2209. Proteins and Enzymes -
Proteins are large biological molecules made up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. Organisms rely on proteins for a variety of functions-proteins transport molecules across cell membranes, replicate DNA, and catalyze metabolic reactions, to name only a few of their functions. The properties of proteins are functions of the combination of amino acids that compose them and can vary greatly. Interactions between amino acid sequences in the chains of proteins result in the folding of the chain into specific, threedimensional structures that determine the protein's activity.

Amino acids are organic molecules that contain an amine functional group ( $-\mathrm{NH}_{2}$ ), a carboxylic acid functional group ( -COOH ), and a side chain (that is specific to each individual amino acid). Most living things build proteins from the same 20 different amino acids. Amino acids connect by the formation of a peptide bond, which is a covalent bond formed between two amino acids when the carboxylic acid group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of the other amino acid. The formation of the bond results in the production of a molecule of water (in general, reactions that result in the production of water when two other molecules combine are referred to as condensation reactions). The resulting bond-between the carbonyl group carbon atom and the amine nitrogen atom is called a peptide link or peptide bond. Since each of the original amino acids has an unreacted group (one has an unreacted amine and the other an unreacted carboxylic acid), more peptide bonds can form to other amino acids, extending the structure. (Figure 21.20) A chain of connected amino acids is called a polypeptide. Proteins contain at least one long polypeptide chain.

FIGURE 21.20 This condensation reaction forms a dipeptide from two amino acids and leads to the formation of water.


2209. Proteins and Enzymes -
FIGURE 21.20 This condensation reaction forms a dipeptide from two amino acids and leads to the formation of water.

Enzymes are large biological molecules, mostly composed of proteins, which are responsible for the thousands of metabolic processes that occur in living organisms. Enzymes are highly specific catalysts; they speed up the rates of certain reactions. Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the reaction they are catalyzing, which can dramatically increase the rate of the reaction. Most reactions catalyzed by enzymes have rates that are millions of times faster than the noncatalyzed version. Like all catalysts, enzymes are not consumed during the reactions that they catalyze. Enzymes do differ from other catalysts in how specific they are for their substrates (the molecules that an enzyme will convert into a different product). Each enzyme is only capable of speeding up one or a few very specific reactions or types of reactions. Since the function of enzymes is so specific, the lack or malfunctioning of an enzyme can lead to serious health consequences. One disease that is the result of an enzyme malfunction is phenylketonuria. In this disease, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the degradation of the amino acid phenylalanine is not functional (Figure 21.21). Untreated, this can lead to an accumulation of phenylalanine, which can lead to intellectual disabilities.

FIGURE 21.21 A computer rendering shows the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. In the disease phenylketonuria, a defect in the shape of phenylalanine hydroxylase causes it to lose its function in breaking down phenylalanine.


2211. Kevlar -
Kevlar (Figure 21.22) is a synthetic polymer made from two monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine and terephthaloyl chloride (Kevlar is a registered trademark of DuPont). The material was developed by Susan Kwolek while she worked to find a replacement for steel in tires. Kwolek's work involved synthesizing polyamides and dissolving them in solvents, then spinning the resulting solution into fibers. One of her solutions proved to be quite different in initial appearance and structure. And once spun, the resulting fibers were particularly strong. From this initial discovery, Kevlar was created. The material has a high tensile strength-to-weight ratio (it is about 5 times stronger than an equal weight of steel), making it useful for many applications from bicycle tires to sails to body armor.

FIGURE 21.22 This illustration shows the formula for polymeric Kevlar.
The material owes much of its strength to hydrogen bonds between polymer chains (refer back to the chapter on intermolecular interactions). These bonds form between the carbonyl group oxygen atom (which has a partial negative charge due to oxygen's electronegativity) on one monomer and the partially positively charged hydrogen atom in the $\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{H}$ bond of an adjacent monomer in the polymer structure (see dashed line in Figure 21.23). There is additional strength derived from the interaction between the unhybridized $p$ orbitals in the six-membered rings, called aromatic stacking.

FIGURE 21.23 The diagram shows the polymer structure of Kevlar, with hydrogen bonds between polymer chains represented by dotted lines.


2211. Kevlar -
FIGURE 21.23 The diagram shows the polymer structure of Kevlar, with hydrogen bonds between polymer chains represented by dotted lines.

Kevlar may be best known as a component of body armor, combat helmets, and face masks. Since the 1980s, the US military has used Kevlar as a component of the PASGT (personal armor system for ground troops) helmet and vest. Kevlar is also used to protect armored fighting vehicles and aircraft carriers. Civilian applications include protective gear for emergency service personnel such as body armor for police officers and heat-resistant clothing for fire fighters. Kevlar based clothing is considerably lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made from other materials (Figure 21.24). Beyond Kevlar, Susan Kwolek was instrumental in the development of Nomex, a fireproof material, and was also involved in the creation of Lycra. She became just the fourth woman inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, and received a number of other awards for her significant contributions to science and society.

FIGURE 21.24 (a) These soldiers are sorting through pieces of a Kevlar helmet that helped absorb a grenade blast. Kevlar is also used to make (b) canoes and (c) marine mooring lines. (credit a: modification of work by "Cla68"/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by "OakleyOriginals"/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by Casey H. Kyhl)

In addition to its better-known uses, Kevlar is also often used in cryogenics for its very low thermal conductivity (along with its high strength). Kevlar maintains its high strength when cooled to the temperature of liquid nitrogen $\left(-196^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$.

The table here summarizes the structures discussed in this chapter:


2211. Kevlar -
The table here summarizes the structures discussed in this chapter:

| Compound Name | Structure of Compound and Functional Group (red) | Example |  |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
|  |  | Formula | Name |
| alkene | $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}$ | $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}$ | ethene |
| alkyne | $\mathrm{C} \equiv \mathrm{C}$ | $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2}$ E | ethyne |
| alcohol | $R-\ddot{0}-\mathrm{H}$ | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$ | ethanol |
| ether | $R-\ddot{O}-R^{\prime}$ | $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | diethyl ether |
| aldehyde | <smiles>2H=[OH+]</smiles> | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CHO}$ | ethanal |
| ketone | <smiles>[R]C([R])=[Os]</smiles> | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COCH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | methyl ethyl ketone |
| carboxylic <br> acid | <smiles></smiles> | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COOH}$ | acetic acid |
| ester | <smiles>[R]OC-[O-]</smiles> | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | ethyl acetate |
| amine | <smiles>[R]NN[R]</smiles> | $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$ | ethylamine |
| amide | <smiles></smiles> | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CONH}_{2}$ | acetamide |


2212. Key Terms -
addition reaction reaction in which a double carbon-carbon bond forms a single carboncarbon bond by the addition of a reactant. Typical reaction for an alkene.
alcohol organic compound with a hydroxyl group $(-\mathrm{OH})$ bonded to a carbon atom
aldehyde organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two hydrogen atoms or a hydrogen atom and a carbon substituent
alkane molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms connected by single ( $\sigma$ ) bonds
alkene molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond
alkyl group substituent, consisting of an alkane missing one hydrogen atom, attached to a larger structure
alkyne molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
amide organic molecule that features a nitrogen atom connected to the carbon atom in a carbonyl group
amine organic molecule in which a nitrogen atom is bonded to one or more alkyl group
aromatic hydrocarbon cyclic molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen with delocalized alternating carbon-carbon single and double bonds, resulting in enhanced stability
carbonyl group carbon atom double bonded to an


2213. Summary - 2213.1. Hydrocarbons
Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings. The chemistry of these compounds is called organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. The alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons-that is, hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds. Alkenes contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Alkynes contain one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain ring structures with delocalized $\pi$ electron systems.


2213. Summary - 2213.2. Alcohols and Ethers
Many organic compounds that are not hydrocarbons can be thought of as derivatives of hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon derivative can be formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon by a
oxygen atom
carboxylic acid organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached hydroxyl group
ester organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached oxygen atom that is bonded to a carbon substituent
ether organic compound with an oxygen atom that is bonded to two carbon atoms
functional group part of an organic molecule that imparts a specific chemical reactivity to the molecule
ketone organic compound containing a carbonyl group with two carbon substituents attached to it
organic compound natural or synthetic compound that contains carbon
saturated hydrocarbon molecule containing carbon and hydrogen that has only single bonds between carbon atoms
skeletal structure shorthand method of drawing organic molecules in which carbon atoms are represented by the ends of lines and bends in between lines, and hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not shown (but are understood to be present by the context of the structure)
substituent branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in a larger hydrocarbon chain
substitution reaction reaction in which one atom replaces another in a molecule
functional group, which contains at least one atom of an element other than carbon or hydrogen. The properties of hydrocarbon derivatives are determined largely by the functional group. The - OH group is the functional group of an alcohol. The $-\mathrm{R}-\mathrm{O}-\mathrm{R}-$ group is the functional group of an ether.


2213. Summary - 2213.3. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
Functional groups related to the carbonyl group include the - CHO group of an aldehyde, the - $\mathrm{CO}-$ group of a ketone, the $-\mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ group of a carboxylic acid, and the $-\mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{R}$ group of an ester. The carbonyl group, a carbon-oxygen double bond, is the key structure in these classes of organic molecules: Aldehydes contain at least one hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carbon atom, ketones contain two carbon groups attached to the carbonyl carbon atom, carboxylic acids contain a hydroxyl
group attached to the carbonyl carbon atom, and esters contain an oxygen atom attached to another carbon group connected to the carbonyl carbon atom. All of these compounds contain oxidized carbon atoms relative to the carbon atom of an alcohol group.


2213. Summary - 2213.4. Amines and Amides
The addition of nitrogen into an organic framework
leads to two families of molecules. Compounds containing a nitrogen atom bonded in a hydrocarbon framework are classified as amines. Compounds that have a nitrogen atom bonded to one side of a carbonyl group are classified as amides. Amines are a basic functional group. Amines and carboxylic acids can combine in a condensation reaction to form amides.


2214. Exercises - 2214.1. Hydrocarbons
1. Write the chemical formula and Lewis structure of the following, each of which contains five carbon atoms:
(a) an alkane
(b) an alkene
(c) an alkyne
2. What is the difference between the hybridization of carbon atoms' valence orbitals in saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
3. On a microscopic level, how does the reaction of bromine with a saturated hydrocarbon differ from its reaction with an unsaturated hydrocarbon? How are they similar?
4. On a microscopic level, how does the reaction of bromine with an alkene differ from its reaction with an alkyne? How are they similar?
5. Explain why unbranched alkenes can form geometric isomers while unbranched alkanes cannot. Does this explanation involve the macroscopic domain or the microscopic domain?
6. Explain why these two molecules are not isomers:

7. Explain why these two molecules are not isomers:

8. How does the carbon-atom hybridization change when polyethylene is prepared from ethylene?
9. Write the Lewis structure and molecular formula for each of the following hydrocarbons:
(a) hexane
(b) 3-methylpentane
(c) cis-3-hexene
(d) 4-methyl-1-pentene
(e) 3-hexyne
(f) 4-methyl-2-pentyne
10. Write the chemical formula, condensed formula, and Lewis structure for each of the following hydrocarbons:
(a) heptane
(b) 3-methylhexane
(c) trans-3-heptene
(d) 4-methyl-1-hexene
(e) 2-heptyne
(f) 3,4-dimethyl-1-pentyne
11. Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
(a) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CBr}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$
(b) $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{CCl}$
(c)

(d)
e)

(f)


2214. Exercises - 2214.1. Hydrocarbons
(d)
e)

(f)

(g) $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2} \mathrm{CHCH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}$
12. Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
(a) $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2} \mathrm{CHF}$
(b) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CHClCHClCH}_{3}$
(c)

(d) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCH}_{3}$
(e)

(f) $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{CCH}_{2} \mathrm{C} \equiv \mathrm{CH}$
13. Butane is used as a fuel in disposable lighters. Write the Lewis structure for each isomer of butane.
14. Write Lewis structures and name the five structural isomers of hexane.
15. Write Lewis structures for the cis-trans isomers of $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCl}$.
16. Write structures for the three isomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon xylene, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{4}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2}$.
17. Isooctane is the common name of the isomer of $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}$ used as the standard of 100 for the gasoline octane rating:


2214. Exercises - 2214.1. Hydrocarbons
(a) What is the IUPAC name for the compound?
(b) Name the other isomers that contain a five-carbon chain with three methyl substituents.
18. Write Lewis structures and IUPAC names for the alkyne isomers of $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{6}$.
19. Write Lewis structures and IUPAC names for all isomers of $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{9} \mathrm{Cl}$.
20. Name and write the structures of all isomers of the propyl and butyl alkyl groups.
21. Write the structures for all the isomers of the $-\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{11}$ alkyl group.
22. Write Lewis structures and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom in the following compounds:
(a) cis-3-hexene
(b) cis-1-chloro-2-bromoethene
(c) 2-pentyne
(d) trans-6-ethyl-7-methyl-2-octene
23. Benzene is one of the compounds used as an octane enhancer in unleaded gasoline. It is manufactured by the catalytic conversion of acetylene to benzene:
$3 \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2} \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}$
Draw Lewis structures for these compounds, with resonance structures as appropriate, and determine the hybridization of the carbon atoms in each.
24. Teflon is prepared by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. Write the equation that describes the polymerization using Lewis symbols.
25. Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
(a) 1 mol of 1-butyne reacts with 2 mol of iodine.
(b) Pentane is burned in air.
26. Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
(a) 2-butene reacts with chlorine.
(b) benzene burns in air.
27. What mass of 2 -bromopropane could be prepared from 25.5 g of propene? Assume a $100 \%$ yield of product.


2214. Exercises - 2214.1. Hydrocarbons
(b) benzene burns in air.
27. What mass of 2 -bromopropane could be prepared from 25.5 g of propene? Assume a $100 \%$ yield of product.
28. Acetylene is a very weak acid; however, it will react with moist silver(I) oxide and form water and a compound composed of silver and carbon. Addition of a solution of HCl to a $0.2352-\mathrm{g}$ sample of the compound of silver and carbon produced acetylene and 0.2822 g of AgCl .
(a) What is the empirical formula of the compound of silver and carbon?
(b) The production of acetylene on addition of HCl to the compound of silver and carbon suggests that the carbon is present as the acetylide ion, $\mathrm{C}_{2}{ }^{2-}$. Write the formula of the compound showing the acetylide ion.
29. Ethylene can be produced by the pyrolysis of ethane:
$\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}+\mathrm{H}_{2}$
How many kilograms of ethylene is produced by the pyrolysis of $1.000 \times 10^{3} \mathrm{~kg}$ of ethane, assuming a $100.0 \%$ yield?


2214. Exercises - 2214.2. Alcohols and Ethers
30. Why do the compounds hexane, hexanol, and hexene have such similar names?
31. Write condensed formulas and provide IUPAC names for the following compounds:
(a) ethyl alcohol (in beverages)
(b) methyl alcohol (used as a solvent, for example, in shellac)
(c) ethylene glycol (antifreeze)
(d) isopropyl alcohol (used in rubbing alcohol)
(e) glycerine
32. Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)

33. Give the complete IUPAC name and the common name for each of the following compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)


2214. Exercises - 2214.2. Alcohols and Ethers
(b)

(c)

33. Give the complete IUPAC name and the common name for each of the following compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)

34. Write the condensed structures of both isomers with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{O}$. Label the functional group of each isomer.
35. Write the condensed structures of all isomers with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{O}_{2}$. Label the functional group (or groups) of each isomer.
36. Draw the condensed formulas for each of the following compounds:
(a) dipropyl ether
(b) 2,2-dimethyl-3-hexanol
(c) 2-ethoxybutane
37. MTBE, Methyl tert-butyl ether, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OC}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3}$, is used as an oxygen source in oxygenated gasolines. MTBE is manufactured by reacting 2 -methylpropene with methanol.
(a) Using Lewis structures, write the chemical equation representing the reaction.
(b) What volume of methanol, density $0.7915 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$, is required to produce exactly 1000 kg of MTBE, assuming a $100 \%$ yield?
38. Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
(a) propanol is converted to dipropyl ether
(b) propene is treated with water in dilute acid.
39. Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
(a) 2-butene is treated with water in dilute acid
(b) ethanol is dehydrated to yield ethene


2214. Exercises - 2214.3. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
40. Order the following molecules from least to most oxidized, based on the marked carbon atom:

(a)

(b)

(c)
41. Predict the products of oxidizing the molecules shown in this problem. In each case, identify the product that will result from the minimal increase in oxidation state for the highlighted carbon atom:
(a)

(b)

(c)

42. Predict the products of reducing the following molecules. In each case, identify the product that will result from the minimal decrease in oxidation state for the highlighted carbon atom:
(a)

(b)

(c)


2214. Exercises - 2214.3. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
43. Explain why it is not possible to prepare a ketone that contains only two carbon atoms.
44. How does hybridization of the substituted carbon atom change when an alcohol is converted into an aldehyde? An aldehyde to a carboxylic acid?
45. Fatty acids are carboxylic acids that have long hydrocarbon chains attached to a carboxylate group. How does a saturated fatty acid differ from an unsaturated fatty acid? How are they similar?
46. Write a condensed structural formula, such as $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$, and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom.
(a) propene
(b) 1-butanol
(c) ethyl propyl ether
(d) cis-4-bromo-2-heptene
(e) 2,2,3-trimethylhexane
(f) formaldehyde
47. Write a condensed structural formula, such as $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$, and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom.
(a) 2-propanol
(b) acetone
(c) dimethyl ether
(d) acetic acid
(e) 3-methyl-1-hexene
48. The foul odor of rancid butter is caused by butyric acid, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$.
(a) Draw the Lewis structure and determine the oxidation number and hybridization for each carbon atom in the molecule.
(b) The esters formed from butyric acid are pleasant-smelling compounds found in fruits and used in perfumes. Draw the Lewis structure for the ester formed from the reaction of butyric acid with 2-propanol.
49. Write the two-resonance structures for the acetate ion.
50. Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures:
(a) ethanol reacts with propionic acid
(b) benzoic acid, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$, is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide


2214. Exercises - 2214.3. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
(b) benzoic acid, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$, is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide
51. Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
(a) 1-butanol reacts with acetic acid
(b) propionic acid is poured onto solid calcium carbonate
52. Yields in organic reactions are sometimes low. What is the percent yield of a process that produces 13.0 g of ethyl acetate from 10.0 g of $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ ?
53. Alcohols A, B, and $C$ all have the composition $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}$. Molecules of alcohol A contain a branched carbon chain and can be oxidized to an aldehyde; molecules of alcohol B contain a linear carbon chain and can be oxidized to a ketone; and molecules of alcohol C can be oxidized to neither an aldehyde nor a ketone. Write the Lewis structures of these molecules.


2214. Exercises - 2214.4. Amines and Amides
54. Write the Lewis structures of both isomers with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{~N}$.
55. What is the molecular structure about the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ion, $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{NH}^{+}$? What is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ion?
56. Write the two resonance structures for the pyridinium ion, $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}^{+}$.
57. Draw Lewis structures for pyridine and its conjugate acid, the pyridinium ion, $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}^{+}$. What are the hybridizations, electron domain geometries, and molecular geometries about the nitrogen atoms in pyridine and in the pyridinium ion?
58. Write the Lewis structures of all isomers with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{ON}$ that contain an amide linkage.
59. Write two complete balanced equations for the following reaction, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures. Methyl amine is added to a solution of HCl .
60. Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures. Ethylammonium chloride is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide.
61. Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 21.26.
62. Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 21.39.
63. Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 21.51.


2216. The Periodic Table -
Periodic Table of the Elements


2216. The Periodic Table -
|  |  |  |  |  |  | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | $\begin{gathered} 18 \\ \qquad \begin{array}{c} 2 \mathrm{He} \\ \begin{array}{c} \text { 4.03 } \\ \text { nelum } \end{array} \\ \hline \end{array} . \end{gathered}$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
|  |  |  |  |  |  | $\stackrel{5}{5}$ |  | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 74.01 \\ \text { nitrogen } \\ \mathbf{N} \\ \hline \end{gathered}\right.$ | $\underbrace{}_{\substack{80 \\ \text { 16.jo } \\ \text { oxygen }}}$ |  | $\begin{array}{\|c} 10 \\ \mathrm{Ne} \\ 20.18 \\ \text { neon } \\ \hline \end{array}$ |
| 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |  |  | $\begin{aligned} & 15 \mathbf{P} \\ & \text { 30.97 } \\ & \text { phoshous } \end{aligned}$ |  | ${ }^{17} \mathrm{Cl}$
 35.45
 chine | $\stackrel{\substack{18 \\ \text { 3r } \\ \text { 3agan } \\ \text { arg }}}{ }$ |


2216. The Periodic Table -
|  | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} \begin{array}{c} 26 \\ \mathrm{Fe} \\ 5 \text { Fe. } \\ \text { 1ron } \end{array} \\ \hline \end{gathered}\right.$ | $\underset{\substack{27 \\ \hline 50.83 \\ \text { cobat }}}{27}$ | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 28 \\ \begin{array}{c} \text { Ni } \\ 58.69 \\ \text { nokel } \end{array} \\ \hline \end{gathered}\right.$ |  | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 30 \\ \mathrm{Zn} \\ \text { En } \\ \text { zinc } \\ \hline \end{gathered}\right.$ |  | $\begin{gathered} 32 \mathbf{G e} \\ 72.63 \\ \text { gemanum } \end{gathered}$ | $\underbrace{}_{\substack{33 \\ \text { As } \\ \text { atsenc } \\ \text { anc }}}$ | $\underset{\substack{34 \\ \text { seen } \\ \text { senenum }}}{ }$ | $\begin{gathered} 35 \mathrm{Br} \\ \text { Bran } \\ \text { bomine } \end{gathered}$ | $\underset{\substack{36 \\ \hline 8.3, ~ \\ \text { krpipon }}}{ }$ |


2216. The Periodic Table -
| ${ }^{43} \mathbf{T C}$ |  |  |  |  |  | $\begin{gathered} \ln ^{114.8} \\ 1104 \\ \hline \text { nourum } \end{gathered}$ | ${\underset{S}{50}}_{\substack{518.7 \\ \text { in }}}$ | $\underset{\substack{\text { Sxili.8 } \\ \text { and } \\ \text { and }}}{ }$ |  | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 53 \\ \text { I } \\ \text { 126.9 } \\ \text { iodine } \end{gathered}\right.$ | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 54 \\ \mathrm{Xe}^{131.3} \\ \text { xenon } \end{gathered}\right.$ |


2216. The Periodic Table -
| $\left\begin{array}{c}75 \\ \mathbf{R e} \\ \text { 186.2. } \\ \text { thenium }\end{array}\right.$ | ${ }^{76} \mathrm{Os}$
 190. | $\left\lvert\, \begin{array}{c\|l} 77 \\ \text { Ir } \\ \text { 1922. } \\ \text { indium } \end{array}\right.$ | ![ | $\begin{array}{\|c} 79 \\ \text { Au } \\ \text { 197.0 } \\ \text { gold } \end{array}$ | $\begin{array}{\|c} 80 \\ \begin{array}{c} 80 \\ 200.6 \\ \text { mercury } \end{array} \\ \hline \end{array}$ | $\begin{gathered} 81 \\ \mathrm{TI} \\ \text { 204.4. } \\ \text { Raluium } \end{gathered}$ | 82
 $\mathbf{P b}$
 207.2
 lead
 lead | $\begin{gathered} 83 \\ \begin{array}{c} 8 i \\ \text { 2ision } \\ \text { biswnt } \end{array} \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{array}{\|c} 84 \\ \mathbf{P O}_{0} \\ \text { [209] } \\ \text { polonium } \end{array}$ |  |  |
|  | $\stackrel{108}{\mathrm{Hs}}$ [277] |  | ${ }^{110} \mathrm{DS}_{2}$ |  |  | ${\underset{c}{123}}_{\substack{\text { N285] } \\ \text { nhtonim }}}$ |  |  |  | $\left.\right\|_{117} ^{11} \text { TS }$ | ${ }^{118} \mathbf{O g}$ |


2216. The Periodic Table -
|  | ${ }^{58} \mathrm{Ce}$ 140.1 |  | ${ }^{60} \mathrm{Nd}$ |  | $\sqrt[\substack{62 \\ \text { Sm } \\ \text { singati }}]{ }$ | ${ }^{63} \mathrm{Eu}$ | ${ }^{64} \mathbf{G d} \text { Gd. }$ | ${ }^{65} \mathrm{~Tb}$ 158.9 |  | $\left\lvert\, \begin{gathered} 67 \mathrm{Ho} \\ \text { He4.9 } \\ \text { nomium } \end{gathered}\right.$ | ${ }^{68}$ Er | ${ }_{\substack{\text { a }}}^{\substack{\text { Tm } \\ \text { 168.9 } \\ \text { thuium }}}$ |  | ${ }^{71} \mathrm{Lu}$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
|  | $\begin{gathered} 90 \\ \hline 2320 \\ \hline \end{gathered}$ |  | ${ }_{\substack{92 \\ \hline \\ 238.0}}$ |  | ${ }^{94} \mathrm{Pu}$ |  |  |  | ${ }^{98} \mathbf{C f}$ | ${ }^{99} \mathrm{Es}$ | $\underset{\substack{100 \\ \text { Fm } \\ \text { fetemiun }}}{ }$ |  | $\stackrel{1}{102}_{\substack{\text { No } \\ \text { nosediun }}}$ | $\int_{103}^{\mathrm{Lr}_{1}}$ |

Color Code

FIGURE A1

1082 A • The Periodic Table


2219. Exponential Arithmetic -
Exponential notation is used to express very large and very small numbers as a product of two numbers. The first number of the product, the digit term, is usually a number not less than 1 and not equal to or greater than 10. The second number of the product, the exponential term, is written as 10 with an exponent. Some examples of exponential notation are:

$$
\begin{aligned}
1000 & =1 \times 10^{3} \\
100 & =1 \times 10^{2} \\
10 & =1 \times 10^{1} \\
1 & =1 \times 10^{0} \\
0.1 & =1 \times 10^{-1} \\
0.001 & =1 \times 10^{-3} \\
2386 & =2.386 \times 1000=2.386 \times 10^{3} \\
0.123 & =1.23 \times 0.1=1.23 \times 10^{-1}
\end{aligned}
$$

The power (exponent) of 10 is equal to the number of places the decimal is shifted to give the digit number. The exponential method is particularly useful notation for very large and very small numbers. For example, $1,230,000,000=1.23 \times 10^{9}$, and $0.00000000036=3.6 \times 10^{-10}$.


2220. Addition of Exponentials -
Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, add the digit terms of the numbers, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.


2222. Adding Exponentials -
Add $5.00 \times 10^{-5}$ and $3.00 \times 10^{-3}$.


2223. Solution -
$$
\begin{aligned}
3.00 \times 10^{-3} & =300 \times 10^{-5} \\
\left(5.00 \times 10^{-5}\right)+\left(300 \times 10^{-5}\right) & =305 \times 10^{-5}=3.05 \times 10^{-3}
\end{aligned}
$$


2224. Subtraction of Exponentials -
Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, take the difference of the digit terms, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.


2225. Subtracting Exponentials -
Subtract $4.0 \times 10^{-7}$ from $5.0 \times 10^{-6}$.


2226. Solution -
$$
\begin{aligned}
& 4.0 \times 10^{-7}=0.40 \times 10^{-6} \\
& \left(5.0 \times 10^{-6}\right)-\left(0.40 \times 10^{-6}\right)=4.6 \times 10^{-6}
\end{aligned}
$$


2227. Multiplication of Exponentials -
Multiply the digit terms in the usual way and add the exponents of the exponential terms.


2229. Multiplying Exponentials -
Multiply $4.2 \times 10^{-8}$ by $2.0 \times 10^{3}$.


2230. Solution -
$$
\left(4.2 \times 10^{-8}\right) \times\left(2.0 \times 10^{3}\right)=(4.2 \times 2.0) \times 10^{(-8)+(+3)}=8.4 \times 10^{-5}
$$


2231. Division of Exponentials -
Divide the digit term of the numerator by the digit term of the denominator and subtract the exponents of the exponential terms.


2233. Dividing Exponentials -
Divide $3.6 \times 10^{-5}$ by $6.0 \times 10^{-4}$.


2234. Solution -
$$
\frac{3.6 \times 10^{-5}}{6.0 \times 10^{-4}}=\left(\frac{3.6}{6.0}\right) \times 10^{(-5)-(-4)}=0.60 \times 10^{-1}=6.0 \times 10^{-2}
$$


2235. Squaring of Exponentials -
Square the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the exponential term by 2.


2237. Squaring Exponentials -
Square the number $4.0 \times 10^{-6}$.


2238. Solution -
$$
\left(4.0 \times 10^{-6}\right)^{2}=4 \times 4 \times 10^{2 \times(-6)}=16 \times 10^{-12}=1.6 \times 10^{-11}
$$


2239. Cubing of Exponentials -
Cube the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the exponential term by 3.


2240. Cubing Exponentials -
Cube the number $2 \times 10^{4}$.


2241. Solution -
$\left(2 \times 10^{4}\right)^{3}=2 \times 2 \times 2 \times 10^{3 \times 4}=8 \times 10^{12}$


2242. Taking Square Roots of Exponentials -
If necessary, decrease or increase the exponential term so that the power of 10 is evenly divisible by 2 . Extract the square root of the digit term and divide the exponential term by 2.


2244. Finding the Square Root of Exponentials -
Find the square root of $1.6 \times 10^{-7}$.


2245. Solution -
$$
\begin{aligned}
1.6 \times 10^{-7} & =16 \times 10^{-8} \\
\sqrt{16 \times 10^{-8}}=\sqrt{16} \times \sqrt{10^{-8}} & =\sqrt{16} \times 10^{-\frac{8}{2}}=4.0 \times 10^{-4}
\end{aligned}
$$


2246. Significant Figures -
A beekeeper reports that he has 525,341 bees. The last three figures of the number are obviously inaccurate, for during the time the keeper was counting the bees, some of them died and others hatched; this makes it quite difficult to determine the exact number of bees. It would have been more reasonable if the beekeeper had reported the number 525,000. In other words, the last three figures are not significant, except to set the position of the decimal point. Their exact values have no useful meaning in this situation. When reporting quantities, use only as many significant figures as the accuracy of the measurement warrants.

The importance of significant figures lies in their application to fundamental computation. In addition and subtraction, the sum or difference should contain as many digits to the right of the decimal as that in the least certain of the numbers used in the computation (indicated by underscoring in the following example).

EXAMPLE B8


2247. Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures -
Add 4.383 g and 0.0023 g .


2248. Solution -
$$
\begin{gathered}
4.38 \underline{\mathrm{~g}} \\
\frac{0.002 \underline{\mathrm{3}} \mathrm{~g}}{4.38 \mathrm{~g}}
\end{gathered}
$$

In multiplication and division, the product or quotient should contain no more digits than that in the factor containing the least number of significant figures.


2249. Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures -
Multiply 0.6238 by 6.6 .


2250. Solution -
$0.623 \underline{8} \times 6 . \underline{6}=4 . \underline{1}$

When rounding numbers, increase the retained digit by 1 if it is followed by a number larger than 5 ("round up"). Do not change the retained digit if the digits that follow are less than 5 ("round down"). If the retained digit is followed by 5 , round up if the retained digit is odd, or round down if it is even (after rounding, the retained digit will thus always be even).


2251. The Use of Logarithms and Exponential Numbers -
The common logarithm of a number (log) is the power to which 10 must be raised to equal that number. For example, the common logarithm of 100 is 2 , because 10 must be raised to the second power to equal 100 . Additional examples follow.

Logarithms and Exponential Numbers

| Number | Number Expressed Exponentially | Common Logarithm |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1000 | $10^{3}$ | 3 |
| 10 | $10^{1}$ | 1 |
| 1 | $10^{0}$ | 0 |
| 0.1 | $10^{-1}$ | -1 |
| 0.001 | $10^{-3}$ | -3 |

TABLE B1

What is the common logarithm of 60 ? Because 60 lies between 10 and 100 , which have logarithms of 1 and 2, respectively, the logarithm of 60 is 1.7782 ; that is,

$$
60=10^{1.7782}
$$

The common logarithm of a number less than 1 has a negative value. The logarithm of 0.03918 is -1.4069 , or

$$
0.03918=10^{-1.4069}=\frac{1}{10^{1.4069}}
$$

To obtain the common logarithm of a number, use the log button on your calculator. To calculate a number from its logarithm, take the inverse log of the logarithm, or calculate $10^{x}$ (where $x$ is the logarithm of the number).

The natural logarithm of a number ( $\ln$ ) is the power to which e must be raised to equal the number; $e$ is the constant 2.7182818 . For example, the natural logarithm of 10 is 2.303 ; that is,

$$
10=e^{2.303}=2.7182818^{2.303}
$$

To obtain the natural logarithm of a number, use the $\ln$ button on your calculator. To calculate a number from its natural logarithm, enter the natural logarithm and take the inverse ln of the natural logarithm, or calculate $e^{x}$ (where $x$ is the natural logarithm of the number).


2251. The Use of Logarithms and Exponential Numbers -
Logarithms are exponents; thus, operations involving logarithms follow the same rules as operations involving
exponents.

1. The logarithm of a product of two numbers is the sum of the logarithms of the two numbers.

$$
\log x y=\log x+\log y, \text { and } \ln x y=\ln x+\ln y
$$

2. The logarithm of the number resulting from the division of two numbers is the difference between the logarithms of the two numbers.

$$
\log \frac{x}{y}=\log x-\log y, \text { and } \ln \frac{x}{y}=\ln x-\ln y
$$

3. The logarithm of a number raised to an exponent is the product of the exponent and the logarithm of the number.

$$
\log x^{n}=n \log x \text { and } \ln x^{n}=n \ln x
$$


2252. The Solution of Quadratic Equations -
Mathematical functions of this form are known as second-order polynomials or, more commonly, quadratic functions.

$$
a x^{2}+b x+c=0
$$

The solution or roots for any quadratic equation can be calculated using the following formula:

$$
x=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^{2}-4 a c}}{2 a}
$$


2254. Solving Quadratic Equations -
Solve the quadratic equation $3 x^{2}+13 x-10=0$.


2255. Solution -
Substituting the values $a=3, b=13, c=-10$ in the formula, we obtain

$$
\begin{gathered}
x=\frac{-13 \pm \sqrt{(13)^{2}-4 \times 3 \times(-10)}}{2 \times 3} \\
x=\frac{-13 \pm \sqrt{169+120}}{6}=\frac{-13 \pm \sqrt{289}}{6}=\frac{-13 \pm 17}{6}
\end{gathered}
$$

The two roots are therefore

$$
x=\frac{-13+17}{6}=\frac{2}{3} \text { and } x=\frac{-13-17}{6}=-5
$$

Quadratic equations constructed on physical data always have real roots, and of these real roots, often only those having positive values are of any significance.


2256. Two-Dimensional ( $x-y$ ) Graphing -
The relationship between any two properties of a system can be represented graphically by a two-dimensional data plot. Such a graph has two axes: a horizontal one corresponding to the independent variable, or the variable whose value is being controlled ( $x$ ), and a vertical axis corresponding to the dependent variable, or the variable whose value is being observed or measured ( $y$ ).

When the value of $y$ is changing as a function of $x$ (that is, different values of $x$ correspond to different values of $y$ ), a graph of this change can be plotted or sketched. The graph can be produced by using specific values for $(x, y)$ data pairs.


2257. Graphing the Dependence of $y$ on $x$ -
This table contains the following points: $(1,5),(2,10),(3,7)$, and $(4,14)$. Each of these points can be plotted on a graph and connected to produce a graphical representation of the dependence of $y$ on $x$.

If the function that describes the dependence of $y$ on $x$ is known, it may be used to compute $x, y$ data pairs that may subsequently be plotted.


2258. Plotting Data Pairs -
If we know that $y=x^{2}+2$, we can produce a table of a few $(x, y)$ values and then plot the line based on the data shown here.

| $\boldsymbol{x}$ | $\boldsymbol{y}=\boldsymbol{x}^{2}+2$ |
| :--- | :--- |
| 3 | 11 |
| 4 | 18 |


2260. Units and Conversion Factors -
| Units of Length |  |
| :--- | :--- |
| meter (m) | $=39.37$ inches (in.) |
| $=1.094$ yards (yd) |  |$]$| centimeter (cm) | $=0.01 \mathrm{~m}$ (exact, definition) |
| :--- | :--- |
| millimeter (mm) | $=0.001 \mathrm{~m}$ (exact, definition) |
| kilometer (km) | $=1000 \mathrm{~m}$ (exact, definition) |
| angstrom (Å) | $=10^{-8} \mathrm{~cm}$ (exact, definition) |
| yard (yd) | $=0.9144 \mathrm{~m}$ |
| inch (in.) | $=2.54 \mathrm{~cm}$ (exact, definition) |
| mile (US) | $=1.60934 \mathrm{~km}$ |

TABLE C1
\$\left.\begin{array}{l|l} \& Units of Volume

liter (L) \& =0.001 \mathrm{~m}^{3} (exact, definition)

=1000 \mathrm{~cm}^{3} (exact, definition)

=1.057 (US) quarts\end{array}\right]\$\begin{tabular}{ll}

milliliter (mL) \& | $=0.001 \mathrm{~L}$ (exact, definition) |
| :--- |
| $=1 \mathrm{~cm}^{3}$ (exact, definition) |

\hline microliter ( $\mu \mathrm{L}$ ) \& | $=10^{-6} \mathrm{~L}$ (exact, definition) |
| :--- |
| $=10^{-3} \mathrm{~cm}^{3}$ (exact, definition) |

\hline liquid quart (US) \& | $=32(\mathrm{US})$ liquid ounces (exact, definition) |
| :--- |
| $=0.25$ (US) gallon (exact, definition) |
| $=0.9463 \mathrm{~L}$ |


2260. Units and Conversion Factors -
\hline dry quart \& $=1.1012 \mathrm{~L}$

\hline cubic foot (US) \& $=28.316 \mathrm{~L}$

\hline
\end{tabular}

TABLE C2

| gram (g) | $=0.001 \mathrm{~kg}$ (exact, definition) |
| :--- | :--- |
| milligram (mg) | $=0.001 \mathrm{~g}$ (exact, definition) |
| kilogram (kg) | $=1000 \mathrm{~g}$ (exact, definition)
 $=2.205 \mathrm{lb}$ |
| ton (metric) | $=1000 \mathrm{~kg}$ (exact, definition)
 $=2204.62 \mathrm{lb}$ |
| ounce (oz) | $=28.35 \mathrm{~g}$ |
| pound (lb) | $=0.4535924 \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| ton (short) | $=2000 \mathrm{lb}$ (exact, definition)
 $=907.185 \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| ton (long) | $=2240 \mathrm{lb}$ (exact, definition)
 $=1.016$ metric ton |

TABLE C3

Units of Energy


2260. Units and Conversion Factors -
TABLE C3

Units of Energy

| 4.184 joule (J) | $=1$ thermochemical calorie (cal) |
| :--- | :--- |
| 1 thermochemical calorie (cal) | $=4.184 \times 10^{7} \mathrm{erg}$ |
| erg | $=10^{-7} \mathrm{~J}($ exact, definition) |
| electron-volt (eV) | $=1.60218 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{~J}=23.061 \mathrm{kcal} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}$ |
| liter $\bullet$ atmosphere | $=24.217 \mathrm{cal}=101.325 \mathrm{~J}$ (exact, definition) |
| nutritional calorie (Cal) | $=1000 \mathrm{cal}($ exact, definition) $=4184 \mathrm{~J}$ |
| British thermal unit (BTU) | $=1054.804 \mathrm{~J}^{\underline{1}}$ |

TABLE C4

| Units of Pressure |  |
| :--- | :--- |
| torr | $=1 \mathrm{~mm} \mathrm{Hg}$ (exact, definition) |

TABLE C5

1 BTU is the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. Therefore, the exact relationship of BTU to joules and other energy units depends on the temperature at which BTU is measured. $59^{\circ} \mathrm{F}\left(15^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$ is the most widely used reference temperature for BTU definition in the United States. At this temperature, the conversion factor is the one provided in this table.


2260. Units and Conversion Factors -
| pascal (Pa) | $=\mathrm{N} \mathrm{m}^{-2}$ (exact, definition)
 $=\mathrm{kg} \mathrm{m}^{-1} \mathrm{~s}^{-2}$ (exact, definition) |
| :--- | :--- |
| atmosphere (atm) $=760 \mathrm{~mm} \mathrm{Hg}$ (exact, definition)
 $=760$ torr (exact, definition)
 $=101,325 \mathrm{~N} \mathrm{~m}$
 -2
  $=101,325 \mathrm{~Pa}$ (exact, definition) |  |
| bar | $=10^{5} \mathrm{~Pa}$ (exact, definition)
  $=10^{5} \mathrm{~kg} \mathrm{~m}^{-1} \mathrm{~s}^{-2}$ (exact, definition) |

TABLE C5

1094 C• Units and Conversion Factors


2262. Fundamental Physical Constants -
Fundamental Physical Constants


2262. Fundamental Physical Constants -
| Name and Symbol | Value |
| :---: | :---: |
| atomic mass unit (amu) | $1.6605402 \times 10^{-27} \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| Avogadro's number | $6.02214076 \times 10^{23} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}$ |
| Boltzmann's constant (k) | $1.380649 \times 10^{-23} \mathrm{~J} \mathrm{~K}^{-1}$ |
| charge-to-mass ratio for electron $\left(e / m_{e}\right)$ | $1.75881962 \times 10^{11} \mathrm{C} \mathrm{kg}^{-1}$ |
| fundamental unit of charge (e) | $1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{C}$ |
| electron rest mass ( $m_{e}$ ) | $9.1093897 \times 10^{-31} \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| Faraday's constant (F) | $9.6485309 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{C} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}$ |
| gas constant ( $R$ ) | $8.205784 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~L} \mathrm{~atm} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \mathrm{~K}^{-1}=8.314510 \mathrm{~J} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \mathrm{~K}^{-1}$ |
| molar volume of an ideal gas, $1 \mathrm{~atm}, 0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | $22.41409 \mathrm{~L} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}$ |
| molar volume of an ideal gas, $1 \mathrm{bar}, 0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | $22.71108 \mathrm{~L} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}$ |
| neutron rest mass ( $m_{n}$ ) | $1.6749274 \times 10^{-27} \mathrm{~kg}$ |


2262. Fundamental Physical Constants -
| neutron rest mass ( $m_{n}$ ) | $1.6749274 \times 10^{-27} \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| Planck's constant (h) | $6.62607015 \times 10^{-34} \mathrm{~J} \mathrm{~S}$ |
| proton rest mass ( $m_{p}$ ) | $1.6726231 \times 10^{-27} \mathrm{~kg}$ |
| Rydberg constant (R) | $1.0973731534 \times 10^{7} \mathrm{~m}^{-1}=2.1798736 \times 10^{-18} \mathrm{~J}$ |
| speed of light (in vacuum) (c) | $2.99792458 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~m} \mathrm{~s}^{-1}$ |


2262. Fundamental Physical Constants -
TABLE D1


2264. Water Properties -
| Temperature | Density ( $\mathrm{g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) |
| :---: | :---: |
| 0 | 0.9998395 |
| 4 | 0.9999720 (density maximum) |
| 10 | 0.9997026 |
| 15 | 0.9991026 |
| 20 | 0.9982071 |
| 22 | 0.9977735 |
| 25 | 0.9970479 |
| 30 | 0.9956502 |
| 40 | 0.9922 |
| 60 | 0.9832 |
| 80 | 0.9718 |
| 100 | 0.9584 |

TABLE E1

Density of Water as a Function of Temperature

| Temperature | Vapor Pressure (torr) | Vapor Pressure (Pa) |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| 0 | 4.6 | 613.2812 |
| 4 | 6.1 | 813.2642 |
| 10 | 9.2 | 1226.562 |
| 15 | 12.8 | 1706.522 |
| 20 | 17.5 | 2333.135 |
| 22 | 19.8 | 2639.776 |
| 25 | 23.8 | 3173.064 |
| 30 | 31.8 | 4239.64 |
| 35 | 42.2 | 5626.188 |
| 40 | 55.3 | 7372.707 |
| 45 | 71.9 | 9585.852 |
| 50 | 92.5 | 12332.29 |
| 55 | 118.0 | 15732 |

TABLE E2


2264. Water Properties -
TABLE E2

| Temperature |  | Vapor Pressure (torr) |  | Vapor Pressure (Pa) |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :---: | :---: |
| 60 | 149.4 | 19918.31 |  |  |
| 65 | 187.5 | 24997.88 |  |  |
| 70 | 233.7 | 31157.35 |  |  |
| 75 | 289.1 | 38543.39 |  |  |
| 80 | 435.1 | 47342.64 |  |  |
| 85 | 525.8 | 57808.42 |  |  |
| 90 | 760.0 | 70100.71 |  |  |
| 95 |  | 84512.82 |  |  |
| 100 |  |  |  |  |
| TABLE E2 |  |  |  |  |

Water $\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{w}}$ and $\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{W}}$ at Different Temperatures $\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$

| Temperature | $\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{w}} \mathbf{1 0}^{\mathbf{- 1 4}}$ | $\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{w}}{ }^{\mathbf{1}}$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 0 | 0.112 | 14.95 |

TABLE E3


2264. Water Properties -
TABLE E3

| Temperature | $\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{w}} 10^{-14}$ | $\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{w}}{ }^{1}$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| 5 | 0.182 | 14.74 |
| 10 | 0.288 | 14.54 |
| 15 | 0.465 | 14.33 |
| 20 | 0.671 | 14.17 |
| 25 | 0.991 | 14.00 |
| 30 | 1.432 | 13.84 |
| 35 | 2.042 | 13.69 |
| 40 | 2.851 | 13.55 |
| 45 | 3.917 | 13.41 |
| 50 | 5.297 | 13.28 |
| 55 | 7.080 | 13.15 |
| 60 | 9.311 | 13.03 |
| 75 | 19.95 | 12.70 |
| 100 | 56.23 | 12.25 |

TABLE E3

Standard Water Melting and Boiling Temperatures and Enthalpies of the Transitions

|  | Temperature (K) | $\Delta H(\mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol})$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| melting | 273.15 | 6.088 |
| boiling | 373.15 | $40.656(44.016$ at 298 K$)$ |

TABLE E5

Water Cryoscopic (Freezing Point Depression) and Ebullioscopic (Boiling Point Elevation) Constants
$\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{f}}=1.86^{\circ} \mathrm{C} \cdot \mathrm{kg} \cdot \mathrm{mol}^{-1}($ cryoscopic constant $)$
$\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{b}}=0.51^{\circ} \mathrm{C} \cdot \mathrm{kg} \cdot \mathrm{mol}^{-1}($ ebullioscopic constant)

TABLE E6


2264. Water Properties -
TABLE E6

FIGURE E1 The plot shows the extent of light absorption versus wavelength for water. Absorption is reported in reciprocal meters and corresponds to the inverse of the distance light may travel through water before its intensity is diminished by $1 / e$ ( $\sim 37 \%$ ).


2266. Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases -
Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases

| Acid or Base $^{\mathbf{1}}$ | Density (g/mL) | Percentage by Mass | Molarity |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| acetic acid, glacial | 1.05 | $99.5 \%$ | 17.4 |
| aqueous ammonia ${ }^{\frac{3}{2}}$ | 0.90 | $28 \%$ | 14.8 |
| hydrochloric acid | 1.18 | $36 \%$ | 11.6 |
| nitric acid | 1.42 | $71 \%$ | 16.0 |
| perchloric acid | 1.67 | 1.70 | $50 \%$ |
| phosphoric acid | 1.53 | $96 \%$ | 11.65 |
| sodium hydroxide | 1.84 | 19.7 |  |
| sulfuric acid |  |  | 18.0 |

TABLE F1

[^17]


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| aluminum |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Al}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 28.3 |
| $\mathrm{Al}(\mathrm{g})$ | 324.4 | 285.7 | 164.54 |
| $\mathrm{Al}^{3+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -531 | -485 | -321.7 |
| $\mathrm{Al}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -1676 | -1582 | 50.92 |
| $\mathrm{AlF}_{3}(s)$ | -1510.4 | -1425 | 66.5 |
| $\mathrm{AlCl}_{3}(S)$ | -704.2 | -628.8 | 110.67 |
| $\mathrm{AlCl}_{3} \cdot 6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -2691.57 | -2269.40 | 376.56 |
| $\mathrm{Al}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{3}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -724.0 | -492.4 | 116.9 |
| $\mathrm{Al}_{2}\left(\mathrm{SO}_{4}\right)_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -3445.06 | -3506.61 | 239.32 |
| antimony |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Sb}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 45.69 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| antimony |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Sb}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 45.69 |
| $\mathrm{Sb}(\mathrm{g})$ | 262.34 | 222.17 | 180.16 |
| $\mathrm{Sb}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)$ | -1440.55 | -1268.17 | 220.92 |
| $\mathrm{SbCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -313.8 | -301.2 | 337.80 |
| $\mathrm{SbCl}_{5}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -394.34 | -334.29 | 401.94 |
| $\mathrm{Sb}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -174.89 | -173.64 | 182.00 |
| $\mathrm{SbCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -382.17 | -323.72 | 184.10 |
| SbOCl(s) | -374.0 | - | - |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

arsenic

| $\mathrm{As}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 35.1 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{As}(\mathrm{g})$ | 302.5 | 261.0 | 174.21 |
| $\mathrm{As}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 143.9 | 92.4 | 314 |
| $\mathrm{As}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)$ | -1313.94 | -1152.52 | 214.22 |
| $\mathrm{As}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{5}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -924.87 | -782.41 | 105.44 |
| $\mathrm{AsCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -261.50 | -248.95 | 327.06 |
| $\mathrm{As}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -169.03 | -168.62 | 163.59 |
| $\mathrm{AsH}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 66.44 | 68.93 | 222.78 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{AsO}_{4}(s)$ | -906.3 | - | - |

barium


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
barium

| $\mathrm{Ba}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 62.5 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Ba}(g)$ | 180 | 146 | 170.24 |
| $\mathrm{Ba}^{2+}(a q)$ | -537.6 | -560.8 | 9.6 |
| $\mathrm{BaO}(s)$ | -548.0 | -520.3 | 72.1 |
| $\mathrm{BaCl}_{2}(s)$ | -855.0 | -806.7 | 123.7 |
| $\mathrm{BaSO}_{4}(s)$ | -1473.2 | -1362.3 | 132.2 |

beryllium

| $\operatorname{Be}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 9.50 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\operatorname{Be}(g)$ | 324.3 | 286.6 | 136.27 |
| $\operatorname{BeO}(s)$ | -609.4 | -580.1 | 13.8 |

bismuth

| $\operatorname{Bi}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 56.74 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\operatorname{Bi}(g)$ | 207.1 | 168.2 | 187.00 |

TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{Bi}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -573.88 | -493.7 | 151.5 |
| $\mathrm{BiCl}_{3}(s)$ | -379.07 | -315.06 | 176.98 |
| $\mathrm{Bi}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{3}(S)$ | -143.1 | -140.6 | 200.4 |
| boron |  |  |  |
| B(s) | 0 | 0 | 5.86 |
| $\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{g})$ | 565.0 | 521.0 | 153.4 |
| $\mathrm{B}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(S)$ | -1273.5 | -1194.3 | 53.97 |
| $\mathrm{B}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 36.4 | 87.6 | 232.1 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{BO}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -1094.33 | -968.92 | 88.83 |
| $\mathrm{BF}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -1136.0 | -1119.4 | 254.4 |
| $\mathrm{BCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -403.8 | -388.7 | 290.1 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{BCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -403.8 | -388.7 | 290.1 |
| $\mathrm{B}_{3} \mathrm{~N}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{6}(\mathrm{l})$ | -540.99 | -392.79 | 199.58 |
| $\mathrm{HBO}_{2}(s)$ | -794.25 | -723.41 | 37.66 |
| bromine |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Br}_{2}(1)$ | 0 | 0 | 152.23 |
| $\mathrm{Br}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 30.91 | 3.142 | 245.5 |
| $\operatorname{Br}(\mathrm{g})$ | 111.88 | 82.429 | 175.0 |
| $\mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -120.9 | -102.82 | 80.71 |
| $\mathrm{BrF}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -255.60 | -229.45 | 292.42 |
| $\operatorname{HBr}(\mathrm{g})$ | -36.3 | -53.43 | 198.7 |
| cadmium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Cd}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 51.76 |
| $\mathrm{Cd}(\mathrm{g})$ | 112.01 | 77.41 | 167.75 |
| $\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -75.90 | -77.61 | -73.2 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{CdO}(s)$ | -258.2 | -228.4 | 54.8 |
| $\mathrm{CdCl}_{2}(s)$ | -391.5 | -343.9 | 115.3 |
| $\mathrm{CdSO}_{4}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -933.3 | -822.7 | 123.0 |
| $\operatorname{CdS}(s)$ | -161.9 | -156.5 | 64.9 |
| calcium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Ca}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 41.6 |
| $\mathrm{Ca}(\mathrm{g})$ | 178.2 | 144.3 | 154.88 |
| $\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -542.96 | -553.04 | -55.2 |
| $\mathrm{CaO}(s)$ | -634.9 | -603.3 | 38.1 |
| $\mathrm{Ca}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -985.2 | -897.5 | 83.4 |
| $\mathrm{CaSO}_{4}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -1434.5 | -1322.0 | 106.5 |
| $\mathrm{CaSO}_{4} \cdot 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -2022.63 | -1797.45 | 194.14 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{CaSO}_{4} \cdot 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -2022.63 | -1797.45 | 194.14 |
| $\mathrm{CaCO}_{3}(s)$ (calcite) | -1220.0 | -1081.4 | 110.0 |
| $\mathrm{CaSO}_{3} \cdot \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -1752.68 | -1555.19 | 184.10 |
| carbon |  |  |  |
| C(s) (graphite) | 0 | 0 | 5.740 |
| $\mathrm{C}(s)$ (diamond) | 1.89 | 2.90 | 2.38 |
| $\mathrm{C}(\mathrm{g})$ | 716.681 | 671.2 | 158.1 |
| $\mathrm{CO}(\mathrm{g})$ | -110.52 | -137.15 | 197.7 |
| $\mathrm{CO}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -393.51 | -394.36 | 213.8 |
| $\mathrm{CO}_{3}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -677.1 | -527.8 | -56.9 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -74.6 | -50.5 | 186.3 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{I})$ | -239.2 | -166.6 | 126.8 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{g})$ | -201.0 | -162.3 | 239.9 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{CCl}_{4}(\mathrm{I})$ | -128.2 | -62.5 | 214.4 |
| $\mathrm{CCl}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -95.7 | -58.2 | 309.7 |
| $\mathrm{CHCl}_{3}(\mathrm{I})$ | -134.1 | -73.7 | 201.7 |
| $\mathrm{CHCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -103.14 | -70.34 | 295.71 |
| $\mathrm{CS}_{2}($ I) | 89.70 | 65.27 | 151.34 |
| $\mathrm{CS}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 116.9 | 66.8 | 238.0 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 227.4 | 209.2 | 200.9 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 52.4 | 68.4 | 219.3 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -84.0 | -32.0 | 229.2 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}(\mathrm{I})$ | -484.3 | -389.9 | 159.8 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}(\mathrm{I})$ | -484.3 | -389.9 | 159.8 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}(\mathrm{g})$ | -434.84 | -376.69 | 282.50 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{I})$ | -277.6 | -174.8 | 160.7 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{g})$ | -234.8 | -167.9 | 281.6 |
| $\mathrm{HCO}_{3}{ }^{-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -691.11 | -587.06 | 95 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{8}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -103.8 | -23.4 | 270.3 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 82.927 | 129.66 | 269.2 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(\mathrm{I})$ | 49.1 | 124.50 | 173.4 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}($ I | -124.2 | -63.2 | 177.8 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -95.4 | -65.90 | 270.2 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{g})$ | -81.9 | -60.2 | 234.6 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{I})$ | -136.52 | -59.31 | 190.79 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{I})$ | -136.52 | -59.31 | 190.79 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{g})$ | -112.17 | -60.39 | 276.00 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{~N}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 308.98 | 297.36 | 241.90 |
| HCN( $)$ | 108.9 | 125.0 | 112.8 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{HCN}(\mathrm{g})$ | 135.5 | 124.7 | 201.8 |
| cesium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Cs}^{+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -248 | -282.0 | 133 |
| chlorine |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Cl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 0 | 0 | 223.1 |
| $\mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{g})$ | 121.3 | 105.70 | 165.2 |
| $\mathrm{Cl}^{-}(a q)$ | -167.2 | -131.2 | 56.5 |
| $\mathrm{ClF}(\mathrm{g})$ | -54.48 | -55.94 | 217.78 |
| $\mathrm{ClF}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -158.99 | -118.83 | 281.50 |
| $\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}(\mathrm{g})$ | 80.3 | 97.9 | 266.2 |
| $\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}(\mathrm{I})$ | 238.1 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 272.0 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{HCl}(\mathrm{g})$ | -92.307 | -95.299 | 186.9 |
| $\mathrm{HClO}_{4}($ l | -40.58 | - | - |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{HClO}_{4}($ l | -40.58 | - | - |
| chromium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Cr}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 23.77 |
| $\mathrm{Cr}(\mathrm{g})$ | 396.6 | 351.8 | 174.50 |
| $\mathrm{CrO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -881.2 | -727.8 | 50.21 |
| $\mathrm{Cr}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -1490.3 | -1301.1 | 261.9 |
| $\mathrm{Cr}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(S)$ | -1139.7 | -1058.1 | 81.2 |
| $\mathrm{CrO}_{3}(S)$ | -589.5 | - | - |
| $\left(\mathrm{NH}_{4}\right)_{2} \mathrm{Cr}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -1806.7 | - | - |
| cobalt |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{S})$ | 0 | 0 | 30.0 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Co}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -67.4 | -51.5 | -155 |
| $\mathrm{Co}^{3+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | 92 | 134 | -305.0 |
| $\mathrm{CoO}(s)$ | -237.9 | -214.2 | 52.97 |
| $\mathrm{Co}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{4}(s)$ | -910.02 | -794.98 | 114.22 |
| $\mathrm{Co}_{\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{2}(s)}$ | -420.5 | - | - |

copper


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
copper

| $\mathrm{Cu}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 33.15 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Cu}(g)$ | 338.32 | 298.58 | 166.38 |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{+}(a q)$ | 51.9 | 50.2 | -26 |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{2+}(a q)$ | 64.77 | 65.49 | -99.6 |
| $\mathrm{CuO}(s)$ | -157.3 | -129.7 | 42.63 |
| $\mathrm{Cu}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -168.6 | -146.0 | 93.14 |
| $\mathrm{CuS}^{(s)}$ | -53.1 | -53.6 | 66.5 |
| $\mathrm{Cu}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(s)$ | -79.5 | -86.2 | 120.9 |
| $\mathrm{CuSO}_{4}(s)$ | -771.36 | -662.2 | 109.2 |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{2}(s)}$ | -302.9 | - | - |

fluorine

| $\mathrm{F}_{2}(g)$ | 0 | 0 | 202.8 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{~F}(g)$ | 79.4 | 62.3 | 158.8 |
| $\mathrm{~F}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -332.6 | -278.8 | -13.8 |
| $\mathrm{~F}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$ | 24.7 | 41.9 | 247.43 |
| $\mathrm{HF}(g)$ | -273.3 | -275.4 | 173.8 |

hydrogen

| $\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)$ | 0 | 0 | 130.7 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{H}(\mathrm{g})$ | 217.97 | 203.26 | 114.7 |
| $\mathrm{H}^{+}(a q)$ | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| $\mathrm{OH}^{-}(a q)$ | -230.0 | -157.2 | -10.75 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}(a q)$ | -285.8 |  | 69.91 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(\mathrm{l})$ | -285.83 | -237.1 | 70.0 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(\mathrm{g})$ | -241.82 | -228.59 | 188.8 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}($ I) | -187.78 | -120.35 | 109.6 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -136.3 | -105.6 | 232.7 |
| $\mathrm{HF}(\mathrm{g})$ | -273.3 | -275.4 | 173.8 |
| $\mathrm{HCl}(\mathrm{g})$ | -92.307 | -95.299 | 186.9 |
| $\operatorname{HBr}(\mathrm{g})$ | -36.3 | -53.43 | 198.7 |
| $\mathrm{HI}(\mathrm{g})$ | 26.48 | 1.70 | 206.59 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{HI}(\mathrm{g})$ | 26.48 | 1.70 | 206.59 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -20.6 | -33.4 | 205.8 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{Se}(\mathrm{g})$ | 29.7 | 15.9 | 219.0 |
| $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}$ | -206.64 | - | - |
| iodine |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{I}_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | 0 | 0 | 116.14 |
| $\mathrm{I}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 62.438 | 19.3 | 260.7 |
| $\mathrm{I}(\mathrm{g})$ | 106.84 | 70.2 | 180.8 |
| $\mathrm{I}^{-}(a q)$ | -55.19 | -51.57 | 11.13 |
| $\mathrm{IF}(\mathrm{g})$ | 95.65 | -118.49 | 236.06 |
| $\mathrm{ICl}(\mathrm{g})$ | 17.78 | -5.44 | 247.44 |
| $\operatorname{IBr}(\mathrm{g})$ | 40.84 | 3.72 | 258.66 |
| $\mathrm{IF}_{7}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -943.91 | -818.39 | 346.44 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{HI}(\mathrm{g})$ | 26.48 | 1.70 | 206.59 |
| iron |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 27.3 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{g})$ | 416.3 | 370.7 | 180.5 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -89.1 | -78.90 | -137.7 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{3+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -48.5 | -4.7 | -315.9 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(S)$ | -824.2 | -742.2 | 87.40 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{4}(S)$ | -1118.4 | -1015.4 | 146.4 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(\mathrm{l})$ | -774.04 | -705.42 | 338.07 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -733.87 | -697.26 | 445.18 |
| FeCl $2(S)$ | -341.79 | -302.30 | 117.95 |
| $\mathrm{FeCl}_{3}(S)$ | -399.49 | -334.00 | 142.3 |
| $\mathrm{FeO}(s)$ | -272.0 | -255.2 | 60.75 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{FeO}(s)$ | -272.0 | -255.2 | 60.75 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -569.0 | -486.5 | 88. |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -823.0 | -696.5 | 106.7 |
| $\mathrm{FeS}(s)$ | -100.0 | -100.4 | 60.29 |
| $\mathrm{Fe}_{3} \mathrm{C}(s)$ | 25.10 | 20.08 | 104.60 |
| lead |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Pb}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 64.81 |
| $\mathrm{Pb}(\mathrm{g})$ | 195.2 | 162. | 175.4 |
| $\mathrm{Pb}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -1.7 | -24.43 | 10.5 |
| $\mathrm{PbO}(s)$ (yellow) | -217.32 | -187.89 | 68.70 |
| $\mathrm{PbO}(s)$ (red) | -218.99 | -188.93 | 66.5 |
| $\mathrm{Pb}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -515.9 | - | - |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{PbS}(s)$ | -100.4 | -98.7 | 91.2 |
| $\mathrm{Pb}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -451.9 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{PbO}_{2}(S)$ | -277.4 | -217.3 | 68.6 |
| $\mathrm{PbCl}_{2}(S)$ | -359.4 | -314.1 | 136.0 |
| lithium |  |  |  |
| Li(s) | 0 | 0 | 29.1 |
| $\mathrm{Li}(\mathrm{g})$ | 159.3 | 126.6 | 138.8 |
| $\mathrm{Li}^{+}(a q)$ | -278.5 | -293.3 | 13.4 |
| $\mathrm{LiH}(s)$ | -90.5 | -68.3 | 20.0 |
| Li(OH)(S) | -487.5 | -441.5 | 42.8 |
| $\operatorname{LiF}(s)$ | -616.0 | -587.5 | 35.7 |
| $\mathrm{Li}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}(s)$ | -1216.04 | -1132.19 | 90.17 |

magnesium

| $\operatorname{Mg}^{2+}(a q)$ | -466.9 | -454.8 | -138.1 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

manganese


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\operatorname{Mg}^{2+}(a q)$ | -466.9 | -454.8 | -138.1 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

manganese

| $\mathrm{Mn}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 32.0 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Mn}(g)$ | 280.7 | 238.5 | 173.7 |
| $\mathrm{Mn}^{2+}(a q)$ | -220.8 | -228.1 | -73.6 |
| $\mathrm{MnO}(s)$ | -385.2 | -362.9 | 59.71 |
| $\mathrm{MnO}_{2}(s)$ | -520.03 | -465.1 | 53.05 |
| $\mathrm{Mn}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(s)$ | -958.97 | -881.15 | 110.46 |
| $\mathrm{Mn}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{4}(s)$ | -541.4 | -1283.23 | 155.64 |
| $\mathrm{MnO}_{4}{ }^{-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -653.0 | -500.7 | 59 |
| $\mathrm{MnO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ |  | 191.2 |  |

TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{Hg}(1)$ | 0 | 0 | 75.9 |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{Hg}(\mathrm{g})$ | 61.4 | 31.8 | 175.0 |
| $\mathrm{Hg}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ |  | 164.8 |  |
| $\mathrm{Hg}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | 172.4 | 153.9 | 84.5 |
| $\mathrm{HgO}(\mathrm{s})(\mathrm{red})$ | -90.83 | -58.5 | 70.29 |
| $\mathrm{HgO}(s)$ (yellow) | -90.46 | -58.43 | 71.13 |
| $\mathrm{HgCl}_{2}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -224.3 | -178.6 | 146.0 |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(s)$ | -265.4 | -210.7 | 191.6 |
| $\mathrm{HgS}(\mathrm{s})(\mathrm{red})$ | -58.16 | -50.6 | 82.4 |
| $\operatorname{HgS}(s)$ (black) | -53.56 | -47.70 | 88.28 |
| $\mathrm{HgSO}_{4}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -707.51 | -594.13 | 0.00 |

nickel

| $\mathrm{Ni}^{2+}(a q)$ | -64.0 | -46.4 | -159 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

nitrogen


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
nickel

| $\mathrm{Ni}^{2+}(a q)$ | -64.0 | -46.4 | -159 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

nitrogen

| $\mathrm{N}_{2}(g)$ | 0 | 0 | 191.6 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{~N}(g)$ | 472.704 | 455.5 | 153.3 |
| $\mathrm{NO}(g)$ | 90.25 | 87.6 | 210.8 |
| $\mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)$ | 33.2 | 51.30 | 240.1 |
| $\mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$ | 81.6 | 103.7 | 220.0 |
| $\mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(g)$ | 83.72 | 139.41 | 312.17 |
| $\mathrm{NO}_{3}-(a q)$ | -205.0 | -108.7 | 146.4 |
| $\mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}(g)$ | 11.1 | 99.8 | 304.4 |
| $\mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{5}(g)$ | 11.3 | 115.1 | 355.7 |

TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -45.9 | -16.5 | 192.8 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4}{ }^{+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -132.5 | -79.31 | 113.4 |
| $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}(\mathrm{l})$ | 50.63 | 149.43 | 121.21 |
| $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 95.4 | 159.4 | 238.5 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{NO}_{3}(S)$ | -365.56 | -183.87 | 151.08 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{Cl}(\mathrm{s})$ | -314.43 | -202.87 | 94.6 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{Br}(\mathrm{s})$ | -270.8 | -175.2 | 113.0 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{I}(\mathrm{s})$ | -201.4 | -112.5 | 117.0 |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{NO}_{2}(s)$ | -256.5 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}(\mathrm{I})$ | -174.1 | -80.7 | 155.6 |
| $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -133.9 | -73.5 | 266.9 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -133.9 | -73.5 | 266.9 |
| $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -207.4 | -110.5 | 146 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
oxygen

| $\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$ | 0 | 0 | 205.2 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{O}(g)$ | 249.17 | 231.7 | 161.1 |
| $\mathrm{O}_{3}(g)$ | 142.7 | 163.2 | 238.9 |

phosphorus

| $\mathrm{P}_{4}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 164.4 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{P}_{4}(g)$ | 58.91 | 24.4 | 280.0 |
| $\mathrm{P}(g)$ | 314.64 | 278.25 | 163.19 |
| $\mathrm{PH}_{3}(g)$ | 5.4 | 13.5 | 210.2 |
| $\mathrm{PCl}_{3}(g)$ | -287.0 | -267.8 | 311.78 |
| $\mathrm{PCl}_{5}(g)$ | -374.9 | -305.0 | 364.4 |
| $\mathrm{P}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)$ | -1640.1 | - | - |

TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{P}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{10}(s)$ | -2984.0 | -2697.0 | 228.86 |
| $\mathrm{PO}_{4}{ }^{3-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -1277 | -1019 | -222 |
| $\mathrm{HPO}_{3}(\mathrm{~s})$ | -948.5 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{HPO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -1292.1 | -1089.3 | -33 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -1296.3 | -1130.4 | 90.4 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{2}(s)$ | -604.6 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{3}(s)$ | -964.4 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}(S)$ | -1279.0 | -1119.1 | 110.50 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}(\mathrm{l})$ | -1266.9 | -1124.3 | 110.5 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{4} \mathrm{P}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}(S)$ | -2241.0 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{POCl}_{3}(\mathrm{l})$ | -597.1 | -520.8 | 222.5 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{POCl}_{3}(\mathrm{l})$ | -597.1 | -520.8 | 222.5 |
| $\mathrm{POCl}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -558.5 | -512.9 | 325.5 |
| potassium |  |  |  |
| K(s) | 0 | 0 | 64.7 |
| K(g) | 89.0 | 60.5 | 160.3 |
| $\mathrm{K}^{+}(a q)$ | -252.4 | -283.3 | 102.5 |
| KF( $s$ ) | -576.27 | -537.75 | 66.57 |
| $\mathrm{KCl}(\mathrm{s})$ | -436.5 | -408.5 | 82.6 |
| rubidium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Rb}^{+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -246 | -282.2 | 124 |
| silicon |  |  |  |
| Si(s) | 0 | 0 | 18.8 |
| $\mathrm{Si}(\mathrm{g})$ | 450.0 | 405.5 | 168.0 |
| $\mathrm{SiO}_{2}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -910.7 | -856.3 | 41.5 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{SiH}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | 34.3 | 56.9 | 204.6 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SiO}_{3}(S)$ | -1188.67 | -1092.44 | 133.89 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{4} \mathrm{SiO}_{4}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -1481.14 | -1333.02 | 192.46 |
| $\mathrm{SiF}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -1615.0 | -1572.8 | 282.8 |
| $\mathrm{SiCl}_{4}(I)$ | -687.0 | -619.8 | 239.7 |
| $\mathrm{SiCl}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -662.75 | -622.58 | 330.62 |
| SiC(s, beta cubic) | -73.22 | -70.71 | 16.61 |
| SiC(s, alpha hexagonal) | -71.55 | -69.04 | 16.48 |
| silver |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Ag}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 42.55 |
| $\mathrm{Ag}(\mathrm{g})$ | 284.9 | 246.0 | 172.89 |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | 105.6 | 77.11 | 72.68 |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -31.05 | -11.20 | 121.3 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -31.05 | -11.20 | 121.3 |
| $\mathrm{AgCl}(\mathrm{s})$ | -127.0 | -109.8 | 96.3 |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -32.6 | -40.7 | 144.0 |
| sodium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Na}(S)$ | 0 | 0 | 51.3 |
| $\mathrm{Na}(\mathrm{g})$ | 107.5 | 77.0 | 153.7 |
| $\mathrm{Na}^{+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -240.1 | -261.9 | 59 |
| $\mathrm{Na}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)$ | -414.2 | -375.5 | 75.1 |
| $\mathrm{NaCl}(\mathrm{s})$ | -411.2 | -384.1 | 72.1 |
| strontium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Sr}^{2+}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -545.8 | -557.3 | -32.6 |
| sulfur |  |  |  |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{S}_{8}(s)$ (rhombic) | 0 | 0 | 256.8 |
| $\mathrm{S}(\mathrm{g})$ | 278.81 | 238.25 | 167.82 |
| $S^{2-}(a q)$ | 41.8 | 83.7 | 22 |
| $\mathrm{SO}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -296.83 | -300.1 | 248.2 |
| $\mathrm{SO}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -395.72 | -371.06 | 256.76 |
| $\mathrm{SO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -909.3 | -744.5 | 20.1 |
| $\mathrm{S}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -648.5 | -522.5 | 67 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -20.6 | -33.4 | 205.8 |
| $\mathrm{HS}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -17.7 | 12.6 | 61.1 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}(\mathrm{I})$ | -813.989 | -690.00 | 156.90 |
| $\mathrm{HSO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -885.75 | -752.87 | 126.9 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\mathrm{HSO}_{4}{ }^{2-}(\mathrm{aq})$ | -885.75 | -752.87 | 126.9 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -1273.6 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{SF}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -728.43 | -684.84 | 291.12 |
| $\mathrm{SF}_{6}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -1220.5 | -1116.5 | 291.5 |
| $\mathrm{SCl}_{2}($ I) | -50 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{SCl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -19.7 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{S}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(\mathrm{I})$ | -59.4 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{S}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -19.50 | -29.25 | 319.45 |
| $\mathrm{SOCl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -212.55 | -198.32 | 309.66 |
| $\mathrm{SOCl}_{2}(\mathrm{I})$ | -245.6 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{SO}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}($ I | -394.1 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{SO}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -354.80 | -310.45 | 311.83 |
| tin |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Sn}(\mathrm{s})$ | 0 | 0 | 51.2 |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}{ }^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\operatorname{Sn}(\mathrm{g})$ | 301.2 | 266.2 | 168.5 |
| $\mathrm{SnO}(\mathrm{s})$ | -285.8 | -256.9 | 56.5 |
| $\mathrm{SnO}_{2}(\mathrm{~S})$ | -577.6 | -515.8 | 49.0 |
| $\mathrm{SnCl}_{4}(\mathrm{I})$ | -511.3 | -440.1 | 258.6 |
| $\mathrm{SnCl}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -471.5 | -432.2 | 365.8 |
| titanium |  |  |  |
| $\mathrm{Ti}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 30.7 |
| $\mathrm{Ti}(\mathrm{g})$ | 473.0 | 428.4 | 180.3 |
| $\mathrm{TiO}_{2}(s)$ | -944.0 | -888.8 | 50.6 |
| $\mathrm{TiCl}_{4}($ ) | -804.2 | -737.2 | 252.4 |
| $\mathrm{TiCl}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})$ | -763.2 | -726.3 | 353.2 |

tungsten


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
tungsten

| $\mathrm{W}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 32.6 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{~W}(g)$ | 849.4 | 807.1 | 174.0 |
| $\mathrm{WO}_{3}(s)$ | -842.9 | -764.0 | 75.9 |

zinc

| $\mathrm{Zn}(s)$ | 0 | 0 | 41.6 |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Zn}(g)$ | 130.73 | 95.14 | 160.98 |
| $\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}(a q)$ | -153.9 | -147.1 | -112.1 |
| $\mathrm{ZnO}(s)$ | -350.5 | -320.5 | 43.7 |
| $\mathrm{ZnCl}_{2}(s)$ | -415.1 | -369.43 | 111.5 |
| $\mathrm{ZnS}^{(s)}$ | -206.0 | -201.3 | 57.7 |
| $\mathrm{ZnSO}_{4}(s)$ | -982.8 | -871.5 | 110.5 |
| $\mathrm{ZnCO}_{3}(s)$ | -812.78 | -731.57 | 82.42 |

TABLE G1

| Substance | $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{kJ} \mathrm{mol}^{-1}\right)$ | $S^{\circ}\left(\mathrm{J} \mathrm{K}^{-1} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |

complexes


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right)_{2}\right] \mathrm{NO}_{3}, \mathrm{cis}$ | -898.7 | - | - |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right)_{2}\right] \mathrm{NO}_{3}$, trans | -896.2 | - | - |
| $\mathrm{NH}_{4}\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{2}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right)_{4}\right]$ | -837.6 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{2}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right)_{4}\right]_{3}$ | -2733.0 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}\right] \mathrm{Cl}$, cis | -874.9 | - | - |
| [ $\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4} \mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}$, trans | -877.4 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{en})_{2}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right)_{2}\right] \mathrm{NO}_{3}$, cis | -689.5 | - | - |
| [Co(en) $2_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$ ]Cl, cis | -681.2 | - | - |
| [Co(en) $)_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$ ]Cl, trans | -677.4 | - | - |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| [Co(en) $)_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$ ]Cl, trans | -677.4 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{en})_{3}\right]\left(\mathrm{ClO}_{4}\right)_{3}$ | -762.7 | - | - |
| [Co(en) ${ }_{3} \mathrm{Br}_{2}$ | -595.8 | - | - |
| [Co(en) ${ }_{3} \mathrm{I}_{2}$ | -475.3 | - | - |
| [Co(en) $3_{3} \mathrm{I}_{3}$ | -519.2 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]\left(\mathrm{ClO}_{4}\right)_{3}$ | -1034.7 | -221.1 | 615 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{5} \mathrm{NO}_{2}\right]\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{2}$ | -1088.7 | -412.9 | 331 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{3}$ | -1282.0 | -524.5 | 448 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{5} \mathrm{Cl]Cl}{ }_{2}\right.$ | -1017.1 | -582.5 | 366.1 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Pt}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\right] \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$ | -725.5 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ni}^{\left.\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right] \mathrm{Cl}_{2}}\right.$ | -994.1 | - | - |


2268. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances -
| $\left[\mathrm{Ni}^{\left.\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right] \mathrm{Cl}_{2}}\right.$ | -994.1 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ni}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right] \mathrm{Br}_{2}$ | -923.8 | - | - |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ni}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6} \mathrm{II}_{2}\right.$ | -808.3 | - | - |


2270. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids -
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids

| Acid | Formula | $K_{a}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | Lewis Structure |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| acetic | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathbf{H}$ | $1.8 \times 10^{-5}$ | <smiles>CC([O])=[O+]</smiles> |
| arsenic | $\mathbf{H}_{3} \mathrm{AsO}_{4}$ | $5.5 \times 10^{-3}$ | <smiles></smiles> |
|  | $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{AsO}_{4}{ }^{-}$ | $1.7 \times 10^{-7}$ |  |
|  | $\mathrm{HAsO}_{4}{ }^{2-}$ | $3.0 \times 10^{-12}$ |  |
| arsenous | $\mathbf{H}_{3} \mathrm{AsO}_{3}$ | $5.1 \times 10^{-10}$ | <smiles>[O]OAsO</smiles> |
| boric | $\mathbf{H}_{3} \mathrm{BO}_{3}$ | $5.4 \times 10^{-10}$ | <smiles>OB(O)O</smiles> |
| carbonic | $\mathbf{H}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}$ | $4.3 \times 10^{-7}$ | <smiles>O=C(O)O</smiles> |
|  | $\mathrm{HCO}_{3}{ }^{-}$ | $4.7 \times 10^{-11}$ |  |
| cyanic | HCNO | $2 \times 10^{-4}$ | $\ddot{\mathrm{N}}=\mathrm{C}=\dot{0} \text {. }$ |
| formic | $\mathrm{HCO}_{2} \mathbf{H}$ | $1.8 \times 10^{-4}$ | <smiles>OC=[Os]</smiles> |

TABLE H1


2270. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids -
| Acid | Formula | $K_{a}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | Lewis Structure |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| hydrazoic | HN3 | $2.5 \times 10^{-5}$ |  |
| hydrocyanic | HCN | $4.9 \times 10^{-10}$ |  |
| hydrofluoric | HF | $6.4 \times 10^{-4}$ |  |
| hydrogen peroxide | $\mathbf{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}$ | $2.4 \times 10^{-12}$ | $\mathrm{H}-\ddot{\mathrm{O}}-\ddot{\mathrm{O}}-\mathrm{H}$ |
| hydrogen selenide | $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{Se}$ | $1.29 \times 10^{-4}$ |  |
|  | HSe ${ }^{-}$ | $1 \times 10^{-12}$ |  |
| hydrogen sulfate ion | $\mathrm{HSO}_{4}{ }^{-}$ | $1.2 \times 10^{-2}$ | <smiles>[O]S(=[Se])(=[Se])O[Te]</smiles> |
| hydrogen sulfide | $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}$ | $8.9 \times 10^{-8}$ |  |
|  | HS ${ }^{-}$ | $1.0 \times 10^{-19}$ |  |
| hydrogen telluride | $\mathbf{H}_{\mathbf{2}} \mathbf{T e}$ | $2.3 \times 10^{-3}$ |  |
|  | HTe ${ }^{-}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-11}$ |  |
| hypobromous | $\mathbf{H B r O}$ | $2.8 \times 10^{-9}$ |  |
| hypochlorous | HClO | $2.9 \times 10^{-8}$ |  |


2270. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids -
| hypochlorous | HClO | $2.9 \times 10^{-8}$ |  |
| nitrous | $\mathbf{H N O} 2$ | $4.6 \times 10^{-4}$ | <smiles>[O]N[O+]</smiles> |
| oxalic | $\mathbf{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ | $6.0 \times 10^{-2}$ |  |
|  | $\mathrm{HC}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}{ }^{-}$ | $6.1 \times 10^{-5}$ |  |
| phosphoric | $\mathbf{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}$ | $7.5 \times 10^{-3}$ | <smiles>O=[O+]P(=O)([O-])O</smiles> |
|  | $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}{ }^{-}$ | $6.2 \times 10^{-8}$ |  |
|  | $\mathrm{HPO}_{4}{ }^{2-}$ | $4.2 \times 10^{-13}$ |  |


2271. TABLE H1 -
| Acid | Formula | $K_{a}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | Lewis Structure |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| phosphorous | $\mathbf{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{3}$ | $5 \times 10^{-2}$ | <smiles>[O]PH([Se])[Se]</smiles> |
|  | $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{3}{ }^{-}$ | $2.0 \times 10^{-7}$ |  |
| sulfurous | $\mathbf{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{3}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-2}$ | <smiles>[O]S([O])([O])[Os]</smiles> |
|  | $\mathrm{HSO}_{3}{ }^{-}$ | $6.4 \times 10^{-8}$ |  |


2272. TABLE H1 -
1126 H • Ionization Constants of Weak Acids


2274. Ionization Constants of Weak Bases -
Ionization Constants of Weak Bases

| Base | Lewis Structure | $K_{\text {b }}$ at $25{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| ammonia | <smiles>[NH]</smiles> | $1.8 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| dimethylamine | <smiles>[1H]N+([2H])NC</smiles> | $5.9 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| methylamine | <smiles>C=[NH+]</smiles> | $4.4 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| phenylamine (aniline) | <smiles>c1ccccc1</smiles> | $4.3 \times 10^{-10}$ |
| trimethylamine | <smiles>CN1CCC1</smiles> | $6.3 \times 10^{-5}$ |

TABLE I1

1128 I • Ionization Constants of Weak Bases


2276. Solubility Products -
Solubility Products

| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| aluminum |  |
| $\mathrm{Al}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$ | $2 \times 10^{-32}$ |
| barium |  |
| $\mathrm{BaCO}_{3}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-9}$ |
| $\mathrm{BaC}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4} \cdot 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $1.1 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| $\mathrm{BaSO}_{4}$ | $2.3 \times 10^{-8}$ |
| $\mathrm{BaCrO}_{4}$ | $8.5 \times 10^{-11}$ |
| $\mathrm{BaF}_{2}$ | $2.4 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ba}(\mathrm{OH})_{2} \cdot 8 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $5.0 \times 10^{-3}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ba}_{3}\left(\mathrm{PO}_{4}\right)_{2}$ | $6 \times 10^{-39}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ba}_{3}\left(\mathrm{AsO}_{4}\right)_{2}$ | $1.1 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| bismuth |  |
| BiO(OH) | $4 \times 10^{-10}$ |
| BiOCl | $1.8 \times 10^{-31}$ |
| $\mathrm{Bi}_{2} \mathrm{~S}_{3}$ | $1 \times 10^{-97}$ |
| cadmium |  |
| $\mathrm{Cd}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $5.9 \times 10^{-15}$ |
| CdS | $1.0 \times 10^{-28}$ |
| $\mathrm{CdCO}_{3}$ | $5.2 \times 10^{-12}$ |

TABLE J1


2276. Solubility Products -
| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| calcium |  |
| $\mathrm{Ca}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{-6}$ |
| $\mathrm{CaCO}_{3}$ | $8.7 \times 10^{-9}$ |
| $\mathrm{CaSO} 4 \cdot 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $6.1 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{CaC}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4} \cdot \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $1.96 \times 10^{-8}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ca}_{3}\left(\mathrm{PO}_{4}\right)_{2}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{-32}$ |
| $\mathrm{CaHPO}_{4}$ | $7 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| $\mathrm{CaF}_{2}$ | $4.0 \times 10^{-11}$ |
| chromium |  |
| $\mathrm{Cr}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$ | $6.7 \times 10^{-31}$ |
| cobalt |  |
| $\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $2.5 \times 10^{-16}$ |
| $\operatorname{CoS}(\alpha)$ | $5 \times 10^{-22}$ |
| $\operatorname{CoS}(\beta)$ | $3 \times 10^{-26}$ |
| $\mathrm{CoCO}_{3}$ | $1.4 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| $\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$ | $2.5 \times 10^{-43}$ |
| copper |  |
| CuCl | $1.2 \times 10^{-6}$ |
| CuBr | $6.27 \times 10^{-9}$ |
| CuI | $1.27 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| CuSCN | $1.6 \times 10^{-11}$ |


2276. Solubility Products -
| CuI | $1.27 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| CuSCN | $1.6 \times 10^{-11}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cu}_{2} \mathrm{~S}$ | $2.5 \times 10^{-48}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cu}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $2.2 \times 10^{-20}$ |
| CuS | $8.5 \times 10^{-45}$ |
| TABLE J1 |  |


2276. Solubility Products -
| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{CuCO}_{3}$ | $2.5 \times 10^{-10}$ |
| iron |  |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $1.8 \times 10^{-15}$ |
| $\mathrm{FeCO}_{3}$ | $2.1 \times 10^{-11}$ |
| FeS | $3.7 \times 10^{-19}$ |
| $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$ | $4 \times 10^{-38}$ |
| lead |  |
| $\mathrm{Pb}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $1.2 \times 10^{-15}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbF}_{2}$ | $4 \times 10^{-8}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbCl}_{2}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbBr}_{2}$ | $4.6 \times 10^{-6}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbI}_{2}$ | $1.4 \times 10^{-8}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbCO}_{3}$ | $1.5 \times 10^{-15}$ |
| PbS | $7 \times 10^{-29}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbCrO}_{4}$ | $2 \times 10^{-16}$ |
| $\mathrm{PbSO}_{4}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{-8}$ |
| $\mathrm{Pb}_{3}\left(\mathrm{PO}_{4}\right)_{2}$ | $1 \times 10^{-54}$ |
| magnesium |  |
| $\mathrm{Mg}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $8.9 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| $\mathrm{MgCO}_{3} \cdot 3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | ca $1 \times 10^{-5}$ |


2276. Solubility Products -
| $\mathrm{MgCO}_{3} \cdot 3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | ca $1 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{MgNH}_{4} \mathrm{PO}_{4}$ | $3 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| $\mathrm{MgF}_{2}$ | $6.4 \times 10^{-9}$ |
| $\mathrm{MgC}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ | $7 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| manganese |  |


2276. Solubility Products -
| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{Mn}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $2 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| $\mathrm{MnCO}_{3}$ | $8.8 \times 10^{-11}$ |
| MnS | $2.3 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| mercury |  |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{O} \cdot \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $3.6 \times 10^{-26}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$ | $1.1 \times 10^{-18}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{Br}_{2}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{-22}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{I}_{2}$ | $4.5 \times 10^{-29}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}$ | $9 \times 10^{-15}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ | $7.4 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{~S}$ | $1.0 \times 10^{-47}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{CrO}_{4}$ | $2 \times 10^{-9}$ |
| HgS | $1.6 \times 10^{-54}$ |
| nickel |  |
| $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-16}$ |
| $\mathrm{NiCO}_{3}$ | $1.4 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| NiS( $\alpha$ ) | $4 \times 10^{-20}$ |
| NiS( $\beta$ ) | $1.3 \times 10^{-25}$ |
| potassium |  |


2276. Solubility Products -
| NiS( $\alpha$ ) | $4 \times 10^{-20}$ |
| NiS( $\beta$ ) | $1.3 \times 10^{-25}$ |
| potassium |  |
| $\mathrm{KClO}_{4}$ | $1.05 \times 10^{-2}$ |
| $\mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{PtCl}_{6}$ | $7.48 \times 10^{-6}$ |
| $\mathrm{KHC}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{6}$ | $3 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| silver |  |
| ${ }_{2}^{1} \mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{O}\left(\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right)$ | $2 \times 10^{-8}$ |


2276. Solubility Products -
TABLE J1


2276. Solubility Products -
| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| AgCl | $1.6 \times 10^{-10}$ |
| AgBr | $5.0 \times 10^{-13}$ |
| AgI | $1.5 \times 10^{-16}$ |
| AgCN | $1.2 \times 10^{-16}$ |
| AgSCN | $1.0 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{~S}$ | $1.6 \times 10^{-49}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}$ | $8.1 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CrO}_{4}$ | $9.0 \times 10^{-12}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{4} \mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CN})_{6}$ | $1.55 \times 10^{-41}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ | $1.2 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}$ | $1.8 \times 10^{-18}$ |
| strontium |  |
| $\mathrm{Sr}(\mathrm{OH})_{2} \cdot 8 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $3.2 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| $\mathrm{SrCO}_{3}$ | $7 \times 10^{-10}$ |
| $\mathrm{SrCrO}_{4}$ | $3.6 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| $\mathrm{SrSO}_{4}$ | $3.2 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| $\mathrm{SrC}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4} \cdot \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | $4 \times 10^{-7}$ |
| thallium |  |
| TlCl | $1.7 \times 10^{-4}$ |


2276. Solubility Products -
| thallium |  |
| TlCl | $1.7 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| TISCN | $1.6 \times 10^{-4}$ |
| $\mathrm{Tl}_{2} \mathrm{~S}$ | $6 \times 10^{-22}$ |
| $\mathrm{Tl}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$ | $6.3 \times 10^{-46}$ |
| tin |  |
| $\mathrm{Sn}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$ | $3 \times 10^{-27}$ |
| TABLE J1 |  |


2276. Solubility Products -
| Substance | $K_{\text {sp }}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ |
| :--- | :--- |
| SnS | $1 \times 10^{-26}$ |
| $\mathrm{Sn}(\mathrm{OH})_{4}$ | $1.0 \times 10^{-57}$ |
| zinc |  |
| $\mathrm{ZnCO}_{3}$ | $2 \times 10^{-10}$ |

TABLE J1


2277. APPENDIX K -
Formation Constants for Complex Ions

Formation Constants for Complex Ions


2277. APPENDIX K -
| Equilibrium | $K_{f}$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{Al}^{3+}+6 \mathrm{~F}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{AlF}_{6}\right]^{3-}$ | $7 \times 10^{19}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Cd}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\right]^{2+}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{7}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{CN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Cd}(\mathrm{CN})_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $3 \times 10^{18}$ |
| $\mathrm{Co}^{2+}+6 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]^{2+}$ | $1.3 \times 10^{5}$ |
| $\mathrm{Co}^{3+}+6 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Co}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]^{3+}$ | $2.3 \times 10^{33}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{+}+2 \mathrm{CN} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Cu}(\mathrm{CN})_{2}\right]^{-}$ | $1.0 \times 10^{16}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Cu}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\right]^{2+}$ | $1.7 \times 10^{13}$ |


2277. APPENDIX K -
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{2+}+6 \mathrm{CN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CN})_{6}\right]^{4-}$ | $1.5 \times 10^{35}$ |
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{3+}+6 \mathrm{CN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CN})_{6}\right]^{3-}$ | $2 \times 10^{43}$ |
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{3+}+6 \mathrm{SCN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{SCN})_{6}\right]^{3-}$ | $3.2 \times 10^{3}$ |
| $\mathrm{Hg}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{Cl}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{HgCl}_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $1.1 \times 10^{16}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ni}^{2+}+6 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Ni}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}\right]^{2+}$ | $2.0 \times 10^{8}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+2 \mathrm{Cl}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{AgCl}_{2}\right]^{-}$ | $1.8 \times 10^{5}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+2 \mathrm{CN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Ag}(\mathrm{CN})_{2}\right]^{-}$ | $1 \times 10^{21}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+2 \mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Ag}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{2}\right]^{+}$ | $1.7 \times 10^{7}$ |


2277. APPENDIX K -
| $\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{CN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Zn}(\mathrm{CN})_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $2.1 \times 10^{19}$ |
| $\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{OH}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Zn}(\mathrm{OH})_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $2 \times 10^{15}$ |


2277. APPENDIX K -
TABLE K1

| Equilibrium | $K_{\mathrm{f}}$ |
| :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{Fe}^{3+}+\mathrm{SCN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons[\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{SCN})]^{2+}$ | $8.9 \times 10^{2}$ |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+4 \mathrm{SCN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Ag}(\mathrm{SCN})_{4}\right]^{3-}$ | $1.2 \times 10^{10}$ |
| $\mathrm{~Pb}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{I}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{PbI}_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $3.0 \times 10^{4}$ |
| $\mathrm{Pt}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{Cl}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{PtCl}_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $1 \times 10^{16}$ |
| $\mathrm{Cu}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{CN} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Cu}(\mathrm{CN})_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $1.0 \times 10^{25}$ |
| $\mathrm{Co}^{2+}+4 \mathrm{SCN}^{-} \rightleftharpoons\left[\mathrm{Co}(\mathrm{SCN})_{4}\right]^{2-}$ | $1 \times 10^{3}$ |

TABLE K1


2279. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials -
Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials


2279. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials -
| Half-Reaction | $E^{\circ}(\mathrm{V})$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{Ag}^{+}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}$ | +0.7996 |
| $\mathrm{AgCl}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}+\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$ | +0.22233 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ag}(\mathrm{CN})_{2}\right]^{-}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}+2 \mathrm{CN}^{-}$ | -0.31 |
| $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CrO}_{4}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Ag}+\mathrm{CrO}_{4}{ }^{2-}$ | +0.45 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ag}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{2}\right]^{+}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}+2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}$ | +0.373 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Ag}\left(\mathrm{S}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}\right)_{2}\right]^{3+}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}+2 \mathrm{~S}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}{ }^{2-}$ | +0.017 |
| $\left[\mathrm{AlF}_{6}\right]^{3-}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Al}+6 \mathrm{~F}^{-}$ | -2.07 |
| $\mathrm{Al}^{3+}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Al}$ | -1.662 |
| $\mathrm{Am}^{3+}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Am}$ | -2.048 |
| $\mathrm{Au}^{3+}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Au}$ | +1.498 |


2279. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials -
| $\mathrm{Au}^{3+}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Au}$ | +1.498 |
| $\mathrm{Au}^{+}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Au}$ | +1.692 |
| $\mathrm{Ba}^{2+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ba}$ | -2.912 |
| $\mathrm{Be}^{2+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Be}$ | -1.847 |
| $\mathrm{Br}_{2}(a q)+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Br}^{-}$ | +1.0873 |
| $\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ca}$ | -2.868 |
| $\mathrm{Ce}^{3}+3 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ce}$ | -2.483 |
| $\mathrm{Ce}^{4+}+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ce}^{3+}$ | +1.61 |
| $\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Cd}$ | -0.4030 |
| $\left[\mathrm{Cd}(\mathrm{CN})_{4}\right]^{2-}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Cd}+4 \mathrm{CN}^{-}$ | -1.09 |


2279. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials -
TABLE L1


2279. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials -
| Half-Reaction | $E^{0}(\mathrm{~V})$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| $\left[\mathrm{Cd}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{4}\right]^{2+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Cd}+4 \mathrm{NH}_{3}$ | -0.61 |
| $\mathrm{CdS}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Cd}+\mathrm{S}^{2-}$ | -1.17 |
| $\mathrm{Cl}_{2}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Cl}^{-}$ | +1.35827 |
| $\mathrm{ClO}_{4}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{ClO}_{3}^{-}+2 \mathrm{OH}^{-}$ | +0.36 |
| $\mathrm{ClO}_{3}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{ClO}_{2}^{-}+2 \mathrm{OH}^{-}$ | +0.33 |
| $\mathrm{ClO}_{2}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{ClO}^{-}+2 \mathrm{OH}^{-}$ | +0.66 |
| $\mathrm{ClO}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Cl}^{-}+2 \mathrm{OH}^{-}$ | +0.89 |
| $\mathrm{ClO}_{4}^{-}+2 \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{ClO}_{3}^{-}+3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | +1.189 |