its original \u2013 double \u2013 meaning was exclusively political. Negative freedom ensures undisturbed conditions for the subject, or exemption from a duty. In contrast, positive freedom is a privilege, an authorization for something. For a long time, ethics could do without this expression. The prerequisite of moral action was named a certain ability (virtue) by the Greeks; Christians attributed it to divine grace. For the idealism of all times, the knowledge of truth made one free, as it is told in the Gospel according to St John. In Kant\u2019s system, freedom is an evident substitute for virtue, but its role ends in enabling man to obey the moral law unconditionally. Then in the end of the 18th century, freedom all of a sudden becomes the governing idea of the age, and remains so for two centuries. It is placed on an ethical pedestal which soon breaks in. Indeed, behind the favourite slogan of emancipation movements, tolerant ethics and avant-garde artists, we find hidden ontological abysses. Martin Heidegger will be the first to descend into them.\n\n6. Among moral thinkers in last centuries there was a silent agreement that conscience and the spiritual phenomena are more or less mysterious functions of a biological organism. The man of positivist anthropology was \u201ccreated\u201d in the early modern age as a result of a triple reduction. Its steps were: the conceptual separation of the immaterial spirit and the decaying biological mechanism entrusted to its care; the severing of the individual body from the social (mainly for the sake of modesty and hygiene); the degradation of the destiny- and character-shaping scenes of cohabitation into contingent \u201cenvironment\u201d, together with the relativization of local attachments.\n\nThe question of the conscious relation to the external world remained within the competence of epistemology, though it has never been seriously considered in what sense and comparison the world is \u201cexternal\u201d, to which the subject has access in various ways: he understands, uses, conquers and consumes it. Neither has it been defined where its borders are \u2013 the borders of the Ego. This latter question has kept thinkers busy, eg. in the form of primary and secondary qualities, and the differentiation between simple and complex ideas. But in the most original form in Spinoza\u2019s affection-theory, who came to the bold conclusion that \u201cthe ideas that we have of external bodies indicate the constitution of our own body more than the nature of external bodies\u201d (Spinoza 1982 Part 2 Proposition 16) Then later, in Proposition 19, the same idea reappears in reverse: \u201cThe human mind has no knowledge of the body, nor does it know it to exist, except through ideas of the affections by which the body is affected.\u201d. 5\n\n5 Spinoza forbears drawing radical conclusions from recognizing the equivalence between bodily perception and the perception of the body, exclusively due to his conviction in the existence of an absolute, infinite and perfect being, who guarantees for him the reality of reality. Nevertheless, the discussion of the body-phenomenon in his Ethics seems to lay down the first steps that lead toward Husserl and Merleau-Ponty. The thinkers of the following age, to be sure, did not proceed along these steps.\nThe intuition of immediate unity between the observer and the observed on the level of perception was alien from the dualism of the dominant epistemological paradigm, which considered the subject-object opposition untranscendable. The ethics of the age could not but adopt this arrangement of the world: the Ego can only be certain of its own existence (though for a long time it will not be able even to question who it is), and faces all others as a lonely, suspicious stranger. The moral philosophy based on the theory of \u201cvalue-neutral\u201d duties had to face the same unsurmountable hardships as the value system in which the good is a dubious complexity of third-rate qualities. In these cases an actual anthropocentrism could not even occur, since the problematic issue of man\u2019s identity, that is, the need for philosophical anthropology lay dormant for a long time. The center of the system, the place reserved for man was assigned to the biological organism and its needs by the positivists; the abstract subject of the capacity of understanding and willing by the rationalists; and the black box of contingency by the rest of liberals.\n\nThe isolation of the individual self from the non-self went so well that eventually, researchers were left with nothing. Neither the objects of experience, nor its media: the senses and the body in general, nor the linguistic structures of thought, the universal norms of cognition, or the acquired legacy of knowledge, the aims of the will, and the unconscious instincts influencing determination can be considered part of the self. Scrupulous analysis proved first of physical then of psychic capacities that they are not identical with the subject of knowledge and resolution. Analytical thinking, tired of the pursuit, did not and could not find something really in-individual in this field, and was mostly prevented only by its positivist prejudices from declaring the existence of an individual self a pure illusion, in the spirit of Buddha\u2019s teachings. Finally, at the end of this hopeless onion peeling \u2013 more or less simultaneous with the revolution in theoretical physics \u2013 took events a turn in philosophy, too, discovering that the conscious self has nothing of a corpuscle-nature but it has a wave-nature: it only exists in relations and as a relation itself. It was only then, in the 20th century, that anthropocentrism gained a clear conceptual foothold \u2013 though not entirely in the spirit of the enlightenment. It became clear that anthropocentric ethics can only be possible, if the \u2018Thou\u2019 and not the \u2018I\u2019 is placed in its center.\n\nThe methodological egoism following the Cartesian premises and the positivism dominating anthropology so far disallowed the thematization of the personal relation between Self and Other (or others) as the basis of ethics. In Kant the determination of the moral position of the co-subject takes place with the intermediating concept of humanity. The methodology by which he deduces our duties is the result of a pure logical process, which does not contain, but on the contrary, which rigorously excludes all personal bearing. Utilitarian and liberal ethics also endorse formal-qualitative relations (greatest happiness for the greatest number, and the maximum freedom for each individual, respectively). Though in these systems the Other is personally involved, the recognition of his moral souvereignty is reduced to negative guidance telling me what to do, since I cannot be sure of what is good for him.\n\nSuppose we asked him! This rather simple solution was to lie dormant for a long time. When it was just about to be considered, forms of so called discursive ethics were elaborated, and in harmony with individualist-rationalist presuppositions, an endless dispute began about the conditions of fair dialogue between opposed needs instead of the foundations of mutual understanding.\n\nHowever, it is not equity, that the Other needs, but help and devotion. And mutual understanding\n\n6 He who probes most deeply into Western analytical thinking, eventually finds himself in the far East. The Earth is still round.\n\n7 This development was foreshadowed in Habermas by the discussions of G. H. Mead\u2019s communitarian anthropology and by the dialogue with hermeneutic philosophy in his communicative action theory (Habermas 1984, 1987, Mead 1934)\ncannot be the outcome of our dialogue, if it was not present among the preconditions of this dialogue as my preliminary engagement to his truth. Understanding is not possible without confidence in the possibility of understanding. The basis of confidence is solidarity. The Other does not just talk to me, but addresses me and expects response, convinced that his concerns are mine, too. In turn, I respond to his urgent request, or evade it \u2013 explanations, agreement and disagreement come after. They are nothing but details. This demand for response does not rely on my altruistic instincts shaped by cultural evolution, it is not fair to me, it does not promise reciprocity, and it is not based on what is common in us, because the differences between us are much more important. But how dare you? I have no other choice, he would answer. Man, in order that he should become and remain man, is dependent on the help of his fellow human beings: this is the moment of necessity in our relationship. (S)he asks me, and I answer him/her or deny response; (s)he requests something, and I either meet or deny his request; in other words, I am free. If we had not met, how would I know that I am free? How would I know who I am? I am who is addressed, who responds. I am the responsible subject. If ethics is not the first philosophy, then there is no ethics. In accordance with Emmanuel Levinas, this is the brief summary of a really anthropocentric ethics.\\(^8\\)\n\nThe changing emphasis of ethics, the move from I to Thou, is decisive for environmental ethics, and brings rather favourable consequences. It became clear that man is a being for whom it is good, or even it is the Good to be together with the Other. Not only because we depend on society, but because such is the way we are, that we become someone else in order to be with others and to become somebody for others. Human person is \u201cidentical with himself\u201d (this identity is to be understood simply as a moment of recognition: \u201cI recognize him, it\u2019s him!\u201d) insofar as he is capable of transcending his actual conditions and determinants at any time and in any situation \u2013 and he is due to act so in a way characteristic exclusively of him. In other words, man remains faithful to himself by taking the other\u2019s side and identifying with him, by taking responsibility for his case \u2013 for his truth, welfare, being and for the sustenance of his existence.\n\nMan is never just what he is, but also what he does, knowing that he could choose to act otherwise. Man lives in the world of possibilities which he can compare \u2013 find them either good or bad -, choose from, and become aware of the choices he has made. But where does he take that external position from where he observes the vacillations and movements of his own perspective? In a conversational relation he adopts it from others, together with the other\u2019s interpretation of his behaviour.\\(^9\\) The essence of reflection (self-consciousness) is: seeing myself reflected in the other\u2019s gaze. Indeed, it is through others\u2019 eyes that we find the world beautiful. (Through our companion\u2019s eyes we may even find sometimes ourselves beautiful).\n\nThe world of reason received from and shared with others \u2013 the world of language \u2013 is the \u2018environment\u2019 of man. There is a whole world that belongs to his existence, nothing less \u2013 this is what his \u201copenness to the world\u201d means. He does not simply \u201cunderstand\u201d the world, but produces it in a rather practical way, in the sense Merleau-Ponty makes of perception: \u201cThe perceived world [\u2026] is the ensemble of my body\u2019s routes and not a multitude of spatio-temporal individuals.\u201d (Merleau-Ponty 1968, 247). The world that presents itself with the direct experience of one\u2019s activities does not only belong to the Self, but it\u2019s his concern, that is, he is responsible for it. We have come to a radically new concept of anthropocentrism, which identifies the privileged status of man with his responsibility for others. This responsibility is not a consequence and not a postulate of something, but the fact of direct experience. Pain and joy, shame and pride remind us of our responsibility for others\u2019 destinies. \u201cSuffering is the stylistics of God\u2019s words addressed to the\n\n---\n\n\n9 This significant recognition became widespread in philosophical anthropology through the work of George Herbert Mead Mead Mead 1934)\nchosen one\u201d.\n\nIn fact, love is not a pious affection, nor an illusion, but a devotion in the strict sense, since man is not an evaluator of the things that are happening but he is the one who makes them happen: he does not merely feel compassion, but partakes in others\u2019 passions. What happens to them is happening to you at the same time. As the Nobel prize winner poet, Salvatore Quasimodo put it:\n\nYou betrayed me not, my lord:  \nI partook of all the pain  \nBeing first-born.\n\nThe final conclusion of the investigations carried out by moral phenomenology was first explicitly stated by Emmanuel Levinas, namely, that responsibility is the basic ontological characteristic of human condition, thus it precedes ethics and serves as its foundation. This recognition paves the way for the elaboration of a really anthropocentric ethics. It shows that our civilization has been endangered not by having overemphasized, but by having absolutely misunderstood the privileged status of man. The significance of this intuitive turn, as I have tried to show, is evident for ecological ethics.\n\nReferences\n\nCapra, Fritjof 1983 - \u201cThe Turning Point\u201d (London: Fontana Paperbacks)  \nHevesi S\u00e1ndor 1943 - \u201cOn the Book of Job\u201d in Hevesi Ferenc ed. Ancient Jewish Philosophy (Budapest)  \nL\u00e1nyi Andr\u00e1s, J\u00e1vor Benedek eds. 2005 - \u201dK\u00f6rnyezet \u00e9s etika\u201d/Environment and Ethics, (Budapest, L'Harmattan)  \nLivingstone, David N. 1994 - \u201cThe Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis \u2013 a Reassessment\u201d (Fides et Historia, Vol.26.)  \nMacIntyre, Alasdair 1985 - \u201cAfter Virtue. A study in moral theory\u201d (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.)  \nMead, George Herbert 1934 - \u201cMind, Self, Society\u201d (Chicago: Chicago University Press)  \nWhite, Lynn Jr. 1967 - \u201cThe Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis\u201d (Science, vol.155)", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "http://www.uni-corvinus.hu/fileadmin/user_upload/hu/tanszekek/gazdalkodastudomanyi/t_kornyezetgazdasag/norveg/k-tar-1/1-1-Lanyi_The-moral-fundaments-of-sustainability-in-the-European-ethical-traditition1.pdf", "len_cl100k_base": 8680, "olmocr-version": "0.1.49", "pdf-total-pages": 12, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 29914, "total-output-tokens": 9585, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.000698089599609375, "__label__art_design": 0.001837730407714844, "__label__crime_law": 0.0011548995971679688, "__label__education_jobs": 0.01045989990234375, "__label__entertainment": 0.0004792213439941406, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0006742477416992188, "__label__finance_business": 0.0009374618530273438, "__label__food_dining": 0.0013761520385742188, "__label__games": 0.0013437271118164062, "__label__hardware": 0.0005359649658203125, "__label__health": 0.0031757354736328125, "__label__history": 0.005512237548828125, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.0008392333984375, "__label__industrial": 0.0019483566284179688, "__label__literature": 0.705078125, "__label__politics": 0.0248870849609375, "__label__religion": 0.12060546875, "__label__science_tech": 0.11175537109375, "__label__social_life": 0.0014476776123046875, "__label__software": 0.0008158683776855469, "__label__software_dev": 0.002368927001953125, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.0004911422729492188, "__label__transportation": 0.0011653900146484375, "__label__travel": 0.00043702125549316406}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 43621, 0.03913]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 43621, 0.51937]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 43621, 0.95473]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 466, false], [466, 4911, null], [4911, 9019, null], [9019, 13636, null], [13636, 18122, null], [18122, 22838, null], [22838, 27475, null], [27475, 32020, null], [32020, 36357, null], [36357, 40825, null], [40825, 43621, null], [43621, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 466, true], [466, 4911, null], [4911, 9019, null], [9019, 13636, null], [13636, 18122, null], [18122, 22838, null], [22838, 27475, null], [27475, 32020, null], [32020, 36357, null], [36357, 40825, null], [40825, 43621, null], [43621, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 43621, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 466, 1], [466, 4911, 2], [4911, 9019, 3], [9019, 13636, 4], [13636, 18122, 5], [18122, 22838, 6], [22838, 27475, 7], [27475, 32020, 8], [32020, 36357, 9], [36357, 40825, 10], [40825, 43621, 11], [43621, 43621, 12]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 43621, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-11-24", "created": "2024-11-24"}
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+{"id": "29ac25b524bb1826bdb9285fcaec32504b11b6b6", "text": "Wordsworth\u2019s Poetical Theory\n\nby Carl E. Wallace\n\n1896\n\nSubmitted to the Department of English of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts\nGraduating Thesis\n\nWallace, C. E. 1896\n\nWordsworth's poetical theory.\nWordsworth's Poetical Theory\n\nIt has been acknowledged by many critics that Wordsworth is one of the chief glories of English poetry and that he has exercised a greater, purer, healthier and more elevating influence than any other poet since Milton and Shakespeare. From the language generally used regarding this improvement, one would expect to be conscious of a great and sudden change in passing from eighteenth century to nineteenth century poetry. But not so. A great and worthy change did occur, but it was not easy, gradual transition; indeed a sort of quiet evolution of new things, not a sudden fierce upheaval and destruction of old things as worthless rubbish and a corresponding abnormal growth and triumphant reconstitution of new material. Nevertheless, because we cannot put our finger on the exact moment when it occurred, we must not, as is sometimes done, ignore the fact altogether. The queen Anne style of literature gradually disappeared. The prose writers were the chief literary agents of this...\ntransformation. Novelties and romantic\nism had educated the public taste\nfor new subjects and a new style; for\nsubjects with more varied and deep\nhuman interests; and a style less con-\ndensed and elaborate but more free\nand discursive. Poets' readers had had\nno taste for this class of literature, but\nnow the public had become acquainted\nwith it and was prepared\nfor Scott and Wordsworth.\n\nWordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical\nBallads, in 1798, is a great landmark\nin the history of poetry, because it a-\nroused poets to a consciousness of the\nchange that had taken place and com-\npelled critics to define their position.\nThe Preface and the volume which ac-\ncompanied it we will consider at\nlength, but let us first examine the\nearly poems written by him before the Ballads.\n\nIn these early poems we shall realize the\ngrowth of his poetical style. The transition from the\npolitic style of his predecessors, notwithstanding the revolutionary nature of\nhis famous Preface. The growth of his\npoetic style can better be traced in\nthese stanzas of the Prelude, which is\nWordsworth's poetic biography, because\nin the Prelude it is the gradual growth\nof his mind, of his feelings and of his\nimpassioned love for nature, which\nis narrated, not still development of his\npoetic art, if his aims and methods\nas an artist; and it is these facts\nwhich are interesting if we desire to view\nhim in his proper relation to his predecessor.\n\nWhat then were the circumstances\nwhich cooperated with untold genius\nto make him the poet he was? The\nPrelude answers: Nature\u2014the moun-\ntains and the mists, the leaping cat-\neracte and valleys where he lived in\nhis youth. Hear him describe his\nfeelings in the presence of nature in\nhis school\u2014days at Hawkshead:\n\n\"I would walk alone\n\nUnder the quiet stars, and at that time\nHear the voice of Nature, if she were there, to\nSo breathe an elevated mood, by some\nOr image unprofaned; and I would stand,\n\nIf the night was thick with coming stars,\nUnder some rock, listening to notes that are\nThe ghostly language of the ancient earth,\nOr catch their dim echoes in the distant winds.\n\nTrust did I drink the visionary fires;\nAnd dream not profitless those fleeting modes\nOf shadowy extasies, not for this,\nThat they are destined to our future mind\nAnd intellectual life; but that the soul,\nRemembering not retains an obscure sense}\nAt possible sublimity, where to\nWrite growing faculties she does aspire,\nWith Faculties still growing feeling still\nThat whatever points they seize, they yet\nHave something to pursue.\n\nWhat now of keenly awakened the\npoetic sensibilities to the glories and\nbeauties of Nature? What caused him\nto enjoy walking and alone under the\nstars? What feeling is expressed\nin those things which\nhe said and felt? The Prelude is silent,\n\nIt merely chronicles his joy and rapture\nin such scenes. When, however, we turn to\nhis early poems we can easily see his\ndescent from the preceding poets.\n\nThe \"Evening Walk\" and \"Descriptive\nSketches\" were published in 1793. Commenting\nmany years later on the conflict:\n\nAdd fronting the bright west gauze curtains\nThe darkening torches and leaves the finger line\nthe page; \"This is feebly and imperfectly\nexpressed but the moment was\nimportant in my poetical history, for I\ndate from it my consciousness of the\ninfinite variety of natural appearances,\nwhich had hitherto eluded by the poets of\nany age or century so far as I was act-\ngeduated with them; and I made a\nresolution to supply, in some degree, the\ndeficiency. I could not at that time have been over fourteen years of age.\nWe thus find that mingled with this disinterested delight in the contemplation of nature was a youthful ambition and joy in having found an untried den.\n\nIndeed, read almost any passage from these early poems and see how easy it is to detect his early poetical nature.\n\nTake for example the following:\n\n\"Once man, entirely free, alone and wild,\nWas blest as free for he was nature's child.\nThe, all power that he had disdain'd,\nWalk'd more restraining and by more restrain'd\nConfess'd no law but what his reason taught,\nAnd all he wished, and wished but what he ought.\nAs man in his primeval form array'd\nThe image of his glorious fire displayed,\nEven so the faithful nature guarded, here\nThe traces of primeval man appear;\nThe simple dignity no form defeat;\nThe eye subtilk and purly live grace;\nThe plan of love, of truth above the lord,\nThus took the prize, and neglect his power,\n\nThis pounds with all force, but in a manner admirable. There can be no doubt that Pope was Wordsworth's model. The effort of his balance and condensed expression is evident although it is not executed with nearly\nthe perfection and terseness of the\nPopes's couplets. So we might select\na great number of passages in his\nearlier works and recognize Pope,\nGoldsmith or other predecessors as his\nmodels.\n\nWordsworth published the Lyrical\nBallads in 1798, and when these are\nread alone, apart from his other poems,\nit is easy to understand why such a\nhost of derision arose against them,\nas well as why they impressed so deeply\nthose who were not repelled by their\nstrangeness. In time, Wordsworth pre-\nsented his personality and it was markedly\ndifferent from any that had ever been\npresented & littled to. His humor was of\na strange kind, his seriousness was found\nin strange places, and both were yet more\nstrangely intermixed. Subjects which the\npublic considered too vulgar and com-\nmon for poetry, were treated so pathetically\nand so grotesquely as to cause people to\ndebug at the attempt to moral their tender\nfeelings. There was, however, one point\nin the volume, at least, in which a\nfresh and beautiful theme was handled\nwith much force and feeling that even\nthe most determined critics could not\nremain insensible to its presence in\nEnglish literature\u2014 The beautiful line\nwritten at Tintern Abbey. \"If all had been like this, the acknowledge-\nment of his greatness would have been immediate. It is characteristic of the\n loftiest side of Wordsworth's genius. In\nit, he strove for the first time, the\nverse which was to draw all men after\nhim.\n\nIt will be observed, however, that\nboth rhythm and feeling expressed are developments\nfrom the gentle Cowper. His early ten-\ndency to imitate Pope had ceased as\nhe realized that of all the insipid\nverses, which the imitators of that\npoet produced mere poetry, there was\nno need to try in writing poetry at all.\n\nCowper, Burns and Klopstock had been\nleaders in a reaction which asserted that\npoetry depends on emotion and not on\npolite; that it consists precisely\nin those things which rigid imitators\nlack. There was, however, a fire and\nmajesty in Wordsworth's lines for which\nno code in verse in those poets.\nWordsworth's torch was kindled at Cowper's\ntender light and as poetry meant to\nhim the expression of the core deep\nand tender feelings, he rebelled a-\ngainst rhetoric and unreality.\n\nWhat then particularly aroused\nWordsworth in rebellion against the canons of criticism generally accepted in his time was undoubtedly the style of diction that they considered indefensible to line poetry. Wordsworth held that the indispensable feature of poetry was that its object should be to develop the mind, free it from custom, and to reveal those truths which could not be perceived without the meditation of the poet. The poet as he describes him is a man exalted, regarding more than other men in the spirit of life that is in him, and hence qualified to act as an interpreter of nature. He held that the subject of poetry should be drawn from objects and incidents of every day life, and that the language should as far as possible resemble the language of the people. This theory struck his strongly marked protest against the old poetic forms. He had heard Darwin's \"Botanic Garden\" ardently admired, which he knew to be without poet. He saw that the mode of poetry expressed employed by all other poets of his generation as well as Darwin was false and gaudy and in looking back at the earlier poetry of the Elegy he found the genii of the same diction in Pope\nand Johnson. Instead of reasoning that the defect might spring from the natural corruption of some true principle of art, he inferred that it arose from a false idea of composition consciously adopted by the poet. And being of a combative nature, his violent dislikes led him to agree that true poetry should be composed on a system exactly opposite to the style, which he condemned.\n\nWe now turn to the Preface to the Lyrical Ballads, which contains his poetical theory and a defence of his views. Comparatively few at the present day have actually read and studied Wordsworth's famous Preface, although it is continually referred to as a revolutionary proclamation against the established taste of the eighteenth century. For one, who has read Wordsworth's original Preface, hundreds have read Coleridge's brilliant criticism. Now while Coleridge's criticism of his friend's theory proceeded avowedly on the assumption that Wordsworth had been rightly interpreted; yet we cannot help the feeling that it was not so treated. Although some claim that Wordsworth's Preface had little influence on poetry, yet this little, if little it is, is of\ngreat importance and it is desirable on account of this influence, as well as the celebrity of the affair, that Wordsworth's exact position should be made clear.\n\nWordsworth, in the beginning of an introduction to the Preface of the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads, says: \"It (that is the former edition) was published as an experiment, which I hoped might be of some use to ascertain how far, by fitting to metrical arrangement, a selection of the real language of men in all states of vivid sensation, that sort of pleasure, and the quantity of pleasure, may be imparted, which a poet may reasonably endeavor to impart.\" He also says, in way of apology for the theory, which he knew shelter the very stated in the first edition; \"Several of my friends are anxious for the success of this frame, from a belief, that if the views with which they here composed were realized, a class of poetry would be produced, which would interest mankind permanently and not unimportant in the quality and the multiplicity of its moral relations. And on this account, they have advised me to prefix a preface of defence of this theory, upon which the words are written.\"\nIf the first edition of the \"Ballads\" had incensed the critics, the second simply fanned their wrath into flames. There was no longer any doubt but that Wordsworth had intentionally written \"The Idiot Boy,\" \"Goody Blake and Peter Bell\" in the manner in which they existed. They could no longer regard them as simple, yet flagrant mistakes, for Wordsworth himself declared that he had intended to write them just as they were and now that he should try to defend them, was beyond endurance. Nevertheless, if Wordsworth had omitted the Preface and called out about a hundred lines from the more trivial places, the new departure would have been received gladly.\n\nLet us now direct our attention to the theory itself. Wordsworth said at the very beginning of it: \"The principle object then proposed in these poems,\" (Epicure Balls) \"was to choose incidents and situations from common life and to relate or describe them throughout as far as possible in a selection of language really used by men and at the same time to throw over them a certain coloring of the imagination whereby ordinary things may be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect; and further and above all to make these incidents and situations interesting by tracing in them blemish but not ostentatiously the\nprimary laws of our nature; chiefly as far as regards the manner in which we associate ideas in a state of excitement. \"It has generally been supposed that by the language deserted as being \"really used by men,\" Wordsworth meant colloquial language and above all for poetical purposes the language of the rustic, and inasmuch as the vocabulary of the peasant class is limited, the thought has been derided as prosaic. But in reality Wordsworth did not mean to propose any thing so absurd, although he did say that:\"\n\n\"Humble and rustic life was generally chosen because in that condition, the essential passions of the heart found a better soil in which they can maintain their maturity, are less under restraint and speak a pleasanter and more emphatic language; hence in that condition of life our elementary feelings can exist in a state of greater simplicity and consequence may be more accurately contemplated and more forcibly communicated, because the manners of rural life generate from those elementary feelings and from necessary character of rural occupation and are more easily comprehended and are more durable; and lastly, because, in that condition the passions of man are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature. The language of two thirds men has been adopted...\"\n(purified indeed from what appears to be its real defect, from all rational and lasting causes of dislike and disgust) because such men hourly communicate with the real objects from which the best part of language is originally derived; and because from their rank in society and the narrow circle of their intercourse being less under the influence of social vanity, they convey their feelings and notions with simplicity and unadorned expression.\"\n\nThere can be no doubt but that this part of Wordsworth's theory as generally understood is restrained, and that it could not but be expected that it would be the recipient of much ridicule. Wordsworth did not, however, demand that all poetry should be constructed from such material as indeed in his words he rather insisted, that any learned. It was not the language of the peasant as such any more than the language of the country or philosopher as such, which seemed admirable to him; it was the permanent and passionate speech of man wherever he is found which he sought after; and in the speech of the common people Wordsworth believed there was more such stuff to be retained and less matter to be rejected as belonging to merely local or occasional usages. Still in the speech of uneducated and artificial refinement and purely no one can doubt the truth of\nWordworth's views on this phase of the subject.\n\nHowever, Wordsworth may have failed to convey his precise meaning on this subject, yet it cannot be truthfully said that his practice and theory are not in agreement with his words rightly interpreted. Of me of the present day, there are few characteristics of Wordsworth's poetry more refreshing when we return to it from contemporary riddles than its simplicity and yet its entire freedom from all appearance of condescension. Wordsworth never studied the persons nor repeats the phrases of the shepherd, of the village schoolmaster, of the college matron, or of the peasant patriarchal with an air of sentiment or humorous superiority but always with genuine sympathy.\n\nThis part of Wordsworth's theory may then be regarded as being unaided only in expression in meaning. If, however, any reader will not regard it at all, he must remember, to do Wordsworth justice, that he did not propose to me rare incidents without a coloring of imagination, and that the life and the words were to be a selection metrically arranged; the selection to be dictated by the feeling to be expressed, and the feeling to be dictated by the poet's sensibility.\n\nColeridge understands the words of Wordsworth as purporting that the poet alike...\nfor poetry in general consists altogether in lan-\nguage taken from the mouths of men in\nreal life, language which actually\nconstitutes the natural conversation of men un-\nder the influence of natural feeling. But as in\nverse these, the disposition is not natural.\n\nFirst the Preface was not a statement of a\ngeneral theory of poetry but a plan with\nwhich certain poems had been composed at\nthe instance of certain friends. Coleridge\nappears to declare that Wordsworth meant to\ntake his language from the most degraded\nclasses, from the ignorant and untaught\nlaborers as it were; and even compare the\nlanguage of Wordsworth seemingly advocated\nboth as to thought and expression, to that of\nthe brute creation. Coleridge, however, does\nnot view Wordsworth rightly. All Wordsworth\nmeant by his praise of rustic language was\nto point out its simplicity and not its\nlack of polish and culture. Simplicity\nalone was what he admired in it and\nhe admired it whether found in philosopher\nor in a rustic. It is worth while to ob-\nserve that the most effective parts of\nChaucer and\nSpenser as well as\nother great poets are al-\nmost always expressed in pure, simple,\nintelligible language and it matters not whether\nit is the simplicity of a Plato or a noble-\n\nminded rustic, it is simplicity still and\nis the character for which Wordsworth argued.\nThe wished the language to be such that not only the educated but all classes could be interested and profited by it; and surely the simplicity that can do this, so long as it is not vulgar and trivial, is a commendable feature and not a defect. Who could desire that the leader of English poetry should be full of classical allusions and rhetorical technicalities? Who would not rather read these poems, say to a pure, simple, lovely maiden such as we can see around us, with the unassuming manners of Lucy, than the most learned treatise to Philemon, the daughter of Agamemnon, the son of Atreus, and Teseus? Who is there that would rather have a speech such as that of the scenes dear to him in the language he himself would have used than to hear him praise Mt. Parnassus or the river Phasis in language above his comprehension? This is the simplicity for which Wordsworth was striving in opposition to the learned and gorgeous diction of his predecessors.\n\nWordsworth did not, however, sanction vulgarity or looseness of expression. He was Wordsworth himself reply to such a charge from Coleridge: \"I cannot, however, be insensitive to the present outcry against the triviality and meaness of language and\nthought, which some of my contemporaries have occasionally introduced into their metrical composition, and I acknowledge that this defect, where it exists, is more dismaying to the writer's character than false refinement or arbitrary innovation. From such verse the reader in this volume (Lyrical Ballads) will be found distinguished at least by one mark \u2014 difference that each of them has a 'worthy purpose.' Whether Wordsworth always succeeded in removing triviality from his poems, either by a worthy purpose or otherwise, we will discuss later.\n\nWe must now discuss this particular phase of Wordsworth's theory with a quotation from his Preface: \"Wordsworth's distinction was a war with pomp and precision, and a display of the majesty of simple feelings and humble hearts.\"\n\nThis preference for rustic or simple language was but a part of his theory. The main thesis of his Preface was that poetry had a special language distinct from that of ordinary life or prose; in other words, that the language of passion, of fervent feeling is the same whether written in verse or prose; that it is possible and proper to write poetry without using other words than what would be found in the best prose. Speaking of his style as shown in the Lyrical\nBallads he says: \"The reader will find that personification, abstract ideas, rarely occur in these volumes, and are utterly rejected as an ordinary device to elevate the style and to elevate it alone prove. X X X X X\n\nThere will always be found in these volumes little 3 what is usually called poetic diction. X X X X X 4 in a form that should be found a series 7 lines, or even a single line, in which language, through naturally arranged, and according to strict laws of meter, does not differ from that 7 verse, there is a mischance class of critics who, when they chime upon these prosaisms, de civil call them, imagine that they have made a notable discovery and exhibit on the Post as no a more ignorant 7 lie prosaism. Now these men would establish a canon 7 criterion which the reader will conclude he must utterly reject, if he wishes to be pleased with these volumes. And it would be a more easy task to prove to him that not only the language of a large portion 7 of the good verse, being the most elevated character, must properly, expect with reference to the meter, in no respect differ from that 7 good prose, but likewise that some of the most interesting parts of the best prose will be found to be strictly the language of\nprose, when prose is well written.\"\n\nWordsworth, after making the above statement, quotes a passage from Gray, who, in all men, believed in a separate poetic diction and shows that a large part of it even differs in no respect from prose. Going further, he then makes the statement which gives so much offense to Coleridge: \"It may be safely affirmed that there is no such essential difference between language of prose and rhetorical composition.\" Are these views correct? Surely you say the order and selection of words and construction of sentences are different. Coleridge argues that there is, as if Wordsworth had denied it; although it is most explicitly clear from the context that when he said there was no essential difference between the language of prose and poetry, he meant as regards words plain and figurative, and not the structure and order of words or as Coleridge says \"the ordaince of words\". Coleridge says \"Words with me are ordinal,\" i.e., he was uttering a truism and interpreting Wordsworth's in this way. The friendly critic has no difficulty in finding that neither in his own poetry nor in any poetry is the style identical with that of prose. Although Coleridge\ncould not turn with piecemeal regard to any\nWordsworth with stating a truth, he thought-\nlessly charged him with a greater fault,\nmanly stated, stating an absurdity. But\nstrange to say, it is the language which one\nWordsworth himself realized for he says:\n\"And if in what I am about to say, it\nshall appear that I am like a man fighting a battle\nwithout any\nenemies, and I purpose only to remind\nthat whatever is the language, I hold, by\nmen, a practical faith in the\nopinion which I am wishing to establish, it\nalmost unknown.\"\n\n\"The true question,\" says Coleridge,\n\"must be whether there are not modes of\nexpression, a construction and an order of\nsentences which are in their fit and natural\nplaces in a serious novel composition, but\nwould be disproportionate and heterogeneous\nin metrical poetry: and vice versa whether\nin the language of serious verse there may\nnot be an arrangement of words and of\nsentences and stanzas and selection of (what\nare called) figures of speech, both as to their\nkind, their frequency and their occasion\nwhich in a subject of equal weight, would\nwreck ruses and alibis in correct and man-\nly prose. I contend that in both cases\nthe usefulness of each for the other pr-\nGravely will and ought to exist.\" Coleridge immediately after making this statement proceeds through one or two more pages to argue this view, \"fighting a battle without enemies,\" although theribbed Wordsworth to be one; for it is impossible for anyone with such ordinary intelligence, who reads Wordsworth's Preface with care, and who grapples with his stiff and condensed exposition and interprets it with reference to the controversy in which it was incident, without feeling that he never thought of denying what Coleridge so minutely refuted against him. Such a reader is compelled to feel that Wordsworth abstained from insisting upon the difference between prose and poetry in point of arrangement only because he regarded it as a Truculence, that when he speaks of there being no essential difference between the language of prose and poetry, he was referring to the words only. His language continually implies that he fully realized the distinction between prose and poetry as emphasized by Coleridge and the wonder is how he could have been so misunderstood. He discusses at length why it is that meter adds to the reader's pleasure and develops in brief, the very theory of origin and effect of meter that Coleridge advances. \"Various Chords\" says he, \"might be struck out without\nout why, when the style is mainly and the subject has some importance, words metrically arranged will long continue to impart a pleasure to mankind.\" He later speaks of the \"continual and regular impulses of surprise\" which result from the metrical arrangement. \"Wardsworth near an essay in 1770 states that the poetic order of words, while it is not necessarily the prose order, although he contended it might be and yet lose none of the charm of poetry. Wordsworth has certainly proven this idea in some of his loveliest poems\u2014 in \"The Solitary Reaper\" and the poem to Suck, especially. The fact that Coleridge labored most assiduously to establish against Wordsworth was that there are figures of speech which would be in place in prose and out of place in \"correct\" and mainly prose.\" But even here Coleridge was battling an imaginary enemy for Wordsworth did not drop even this in his Preface although he did not with sufficient care regard himself as \\[\\ldots\\]\nis selected truly and judiciously, must necessarily be dignified and varied and abound with metaphors and figures. But no \"foreign splendor\" should be interwoven with what the passions naturally suggest and what the passions are of a mild and temperate. What Wordsworth then wished to establish, as is clearly seen in the simple truths that what is false and unreal, affected, bombast or unnatural in prose is not the less so in poetry. If the statements of Wordsworth in his Preface had not been sufficiently explicit, his comments on the passage from Gray should have been sufficient to show that what he really objected to was the habitual employment of certain conventional figures of speech which had dropped out of prose style and had come to be regarded as the exclusive colors of poetic diction. There are no greater errors in Wordsworth's theory of poetic diction.\n\nThe reception of the first edition of the ballads had received, together with Wordsworth's paradoxical and antagonistic nature, caused him to express these simple views in terms which partook of the nature of a polemic and which were received as such. He told the public with lofty anger and indignation but\npossibly with too much aridity, that\nits taste was corrupt and that if they\nwished to enjoy his verse, they must\ngive up their unnatural proclivities of\nvile... All this was protracted by litt\nopen proseisms of these Pictographic\nCarried the war into the enemies\ncountry with the angry retort: \"Cleanse\nyourself of your folly by guessing\nmeaningless contrivances. You are\nable to enjoy my proseisms.\"\nWe must now notice briefly what in\none way is a minor feature; Wardsworth's\ntheory (and yet in another way is a greater\nfeature in his writing) namely his choice\nof subject and his method of developing his\nproseisms. This portion of his theory was\njust 10wards to defend himself against the\ncharge of triviality and insigneance. It is\nnecessary to notice this briefly else, as Ward\nworth himself said, his poetry cannot be\nthoroughly enjoyed unless you follow\nthe course of his imagination in developing\nit. Were he not to do this, his theory would\noffer the relief of mere incident and\nsubject in his Ballads. Wardsworth\nreplied, all the feeling therein develope,\ngive importance to the action and\nSituation and the action and gesticulation to the feeling.\" Inasmuch as Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, the poet's business is to study the manner in which my associate ideas in a state of excitement, and in proportion as the succession of ideas in his poetry obeys these natural laws of association, his feeling is real poetry. But in as much as the poet is bound to study the manner in which my associate ideas in a state of excitement, and as he can do this only in his own mind, he must study how his imagination is affected by events within his own experience. Again in as much as not every image that the excite mind conjures up is necessarily poetic, the poet must select and modify them for a particular purpose that it giving immediate pleasure. The poet's choice of what his imagination evolves being thus restricted, should be proceed in choosing his subject and incident. Wordsworth asserted, that in as much as \"Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling; it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility, the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquility is dis-appears and the emotion,kindred to that which was before the subject com\ntemptation is gradually produced and does itself actually exist in the mind.\"\n\nThe different elements in this \"kindred\" feeling of \"emotion\" and the original one\nis as I understand from the context\nthat from the later the personal elements\nare taken out. We might call it and all feeling\nthat are not pleasingable, has been removed\nby an unconscious process.\n\nThese facts concerning the evolution\nof Wordsworth's poems explain the strength\nas well as the imperfections of Wordsworth's\npoetry. He wrote chiefly for himself and\nwithout much regard to the effect to\nbe produced on his readers. When his feel-\nings were satisfied by the work of his indig-\nnation, he had little solicitude about com-\nmunicating the same satisfaction to others.\n\nIn as much as his life was that of a sol-\nitary student moving within a narrow circle\nof interests, it cannot be expected that all\nhis interests should interest everyone; if this, he was aware but it did not in-\nfluence his practice for he says: \"I am\nsensible that my associations must have\nsome time been particular instead of gen-\neral, and that consequently, giving to\nthings a false importance. I shan't con-\ntinue to work upon unworthy subjects\nhence I have no doubt that in\nsome instances feelings even if the\nLudicrous, may be given to my readers by expressions which appeared to me tedious and unnatural.\n\nHaving discussed the theory of Wordsworth, it now remains for us to observe the workings of the theory in his poems. It is necessary to remark, at once, however, that from a very superficial study of the theory itself, and from a very much more thorough study of Coleridge's brilliant criticism, most students of poetry usually charge the poet with a great inconsistency between his theory and his practice. Believing that the interpretation of Wordsworth's theory which I have given is more in accordance with his views than the majority of such interpretations, I shall take the stand that Wordsworth in most of the main, at least, is consistent in practice with his theory, and that many of the faults found in the lyrical ballads are not attributable to his theory so much as to his youthfulness.\n\nAmong the effects of his youthfulness, I would name the often mistaken judgment in determining important incidents, too great an indulgence and exuberance to conventionality, at times too great a delight in mischievous, and too conscious a view of his\nour duty as a part of reforming the public taste. As you say truly, Canto and Sheik wrote their work before the age of Wordsworth was when the lyrical Ballads appeared. All true enough, but neither had a great philosophy of the world. They wrote music: Wordsworth was to be a philosopher and his philosophy was forming itself into a grand whole during the first thirty years of his life.\n\nIf I have rightly interpreted Wordsworth's theory of art not but say that his practice was in harmony with it, very seldom do we find a poem which is not simple both in thought, language and expression. \"Sebottaea,\" which is perhaps the farthest removed from his theory, yet contains a simplicity of feeling and expression. We can discover that none of conventional forms or figurative language used simply to enable the production to be called a poem. These figures and forms, he used, were a demand of his own emotions not of the critics of the age. Indeed, that his view is correct is shown by the fact that those of his poems which are most appreciated, conform most exactly to his theory rightly in...\ninterpret. I take the poems, which reveal \"Lucy\"\u2014she of whom Nature would make a lady of her own\u2014the little girl among intrusive ways beside the springs of life\u2014the most refined, yet the most simple of all poetry.\n\nWhether she was a real person or only an imagination, no one can tell; but that the little casket of gems in which her gentle name is inscribed is as pure and divine as the plans themselves even to Mr. Alcott's can say. Here the poet purely arrives at his aim of producing the highest effect by the simplest means. I am reading it, I am filled with a penetrating tenderness and either of hope or passion for she is dead before me so much as here.\n\nBy the side of \"Lucy\" stands \"Matthew\"\u2014the schoolmaster whose name on a village tablet calls forth the poet's tenderest exclamation:\n\n\"Those cool of God's holy earthy mould:\nThose happy feet: and can it be\nThat those two words\u2014glittering gold\nIs all that must recall \"Matthew\"?\"\n\n\"The April Morning\" and \"The Fountain\" are so beautiful and simple that the mere thought of them is like a strain of music. The suggestion of a noble\nhuman creation, \"A man of Wilt,\" one whose very tears were like the light of the dew of gladness\" yet by whom the \"still and serious thought\" was felt with such profound intensity that no one else in so short a time could have given. If Wordsworth had written not more, he alone would have insured him immortality.\n\nIndeed as Wordsworth insinuated, so simple was the motive that unless the poet taken by inspiration was deeply moved, the thought would be caught up with it and translated as the himself was, you are left to feel that there is no much to do about me. As an instance of this, I could cite that most perfect poem, \"The Solitary Reaper\" - a simple outpouring thought - a sublime simple emotion in beautiful language. Some say he never thought of his poetry in it that be that as it may, no poem he wrote is more in harmony with it. I call his great poem the \"Ade to Duty.\" Observe what a splendor of imagination he invests in it. To what height of fancy does he lift the simple feeling? These poems as well as many others are written in exact conformance to his\nI do not believe, however, that he tried to harmonize them to his theory but rather that they are the unconscious workings of the theory. When he tried to make the poems conform to the letter of his theory, he had such poems as \u201cPeter Bell,\u201d \u201cHarry Gill,\u201d and \u201cSimon Lee.\u201d Although these poems are generally selected as illustrating his theory, they do not; they are rather the extreme of a not yet fully developed theory and of a mistaken judgment.\n\nIt is evident that Wordsworth was at first only in part conscious of his deeper instinctive tendencies in writing the lyrical ballads. It is evident that he only gradually discovered his full purpose. For he the first indeed, he had a crude notion of this theory. Lyric diction but the expression of this theory was modified as he devised his own practice as is shown by the change in the different editions of the Preface to the lyrical ballads.\n\nThere can be no doubt but that to begin a poem like \u201cWe are Seven\u201d as it began in the first edition, \u201cA little Child\u201d dear mother time\u201d adds triviality; again there can be no doubt but that the speech of a lower class household but like one of those, which women use to\nWash their clothes,\" is ridiculous but Wordsworth did not then realize the fact or he would have applied this one instance for he opposes both the trivial and the ridiculous in his theory. That the message was in reality purposely introduced instead of accidentally, I cannot believe. The same is true of \"Idiot Boy,\" \"Gusty Blope,\" and \"Harry Gill.\" His theory in these poems was correct but in his attempt to observe it he unconsciously carried it to the extreme.\n\nIn his attempt in \"Idiot Boy\" to demonstrate that the feeling of Betty Fry for her lost boy were as deep and\n\ntragical as if as worthy of elevation as that of a queen, he did realize that the choice of the colloquial familiarity of treatment produced a peculiarity rather than a permanent meaning and that the absolute insignificance of the incident and the attempt to give grace and dignity to the story destroyed completely its effect as an exposition of nature.\n\nAfter a complete study of Wordsworth's poetical theory, we are led to believe that he gradually generally conformed to this theory when rightly understood and that these poems, which have\nwere generally regarded as conforming to his theory, did not; but rather are mistaken judgments and unconscious extremes, while the rest of his poems agree with his theory and dictate him as the most important literary influence of the age.\nWordsworth's Poetical Theory.\n\nC. 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+{"id": "c4174c21066ed696ff956d6d96731f3de35f6a74", "text": "Loving the Unlovable Body in Yamanaka\u2019s \nSaturday Night at the Pahala Theatre \n\nBy Christa Baiada\n\nLois-Ann Yamanaka is one of the most widely known and published local Japanese writers living in Hawai\u2019i, yet her work is rarely taught and receives less critical attention than it warrants. Moving from poetry with her first book Saturday Night at the Pahala Theatre (1993) to fiction, she has published a short story cycle, four novels, a young adult novel and a children\u2019s book, and has been nominated for and received prestigious awards, including the Pushcart Prize for Poetry, the Lannan Literary Award, and grants from the National Endowment of the Arts and the Carnegie Foundation. Much lauded for the politically powerful use of Hawaiian Creole English in which many of her books are narrated and for her emphasis on local Hawaiian culture and resistance, Yamanaka has also been severely criticized for objectionable portrayals of local Filipinos as sexual predators, a stereotype that emerged from bachelor camps of Filipino plantation laborers and continues to play a role in racial discrimination against local Filipino communities in Hawai\u2019i. This necessary critique, primarily in response to Blu\u2019s Hanging (1997), has occasioned important critical engagement with Yamanaka\u2019s work as well as reflection in the Asian American literary community but has also overshadowed her other works and aspects of her writing.\n\nFor the past several years I have included Saturday Night at the Pahala Theatre with great success in my Asian American Literatures course at the large urban community college at which I teach. Students consistently respond strongly and generally positively to the work, which they have called raw, real, and paradoxically both familiar and unlike anything that they have read before. Despite the setting of the poetic novellas in the 1970s, decades before many of my students were born, and the very specific setting in Pahala, Hawai\u2019i, a world apart from New York City, male and female students alike were struck by Yamanaka\u2019s taking on stories rarely told (or read in school) but nonetheless identifiable to them. For despite the specificity of the world of the book, the coming of age experience of her young protagonists \u2013 enmeshed in racial, class, and sexual politics they little understand and cannot escape \u2013 are recognizable to my students. I imagine the themes would resonate with various student populations, high school or college, from racially and ethnically diverse and lower- and working-class backgrounds (though in our contemporary political climate of education, \u201ctrigger warnings\u201d for sexual violence might be advisable).\n\nYamanaka\u2019s pervasive and continual exploration of young, ethnic, working-class female experience throughout her oeuvre has been minimally explored in the scholarship but is worthy of continued critical attention and a reconsideration for inclusion in the classroom. Each of Yamanaka\u2019s works centers on the life of a young, female, local Japanese protagonist, either on the brink of womanhood or reflecting on her passage into womanhood. These texts, written in the first person, give voice to often\n\nsilenced figures and represent the lived realities and struggles of girls like those Yamanaka knew and herself used to be as they negotiate subjectivity in a complicated web of gender, sexuality, class, race and colonial factors.\n\nFor girls, the period of adolescence, with the onset of puberty, constitutes an intensely fraught initiation into their bodies as women\u2019s bodies and all that means in society. Yamanaka\u2019s young characters struggle in and over their bodies as what literary critic Brenda Boudreau calls battlegrounds, \u201csites of contestation\u201d for agency and independence (55). These girls are socialized to discipline, if not disdain and punish their bodies, rendering them obstacles to an integral self, yet each resists to the degree she is capable and with the means available to her. Most meet dismal fates, playing out the negative consequences of female complicity with their own bodily discipline and degradation, lack of assertion and self-esteem, acceptance of abuse, and even self-abuse. Yamanaka goes further to illustrate a sense of hindered or abandoned subjectivity for those who, unable to endure the pain and shame inflicted on their lived bodies, reject or deny the body. However, Yamanaka also demonstrates that some girls, through circumstances of love and nurturance \u2013 with different meanings attributed to the female body and self \u2013 are able to achieve what Boudreau calls \u201ca re-embodiment, one in which the body is not simply a negative obstacle to be overcome\u201d (43-4), exemplifying the potentiality of fluidity I construction of the body. Such a positive potentiality is never simple or certain in Yamanaka\u2019s fiction but it is held out as possible.\n\nAs is common to female bildungsromans, Yamanaka\u2019s coming-of-age stories are attentive to the cruciality of the body in the formation of her protagonists\u2019 subjectivity. Western philosophy has traditionally posited and feminist theorists continue to explore along different lines how women are rooted in their bodies. Western intellectual tradition posits the thinking self as disembodied, pure mind. Placed in dialectical opposition to the mind/soul, the body is coded negative, inferior. This fleshy site of unruly passions and appetites must be transcended, a feat that can only be accomplished by the well-ordered masculine body, which can be regulated and, thus, disregarded. The female body, on the other hand, has long been associated with disorder; it is leaky, unpredictable, uncontrollable (characteristics attributed to it largely in response to the vicissitudes of the female reproductive system). A body such as this cannot be ignored. A body such as this interferes with transcendence. Therefore, traditional philosophy suggests that women cannot be other than or separate from their bodies, and their bodies obstruct the path to thinking self and true selfhood.\n\nFeminist thinkers, unsurprisingly, have challenged these beliefs. Though several noteworthy first-wave feminists such as Simone De Beauvoir and Shulamith Firestone accepted this paradigm, objecting mainly to the exclusion of women from the possibility of transcending the body, many second- and third-wave feminists not only\n\n1 Though Hawai\u2018i is a state, scholars of Hawaiian and Pacific cultures generally agree that Hawai\u2018i is an illegal settler colony. Haunani-Kay Trask describes a settler colony as \u201ca society in which the indigenous culture and people have been murdered, suppressed or marginalized for the benefit of settlers who now dominate our islands\u201d (qtd. in Fujikane \u201cIntroduction: Asian Settler Colonialism in the U.S. Colony of Hawai\u2018i, p. 1) and identifies Asians, as well as whites, as settlers who benefit from the subjugation of Native Hawaiians.\n\n2 In Volatile Bodies (1994), Elizabeth Grosz provides a discussion of traditional philosophical thinking about the body along various lines leading into feminist theories. Most notable among feminist works on the body, in addition to Grosz\u2019s, are Judith Butler\u2019s Bodies That Matter (1993), Susan Bordo\u2019s Unbearable Weight (1995), and Iris Marion Young\u2019s Throwing Like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory (1990). Yamanaka\u2019s Saturday Night (1993) was written at the same time that this academic discourse was developing.\n\n3 See Beauvoir, The Second Sex (1949) and Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (1979).\nobject to the purported desirability of a separation between body and mind but have also asserted the significance of embodiment and the centrality of the material body in the formation of subjectivity. Subjectivity, feminist theory contends, is inextricable from one\u2019s experience of her body and its historical, cultural meanings. In other words, the body does not obstruct subjectivity and selfhood; rather, one\u2019s lived experience in her body shapes subjectivity and selfhood. Postmodern and post-structural feminisms have produced provocative and influential theories of the body that we might summarize, at the risk of oversimplifying, as asserting that there is no natural body, but rather the body is fluid and differential in its meanings and is therefore a site of potentiality (for different constructions of the body, of self, of sex, of gender, of the human, even). As feminist philosopher Elizabeth Grosz asserts, \u201cThe body must be regarded as a site of social, political, cultural and geographic inscriptions, production or constitution. [\u2026] it is a cultural, the cultural, product\u201d (23). In other words, the body is not a given but is constructed by the interplay of the physicality of the material body and of the discourses of the body, or rather of different bodies and bodily aspects (their forms, shapes, features, movements, and behaviors).\n\nFor this paper, I will focus only on Yamanaka\u2019s *Saturday Night at the Pahala Theatre* and more specifically on three of its six main characters in the different sections of the collection, which is divided into four sections introducing several twelve-to-thirteen-year-old girls at the same time in their lives in the same world of Pahala, Hawai\u2018i. The poems move through various permutations of girls struggling on the battleground of their bodies for some sense of control and self-realization. Collectively the poetry problematizes \u201cinitiation into womanhood\u201d as having multiple forms and meanings bound up with but not limited to sexuality.\n\nThe polyphonic and multi-narrative form of *Saturday Night* incorporates various trajectories of this struggle over and through the female adolescent body and its meanings during this period of sexual maturation. Girls strive to find a relationship to their changing bodies while navigating the treacherous and confusing landscape of sexual desire, violation, and propriety. The meanings ascribed to the female body render embodiment difficult and undesirable. Disembodiment becomes a form of escape, not into pure self or mind but into nothingness, away from unified self, away from living self. The juxtaposition of multiple girls\u2019 stories that simultaneously reinforce and diverge from one another provides a rich exploration of what Yamanaka sees at stake in her protagonists\u2019 attempts to claim as their own and love their bodies. Too often, as the cumulative effect of these narratives suggests, the transition to womanhood takes the form of objectification, fragmentation, violation and consumption. The consequence is disassociation from the body and unrealized selfhood, fates perhaps easier than living in the pain of a degraded body, and easier than asserting new meanings of the body, because doing so would entail changing the socio-political-cultural discourses that construct the girl and her developing woman\u2019s body and that deny her the vision to see herself as different from detrimental meanings ascribed to her and her body.\n\nHowever, this is not the only model. A very different story is told in the voice of Lucy, who closes the collection with the realization of re-embodiment \u2013 an embrace of body, desire, and selfhood. Re-embodiment is achieved when womanhood, and initiation into a woman\u2019s body, is characterized by pleasure, comfort, and the mutual\n\n---\n\nrecognition of one\u2019s lover. Through an explication of significant tropes in the collection related to female identity and coming of age, I explore how *Saturday Night* encompasses paradoxes of embodiment and disembodiment, disempowerment and empowerment, critique and hope for female selfhood.\n\n**Part I: Kala**\n\nKala is one of the key figures introduced in the first section of the book. When first introduced, she appears confident and brassy, if na\u00efve, but through a series of three key events in which she is forced to see and feel herself exploited sexually by men, she is rendered silent and divided from herself. Kala is forced to accept the cultural message that her body is vulnerable to male violation and consumption and thus insufficiently hers, and just plain insufficient.\n\nFrom the opening poems, Yamanaka clearly communicates a general awareness and even acceptance on Kala\u2019s part of the powerlessness associated with the female body and sexuality. The opening poems \u201cKala Gave Me Anykine Advice\u2026\u201d & \u201cSitting on a Bike\u2026\u201d present conversations between two seventh-grade girls, in which Kala, attempting to assert a knowledge she lacks to feign a power of which she is also denied, takes it upon herself to advise, inform, and essentially taunt her friend with what growing up local Japanese and female in Pahala means. Much of Kala\u2019s advice, such as not to use another\u2019s deodorant or risk catching her b.o., reveals her ignorance and characterizes her as an unreliable narrator. At the same time, she conveys a nascent cognizance of the very real denigration and vulnerability of their maturing female bodies as well as their privileged racial status in relation to demonized local Filipinos. In \u201cKala Give Me Anykine Advice Especially about Filipinos When I Moved to Pahala,\u201d the second girl recounts Kala\u2019s instructions:\n\nNo whistle in the dark\nor you call the Filipino man\n[...]\n...he going drag you to his house,\ntie you to the vinyl chair,\nthe one he sit on outside all day,\nand smile at you with his yellow teeth\nand cut off your bi-lot with the cane knife.\nHe going fry um in Crisco for dinner. (Yamanaka 15)\n\nThis poem illustrates the kind of damaging stereotype of Filipinos for which Yamanaka has come under attack. While the controversy regarding the portrayal of Filipino Uncle Paulo as a rapist in Yamanaka\u2019s novel *Blu\u2019s Hanging* gained nationwide attention with protests resulting in the Association of Asian American Studies rescinding its fiction award in 1998, local objections to Yamanaka\u2019s portrayal of Filipinos began in response to this poem in *Saturday Night* years earlier.\u00b9 Candace Fujikane explains how such portrayals \u201cattest[] to continuing local Filipino subordination within a system of local Japanese and white structural power\u201d and evade the reality of local Japanese racism\n\n---\n\n\u00b9 Fujikane provides an excellent timeline of events charting the controversy in \u201cSweeping Racism Under the Rug of Censorship.\u201d\nand political dominance (159-160). While the working class characters and their families in *Saturday Night* are not powerful and are instead positioned as oppressed by white/Western racism and power, by the time the collection was published, if not in the 1970's when it was set, local Japanese power was solidified. Nonetheless, the novellas elide the racial structure in which local Japanese enjoy the highest standing among local Asian settlers to focus on the story of local Japanese struggles to overcome oppression, which are most pertinent to my focus on gendered oppression descending from foundational European philosophies of body and mind. In discussing the controversy over Yamanaka\u2019s stereotypical portrayals of Filipino men as a sexual threat, Fujikane writes, \u201cThe stereotypes [originating on the plantations] redirect attention away from other ethnic communities\u2019 [i.e. Japanese, Chinese] anxieties over women\u2019s agency and conditions of exploitation\u201d (176). These anxieties and exploitation regarding gender are very much the concern of *Pahala Theatre*, yet in repeating and ill-using this harmful caricature of local Filipinos, Yamanaka deflects onto this group and therefore obscures the degree to which the sexist and abusive attitudes impacting her characters as integral to the local Japanese community to which they belong. The vague implication is that the threat to girls is ubiquitous and, indeed, though Kala\u2019s fate indicates the contrary, more dangerous from the local Filipino, who lack the conditions from which to represent alternatives to this representation with the same social reach as the local Japanese. Thus while I want to return the focus to Kala\u2019s awareness of the sexually maturing female body as vulnerable, I must emphasize the need for attunement to the racial privilege she also enjoys to objectify local Filipino men, who for different reasons, lack power and voice.\n\nComing back to the passage quoted above, Kala\u2019s warning to her friend also establishes the imagery of girls as prey (their bodies as meat to be devoured) that reviewer Lorna Hershinow insightfully identifies as pervading Part I of the collection (241). Kala lacks the sexual knowledge to actually know what a man would do to a girl. She imagines a form of cannibalism, primitive and brutal. She knows enough to intuit that the male desire to consume the female body is directed at the \u201cbi-lot\u201d or the genitalia. For it is not the child\u2019s body that will draw the old man\u2019s desire, but her femaleness, the parts of her body that mark her as woman and as sexual object. Interestingly it is not the breasts \u2014 \u201cthe daily visible and tangible signifier of her womanliness\u201d as feminist theorist Iris Young has described them (190) -- but the vagina \u2013 the ultimate site of female power and violability, of male desire and repulsion, barrier and wound \u2013 that Kala identifies as the sought after morsel from the female body.\n\nThis profound consequence of puberty and perplexing nature of the vagina is reinforced in the next poem, \u201cSitting on our Bikes by the Catholic Church,\u201d in which Kala teases her friend about the inevitability of menstruation, or \u201cyour rags\u201d as she calls it. She declares her friend \u201calmost ripe\u201d and jeers \u201cpray to the Lord above/ that you neva get yours/ \u2019cause I gonna tell/ the old man/ that dinner/ is almost ready to be served\u201d (Yamanaka 17). With the onset of menstruation, one \u201cbecomes a woman,\u201d and hunting season is open. Kala\u2019s taunts are disturbing in her lack of solidarity and compassion for her friend\u2019s imminent role as foodstuff. Indeed, Kala deflects her own vulnerability onto her friend and aligns herself with men, in her promise to call the old man to supper. She attempts, thus, to deny or circumvent her similar position as prey.\n\n---\n\nFujiikane also reminds us of the importance of acknowledging that local Japanese and local Filipinos are \u201cracialized as distinct groups in Hawai\u2019i\u201d and cannot be grouped as Asian American.\n\n---\n\n6 Fujiikane also reminds us of the importance of acknowledging that local Japanese and local Filipinos are \u201cracialized as distinct groups in Hawai\u2019i\u201d and cannot be grouped as Asian American.\nKala\u2019s emphasis on the vagina as focal point and on menstruation as turning point conjures Kristeva\u2019s abject, the human reaction to the threat of breached boundaries (e.g., between self and object necessary for establishing identity) and therefore of the breakdown of meaning. Kala, who has already begun menstruation, seems to understand the female body as porous \u2013 leaking, with unreliable boundaries. When teaching her friend about what happens to the body after death (interestingly, the corpse is Kristeva\u2019s ultimate example of the abject), Kala once more focuses on the holes of the female body, in particular, those that must be sewn up: \u201cyour eyes, your nose, your mouth, your belly button, your okole hole and yeah, even your bi-lot\u201d (16). The corpse and the female body, here conflated, both have to do with abjection \u2013 the corpse repulses us by bringing death into our reality; the female body is vile in its flow of bodily fluids that disrupt our sense of propriety. Both, according to Kristeva, must be cast off from our cultural world in order for us to live in it. The abject \u201cdisturbs identity, system, order\u201d (Kristeva 4) and brings us to \u201cthe border of [our] condition as a living being\u201d (Kristeva 3).\n\nKala achieves full knowledge of the abjection related to the female body when forced to confront the violability of her own body through the occurrences recounted in consecutive poems that culminate in her rape. For if the holes of the female body, her own, allow bodily fluids and waste to flow out, they also constitute precarious openings through which intrusion of harm may occur, disturbing the integrity of the body and distinction between the self as subject and object. Surprisingly, the rape, the most extreme form of violation of the body, is unsurprising and anticlimactic. For both Kala and the reader have been prepared for such an event by the metaphoric rapes to which she has already submitted.\n\nIn the first poem, \u201cCaptain of the Volleyball Team,\u201d flattered by the attention of a popular high school athlete, Jimmy boy, and encouraged by her friends to engage him, Kala nonetheless feels objectified and coerced in their interactions. When he calls to her outside school, she notes, \u201che neva call me by my name\u201d (Yamanaka 18), and she is discomfited by his hands freely grabbing at her. Jimmy boy demands kisses but, when she demurs, seeking delays, he forces her to recognize his claim on her body, superseding her own. Sucking at her neck, he gives her a hickey \u201cso all the boys know you mines\u201d (19). Her body is not only marked as his property but also as food \u2013 animal or confection, i.e. object \u2013 for him to feast on. His avid vampiric sucking also pulls her blood to the surface, calling forth the abject of the messy sexual body.\n\nKala\u2019s traumatic transition to womanhood continues in the next poem, the title poem of the collection, when she is taken to view a pornographic movie by Jimmy boy and his friend Mugs. The film, entitled \u201cCheerleaders Growing Up,\u201d reinforces the violent, sexual model of \u201cgrowing up\u201d for girls, in this case white blonde girls \u2013 those various characters in the poems aspire to be more like. In many ways the film echoes the collection, with multiple girls telling their stories and layers yet one more narrative of female coming-of-age on top of Kala\u2019s. Unable to watch all the way through, Kala reports on only the first of the stories featuring a girl sent to the principal\u2019s office for smoking in the bathroom. The principal offers to make a secretive deal \u2013 comply with his desires and he won\u2019t tell her father of her transgression. Joined by a male teacher, they tie the girl to a chair and gag her mouth, then take turns sucking at her breasts.\n\n---\n\n7 The aspiration toward whiteness and white standards of beauty is a powerful theme most developed through the Tita poems in section one of the collection. Tita tries to lighten her hair to look hapa, uses glue to make double eye-lids, desires plastic surgery to make that effect permanent, and is disturbed by her weight.\nAgain the metaphor of eating is used to call attention to the female body as food/object and to deny the girl as subject. She is not the eater; her mouth is gagged. Perhaps the mouth, as an orifice, is too often an instrument of agency, as in the telling of these stories in their own voices, through which Yamanaka breaks their silence and imbues each of these characters with a voice and control over the account.\n\nThe eyes, unlike the mouth, are orifices that need not be barred to disempower the girl. All that can pass from them are impotent tears, signs of pain and weakness. The girl, Kala tells us, \u201cshe crying. Her eyes all black underneath/ from her eyeliner\u201d (Yamanaka 23). She is the abject \u2013 messy, leaking \u2013 forcing Kala to confront the violability of her own body and connect with many of the themes of Kala\u2019s experience with Jimmy boy, both at the school and to come in \u201cGrad Party.\u201d Sexual use of the girl\u2019s body is taken by men, against her wishes and causing great distress. She is silenced and her apparent fear and tears are not a deterrent; her bondage, clearly a turn-on.\n\nKala is not only shocked and disturbed by the scene on the screen but more so by Jimmy boy\u2019s hand on her leg and whisper in her ear that \u201cI like do that to you/ [...] Me and Mugs, maybe\u201d (Yamanaka 24). He insists that Kala see herself in the position of the cheerleader. She, too, is expected to willingly submit, without the power to resist, as the hickey demonstrated. She tries to escape, to get up from her seat, but is restrained. \u201cJimmy boy grab my wrist/ and hold me down to the seat./ You sit there, he tell./ So you can learn\u201d (24). Like the cheerleader, tied to her seat to endure the sexual violations associated with \u201cgrowing up,\u201d Kala is made to not only witness a rape scene but to identify with the victim, constituting a form of vicarious rape.\n\n\u201cI shut my eyes\u201d Kala declares (24). To block out the accumulation of stories from the remaining cheerleaders is her only modicum of defense. She must close herself off from seeing, must separate from the adolescent female bodies on the screen and from her own, confined to the movie theater seat with the threat of having to enact the movie scene hanging over her. With the closing of Kala\u2019s eyes, Yamanaka signals the girl\u2019s attempt to seal her inner self off from physical reality, to reassert the boundaries that have been breached. She exits her body.\n\nKala\u2019s last poem \u201cGrad Story\u201d presents the inevitable fulfillment of previous threats that result in Kala\u2019s more definitive dissociation from her body in order to escape the reality of vaginal rape. At his graduation party, Jimmy boy intends to collect with interest on the deferred promise of a kiss from Kala. With the consent of her uncle, who, drunk from repeated toasts to Jimmy boy\u2019s success, sends her off alone with Jimmy boy despite her insistent shaking of her head to signal no, Jimmy boy drives her to a remote spot and rapes her. \u201cYou no give me nothing yet/ I no say nothing./ If you no give me nothing,/ I going take something from you/ and what I take,/ you neva going give nobody else/ ever again\u201d (Yamanaka 27). His sense of entitlement and Kala\u2019s acceptance of bodily subjection are solidified. She is violated not by the Filipino boogeyman she had been socialized to fear or by a white authority figure, like the principal and teacher of\n\n---\n\n8 Rosalee Shim traces the motif of eyes throughout Saturday Night in her article \u201cPower in the Eye of the Beholder\u201d (1995). Her argument is that the eyes of others subjugate the adolescent girls of Pahala by shaping their notions of self, and they can only be freed by \u201cwield[ing] \u2018ocular power\u2019 themselves (85).\n\n9 This fact of the plot does little to nothing to undermine the established defamation of local Filipinos earlier in the Kala poems and later in Blu\u2019s Hanging. Jimmy boy, a local Japanese as rapist, doesn\u2019t contradict the accusation of Felix in \u201cKala Give Me Anykine Advice\u201d as rapist. The implication instead is that most men, including whites when one factors in the porn film, are potential rapists. Local Filipinos as the most perverse and dangerous is not reified in Saturday Night. Yamanaka doubles down on this racial stereotype in Blu\u2019s Hanging but we need not read the later book back into this one. Moreover, as Fujikane documents in \u201cSweeping Racism Under the Rug,\u201d that the local\nthe porn film, but by a local Japanese peer assisted by her local Japanese uncle. The real danger is in her own community and their attitudes toward girls\u2019 bodies and power over those bodies, which intersect with those of white mainland society also. Kala\u2019s body has clearly been a site of struggle for power, and Jimmy boy, with the support of adult authority, prevails. Kala\u2019s \u201cnothing,\u201d her inability to voice resistance, first to her uncle and then to Jimmy boy, testify to the cumulative effect of prior incidents to silence her voice, too often ignored or refuted, and condition her to the domination of her body. Her only response is to abandon it altogether: \u201cI close my eyes tight/ and turn my head. / It hit against the window/ hard\u201d (27). Shutting her eyes, as she had done at the movie theater, she blocks out the experience of her body, from which she retreats, for it cannot be a vehicle of self-realization if subject to the control and penetration of others.\n\nPart II: \u201cPARTS\u201d\nUnderlying Kala\u2019s story is a fragmentation of her body with a focus on the eyes and genitals as sites of abjection. Part II of Saturday Night at the Pahala Theatre, entitled \u201cParts,\u201d more explicitly highlights this destructive disintegration of the body in the very structure of the poem sequence. This section is subdivided into four parts: \u201cPain in Parts,\u201d \u201cBlame in Parts,\u201d \u201cGirl in Parts,\u201d and \u201cWhat the Hands do with All of these Parts.\u201d These subsections, respectively, chronicle the threat of physical pain, verbal shaming of the children as dirty and selfish, shaming and accusation specific to an unnamed daughter\u2019s sexual awakening, and finally, the daughter\u2019s devastating response to all this pain. Each subsection then contains further division as every poem is titled for a part of the female body. The girl is systematically reduced to pieces, and each body part is in turn degraded, with the sexualized body parts emphatically deemed most dangerous and offensive. \u201cParts\u201d emphasizes girls\u2019 double-powerlessness, in relation not only to men but to all adults including their mothers.\n\nYamanaka highlights how the girl\u2019s contestation over her body and sexuality is not a result of male dominance and violence alone but also of the pervasive workings of power in general, as theorized by Foucault, in which daily activities and practices create and enforce norms through surveillance and self-correction. Women, especially mothers, play a role in enforcing the norms of gender that serve the prevailing systems of dominance and subordination by accepting and inculcating in their daughters a sense of their bodies as dirty, untrustworthy, and in need of constant vigilance.\n\nWritten in a mother\u2019s voice, many of the poems in \u201cParts\u201d are reminiscent of Jamaica Kincaid\u2019s short story \u201cGirl\u201d in Annie John. In both works, the mother ferociously polices her daughter\u2019s sexuality to enforce social sexual mores and to induct her daughter into the world of female sexuality by which she will be judged. Yamanaka intimates the cycle of women\u2019s oppression that the mother is implicated in and victim of. The short, staccato lines of the poems, as the mother spits out accusations, recriminations and threats, reveal her anger and frustration. Similar to Kincaid\u2019s \u201cgirl\u201d herself, Yamanaka\u2019s girl remains silent, absorbing her mother\u2019s words. In her eventual response, depicted in \u201cWhat the Hands Do...,\u201d she remains voiceless and turns to self-mutilation as the only way to deal with the pain.\n\nThe sequence begins with a tired, overworked mother\u2019s threatening complaints about her children\u2019s general dirtiness (e.g. toe jam in \u201cThe Foot\u201d and nose-picking in \u201cThe Nose\u201d), laziness (demanding they attend to chores in \u201cThe Face\u201d and \u201cThe\n\nFilipino rapist remains a myth did not mitigate the effect of the perpetuation of that myth in the poetry on the lives of local Filipinos in Hawai\u2018i when Saturday Night was published.\nBrain\u201d), and greediness (specifically in eating more than a fair share of the too-little meat in the stew in \u201cThe Mouth\u201d). They build to discipline and condemnation of her daughter\u2019s body and sexuality in \u201cThe Ass\u201d and \u201cThe Crack.\u201d\n\nWomen with no power over their own lives have power over their children, especially over their daughters, and are sometimes cruel as a result of their own frustrations; however, at the same time the mother Yamanaka depicts also seems intent on her duty as a mother to prepare her daughter for the world she is entering. For instance, in \u201cThe Ass,\u201d with seemingly no provocation, the mother assumes her daughter\u2019s sexual desire and juxtaposes this with the imperative to avoid such shame. In the subsequent poem \u201cThe Crack-One,\u201d after spying her daughter sitting with an older boy in a dark corner, the mother\u2019s condemnation is direct and her message about the dangerous game of sexuality clearly articulated: \u201cyou goddamn/ 12-year old slut [\u2026]/ Why you put/ the deck of cards/ between your legs/ when you know he wanted um?/ You wanted him/ for touch your crack?\u201d (Yamanaka 72). Again the mother seems to be both attempting to correct her daughter\u2019s dangerous exploration of desire and blaming the daughter for the very danger that she faces.\n\nThe combination of blame and preparation for the future reaches a dispiriting climax in \u201cThe Crack Two,\u201d when what we can only infer is the daughter\u2019s report of rape gives rise to a tirade of blame and denigration. The mother silences the girl, demanding she not tell anybody nor mention it again and puts full responsibility on her daughter: \u201cWhat you expected?/ You little cock teaser./ This is what you get\u201d (Yamanaka 73). This response exemplifies Susan Bordo\u2019s assertion in *Unbearable Weight* of our cultural expectation that \u201cwomen\u2019s appetites require containment and control whereas male indulgence is legitimated and encouraged\u201d (14). The boy is in no way deemed wrong, just as Jimmy boy could rape Kala with either her uncle\u2019s blessing or without his suspicion that Jimmy boy could ever do anything wrong. In \u201cParts,\u201d the mother goes on to enforce the idea that her daughter is now a nobody, unlovable, defined by her now sullied sexual status: \u201cNow you a ho-a/ You not a virgin./ Nobody/ going love you/ No body going marry you\u201d (73). She\u2019s a \u201cDirty girl/Dirty/Girl\u201d (74), according to her mother. Dirty not only in her deflowered body, but in her presumably unleashed and shameful desire. \u201cOnce you know what it feels like,/ you going want it/ everytime\u201d (74). Not only the body but the experience of the body \u2013 and its potential for pleasure \u2013 is conferred as a curse, an inescapable, shameful trap she has willingly wandered into and now must suffer because she had failed to properly discipline her body and desires as society demands. Having breached a barrier, the girl has stumbled into another model of \u201ctransition into womanhood\u201d \u2013 a damming one. The mother offers no comfort, guidance or protection but rather ushers her daughter with extreme hostility into a world hostile to women.\n\nThe last poem of this part of the collection demonstrates the effect of her mother\u2019s words \u2013 a severe, painful dissociation from and attempt to punish the offensive body. In \u201cWhat the Hands Do About All These Parts\u201d the girl follows advice received from a friend to self-lacerate. Cutting is employed as a way to simultaneously feel and go numb, to experience and dismiss the body and to \u201cforget all the shit that was happening\u201d (Yamanaka 75). Steven Levenkron, psychotherapist and author of *Cutting: Understanding and Overcoming Self-Mutilation*, explains that self-mutilators use the pain of cutting to replace another pain. He writes, \u201cIt seems paradoxical to utilize a greater pain for relief from pain, paradoxical to use the sight of one\u2019s own blood for relief. Yet that is precisely the mechanism of relief for those whose world is one of choices between one kind of pain or another\u201d (32). The pain of the mother\u2019s verbal and\npsychological physical abuse in \u201cParts\u201d constitutes an inescapably painful environment, so the girl turns to physical pain to drown out the emotional pain with a pain that she can control. Self-harm becomes a coping method to enable the regulation of feelings \u2013 allowing oneself to control one\u2019s feelings of pain or lack thereof. Such control would reasonably be especially precious for an adolescent girl negotiating what is certainly a complex, contradictory sexual maturation and struggle to negotiate an adult identity \u2013 i.e. a sense of autonomy and independence -- from the borderlands of adolescence.\n\nMore recent scholarship on cutting takes a non-pathologizing approach and considers self-injury as related to the developmental challenges and potential inner turmoil of teenagers\u2019 lives. Lori G. Plante suggests in *Bleeding to Ease the Pain* (2007) that habits of self-harm, like the cutting illustrated in Yamanaka\u2019s poetry, may be related not to a pathology or suicidal tendencies as previously believed but more naturally to teenagers\u2019 \u201cemerging sense of self.\u201d She writes, \u201cself-injury is the wrong way to cope with all the right strivings related to independence, intimacy and identity formation\u201d (4). Such a context allows us to see Yamanaka\u2019s characters in this poem not as disturbed or suicidal; rather, we are enabled to recognize their misguided but fervent determination to survive and take control, to some extent, of their bodies and emotions.\n\nThe cutting in \u201cWhat the Hands Do...\u201d can also be read as a blood-letting, an attempt to cleanse the polluted body of the contamination so offensive to her mother. The girl cannot reassemble her body, fragmented, lacking integrity, wrong in each of its parts, but she can release her \u201cself\u201d from this dirty, unreliable body \u2013 the flowing blood described as \u201cme coming out of myself\u201d \u2013 in an act of mortification to atone for herself to her mother. The persistent onslaught of the message of the wrongness and dirtiness of her body has been internalized and the body forsaken, potentially contributing to the willingness to inflict self-harm. The urge to cut is often seen as emerging from a \u201cpsychological chasm between the body and the self\u201d resulting from a trauma or intensely distressing environment (Favazza 51). Similar to Kala\u2019s closing of her eyes during rape, this girl\u2019s cutting might metaphorically represent a disembodiment.\n\nMore than anything else perhaps, the cutting is, for this girl, an attempt to prove her existence to and gain the affection of her mother: \u201cLet the blood / drip on the sidewalk\u201d she is instructed, \u201cThen we write her name / with the blood / and when dry / she going know / you was here / and she going know / how much you love her\u201d (Yamanaka 76). In her article on *Pahala Theatre*, Rosalee Shim interprets the \u201cshe\u201d of this passage as a girl the speaker, a boy, attempts to win over with his pain and suffering (Shim 90). However, in the context of the poems in the mother\u2019s voice leading up to this, I find the only convincing interpretation to be that the \u201cshe\u201d who needs to be convinced of love is the girl\u2019s mother. The cutting is portrayed not as an act of attempted ownership over a girl, as Shim reads it, but rather a crying out for her mother\u2019s recognition of her love and existence from a girl, who lacks language and a voice to articulate her internal chaos and her utmost desire, to be validated. Yamanaka presents this girl as unseen and unheard, therefore unable to see herself as a person worthy of selfhood.\n\nThe lack of a name for this particular protagonist has the significant effect of rendering her anybody or an Everygirl. In doing so, Yamanaka expands the implications of the character\u2019s self-injury from the pathology of an individual to a larger indictment of social attitudes toward women\u2019s bodies. It serves as a powerful metaphor: \u201c[s]elf-mutilation can be seen,\u201d Mary Pipher asserts in *Reviving Ophelia*, and I believe is presented by Yamanaka in *Pahala Theatre*, \u201cas a concrete interpretation of our culture\u2019s injunction to young women to carve themselves into acceptable pieces\u201d (159).\nmetaphor echoes the title of the section, \u201cParts,\u201d and the titles of the poem that dissect the female body.\n\nIt is important to note also that the speaker of \u201cWhat the Hands Do About all of these Parts\u201d is an older friend who habitually cuts to deal with her own pain. (Admittedly, the friend could be male, but I see no evidence to support this supposition in the text.) In this instance, the friend is trying to help, unlike Kala who was more interested in taunting her friends, but such help is misguided. The lesson taught is a negative one about how to ameliorate pain through more pain and speak to one\u2019s mother through the spilling of blood. The lack of choices or possibility of escape affects all these girls, so they can be of little help to one another and too often have nowhere else to turn.\n\nPart III: Lucy\n\nI\u2019ve recounted two of the bleakest coming-of-age stories that Yamanaka presents in the poetry. However, the outlook becomes more positive over the course of the collection, reaching the most hope in the character of Lucy in the final section. Situationally Lucy is similar to Kala, the unnamed girl in \u201cParts,\u201d and all the other girls Yamanaka presents in Pahala, but Lucy is different because she ultimately finds a relationship based on mutual love and respect that enables a model of transition into womanhood that is nurturing and empowering. Through Lucy, Yamanaka presents the possibility that with different meanings attributed to the body, one can achieve embodied, autonomous subjectivity, though this achievement is neither simple nor assured. Employing the same tropes of eyes, eating, penetration, fragmentation, mutilation, and naming/marking, Yamanaka allows for changed significance and outcomes.\n\nLucy\u2019s story is in dialogue with the earlier stories of Kala and the girl in \u201cParts.\u201d At first Lucy\u2019s story seems to parallel Kala\u2019s when her Uncle Reggie arranges for her to be escorted home from a basketball game by Willy Joe. Willy Joe drives away with Lucy and parks in a deserted spot, like Jimmy boy with Kala, but rather than force himself upon her, Willy Joe sings to Lucy The Four Seasons\u2019 song of innocent love, \u201cMy Eyes Adored You.\u201d He looks into Lucy\u2019s eyes and identifies with her sadness and loneliness. He claims to know her through her eyes and Lucy experiences a sensation of mutual recognition, for which she had long waited:\n\n```\nNeed somebody to read um right for once\n\u2018cause they brown and chilly, scare\nsometimes, just like his, he say\n[...]\nMy eyes.\nMy eyes. Fill. (Yamanaka 115)\n```\n\nUnlike Kala, who repeatedly closes her eyes, Lucy\u2019s eyes are open, seen, and responsive. Eyes are no longer sites of violation and abjection, but, because Lucy sees and is seen, of connection and interdependence. The experience of mutuality and recognition is extended to her initiation into sexuality. The experience of her body as her own and as a site of sexual pleasure is enabled by the tenderness and respect with which Willy Joe approaches her.\n\n```\nHe touch my forehead with his long fingers, crawl them\n```\nacross my face like little feet.\n\n[...]\ndown my neck, and fingers light around each tit-ty.\nSpotlight left. He smile, weak-like.\nSpotlight right, his breathing rapid.\nHis finger in my belly button, swirl it\n\naround and around, eyes rolling, slow,\n\n[...]\nI know where else he want to touch. (Yamanaka 124-5)\n\nHere Yamanaka presents a metaphor of sexuality without penetration \u2013 finger not penis, belly button not vagina \u2013 that involves intimacy and pleasure without blood or pain. Willy Joe\u2019s tentative, gentle exploration creates intimacy and trust. Lucy is not threatened or pressured. He uses his fingers, tracing paths on her body, to illuminate the wholeness of her body, all her \u201cpieces\u201d connected. Willy Joe\u2019s touch is a way to learn Lucy\u2019s body, not possess it. In fact, Willy Joe recognizes Lucy\u2019s authority over her own body. She tells us, \u201cWillyJoe, the Big Scarecrow, scared / scared of a lot of things/ scared of me. / Maybe one day I no let him touch me anymore\u201d (129). Such an admission acknowledges Lucy\u2019s right to say no, an option foreclosed to Kala in Part One.\n\nLucy\u2019s narrative also seems to write back to the motif of girls as prey to be devoured by men. Lucy is not fed upon but fed, metaphorically and actually, by Willy Joe. We see this when he comes to visit Lucy at school. \u201cWilly Joe pass me cut persimmons so I can think in school / But I can only eat um if, only if, I let him feed me\u201d (125-6). Though separated by a fence to signify society\u2019s refusal to condone the relationship between Lucy and the older, developmentally delayed Willy Joe, Willy Joe cares for Lucy as no one else, particularly her mother, does. He kisses her fingers in affection and desire. He feeds her food so she can think, thus recognizing an integrity of body and mind. Lucy is not just a body for Willy Joe to plunder; she is a person for him to nourish. Of course the orality of this scene is also erotic. Lucy can only eat the fruit if Willy Joe feeds her. She willingly takes the fruit he offers because his touch is also nurturing.\n\nSignificantly the fruit Willy Joe feeds Lucy is the persimmon, which in Buddhism, represents transformation. Lucy is transformed by her relationship with Willy Joe. She asserts that with him she learns \u201cto be myself.\u201d Before the development of their relationship, Lucy\u2019s inability to claim a sense of self is reflected in the rejection of her name. Instead she would use alternate names, such as \u201cEmpty Heart\u201d and \u201cDor-ty\u201d (from the Wizard of Oz) that connote her feelings of being empty, lost, and unloved. In the final poem \u201cName Me Is,\u201d Lucy ultimately claims her name and body, though the act required reinforces the difficulty involved in such an attainment.\n\nYamanaka sets the poem at midnight of New Year\u2019s Eve, signaling a new beginning for Lucy. Lucy and Willy Joe use sparklers, connoting independence and celebration, to burn their loves\u2019 names into his/her back. Lucy goes first, burning \u201cWilly Joe\u201d into his back. Then it is her turn. She narrates:\n\n...I feel him burn me long,\nand my body squeeze first\nthen release the color gray,\nthat fall into slow motion,\ngray waves out my eyes,\nin and out with the sweet smell of skin burning.[\u2026]\n Burning the main con-so-nans\n Of my name hard\n Into my back meat[\u2026]\n I feel all thaw out\n In my bones, all melting from what he done,\nSo he light a sparkler\nAnd tell me write my name in the black night. (Yamanaka 139)\n\nYamanaka\u2019s imagery of gray seeping out of the body conveys a release of numbness\nand emptiness. The imagery she uses to describe the sensation evokes sexual climaxes. The\ncoldness of a trapped self as object or piece of meat dissolves. Her body is marked,\nnot with the brand of another, like Jimmy\u2019s hickey, but as her own. As is the world\nwhen, prompted by Willy Joe, Lucy writes her name across the night sky. Through\ncultivating the embodiment of her desire, Willy Joe has enabled a \u201cre-embodiment\u201d as\ndescribed by Boudreau. Lucy\u2019s body, now embraced by her, has become a site of great\npleasure with a place in the world.\n\nThis act is an importantly simple assertion of her existence, of a self worthy of\nbeing and recognition; \u201cproof for-eva and eva\u201d that they were there, as Willy Joe says.\nHowever, unlike the numerous other writings of her name (or rather names) alongside\nWilly Joe\u2019s, this time is different. It is a moment of awakening for Lucy as an individual\nsubject, separate from Willy Joe, which she makes explicit when she whispers:\n\nI IS too,\nI say soft.\nI no like WillyJoe hear me.\nI feel the thick, clear liquid\nmove slow out of my name\non my back, touch it\nwith my own fingers, feel\nmy name on my back all the way inside.\nI IS\nAin\u2019t nobody\ntell me\notherwise. (140)\n\nThis self-affirmation affects a sense of personhood through the experience of her body.\nLucy explores her own body \u2013 her fingers feeling her back, her blood emerging in the\nform of her name, her name embedded \u201cway inside\u201d her body. This scene revises the\ncutting scene in \u201cParts\u201d when the girl uses her blood to write her mother\u2019s name on the\nsidewalk. Lucy is not trying to prove her existence to others but is confirming it for\nherself. She does not seek the love of another, but a love of herself.\nNonetheless, the nature of this self-realization \u2013 self-mutilation - is problematic,\nas if physical suffering is a necessary price to extricate herself from the cultural\nmeanings and attitudes attached to her body. This ending, while affirmative and \u2013\nparticularly after all that has come before it \u2013 promising, still represents the adolescent\ngirl\u2019s harrowing process of achieving embodied subjectivity when doing so entails the challenge of loving and claiming that which the world around her deems unlovable.\n\n*****\n\nThough little studied and taught, *Saturday Night at the Pahala Theatre* is an important work in Yamanaka\u2019s oeuvre not simply because it is her first nor because it voices silenced coming-of-age stories, but because it explores a complicated interweaving of possibilities via multiple overlapping and contradicting narratives of initiation into womanhood. Her later novels treat various trajectories singularly, often either at the expense of hope or alternately of the equally bleak potential for fully realized selfhood. In *Saturday Night*, these fates coexist, emphasizing through their connections and divergence, the importance of nurturance and mutual recognition as essential elements to a positive transition to a woman\u2019s life and body. For one can only love her body, Yamanaka suggests, if it is her own and a site of comfort and pleasure, rather than pain and shame. Further, one must claim and love one\u2019s body in order to claim a voice and a name/self.\n\nThis potential to achieve female subjectivity and unify the self in one\u2019s body rejects Western philosophies of body and mind in relation specifically to gender. It is an indictment of sexism, violence, and a lack of care for girls and women that Yamanaka writes against in *Pahala Theatre*. The collection ends on the note of full embodiment and selfhood, yet most of the girls have failed, overpowered by the conditions of their environment and society that grant men power over female bodies. They all struggle to resist their objectification in some way, but Lucy is the only one who succeeds. There is a self, a body united with mind, to be recovered, Yamanaka asserts through Lucy. One must wonder, however, if this assertion of female subjectivity, this determination to struggle and survive without objectification, violation, and fragmentation with which Yamanaka imbibes her young characters, regardless of their individual fates, can be separated from their identity as local Japanese? Would the same potential be available to local Filipinos, whom Yamanaka is content to trap in their own raced bodies, disempowered and voiceless themselves?\n\n**Works Cited**\n\n\nFavazza, Armando R. *Bodies Under Siege: Self-Mutilation and Body Modification in Culture*\n\n---\n\n10 *Saturday Night* begs for a thorough analysis of the racial politics in the text, one that not only addresses the positioning of the local Japanese protagonists in relation to whites but also to local Filipino, and critical attention to Yamanaka\u2019s work should expand beyond *Blu\u2019s Hanging*, which dominates the scholarly attention to her oeuvre, likely due in good part to the controversy surrounding the novel. I hope this essay introduces readers to *Saturday Night* and invites others to engage these projects.\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=aaldp", "len_cl100k_base": 10896, "olmocr-version": "0.1.53", "pdf-total-pages": 15, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 48565, "total-output-tokens": 12422, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.0005311965942382812, "__label__art_design": 0.002140045166015625, "__label__crime_law": 0.0003235340118408203, "__label__education_jobs": 0.006526947021484375, "__label__entertainment": 0.0010251998901367188, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.00039839744567871094, "__label__finance_business": 0.00018227100372314453, "__label__food_dining": 0.0002465248107910156, "__label__games": 0.00036215782165527344, "__label__hardware": 3.6656856536865234e-05, "__label__health": 0.0007834434509277344, "__label__history": 0.0004274845123291016, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00017261505126953125, "__label__industrial": 9.948015213012697e-05, "__label__literature": 0.97998046875, "__label__politics": 0.002079010009765625, "__label__religion": 0.0006337165832519531, "__label__science_tech": 0.0004529953002929687, "__label__social_life": 0.0029239654541015625, "__label__software": 7.474422454833984e-05, "__label__software_dev": 0.0001684427261352539, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00021648406982421875, "__label__transportation": 0.0001800060272216797, "__label__travel": 7.206201553344727e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 53134, 0.00882]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 53134, 0.16661]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 53134, 0.95393]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 3491, false], [3491, 7850, null], [7850, 11782, null], [11782, 14738, null], [14738, 18914, null], [18914, 22969, null], [22969, 27355, null], [27355, 31274, null], [31274, 35291, null], [35291, 39415, null], [39415, 42474, null], [42474, 45563, null], [45563, 48018, null], [48018, 51391, null], [51391, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 3491, true], [3491, 7850, null], [7850, 11782, null], [11782, 14738, null], [14738, 18914, null], [18914, 22969, null], [22969, 27355, null], [27355, 31274, null], [31274, 35291, null], [35291, 39415, null], [39415, 42474, null], [42474, 45563, null], [45563, 48018, null], [48018, 51391, null], [51391, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 53134, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 3491, 1], [3491, 7850, 2], [7850, 11782, 3], [11782, 14738, 4], [14738, 18914, 5], [18914, 22969, 6], [22969, 27355, 7], [27355, 31274, 8], [31274, 35291, 9], [35291, 39415, 10], [39415, 42474, 11], [42474, 45563, 12], [45563, 48018, 13], [48018, 51391, 14], [51391, 53134, 15]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 53134, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-09", "created": "2024-12-09"}
+{"id": "78cbe156a287fa58c98c186bbd68c0d5cb4f011a", "text": "Poe\u2019s Unreliable Narrator: the Reader as a Privileged Witness and the Narrator\u2019s Credibility\n\nEl narrador poco fiable de Poe: el lector como testigo privilegiado y la credibilidad del narrador\n\nFrancisco Javier S\u00e1nchez-Verdejo P\u00e9rez\nUNED\nfjsanchezverdejo@valdepenas.uned.es\n\nResumen\nUn narrador en quien no se puede confiar (preso de la locura, lleno de mentiras...) es una de las armas m\u00e1s poderosas que puede usar un autor. Como veremos, los efectos se multiplican cuando ese escritor es Edgar Allan Poe. Por otro lado, o adm\u00e1s, si hay algo que pueda deleitar m\u00e1s que leer a Poe, eso es ense\u00f1ar a Poe. Sus narradores, los que aparecen en historias como \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d o \u201cThe Black Cat\u201d, ofrecen un ejemplo magn\u00edfico para nuestro proyecto. Mentalmente inestables, a pesar de sus (\u00bf)pretendidas(?) intenciones de credibilidad, dichos narradores suelen alejarse subjetivamente de los hechos. Es por ello que estas historias formar\u00e1n parte del corpus de narraciones que aqu\u00ed presentamos.\n\nPalabras clave: Unreliable narrator, percepci\u00f3n, Edgar Allan Poe, credibilidad.\n\n1 This contribution comes to light as a research carried out with several (under)graduate students. This research is included in a project designed in the form of cooperative work with students of different educational levels, and presented at a round table entitled \u201dEdgar Allan Poe in the classroom: new proposals for teaching in the 21st century\u201d, in the I International EAPSA Conference, \u201dPoe in the Age of Populism\u201d, held in Valladolid between January 31st and February 2nd, 2018. The participating students are:\n- Mar\u00eda Victoria Arenas Vela\n- Mar\u00eda Bel\u00e9n Casado Rodrigo\n- Beatriz Garrido Garc\u00eda\n- Rub\u00e9n Pareja Pinilla\nAbstract\nAn unreliable narrator (prisoner of madness, full of lies...) is one of the most powerful weapons an author can use. As we shall see, the effects multiply when that writer is Edgar Allan Poe. On the other hand, or in addition, if there is something that can delight more than reading Poe, that is teaching Poe. His narrators, those that appear in stories like \"The Tell-Tale Heart\" or \"The Black Cat\" offer a magnificent example for our project. Mentally unstable, despite their (intended?) intentions of reliability, these narrators often move away subjectively from the facts. That is why these stories will be part of the corpus of narratives that we present here.\n\nKey words: Unreliable narrator, perception, Edgar Allan Poe, credibility.\n\n1. INTRODUCTION\nThe narrative technique of unreliable narration was first coined by Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book The Rhetoric of Fiction. Ever since Wayne C. Booth explained this concept, it has been considered to be among the basic categories of textual analysis. According to Booth, the distinction between reliable and unreliable narrators is based on the degree and type of distance that separates a given narrator from the implied author of a work. Booth (1983: 158-59) states that \"I have called a narrator reliable when he speaks for or acts in accordance with the norms of the work (which is to say the implied author\u2019s norms), unreliable when he does not.\"\n\nWhen the narrator is reliable, the reader accepts without any doubt the statements of fact and judgment. However, when the narrator is unreliable, the reader questions or seeks to qualify the aforementioned statements. Thus, following Greta Olson (2003: 93-110), an unreliable narrator reveals an interpretation of events that is somehow different from the author\u2019s own interpretation of those events.\n\nFurther, Booth (1983: 378) adds that if an author wants the reader to be confused, then unreliable narration may help him. Abrams (1993: 168) defines this type of narrator as the one whose perception, interpretation, and evaluation of the matters he narrates do not coincide with the implicit opinions expressed by the author, which the author expects the alert reader to share. Gargano, regarding Poe\u2019s narrators, asserts this: \"Poe intends his\nreaders to keep their powers of analysis and judgement ever alert; he does not require or desire complete surrender to the experience of the sensations being felt by his characters.\u201d (Gargano, 2004: 825).\n\nOn his part, Baldick (2001: 268) identifies the unreliable narrator as the one whose account of events seems to be faulty, misleadingly biased, or distorted. Thus, it departs from the true understanding of events shared between the reader and the implied author. It is significant that many of the narrators in Poe\u2019s works have descended into the madness. In fact, in some occasions, they assert without any hint of vacillation that they have lost their minds, most of the time due to the uncanny facts that they are about to narrate. Indeed Poe himself, in a letter in which he comments his suffering after his wife Virginia Clemm\u2019s death, holds this: \u201cI became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity.\u201d\n\nFacing a narrator who does not define himself as unreliable at the beginning of the story, we can guess that the facts that he will tell us next are not completely true. There can be some exaggerations, fantasies, hallucinations, in a way that his testimony seems unacceptable. E. A. Poe does not use madness to give authenticity to the unbelievable; that is simply a technique to justify the irrationality of the upcoming narrator\u2019s testimony or confession. In any case, Edgar Allan Poe\u2019s use of madness is the highest form of intelligence. Moreover, in some occasions it can lead the protagonist to his downfall, as happens in \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d.\n\nLying, hiding information, judging in a wrong way and, as a consequence, confusing the nature of the facts narrated to the reader, are parts of the universe of the unreliable narrator (McCoppin, 2012). Telling about oneself that you are not mad \u2013reported information that have not been required\u2013 makes the reader call into question the narrator\u2019s declaration. This is the way, facing any of Poe\u2019s narrations, in the first paragraph where the narrator usually betrays himself trying to hide his own madness. Thus, we can interpret that the amazing facts that are about to be narrated maybe could be explained as the result of a delirious mind. In spite of the fact that one may think that the narrators lie, it\u2019s just the opposite, they tell a truth that only gets validity inside the frame of the madness and that frequently results unacceptable to reasoning. Furthermore, it is more than possible that the homodiegetic narrator \u2013that is, a narrator who is also the main character in the storyworld (Martens, 2008: 79)\u2013 is so weak that he does not perceive the reality just as it is, he gets really confused and all this finally leads him to\n\n---\n\n2 Taken from https://www.eapoe.org/works/letters/p4801040.htm (retrieved from the Internet on January 23rd, 2019).\nmadness. Particularly, we refer to the weakness of the protagonist of \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d. His weakness confuses him and he confuses us. It is not reliable although he is not really lying. He is weak and he does not accept the surrounding reality. He has a fragmented, limited vision of his situation due to his mental, physical state for having been tortured; and what is more, he is in complete darkness most of the time.\n\nWhat Poe brings to light in the first paragraphs is that the inexplicable facts, in the story, belong to a higher dimension of reality, and that is only accessible through madness. Some critics as Brett Zimmerman point out that, although the term did not indeed exist in Poe\u2019s days, several of the narrators suffered from a case of schizophrenia. Throughout the short stories, several of the signs fit inside this psychological profile: the sound and auditory hallucinations, his inability to recognize the real facts from the imaginary ones, etc. (Zimmerman, 1992: 40-41). From his view, Robert Shulman (1970: 261) points out that Poe, in his short stories, gives an anatomy of the psychological paralysis that in a claustrophobic way is trapped in his own depth of insanity that is fighting in vain to release himself from unknown and threatening forces (May, 1991).\n\nE. A. Poe does not make any effort to hide his belief that madness is, or could be, the highest state of consciousness. In fact, he holds that view very often, from \u201cLigeia\u201d to \u201cBerenice\u201d, going through \u201cAnabel Lee\u201d to \u201cThe Fall of the House of Usher\u201d and, as we will reveal with examples, in the stories we are going to analyse throughout this research.\n\nThe purpose of this contribution is to analyse several of the techniques that Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) controls and uses masterfully in some of his works and the incomparable processes that he defines with the intention of designing what he calls an unreliable narrator. Regarding this resource, it is undeniable that his way of writing manages to surprise, terrify, mislead, etc. the reader. As we will see through these pages, Poe uses this resource with the intention of building a world full of suspense, and, what is more, with the intention of catching the reader\u2019s soul and carrying it to the hell of the narrator\u2019s mind.\n\nThe reader wonders what it is true and what is not. In this contribution we are going to analyse Poe\u2019s writing, and his techniques, in short, to the grotesque, the distorted, the dreadful and the uncanny, which are intimately connected. For Laura Kranzler, this last concept, a key to understand Poe, refers to \u201cthe shadowy world that is the complex underbelly of familiar experience\u201d (in Gaskell, 2000: xi)..\n2. THE UNCANNY IN POE\u2019S WRITING\n\nThe German word *Unheimliche* is considered as untranslatable; the equivalent term in English, *uncanny*, is by itself difficult to define. This indescribable quality is in fact an integral part of the understanding of the uncanny experiences. These recurrent topics that activate our more primitive desires and fears are the true signature of this kind of fiction.\n\nAccording to Freud\u2019s description, the uncanny represents \u201cthat class of the frightening which leads back to what is known of old and long familiar\u201d (1985: 340); in other words, it projects its terror not only from something external or externally unknown, but, on the contrary, from something strangely familiar which avoids our efforts to separate us from the origin of that terror. Freud argues that an author can evoke an uncanny answer in the reader when he places the action between the boundary of reality and unreality inside fiction itself; for these purposes, Freud treats the uncanny as a psychological fact and at the same time as a literary one. Focusing on Poe, in very few authors one is able to find with so much accuracy the boundaries between fantasy, unreality and reality itself.\n\nWhen a story is narrated, one of the most useful elements to make the reader feel uncanny effects is to create a sense of distrust and uncertainty in the reader about whether a certain character is good or bad, real or unreal, sane or insane, and do it in order that this attention is not centred directly on that doubt so that we cannot explain that matter. The hesitation of the certainty about what one sees is the essence of Poe\u2019s productions with which he manipulates the capability of the reader\u2019s reasoning (Shen, 2008: 321-45.). On the one hand, a character perceives (or thinks he does) extraordinary things that perhaps are hallucinations projected by his own mind; on the other hand, it is possible that some common elements hide under the most banal appearance a second disturbing, mysterious, terrible nature.\n\nThe fear of the uncanny appears when we face the disguised and distorted images of our repressed desire. It is possible that terror derives simply and directly from our own feelings of fear, pain or death, the threats that can harm us or that we simply do not recognize. The intensity of the emotions that are produced by the supernatural creates doubts and confusion. For Kilgour, in his book *The Rise of the Gothic Novel* (1995), by means of the uncanny something becomes estranged from us.\n\nThe uncanny appears as a breakdown of the universal coherence; an aggression (threatening) is produced that breaks the stability of a world in which the laws were\nconsidered as rigorous and unchangeable until then. The impossible occurs without warning in a world where it was believed that the impossible was dismissed by its own nature. Caillois (1967: 9-10) asserts that its essence is the appearance, what cannot happen and despite everything it happens, in a precise moment, in the middle of a known universe and in which it was thought mystery was excluded. Everything seems to be peaceful, without anything unusual, and suddenly the unacceptable is suggested or it is displayed unexpectedly. For Ana M\u00aa Barrenechea (1985: 48), a violation of the worldly, natural or logical order takes place; the strange is everything that on the level of the natural or supernatural, physical or metaphysical is considered out of what is socioculturally accepted.\n\nSome critics (Tatar, 1981; Madden, 1993; Royle, 2003; Sch\u00f6pp, 2006; Windsor, 2019) maintain that Poe is able to intensify the emotional impact of the feeling of the uncanny in his works to unsuspected limits. In these terms, Freud points out some ideas about the relation between the uncanny in real life and in literature: \u201c...many things that would be uncanny if they occurred in real life are not uncanny in literature, and that in literature there are many opportunities to achieve uncanny effects that are absent in real life\u201d (cited in Chieffalo, 2001: 15).\n\nThe essence of the uncanny is connected to the concept of the unreliable narrator (the rational versus the irrational, the natural versus the supernatural), they are dimensions that at the same time are mingled in a surprising and strange way from the main character and the reader\u2019s perspective who are living the experience of that tension and/or conflict (Herrero, 1998: 27). Just as professor Herrero pointed out, this can be read in Rosemary Jackson\u2019s words, who, before in time, asserts that \u201cIt has to do with inverting elements of this world, re-combining its constitutive features in new relations to produce something strange, unfamiliar and apparently \u2018new\u2019, absolutely \u2018other\u2019 and different\u201d (1981: 8).\n\nIn the short stories we are going to analyse, Poe introduces common characters; thus, there is a taste for the real, that is, according to Sancho Cremades, the emphasis on daily life is typical of the terror during all historical times (1995: 381). Even worse is the fact that the agents of terror are found in our closest surroundings. Horror, if set up in a familiar environment and close to the reader, is much more fearful since it provides the feeling that it can happen to him at any time. Poe introduces common characters (with whom the reader could identify himself), happening horrible things, in a familiar environment (such as a house similar to that to the reader's, or with nice neighbours such\nas those of the reader\u2019s...). We are not so afraid of a seven-headed dragon as of a sweet and affectionate man since we plainly know we will never meet the former, where the latter is really possible.\n\n3. THE RATIONAL AND THE IRRATIONAL IN POE\u2019S STORIES\n\nFocusing on the historical context that frame Poe\u2019s stories, we should highlight the fact that the atmosphere of that period was favourable for the exploration of the two sides of the humanity: the rational thought and the belief in the supernatural. The rationalist position holds that human reason is the supreme tool to understand and rule the world. Man, accompanied by reason, becomes independent from God and from religion; moreover, everything that evokes any religious postulate or beliefs is rejected. All natural and social events can be explained only by the intervention of reason. Thus, many of the popular beliefs that have been steadily maintained during many centuries are rejected by rationalism and they are considered as simple superstitions typical of ignorant people.\n\nMar\u00eda Teresa Ramos Gonz\u00e1lez asserts that in this age rationalism and irrational beliefs coexist and at the same time they reject each other, because their conception of reality is the opposite from one to the other. And, it turns out that the second trend is a reaction against the scientific and deterministic vision of the first one (1988: 42). In this sense, this type of literature is an exaltation of the irrational, in which the inexplicable and supernatural mystery shatters our assumptions about the world and reality, our belief in the scientific laws that rationally rule (or at least that is what is expected) the universe, and opens the abyss, the chaos, under our feet (Pardo Garc\u00eda, 1992: 145).\n\nGiving light to this point, Rosemary Jackson considers that this literature brings in \u201csomething completely other and unseen, the spaces outside the limiting frame of the human and the real, outside the control of the word and the look\u201d (1981: 179). Her position consists of introducing what it is called otherness. The emergence of works where the double is fundamental coincide wholly with some consequences that include a desire of subvert reality (1981: 4).\n\nAt this point, it is essential to consider these ideas from a new and complementary point of view: the artistic manifestation of the fears and consciousness of human beings. Thus, we cannot avoid referring, perhaps concisely, to the literary and artistic perspective that comes as a last resort from the revolution and the impregnated the consciousness during the period that preceded romanticism: we are regarding, obviously, to the Enlightenment.\nIt would be a good example of this relation between the perception and use of the play between consciousness and unconsciousness of human mind and the creation of an unreal nightmarish world that affects the feelings of the people who read a story or contemplate an artistic painting. Now we can recall the ideas that Goya expressed in his etching \u201cEl sue\u00f1o de la raz\u00f3n produce monstruos\u201d (1799).\u00b3\n\nIt is precisely the eagerness of understanding and reasoning reality to its last consequences what leads the reader to the rediscovery of the artistic genre that Poe masterfully ruled. The beliefs in the past are rejected, and this literature needs the involvement of the reader, the suspension of his disbelief in order to provoke fear. The dream of reason produces literary monsters in which we can conjure up the spirits of personal fears. Since 1793, Goya executes his series of Caprichos, populated by threatening monsters. Nevertheless, the existence of these beings is not objective: they are inside ourselves, at the inner depths of our subconscious and, they break away from it as soon as our logical intelligence rests. For modern man, monsters in general are not only terrifying because they exist, but because they carry out their fears and their most secret desires.\n\nPoe\u2019s literature is not directed to a superstitious audience which believes in ghosts and supernatural beings. His readers accept the rules of the game that propose the new genre (\u201cand if it would be true that...\u201d)\n\nFirst, the reader is conditioned to consider the world of the characters as a universe of real people and it makes him doubt about whether it is truthful or a supernatural explanation of the events that occurred. Secondly, this doubt is also experienced by a character; in this way, the roll of the reader is identified the real intentions or features that have any relation to the narrator and the plot in order to find clues to the best understanding of the story. This explains that one of the most favourite narrative techniques would be the narration in first person. Thirdly, the reader adopts a determined attitude to the text: realistic interpretation and explanation of the events (Todorov, 1970).\n\nTzvetan Todorov, in his Introduction \u00e0 la literature fantastique (1970), holds that one essential feature is precisely astonishment when facing an incredible fact, indecision between a rational and realistic explanation, and acceptance of the supernatural.\n\nRegarding the topic of the double which we have mentioned, this was dealt with by Otto Rank in an essay (1914). Rank looked into the connections that the double has with the\n\n---\n\n\u00b3 It can be accessed via https://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/obra-de-arte/el-sueo-de-la-razon-produce-monstruos/e4845219-9365-4b36-8c89-3146dc34f280 (retrieved from the Internet on February 18th, 2020).\nreflections in the mirrors, with the shadows, with the guardian spirits, with the belief in the existence of the soul and with the fear to death. The technique of the doppelg\u00e4nger is described as a reflection or duality of a character\u2019s identity, it refers to its twin, its double shadow, its double demon, the double personality (Snodgrass, 2005). The double has become an element of terror, the same way after the collapse of religion gods became demons.\n\nThe figure of the double can be analysed not only from the psychological point of view, but also as a contrast, as a duality, as a figure that is projected in a mirror where the reflection emerges as a unit with two different faces, that sometimes takes us to a surprising similarity, obsessive, exasperating. In Antonio Ballesteros Gonz\u00e1lez\u2019s words, \u201cel desdoblamiento de la personalidad y sus consecuentes m\u00e1s inmediatos son elementos privilegiados de toda manifestaci\u00f3n de la literatura fant\u00e1stica\u201d (1992: 136).\n\nMany people experience a sense of the uncanny to the highest degree in relation to death and dead people, with the return of the dead and with the spirits and the ghosts. However, there is hardly any other topic such as death where our thoughts and feelings have almost not changed since the beginning of time and where the ways have been so completely under a weak disguise.\n\nThe situation is modified as soon as the writer presents the story inside the world of common reality. In this case he will also accept all the conditions in order to produce uncanny feelings in real life; and all that could have an uncanny effect in reality is present in his story. But in this case he can increase the effect \u2013and indeed multiply it\u2013 going further than what could happen in reality, by introducing events that never, or almost never, factually occur. Doing this, he is, in some way, handing us over to the superstition that we had surpassed in an evident way; he misleads us promising to give us the whole truth and, in the end, overtaking it. We react to his inventions as we would have reacted to the real experiences; but by the time we have realised about his deception it is too late and the author has achieved his purpose. Poe\u2019s narrations make us think if what we perceived, fiction, is not at last, the reality (Penzoldt, 1965: 16). Therefore, we are presented a burst of supernatural in the real world, an intrusion of mystery in everyday life, a breakdown of the recognizable order, \u201cuna irrupci\u00f3n de lo inadmisible en el seno de la inalterable legalidad cotidiana\u201d (Caillois, 1965: 36). Poe demonstrates that the macabre can happen at any time and in any place.\n4. **THE UNRELIABLE NARRATOR**\n\nAs we have pointed out before, this research is going to be focused in the previously referred works from Edgar Allan Poe. He was an American author who lived during the first part of XIXth century and who managed to leave his footprint in the history of universal literature. The works which we are going to deal with are his essay \u201cThe Philosophy of Composition\u201d, his poem \u201cAnnabel Lee\u201d and four of his most famous and significant short stories: \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d, \u201cThe Black Cat\u201d, \u201cThe Cask of Amontillado\u201d and \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d.\n\nThe reasons we have chosen these works for this research are explained below. In the essay \u201cThe Philosophy of Composition\u201d, Poe defines and details his artistic and creative theory whose conception allowed him to design, mould and build his short stories and poems. This essay is of great interest since we can see how the author, meticulously, looks after the election of the settings, characters, language and many other elements to influence the reader, direct his attention to the author\u2019s interests, manipulate his spirit and disposition to a specific goal with the intention of provoking in him the desired effect as we will see later. Poe does not leave anything left to chance and that is what he manifests explicitly in his essay.\n\nWe have included the poem \u201cAnnabel Lee\u201d as a paradigmatic example to be analysed from the same point of view as the other narrative works. We will show and give an example of Poe\u2019s writing skills. Within the wide range of possibilities to choose from among the vast amount of Edgar Allan Poe\u2019s works, we selected the works above mentioned, as they present many examples for analysis.\n\nThere is no doubt that Poe was the one who gave literature a psychological appearance without any precedent in English language narrative. The American writer either created a series of psychologically tormented characters or he played in his productions with possible subjective interpretations: \u201cTension is often created in Poe\u2019s tales by the dichotomy between the rational tone which the narrator adopts, and the perverse, irrational nature of unconscious mind which the narrative reveals\u201d (Walker, 1993: 120).\n\nConsequently, focusing on the narrator, we must say that the fact that a story is written in first person gives strength and some aspects that could not be achieved in another way. We can quote David Roas\u2019 words in which he makes reference to this type of narrators and the effect that it provokes in a text: \u201c... la utilizaci\u00f3n del narrador-protagonista va a causar siempre un mayor efecto emocional sobre el lector que el que pueda generar un narrador...\u201d\nextradi\u00e9g\u00e9tico-heterodieg\u00e9tico\u201d (Roas, 2011: 21). Hence, in all of them we will analyse the figure of the narrator and assess if it has any hidden interest or if we can find any intention of manipulating the reader. The confidence of the reader will depend on the conclusions observed about the narrator\u2019s psychology and credibility found in the story or the confession in some cases thereby putting in doubt what he is reading. This fact entails a fairly interesting game between the narrator and the reader, because the reader validates all the arguments and explanations of the narrative voice, but he is immersed in an continuous analysis of reality searching for the truth which is not very clear at all times (Rein, 1960; Gargano, 2004; Shen, 2008; Alber et. al., 2010).\n\nPoe is a groundbreaking writer with his tales of mystery since he diminishes importance to the classic gothic elements that had been used since the origin of the genre. Not only does he inspire horror through supernatural elements, haunted houses, medieval ruined castles or ghosts which torment the characters of the stories; he goes well beyond and introduces with great skill the daily terrors and the domestic horror that surrounds us in our daily life that at the beginning, we do not see it as a threat. True scary stories work and achieve their purposes if they get the reader to put aside his incredulity and, what it is as important or even more than this, abandon his own daily fears for a while.\n\nWe \u2013or our primitive forefathers\u2013 once believed in the possibility of these things and were convinced that they really happened. Nowadays we no longer believe in them... but we do not feel quite sure of our new set of beliefs, and the old ones still exist within us ready to seize upon any confirmation (Bloom, 1998: 290).\n\nAs we will see in the development of this research, some narrators will show us their story from the perspective of a psychopath. In this way, through the sensory stimulus that he uses so well in his short stories as in this closeness and everyday nature of evil personified in people of our close environment, Poe is able to exponentially increase the horror the reader feels while he is delving in as a witness or accomplice, inside the universe that the author defines and makes us tremble.\n\n5 VISUAL AND HEARING PERCEPTION AS A TRIGGER OF THE UNRELIABLE NARRATOR\n\nIn this point of our analysis, we are going to see how the perception of these sensitive stimuli affect the credibility given to the narration by the reader and, definitely, to the (double or not) narrator\u2019s intention.\nAttending to the definition given in the *Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms* about the term unreliable narrator, we can say that the description of this kind of narrator matches mainly the one used by Poe:\n\n* A narrator whose account of events appears to be faulty, misleadingly biased, or otherwise distorted, so that it departs from the \u201ctrue\u201d understanding of events shared between the reader and the implied author... The term does not necessarily mean that such a narrator is morally untrustworthy or a habitual liar (although this may be true in some cases), since the category also includes harmlessly na\u00efve, \u201cfallible\u201d, or ill-informed narrators.4\n\nOn the one hand, we can highlight that in \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d we find a person whose health is affected due to the torture and confinement he is suffering. Awaking after the shock of receiving a death sentence in the Spanish Inquisition, the narrator first seeks to gather his mental abilities before trying to gather his physical abilities (Ballengee, 2008: 27). To create a sense of doubt in the reader, Poe never makes clear the \"narrator's particular crime, nor is it indicated that he himself knows his crime\" (Ballengee, 2008: 30). Poe reinforces the unreliability of the narrator due to his mental and physical state; \"isolated within his dungeon chamber, the narrator undergoes horrifying bodily discomfort and pain that simultaneously suggest and provoke an experience that eludes rational knowledge and communicability\" (Ballengee, 2008: 30).\n\nRight from the very beginning it is made clear that the character\u2019s senses are abandoning him: \u201cI was sick \u2014 sick unto death with that long agony; and when they at length unbound me, and I was permitted to sit, I felt that my senses were leaving me.\u201d (Mabbot, 1978a, 681)5 Thus, he explains to us how he feels physically. He also gives details that his death sentence was the last auditory stimulus he perceived and, from that instant, he can see how the inquisitors move their lips but he was not able to grasp any sound. He discerns an uncertain reality among the shadows, the weakness and the lose of the conscience he suffers in some moments. He is not able to see with a clear mind the reality that surrounds him and he spends a good part of his confinement investigating his surroundings.\n\n---\n\n4 Taken from https://literature.proquest.com/searchFulltext.do?id=R04454571&divLevel=0&queryId=3096997849985&trialId=167EF3BDB2&area=ref&forward= critref_ft (retrieved from the Internet on January 28th, 2019).\n\n5 For all Poe\u2019s quotes, we have followed Mabbott\u2019s edition project, which can be consulted online at: https://www.eapoe.org/works/mabbott/tominfo.htm (retrieved from the Internet on January 28th, 2019).\nSometimes he touches the walls and at others he tries to guess the depth of the well which he discovers when he is about to fall down the well. Due to the fallacy of the senses, he gives us mistaken information that comes from the distorted information provided by his own senses. He does not want to confuse us but, undoubtedly, the reader guesses he cannot trust him because he is very confused.\n\nPoe gives another perspective completely different when the narrator is a murderer as in the other short stories we are studying. As readers, we perceive some contradictions and incoherence inside the narration. In some occasions, as in \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d, the narrator makes a series of assertions based on his hearing sense. These clues warn us that we cannot trust him too much: \u201cThe disease had sharpened my senses \u2014 not destroyed \u2014 not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth.\u201d (Mabbott, 1978c, 792) The narrator considers his hypersensitivity as a unique feature that makes him special and he does not consider it as clear evidence of his mental disorder. At the story progresses, we can see how the visual perception and, over all, the auditory one, are increasing in importance. On the one side, an obsession is awakened towards the old man that, supposedly, comes from the feelings provoked by one of the old man\u2019s eyes: \u201dI think it was his eye! yes, it was this! One of his eyes resembled that of a vulture \u2014 a pale blue eye, with a film over it.\u201d (Mabbott, 1978c, 792) Moreover, when he commits the crime he starts to listen to, even stronger, the old dead man\u2019s beating heart. Thus the reader knows that it is an impossible fact and that sound only exists inside his mind, mistrusting everything coming from the narrator. There are many examples we could choose to demonstrate that he is completely convinced that he is listening to the old dead man\u2019s heart. Indeed if he has been dismembered and confined: \u201cBut the beating grew louder, louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety seized me \u2014 the sound would be heard by a neighbor!\u201d (Mabbott, 1978c, 795).\n\nThe visual perception that Poe uses in the story \u201cThe Black Cat\u201d reveals that the narrator is not telling us the truth. We know this because we realize that although some facts can be considered as supernatural, the source of that information comes from the narrator\u2019s perception affected by a mental illness and overwhelmed by his own emotions. It is important to note that we know he is an alcoholic and that leads us to doubt all he is describing.\n\nWhen his house burns and the walls fall down, with the exception of one of them, we can observe on its surface a stain in which something completely unexpected and unbelievable\nappears: \u201cThe impression was given with an accuracy truly marvellous. There was a rope about the animal's neck.\u201d (Mabbott, 1978d, 853) But, was it really a gigantic figure? The narrator, in his effort to find a logical explanation for the fact (and remove any sense of guilt if he may have) sees its shape was engraved on the wall. However, if this were true, it would not justify that the stain could be as big as he suggests. The reader finds here one more of the narrator\u2019s numerous incongruities and he understands that is inside the narrator\u2019s mind where the image takes on such great dimension.\n\nAnd, finally, in the story \u201cThe Cask of Amontillado\u201d it is not precisely the visual and auditory stimuli that are connected to the fact that the reader mistrusts the narrative voice. There are other different reasons besides the sensorial factors. Effectively, the reader considers him as an unreliable narrator, but for some reasons we are going to analyse later in this research.\n\n6. MISTRUST AS A WITTY DEVICE TO REINFORCE THE UNRELIABLE NARRATOR\n\nIf in the previous section of this research we have mentioned some aspects related to the narrator\u2019s credibility basing our thoughts on his physical perceptions, from now on we are going to search the credibility from a new point of view. We will focus our attention on the reasons that cause mistrust in the reader by different narrators (Walsh, 1997: 495-513). We will examine short stories as well as the poem \"Annabel Lee\" since the poem is written in first person.\n\nWhereas several readers could read this poetic composition as a declaration of eternal love, our goal will be to analyse the narrator\u2019s psychology. In order to do that, we will focus our attention on the lover\u2019s anger and the strange behaviour he exhibits as the poem progresses.\n\nThe sweet and peaceful tone of the first lines induces the reader to think that he is facing a fairy tale. However, in the second stanza, the narrator asserts that indeed the angels were jealous of their love: \u201cWith a love that the wing\u00e9d seraphs in Heaven / Coveted her and me.\u201d (Mabbott, 1969, 477)\n\nLittle by little, we are convinced of the narrator\u2019s paranoid state of mind when in the fourth stanza he says \u201cas all men know\u201d and refers to the idea that these angels killed her lover:\n\nThe angels, not half so happy in Heaven,\nWent envying her and me\nYes! \u2014 that was the reason (as all men know,\nIn this kingdom by the sea)\nThat the wind came out of the cloud by night,\nChilling and killing my Annabel Lee.\u201d (Mabbott, 1969, 478)\n\nThe fears and suppositions about the narrator\u2019s demential condition due to the mourning and pain that he feels are so deep rooted and are accentuated when we discover at the end of the poem that the narrator sleeps close to the deceased\u2019s grave.\n\nAnd so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side\nOf my darling \u2014 my darling \u2014 my life and my bride,\nIn her sepulchre there by the sea \u2014\nIn her tomb by the sounding sea. (Mabbott, 1969, 478)\n\nThe separation from the woman he loves makes him gradually lose his capability of reasoning. Thus, the soft and pleasant initial atmosphere is changing into darkness, at the same time that the narrator\u2019s reliability is vanishing.\n\nLet us study the narrators\u2019 actions and the personality in some of his stories. In these works written by Poe, the narrator\u2019s personality is declared through the language and the tone he uses and the acts he commits. All these, help us to uncover his true intentions. Personality will be a key element to discover if the characters\u2019 testimonies are real or have been manipulated and we cannot assume their veracity.\n\nIn \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d and \u201cThe Cask of Amontillado\u201d the characters try to show us their reasons to commit the crime. Once we reach this point and have verified that these motives are baseless \u2013since Fortunato\u2019s injuries and the old man\u2019s strange eye are not true reasons to commit a murder\u2013 the narrators\u2019 sanity is called into question (Kennedy, 2016: 541). It is the notion, realization and assumption of irrationality by a narrator who is rationalizing his actions that is most discomforting to readers. Poe is a master at creating narrators who force readers to question the nature of sanity, by focusing on the narrator\u2019s mental and physical status while hardly placing mental and emotional stress on the reader.\n\nIt\u2019s revealing that in the first paragraph of \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d in which the narrator starts with the strong assertion that he is not mad, really, he is warning the reader that the simple fact of defending his sanity makes him seem to be mentally disordered:\nTRUE! [sic] \u2014 nervous \u2014 very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad? The disease had sharpened my senses \u2014 not destroyed \u2014 not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How, then, am I mad? Hearken! and observe how healthily \u2014 how calmly I can tell you the whole story. (Mabbott, 1978c, 792)\n\nIn the same paragraph we find another incongruity: he tells us that he is very nervous and he ends asserting that he is about to expose his story in a \u201chealthy\u201d and \u201ccalmly\u201d way. Regarding this, Gargano makes a correct assertion about this narrator due to the way in which he defends his own sanity and he brings us into \u201chis\u201d story: \u201cThe sharp exclamations, nervous questions, and broken sentences almost too blatantly advertise Poe\u2019s conscious intention; the protagonist\u2019s painful insistence [on] \u201cproving\u201d himself sane only serves to intensify the idea of his madness\u201d (2004: 825). It is obvious that the protagonist of the story is obsessed with the old man\u2019s eye, killing him finally but without any reasonable motive or regret. He delights himself about the extraordinary way he designed his plan and how he concealed his terrible intentions when confronting the old man. He realizes that he was never as kind to him than during the week when, night after night, he tried to kill him until he did. Also he emits loud laughs while he explains the macabre details of his crime: \u201cA tub had caught all \u2014 ha! ha!\u201d (Mabbott, 1978c, 796) At the end of the narration it is amazing when the protagonist and narrator\u2019s mental instability and stress make him listen to the heartbeats of the dead, dismembered old man\u2019s heart which is hidden under the floor boards.\n\nCriticism (Spiekermann, 2007) focuses on the state of mind of the narrator of \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart\u201d; whether or not he is perceived to be insane, or whether his act of murder and subsequent attempt to convince the reader of his mental stability can in fact be attributed to the mind of a sane man. Through the narrative, the readers are in a position that is close to the narrator; he is the source of all information received by the reader, and can manipulate his recollection of events, emotions, and perceived traits at will; everything that we come to understand in terms of the events of the tale, the narrator\u2019s actions, are through a specific lens, one of which readers have little comprehension. The narrator shows a lack of believability throughout the narrative, not the least of which is when he is attempting to find a motive for his murder. It seems that the judgements made on this narrator by the reader, by us, as being insane are made entirely on the picture painted by the narrator himself. Zunshine (2006: 125-7) suggests that we import the figure of an\nunreliable narrator because we need to frame a pattern of textual ambiguities... projection of the unreliable narrator can be seen as a result of the reader's pragmatic interpretation of textual elements within their specific literary context. Therefore, thanks to these details, it is unveiled from the very beginning that we are facing an unreliable narrator. The reading of the first chapter of the story \"The Black Cat\" also warns us about the fact that the narrator does not ask for or expect to be believed. Indeed, he expresses that his mental condition is healthy. In the reader, as well as in the narration mentioned above, a sense of mistrust is awaken by the words coming from the narrator defending his sanity.\n\nFOR [sic] the most wild, yet most homely narrative which I am about to pen, I neither expect nor solicit belief. Mad indeed would I be to expect it, in a case where my very senses reject their own evidence. Yet, mad am I not \u2014 and very surely do I not dream. (Mabbot, 1978d, 849)\n\nThe narrator assumes the reality and the facts that are happening in his home not as if it was his fault, but as an external threat. He does not recognise that the problem comes from its own mind just as Shulman (1970: 251) explains. He states that it is irrational because the narrator establishes that the cat has been responsible of his wife\u00b4s murder. In this way, the narrator hides the true motives for which he has decided to end his wife\u00b4s life (Shulman, 1970: 257). In this same vein, he tries to direct the attention of the reader to what he calls \u201cthe Fiend Intemperance\u201d that consists of blaming alcohol for part of his own violence.\n\nOur friendship lasted, in this manner, for several years, during which my general temperament and character \u2014 through the instrumentality of the Fiend Intemperance \u2014 had (I blush to confess it) experienced a radical alteration for the worse. I grew, day by day, more moody, more irritable, more regardless of the feelings of others. I suffered myself to use intemperate language to my wife. At length, I even offered her personal violence. (Mabbot, 1978d, 851)\n\nThe way in which he has to tell what happens creates some reasonable doubts to suspect about if we should trust him or not. In this story we gradually see the transformation of a human being who defines himself as a kind-hearted lover of the animals and his wife. Later we will see that through his acts and his own words, we are really facing a monster who tries to justify his crime manipulating his discourse. He tries in this way to excuse his\nlegal faults, not his spiritual stain just because he has never demonstrated any hint of feeling regret or remorse.\n\nIn Magistrale\u2019s words we find some of these motives compiled that provoke mistrust in the reader: \u201cThe narrator\u2019s alcoholism, his propensity for violent behaviour, his acute isolation, and his volatile temper are all characteristics of perverseness, that is, they are reflective of self-destructive behaviour.\u201d (2001: 87)\n\nFinally, we will discuss all the aspects related to the narrator of \u201cThe Cask of Amontillado\u201d. In spite of the fact that this short story has also a homodiegetic narrator who murders another human being and narrates the history for us in first person, there are various differences that contrast with the two stories we have previously discussed.\n\nThe main feature we would like to highlight is that this is a story of vengeance. However, it is not an impulsive and passionate vengeance committed when the murderer feels that he has been offended or disturbed in that very moment, but a cold and extremely well calculated revenge. We don\u2019t know if the motives of this settling of scores are so serious to produce so much hate toward Fortunato or if it is simply an unhealthy obsession. The narrator starts his narration talking about the vengeance and his decided intention of punishing someone he considers as his enemy. He is determined to do it in a way in which the crime remains unpunished.\n\n*The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could; but when he ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge. You, who so well know the nature of my soul, will not suppose, however, that I gave utterance to a threat. At length I would be avenged; this was a point definitively settled \u2014 but the very definitiveness with which it was resolved precluded the idea of risk. I must not only punish, but punish with impunity.* (Mabbott, 1978e, 1256)\n\nThe reader realizes that Montresor behaves hypocritically towards Fortunato whom he calls a friend several times and pretends to be worried about his health. We also guess that he is intelligent and that he has thought/calculated about every single detail. For example, he has hidden the mortar to cover the wall and brick in his *friend* Fortunato. His attitude toward him is mean and he also lies to his victim-friend; first, the narrator convinces Fortunato to go with him, then to drink even more, in order to be easier to manipulate him and continue going into the deepest part of the crypts of the *palazzo*. That is why, added to a condemnation and thirsty for vengeance, the reader realizes that this narrator tends to the machination and that he has a low level of morality.\nBased on everything said above, we can value the importance of making an exercise of criticism based on the narrator\u2019s words and attitude in order to understand what is really happening in the story. Besides, we have to take into account different factors as their intelligence, interests, limitations, fears, obsessions... and many details that can help to increase the information we are compiling.\n\n7. CONCLUSIONS\n\nBy creating all these narrators, who are unavoidably unreliable, Poe forces the reader to question the validity of everything within the stories. In doing so, readers are left with a sense of uneasiness and a need to question the world around them. After finishing reading Poe\u2019s productions, readers are undoubtedly close to crossing the line between sane and insane.\n\nIt is clear that Poe is right using this type of narrators to give an important dramatic effect to the reader, catching and getting him closer when he feels that he is inside the story.\n\nIn other words, Poe gets the reader not only to read and imagine all that happens in a story, but also the author makes the reader analyse all the data that has been given to him, since he is aware of the fact that he is facing an unreliable narrator who, either he does not realize what is happening or he is manipulating the facts he is narrating for his own interest.\n\nPoe\u2019s narrations make us think if what we perceived, fiction, is not at last, the reality.\n\nTherefore, we are presented a burst of supernatural in the real world, an intrusion of mystery in everyday life, a breakdown of the recognizable order. Poe demonstrates that the macabre can happen at any time and in any place.\n\nThe common features in Poe\u2019s texts, thus, consist in putting at the forefront both visual and auditory suggestion. The true topic is the reality about what we can see and hear: believe or not believe, discern another haunted and hellish world behind the daily appearance. It seems his productions are meant to enter through the eyes and ears, to be limited to a succession of images. It is not surprising that cinema has been fuelled so much from these stories.\n\nOnce the short stories have been read, it is clearly observed that one of the highlighted features and that stands out because it is a characteristic of the narrators\u2019 psychological field, is the ambivalence and duality. We have to specify here that in some moments (and why not in all the stories?) the duality not only is circumscribed to the story, but also\nsometimes affects the reader-narrator binomial. Therefore, the universe of fiction of the work is not kept inside itself, but it is projected outside.\n\nThe narrators of Poe\u2019s writings shown here provide clear examples of an unreliable narrator. The narrator\u2019s unreliability relies on his attempts to confuse the reader, to digress and thus hide the relevant information. The study has further shown that the narrator is unreliable due to his accumulation of direct addresses to the reader and his conscious attempts to direct the reader\u2019s sympathy.\n\nAt another point, the analysis of the textual signals in the story has proved that the narrator is unreliable because of the frequent discrepancies between his statements and actions. The many textual signals included in the discourse create a distance between narrator and reader. Unreliable narrators are used to generate a sudden an unexpected reaction in readers, usually by a final and impressive plot-twist. One effective way of achieving that outcome is by leading the reader to blindly trust in what the narrator is telling.\n\nFinally, we turn the floor over to Edgar Allan Poe, with this simple and natural but categorical quote from the short story \u201cEleonora\u201d: \u201cMen have called me mad; but the question is not yet settled, whether madness is or is not the loftiest intelligence\u2026\u201d (Mabbott, 1978a, 638).\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES\n\n\n", "metadata": {"Source-Url": "https://udimundus.udima.es/bitstream/handle/20.500.12226/354/Poe%E2%80%99s%20Unreliable%20Narrator.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1", "len_cl100k_base": 10989, "olmocr-version": "0.1.50", "pdf-total-pages": 23, "total-fallback-pages": 0, "total-input-tokens": 56115, "total-output-tokens": 14469, "length": "2e13", "weborganizer": {"__label__adult": 0.00017464160919189453, "__label__art_design": 0.0007052421569824219, "__label__crime_law": 0.00023818016052246096, "__label__education_jobs": 0.01690673828125, "__label__entertainment": 0.0008449554443359375, "__label__fashion_beauty": 0.0001131296157836914, "__label__finance_business": 0.00026702880859375, "__label__food_dining": 0.00011688470840454102, "__label__games": 0.00037288665771484375, "__label__hardware": 5.906820297241211e-05, "__label__health": 0.0002865791320800781, "__label__history": 0.0003726482391357422, "__label__home_hobbies": 0.00014352798461914062, "__label__industrial": 0.00014138221740722656, "__label__literature": 0.97705078125, "__label__politics": 0.00018358230590820312, "__label__religion": 0.0004410743713378906, "__label__science_tech": 0.0006971359252929688, "__label__social_life": 0.0003731250762939453, "__label__software": 0.00013780593872070312, "__label__software_dev": 0.0001558065414428711, "__label__sports_fitness": 0.00011605024337768556, "__label__transportation": 0.00010818243026733398, "__label__travel": 5.9604644775390625e-05}, "weborganizer_max": "__label__literature", "avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_v1__avg_fraction_numbers_in_line_ratio": [[0, 56765, 0.02816]], "fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__fineweb_edu_fasttext_gt2__score": [[0, 56765, 0.37242]], "ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__ft_lang_id_en_doc_v2__en": [[0, 56765, 0.94036]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_contains_pii": [[0, 1699, false], [1699, 3971, null], [3971, 6806, null], [6806, 9507, null], [9507, 12189, null], [12189, 14972, null], [14972, 17639, null], [17639, 20487, null], [20487, 23131, null], [23131, 25809, null], [25809, 28406, null], [28406, 31141, null], [31141, 33925, null], [33925, 36285, null], [36285, 38537, null], [38537, 41397, null], [41397, 43958, null], [43958, 46630, null], [46630, 49120, null], [49120, 51382, null], [51382, 53572, null], [53572, 55863, null], [55863, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-12b-it_is_public_document": [[0, 1699, true], [1699, 3971, null], [3971, 6806, null], [6806, 9507, null], [9507, 12189, null], [12189, 14972, null], [14972, 17639, null], [17639, 20487, null], [20487, 23131, null], [23131, 25809, null], [25809, 28406, null], [28406, 31141, null], [31141, 33925, null], [33925, 36285, null], [36285, 38537, null], [38537, 41397, null], [41397, 43958, null], [43958, 46630, null], [46630, 49120, null], [49120, 51382, null], [51382, 53572, null], [53572, 55863, null], [55863, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_academic_paper": [[0, 5000, true], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_class_syllabus": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_completion_certificate": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_court_notice": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_homework_assignment": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_news_article": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_public_order": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_resume_cv": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_test_or_quiz": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "google_gemma-3-4b-it_v2tag__is_textbook": [[0, 5000, false], [5000, 56765, null]], "pdf_page_numbers": [[0, 1699, 1], [1699, 3971, 2], [3971, 6806, 3], [6806, 9507, 4], [9507, 12189, 5], [12189, 14972, 6], [14972, 17639, 7], [17639, 20487, 8], [20487, 23131, 9], [23131, 25809, 10], [25809, 28406, 11], [28406, 31141, 12], [31141, 33925, 13], [33925, 36285, 14], [36285, 38537, 15], [38537, 41397, 16], [41397, 43958, 17], [43958, 46630, 18], [46630, 49120, 19], [49120, 51382, 20], [51382, 53572, 21], [53572, 55863, 22], [55863, 56765, 23]], "pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_v1__pipe_delimited_lines_ratio": [[0, 56765, 0.0]]}, "source": "olmocr_science_pdfs", "added": "2024-12-01", "created": "2024-12-01"}
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