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https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/4331665/curriculum-vitae-andrea-prosperetti-mechanical-
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https://sciencesprings.wordpress.com/2024/05/15/from-the-whiting-school-of-engineering-at-the-johns-hopkins-university-hearing-is-be-leafing-students-invent-quieter-leaf-blower/
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From The Whiting School of Engineering At The Johns Hopkins University: “Hearing is be
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2024-05-15T00:00:00
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From The Whiting School of Engineering At The Johns Hopkins University 5.14.24 Jill Rosen jrosen@jhu.edu Office 443-997-9906 Cell 443-547-8805 From left, Michael Chacon, Madison Morrison, Andrew Palacio, and Leen Alfaoury Image credit: Will Kirk / Johns Hopkins University Patent-pending design by Johns Hopkins undergrads could be available in stores within two years. Hearing is Be-leafing:…
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From The Whiting School of Engineering
At
The Johns Hopkins University
5.14.24
Jill Rosen
jrosen@jhu.edu
Office 443-997-9906
Cell 443-547-8805
From left, Michael Chacon, Madison Morrison, Andrew Palacio, and Leen Alfaoury
Image credit: Will Kirk / Johns Hopkins University
Patent-pending design by Johns Hopkins undergrads could be available in stores within two years.
Hearing is Be-leafing: Students Invent Quieter Leaf Blower
Video credit: Aubrey Morse / Johns Hopkins University
The challenge before Johns Hopkins University engineering students: Take a leaf blower, but make it quiet. Make it work as powerfully as ever, but do not allow it to emit the ear-piercing caterwaul that has gotten leaf blowers banned in some communities and cursed in many others.
Shocking their sponsors, their advisers, and even themselves a little, the students did it.
Their improved leaf blower drops the overall noise level by nearly 40% while almost entirely erasing the most obnoxious frequencies. The design is patent-pending and Stanley Black & Decker expects to be selling them in two years.
“We spent many hours on this project, just going through the various versions of it, just constantly iterating and improving and so for that to finally pay off, this was really, really rewarding,” said team member Michael Chacon, who like the rest of the four-member team is a senior majoring in mechanical engineering. “We are stoked and super, super proud.”
The team started working last September. They hoped to improve an electric or battery-powered leaf blower, which is already much quieter than the notorious gas-powered ones, where the sound can carry over an average suburban block.
They spent months figuring out the leaf blower piece by piece, analyzing all of its the noises and why it made them. They then spent many more months spit-balling possible improvements, refining some ideas, killing even more.
“The sound that comes out of this leaf blower is very complicated and it contains a lot of different frequencies,” said team member Andrew Palacio. “A lot of different notes on a piano would be a good analogy.”
They workshopped more than 40 versions of the solution they finally settled on: an attachment that cuts the machine’s noise almost like a silencer on a gun or a muffler on a car.
“Our product takes in a full blow of air and separates it,” said team member Leen Alfaoury. “Some of that air comes out as it is, and part of it comes out shifted. The combination of these two sections of the air makes the blower less noisy.”
Adds Chacon: “It ultimately dampens the sound as it leaves, but it keeps all that force, which is the beauty of it.”
Their design cuts the most shrill and annoying frequencies by about 12 decibels, which all but removes them, making them 94% quieter. The team reduced the overall leaf blower noise by about two decibels, making the machine sound 37% quieter.
So it’s a quieter machine, and what people can hear will sound more pleasant.
Image credit: Will Kirk / Johns Hopkins University
“It’s the difference between hearing a high-pitched whistle and hearing what you might think of as wind noise,” said team member Madison Morrison.
Alfaoury thinks the best way to describe it is “muffled.”
“It’s suppressed, if that makes sense,” she said. “Like the noise is deeper. It is not screechy. There’s no high pitch sound that is like really annoying to hear.”
Team adviser Stephen Belkoff puts it bluntly: “It’s still a leaf blower but it’s not nearly as annoying as it was before they got involved.”
The design wowed Stanley Black & Decker officials, who can’t wait to start manufacturing and selling the new tools.
“It’s not just some cool theoretical thing that will sit on a shelf and never be heard from again—this is ready to be mass manufactured,” said Nate Greene, senior product manager at Stanley Black & Decker, who graduated from Johns Hopkins in 2017 with an engineering degree. “This is a really rare and dramatic level of success.”
The student team expects their solution could be adapted to quiet other similarly loud appliances like vacuums and hairdryers.
See the full article here .
Comments are invited and will be appreciated, especially if the reader finds any errors which I can correct.
five-ways-keep-your-child-safe-school-shootings
Please help promote STEM in your local schools.
Stem Education Coalition
The G.W.C. Whiting School of Engineering is a division of The Johns Hopkins University located in the university’s Homewood campus in Baltimore, Maryland.
Engineering at Johns Hopkins was originally created in 1913 as an educational program that included exposure to liberal arts and scientific inquiry. In 1919, the engineering department became a separate school, known as the School of Engineering. By 1937, over 1,000 students had graduated with engineering degrees. By 1946 the school had six departments.
In 1961, the School of Engineering changed its name to the School of Engineering Sciences and, in 1966, merged with the Faculty of Philosophy to become part of the School of Arts and Sciences. In 1979, the engineering programs were organized into a separate academic division that was named the G.W.C. Whiting School of Engineering. The school’s named benefactor is George William Carlyle Whiting, co-founder of The Whiting-Turner Contracting Company.
Several departments at the school have been nationally and historically recognized. The Johns Hopkins Department of Biomedical Engineering is recognized as the top-ranked program in the nation. The Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering has consistently ranked as one of the top 5 programs nationally by U.S. News & World Report in recent years.
The Department of Mechanical Engineering is well known for its fundamental and historic contributions, especially in the fields of mechanics and fluid dynamics. Although it has always been a very small department, an uncharacteristically large number of highly acclaimed scholars have been associated with it over the years. These include Clifford Truesdell, Owen Martin Philips, Jerald Ericksen, James Bell, Stanley Corrsin, Robert Kraichnan, John L. Lumley, Leslie Kovasznay, Walter Noll, K. R. Sreenivasan, Hugh Dryden, Shiyi Chen, Andrea Prosperetti, Fazle Hussain, Harry Swinney, Stephen H. Davis, Gregory L. Eyink, Charles Meneveau, Joseph Katz (professor), Lauren Marie Gardner, Gretar Tryggvason and Mohamed Gad-el-Hak. Many of the landmark papers in the field of fluid mechanics (turbulence in particular) were written using data from the Corrsin Wind Tunnel Laboratory. The wind tunnel is still in operation today. The department was also home to the school of rational mechanics. It was recently ranked as one of the top 5 departments in the nation for research activity by the National Research Council (the department was ranked 13th by the generic U.S. News & World Report rankings), and is still considered one of the main centers of fundamental research in fluid dynamics and solid mechanics.
Johns Hopkins University opened in 1876, with the inauguration of its first president, Daniel Coit Gilman. “What are we aiming at?” Gilman asked in his installation address. “The encouragement of research … and the advancement of individual scholars, who by their excellence will advance the sciences they pursue, and the society where they dwell.”
The mission laid out by Gilman remains the university’s mission today, summed up in a simple but powerful restatement of Gilman’s own words: “Knowledge for the world.”
What Gilman created was a research university, dedicated to advancing both students’ knowledge and the state of human knowledge through research and scholarship. Gilman believed that teaching and research are interdependent, that success in one depends on success in the other. A modern university, he believed, must do both well. The realization of Gilman’s philosophy at Johns Hopkins, and at other institutions that later attracted Johns Hopkins-trained scholars, revolutionized higher education in America, leading to the research university system as it exists today.
The Johns Hopkins University is a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur and philanthropist Johns Hopkins. His $7 million bequest (approximately $147.5 million in today’s currency)—of which half financed the establishment of the Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States up to that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institution’s first president on February 22, 1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U.S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a graduate school from Germany’s historic Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, [Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg] (DE), Johns Hopkins University is considered the first research university in the United States. Over the course of several decades, the university has led all U.S. universities in annual research and development expenditures. The university has graduate campuses in Italy, China, and Washington, D.C., in addition to its main campus in Baltimore.
Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D.C., with international centers in Italy and China. The two undergraduate divisions, the Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimore’s Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, nursing school, and Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Johns Hopkins Children’s Center are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. The university also consists of the Peabody Institute, Applied Physics Laboratory, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, School of Education, Carey Business School, and various other facilities.
Johns Hopkins was a founding member of the American Association of Universities. Nobel laureates and Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins. Founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured national titles.
Research
The opportunity to participate in important research is one of the distinguishing characteristics of Hopkins’ undergraduate education. About 80 percent of undergraduates perform independent research, often alongside top researchers. Johns Hopkins has members of the Institute of Medicine, The Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigators, The National Academy of Engineering, and The National Academy of Sciences. Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with the university as alumni, faculty members or researchers.
The Johns Hopkins University is among the most cited institutions in the world ranking No. 3 globally [after Harvard University and The MPG Society (DE)] in the number of total citations published in Thomson Reuters-indexed journals over 22 fields in America.
Johns Hopkins received research grants from The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as a leading recipient of NASA research and development funding. Totals include grants and expenditures of JHU’s Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland.
The Johns Hopkins University also offers the “Center for Talented Youth” program—a nonprofit organization dedicated to identifying and developing the talents of the most promising K-12 grade students worldwide. As part of the Johns Hopkins University, the “Center for Talented Youth” or CTY helps fulfill the university’s mission of preparing students to make significant future contributions to the world. The Johns Hopkins Digital Media Center (DMC) is a multimedia lab space as well as an equipment, technology and knowledge resource for students interested in exploring creative uses of emerging media and use of technology.
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Parameters Fall 2022
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2022-09-23T00:00:00+00:00
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In this issue of Parameters, we highlight some of the rising stars to have recently joined the Cullen College, along with their incredible work. Fr...
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/favicon.ico
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Issuu
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https://issuu.com/uhengineering/docs/parameters_fall_2022_online
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In this issue of Parameters, we highlight some of the rising stars to have recently joined the Cullen College, along with their incredible work. From groundbreaking advancements in cancer treatments, to powering infrastructures for our world and beyond, read on to see just how the UH Cullen College is engineered for what's next.
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reds/tools/KATARA/dominSpecific/doctoralStudents.rel.txt at master · BigDaMa/reds
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https://opengraph.githubassets.com/6679a2664afe14eae67cdf358418060c887ca958d0a05fcb6b193867e46a8773/BigDaMa/reds
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https://opengraph.githubassets.com/6679a2664afe14eae67cdf358418060c887ca958d0a05fcb6b193867e46a8773/BigDaMa/reds
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Contribute to BigDaMa/reds development by creating an account on GitHub.
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https://github.com/BigDaMa/reds/blob/master/tools/KATARA/dominSpecific/doctoralStudents.rel.txt
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https://www.profilfelder.uni-bayreuth.de/en/advanced-fields/2_polymer_colloid_science/Principal-investigators/Gekle_Stephan/index.php
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Prof. Dr. Stephan Gekle
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2024
Wohlrab, Sebastian; Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Gekle, Stephan
Mechanical complexity of living cells can be mapped onto simple homogeneous equivalents
in Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology volume 23 (2024) . - page 1067-1076
doi:10.1007/s10237-024-01823-9 ...
Wieland, Simon; Ramsperger, Anja; Groß, Wolfgang; Lehmann, Moritz; Witzmann, Thomas; Caspari, Anja; Obst, Martin; Gekle, Stephan; Auernhammer, Günter K.; Fery, Andreas; Laforsch, Christian; Kress, Holger
Nominally identical microplastic models differ greatly in their particle-cell interactions
in Nature Communications volume 15 (2024)
doi:10.1038/s41467-024-45281-4 ...
Oehlschlägel, Lisa Marie; Schmid, Sebastian; Lehmann, Moritz; Gekle, Stephan; Held, Andreas
Water–air transfer rates of microplastic particles through bubble bursting as a function of par ...
in Microplastics and Nanoplastics volume 4 (2024) issue 1
doi:10.1186/s43591-023-00079-x ...
2023
Pantawane, Sanwardhini; Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Gekle, Stephan
Effect of particle insertion on Poly(3-hexylthiophene) brush’s π-π stacking
in Computational Materials Science volume 226 (2023)
doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2023.112253 ...
Lehmann, Moritz; Häusl, Fabian P.; Gekle, Stephan
Modeling of vertical microplastic transport by rising bubbles
in Microplastics and Nanoplastics volume 3 (2023) issue 1
doi:10.1186/s43591-023-00053-7 ...
2022
Lehmann, Moritz; Krause, Mathias J.; Amati, Giorgio; Sega, Marcello; Harting, Jens; Gekle, Stephan
Accuracy and performance of the lattice Boltzmann method with 64-bit, 32-bit, and customized 16 ...
in Physical Review E volume 106 (2022) issue 1
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.106.015308 ...
Lehmann, Moritz; Gekle, Stephan
Analytic Solution to the Piecewise Linear Interface Construction Problem and Its Application in ...
in Computation volume 10 (2022) issue 2
doi:10.3390/computation10020021 ...
Sitaru, Gabriel; Gekle, Stephan
Analytical and computational study of cascade reaction processes in catalytic fibrous membranes
in Computers & Fluids volume 240 (2022)
doi:10.1016/j.compfluid.2022.105438 ...
Schumacher, Sören; Pantawane, Sanwardhini; Gekle, Stephan; Agarwal, Seema
The Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Polymerization Behavior of Monofunctional Vinyl Cyclopropane‐ ...
in Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics volume 223 (2022) issue 20
doi:10.1002/macp.202200155 ...
Liang, Chen; Cheong, Jun Young; Sitaru, Gabriel; Rosenfeldt, Sabine; Schenk, Anna; Gekle, Stephan; Kim, II‐Doo; Greiner, Andreas
Size‐Dependent Catalytic Behavior of Gold Nanoparticles
in Advanced Materials Interfaces volume 9 (2022) issue 4
doi:10.1002/admi.202100867 ...
Gerum, Richard; Mirzahossein, Elham; Eroles, Mar; Elsterer, Jennifer; Mainka, Astrid; Bauer, Andreas; Sonntag, Selina; Winterl, Alexander; Bartl, Johannes; Fischer, Lena; Abuhattum, Shada; Goswami, Ruchi; Girardo, Salvatore; Guck, Jochen; Schrüfer, Stefan; Ströhlein, Nadine; Nosratlo, Mojtaba; Herrmann, Harald; Schultheis, Dorothea; Rico, Felix; Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Gekle, Stephan; Fabry, Ben
Viscoelastic properties of suspended cells measured with shear flow deformation cytometry
in eLife volume 11 (2022)
doi:10.7554/eLife.78823 ...
Pantawane, Sanwardhini; Gekle, Stephan
Temperature-Dependent Conformation Behavior of Isolated Poly(3-hexylthiopene) Chains
in Polymers volume 14 (2022) issue 3
doi:10.15495/EPub_UBT_00006945 ...
2021
Lehmann, Moritz; Oehlschlägel, Lisa Marie; Häusl, Fabian; Held, Andreas; Gekle, Stephan
Ejection of marine microplastics by raindrops : a computational and experimental study
in Microplastics and Nanoplastics volume 1 (2021)
doi:10.1186/s43591-021-00018-8 ...
Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Weigl, Franziska; Bezold, Carina; Bächer, Christian; Albrecht, Krystyna; Gekle, Stephan
A hyperelastic model for simulating cells in flow
in Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology volume 20 (2021) issue 2. - page 509-520
doi:10.1007/s10237-020-01397-2 ...
Pretscher, Martin O.; Sitaru, Gabriel; Dietel, Markus; Schmalz, Holger; Gekle, Stephan; Agarwal, Seema
Post-Process-Functionalized Catalytic Electrospun and 2D-Printed Structures for Wolf–Lamb-Type ...
in ACS Applied Polymer Materials volume 3 (2021) issue 3. - page 1349-1357
doi:10.1021/acsapm.0c01197 ...
Graessel, Katharina; Bächer, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Rayleigh–Plateau instability of anisotropic interfaces. Part 1. An analytical and numerical stu ...
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 910 (2021)
doi:10.1017/jfm.2020.947 ...
Bächer, Christian; Graessel, Katharina; Gekle, Stephan
Rayleigh–Plateau instability of anisotropic interfaces. Part 2. Limited instability of elastic ...
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 910 (2021)
doi:10.1017/jfm.2020.946 ...
Schumacher, Sören; Pantawane, Sanwardhini; Gekle, Stephan; Agarwal, Seema
Theoretical and Experimental Study of Monofunctional Vinyl Cyclopropanes Bearing Hydrogen Bond ...
in Macromolecules volume 54 (2021) issue 1. - page 11-21
doi:10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02490 ...
Bächer, Christian; Khoromskaia, Diana; Salbreux, Guillaume; Gekle, Stephan
A Three-Dimensional Numerical Model of an Active Cell Cortex in the Viscous Limit
in Frontiers in Physics volume 9 (2021)
doi:10.3389/fphy.2021.753230 ...
Laermanns, Hannes; Lehmann, Moritz; Klee, Marcel; Löder, Martin G. J.; Gekle, Stephan; Bogner, Christina
Tracing the horizontal transport of microplastics on rough surfaces
in Microplastics and Nanoplastics volume 1 (2021)
doi:10.1186/s43591-021-00010-2 ...
Yaya, François; Römer, Johannes; Guckenberger, Achim; John, Thomas; Gekle, Stephan; Podgorski, Thomas; Wagner, Christian
Vortical flow structures induced by red blood cells in capillaries
in Microcirculation volume 28 (2021) issue 5
doi:10.1111/micc.12693 ...
2020
Hader, Michael; Savcigil, Deniz Pinar; Rosin, Andreas; Ponfick, Philipp; Gekle, Stephan; Wadepohl, Martin; Bekeschus, Sander; Fietkau, Rainer; Frey, Benjamin; Schlücker, Eberhard; Gaipl, Udo S.
Differences of the Immune Phenotype of Breast Cancer Cells after Ex Vivo Hyperthermia by Warm-W ...
in Cancers volume 12 (2020) issue 5
doi:10.3390/cancers12051082 ...
Lehmann, Moritz; Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Gekle, Stephan
Efficient viscosity contrast calculation for blood flow simulations using the lattice Boltzmann ...
in International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids volume 92 (2020) issue 11. - page 1463-1477
doi:10.1002/fld.4835 ...
Müller, Sebastian Johannes; Mirzahossein, Elham; Iftekhar, Emil N.; Bächer, Christian; Schrüfer, Stefan; Schubert, Dirk W.; Fabry, Ben; Gekle, Stephan
Flow and hydrodynamic shear stress inside a printing needle during biofabrication
in PLoS One volume 15 (2020) issue 7
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236371 ...
Bächer, Christian; Bender, Markus; Gekle, Stephan
Flow-accelerated platelet biogenesis is due to an elasto-hydrodynamic instability
in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America volume 117 (2020) issue 32. - page 18969-18976
doi:10.1073/pnas.2002985117 ...
Wedler, Stefan; Bourdick, Axel; Athanasopoulos, Stavros; Gekle, Stephan; Panzer, Fabian; McDowell, Caitlin; Nguyen, Thuc-Quyen; Bazan, Guillermo C.; Köhler, Anna
What is the role of planarity and torsional freedom for aggregation in a π-conjugated donor–acc ...
in Journal of Materials Chemistry C volume 8 (2020) issue 14. - page 4944-4955
doi:10.1039/D0TC00217H ...
2019
Bächer, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Computational modeling of active deformable membranes embedded in three-dimensional flows
in Physical Review E volume 99 (2019) issue 6
doi:10.1103/physreve.99.062418 ...
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Kurzthaler, Christina; Hoell, Christian; Zöttl, Andreas; Mirzakhanloo, Mehdi; Alam, Mohammad-Reza; Menzel, Andreas M.; Löwen, Hartmut; Gekle, Stephan
Frequency-dependent higher-order Stokes singularities near a planar elastic boundary : Implicat ...
in Physical Review E volume 100 (2019) issue 3
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.100.032610 ...
Hils, Christian; Dulle, Martin; Sitaru, Gabriel; Gekle, Stephan; Schöbel, Judith; Frank, Andreas; Drechsler, Markus; Greiner, Andreas; Schmalz, Holger
Influence of patch size and chemistry on the catalytic activity of patchy hybrid nonwovens
in Nanoscale Advances volume 2 (2019) issue 1. - page 438-452
doi:10.1039/C9NA00607A ...
Pretscher, Martin; Chen, Tingting; Sitaru, Gabriel; Gekle, Stephan; Ji, Jian; Agarwal, Seema
Precise 2D‐Patterned Incompatible Catalysts for Reactions in One‐Pot
in Chemistry : a European Journal volume 25 (2019) issue 59. - page 13640-13646
doi:10.1002/chem.201903486 ...
Syamala, Pradeep P. N.; Soberats, Bartolome; Görl, Daniel; Gekle, Stephan; Würthner, Frank
Thermodynamic insights into the entropically driven self-assembly of amphiphilic dyes in water
in Chemical Science volume 10 (2019) issue 40. - page 9358-9366
doi:10.1039/C9SC03103K ...
Pretscher, Martin; Gekle, Stephan; Agarwal, Seema
Wolf–Lamb‐type Catalysis in One Pot Using Electrospun Polymeric Catalyst Membranes
in Macromolecular Rapid Communications volume 40 (2019) issue 14
doi:10.1002/marc.201900148 ...
2018
Bächer, Christian; Kihm, Alexander; Schrack, Lukas; Kaestner, Lars; Laschke, Matthias W.; Wagner, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Antimargination of Microparticles and Platelets in the Vicinity of Branching Vessels
in Biophysical Journal volume 115 (2018) issue 2. - page 411-425
doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2018.06.013 ...
Guckenberger, Achim; Gekle, Stephan
A boundary integral method with volume-changing objects for ultrasound-triggered margination of ...
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 836 (2018) . - page 952-997
doi:10.1017/jfm.2017.836 ...
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Gekle, Stephan
Brownian motion near an elastic cell membrane : A theoretical study
in The European Physical Journal E volume 41 (2018) issue 2
doi:10.1140/epje/i2018-11627-6 ...
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Löwen, Hartmut; Gekle, Stephan
Creeping motion of a solid particle inside a spherical elastic cavity
in The European Physical Journal E volume 41 (2018) issue 9
doi:10.1140/epje/i2018-11715-7 ...
Lebert, Jenny; Kratzer, Eva M.; Bourdick, Axel; Čorić, Mihael; Gekle, Stephan; Herzig, Eva M.
Directing the Aggregation of Native Polythiophene during in Situ Polymerization
in ACS Omega volume 3 (2018) issue 6. - page 6388-6394
doi:10.1021/acsomega.8b00684 ...
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Lisicki, Maciej; Gekle, Stephan; Menzel, Andreas M.; Löwen, Hartmut
Hydrodynamic coupling and rotational mobilities near planar elastic membranes
in The Journal of Chemical Physics volume 149 (2018) issue 1
doi:10.1063/1.5032304 ...
Nait-Ouhra, Abdessamad; Guckenberger, Achim; Farutin, Alexander; Ez-Zahraouy, Hamid; Benyoussef, Abdelilah; Gekle, Stephan; Misbah, Chaouqi
Lateral vesicle migration in a bounded shear flow : Viscosity contrast leads to off-centered so ...
in Physical Review Fluids volume 3 (2018) issue 12
doi:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.3.123601 ...
Bourdick, Axel; Reichenberger, Markus; Stradomska, Anna; Bazan, Guillermo C.; Nguyen, Thuc-Quyen; Köhler, Anna; Gekle, Stephan
lucidating Aggregation Pathways in the Donor–Acceptor Type Molecules p-DTS(FBTTh₂)₂ and p-SIDT( ...
in The Journal of Physical Chemistry B volume 122 (2018) issue 39. - page 9191-9201
doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b06283 ...
Guckenberger, Achim; Kihm, Alexander; John, Thomas; Wagner, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Numerical–experimental observation of shape bistability of red blood cells flowing in a microch ...
in Soft Matter volume 14 (2018) issue 11. - page 2032-2043
doi:10.1039/C7SM02272G ...
Schlenk, Mathias; Hofmann, Eddie; Seibt, Susanne; Rosenfeldt, Sabine; Schrack, Lukas; Drechsler, Markus; Rothkirch, Andre; Ohm, Wiebke; Breu, Josef; Gekle, Stephan; Förster, Stephan
Parallel and perpendicular alignment of anisotropic particles in free liquid microjets and emer ...
in Langmuir volume 34 (2018) issue 16. - page 4843-4851
doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b00062 ...
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Rallabandi, Bhargav; Gekle, Stephan; Stone, Howard A.
Reciprocal theorem for the prediction of the normal force induced on a particle translating par ...
in Physical Review Fluids volume 3 (2018) issue 8
doi:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.3.084101 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Bender, Markus
Red blood cell and platelet mechanics
Cardiovascular mechanics. 1st Edition
Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018
Daddi-Moussa-Ider, Abdallah; Lisicki, Maciej; Gekle, Stephan
Slow rotation of a spherical particle inside an elastic tube
in Acta Mechanica volume 229 (2018) issue 1. - page 149-171
doi:10.1007/s00707-017-1965-6 ...
2017
Quint, S.; Christ, A. F.; Guckenberger, Achim; Himbert, S.; Kaestner, L.; Gekle, Stephan; Wagner, C.
3D tomography of cells in micro-channels
in Applied Physics Letters volume 111 (2017)
doi:10.1063/1.4986392 ...
Bächer, Christian; Schrack, Lukas; Gekle, Stephan
Clustering of microscopic particles in constricted blood flow
in Physical Review Fluids volume 2 (2017) issue 1
doi:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.2.013102 ...
Laumann, Matthias; Bauknecht, Paul; Gekle, Stephan; Kienle, Diego; Zimmermann, Walter
Cross-stream migration of asymmetric particles driven by oscillating shear
in Europhysics Letters volume 117 (2017) issue 4
doi:10.1209/0295-5075/117/44001 ...
Gekle, Stephan
Dispersion of solute released from a sphere flowing in a microchannel
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 819 (2017) . - page 104-120
doi:10.1017/jfm.2017.177 ...
Wilma, Kevin; Unger, Thomas; Kostakoğlu, Sinem Tuncel; Hollfelder, Manuel; Hunger, Christoph; Lang, Andreas; Gurek, Ayse Gul; Thelakkat, Mukundan; Köhler, Jürgen; Köhler, Anna; Gekle, Stephan; Hildner, Richard
Excited State Dynamics and Conformations of a Cu(II)-Phthalocyanine-Perylenebisimide Dyad
in Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics volume 19 (2017) issue 33. - page 22169-22176
doi:10.1039/C7CP04026A ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Gekle, Stephan
Hydrodynamic mobility of a solid particle near a spherical elastic membrane : Axisymmetric moti ...
in Physical Review E volume 95 (2017) issue 1
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.95.013108 ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Lisicki, Maciej; Gekle, Stephan
Hydrodynamic mobility of a solid particle near a spherical elastic membrane. II. Asymmetric mot ...
in Physical Review E volume 95 (2017) issue 5
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.95.053117 ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Lisicki, Maciej; Gekle, Stephan
Hydrodynamic mobility of a sphere moving on the centerline of an elastic tube
in Physics of Fluids volume 29 (2017)
doi:10.1063/1.5002192 ...
Zahn, Christina; Keller, Steve; Toro-Nahuelpan, Mauricio; Dorscht, Philipp; Gross, Wolfgang; Laumann, Matthias; Gekle, Stephan; Zimmermann, Walter; Schüler, Dirk; Kress, Holger
Measurement of the magnetic moment of single Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense cells by magnetic ...
in Scientific Reports volume 7 (2017) issue 1
doi:10.1038/s41598-017-03756-z ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Lisicki, Maciej; Gekle, Stephan
Mobility of an axisymmetric particle near an elastic interface
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 811 (2017) . - page 210-233
doi:10.1017/jfm.2016.739 ...
Guckenberger, Achim; Gekle, Stephan
Theory and algorithms to compute Helfrich bending forces : a review
in Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter volume 29 (2017) issue 20
doi:10.1088/1361-648X/aa6313 ...
2016
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Gekle, Stephan
Hydrodynamic interaction between particles near elastic interfaces
in The Journal of Chemical Physics volume 145 (2016) issue 1
doi:10.1063/1.4955099 ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Guckenberger, Achim; Gekle, Stephan
Long-lived anomalous thermal diffusion induced by elastic cell membranes on nearby particles
in Physical Review E volume 93 (2016) issue 1
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.93.012612 ...
Ghaemi, Ali; Philipp, Alexandra; Bauer, Andreas; Last, Klaus; Fery, Andreas; Gekle, Stephan
Mechanical behaviour of micro-capsules and their rupture under compression
in Chemical Engineering Science volume 142 (2016) . - page 236-243
doi:10.1016/j.ces.2015.11.002 ...
Guckenberger, Achim; Schraml, Marcel; Chen, Paul G.; Leonetti, Marc; Gekle, Stephan
On the bending algorithms for soft objects in flows
in Computer Physics Communications volume 207 (2016) . - page 1-23
doi:10.1016/j.cpc.2016.04.018 ...
Liu, Li; Ghaemi, Ali; Gekle, Stephan; Agarwal, Seema
One‐Component Dual Actuation : Poly(NIPAM) Can Actuate to Stable 3D Forms with Reversible Size ...
in Advanced Materials volume 28 (2016) issue 44. - page 9792-9796
doi:10.1002/adma.201603677 ...
Daddi Moussa Ider, Abdallah; Guckenberger, Achim; Gekle, Stephan
Particle mobility between two planar elastic membranes : Brownian motion and membrane deformati ...
in Physics of Fluids volume 28 (2016)
doi:10.1063/1.4955013 ...
Schaaf, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Spatially resolved dielectric constant of confined water and its connection to the non-local na ...
in The Journal of Chemical Physics volume 145 (2016) issue 8. - page 084901
doi:10.1063/1.4960775 ...
Gekle, Stephan
Strongly Accelerated Margination of Active Particles in Blood Flow
in Biophysical Journal volume 110 (2016) issue 2. - page 514-520
doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.12.005 ...
Hollfelder, Manuel; Gekle, Stephan
Using Molecular Dynamics to Model the Stacking Behaviour of Perylene Bisimide Derivatives in Ar ...
2016
NIC Symposium 2016, Jülich
2015
Jahn, Miriam; Gekle, Stephan
Bulk and interfacial liquid water as a transient network
in Physical Review E volume 92 (2015) issue 5
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.92.052130 ...
Schaaf, Christian; Gekle, Stephan
Dielectric response of the water hydration layer around spherical solutes
in Physical Review E volume 92 (2015) issue 3
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.92.032718 ...
Hollfelder, Manuel; Gekle, Stephan
Dynamic Stacking Pathway of Perylene Dimers in Aromatic and Nonaromatic Solvents
in The Journal of Physical Chemistry B volume 119 (2015) issue 32. - page 10216-10223
doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b03612 ...
Gekle, Stephan
Wasser in Grenzen
in Physik-Journal volume 14 (2015) issue 11. - page 29-34
https://www.pro-physik.de/restricted-files/86686
2014
Rinne, Klaus F.; Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Dissecting ion-specific dielectric spectra of sodium-halide solutions into solvation water and ...
in The Journal of Chemical Physics volume 141 (2014) issue 21
doi:10.1063/1.4901927 ...
Rinne, Klaus F.; Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Ion-Specific Solvation Water Dynamics : Single Water versus Collective Water Effects
in The Journal of Physical Chemistry A volume 118 (2014) issue 50. - page 11667-11677
doi:10.1021/jp5066874 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Nanometer-Resolved Radio-Frequency Absorption and Heating in Biomembrane Hydration Layers
in The Journal of Physical Chemistry B volume 118 (2014) issue 18. - page 4963-4969
doi:10.1021/jp501562p ...
Spreitler, Florian; Sommer, Michael; Hollfelder, Manuel; Thelakkat, Mukundan; Gekle, Stephan; Köhler, Jürgen
Unravelling the conformations of di-(perylene bisimide acrylate) by combining time-resolved flu ...
in Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics volume 16 (2014) issue 47. - page 25959-25968
doi:10.1039/C4CP03064H ...
2013
Peters, Ivo R.; Gekle, Stephan; Lohse, Detlef; van der Meer, Devaraj
Air flow in a collapsing cavity
in Physics of Fluids volume 25 (2013)
doi:10.1063/1.4794125 ...
von Hansen, Yann; Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Anomalous Anisotropic Diffusion Dynamics of Hydration Water at Lipid Membranes
in Physical Review Letters volume 111 (2013) issue 11
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.118103 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Arnold, Axel
Comment on “Anomalous Dielectric Behavior of Nanoconfined Electrolytic Solutions”
in Physical Review Letters volume 111 (2013) issue 8
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.089801 ...
2012
Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Anisotropy in the Dielectric Spectrum of Hydration Water and its Relation to Water Dynamics
in The Journal of Chemical Physics volume 137 (2012) issue 10
doi:10.1063/1.4749380 ...
Enriquez, Oscar R.; Peters, Ivo R.; Gekle, Stephan; Schmidt, Laura E.; Lohse, Detlef; van der Meer, Devaraj
Collapse and pinch-off of a non-axisymmetric impact-created air cavity in water
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 701 (2012) . - page 40-58
doi:10.1017/jfm.2012.130 ...
Rinne, Klaus F.; Gekle, Stephan; Bonthuis, Douwe Jan; Netz, Roland R.
Nanoscale Pumping of Water by AC Electric Fields
in Nano Letters volume 12 (2012) issue 4. - page 1780-1783
doi:10.1021/nl203614t ...
Bonthuis, Douwe Jan; Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Profile of the Static Permittivity Tensor of Water at Interfaces : Consequences for Capacitance ...
in Langmuir volume 28 (2012) issue 20. - page 7679-7694
doi:10.1021/la2051564 ...
2011
Bonthuis, Douwe Jan; Gekle, Stephan; Netz, Roland R.
Dielectric Profile of Interfacial Water and its Effect on Double-Layer Capacitance
in Physical Review Letters volume 107 (2011) issue 16
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.166102 ...
Enriquez, Oscar R.; Peters, Ivo R.; Gekle, Stephan; Schmidt, Laura E.; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
Non-axisymmetric impact creates pineapple-shaped cavity
in Physics of Fluids volume 23 (2011)
doi:10.1063/1.3640021 ...
2010
van Hoeve, Wim; Gekle, Stephan; Snoeijer, Jacco H.; Versluis, Michel; Brenner, Michael P.; Lohse, Detlef
Breakup of diminutive Rayleigh jets
in Physics of Fluids volume 22 (2010)
doi:10.1063/1.3524533 ...
Enriquez, Oscar R.; Peters, Ivo R.; Gekle, Stephan; Schmidt, Laura E.; Versluis, Michel; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
Collapse of nonaxisymmetric cavities
in Physics of Fluids volume 22 (2010)
doi:10.1063/1.3481432 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Gordillo, José Manuel
Compressible air flow through a collapsing liquid cavity
in International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids volume 67 (2010) issue 11. - page 1456-1469
doi:10.1002/fld.2426 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Gordillo, José Manuel
Generation and breakup of Worthington jets after cavity collapse : Part 1. Jet formation
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 663 (2010) . - page 293-330
doi:10.1017/S0022112010003526 ...
Gordillo, José Manuel; Gekle, Stephan
Generation and breakup of Worthington jets after cavity collapse. Part 2. Tip breakup of stretc ...
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 663 (2010) . - page 331-346
doi:10.1017/S0022112010003538 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Peters, Ivo R.; Gordillo, José Manuel; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
Supersonic Air Flow due to Solid-Liquid Impact
in Physical Review Letters volume 104 (2010) issue 2
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.024501 ...
2009
Gekle, Stephan; Snoeijer, Jacco H.; Lohse, Detlef; van der Meer, Devaraj
Approach to universality in axisymmetric bubble pinch-off
in Physical Review E volume 80 (2009) issue 3
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.80.036305 ...
Bergmann, Raymond; van der Meer, Devaraj; Gekle, Stephan; van der Bos, Arjan; Lohse, Detlef
Controlled impact of a disk on a water surface : cavity dynamics
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics volume 633 (2009) . - page 381-409
doi:10.1017/S0022112009006983 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Gordillo, José Manuel; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
High-Speed Jet Formation after Solid Object Impact
Computational Fluid Dynamics 2008
Berlin : Springer, 2009. - page 595-598
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01273-0_78 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Gordillo, José Manuel; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
High-Speed Jet Formation after Solid Object Impact
in Physical Review Letters volume 102 (2009) issue 3
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.034502 ...
Borkent, Bram M.; Gekle, Stephan; Prosperetti, Andrea; Lohse, Detlef
Nucleation threshold and deactivation mechanisms of nanoscopic cavitation nuclei
in Physics of Fluids volume 21 (2009)
doi:10.1063/1.3249602 ...
2008
Gekle, Stephan; van der Bos, Arjan; Bergmann, Raymond; van der Meer, Devaraj; Lohse, Detlef
Noncontinuous Froude Number Scaling for the Closure Depth of a Cylindrical Cavity
in Physical Review Letters volume 100 (2008) issue 8
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.084502 ...
2007
Bartsch, Thomas; Gekle, Stephan; Main, Jörg; Uzer, Turgay
Gluing Torus Families across a Singularity : The Lens Space for the Hydrogen Atom in Crossed Fi ...
in Progress of Theoretical Physics : Supplement volume 166 (2007) . - page 45-55
doi:10.1143/PTPS.166.45 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Main, Jörg; Bartsch, Thomas; Uzer, Turgay
Hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields : Phase space topology and torus quantiza ...
in Physical Review A volume 75 (2007) issue 2
doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.75.023406 ...
Gekle, Stephan; Main, Jörg; Bartsch, Thomas
Torus Construction and Quantization for the Hydrogen Atom in Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fiel ...
in Nonlinear Phenomena in Complex Systems volume 10 (2007) issue 2. - page 164-169
2006
Gekle, Stephan; Main, Jörg; Bartsch, Thomas; Uzer, Turgay
Extracting Multidimensional Phase Space Topology from Periodic Orbits
in Physical Review Letters volume 97 (2006) issue 10
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.104101 ...
2005
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https://www.nae.edu/188663/MILTON-HARRIS-19061991
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MILTON HARRIS 1906-1991
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BY ALFRED E. BROWN
MITON HARRIS, chemist and retired vice-president for research at the Gillette Company, died of cancer on September 12, 1991, at the age
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NAE Website
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http://www.nae.edu/19579/19581/51314/51345/188663/MILTON-HARRIS-19061991
|
BY ALFRED E. BROWN
MITON HARRIS, chemist and retired vice-president for research at the Gillette Company, died of cancer on September 12, 1991, at the age of eighty- five. Dr. Harris was born on March 21, 1906, in Los Angeles, California, but grew up in Portland, Oregon. He received a B.Sc. in 1926 at Oregon State University and then attended Yale University, where he received a Ph.D. in 1929.
The accomplishments of the ebullient Dr. Harris were legion. During his lifetime, he rendered outstanding service in five areas: pure and applied sciences, industrial research and development, professional society activities, government and public service, and academic activities. To these areas, Dr. Harris brought his enviable energy and optimism. In addition, many people sought his counsel.
His career began in 1931 as a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards, where his early work was in basic research. In 1938 as director of research of a textile industry research group, he moved into industrial research. Here, shrink-proof wool was developed for the Army and cited by the Army Quartermaster General as having saved the Army several hundred million dollars during World War II. Dr. Harris was also involved in engineering clothing for extreme climatic conditions, and he modified fabrics to make them selectively water repellent, flameproof, rot proof, radiation-resistant, and resistant to chemical warfare agents.
In 1945, at the end of the war, numerous industrial people who had worked with Dr. Harris suggested that he organize a consulting laboratory. He assembled a small group of scientists and founded Harris Research Laboratories. This was a very successful organization, which was acquired by the Gillette Company in 1956.
During his industrial research and development activities as vice-president for research at Gillette, many innovations took place, such as polymer-coated blades that dramatically reduced the cutting force in shaving and made obsolete all prior shaving systems. He was also involved in improving ballpoint writing products.
During these research years, Dr. Harris was very active in professional society activities. He became a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS) in 1931 and served there in various capacities before being named chairman of the board in 1966, a position he held for six years. He continued to serve the ACS until his death.
Dr. Harris was also active in many other scientific and professional societies, both inside and outside the United States. He was president of the American Institute of Chemists in 1960 and chairman of its board of directors. He served on numerous advisory boards such as those of Science, Textile Research Journal, and the Journal of Polymer Science. In addition to his government service in active research, Dr. Harris also served as chairman of the White House Committee on Civilian Technology in 1961-1962, as consultant to the White House Office of Science and Technology (1962-1965), and as a member of the President's Panel on the Environment (1968-1972).
Dr. Harris was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1976 and was a member of its Finance Committee for a six-year term beginning July 1987. He was active in the Panel of Jojoba and several other National Research Council (NRC) committees. He supported the NRC financially as a major benefactor for the Milton Harris Building at the NRC Georgetown facility.
Dr. Harris often spoke of the interrelationship among industry, government, and academia and of his activities in nurturing this relationship. Milton gave his time, expertise, and wisdom to several universities, including his alma maters. In 1967 Oregon State honored him with the Oregon State University Distinguished Service Award. From 1961 to 1967 he was president of Yale Chemists' Association and active in several Yale bodies. For these contributions Yale conferred on him the Yale Medal and the Wilbur Lucius Cross Medal. Dr. Harris established chairs in chemistry at Yale and also the first chair in chemistry at Oregon State. In addition, he provided scholarships at both of these universities as well as at American University where he was active in the chemistry department.
Dr. Harris received numerous awards and other special recognition. He received the Priestley Medal, the highest award given by the American Chemical Society; the Washington Academy of Sciences Award; the Naval Ordnance Development Award; the Perkin Medal; the Honorary Fellow Award of the American Institute of Chemists; the Olney Medal; and the Harold DeWitt Smith Memorial Award. Dr. Harris was a member of the Cosmos Club and the Chemists Club of New York. He was a prolific author, having published over two hundred scientific publications. He was also issued thirty-five patents.
I had a wonderful relationship with Milton Harris for forty-seven years, and I worked closely with him at Harris Research Laboratories in technical and other activities for twenty-one of those years. He was a most enthusiastic leader and had an unlimited capacity for friendship.
Finally, I do want to mention his great interest in advising and helping people. For career advice, scientific direction, or guidance in financial matters, he was always available. Above all else, Milton remained throughout his busy life a devoted family man. His wife of fifty-seven years, Carolyn, was ever the object of his solicitous concern, and he was a dear father of his two sons.
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[
""
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The Privacy Symposium conference aims to support international dialogue, cooperation, and knowledge sharing on data regulation, compliance, and innovative technologies. The conference brings together data protection experts and professionals, authorities, international organizations, and the research community to discuss the latest developments and perspectives related to data protection and privacy.The conference takes place during June 10 to 14, 2024 at Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy, in the heart of the historic centre of Venice. The Privacy Symposium 2024 in Venice will focus on:Latest and upcoming changes in data processing regulations;International cooperation and convergence in data protection;Emerging technologies and data protection compliance;Future demands and needs for data protection compliance;Research and innovation in data protection and compliance.You will find more information at www.privacysymposium.org and you can contact the conference secretariat at: contact@privacysymposium.org, should you have any questions.
|
en
|
/sites/favicon.ico
|
https://sites.grenadine.co/sites/iot/en/2024-privacy-symposium-conference/attendees
|
You can view the program for Privacy Symposium Conference 2024 by downloading the "Grenadine Event Guide" on iTunes or Google Play. If the app asks you to enter an app code, enter the code below:
PrivacySymposium2024
|
|||||
7162
|
dbpedia
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3
| 55
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https://www.acoustics.asn.au/conference_proceedings/ICA2010/cdrom-ICA2010/
|
en
|
ICA2010: 20th International Congress on Acoustics, ICA 2010
|
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Venue, Location, Date
Table of Contents
10 General acoustics, education
101ss Education
Support Mathematics Summer Schools for acoustics researcher training
The delivery of noise and vibration study material and real life practice
Problem based learning in acoustics at Aalborg University
A viscoelastic figure model of tongue for understanding speech articulation
Case study of curriculum development for technical listening training for employees of an acoustic related company
EAA Summer Schools
Integral curriculum on noise control in Spain: a cooperative task
Distance learning program for professional career in acoustics
Identification, classification and acquisition of sounds for spatial orientation and mobility training of blind and visually impaired persons
Workshop on advanced room acoustic prediction modelling
Acoustic education: Experiments for off-campus teaching and learning
20 General linear acoustics
Left-handed elastic shear and longitudinal elastic waves in 2D phononic crystals made of a solid matrix
Diffraction of bulk waves on phononic crystals
Composite square and monomial power sweeps for SNR customization in acoustic measurements
Research on acoustic source positioning method for boiler tube leakage
Wave propagation interaction in anisotropic piezoelectric porous layer loaded with fluid
Cylindrical harmonic expansion of the sound field due to a rotating line source
The physics of wedge diffraction: high-frequency approximate solution in the vicinity of shadow boundary
25 Nonlinear acoustics
Acoustic versus ultrasonic breast imaging
Droplet motion and deformation induced by acoustic streaming and radiation pressure
Beyond the geometrical focus in focused acoustic beams
Nonlinear resonant ultrasound spectroscopy and acoustic slow dynamics for micro-damage characterization, correlation to acoustic emission : new trends for heterogeneous materials Non Destructive Testing (NDT) and Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)
Diagnostics of elastic properties of polymerizing polyacrylamide
Nonlinear elastic properties of solids with defects
Longitudinal magnetoelastic Riemann wave in a rod
3D numerical modeling of nonlinear continuous wave ultrasound beam propagation in homogeneous dissipative media
Time-resolved Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) of the flow in an acoustic standing wave tube
Evaluation of stress corrosion cracks in metals by linear and nonlinear ultrasound
Classical and non-classical nonlinear acoustic effects discerned by airborne ultrasound
Resonant amplification of evanescent acoustic waves by a slab of 2D magnetic acoustic metamaterials
Vibro-acoustic behavior of micro-perforated plate to sound absorption performance
The acoustic source strength of high-energy blast waves: combining measurements and a non-linear model
28 Aeroacoustics and atmospheric sound
Aeolian tones generated by a square cylinder with a splitter plate
Design and calibration of a small aeroacoustic beamformer
Time-domain simulations for outdoor sound propagation : surface waves and ground effects
Hybrid CFD/BEM approach to predicting flow induced noise
Statistical estimation of turbulent trailing edge noise
Development of low-noise centrifugal fans in a refrigerator
The effect of grazing-bias flow on the self sustained oscillations in a side branch
Linear stability analysis applied to flow duct acoustics
Simulations of acoustic scattering in duct systems with flow
Uncertainty assessment for outdoor sound propagation
Reducing the acoustic signature of a UAV propeller operating at low Reynolds numbers
Tomographic reconstruction of the inclining vortex wind field from the acoustic travel time data between a pair of facing line array
Acoustic analysis of flat plate trailing edge noise
Comparative study on finite-difference and finite-volume implementations of the linearized Euler model for outdoor sound propagation simulations
Localization of stationary sound sources in flows by using a time-reversal method
Battlefield target localization using acoustic vector sensor on board UAV
Numerical analysis on 2D and 3D edge tones in terms of aerodynamic sound theory
Flow-induced pulsations in pipe systems with closed side branches: study of the effectiveness of detuning as remedial measure
On conditions of equivalence between Curle's and non-uniform Kirchhoff equations of aeroacoustics
30 Underwater sound
Assessment of the sea surface roughness effects on shallow water inversion of sea bottom properties
Active suppression of acoustic radiation from a submarine hull using inertial actuators
Acoustic sensing in snapping shrimp dominated environments
Model calculations of wave noise and their application to the open ocean
Vertical array passive geo-acoustic inversion in range-dependent environments
A comparison of two secure routing protocols in underwater acoustic network
Security considerations of underwater acoustic network
Bayesian matched-field geoacoustic inversion
Measurement and modelling of underwater noise from pile driving
Sound pressure analysis and experiment of small ultrasonic lens
The examination of the structure of the upper layers of the seabed by the means of the parametric sonar
Underwater signals from confined explosions in very shallow water
The survey result of ship wreckage off the coast of Oman
Multistatic detection and tracking using maximal length sequences
Rapid seafloor inversion in shallow oceans using broadband acoustic data
Bistatic scattering from an array of regularly spaced cylinders
Analysis of the radiation impedance with effect of reflected wave from sonar-dome in a cylindrical array
Nonlinear searching of the buried objects at the sea
Development of the ship-mounted underwater acoustic surveillance system
Time frequency analysis of acoustics of breaking waves of plunging type
Effects of correlation property of spread-spectrum signal on BER of M-ary underwater acoustic communication system
A mesh-less self-adaptive boundary element quadrature scheme for underwater noise prediction
Computation of drag and flow noise along wavy wall in turbulent flow
3001ss Underwater sound transducers
Underwater ultrasonic field characterisation using laser doppler vibrometry of transducer motion
Potential impact of long-life environmental sonobuoys on littoral ASW
On the study of longitudinal wave traveling through an elastic plate immersed in water
On the influence of transducer heating in underwater ultrasonic thruster
3002ss Underwater sound propagation
HANKEL: A tool for exploring the complex pressure field in range-independent underwater acoustic environments
Hydrophone self-localisation using travel times estimated from ocean noise cross-correlations
Acoustic propagation fluctuation caused by internal waves in the Yellow Sea
Aspects of practical models of acoustic reflection loss at the ocean surface
Frequency dependence of low frequency horizontal correlation in shallow water
Development of a small and long-life ultrasonic biotelemetry system strong against sea ambient noise
Relation between BMD, ultrasonic properties and piezoelectricity in bovine cortical bone
Estimation of propagated pulse waveform in Lűtzow-Holm Bay of Antarctic Ocean calculated by parabolic equation method
3003ss Underwater sound effect on marine life
35 Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound
Analysis of attenuation of high-frequency acoustic waves in piezoelectric crystals
Characteristics of longitudinal and torsional vibration for hole machining by ultrasonic vibration
Behaviour of ultrasonic attenuation in cemented carbides
Measurement of liquid characteristics using ultrasound resonator
Modelling coherent elastic wave propagation through creep damaged material
Influence of defective elements on acoustic fields and imaging for a linear array transducer
Rough surface reconstruction using far-field acoustic measurements
Acoustoelectric transport in magnetoresistive manganite films in high magnetic fields
A comprehensive study of thermodynamical parameters and solvation number of some organic acid salts in non-aqueous medium
Interaction of ultrasonic wave with the laser radiation in optical fiber
Density dependence of acoustic and acousto-optic characteristics of silica nanofoam
Removal of liquid in a long pore opened at both ends using high-intensity aerial ultrasonic wave
Ultrasonic attenuation in divalent FCC crystal CaO due to phonon-phonon interaction in temperature range 100-1500K
Temperature variation of anharmonic properties of tellurium oxide single crystal
Ultrasonication and kinetic studies in changes of ultrasonic velocities in the mixing of solvents
Characteristics of focused ultrasound by layer structured phononic crystal
Method of Determining Effect of Heat on Mortar by Using Aerial Ultrasonic Waves with Finite Amplitude
Analysis of multilayered piezoelectric cylinders with noncircular cross-section
Temperature dependent anharmonic properties of MgO, MgS and MgSe
Ultrasonic investigation of piezoelectric -semiconductor crystals
Welding characteristics and structures of same and different metal specimens using ultrasonic complex vibration welding equipment
Ultrasonic behaviour of velocities and higher order elastic constants in Zener alloys
3501ss Sonoprocessing
Flow cytometry as a means of observing the effects of ultrasound on bacteria
Effect of high power ultrasounds on mass-transfer zone in supercritical fluid extraction processes
Effect of ultrasound on the physical and functional properties of reconstituted whey protein powders
Power ultrasound as a new food processing and preservation modality
Sonoprocessing of fluids for environmental and industrial applications
Kinetic and microstructural changes induced by sonoprocessing on convective drying of eggplant
Enhancement of acoustic heating during nucleation of acoustic cavitation inside an ultrasonic reactor cavity
The generation of particulate fluids using power ultrasound
Fundamentals of acoustic cavitation and ultrasonic processing: The effect of surfactants
Ultrasonic processing and synthesis of nanomaterials
Manufacture of graded porosity foams: Simulation of local ultrasonic pressure and comparison with experimental results
Sonoprocessing of dairy ingredients at a semi-industrial scale
Investigation of Generated attosecond EM by Recoiling of ionized and bounded electrons in atom with fs laser
Effect of ion density variation on THZ generation in laser-dense plasma interaction
3502ss Sonochemistry and Sonoluminescence
Stabilization of multi-needle-to-plate electrical discharges in a high-intensity sound field
Observations of bubble clusters within different cavitation environments - electrochemistry, acoustics and imaging studies
Ultrasonic synthesis of air-filled microbubbles and PFC-filled microcapsules
Transient cavitation in high-quality factor resonators at high static pressures
Frequency effects on sonoluminescence of alkali-metal atoms in sulfuric acid
Effects of rare-gases on MBSL spectrum of K atom emission
Nebulization of a formaldehyde (FA)-neutralizing agent by an ultrasonic device enhances condensation of vaporized FA
Objective parameters for the characterization of cavitation effects
Modelling of Na D line shape in sonoluminescence spectra based upon density dynamics
Characterization of nanofluid of copper
Cavitation - a rapid and a novel way of generating the nanoemulsion encapsulated with active pharmaceutical ingredients
Sonochemical reduction method for controlled synthesis of metal nanoparticles in aqueous solutions
Degradation of water pollutants using ultrasound
Sonochemistry and sonoluminescence in aqueous systems
Sonochemistry with bubbles stabilized in micromachined pits
Multibubble sonoluminescence pulse from Na atom in viscous liquid
Degradation of perchloroethylene aqueous solutions by sonochemical, electrochemical and sonoelectrochemical methods
Multi-bubble sonoluminescence resolved in space, time, and color
Correlation of vibrometry and cleaning effects in ultrasonic dental instruments
On the influence of liquid-surface vibration on sonochemiluminescence
Transient light emission measurement of pulse burst sonochemical luminescence
Origin of the broad-band noise in acoustic cavitation
3503ss Bubbles on biomedical and industrial surfaces
Developments in targeted ultrasound contrast agent dynamics
Influence of gas type on ultrasound cleaning efficiency
Mixing and pumping with oscillating bubbles
Measurement of a microcapsule vibration having a hard plastic shell in an acoustic standing wave
The effect of a nearby solid boundary on the dynamics of a small group of ultrasound driven microbubbles
Bubble vessel interactions associated with pulsed ultrasound
The correlation between acoustic cavitation and sonopration involved in ultrasound-mediated DNA transfection with Polyethylenimine (PEI) in vitro
Non-spherical bubble dynamics in a compressible liquid
Acoustically-driven microbubble pinch off
3504ss Geophysical and engineering bubble acoustics
Bubbles in the ocean and their significance in ocean acoustics
The role of surface tension in exciting breathing mode oscillations of newly-formed bubbles
Multibubble cavitation inception: Effects of bubble-bubble interaction under negative pressure
Ultrasonic streaming in incompressible fluids - modelling and measurements
Interfacial dynamics and frequencies of passive bubble-acoustic emissions
3505ss Medical bubble acoustics
Molecular imaging for the detection of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque
Ultrasound contrast agents: from imaging to therapy
Single microbubble acoustics in small tubes
Ultrasound-activated microbubbles for tendon gene transfer: confocal microscopy real time intracellular investigations and in vivo efficiency
Modulational instability of microbubbles surface modes
Ultra high-speed fluorescence imaging of ultrasound contrast agents for imaging and therapy
Sonodynamic therapy with titanium dioxide in vitro and in vivo
A simultaneous observation system for microbubble vibration in an acoustic field by using a high-speed camera and an LDV
Forming morphing microfoam
Wideband nonlinear imaging of ultrasound contrast agent with a CMUT Probe
A review of single microbubble acoustics
Comparative analysis of gene transfer efficiency to CHO cells by echo contrast agent BR14 under different ultrasound conditions
Evaluation of the effects of secdonary radiation force on aggregation of ultrasound contrast agents
3506ss High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) and its application in medicine
Mechanical erosion of tissue using millisecond bursts of high amplitude shock waves
A brief review of development of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) in Chongqing Medical University of the past 21 years
Theoretical modeling of radiation force imparted on a kidney stone by a focused ultrasound beam
Manufacture of graded porosity foams: Simulation of local ultrasonic pressure and comparison with experimental results
Controlled drug release from encapsulated nanometer liposomes using high intensity focused ultrasound
3507ss Micro/Nanofluidics and Actuation
Acoustically induced micro-scale capillary wave turbulence
Droplet motion and deformation induced by acoustic streaming and radiation pressure
Applications of high-frequency ultrasonics in microfluidics and microactuation
Trapping of particles on ultrasonic radiation surface
Acoustic streaming on "micro-laboratory" using sensor plate/matching layer/piezoelectric substrate
Noncontact ultrasonic particle manipulation in a circular trajectory using a vibrating disc
Acoustic manipulation in a microchannel
Non - linear properties of mixed divalent crystals
Liquid mixing using streaming in frequency-modulated ultrasound beams radiated from SAW devices
Synthesis of multilayer polymeric nanoparticles using surface acoustic wave atomization
The use of acoustic actuation methods for particle manipulation within a droplet
Characteristics of screw-shaped ultrasonic motor that incorporates three transducers
Ultrasonic cleaning of the root canal
Finite element analysis of acoustic streaming through the driving force in an ultrasonic air pump
Unconstrained droplet behaviour under high intensity acoustic vibration
Acoustical investigations of gallium nitride nanowires
Fast microfluidic actuation driven using surface acoustic waves
A high power piezoelectric ultrasonic linear micromotor using slotted stator
Acoustic sizing of air bubbles inside a MEMS piezo inkjet printhead
3508ss Thermoacoustics
Performance measurements of a traveling wave thermoacoustic refrigerator
Exergy analysis of thermoacoustic prime mover
Numerical simulation of heat and fluid interaction of a contoured resonator thermoacoustic engine
Measurement of the thermal and acoustic properties of the concrete alleviated with the cork
Basic study for practical use of thermoacoustic electric generation system
Time-resolved Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) of the flow in an acoustic standing wave tube
Effect of sub loop tube on energy conversion efficiency of loop-tube-type thermoacoustic system
Marginal conditions of thermoacoustic Taconis oscillations revisited
Thermoacoustic wave propagation in a narrow channel subject to temperature gradient
A basic study for silencer by using thermoacoustic phenomena - Experimental discussion for heat exchange and viscous dissipation
Critical temperature ratio needed for a spontaneous gas oscillation in a miniature thermoacoustic engine
3509ss Non-medical Imaging and Ultrasonic Measurement Techniques
Monitoring of flotation cell process state by acoustic emissions
Delamination detection in wood - based composites, a methodological review
Airborne ultrasonic transducers for ultrasonic transmission tomography in gaseous media
Evaluation of contact stiffness between solid-solid interfaces using dual-frequency ultrasound
Microstructure characterization and imaging of single phases in polycrystalline metals by atomic force acoustic microscopy
Ultrasonic evaluation of dimensional and technological parameters of cement mortars
Preliminary study to assess ultrasonic characteristics of Torta del Casar - type cheese
Characteristics of focused ultrasound by layer structured phononic crystal
Fundamental study on nonlinear ultrasonic imaging method for closed cracks using subtraction of responses at different external loads
Aperture synthesis on 2-D ultrasonic transducer arrays for projection imaging of biological media
The use of ultrasound energy propagated in wood
Acoustics and dielectric properties of Borassus Flabellifier BF' with frequency and temperature
An ultrasonic flowmeter based on bean pattern of a multi element transducer: theoretical approach
Quantitative numerical approach for ultrasound imaging with Time Domain Topological Energy
Acoustical investigations in some cubic crystals
Speed measurement of moving object by using sensitivity compensated ultrasonic transmitting signal and pulse compression
3510ss Mack Breazeale Memorial Session
Theoretical and experimental investigation of the backward beam displacement
Mack Breazeale's contribution to Spring Schools on acousto-optics and its applications (1980 - 2008)
Studies on acoustical dissipation and related parameters in Vth group mononitrides
38 Measurement, Generation and reproduction of sound
A directional loudspeaker array for surround sound in reverberant rooms
The reproduction of the response of an aircraft panel to turbulent boundary layer excitations in laboratory conditions
Sound field reproduction by using a scatterer
A new loudspeaker for low frequency radiation by linear motion type ultrasonic motor
Optimization of loudspeaker and microphone configurations for sound reproduction system based on boundary surface control principle - An optimizing approach using Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization and its evaluation -
Objective evaluation of a three-dimensional sound field reproduction system
Sound field reproduction using directional loudspeakers and the equivalent acoustic scattering problem
Composite square and monomial power sweeps for SNR customization in acoustic measurements
Three-party sound field sharing system based on the boundary surface control principle -Subjective assessment of voice reproduction with speaker's facing angle-
A sound telescope: a control of zone of interest
Measurement and generation of footsteps sound on Japanese traditional dance
Sound source localization using scattered acoustic pressure on the surface of rigid sphere and its performance
Analysis of exponentially tapered piezoelectric bimorph actuator
A study on acoustic theoretical formula for compact acoustic reproduction systems
Localization of acoustic signals used in sound emitters at pedestrian crosswalks
Visualization of sound field and sound source vibration using laser measurement method
Performance degradation due to transfer function errors in acoustic brightness/contrast control: sensitivity analysis
Parametric simulation study of miniature loudspeaker for performance evaluation and improvement
Bone conductors, signals and sores
Wide band pneumatic sound system for MEG
Sound absorption characterisation of woven materials. Case study: auditorium restoration
New construction of loudspeaker for low frequency range by rotational type ultrasonic motor
Sound source location for reproduction of speech signal at local spot based on its decomposition into random signals
Acoustic projector using directivity controllable parametric loudspeaker arrays
Stereo reproduction using parametric loudspeakers
High order Ambisonic decoding method for irregular loudspeaker arrays
Representations of HRTFs using MATLAB: 2D and 3D plots of accurate dummy-head measurements
Design, fabrication, and design verification of 50-kHz CMUTs for high-intensity airborne ultrasound
Electro-acoustic transducers with cellular polymer electrets
Fast head-related transfer function measurement in complex environments
40 Structural acoustics and vibration
Vibroacoustic investigations on hand prostheses and sound design
Sound radiation of orthotropic curved sandwich structures using a mixed boundary element/finite element approach
Optimal design of piezoelectric panel speakers using the simulated annealing algorithm
Preliminary acoustic tests on resilient materials: comparison between common layers and nano-structured layers
Active suppression of acoustic radiation from a submarine hull using inertial actuators
Vibrations of roll swage jointed plates
A review of prediction methods for ground-borne noise due to construction activities
Vibrational and acoustical characteristics of the piano soundboard
Monte Carlo model of the uncertainty of SEA loss factors
Short-interval period distributions for structural health monitoring
Infrasound and ground vibration transmitted from highway bridges using moving trucks
Active vibration control of clamped beams using PPF controllers with piezoceramic actuators
Regularized imaging methods for defect detection using flexural waves
Acoustical diagnosis of concrete crack depth based on its resonance
Dynamic properties of damping materials for reducing heavyweight floor impact sounds
Elastomer layer impact on plate radiation and transmission loss
Sonic crystal noise barriers made of resonant elements
The acoustical design of slim size piezoelectric speakers for mobile phones
Noise reduction of an acoustical enclosure: Mechanisms and prediction accuracy
Electroacoustic absorbers: a unification of active acoustic impedance control and shunt loudspeakers theory
Measurement of sound-radiation from a torpedo-shaped structure subjected to an axial excitation
Air gap influence on the vibro-acoustic response of solar arrays in stowed configuration of satellites during launch
The fluid-strucutre interaction behaviour of building floating floors supported at points randomly distributed
The radiation modes problem: Exact solutions for the active control of sound power and the reconstruction of acoustic sources
Investigation of the damping effect on the energy response of a structure-cavity system in the case of a heavy fluid
Methods and tools used in paper machine supercalender vibration diagnostics
Vibration and reliability of synthesis gas compressors (A case study in PKT-Kaltim Indonesia)
Experimental investigation of particle clumping position on circular plates using acoustic streaming generated by ultrasonic vibrations
Passive control of structural intensity for reducing structure-borne sound on compound plate structure
The acoustical design of mobile phones
The development of ultra thin piezoelectric speakers for mobile phones
Active structural acoustic control of sound radiation from flat plates
Acoustic waves in quasi-periodic multi-layered media
Simulation of the vibration generated by entry and exit to/from a spall in a rolling element bearing
Low Frequency Sound Radiation from Aluminium Extrusion, Part I: Experimental Study
Effects of extensional wave propagating through shell structure on vibration energy flow
A novel double-notch passive hydraulic engine mount design
Vibroacoustic coupling of cylindrical structure with both excited end plates
Research on reduction of structure-borne sound using perforated plate
Adaptive electromechanical tuned vibration absorbers and their application in semi-active fluid mounts
On some mathematical problems in modeling piezoelectric actuators
Vibration control of a building model with base isolation
Power transmission analysis of coupled rectangular plates with elastically restrained coupling edge including in-plane vibration
Underwater sound radiation by a layered infinite elastic plate with discontinuity
Vibration modelling of composite laminates with delamination damage
Multiphysics modelling and experimental verification of active and passive reduction of structural noise
4001ss Theoretical and computational acoustics
Meaning Of admittance boundary condition explained on an analytical example Of structure fluid coupling
Prediction of soil surface velocity from above-ground acoustic sources
High-order doubly asymptotic absorbing boundaries for the acoustic wave equation
Numerical simulation of sound wave interaction with human hearing system with fast integral acousto-elastic equation solver
On the selection and implementation of sources for finite-difference methods
A Multi-Level Fast Multipole Algorithm (MLFMM) for calculating the sound scattered from objects within fluids
Modelling coherent elastic wave propagation through creep damaged material
Love wave propagation in a near-surface depth-varying distribution of cracks
Studies on substructure FMBEM and direct mixed-body FMBEM for acoustic performance prediction of reactive mufflers
The plane wave expansion technique to describe diffraction of sound
Bayesian ocean acoustic tracking and track prediction in an uncertain environment
The prediction of synthesised wavefields within realistic room acoustics scenarios
Acoustic-gravity waves in the air generated by an underwater source
Numerical computations of a recorder fluid
A fully consistent constrained generalized coordinate formulation of the interaction of an acoustic cavity and surrounding structures
Long-range correlation of random acoustic fields and passive remote sensing of the environment
Ranking energy paths in a SEA model
Modeling the transmission loss of passthroughs in sound package using foam finite elements
The effect of coupling on the modal behavior of the coupled system of a cavity and a flexible panel
Investigation on the cause of instability in time domain acoustic BEM by using the wave vector concept
Three formulas of generalized gamma functions occurring in analytical acoustics
FDTD techniques applied to acoustic propagation in vegetable tissue
Measurement and prediction of the acoustic performance of poroelastic foam filled mufflers for sleep apnoea devices
A review on prediction models for the acoustic performance of pipe lagging
On decreasing the calculation time in multi-dimensional acoustic numerical simulation by multi-GPU parallel computing
Time-domain computation of broadband noise due to interaction of a rectilinear cascade of flat plates with inflow turbulence
Use of CFD to calculate the performance of microperforated materials
Vibro-Acoustic Characterisation of Thermoplastic Fibre Reinforced Composites
FDTD modelling of frequency dependent boundary conditions for room acoustics
Experimental and theoretical investigation into aerodynamic noise sources of large upwind horizontal-axis wind turbines
Efficient handling of parameter uncertainties in coupled fluid-structure finite element computations
The ultra-weak variational formulation for the 3D elastic wave problems
Blind source separation and localization in case of one reflection problem of one source signal
Numerical methods for simulating disc brake squeal noise
Uncertainty modelling in metecting friction-induced pad-mode instabilities in disc brake squeal
Basic investigations on boundary shape modeling for sound field analysis of rooms using time domain finite element method
Critique of Biot-related theories of acoustic waves in porous media
A method to calculate the acoustic intensity near an open end of a flanged round pipe
Sound production and radiation of resonator-controlled edge tones
Spatial data structures for dynamic acoustic virtual reality
Theory and Phenomenology of the Acoustic Vector Field
Computing diffraction integrals with the numerical method of steepest descent
Wavefront modelling and low frequency ray theory
Prediction by the finite-difference time-domain method for vibroacoustic problems
Acoustic properties of double-porosity fibrous materials
Frequency-domain computation of inflow broadband noise due to interaction of a rectilinear cascade of flat plates with incident turbulence
The fast multipole BEM for low-frequency acoustic problems based on degenerate boundary formulation
50 Noise: its effects and control
An acoustic comfort model for dwellers in high-rise built environment in the tropics
Study of elastic modulus for viscoelastic absorption materials
Estimating urban natural ventilation potential by noise mapping and building energy simulation
Stochastic computational methods for broadband fan noise
Measurement methodology for the acoustic scattering of a single tree
Speech referenced limiting of noise
Highly uncomfortable Mosquito Signal based on subjective evaluation
An adaptive approach to enhance damping in a two dimensional feed forward active noise control system using velocity microphones
Estimating the sound-absorption coefficients of oblique micro-perforated panels by using stepwise multiple linear regression analysis
Active noise control at a virtual acoustic energy density sensor in a three-dimensional sound field
The insertion loss of thick barriers with rectangular and circular vertical edges
Active noise reduction: performance of personal devices
Vibro-acoustic behavior of micro-perforated plate to sound absorption performance
Sound transmission loss of expansion chambers with upper and lower chambers staggered
Noise suppression method for a high-realistic reproduction system with active noise control
A study of a comfortable sound design for higher-frequency noise based on auditory masking
Improvement of active noise control performance by changing reference signal
5001ss Environmental Noise Management
Music and outdoors: Are they meant to work together?
The Fortaleza noise mapping project - A tool for the strategies of knowledge and control of noise in the municipality and the new perception for the control of big music events
A 70 dB(A) limit proposal for façade exposure to urban noise, based on research
The H.U.S.H. project - Database of noise reduction measures for city noise action planning
The H.U.S.H. project - The geographical data platform for city noise action planning
Multisource industrial plant inverse noise modelling and assessment against ISO 8297
Noise assessment of a desalination plant
Satisfactory background noise levels in naturally ventilated buildings - Challenging acoustic criteria used in the past
Are Western noise policies appropriate for developing and emerging countries?
Ventilation system noise control
Development of noise control measures on construction site
Improving environmental noise predictions
Acoustical indicators and indexes for urban quality evaluation
Managing the cost of noise exposure in transport corridors
Statistical patterns of the noise levels of a town
Airport noise environmental impact assessment including affected communities perception: description of social survey on neighborhoods of Santos Dumont Airport - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
New techniques in noise prediction
Construction noise management guideline for major transport infrastructure projects
Assessment of low frequency noise from transportation sources
Acoustical insertion loss of plenum window at different sound incidence angles
Are there more definitive ways to manage environmental noise?
Compressor noise control for a large underground natural gas storage station in China
Consideration of new environmental noise evaluation index
5003ss Road transportation noise
Quantitative assessment of noise reduction following building treatment to dwellings affected by traffic noise
Limit of predicted road noise emissions due to traffic constraints - Part 2
Tire surface vibration and sound radiation resulting from the tire cavity mode
Further comparison of traffic noise predictions using the CadnaA and SoundPLAN noise prediction models
Deployment of the binary traffic in the city of Maringa, PR, Brazil: acoustic adequacy of the surroundings of educational institution
Directivity of the CoRTN road traffic noise model
A geometric method to determine feasible noise barrier locations
A study on the sound power level of Queensland road vehicles
Enhancements to noise barrier design standards for European highways
Relationships between noise indices, road traffic noise and criteria in NSW
Road traffic noise pollution in Vietnam
An environmental noise mapping study for heterogeneous traffic conditions
Are vehicles driven in electric mode so quiet that they need acoustic warning signals?
In situ measurements of reflection index and sound insulation index of noise barriers
How to measure the effectiveness of low-noise pavements in urban situations?
5004ss Aircraft noise
Towards improving the characterisation of aircraft and background noise
Applying Computational Aero-Acoustics (CAA) to turbofan liner optimisation.
Sound power radiation due to an isolated airfoil in a turbulent stream.
INM - getting it to work acoustically
Alternative aircraft metrics - Useful or like moving the deck chairs on the Titanic?
Military aircraft noise and the community
Aircraft noise management in New Zealand
An airline approach to community noise: assessing the noise exposure in case of CDA implementation at TAROM
A measurement method to discriminate aircraft fly-over noise
Airfoil trailing edge noise reduction by the introduction of sawtooth and slitted trailing edge geometries
Conversion relationship of aircraft noise indices between WECPNL and DENL
Policy and the evaluation of aircraft noise
Semi-empirical prediction of tone noise due to counter-rotating open rotors
Thickness noise analysis of an uneven helicopter rotor configuration
On the source modeling technique in Tam & Auriault's fine-scale turbulence jet noise theory
A paired comparison experiment to examine startle evoked by low level sonic booms and other transients.
Airport noise environmental impact assessment including affected communities perception: description of social survey on neighborhoods of Santos Dumont Airport - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Helicopter noise propagation characteristics in the refracting atmospheric conditions
Low frequency liners for turbofan engines
Airport noise model taking account of soundproofing embankment and aircraft ground operation
Factors affecting the harmonious coexistence of the airport and local communities
5005ss Wind farm noise
A new wind farm noise standard for New Zealand, NZS 6808:2010
Wind induced aerodynamic noise on microphones from atmospheric measurements
Economics on wind farm noise mitigation by power limitation
Noise generated by wind farms: ISPRA experience of measurements
Assessment of the methods addressing atmospheric stability effects in the latest SA EPA "Wind farms environmental noise guidelines", New Zealand NZS 6808 and Australian AS 4959
Experimental and theoretical investigation into aerodynamic noise sources of large upwind horizontal-axis wind turbines
Statistical and curve fitting post-process of wind farm noise monitoring data
5008ss Health effects of noise
The contribution of leisure noise to overall noise exposure
Effects of noise on sleep in shift workers
Comparative analysis of methods to evaluate people exposure and annoyance
A night noise index on the basis of the integration of awakening potential
Introducing aircraft noise characteristics into models that predict sleep structure
Economic valuation of sleep disturbance due to traffic noise: A questionnaire study applying CVM in Urayasu, Chiba, Japan
Work and non-work noise exposure
5010ss Occupational noise
Noise as a cognitive impairment factor: a case study amongst teachers
Control of noise exposure for employees in the music sector
The European Regulation 2003/10/EC and the impact of its application to the military noise exposure
Noise levels in UAE dental clinics and its effect on dental professionals and patients
Earmuffs comfort
Validation of a temporary threshold shift (TTS) detector for use with portable listening devices
The effect of wearing earplugs on the level and spectrum of performed music
Effect of hearing protection and hearing loss on warning sound design
Hearing status among aircraft maintenance personnel in a Swedish commercial airline company
Military aircraft noise effects on crew's cognitive conditions
Noise in industrial workrooms
Results of simulation tests of a global index proposed for the acoustic assessment of machines
Noise and hearing loss in the metal manufacturing industry in New Zealand
Noise at Work regulations 2005 and the Royal Academy of Music noise project.
Determination of earmuff transmittance with the use of MIRE technique and with artificial test fixtures
5011ss Vehicle noise and vibration
Quality evaluation of engine start and idle sounds
Improving the acoustic evaluation of motor cars
Optimization of Diesel engine noise
Transmission loss calculations for dissipative mufflers with temperature gradients
Development of a low cost system for pass-by noise beamforming measurements
Brake vibration and noise - A review and discussion
Characteristics of flow-induced noise generated by air flow passing through perforated plates and impinging on a flat plate
Numerical study of friction-induced pad-mode instability in disc brake squeal
Acoustic radiation of friction-induced pad-mode instability in disc brake squeal
The passive acoustic effect of automotive catalytic converters
Are vehicles driven in electric mode so quiet that they need acoustic warning signals?
Development of experimental procedure for detecting and evaluating squeak and rattle noise emission from the instrument panel in a vehicle
Estimation of the dynamic force transmitted by a nonlinear hydraulic engine mount
Trail bike exhaust noise: Are road-legal trail bikes louder than competition bikes?
A mesh-less self-adaptive boundary element quadrature scheme for underwater noise prediction
Vibro-acoustic analysis of a vehicle integrated with design of experiments methodology using three performance criteria
5012ss Rail transport noise and vibration
Probabilistic prediction of wheel squeal under field humidity variation
Train induced vibration isolation of theskyvue, Sydney Australia
Algorithms for detection of rail wheel squeal
The force transmissibility of a floating slab track
Investigations on transportation induced ground vibrations
Application of noise reduction equipment in the modernization of the EU railway development
Noise of railway transport and its impact on the environment
Rail dampers - The first Australian field trial
Modelling the real time performance of noise barriers for the night time operation of a rail-freight terminal
Source noise control to mitigate airborne noise at high rise developments - Epping to Chatswood Rail Link
5015ss Military Noise
55 Architectural acoustics
Acoustic study of the Society of Jesus Church. Characterization by means of objective and subjective parameters
Using an ambisonic microphone for measurement of the diffuse state in a reverberant room
A new system of speech privacy criteria in terms of Speech Privacy Class (SPC) values
Sound propagation in performance halls with balconies
Taiwan green building material labelling system and its sound insulating assessment
Investigating room acoustics using higher order ambisonics and perceptual evaluation of ambisonic auralization techniques
Improving the acoustic for classical musicians
Acoustical effects of columns, beams and furniture on sound fields in small enclosures
The acoustics of ancient Iranian music room at "Aali Ghapoo"
Acoustical measurements in occupied rooms in Paris
Optimal design of slit resonators for acoustic normal mode control in rectangular rooms
A review of the current role of acoustics in sustainability: The contrast of different rating tools, codes and standards
Measurement and optimization of background noise and reverberation for a meeting room
Phase coherence as a measure of acoustic quality: Part 1, The neural mechanism
Phase coherence as a measure of acoustic quality: Part 2, Audience engagement
Phase coherence as a measure of acoustic quality: Part 3, Concert hall design
The Lindeman Hall of Oslo â Evidence of low-frequency radiation from the stage floor
Restoration of the Bell Pavilion for King Song-Dok Bell considering its acoustic characteristics
An acoustic investigation into small auditorium in Indonesia
Architectural categories and acoustic characteristics of traditional Chinese theatres
A new miniature loudspeaker for room acoustical scale model experiment
Quantitative evaluation of three-dimensional shape of auditorium using elliptic Fourier descriptors
Effects of stage design elements on acoustics of concert halls
Effects of sound strength and IACC on perception of listener envelopment in concert halls
Simulation of the aperture diffraction in coupled rooms by acoustical radiosity
Study on effect of room acoustics on timbral brightness of clarinet tones. Part I: subjective evaluation through a listening experiment
Effect of sound absorption on indoor sound environment of nursery school classrooms
Evaluation of stage support for musician's performance in a concert hall
Acoustics of the concert hall at the Sydney Opera House, Part two: The Acoustician's Perspective
A new type of porous absorber
Room acoustics in rehearsal rooms and public areas in the new Norwegian National Opera House
A study of sound absorption characteristics on air layer with irregular shape
The optimum initial delay time of Angklung Musics in an Angklung concert hall
A coherent image source method for flat waveguides with locally reacting boundaries
Numerical investigation on the sound absorption coefficients of Malaysian wood
Acoustic description of the Great Hall of the Moscow P.I.Tchaikovsky Conservatory
A proposal for a tool for automatic correction of geometrical errors in acoustical simulation
Effect of microperforation on sound insulation of double-leaf structures
Predictions of road traffic noise on residential balconies using a specular & diffusion model
Acoustical characteristics of newly developed perforated plates
Study on an estimation method for parameters of a dry laminated panel
Sound environmental design in nursery institutions focused on floor material
Control of sound insulation in glass facades at Oslo's Opera House
Designing small music practice rooms for sound quality
Contoured foam absorbers
Teatro di San Carlo, Naples, restoration and enlargement: Conservation of the excellent acoustics in the oldest active opera house in Europe
Sound absorption characterisation of woven materials. Case study: auditorium restoration
Optimal architectural configurations and acoustic parameters for multiple sources.
Examining the relationships between monaural and binaural classroom acoustics parameters and student achievement
Green rating systems and classroom acoustic design
Integrated lighting luminaire-acoustics diffusor for classroom
Comparison between measured and simulated binaural impulse responses in different rooms
Study on wooden micro-perforated panel and its application
Reverberation time - The mother of all room acoustical parameters
Room acoustical parameter values at the listener's ears - can preferred concert hall acoustics be predicted and explained?
Effects of the sound source direction on acoustical parameters in a church
Evaluation of a hard-walled rectangular room model with planar absorption cavities
Acoustical design of inner galleries in Heydar Aliyev Center
Basic study on acoustic wave analysis by the multi-moment method using interpolation by a high-order polynomial
Acoustic characterization of sacred music rendered by a human whistle at the Divine Providence Church in Goa, India
Acoustics of the concert hall at the Sydney Opera House, Part one: A Client's Perspective
Reflection of sound by concave surfaces
Effect of experimental design on the results of clarity-index just-noticeable-difference listening tests
A numerical investigation of the sound intensity field in rooms by using diffusion theory and particle tracing
Error and uncertainty of IACC measurements introduced by dummy head orientation using Monte Carlo simulations
Characterization of non-exponential sound energy decays in multiple coupled volumes
Reverberation times prediction on classroom using neural network model
5501ss Sound transmission in lightweight structures
Study of elastic modulus for viscoelastic absorption materials
Sound and vibrations investigations in a multi-family wooden frame building
Improving transmission loss of light-weight panels by enhancement of skin tension through evacuation
Impact of acoustic performance on sustainability and quality of an energy efficient building
The equivalent translational stiffness of steel studs
A wave based model to describe the niche effect in sound transmission loss determination of single and double walls
Empirical calculation of sound insulation in lightweight partition walls with separate steel studs
Measurements on timber-framed floors with a granular material in the floor topping
Prediction of sound transmission through a light double panel with sandwich skins, foam core and mechanical links.
Improvement of the floor impact noise of the concrete slab using latex modified mortar
Uncertainties in standard measurement and evaluation procedure applied in light weight structures
Modeling and experimental validation of locally resonant structures
Effect of resilient channel and floating floor on floor impact sound insulation of wood-frame construction
Acoustic properties of hollow brick walls
The effect of aerated concrete containing glass foam aggregate on the heavy-weight impact sound isolation
Floor impact noise characteristics of impact ball depending on the drop heights in the both wooden and concrete structures
Quantitative comparisons of resilient channel design and installation in single wood stud walls
Evaluation of the sound insulation of roofing systems
Influence of different materials in the acoustic performance of ventilated sill used in natural climatization construction
Wooden roof: evaluation of acoustic performances performed in laboratory, on an external test-cell, and on real buildings
Airborne sound transmission in lightweight wall design structures for residential and commertial buildings
The growth of vibro-acoustical properties of volume based timber buildings during the construction phase
58 Acoustical measurements and instrumentation
Ultrasonic food quality analyzer based on cylindrical standing waves
Sensitivity study of fiber optic ultrasonic probe based on the modulation in the refracitive index of air
Measurement of equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level of driving sound of three tesla MRI equipment
Improved method of measuring reflection or impedance spectra using adapted signal spectra and resonance-free calibrations
Specification and calibration of acoustic short-term stimuli for objective audiometry
Development of a low cost system for pass-by noise beamforming measurements
Multi-field microphone - when the sound field is unknown
Localization algorithms for acoustic emission phenomena
Determination of the velocity of surface acoustic waves with excitation and detection by local electric field probes
Sound strength calibration methods
Evaluating estimation of direct-to-reverberation energy ratio using D/R spatial correlation matrix model
Discrepancies between actual-ear and artificial-ear responses
Effect of frequency compound technique on coded excitation and synthetic aperture focusing ultrasound imaging
Composite square and monomial power sweeps for SNR customization in acoustic measurements
Improving the resolution of beamforming measurements on wind turbines
Development of a head-movement-aware signal capture system for the prediction of acoustical spatial impression
The study of sensitivity on piezoelectric vibratory tactile sensor using a longitudinal bar resonator
Volume diffusers in the reverberation room
Sound detection characteristics under different postions of the fiber optic sensor arrays using Sagnac interferometer
Precision Time Synchronization Using IEEE 1588 for Distributed Acoustic Measurement
Signals for the approximate characterization of acoustic systems
Fast near-field HRTF measurements using reciprocal method
Analysis of MRI driving sound in case of gradient magnet field controlled by the original sequence
Possibility for sub-ppm hydrogen detection with the ball SAW sensor
Ultrasonic open channel drainage flow measurement using correlation technique
Comparative study of times of flight, speed of sound and elastic constants in nanostructured materials by pulse acoustic microscopy and laser ultrasonic techniques
Measurement of sound intensity of MRI driving sound in near field of MRI equipment
Non contact acoustic imaging method in the extremely shallow underground using optimum frequency range method by SLDV
Study on the health index value using the waveform of the Korotkoff sounds
Measurement of reverberation time: a comparative study of impulsive sound sources
A novel approach for impulse response measurements in environments with time-varying noise
Ball SAW gas chromatograph for detection of mixed VOC and FC gases
Novel impulse response measurement method for stringed instruments
The design of clock delay circuit for delay pulse and beamforming in ultrasonic phased array system
On the measurement and evaluation of bass enhanced in-ear phones
Optical fibre Bragg gratings for acoustic sensing
Characteristics of Absorbing Material in Obliquely Incident Waves
Design of distributed monitoring system based on vibration and acoustic signals
An in-situ technique for extensive field measurements of absorption characteristics of materials by using ensemble averaging
60 Acoustic signal processing
Conversion of reproduced sound field based on the coincidence of sound pressure and direction of particle velocity
Design and calibration of a small aeroacoustic beamformer
Optimum signals for acoustic security screening of cargo containers
Improved acoustic echo cancellation for low SNR based on blockwise combination of filters
Wideband speech and audio coding using a new spectral replication method based on parametric stereo coding
Loudness control of level in automotive infotainment systems
Acoustic studies of tremor in pathological voices
Recognition of mechanical devices using acoustic signal analysis
Fault Diagnosis of Machinery based on Support Vector Data Description and D-S Evidence Theory
Localization of multiple sound sources based on subtraction of accumulated inter-channel correlation
Analysis of frontal localization in double layered loudspeaker array system
Optimization of loudspeaker and microphone configurations for sound reproduction system based on boundary surface control principle - An optimizing approach using Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization and its evaluation -
Reduction of computing time by genetic algorithm for the nondestructive technique to detect a crack in a large scale concrete structure
A deterministic filterbank compressive sensing model for Bat biosonar
A design of acoustic security system in near field based on paired microphones and automatic video camera
Evaluating estimation of direct-to-reverberation energy ratio using D/R spatial correlation matrix model
A Sample-wise Acoustic Positioning Method Using Natural Gradient Adaptation
Composite square and monomial power sweeps for SNR customization in acoustic measurements
Interpolation method of head-related transfer functions in the z-plane domain using a common-pole and zero model
Transfer path analysis of output noise using multi-dimensional spectral analysis method for vacuum cleaner
Emergency evacuation guiding system using changeable sound directivity
Cepstrum method enables accurate assessment of thickness of cortical bone layers - Potential improvement for analysis of ultrasound backscatter from underlying trabecular matrix
Accurate position detection of sound source by LabView
Am imporved simplicity-based approach for heart sound analysis
Theoretical study of 3D radiated sound field reproduction system using directional loudspeakers and boundary surface control
Automatic detection of road surface states from tire noise using neural network analysis
The suppression for undesired reflection towards audio spot
Adaptive noise cancellation for acquisition of reference signal of active noise control
Generation of a private listening zone; acoustic parasol
A Study on the musical source separation method using NMF and musical cues
A head-related transfer function model for fast synthesizing multiple virtual sound images
Adaptive adjustment of the "sweet spot" for head rotation
Visualization and dereverberation of head-related transfer function based on spatio-temporal frequency analysis
A study of dynamic determination of filter length for multi-channel active noise control
A design of reflective audio spot with reflective objects
Robustness of array processing techniques in acoustic detection and localization
Sound signals decomposition for perceptual audio coding
Blind directivity estimation of a sound source in a room using a surrounding microphone array
Designing a 3-D sonar system using a sparse array and CZT beamforming
Design of wireless class-D stereo amplifier system using Bluetooth
Analysis of acoustic imaging using wide-spread infrasonic sensor network array
Dynamics of acoustic parameters for compounds in polymerization
SENZI, a 3D sound-space recording system using a spherical microphone array with 252-ch microphones
Blind reverberation time estimation
Multistatic time reversal
Methods to reduce errors of ultrasound time-pulse radars
Theory of sound manipulation: relation of transfer function characteristic and its performance
The steering for distance perception with reflective audio spot
Sound source location for reproduction of speech signal at local spot based on its decomposition into random signals
Passive ultrasonic pointing system based on three-dimensional position estimation
Parameters estimation of point moving source with time-frequency transformation
Noise robust semi-adaptive sound reproduction system based on semi-BSS
The semi-virtual violin - A perception tool
Performance analysis of dominant mode rejection beamforming
Multiple description coding for MP3 coded sound signal
Hidden Markov Model with heart sound signals for identification of heart disease
Multizone soundfield reproduction using multiple loudspeaker arrays
Stability analysis of broadband active noise equalization algorithm
Design of time-domain modal beamformer for broadband spherical microphone arrays
A conceptual explicit expression of the separation matrix in independent component analysis
New Sequential Partial Update Normalized Least Mean M-estimate Algorithms for Stereophonic Acoustic Echo Cancellation
64 Physiological acoustics
Behavior of precedence effect generated by two sound sources on the front and the mid-coronal plane
The cochlea as a graded bank of independent, simultaneously excited resonators: Calculated properties of an apparent “travelling wave”
Sub-cutaneous cochlear implant: analytical modelling of an acoustic receiver behind the skin
Measurement of children's ear canal impedances using small impedance probes
Relation between fine structures in hearing thresholds and distortion product otoacoustic emissions
Modeling human auditory evoked brainstem responses based on nonlinear cochlear processing.
A new model for the shapes of rate-level functions of auditory-nerve fibers
Improving musical streaming for cochlear implant users using visual cues.
Acoustic sensitivity to micro-perturbations of KEMAR's pinna surface geometry
A simple pinna model for generating head-related transfer functions in the median plane
6401ss Hearing Rehabilitation
Sound therapy restores hearing- Fact or fiction? A personal experience of an acoustician
Simulation of increased masking in sensorineural hearing loss for a preliminary evaluation of speech processing schemes
Human auditory steady-state responses and cochlear 'dead regions'
Ability of cochlear implant users to segregate a melodic line
The modulation of tactile stimulation on Mandarin tone production in children with cochlear implant
Music perception and musical sound vocal production in cochlear implant children
66 Psychological acoustics
Effects of frequency, loudness, and ringing cycle of warning sound on urgent impression
A study on the characteristics of evacuation inducing sound and psychological assessment using the voice information
Estimating individual listeners' auditory-filter bandwidth in simultaneous and non-simultaneous masking
Simulation and verification of nonparametric psychoacoustical experiment methods
Detection of spectrally complex signals: Effect of difference in levels within components
Remote psychoacoustic experiments on audio-visual interactions
A study on the precedence effect in various background sound
Individual differences of sound localization ability on median plane
The use of parametric arrays for transaural applications
Effect of attention to preceding stimuli on the simultaneity perception between an auditory and visual stimulus
Observations on auditory learning in amplitude- and frequency-modulation rate discrimination
Factor analysis of the sense of presence in daily scenes
Sound localization in median plane using an avatar robot "TeleHead" with synchronization of a listener's horizontal head rotation
F0-based segregation in a three-talker sequential listening task
Psychophysical tuning curves for very low centre frequencies
Spatial acoustic cues for the auditory perception of speaker's facing direction
Effects of the presence of cue tone in signal detection varies with relationships between cue tone and signal frequencies
Detection of dynamically varying ITDs
Equal reverberance matching of running musical stimuli having various reverberation times and SPLs
On the study of noise annoyance modifiers for city dwellers
The ability to transiently store acoustic details is associated with speech recognition against informational masking in reverberant environments
Impressions of sounds in rural nature area: Comparison between university students in urban area and in rural area
Colour-influences on loudness judgements
Adaptive adjustment of the "sweet spot" for head rotation
Global loudness of ramped and damped sounds
Effects of pitch of sounds on vertical localization of the sounds with frequencies changing over three octaves
Interdependence between temporal and ambient spatial variations of a successive sound sequence
Signal bandwidth necessary for horizontal sound localization
Correlation between groovy singing and words in popular music
HRTF selection for binaural synthesis from a database using morphological parameters
Spatial separation and timbral difference affect identification of pitch modulation in one of two sources
What cochlear implants can tell us about pitch perception in normal hearing
A study on physiopsychological evaluation of noise during mental memory tasks
Acoustic characterization of sacred music rendered by a human whistle at the Divine Providence Church in Goa, India
Assessment of audio sound quality based on psychoacoustics
Advantages of binaural room synthesis for research and fitting of hearing aids, cochlear implants, electro-acoustical stimulation, and combined systems
Influence of the ventriloquism effect on minimum audible angles assessed with wave field synthesis and intensity panning
Psychoacoustical experiments on loudness perception in wave field synthesis
Influence of band-limited flattening of HRTFs on sound localization performance
Can the wave-vibration and touch sense system help blind people? - results of questionnaire
Characterization of sound quality of impulsive sounds using a loudness based metric
Cognition improvement of warning system by complex stimuli in vehicle interior
Effect of change in sound pressure level on the equivalent perception between a visual stimulus and its associated sound
Fluctuation strength on the mandolin tremolo with the 1st and 2nd fluctuations
Simultaneity perception characteristics in contralateral ear considering attention
6601ss Psychoacoustics from ecological viewpoints
Ecological loudness: Binaural loudness constancy
Psychoacoustics for the creation of acoustically green city areas
Desirable road traffic noise for human hearing
An individual fitting algorithm for digital hearing aids by the modified critical bands and loudness scaling
Measurement and generation of footsteps sound on Japanese traditional dance
Effects of transportation noise exposure time on the subjective response
Examination of the deteriorating factors of sound quality of home electric appliances
The relationships between music, speech and other environmental sounds
Comparisons of auditory impressions and auditory imagery associated with onomatopoeic representation for environmental sounds
Perceptual space of multiple complex tones
ANN models for sound preference evaluations
6603ss Soundscapes
Comparison between multiple linear regressions and artificial neural networks to predict urban sound quality
A model of saliency-based auditory attention to environmental sound
Objective parameters for acoustic comfort in enclosed spaces
Education in soundscape - A seminar with young scientists in short term scientific mission "Soundscape - Measurement, Analysis, Evaluation"
Evaluation of urban soundscape using soundwalking
Reflections on recent methodological developments in soundscape research
Analysis of sound environment in coastwise area of Haihe river and preliminary study on its soundscape design and soundscape expression method
Influence of the semantic content of urban sounds in the identity of outer spaces
Urban design with Soundscaping: Experiences of a Korean - German team
ASTUCE Research Project: one way to evaluate urban soundscapes
Implications of Thao tribe culture and soundscape
Tranquil spaces in a metropolitan area
Assessment of railway soundscape in rural areas
Effects of cultural factors on the evaluation of acoustic quality in residential areas
6605ss Virtual Sound/Displays
Virtusound - a system for room acoustics simulation and auralization in real time
The use of parametric arrays for transaural applications
Measurement and generation of footsteps sound on Japanese traditional dance
Effects of individualised headphone response equalization on front/back hemifield discrimination for virtual sources displayed on the horizontal plane
Effects of headphone calibration functions on subjective impressions of spatial sound
Frequency- and time-dependent geometry for real-time auralizations
Spatial data structures for dynamic acoustic virtual reality
Spatial separation and timbral difference affect identification of pitch modulation in one of two sources
Performance of computer simulations for architectural acoustics
Fast head-related transfer function measurement in complex environments
70 Speech production
Evaluation and optimization of F0-adaptive spectral envelope estimation based on spectral smoothing with peak emphasis
Effects of the emotional tone of voice on the acoustic characteristics of the Mandarin Chinese tones
Approach of instantaneous frequencies determination of speech signal by continuous wavelet transform: Application to formants calculation
Contribution to the improvement of the quality of a synthesis speech
Visualisation of moderate Reynolds number flow through a tooth-shaped nozzle
MRI-based contrastive study of nasal and oral labial consonants' articulations in Russian
A study of vibrato features to control singing voices
Observation of voiced consonants using MRI movie
Proposal of a new vocoder for real-time synthesis of speech signal with high quality
Development of speech synthesis simulation system and study of timing between articulation and vocal fold vibration for consonants /p/, /t/ and /k/
Theoretical and experimental study of some aeroelastic phenomena during phonation
Optimizing laryngeal pathology detection by using combined cepstral features
71 Speech perception
Acoustic studies of tremor in pathological voices
Tonotopic variation in the correlation between the shimmer of a natural vowel and that of the evoked response
Can visual information on lip gesture influence lexical processing in speech perception? A phonological priming study
A study on brain activities elicited by emotional voices with various F0 contours
Intelligibility of speech spoken in noise and reverberation
The relation between speech intelligibility and audibility by voice emphasis in the subway
An evaluation of bone-conducted ultrasonic hearing-aid regarding transmission of Japanese prosodic phonemes
A unified approach of compensation and soft masking incorporating a statistical model into the Wiener filter
Study of perceptual balance for designing comb filters for binaural dichotic presentation
A study of the influence of the reverberation time in speech synthesis
Noisy speech recognition using wavelet transform and weighting coefficients for a specific level
Polish sentence test for speech intelligibility measurement in children
Processing of endpoint pitch in Mandarin tone perception: An eye movement study
Deviations of vowel quality perception as a result of separated F3 manipulations
Time to judge sex of speaker: effect of glottal-pulse rate and vocal-tract length
Acoustic features affecting speaker identification by imitated voice analysis
Steady state vowel duration as an acoustic cue for Garhwali Hindi database
A robust method to detect dialectal differences in the perception of lexical pitch accent
7101ss Acquisition of Speech Perception Skills
Co-option of ancillary articulatory parameters in the prevention of near-neutralisation of multiple coronals
Modification of prosodic cues when an interlocutor cannot be seen: The effect of visual feedback on acoustic prosody production
Transfer of talker-familiarity effects
The development of auditory-visual speech perception across languages and ages
Audio-visual speech integration in noise by first and second language listeners
Ability to segment words from speech as a precursor of later language development: insights from electrophysiological responses in the infant brain
Vocabulary size predicts the development of phonological constancy: An eyetracking study of word identification in a non-native dialect by 15- and 19-month-olds
The visual perception of lexical tone
Toward a hierarchical representation model of Lexical tones: Effects of acoustic, segmental and semantic characteristics on tone perception in Cantonese-speaking children
72 Speech processing and communication systems
Evaluation and optimization of F0-adaptive spectral envelope estimation based on spectral smoothing with peak emphasis
Long-term modelling of parameters trajectories of the harmonic plus noise model for speech signals
Downstream speech enhancement in a low directivity binaural hearing aid
Properties analysis for a Bucky Ball microphone array based on soundfield decomposition using spherical harmonic
Speech referenced limiting of noise
Performance estimation of speech recognition based on acoustic parameters under reverberation environments with CENSREC-4
Reconstructing missing speech spectral components using both temporal and statistical correlations
The acoustic sound field dictation with Hidden Markov Model based on an onomatopoeia
Evaluation of speech balloon captions for auditory information support on small meetings
Mandarin tones recognition by segments of fundamental frequency contours
Rapid Acoustic Model Adaptation Using Inverse MLLR-based Feature Generation
Integrating plural results of Spoken Term Detection using plural language models for subword-based speech recognition
Do we need dereverberation for hand-held telephony?
A unified approach of compensation and soft masking incorporating a statistical model into the Wiener filter
Analysis and synthesis of singing with hoarse vocal expressions
Speech recognition in noise by using word graph combinations
Performance improvement in automatic evaluation system of English pronunciation by using various normalization methods
Low-complexity GSC-RLS beamformer with self-tuning algorithm
Fast subword-based approach for open vocabulary spoken term detection
Unification of speech and audio coding technology for mobile devices
Tolerance and sensitivity of various parameters in the prediction of temporally localized distortions in degraded speech.
Noise injection for feedback cancellation with linear prediction
Fast calculation of translation model score for simultaneous automatic speech recognition of multilingual audio contents
Four-tone modeling for natural singing synthesis in Chinese and comparing synthesized singings with speaking voices
Enhancement of electrolaryngeal speech by spectral subtraction, spectral compensation, and introduction of jitter and shimmer
Improving the accuracy of estimation of place of articulation during stop closures of vowel-consonant-vowel utterances by detecting the closure release bursts
A data reduction method to estimate vowel distributions and its use in comparing two formant estimation methods
Forensic speaker identification: an experience in Indonesians court
Reverberation-based post-processing for improving speech intelligibility
XML based notation for rule-based text-to-speech systems
Spontaneous speech recognition taking account of characteristics of speaker-dependent occurrence of filled-pauses
Deviations of vowel quality perception as a result of separated F3 manipulations
An HMM-based segment quantizer and its application to low bit rate speech coding
Sound source location for reproduction of speech signal at local spot based on its decomposition into random signals
The Lombard speech recognition based on the voice conversion towards neutral speech
Overview and comparative results of speech-based excitation signals for virtual localization and real-life applications
Speech enhancement based on estimating expected values of speech cepstra
75 Music and musical instruments
Feature extraction of bass guitar using principal component analysis
Attack transients in a loudspeaker / resonator coupled system
Modeling and numerical simulation of a nonlinear system of piano strings coupled to a soundboard.
Linear string-soundboard coupling in pianos
Bamboos as the material for saxophone reed
Vibrational and acoustical characteristics of the piano soundboard
Inverse problems in musical acoustics
Study on effect of room acoustics on timbral brightness of clarinet tones. Part II: an acoustic interpretation and synthesis of analytical results
Analysis and synthesis of singing with hoarse vocal expressions
Enhancing headphone reproduction of an electronic piano: Control of dynamic interaural level differences coupled with a player's active head movement
Estimating musical score and proficiency at playing the drums
Nonlinear assessment of Korean Temple Bell using reccurence quantification analysis
Ability of cochlear implant users to segregate a melodic line
Relation between motion and emotion for the snare drum performance.
Estimating a musical note of solo performance on the electric bass guitar by using wavelet analysis
A functional approach to amplified music
Brain waves' measurements on the "aha experience" in the cognition of a melody
Measurement of overtone frequencies of a toy piano and perception of its pitch
An experimental study of acoustical properties of tubular tower bells
Automatic music transcription using non-negative matrix factorization
Hybrid coding/indexing strategy for informed source separation of linear instantaneous under-determined audio mixtures
A high-capacity watermarking technique for audio signals based on MDCT-domain quantization
Making violins with Tasmanian tonewood: expect the unexpected
Parametrical 3D structural co-modelling of stringed instruments
Restoration of ancient pipes organs aided by experimental vibration and acoustic modal analyses
Method for estimating proficiency in playing acoustic piano
Slideshow system that automatically switches photographs based on a musical acoustic signal
Effect of bracing pattern of guitar's front plate on modal behaviour
Musical onset detection using MPEG-7 audio descriptors
Numerical analysis on 2D and 3D edge tones in terms of aerodynamic sound theory
Acoustic and mechanical modified wood characterization for woodwind use
Acoustic characterization of sacred music rendered by a human whistle at the Divine Providence Church in Goa, India
Features for musical pitch estimation from simplified auditory model
Quantitative estimation for the effects of tempo, sound level and articulation on the perceptual tension of music
A dimensional study on the emotion of musical pieces composed for video games
The semi-virtual violin - A perception tool
Novel impulse response measurement method for stringed instruments
The acoustics of wind instruments - and of the musicians who play them.
Effect of music on the performance and impression of simple repetitive calculations
Acoustical characteristics of old bell chimes
A real tide organ: A new concept for powering pipe organs coastal locations
80 Bioacoustics
Ultrasonic sperm enrichment and In Vitro fertilization
A deterministic filterbank compressive sensing model for Bat biosonar
Numerical investigation of ultrasound wave propagation in cancellous bone with oblique trabecular orientation
Cepstrum method enables accurate assessment of thickness of cortical bone layers - Potential improvement for analysis of ultrasound backscatter from underlying trabecular matrix
The concurrent effects of low intensity pulsed ultrasound and heat on bone cell culture mineralization
Song consistency reflects age in banded wrens
8001 Animal Bioacoustics
Territorial songs in birds: a multi-level coding process.
Can passive acoustics identify the driving factors behind changes in marine mammal abundance and distribution?
Does the elephant trumpet like a trumpet?
Design considerations in an automatic classification system for bird vocalisations using the Two-dimensional Geometric Distance and cluster analysis
Feature extraction for fish species classification with the dolphin mimetic sonar
8002 Medical Bioacoustics
Molecular imaging for the detection of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque
Modal analysis on arteries and tubes using ultrasound vibrometry
Ultrasound tomography calibration using structured matrix completion
Combined vibro-acoustography (VA) imaging and shearwave dispersion ultrasonic vibrometry (SDUV) for measuring prostate viscoelastic material properties - An in vitro feasibility study
Quantifying viscoelasticity of urethane rubber materials using shearwave dispersion ultrasound vibrometry (SDUV)
Numerical analysis of HRTF spectral characteristics based on sound pressures on a pinna surface
Acoustic transmissions for wireless communications and power supply in biomedical devices
Classification between normal and abnormal respiratory sounds based on stochastic approach
Assessment of chest impedance in relation to phonocardiography
Plenary Dist Special
Strength G, Reverberation Time RT, Listener Envelopment LEV, and Measurements Needed in Concert Halls
The effects of noise on marine animals in the context of their natural acoustic environment
Aircraft Noise: Research Challenges and European Approach
The Multi-channel Cochlear Implant: Psychoacoustics and Speech Perception
Energy based contribution analysis
Sonochemistry - a proven tool for process intensification
Learning the sound system of Japanese: What does it tell us about language acquisition?
Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) of Marine Ecosystems
Nonlinear behavior of ultrasound contrast agent microbubbles and why shell buckling matters
The acoustics of wind instruments - and of the musicians who play them.
Noise and Health from different perspectives
All rights reserved. Permission is granted for any person to reproduce a part of any abstract provided that the permission is obtained from the author(s) and credit is given to the author(s) and these conference proceedings.
Support Mathematics Summer Schools for acoustics researcher training
Attenborough, Keith
Department of Design, Development, Environment and Materials, The Open University, UK
ABSTRACT
Mathematical methods are important for research in many aspects of acoustics. Currently, fundamental mathematical methodologies taught at undergraduate level are often advanced through independent learning by individual researchers. They develop their mathematical skills as appropriate rather than being made aware of the potential of advanced mathematical tools at the onset of their research career. Furthermore, most researchers in acoustics do not have access to master level courses to broaden their postgraduate study. Attempts to remedy this in the UK were made through summer schools held in 2003, 2005 and 2007 at Southampton and Salford Universities in the UK. The content and timetable planning, recruitment and student feedback from these Schools are reported together with general conclusions about their performance.
Full Paper
The delivery of noise and vibration study material and real life practice
Groothoff, Beno
Environmental Directions, Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT
Presenting workshops, lectures and seminars on noise and vibration over the last 20 years has given the author an insight into the effectiveness of the taking on board and putting into practice' of the material studied by the participants. It has also demonstrated the need for constantly updating the study material to keep the presented material relevant and meaningful for the changing audiences. The inclusion of case studies enhances students' involvement and problem solving skills. The advancement of computer technology has made it possible to make the presentations more realistic by incorporating case studies by using audio and video of noise and its effects into power point presentations to which students and other participants can relate. Despite these advancements in study material delivery, in real life basic mistakes, which should not happen, are being observed regularly when it comes to noise assessment. This is particularly true with the use of noise dose meters and, to a lesser extent, the use of sound level meters. Basic mistakes include for noise dose meters the setting-up, attachment and removal of the instrument and for sound level meters not recording where the measurement was made and not obtaining additional information e.g. about the activities and exposure duration.
Full Paper
Problem based learning in acoustics at Aalborg University
Hammershøi, Dorte , Ordoñez, Rodrigo , Christensen, Flemming , Nielsen, Sofus Birkedal
Acoustics, Aalborg University, Denmark
ABSTRACT
The master program in Acoustics (M. Sc.) from Aalborg University is taught at the Department of Electronic system. The M. Sc. program consists of three semesters with course units and problem based project work organized in groups, and a final semester for a master thesis. During the first three semesters, the learning objectives are distributed between courses with independent examination, and a semester project. Each semester has a theme the projects must comply with. Either supervisors, students or industry propose the problem that become the basis for the project work. Under supervision, the students narrow down the problem, address possible solutions, and typically implement one or more of the options for further evaluation. The courses supplement the project work by adding specific and general knowledge of the subject areas of each semester. The courses either have direct application in the project work, or are defining for the candidate’s professional profile. This presentation gives an overview of Problem Based Learning organized in groups in the M. Sc. in Acoustics program of Aalborg University. Examples of projects and course activities are presented to illustrate the relation and interaction between course and project work.
Full Paper
A viscoelastic figure model of tongue for understanding speech articulation
Hirayama, Makoto J.
Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Ishikawa, Japan
ABSTRACT
Speech is a physiological signal which is generated by muscular motions of lung, vocal cords, larynx, jaw, tongue, and lips. Coordinated articulatory movements of these organs are so complex that they are difficult to be understood by either students or professionals. Especially for tongue, anatomical structures and functions are well studied but speech articulatory movements can be said that they are still under investigations.
To help understanding tongue shape and motions, I made a figure model of tongue using viscoelastic material of urethane rubber gel in the following procedure. At first, a cast of tongue is formed by baking clay which is hardened by heating. The shape of tongue is decided with multiple references of anatomy books, MRI images, educational models, and our real tongues. Next, I made a mold with silicon. Then, I molded and duplicated the figure model with urethane rubber gel. The model includes internal and external tongue muscles, although the current version is made as a whole shape model of tongue body consisting of combined muscles.
Compared to the current materials used in speech science education, such as drawings, pictures, videos, or human body models, the proposed tongue figure model is useful for understanding three dimensional tongue shape and internal and external tongue muscles' positions and motions, too. Because students can hold and touch the realistic tongue model and make it move and deform by pushing and pulling this viscoelastic tongue body. Pictures and explanatory texts do not make sense but the proposed model can help for students to understand anatomical structures and functions of speech articulation intuitively. From questionnaires from students in a speech science seminar, it is founded that the proposed model is an effective tool for understanding speech articulation. It can be applied not only to teach speech science, but also to elucidate speech articulation by scientists and engineers, and also to develop a tongue actuator for speaking robots.
Full Paper
Case study of curriculum development for technical listening training for employees of an acoustic related company
Kawahara, Kazuhiko (1) , Ito, Toshihiro (2) , Kobayashi, Tetsu (3) , Iwamiya, Shin-ichiro (1) , Takada, Masayuki (1)
(1) Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan (2) Yamaha Corporation, Japan (3) Yamaha Business Support Corporation, Japan
ABSTRACT
This is a case study of curriculum development for technical listening training. Technical listening training is a systematic education program designed to allow prospective acoustic engineers and sound designers to enhance their auditory sensitivity. Authors established a training strategy in an acoustics related company; Yamaha Corporation. We re-organized existing, and developed new, curricula for a training suite for company employees. Discrimination, level difference identification and frequency identification training were classified as 'beginners training'. Identification of reverberation time and some application specific training were classified for 'expert training'. The company successfully conducted 9 days of training for freshman engineers. Trainee learning curves showed auditory sensitivity was improved.
Full Paper
EAA Summer Schools
Maffei, L. (1) , Vorländer, Michael (2) , Svensson, P. (3) , Jambrosic, K. (4)
(1) 2nd University of Naples, Italy (2) RWTH Aachen University, Germany (3) NTNU Trondheim, Norway (4) University of Zagreb, Croatia
ABSTRACT
EAA Summer Schools are an integral part of the Young Acousticians Programme in the European Acoustics Association. They consist of various courses on advanced level, taught by internationally recognized and distinguished experts in Acoustics, and they are integrated into a European regional conference. Furthermore, structured sessions of the conference are related to the summer school courses, thus connecting basic lectures to keynotes and other invited papers on advanced topics. Those sessions are co-chaired one experienced expert and one young acoustician, typically a doctoral student. The first EAA Summer School will be held in Ljubljana, Slovenia, with short courses on Soundscapes, Voice and Musical Acoustics, Building Acoustics, Hydroacoustics, Numerical Methods, Psychoacoustics and Ultrasound. In the presentation we will illustrate the background and the motivation of this initiative. Content, organization and future plans of integration in the European higher education in acoustics will be discussed.
Full Paper
Integral curriculum on noise control in Spain: a cooperative task
Romeu, J. , Genesca, M. , Pamies, T.
Acoustical and Mechanical Engineering Laboratory (LEAM), Technical University of Catalonia, Spain
ABSTRACT
Since the European Directive on Environmental Noise 2002/49 came into effect requiring strategic agglomeration and infrastructure noise maps to be made, the demand on environmental acoustics knowledge has been boosted in Spain. Currently several groups and companies are available to carry out noise surveys and pointing out the noise causes in different streets or areas of a city. However, a second stage is starting now: once the noise causes are identified, control noise techniques needs to be applied. This fact is supported in the Spanish adaptation of this regulation known as Ley del Ruido (2003) that states that noise control techniques should be applied to minimize the acoustic emission of municipal work activities, municipal devices, infrastructures, road workThis means that a demand on noise control knowledge is arising. This knowledge is scarcely provided in the bachelor degrees currently available in Spain, but there are some master degrees focussed in acoustics. However, it is difficult to find an institution that can cover all the topics needed for a complete Acoustics curriculum. This work analyses the feasibility of creating an integral curriculum in noise control involving different Spanish research groups in order to take benefit of the expertise of each one to cover the legal and industrial needs of Acoustics knowledge. In that way, the teaching effort would be optimized and the appropriate facilities would be available, however funds would be necessary for the mobility of teachers and students.
Full Paper
Distance learning program for professional career in acoustics
Stead, Matthew (1) , Burgess, Marion (2)
(1) AECOM, Adelaide, SA, Australia (2) Acoustics and Vibration Unit, UNSW@ADFA, Canberra, Australia
ABSTRACT
Acoustical consulting companies frequently face the need to employ staff but find that, while there may be very good applicants with engineering and science backgrounds there are few that have any experience in acoustics. Larger consultancies can provide 'in-house' training but this is a strain on resources and smaller consultancies do not have this capacity. Any course available via the formal university system may not be available at a suitable time or location. A flexible distance learning program of study, based on the UK Institute of Acoustics Diploma, has been developed as a short course and managed via the university. A key feature of this program is that there is no need for the registrants to attend any central location at any time during the program. The early experiences with implementing the program have been influenced by the continued interest and support from the senior, experienced acoustical consultants. In this paper we will discuss the structure and experiences in the implementation of this fully flexible distance learning program.
Full Paper
Identification, classification and acquisition of sounds for spatial orientation and mobility training of blind and visually impaired persons
Tomaszewski, Franciszek (1) , Czechyra, Bartosz (1) , Skrodzka, Ewa (2)
(1) Institute of Combustion Engines and Transportation, Division of Rail Vehicles, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland (2) Institute of Acoustics, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
ABSTRACT
Teaching and training of spatial orientation and mobility (SOM) is an important element of their education. Despite progress in supporting equipment technology and study on spatial orientation, blind people use still old, not always effective methods. Therefore, a method of SOM training based on environmental sounds may be a huge step in "opening" a surrounding world for them. The method will be a supplement, not a substitution, of a popular orientation method based on a white cane. A basic tool for the method is a library of sound events and vibrations'. In the library both vibration and acoustic signals, which may be helpful or disturbing for SOM are collected as well as specific sounds of places and objects, which are often visited by persons with disabilities of sight. In the first step an identification of necessary signals was done, i.e. a questionnaire about various aspects of signals helping/disturbing spatial orientation was administered to blind and visually impaired. In the next step potential signals for recording were classified according to estimated level of teaching. Next, signals were recorded using artificial head or in-the-ear microphones at the attitude of 1.6 m and 0.9 m. A survey of collected signals and their classification will be presented.
Full Paper
Workshop on advanced room acoustic prediction modelling
Wenmaekers, R. H. C. (1) , van Hout, N. H. A. M. (1) , van Luxemburg, L. C. J. (1) , Rindel, J. H. (2)
(1) Level Acoustics, Eindhoven, The Netherlands (2) Odeon, Lyngby, Denmark
ABSTRACT
The use of acoustic 3D modelling software has become increasingly popular among acousticians. Some software developers offer introduction courses for starting users. However, there is a need for more advanced courses for experienced modellers. Such a course should not only consist of lectures with the scientific background of the model, but should also give room for sharing practical experience so one can learn from one another. In this context a master class on room acoustic prediction modelling has taken place in January 2010. A significant part of this master class consisted of a modelling workshop. By working on an assignment in small groups participants were stimulated to discuss ideas and exchange knowledge.
The workshop was divided into four different parts, each part carefully tuned to the theoretical lectures in between. The workshop assignment was to compare predicted room acoustical parameters with measurement results concerning reverberation and speech intelligibility in an open plan office. Also an auralisation had to be made using multiple sound sources. The open plan office of the Laboratorium voor Akoestiek of Eindhoven University of Technology where the workshop took place served as an interesting modelling object. This room was interesting for educational reasons, since the participants were inside the room, as well as for acoustical reasons, because it consists of two coupled volumes, many details like furniture and a wide range of different materials.
In this paper the assignment will be elucidated and the results will be presented. The response of the participants and the experience of the master showed that a workshop is an indispensible part of master classes in the field of room acoustics.
Full Paper
Acoustic education: Experiments for off-campus teaching and learning
Wild, Graham , Swan, Geoff
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
ABSTRACT
In undergraduate Physics and Engineering courses on acoustics, experiments typically involve the use of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) and a Function Generator (FG). These relatively expensive and bulky pieces of bench top equipment make it prohibitive for external, distance, or off-campus students to be involved in experimental work, without attending a residential school. However, there is a growing demand, particularly from the Engineering sector, for courses to be more available remotely. To that end, Edith Cowan University is investigating the possibility of remote laboratory programs, which can be completed by off-campus students to ensure their Applied Physics or Engineering knowledge, is balanced by experimental experience. In this work, we show the implementation of a computer based DSO and FG, using the computers sound card. Here the PCs microphone jack is used as the DSO input, and the speaker jack is used as the FG output. In an effort to reduce the cost of implementing the experiment, we examine software available for free online. A small number of applications were compared in terms of their interface and func-tionality, for both the DSO and FG. The software system was then used to conduct a number of acoustics experiments relevant to undergraduate Physics and Engineering. These experiments include, the Physics of Music, Standing Waves in Pipes, and the Properties of Sound Waves. There are two primary benefits to the computer based system developed. The first is in terms of the enhancement to learning by students at the undergraduate level, where the knowledge learnt by off-campus students can be significantly improved with the use of practical experimental work. Secondly, remote experiments could provide additional components of laboratory work for students in on-campus subjects where resource issues are making traditional and comprehensive supervised laboratory programs hard to maintain.
Full Paper
Left-handed elastic shear and longitudinal elastic waves in 2D phononic crystals made of a solid matrix
Croënne, Charles (1,3) , Hladky-Hennion, Anne-Christine (1,3) , Vasseur, Jérôme (1,3) , Bavencoffe, Maxime (1,2,3) , Tinel, Alain (2,3) , Morvan, Bruno (2,3) , Dubus, Bertrand (1,3)
(1) IEMN dpt ISEN, UMR CNRS 8520, Lille, France (2) LOMC, FRE CNRS 3102, Le Havre, France (3) FANO, FR CNRS 3110, France
ABSTRACT
Waves propagating in left-handed materials have unusual properties such as phase and group velocities of opposite signs and negative refraction index. Periodic lattices have been shown to exhibit such properties both for electromagnetic (photonic crystals) and in-fluid acoustic (phononic crystals) waves. This work addresses the question of the existence of left handed elastic waves in phononic crystals. Two-dimensional phononic crystals made of square lattices of cylindrical cavities or inclusions in a solid matrix are considered. Dispersion curves are computed using plane wave expansion method for real wave vectors in the Brillouin zone and finite element method for complex wavenumbers along a specific propagation direction. From these results, the existence and symmetry of the left-handed propagation mode in the phononic crystal is discussed and its relationship with lattice geometry and constitutive materials is analyzed.
Full Paper
Diffraction of bulk waves on phononic crystals
Herbison, Sarah W. (1) , Declercq, Nico F. (1) , Moiseyenko, Rayisa (1,2) , Laude, Vincent (2)
(1) UMI Georgia Tech, George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Metz-Technopole, France (2) Institut FEMTO-ST, Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
ABSTRACT
Phononic crystals have attracted much research interest in the last decade due to their unique properties (band gaps, etc.) and potential applications in acoustic filtering and novel transducer design, among others. Many studies have examined the acoustic wave propagation that occurs inside (infinite) phononic crystals. However, in order for phononic crystals to find application in actual devices, they must be of finite size and the diffraction that may occur on the surface of the crystal becomes important. This work presents the results of experiments performed on a 2D phononic crystal consisting of steel cylinders in a water matrix. The diffraction of bulk waves that occurs on the exterior surface of the crystal will be examined, and the surface of the crystal will be shown to function as an acoustic diffraction grating. In addition, angular scans of the diffracted fields will examine the possibility of surface wave generation along the exterior surface of the crystal. It is expected that these results will contribute to a better understanding of finite-size phononic crystals and aid in the development of devices employing such crystals.
Full Paper
Composite square and monomial power sweeps for SNR customization in acoustic measurements
Huszty, Csaba (1) , Sakamoto, Shinichi (2)
(1) Graduate School, The University of Tokyo, Japan (2) Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Swept signals for acoustic measurements are widely used nowadays to obtain impulse responses of the system under test. The overall spectrum and the inverse filter that compresses the sweep into an impulse together with the background noise conditions prescribe the result's signal-noise ratio as
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Prosperetti
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Andrea Prosperetti
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https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico
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2009-04-03T18:11:23+00:00
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Prosperetti
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Andrea Prosperetti is the Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Houston,[1] the Berkhoff Professor of Applied Physics at the University of Twente in the Netherlands[2] and an elected member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2012 ("for contributions to the fundamentals and applications of multiphase flows"). He is known for his work in the field of multiphase flows including bubble dynamics and cavitation.
He was the editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Multiphase Flow and serves on the editorial board of the Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. He completed his doctoral work in 1974 at the California Institute of Technology under the supervision of Milton Plesset (of the Rayleigh–Plesset equation and Møller–Plesset perturbation theory) and holds a B.S. in Physics from Universitá di Milano, Italy (1968).
Prosperetti was awarded the Fluid Dynamics Prize (the highest award in Fluid Mechanics) by the American Physical Society in 2003 "for breakthroughs in the theory of multiphase flows, the dynamics of bubble oscillations, underwater sound, and free-surface flows and for providing elegant explanations of paradoxical phenomena in these fields".[3] In 2012, the Acoustical Society of America awarded him the Silver Medal in Physical Acoustics "for contributions to bubble dynamics and multiphase flow."[4] In addition, Prosperetti also won the 2014 EUROMECH Fluid Mechanics Prize (administered by the Council of the European Mechanics Society),[5] the Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001 by the Japan Society of Multiphase Flow, and the Fluids Engineering Award in 2005 by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He is a fellow of the Acoustical Society of America, the American Physical Society, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He has been a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2000.[6]
He is the author of "Advanced Mathematics for Applications", a reference textbook for graduate-level engineers and also of "Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows", both published by the Cambridge University Press.
References
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Famous People From Pittsburgh
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2014-04-30T00:00:00
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List of famous people from Pittsburgh, including photos when available. The people below are listed by their popularity, so the most recognizable names are at ...
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https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-people-from-pittsburgh/reference
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Dennis Miller, an accomplished American comedian and television personality, is most recognizable for his tenures on Saturday Night Live and in the realm of political commentary. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Miller's career initiated with a stint on a local comedy show before he secured his legendary five-year role as the anchor of "Weekend Update," a popular segment on Saturday Night Live. His unique blend of wit, satire, and pop culture references quickly set him apart in the world of comedy. Miller's post-SNL career was equally, if not more, successful. He hosted his own talk show, The Dennis Miller Show, and later, Dennis Miller Live, a HBO series that won five Emmy Awards. His quick-witted and insightful commentary expanded beyond comedy into political discourse, leading to his role as a commentator on Fox News' "Hannity and Colmes" and his own radio talk show, The Dennis Miller Show. A prolific writer, Miller has authored four books, including The Rants and Ranting Again, which showcase his unique brand of humor. In addition to his impressive television and writing careers, Miller's influence extends to the film industry as well. He has appeared in numerous films such as Disclosure, Murder at 1600, and Joe Dirt. Not confining himself to acting, he has also lent his voice to several animated features, including Space Ghost Coast to Coast and King of the Hill.
Gillian Jacobs always had the makings of a star. The classically trained actress first impressed with her gripping portrayal of an assault victim in an off-Broadway production of "Cagelove" (2006), before making a smooth transition into film and television, where she guest starred on numerous hit dramas like "Law & Order: Criminal Intent" (NBC, 2001-07; USA, 2007-11) and "The Good Wife" (CBS, 2009-16). Gifted with a natural flair for comedy, Jacobs landed a plum role on the popular NBC series "Community" (NBC/Yahoo, 2009-2015), as a beautiful, idealistic coed who was always one step ahead of Joel McHale's unctuous lawyer character. Not only did the top-rated series highlight Jacobs' lighthearted side, but it also paved the way for even bigger roles to follow, including films such as "Seeking a Friend for the End of the World" (2011) and Judd Apatow's romantic comedy "Love" (Netflix 2016- ).
Joe Manganiello, an accomplished American actor, director, and producer, has etched his name in the annals of Hollywood with a career that spans over two decades. Born on December 28, 1976, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Manganiello's journey from a football player in his high school to becoming one of the most renowned figures in the entertainment industry is truly inspiring. With Italian and Armenian heritage, he is fluent in three languages, English, Italian, and Armenian, a testament to his intellect. Manganiello's acting career accelerated after he graduated from the Carnegie Mellon School of Drama. He gained recognition for his remarkable performance as Flash Thompson in Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy. However, it was his portrayal of the werewolf Alcide Herveaux in the HBO series True Blood that catapulted him into the limelight. This role earned him critical acclaim and international recognition, demonstrating his unique ability to embody diverse characters with depth and authenticity. In addition to his acting prowess, Manganiello is also known for his endeavors behind the camera. He directed the acclaimed documentary La Bare, which received the Best Documentary Award at the Slamdance Film Festival. Beyond the entertainment industry, Manganiello has shown a deep commitment to philanthropy. He co-founded the charity Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh Foundation, demonstrating his dedication to making a positive impact on society.
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Parameters Fall 2021
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In this very special issue, we celebrate our 80th anniversary and discuss plans for the future, featuring stories from our esteemed Cougar alumni, ...
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In this very special issue, we celebrate our 80th anniversary and discuss plans for the future, featuring stories from our esteemed Cougar alumni, faculty and students. The Cullen College is rich in history, more than 80 years of it, full of stories of change, trailblazing innovation, deep-rooted traditions, and even love.
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Group by: Degree Date (Year Only) | Authors | No Grouping
Number of items: 27.
1980
Koffman, Larry Douglas (1980) I. Experimental observations of the microlayer in vapor bubble growth on a heated solid. II. An investigation of the theory of evaporation and condensation. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/M1H1-S690. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-12082006-131228
1974
Prosperetti, Andrea (1974) Viscous and Nonlinear Effects in the Oscillations of Drops and Bubbles. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/FRDP-DV27. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-11072006-111631
Whipple, Christopher George (1974) Extension of Rayleigh-Taylor Instability Theory with Applications. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/5bc3-w217. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechTHESIS:02032021-213518907
1972
Chapyak, Edward Jay (1972) Surface Effects in Simple Molecular Systems. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/F4N2-0732. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechTHESIS:04042016-133123395
1970
Chapman, Richard Bruce (1970) Nonspherical Vapor Bubble Collapse. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/TDCB-D645. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechTHESIS:04142011-083038797
Kerber, Ronald Lee (1970) Phase Transitions from the Solid State of Monatomic Elements. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/7B4C-H074. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechTHESIS:08072015-110010138
1967
McCloskey, David James (1967) Multiple Scattering of Acoustical Waves. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/HC3V-M545. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-10012002-153230
1965
Venezian, Giulio (1965) I. Fluid Flow in a Precessing Spherical Cavity. II. Electromagnetic Radiation from an Expanding Sphere in a Magnetic Field. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/CVPG-CK78. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-01222004-095044
1963
Hickling, Robert (1963) I. Acoustic Radiation and Reflection from Spheres. II. Some Effects of Thermal Conduction and Compressibility in the Collapse of a Cavity in a Liquid. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/N27T-0Y47. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-08182006-160354
1960
Hsieh, Din-Yu (1960) Theory of Gas Bubble Dynamics in Oscillating Pressure Fields. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/3VCA-FH77. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-06152006-093844
Turner, Ben Robert (1960) A Study of Exploding Wires. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/JER9-AS18. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-08022006-104759
1959
Stockmair, Wilfried (1959) Problems in Effusion. Engineer's thesis, California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/KH55-XN11. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-02072006-131514
Zabusky, Norman Julius (1959) Hydromagnetic Stability of a Streaming Cylindrical Plasma. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/91N3-4M47. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-02272006-080626
1958
Fabula, Andrew George (1958) Some Experiments in Cavitation Bubble Dynamics. Engineer's thesis, California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/942V-N588. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-09222004-134550
1957
Green, Joseph Matthew (1957) The Hydrodynamics of Spherical Cavities in the Neighborhood of a Rigid Plane. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/3R56-N749. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-07132004-143023
1956
Mitchell, Thomas Patrick (1956) I. The Propagation of Shock Waves in Non-Uniform Gases. II. The Stability of the Spherical Shape of a Vapor Cavity in a Liquid. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/PDMS-YT82. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-06142004-153608
1955
Sutton, George Walter (1955) A Study of the Application of Photoelasticity to the Investigation of Stress Waves. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/ZQCE-ZN61. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-12122003-094948
Zwick, Stanley Alan (1955) The Growth and Collapse of Cavitation Bubbles. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/QP9J-PJ94. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-01142004-112130
1954
Stallkamp, John Albert (1954) Hydrodynamic Forces on Prolate Ellipsoidal Bodies. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/D5TA-HR09. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-12122003-093537
1953
Ellis, Albert Tromly (1953) Observations on Cavitation Bubble Collapse. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/EWJ4-R705. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-05142003-140023
Kampé de Fériet, Marc (1953) Investigation of Boundaries for Transitions from Axial to Two-Dimensional Flow by Electrical Analogy. Engineer's thesis, California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/RRZH-NR37. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-04242003-094814
Mathews, Warren Edward (1953) On the Flow of Vapor Between Liquid Surfaces. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/EHV7-1W20. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-05062003-114142
1952
Dergarabedian, Paul (1952) The Rate of Growth of Vapor Bubbles in Superheated Water. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/M5Q9-M126. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03262007-112120
Parkin, Blaine Raphael (1952) Scale Effects in Cavitating Flow. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/DWKE-J388. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03302009-081459
1951
Gilmore, Forrest Richard (1951) The Dynamics of Condensation and Vaporization. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/K9PG-JT41. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-12152003-104652
Rattray, Maurice (1951) Perturbation Effects in Cavitation Bubble Dynamics. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/NJDD-ZN16. https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-04242009-141438
1950
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Andrea Prosperetti, Distinguished Professor of mechanical engineering, takes pride in discovering talent in unusual places. Like, for instance, the pool of freshman students at the UH Cullen College of Engineering and the College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics.
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/sites/ccoe.egr.uh.edu/files/images/university_of_houston.ico
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UH Cullen College of Engineering
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https://www.egr.uh.edu/news/201707/andrea-prosperetti-different-class
|
Andrea Prosperetti, Distinguished Professor of mechanical engineering, takes pride in discovering talent in unusual places. Like, for instance, the pool of freshman students at the UH Cullen College of Engineering and the College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics. For a National Academy of Engineering member, who mostly teaches seniors and graduate students, soon-to-be sophomores are an untapped resource, and one for which he created an advanced summer program, “Vistas in Advanced Computing.”
His logic regarding throwing them into the figurative deep end of science is pitch perfect.
“If you start playing the piano, you have scales for months and that doesn’t help you fall in love with the piano,” says Prosperetti, launching into poetic expression about the science that sparks his passion. “So what we are doing is giving them the easiest pieces by Chopin earlier than they would get them, to whet their appetite for science and numerical simulation.”
Now nine students, who exhibited advanced skills in calculus and physics during their first year of college, are part of Prosperetti’s 8-week, 8-hour-a-day summer program at the UH Center for Advanced Computing & Data Systems (CACDS). Each student has been awarded a $4,000 scholarship to learn coding, mathematics and computer architecture, an opportunity many of them would have never gotten so early in college.
“The idea is that we are giving them a compass to guide them in their future careers,” said Prosperetti. “We are going to open their minds to the breadth of advanced computing and explain to them how cool computing is.”
Funny thing, some of them already understand that part.
When Jon Genty, an 18-year-old computer engineering major and student of the Honor’s College, heard about Prosperetti’s new class he had one thought: “I had to get in!”
“This is exactly where I want to go with my career and most students don’t even get into coding until their junior or senior years,” said Genty, one of those rare freshmen who already knows where his future lies. His plans include a Ph.D. in computer engineering and then the discovery of something in his field because, as he said, “It’d be cool.”
Now’s the time
According to a 2014 report by the U.S. National Academies, there is an urgent need “to prepare, nurture and grow the national scientific workforce for creating, utilizing and supporting advanced cyberinfrastructure.”
And the only way to do that, according to Prosperetti, is to teach, and maybe to catch students early.
“The University of Houston has such great diversity,” said Prosperetti. “In the underserved populations there could be the next Einstein, who would never have a chance to blossom as a scientist.” That’s why Prosperetti went door-to-door in math and science classes, searching for his students. His summer program will help them, but it just might help the rest of us, too.
“At this point the only way to get more results out of computers is to be smarter in programming them,” said Prosperetti. “Instead of relying on the brawn of computers, you have to rely on the brain of the programmers.”
Thomas Jackson, a 19-year-old UH physics major, is one of the students Prosperetti found and is now taking the course. Jackson did his homework, even before the class started.
“I found a senior-level mathematics course and this was going to be the same kind of stuff,” he said, excitedly. When Prosperetti came around to his class and explained the program, he had a similar reaction to Genty’s. “I jumped at it,” said Jackson. “It’s great to do what you want to do for once, you know, instead of bagging groceries,” which he’s done for a while.
But mainly, he’s having a great time.
“I have had so much fun with some of these equations. I didn’t think I’d see some of this stuff until my senior year and I’m already doing it!”
Computing the future
For Prosperetti, computing is “one of the greatest things that has happened in science in centuries,” helping solve some of the world’s most complicated problems.
And as his young students are learning, it demands rigorous study.
“These students are so motivated, and that goes a long way,” said Prosperetti. “They’ve also learned the fun of computing and now they’re launched. We are going to read news about these students one day. They’re going to stick with science and they’re going to love it and lead wonderfully productive lives.”
What more could you ask from a summer computing course?
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Inelastic Scattering of Quanta with Production of Pairs
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[
"Milton S. Plesset",
"John A. Wheeler"
] |
1935-08-15T00:00:00
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The problem of accounting for the anomalous scattering of gamma-rays suggests the importance of investigating the probability of processes in which an incoming quantum produces an electron-positron pair in the field of a nucleus, going on in a new direction with diminished energy. To determine the cross section in the general case is difficult, but an estimate of the total magnitude of the effect in the energy range of interest is obtained by a calculation of the cross section as a function of the energies of the incident and scattered quanta and the angle between them in the limit where the electron-positron pair is produced with small kinetic energy.While there exists a possibility of observing the process under suitable experimental conditions, the cross section is found to be too small to contribute appreciably to the production of the hard component in the radiation from heavy elements exposed to penetrating gamma-rays.
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//cdn.journals.aps.org/development/journals/images/favicon.ico
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Physical Review Journals Archive
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https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.48.302
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The problem of accounting for the anomalous scattering of gamma-rays suggests the importance of investigating the probability of processes in which an incoming quantum produces an electron-positron pair in the field of a nucleus, going on in a new direction with diminished energy. To determine the cross section in the general case is difficult, but an estimate of the total magnitude of the effect in the energy range of interest is obtained by a calculation of the cross section as a function of the energies of the incident and scattered quanta and the angle between them in the limit where the electron-positron pair is produced with small kinetic energy.
While there exists a possibility of observing the process under suitable experimental conditions, the cross section is found to be too small to contribute appreciably to the production of the hard component in the radiation from heavy elements exposed to penetrating gamma-rays.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.48.302
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Norman Zabusky
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/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
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American physicist (1929–2018)
Norman J. Zabusky was an American physicist, who is noted for the discovery of the soliton in the Korteweg–de Vries equation, in work completed with Martin Kruskal. This result early in his career was followed by an extensive body of work in computational fluid dynamics, which led him in the latter years of his career to an examination of the importance of visualization in this field. In fact, he coined the term visiometrics to describe the process of using computer-aided visualization to guide one towards quantitative results.
Biography
[edit]
He was born in Brooklyn, New York City on January 4, 1929, to Hyman and Anna (née Braun) Zabusky. After graduating from Brooklyn Technical High School, he attended the City College of New York, where he received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1951. Following that he went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, receiving his master's degree in electrical engineering in 1953. After two years, Zabusky decided to leave engineering and pursued a Ph.D. in theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology, which he received in 1959 with a thesis in the area of stability of flowing magnetized plasmas.
In 1965, Zabusky and Kruskal pioneered the use of computer simulations to gain analytical insights into non-linear equations, and in the process, discovered the soliton solutions to the Korteweg–de Vries equation.[4] The study of non-linear equations was enhanced by this discovery, opening up the door to analytical work on the integrability of the KdV equation and the equations of the KP hierarchy. But perhaps more important was the methodology. The use of computer simulations led Zabusky to an appreciation of the importance of appropriate visualization and quantification as a tool in analyzing fluid dynamical and wave systems. In 1990, he and Francois Bitz introduced the term visiometrics.[5]
Zabusky worked at Bell Laboratories from 1961 to 1976, after which he joined the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh as a Professor of Mathematics. He organized the NATO Advanced Study Institute School of Nonlinear Mathematics and Physics,[6] held in 1966 at the Max-Planck Institute of Physics in Munich, and in 1971, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship for his work in computational physics, which took him to Oxford University and the Weizmann Institute of Science during the following academic year.[7]
In 1988, he left Pittsburgh to become the State of New Jersey Professor of Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Rutgers University in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering. After receiving the Jacobs Chair in Applied Physics (2000–2005) at Rutgers University he became interested in science and art and organized the 4th international Science and Art Symposium ScArt4.[8] He retired from Rutgers as Emeritus Professor in 2006 and then was a visitor at the Dept. of Physics of Complex Systems at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
During his career, Zabusky was active in supporting refusenik scientists in the U.S.S.R., and served on the Advisory Board of the Committee of Concerned Scientists.[9] In 1983, while in the Soviet Union in conjunction with an invitation to an international scientific conference, he was expelled from the country for meeting with dissident Jewish scientists.[10]
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Plesset, Milton S., 1948, 1950
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About: Milton S. Plesset
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Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 February 1908 – 19 February 1991) was an American applied physicist who worked in the field of fluid mechanics and nuclear energy. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1979 for his fundamental contributions to multiphase flows, bubble dynamics, and safety of nuclear reactors. Plesset served as Professor of Engineering Science at California Institute of Technology during 1951 to 1978. Notable scientists Andrea Prosperetti and Norman Zabusky finished their doctoral work under Plesset's guidance.
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dbo:abstract
Milton Spinoza Plesset (* 7. Februar 1908 in Pittsburgh; † 19. Februar 1991) war ein US-amerikanischer Physiker und Ingenieur. (de)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 de febrero de 1908 – 19 de febrero de 1991) fue un físico estadounidense que trabajó en el campo de la mecánica de fluidos y la energía nuclear. Fue miembro de la Academia Nacional de Ingeniería desde 1979 por su trabajo en , dinámica de burbujas y seguridad de reactores nucleares. Plesset fue profesor de ingeniería en el California Institute of Technology entre 1951 y 1978. Como tal, fue una influencia notable en científicos como y Norman Zabusky, que realizaron su doctorado bajo la tutela de Plesset. Sus más notables trabajos incluyen la (junto a ) y la ecuación de Rayleigh-Plesset, que describe la dinámica de una burbuja en un medio fluido. (es)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 février 1908 à Pittsburgh, Pennsylvanie, États-Unis - 19 février 1991) est un physicien américain qui s'est distingué en dynamique des fluides et en sécurité des réacteurs nucléaires. (fr)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 February 1908 – 19 February 1991) was an American applied physicist who worked in the field of fluid mechanics and nuclear energy. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1979 for his fundamental contributions to multiphase flows, bubble dynamics, and safety of nuclear reactors. Plesset served as Professor of Engineering Science at California Institute of Technology during 1951 to 1978. Notable scientists Andrea Prosperetti and Norman Zabusky finished their doctoral work under Plesset's guidance. He with Christian Møller are known for the Møller–Plesset perturbation theory.The Rayleigh-Plesset equation describing the dynamics of a bubble in an infinite body of fluid is also named after him. (en)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (Pittsburgh, 7 febbraio 1908 – 19 febbraio 1991) è stato un fisico applicato statunitense noto per i suoi studi sulla Meccanica dei fluidi e l'ingegneria nucleare. Fu eletto alla National Academy of Engineering nel 1979 per i suoi contributi nello studio dei flussi multifase, della dinamica delle bolle e sulla sicurezza dei reattori nucleari. È noto con Christian Møller per la teoria perturbativa di Møller-Plesset. Porta anche il suo nome l'equazione di Rayleigh-Plesset che descrive la dinamica di una bolla sferica immersa in un liquido che si estende all'infinito in tutte le direzioni. (it)
ミルトン・スピノザ・プレセット（Milton Spinoza Plesset、1908年2月7日 - 1991年2月19日）は、アメリカの応用物理学者であった。流体力学および核エネルギーの分野の研究を行った。混相流、気泡の動力学、原子炉の安全性に関する基本的な貢献のため1979年に全米技術アカデミーに選出された。プレセットは1951年から1978年までカリフォルニア工科大学で工学の教授を務めた。 プレセットとクリスチャン・メラーはメラー＝プレセット摂動理論で知られる。無限体の流体中の気泡の動力学を記述するレイリー・プレセット方程式もプレセットに因んで命名された。 (ja)
rdfs:comment
Milton Spinoza Plesset (* 7. Februar 1908 in Pittsburgh; † 19. Februar 1991) war ein US-amerikanischer Physiker und Ingenieur. (de)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 février 1908 à Pittsburgh, Pennsylvanie, États-Unis - 19 février 1991) est un physicien américain qui s'est distingué en dynamique des fluides et en sécurité des réacteurs nucléaires. (fr)
ミルトン・スピノザ・プレセット（Milton Spinoza Plesset、1908年2月7日 - 1991年2月19日）は、アメリカの応用物理学者であった。流体力学および核エネルギーの分野の研究を行った。混相流、気泡の動力学、原子炉の安全性に関する基本的な貢献のため1979年に全米技術アカデミーに選出された。プレセットは1951年から1978年までカリフォルニア工科大学で工学の教授を務めた。 プレセットとクリスチャン・メラーはメラー＝プレセット摂動理論で知られる。無限体の流体中の気泡の動力学を記述するレイリー・プレセット方程式もプレセットに因んで命名された。 (ja)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 de febrero de 1908 – 19 de febrero de 1991) fue un físico estadounidense que trabajó en el campo de la mecánica de fluidos y la energía nuclear. Fue miembro de la Academia Nacional de Ingeniería desde 1979 por su trabajo en , dinámica de burbujas y seguridad de reactores nucleares. Plesset fue profesor de ingeniería en el California Institute of Technology entre 1951 y 1978. Como tal, fue una influencia notable en científicos como y Norman Zabusky, que realizaron su doctorado bajo la tutela de Plesset. (es)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (7 February 1908 – 19 February 1991) was an American applied physicist who worked in the field of fluid mechanics and nuclear energy. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1979 for his fundamental contributions to multiphase flows, bubble dynamics, and safety of nuclear reactors. Plesset served as Professor of Engineering Science at California Institute of Technology during 1951 to 1978. Notable scientists Andrea Prosperetti and Norman Zabusky finished their doctoral work under Plesset's guidance. (en)
Milton Spinoza Plesset (Pittsburgh, 7 febbraio 1908 – 19 febbraio 1991) è stato un fisico applicato statunitense noto per i suoi studi sulla Meccanica dei fluidi e l'ingegneria nucleare. Fu eletto alla National Academy of Engineering nel 1979 per i suoi contributi nello studio dei flussi multifase, della dinamica delle bolle e sulla sicurezza dei reattori nucleari. (it)
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jet formation process: Topics by Science.gov
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Spray formation processes of impinging jet injectors
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Anderson, W. E.; Ryan, H. M.; Pal, S.; Santoro, R. J.
1993-01-01
A study examining impinging liquid jets has been underway to determine physical mechanisms responsible for combustion instabilities in liquid bi-propellant rocket engines. Primary atomization has been identified as an important process. Measurements of atomization length, wave structure, and drop size and velocity distribution were made under various ambient conditions. Test parameters included geometric effects and flow effects. It was observed that pre-impingement jet conditions, specifically whether they were laminar or turbulent, had the major effect on primary atomization. Comparison of the measurements with results from a two dimensional linear aerodynamic stability model of a thinning, viscous sheet were made. Measured turbulent impinging jet characteristics were contrary to model predictions; the structure of waves generated near the point of jet impingement were dependent primarily on jet diameter and independent of jet velocity. It has been postulated that these impact waves are related to pressure and momentum fluctuations near the impingement region and control the eventual disintegration of the liquid sheet into ligaments. Examination of the temporal characteristics of primary atomization (ligament shedding frequency) strongly suggests that the periodic nature of primary atomization is a key process in combustion instability.
Formation of soap bubbles by gas jet
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Zhou, Maolei; Li, Min; Chen, Zhiyuan; Han, Jifeng; Liu, Dong
2017-12-01
Soap bubbles can be easily generated by various methods, while their formation process is complicated and still worth studying. A model about the bubble formation process was proposed in the study by Salkin et al. [Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 077801 (2016)] recently, and it was reported that the bubbles were formed when the gas blowing velocity was above one threshold. However, after a detailed study of these experiments, we found that the bubbles could be generated in two velocity ranges which corresponded to the laminar and turbulent gas jet, respectively, and the predicted threshold was only effective for turbulent gas flow. The study revealed that the bubble formation was greatly influenced by the aerodynamics of the gas jet blowing to the film, and these results will help to further understand the formation mechanism of the soap bubble as well as the interaction between the gas jet and the thin liquid film.
BATHYMETRIC IRREGULARITIES, JET FORMATION, AND SUBSEQUENT MIXING PROCESSES
EPA Science Inventory
It is well known that bathymetric contours influence and steer currents and that irregularities in bathymetry contribute to the formation of aquatic non-buoyant jets and buoyant plumes. For example, bathymetric irregularities can channel flow through canyons or accelerate flow ov...
Soot Formation in Hydrocarbon/Air Laminar Jet Diffusion Flames
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Sunderland, P. B.; Faeth, G. M.
1994-01-01
Soot processes within hydrocarbon/air diffusion flames are important because they affect the durability and performance of propulsion systems, the hazards of unwanted fires, the pollutant and particulate emissions from combustion processes, and the potential for developing computational combustion. Motivated by these observations, this investigation involved an experimental study of the structure and soot properties of round laminar jet diffusion flames, seeking an improved understanding of soot formation (growth and nucleation) within diffusion flames. The present study extends earlier work in this laboratory concerning laminar smoke points (l) and soot formation in acetylene/air laminar jet diffusion flames (2), emphasizing soot formation in hydrocarbon/air laminar jet diffusion flames for fuels other than acetylene. In the flame system, acetylene is the dominant gas species in the soot formation region and both nucleation and growth were successfully attributed to first-order reactions of acetylene, with nucleation exhibiting an activation energy of 32 kcal/gmol while growth involved negligible activation energy and a collision efficiency of O.53%. In addition, soot growth in the acetylene diffusion flames was comparable to new soot in premixed flame (which also has been attributed to first-order acetylene reactions). In view of this status, a major issue is the nature of soot formation processes in diffusion flame involving hydrocarbon fuels other than acetylene. In particular, information is needed about th dominant gas species in the soot formation region and the impact of gas species other than acetylene on soot nucleation and growth.
Formation mechanism of shock-induced particle jetting.
PubMed
Xue, K; Sun, L; Bai, C
2016-08-01
The shock dissemination of granular rings or shells is characterized by the formation of coherent particle jets that have different dimensions from those associated with the constituent grains. In order to identify the mechanisms governing the formation of particle jets, we carry out the simulations of the shock dispersal of quasi-two-dimensional particle rings based on the discrete-element method. The evolution of the particle velocities and contact forces on the time scales ranging from microseconds to milliseconds reveals a two-stage development of particle jets before they are expelled from the outer surface. Much effort is made to understand the particle agglomeration around the inner surface that initiates the jet formation. The shock interaction with the innermost particle layers generates a heterogeneous network of force chains with clusters of strong contacts regularly spaced around the inner surface. Momentum alongside the stresses is primarily transmitted along the strong force chains. Therefore, the clustering of strong force chains renders the agglomeration of fast-moving particles connected by strong force chains. The fast-moving particle clusters subsequently evolve into the incipient particle jets. The following competition among the incipient jets that undergo unbalanced growth leads to substantial elimination of the minor jets and the significant multiplication of the major jets, the number of jets thus varying with time. Moreover, the number of jets is found to increase with the strength of the shock loading due to an increased number of jets surviving the retarding effect of major jets.
General Relativistic MHD Simulations of Jet Formation
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Mizuno, Y.; Nishikawa, K.-I.; Hardee, P.; Koide, S.; Fishman, G. J.
2005-01-01
We have performed 3-dimensional general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations of jet formation from an accretion disk with/without initial perturbation around a rotating black hole. We input a sinusoidal perturbation (m = 5 mode) in the rotation velocity of the accretion disk. The simulation results show the formation of a relativistic jet from the accretion disk. Although the initial perturbation becomes weakened by the coupling among different modes, it survives and triggers lower modes. As a result, complex non-axisymmetric density structure develops in the disk and the jet. Newtonian MHD simulations of jet formation with a non-axisymmetric mode show the growth of the m = 2 mode but GRMHD simulations cannot see the clear growth of the m = 2 mode.
Numerical simulation of particle jet formation induced by shock wave acceleration in a Hele-Shaw cell
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Osnes, A. N.; Vartdal, M.; Pettersson Reif, B. A.
2018-05-01
The formation of jets from a shock-accelerated cylindrical shell of particles, confined in a Hele-Shaw cell, is studied by means of numerical simulation. A number of simulations have been performed, systematically varying the coupling between the gas and solid phases in an effort to identify the primary mechanism(s) responsible for jet formation. We find that coupling through drag is sufficient for the formation of jets. Including the effect of particle volume fraction and particle collisions did not alter the general behaviour, but had some influence on the length, spacing and number of jets. Furthermore, we find that the jet selection process starts early in the dispersal process, during the initial expansion of the particle layer.
Jet formation of SF6 bubble induced by incident and reflected shock waves
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Zhu, Yuejin; Yu, Lei; Pan, Jianfeng; Pan, Zhenhua; Zhang, Penggang
2017-12-01
The computational results of two different cases on the evolution of the shock-SF6 heavy bubble interaction are presented. The shock focusing processes and jet formation mechanisms are analyzed by using the high resolution of computation schemes, and the influence of reflected shock waves is also investigated. It is concluded that there are two steps in the shock focusing process behind the incident shock wave, and the density and pressure values increase distinctly when the shock focusing process is completed. The local high pressure and vorticities in the vicinity of the downstream pole can propel the formation of the jet behind the incident shock wave. In addition, the gas is with the rightward velocity before the reflected shock wave impinges on the bubble; therefore, the evolutions of the waves and the bubble are more complicated when the reflected shock wave impinges on the SF6 bubble. Furthermore, the different end wall distances would affect the deformation degree of the bubble before the interaction of the reflected shock wave; therefore, the different left jet formation processes are found after the impingement of reflected shock waves when L = 27 mm. The local high pressure zones in the vicinity of the left bubble interface and the impingement of different shock waves can induce the local gas to shift the rightward velocity to the leftward velocity, which can further promote the formation of jets.
Drop impact into a deep pool: vortex shedding and jet formation
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Agbaglah, G.; Thoraval, M. -J.; Thoroddsen, S. T.
2015-02-01
One of the simplest splashing scenarios results from the impact of a single drop on a deep pool. The traditional understanding of this process is that the impact generates an axisymmetric sheet-like jet that later breaks up into secondary droplets. Recently it was shown that even this simplest of scenarios is more complicated than expected because multiple jets can be generated from a single impact event and there are transitions in the multiplicity of jets as the experimental parameters are varied. Here, we use experiments and numerical simulations of a single drop impacting on a deep pool to examine themore » transition from impacts that produce a single jet to those that produce two jets. Using high-speed X-ray imaging methods we show that vortex separation within the drop leads to the formation of a second jet long after the formation of the ejecta sheet. Using numerical simulations we develop a phase diagram for this transition and show that the capillary number is the most appropriate order parameter for the transition.« less
Jet-induced star formation by accreting black holes: impact on stellar, galaxy, and cosmic evolution
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mirabel, Igor Felix
2016-07-01
Evidence that relativistic jets trigger star formation along their axis has been found associated to low redshift and high redshift accreting supermassive black holes. However, the physical processes by which jet-cloud interaction may trigger star formation has so far not been elucidated. To gain insight into this potentially important star formation mechanism during reionization, when microquasars were form prolifically before AGN, our international team is carrying out a muliwavelength study of a microquasar jet-induced star formation region in the Milky Way using data from space missions (Chandra, Integral, ISO, Herschel) and from the ground (at cm and mm wavelengths with the VLA and IRAM, and IR with Gemini and VLT). I will show that this relative nearby star forming region is an ideal laboratory to test models of jet-induced star formation elsewhere in the universe.
Modeling Jet and Outflow Feedback during Star Cluster Formation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Federrath, Christoph; Schrön, Martin; Banerjee, Robi; Klessen, Ralf S.
2014-08-01
Powerful jets and outflows are launched from the protostellar disks around newborn stars. These outflows carry enough mass and momentum to transform the structure of their parent molecular cloud and to potentially control star formation itself. Despite their importance, we have not been able to fully quantify the impact of jets and outflows during the formation of a star cluster. The main problem lies in limited computing power. We would have to resolve the magnetic jet-launching mechanism close to the protostar and at the same time follow the evolution of a parsec-size cloud for a million years. Current computer power and codes fall orders of magnitude short of achieving this. In order to overcome this problem, we implement a subgrid-scale (SGS) model for launching jets and outflows, which demonstrably converges and reproduces the mass, linear and angular momentum transfer, and the speed of real jets, with ~1000 times lower resolution than would be required without the SGS model. We apply the new SGS model to turbulent, magnetized star cluster formation and show that jets and outflows (1) eject about one-fourth of their parent molecular clump in high-speed jets, quickly reaching distances of more than a parsec, (2) reduce the star formation rate by about a factor of two, and (3) lead to the formation of ~1.5 times as many stars compared to the no-outflow case. Most importantly, we find that jets and outflows reduce the average star mass by a factor of ~ three and may thus be essential for understanding the characteristic mass of the stellar initial mass function.
Analysis of the formation mechanism of the slug and jet center hole of axisymmetric shaped charges
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Baoxiang, Ren; Gang, Tao; Peng, Wen; Changxing, Du; Chunqiao, Pang; Hongbo, Meng
2018-06-01
In the jet formation process of axisymmetric shaped charges, the slug is also formed. There is always a central hole in the symmetry axis of the jet and slug. The phenomenon was rarely mentioned and analyzed by the classical theory of shaped charges. For this problem, this paper attempts to explain the existence of the central hole in the jet and slug. Based on the analysis of recovery slug, we know that the jet and slug are in solid state in the process of formation. Through the analysis of X-flash radiographs of the stretching jet and particulation fracture, it is confirmed that the center holes in the jet are also present. Meanwhile, through the analysis of the microstructure of the recovered slug, it is found that there is a wave disturbance near the surface of the central hole. It can be speculated that the wave disturbance also exist in the jet. This effect may be one of the reasons for jet breakup. Due to the presence of the central hole in the jet, the density deficit of the jet obtained by other tests is very reasonable.
Impact of a single drop on the same liquid: formation, growth and disintegration of jets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Agbaglah, G. Gilou; Deegan, Robert
2015-11-01
One of the simplest splashing scenarios results from the impact of a single drop on on the same liquid. The traditional understanding of this process is that the impact generates a jet that later breaks up into secondary droplets. Recently it was shown that even this simplest of scenarios is more complicated than expected because multiple jets can be generated from a single impact event and there are bifurcations in the multiplicity of jets. First, we study the formation, growth and disintegration of jets following the impact of a drop on a thin film of the same liquid using a combination of numerical simulations and linear stability theory. We obtain scaling relations from our simulations and use these as inputs to our stability analysis. We also use experiments and numerical simulations of a single drop impacting on a deep pool to examine the bifurcation from a single jet into two jets. Using high speed X-ray imaging methods we show that vortex separation within the drop leads to the formation of a second jet long after the formation of the ejecta sheet.
Formation of Relativistic Jets : Magnetohydrodynamics and Synchrotron Radiation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Porth, Oliver J. G.
2011-11-01
In this thesis, the formation of relativistic jets is investigated by means of special relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations and synchrotron radiative transfer. Our results show that the magnetohydrodynamic jet self-collimation paradigm can also be applied to the relativistic case. In the first part, jets launched from rotating hot accretion disk coronae are explored, leading to well collimated, but only mildly relativistic flows. Beyond the light-cylinder, the electric charge separation force balances the classical trans-field Lorentz force almost entirely, resulting in a decreased efficiency of acceleration and collimation in comparison to non-relativistic disk winds. In the second part, we examine Poynting dominated flows of various electric current distributions. By following the outflow for over 3000 Schwarzschild radii, highly relativistic jets of Lorentz factor 8 and half-opening angles below 1 degree are obtained, providing dynamical models for the parsec scale jets of active galactic nuclei. Applying the magnetohydrodynamic structure of the quasi-stationary simulation models, we solve the relativistically beamed synchrotron radiation transport. This yields synthetic radiation maps and polarization patterns that can be used to confront high resolution radio and (sub-) mm observations of nearby active galactic nuclei. Relativistic motion together with the helical magnetic fields of the jet formation site imprint a clear signature on the observed polarization and Faraday rotation. In particular, asymmetries in the polarization direction across the jet can disclose the handedness of the magnetic helix and thus the spin direction of the central engine. Finally, we show first results from fully three-dimensional, high resolution adaptive mesh refinement simulations of jet formation from a rotating magnetosphere and examine the jet stability. Relativistic field-line rotation leads to an electric charge separation force that opposes the magnetic Lorentz
Size limits the formation of liquid jets during bubble bursting
PubMed Central
Lee, Ji San; Weon, Byung Mook; Park, Su Ji; Je, Jung Ho; Fezzaa, Kamel; Lee, Wah-Keat
2011-01-01
A bubble reaching an airâliquid interface usually bursts and forms a liquid jet. Jetting is relevant to climate and health as it is a source of aerosol droplets from breaking waves. Jetting has been observed for large bubbles with radii of Râ«100âμm. However, few studies have been devoted to small bubbles (R<100âμm) despite the entrainment of a large number of such bubbles in sea water. Here we show that jet formation is inhibited by bubble size; a jet is not formed during bursting for bubbles smaller than a critical size. Using ultrafast X-ray and optical imaging methods, we build a phase diagram for jetting and the absence of jetting. Our results demonstrate that jetting in bubble bursting is analogous to pinching-off in liquid coalescence. The coalescence mechanism for bubble bursting may be useful in preventing jet formation in industry and improving climate models concerning aerosol production. PMID:21694715
Solid-particle jet formation under shock-wave acceleration.
PubMed
Rodriguez, V; Saurel, R; Jourdan, G; Houas, L
2013-12-01
When solid particles are impulsively dispersed by a shock wave, they develop a spatial distribution which takes the form of particle jets whose selection mechanism is still unidentified. The aim of the present experimental work is to study particle dispersal with fingering effects in an original quasi-two-dimensional experiment facility in order to accurately extract information. Shock and blast waves are generated in the carrier gas at the center of a granular medium ring initially confined inside a Hele-Shaw cell and impulsively accelerated. With the present experimental setup, the particle jet formation is clearly observed. From fast flow visualizations, we notice, in all instances, that the jets are initially generated inside the particle ring and thereafter expelled outward. This point has not been observed in three-dimensional experiments. We highlight that the number of jets is unsteady and decreases with time. For a fixed configuration, considering the very early times following the initial acceleration, the jet size selection is independent of the particle diameter. Moreover, the influence of the initial overpressure and the material density on the particle jet formation have been studied. It is shown that the wave number of particle jets increases with the overpressure and with the decrease of the material density. The normalized number of jets as a function of the initial ring acceleration shows a power law valid for all studied configurations involving various initial pressure ratios, particle sizes, and particle materials.
The Role of Jet Adjustment Processes in Subtropical Dust Storms
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Pokharel, Ashok Kumar; Kaplan, Michael L.; Fiedler, Stephanie
2017-11-01
Meso-α/β/γ scale atmospheric processes of jet dynamics responsible for generating Harmattan, Saudi Arabian, and Bodélé Depression dust storms are analyzed with observations and high-resolution modeling. The analysis of the role of jet adjustment processes in each dust storm shows similarities as follows: (1) the presence of a well-organized baroclinic synoptic scale system, (2) cross mountain flows that produced a leeside inversion layer prior to the large-scale dust storm, (3) the presence of thermal wind imbalance in the exit region of the midtropospheric jet streak in the lee of the respective mountains shortly after the time of the inversion formation, (4) dust storm formation accompanied by large magnitude ageostrophic isallobaric low-level winds as part of the meso-β scale adjustment process, (5) substantial low-level turbulence kinetic energy (TKE), and (6) emission and uplift of mineral dust in the lee of nearby mountains. The thermally forced meso-γ scale adjustment processes, which occurred in the canyons/small valleys, may have been the cause of numerous observed dust streaks leading to the entry of the dust into the atmosphere due to the presence of significant vertical motion and TKE generation. This study points to the importance of meso-β to meso-γ scale adjustment processes at low atmospheric levels due to an imbalance within the exit region of an upper level jet streak for the formation of severe dust storms. The low level TKE, which is one of the prerequisites to deflate the dust from the surface, cannot be detected with the low resolution data sets; so our results show that a high spatial resolution is required for better representing TKE as a proxy for dust emission.
Jet Formation and Penetration Study of Double-Layer Shaped Charge
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Wang, Zhe; Jiang, Jian-Wei; Wang, Shu-You; Liu, Han
2018-04-01
A theoretical analysis on detonation wave propagation in a double-layer shaped charge (DLSC) is performed. Numerical simulations using the AUTODYN software are carried out to compare the distinctions between jet formations in DLSC and ordinary shaped charge (OSC), in particular, the OSC made using a higher detonation velocity explosive, which is treated as the outer layer charge in the DLSC. The results show that the improved detonation velocity ratio and radial charge percentage of outer-to-inner layer charge are conducive to the formation of a convergent detonation wave, which contributes to enhancement of jet tip velocity in DLSC. The thickness and mass percentages of liner flowing into jet in DLSC closely follow the exponential distribution along the radial direction, but the percentages in DLSC and the mass of effective jet, which have significant influence on the penetration depth, are lower than those in OSC with the outer layer charge. This implies that the total charge energy is the major factor controlling the effective jet formation, which is confirmed by the verification tests using flash X-ray system and following penetration tests. The numerical simulation and test results compare well, while penetration test results indicate that the performance of DLSC is not better than that of OSC with the outer layer charge, due to the differences in jet formation.
Laboratory formation of a scaled protostellar jet by coaligned poloidal magnetic field.
PubMed
Albertazzi, B; Ciardi, A; Nakatsutsumi, M; Vinci, T; Béard, J; Bonito, R; Billette, J; Borghesi, M; Burkley, Z; Chen, S N; Cowan, T E; Herrmannsdörfer, T; Higginson, D P; Kroll, F; Pikuz, S A; Naughton, K; Romagnani, L; Riconda, C; Revet, G; Riquier, R; Schlenvoigt, H-P; Skobelev, I Yu; Faenov, A Ya; Soloviev, A; Huarte-Espinosa, M; Frank, A; Portugall, O; Pépin, H; Fuchs, J
2014-10-17
Although bipolar jets are seen emerging from a wide variety of astrophysical systems, the issue of their formation and morphology beyond their launching is still under study. Our scaled laboratory experiments, representative of young stellar object outflows, reveal that stable and narrow collimation of the entire flow can result from the presence of a poloidal magnetic field whose strength is consistent with observations. The laboratory plasma becomes focused with an interior cavity. This gives rise to a standing conical shock from which the jet emerges. Following simulations of the process at the full astrophysical scale, we conclude that it can also explain recently discovered x-ray emission features observed in low-density regions at the base of protostellar jets, such as the well-studied jet HH 154. Copyright © 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Laser-induced jet formation in liquid films
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Brasz, Frederik; Arnold, Craig
2014-11-01
The absorption of a focused laser pulse in a liquid film generates a cavitation bubble on which a narrow jet can form. This is the basis of laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT), a versatile printing technique that offers an alternative to inkjet printing. We study the influence of the fluid properties and laser pulse energy on jet formation using numerical simulations and time-resolved imaging. At low energies, surface tension causes the jet to retract without transferring a drop, and at high energies, the bubble breaks up into a splashing spray. We explore the parameter space of Weber number, Ohnesorge number, and ratio of film thickness to maximum bubble radius, revealing regions where uniform drops are transferred.
Jet-induced star formation in 3C 285 and Minkowski's Object
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Salomé, Q.; Salomé, P.; Combes, F.
2015-02-01
How efficiently star formation proceeds in galaxies is still an open question. Recent studies suggest that active galactic nucleus (AGN) can regulate the gas accretion and thus slow down star formation (negative feedback). However, evidence of AGN positive feedback has also been observed in a few radio galaxies (e.g. Centaurus A, Minkowski's Object, 3C 285, and the higher redshift 4C 41.17). Here we present CO observations of 3C 285 and Minkowski's Object, which are examples of jet-induced star formation. A spot (named 3C 285/09.6 in the present paper) aligned with the 3C 285 radio jet at a projected distance of ~70 kpc from the galaxy centre shows star formation that is detected in optical emission. Minkowski's Object is located along the jet of NGC 541 and also shows star formation. Knowing the distribution of molecular gas along the jets is a way to study the physical processes at play in the AGN interaction with the intergalactic medium. We observed CO lines in 3C 285, NGC 541, 3C 285/09.6, and Minkowski's Object with the IRAM 30 m telescope. In the central galaxies, the spectra present a double-horn profile, typical of a rotation pattern, from which we are able to estimate the molecular gas density profile of the galaxy. The molecular gas appears to be in a compact reservoir, which could be evidence of an early phase of the gas accretion after a recent merger event in 3C 285. No kinematic signature of a molecular outflow is detected by the 30 m telescope. Interestingly, 3C 285/09.6 and Minkowski's Object are not detected in CO. The cold gas mass upper limits are consistent with a star formation induced by the compression of dense ambient material by the jet. The depletion time scales in 3C 285/09.6 and Minkowski's Object are of the order of and even shorter than what is found in 3C 285, NGC 541, and local spiral galaxies (109 yr). The upper limit of the molecular gas surface density in 3C 285/09.6 at least follows a Schmidt-Kennicutt law if the emitting region
Spray Formation from a Charged Liquid Jet of a Dielectric Fluid
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Doak, William; de Bellis, Victor; Chiarot, Paul; Microfluidics; Multiphase Flow Laboratory Team
2017-11-01
Atomization of a dielectric micro-jet is achieved via an electrohydrodynamic charge injection process. The atomizer is comprised of a grounded nozzle housing (ground electrode) and an internal probe (high voltage electrode) that is concentric with the emitting orifice. The internal probe is held at electric potentials ranging from 1-10 kV. A pressurized reservoir drives a dielectric fluid at a desired flow rate through the 100-micrometer diameter orifice. The fluid fills the cavity between the electrodes as it passes through the atomizer, impeding the transport of electrons. This process injects charge into the flowing fluid. Upon exiting the orifice, the emitted jet is highly charged and it deforms via a bending instability that is qualitatively similar to the behavior observed in the electrospinning of fibers. We observed bulging regions, or nodes, of highly charged fluid forming along the bent, rotating jet. These nodes separate into highly charged droplets that emit satellite droplets. The remaining ligaments break up due to capillarity in a process that produces additional satellites. All of the droplets possess a normal (inertial) and radial (electrically-driven) momentum component. The radial component is responsible for the formation of a conical spray envelope. Our research focuses on the jet, its break up, and the droplet dynamics of this system. This research supported by the American Chemical Society.
Connections Between Jet Formation and Multiwavelength Spectral Evolution in Black Hole Transients
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Kakemci, Emrah; Chun, Yoon-Young; Dincer, Tolga; Buxton, Michelle; Tomsick, John A.; Corbel, Stephane; Kaaret, Philip
2011-01-01
Multiwavelength observations are the key to understand conditions of jet formation in Galactic black hole transient (GBHT) systems. By studying radio and optical-infrared evolution of such systems during outburst decays, the compact jet formation can be traced. Comparing this with X-ray spectral and timing evolution we can obtain physical and geometrical conditions for jet formation, and study the contribution of jets to X-ray emission. In this work, first X-ray evolution - jet relation for XTE J1752-223 will be discussed. This source had very good coverage in X-rays, optical, infrared and radio. A long exposure with INTEGRAL also allowed us to study gamma-ray behavior after the jet turns on. We will also show results from the analysis of data from GX 339-4 in the hard state with SUZAKU at low flux levels. The fits to iron line fluorescence emission show that the inner disk radius increases by a factor of greater than 27 with respect to radii in bright states. This result, along with other disk radius measurements in the hard state will be discussed within the context of conditions for launching and sustaining jets.
Gas Cloud Accretion onto the SMBH SgrA* and Formation of Jet 4
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Nishiyama, Shogo
2015-06-01
A dense gas cloud was detected to be rapidly approaching the Galactic supermassive black hole (SMBH) Sgr A*, and was 1,600 Schwarzschild radii from the SMBH at the pericenter of its eccentric orbit in Mar 2014. Ongoing tidal disruption has been observed, and cloud fragments are expected to accrete onto the SMBH on dynamical timescales, suggesting a jet formation in the following years. So we are carrying out daily monitoring observations of Sgr A* in near-infrared and radio wavelengths, and we propose quick follow-up observations with Subaru/Gemini. Br-gamma line emission maps obtained with Gemini/NIFS will be used to fine tune our 3D simulation to estimate how much mass accretes, and when the fragments accrete onto the SMBH. Polarimetric and astrometric signals from a jet taken with Subaru/HiCIAO and KaVA will be compared with the finely tuned simulation to understand the timescale of jet formation, and to investigate the correlation between the accreted mass of the cloud fragments and a luminosity of the newly-formed jet. Spectroscopic and imaging observations from 1.6 - 11 mum (Subaru/IRCS, COMICS) will also be conducted to understand processes responsible for near to mid-infrared emission during the accretion event.
I. Jet Formation and Evolution Due to 3D Magnetic Reconnection
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
González-Avilés, J. J.; Guzmán, F. S.; Fedun, V.; Verth, G.; Shelyag, S.; Regnier, S.
2018-04-01
Using simulated data-driven, 3D resistive MHD simulations of the solar atmosphere, we show that 3D magnetic reconnection may be responsible for the formation of jets with the characteristics of Type II spicules. We numerically model the photosphere-corona region using the C7 equilibrium atmosphere model. The initial magnetic configuration is a 3D potential magnetic field, extrapolated up to the solar corona region from a dynamic realistic simulation of the solar photospheric magnetoconvection model that mimics the quiet-Sun. In this case, we consider a uniform and constant value of the magnetic resistivity of 12.56 Ω m. We have found that the formation of the jet depends on the Lorentz force, which helps to accelerate the plasma upward. Analyzing various properties of the jet dynamics, we found that the jet structure shows a Doppler shift close to regions with high vorticity. The morphology, the upward velocity covering a range up to 130 km sâ1, and the timescale formation of the structure between 60 and 90 s, are similar to those expected for Type II spicules.
The mechanism of liquid metal jet formation in the cathode spot of vacuum arc discharge
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Gashkov, M. A.; Zubarev, N. M.; Mesyats, G. A.; Uimanov, I. V.
2016-08-01
We have theoretically studied the dynamics of molten metal during crater formation in the cathode spot of vacuum arc discharge. At the initial stage, a liquid-metal ridge is formed around the crater. This process has been numerically simulated in the framework of the two-dimensional axisymmetric heat and mass transfer problem in the approximation of viscous incompressible liquid. At a more developed stage, the motion of liquid metal loses axial symmetry, which corresponds to a tendency toward jet formation. The development of azimuthal instabilities of the ridge is analyzed in terms of dispersion relations for surface waves. It is shown that maximum increments correspond to instability of the Rayleigh-Plateau type. Estimations of the time of formation of liquid metal jets and their probable number are obtained.
Selforganized Structure Formation in Organized Microstructuring by Laser-Jet Etching
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Rabbow, T. J.; Plath, P. J.; Mora, A.; Haase, M.
Laser-jet induced wet etching of stainless steel in 5M H3PO4 has been investigated. By this method, it is possible to cut and microstructure metals and alloys that form passive layers in strong etchants. Due to the laser heating of the metal and the adjacent layers of the etchant, the passive layer is removed and an active dissolution of the base metal together with the formation of hydrogen is observed. The reactions are limited by the transport of fresh acid and the removal of dissolved metal. A jet of etchant reduces the transport limitations. For definite ranges of the laser power, the feed velocity and the etchant jet velocity, a regime of periodic structure formation of the kerf, often called ripples, has been found. The ripple length depends on all three parameters. The ripple formation can be brought into correlation with a periodic change of the intensity of the reflected light as well as oscillations of the potential workpiece. It could be shown that the periodic structure formation is connected to a spreading of an etching front from the laser activated area, that temporarily moves ahead to the laser. This leads to modulations of the interface for the laser absorption, which results, for example, in oscillations of the intensity of the reflected light. This means the laser induced etching reaction attracts a feedback based on the conditions of absorption for the laser. For those parameters of feed velocity, laser power and etchant jet velocity, without ripple formation the laser induced etching front is of a constant distance to the laser which results in steady conditions at the interface for the absorption of the laser.
Experimental evidence of multimaterial jet formation with lasers
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Nicolaie, Ph.; Stenz, C.; Tikhonchuk, V.
2010-11-15
Laser-produced multimaterial jets have been investigated at the Prague Asterix Laser System laser [K. Jungwirth et al., Phys. Plasmas 8, 2495 (2001)]. The method of jet production is based on the laser-plasma ablation process and proved to be easy to set up and robust. The possibility of multimaterial laboratory jet production is demonstrated and complex hydrodynamic flows in the jet body are obtained. Two complementary diagnostics in the optical ray and x-ray ranges provide detailed information about jet characteristics. The latter are in agreement with estimates and two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamic simulation results. The experiment provides a proof of principle thatmore » a velocity field could be produced and controlled in the jet body. It opens a possibility of astrophysical jet structure modeling in laboratory.« less
Simulation of Plasma Jet Merger and Liner Formation within the PLX- α Project
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Samulyak, Roman; Chen, Hsin-Chiang; Shih, Wen; Hsu, Scott
2015-11-01
Detailed numerical studies of the propagation and merger of high Mach number argon plasma jets and the formation of plasma liners have been performed using the newly developed method of Lagrangian particles (LP). The LP method significantly improves accuracy and mathematical rigor of common particle-based numerical methods such as smooth particle hydrodynamics while preserving their main advantages compared to grid-based methods. A brief overview of the LP method will be presented. The Lagrangian particle code implements main relevant physics models such as an equation of state for argon undergoing atomic physics transformation, radiation losses in thin optical limit, and heat conduction. Simulations of the merger of two plasma jets are compared with experimental data from past PLX experiments. Simulations quantify the effect of oblique shock waves, ionization, and radiation processes on the jet merger process. Results of preliminary simulations of future PLX- alpha experiments involving the ~ Ï / 2 -solid-angle plasma-liner configuration with 9 guns will also be presented. Partially supported by ARPA-E's ALPHA program.
Effect of finite container size on granular jet formation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
von Kann, Stefan; Joubaud, Sylvain; Caballero-Robledo, Gabriel A.; Lohse, Detlef; van der Meer, Devaraj
2010-04-01
When an object is dropped into a bed of fine, loosely packed sand, a surprisingly energetic jet shoots out of the bed. In this work we study the effect that boundaries have on the granular jet formation. We did this by (i) decreasing the depth of the sand bed and (ii) reducing the container diameter to only a few ball diameters. These confinements change the behavior of the ball inside the bed, the void collapse, and the resulting jet height and shape. We map the parameter space of impact with Froude number, ambient pressure, and container dimensions as parameters. From these results we propose an explanation for the thick-thin structure of the jet reported by several groups ([J. R. Royer , Nat. Phys. 1, 164 (2005)], [G. Caballero , Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 018001 (2007)], and [J. O. Marston , Phys. Fluids 20, 023301 (2008)]).
Radiative Processes in Jets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Vila, Gabriela S.
Relativistic jets and collimated outflows are ubiquitous phenomena in astrophysical settings, from young stellar objects up to Active Galactic Nuclei. The observed emission from some of these jets can cover the whole electromagnetic spectrum, from radio to gamma-rays. The relevant features of the spectral energy distributions depend on the nature of the source and on the characteristics of the surrounding environment. Here the author reviews the main physical processes that command the interactions between populations of relativistic particles locally accelerated in the jets, with matter, radiation and magnetic fields. Special attention is given to the conditions that lead to the dominance of the different radiative mechanisms. Examples from various types of sources are used to illustrate these effects.
Formation of free round jets with long laminar regions at large Reynolds numbers
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Zayko, Julia; Teplovodskii, Sergey; Chicherina, Anastasia; Vedeneev, Vasily; Reshmin, Alexander
2018-04-01
The paper describes a new, simple method for the formation of free round jets with long laminar regions by a jet-forming device of Ë1.5 jet diameters in size. Submerged jets of 0.12 m diameter at Reynolds numbers of 2000-12 560 are experimentally studied. It is shown that for the optimal regime, the laminar region length reaches 5.5 diameters for Reynolds number Ë10 000 which is not achievable for other methods of laminar jet formation. To explain the existence of the optimal regime, a steady flow calculation in the forming unit and a stability analysis of outcoming jet velocity profiles are conducted. The shortening of the laminar regions, compared with the optimal regime, is explained by the higher incoming turbulence level for lower velocities and by the increase of perturbation growth rates for larger velocities. The initial laminar regions of free jets can be used for organising air curtains for the protection of objects in medicine and technologies by creating the air field with desired properties not mixed with ambient air. Free jets with long laminar regions can also be used for detailed studies of perturbation growth and transition to turbulence in round jets.
The Effect of Jetting Parameters on the Performance of Droplet Formation for Ink-Jet Rapid Prototyping
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Helmer, Wayne
1998-01-01
Heinzl et al. (1985) reports that experiments in ink-jets to produce drawings or signals occurred as early as 1930. Various companies such as IBM and Pitney-Bowes have conducted extensive studies on these devices for many years. Many such reports are available in such journals as the IBM Journal of Research and Development. While numerous articles have been published on the jetting characteristics of ink and water, the literature is rather limited on fluids such as waxes (Gao & Sonin 1994) or non-water based fluids (Passow, et al. 1993). This present study extends the knowledge base to determine the performance of molten waxes in "ink-jet" type printers for rapid prototyping. The purpose of this research was to qualitatively and quantitatively study the droplet formation of a drop-on-demand ink-jet type nozzle system for rapid prototyping.
Formation of X-ray emitting stationary shocks in magnetized protostellar jets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ustamujic, S.; Orlando, S.; Bonito, R.; Miceli, M.; Gómez de Castro, A. I.; López-Santiago, J.
2016-12-01
Context. X-ray observations of protostellar jets show evidence of strong shocks heating the plasma up to temperatures of a few million degrees. In some cases, the shocked features appear to be stationary. They are interpreted as shock diamonds. Aims: We investigate the physics that guides the formation of X-ray emitting stationary shocks in protostellar jets; the role of the magnetic field in determining the location, stability, and detectability in X-rays of these shocks; and the physical properties of the shocked plasma. Methods: We performed a set of 2.5-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic numerical simulations that modelled supersonic jets ramming into a magnetized medium and explored different configurations of the magnetic field. The model takes into account the most relevant physical effects, namely thermal conduction and radiative losses. We compared the model results with observations, via the emission measure and the X-ray luminosity synthesized from the simulations. Results: Our model explains the formation of X-ray emitting stationary shocks in a natural way. The magnetic field collimates the plasma at the base of the jet and forms a magnetic nozzle there. After an initial transient, the nozzle leads to the formation of a shock diamond at its exit which is stationary over the time covered by the simulations ( 40-60 yr; comparable with timescales of the observations). The shock generates a point-like X-ray source located close to the base of the jet with luminosity comparable with that inferred from X-ray observations of protostellar jets. For the range of parameters explored, the evolution of the post-shock plasma is dominated by the radiative cooling, whereas the thermal conduction slightly affects the structure of the shock. A movie is available at http://www.aanda.org
High Performance Simulations of Accretion Disk Dynamics and Jet Formations Around Kerr Black Holes
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Nishikawa, Ken-Ichi; Mizuno, Yosuke; Watson, Michael
2007-01-01
We investigate jet formation in black-hole systems using 3-D General Relativistic Particle-In-Cell (GRPIC) and 3-D GRMHD simulations. GRPIC simulations, which allow charge separations in a collisionless plasma, do not need to invoke the frozen condition as in GRMHD simulations. 3-D GRPIC simulations show that jets are launched from Kerr black holes as in 3-D GRMHD simulations, but jet formation in the two cases may not be identical. Comparative study of black hole systems with GRPIC and GRMHD simulations with the inclusion of radiate transfer will further clarify the mechanisms that drive the evolution of disk-jet systems.
Analysis of Computational Models of Shaped Charges for Jet Formation and Penetration
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Haefner, Jonah; Ferguson, Jim
2016-11-01
Shaped charges came into use during the Second World War demonstrating the immense penetration power of explosively formed projectiles and since has become a tool used by nearly every nation in the world. Penetration is critically dependent on how the metal liner is collapsed into a jet. The theory of jet formation has been studied in depth since the late 1940s, based on simple models that neglect the strength and compressibility of the metal liner. Although attempts have been made to improve these models, simplifying assumptions limit the understanding of how the material properties affect the jet formation. With a wide range of material and strength models available for simulation, a validation study was necessary to guide code users in choosing models for shaped charge simulations. Using PAGOSA, a finite-volume Eulerian hydrocode designed to model hypervelocity materials and strong shock waves developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory, and experimental data, we investigated the effects of various equations of state and material strength models on jet formation and penetration of a steel target. Comparing PAGOSA simulations against modern experimental data, we analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of available computational models. LA-UR-16-25639 Los Alamos National Laboratory.
HIgh-speed flickering and jet formation in GRS 1915+105
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lasso Cabrera, Nestor M.
In this dissertation we study the different phenomena of accretion and relativistic jet formation observed in the microquasar GRS 1915+105. Our final goal is to understand the processes producing the relativistic outflows, as well as their relation with the inflow mechanisms. Initially, we analyze X-ray emission (RXTE PCA and HEXTE) from GRS 1915+105 during and after an X-ray/radio plateau epoch. The high signal-to-noise levels in our observations allow the first published measurement of quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) RMS values using RXTE/HEXTE data. We find that the spectral energy distribution of the QPO strongly indicates an origin in the hard non-thermal emission component, suggesting a second spectral component to the hard non-thermal X-ray emission. Given the association of the QPOs with the observed jet activity in GRS 1915+105, we suggest that this additional non-thermal X-ray spectral component may be directly linked to the relativistic jet formation process. We also analyze simultaneous X-ray (RXTE/PCA) and near-IR (Palomar 200-inch) observations from the microquasar GRS 1915+105 during two similar low/hard state epochs and two different high X-ray variability epochs -- X-ray classes alpha and beta. The X-ray to IR cross-correlation function (CCF) shows that both low/hard state observations as well as the class beta observations present little or null interaction between the X-ray and IR fluxes, while the class alpha observations present a strong correlation between the X-ray (inner accretion disk) and the IR (compact jet) light curves. We also use the X-ray to IR CCF to study the relative evolution of the two signals and find no significant evolutionary track in any of the epochs. Simulated IR light curves confirm the results of the CCF, showing a flickering IR emission during the class beta high X-ray variability period that strengthens Ë10 s after every X-ray subflare. The existence of a flickering IR emission with frequencies in the range 0.1 to
Jet formation in cerium metal to examine material strength
DOE PAGES
Jensen, B. J.; Cherne, F. J.; Prime, M. B.; ...
2015-11-18
Examining the evolution of material properties at extreme conditions advances our understanding of numerous high-pressure phenomena from natural events like meteorite impacts to general solid mechanics and fluid flow behavior. Some recent advances in synchrotron diagnostics coupled with dynamic compression platforms have introduced new possibilities for examining in-situ, spatially resolved material response with nanosecond time resolution. In this work, we examined jet formation from a Richtmyer-Meshkov instability in cerium initially shocked into a transient, high-pressure phase, and then released to a low-pressure, higher-temperature state. Cerium's rich phase diagram allows us to study the yield stress following a shock induced solid-solidmore » phase transition. X-ray imaging was used to obtain images of jet formation and evolution with 2â3 μm spatial resolution. And from these images, an analytic method was used to estimate the post-shock yield stress, and these results were compared to continuum calculations that incorporated an experimentally validated equation-of-state (EOS) for cerium coupled with a deviatoric strength model. Reasonable agreement was observed between the calculations and the data illustrating the sensitivity of jet formation on the yield stress values. Finally, the data and analysis shown here provide insight into material strength during dynamic loading which is expected to aid in the development of strength aware multi-phase EOS required to predict the response of matter at extreme conditions.« less
STAR FORMATION SUPPRESSION DUE TO JET FEEDBACK IN RADIO GALAXIES WITH SHOCKED WARM MOLECULAR GAS
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Lanz, Lauranne; Ogle, Patrick M.; Appleton, Philip N.
2016-07-20
We present Herschel observations of 22 radio galaxies, selected for the presence of shocked, warm molecular hydrogen emission. We measured and modeled spectral energy distributions in 33 bands from the ultraviolet to the far-infrared to investigate the impact of jet feedback on star formation activity. These galaxies are massive, early-type galaxies with normal gas-to-dust ratios, covering a range of optical and infrared colors. We find that the star formation rate (SFR) is suppressed by a factor of â¼3â6, depending on how molecular gas mass is estimated. We suggest that this suppression is due to the shocks driven by the radiomore » jets injecting turbulence into the interstellar medium (ISM), which also powers the luminous warm H{sub 2} line emission. Approximately 25% of the sample shows suppression by more than a factor of 10. However, the degree of SFR suppression does not correlate with indicators of jet feedback including jet power, diffuse X-ray emission, or intensity of warm molecular H{sub 2} emission, suggesting that while injected turbulence likely impacts star formation, the process is not purely parameterized by the amount of mechanical energy dissipated into the ISM. Radio galaxies with shocked warm molecular gas cover a wide range in SFRâstellar mass space, indicating that these galaxies are in a variety of evolutionary states, from actively star-forming and gas-rich to quiescent and gas-poor. SFR suppression appears to have the largest impact on the evolution of galaxies that are moderately gas-rich.« less
Formation of liquid-metal jets in a vacuum arc cathode spot: Analogy with drop impact on a solid surface
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Gashkov, M. A.; Zubarev, N. M.
2018-01-01
Conditions of the liquid-metal jets formation in a cathode spot of a vacuum arc discharge are studied. Our consideration is based on the analogy between the processes, occurring in the liquid phase of the cathode spot, and the processes, accompanying a liquid drop impact on a flat solid surface. In the latter case there exists a wide variety of experimental data on the conditions under which the spreading regime of fluid motion (i.e., without formation of jets and secondary droplets) changes into the splashing one. In the present work, using the hydrodynamic similarity principle (processes in geometrically similar systems will proceed similarly when their Weber and Reynolds numbers coincide), criteria for molten metal splashing are formulated for different materials of the cathode. They are compared with the experimental data on the threshold conditions for vacuum arc burning.
Formation and Destruction of Jets in X-ray Binaries
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Kylafix, N. D.; Contopoulos, I.; Kazanas, D.; Christodoulou, D. M.
2011-01-01
Context. Neutron-star and black-hole X-ray binaries (XRBs) exhibit radio jets, whose properties depend on the X-ray spectral state e.nd history of the source. In particular, black-hole XRBs emit compact, 8teady radio jets when they are in the so-called hard state. These jets become eruptive as the sources move toward the soft state, disappear in the soft state, and then re-appear when the sources return to the hard state. The jets from neutron-star X-ray binaries are typically weaker radio emitters than the black-hole ones at the same X-ray luminosity and in some cases radio emission is detected in the soft state. Aims. Significant phenomenology has been developed to describe the spectral states of neutron-star and black-hole XRBs, and there is general agreement about the type of the accretion disk around the compact object in the various spectral states. We investigate whether the phenomenology describing the X-ray emission on one hand and the jet appearance and disappearance on the other can be put together in a consistent physical picture. Methods. We consider the so-called Poynting-Robertson cosmic battery (PRCB), which has been shown to explain in a natural way the formation of magnetic fields in the disks of AGNs and the ejection of jets. We investigate whether the PRCB can also explain the [ormation, destruction, and variability or jets in XRBs. Results. We find excellent agreement between the conditions under which the PRCB is efficient (i.e., the type of the accretion disk) and the emission or destruction of the r.adio jet. Conclusions. The disk-jet connection in XRBs can be explained in a natural way using the PRCB.
Filament Channel Formation, Eruption, and Jet Generation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
DeVore, C. Richard; Antiochos, Spiro K.; Karpen, Judith T.
2017-08-01
The mechanism behind filament-channel formation is a longstanding mystery, while that underlying the initiation of coronal mass ejections and jets has been studied intensively but is not yet firmly established. In previous work, we and collaborators have investigated separately the consequences of magnetic-helicity condensation (Antiochos 2013) for forming filament channels (Zhao et al. 2015; Knizhnik et al. 2015, 2017a,b) and of the embedded-bipole model (Antiochos 1996) for generating reconnection-driven jets (Pariat et al. 2009, 2010, 2015, 2016; Wyper et al. 2016, 2017). Now we have taken a first step toward synthesizing these two lines of investigation. Our recent study (Karpen et al. 2017) of coronal-hole jets with gravity and wind employed an ad hoc, large-scale shear flow at the surface to introduce magnetic free energy and form the filament channel. In this effort, we replace the shear flow with an ensemble of local rotation cells, to emulate the Sunâs ever-changing granules and supergranules. As in our previous studies, we find that reconnection between twisted flux tubes within the closed-field region concentrates magnetic shear and free energy near the polarity inversion line, forming the filament channel. Onset of reconnection between this field and the external, unsheared, open field releases stored energy to drive the impulsive jet. We discuss the results of our new simulations with implications for understanding solar activity and space weather.
Formation of a rotating jet during the filament eruption on 2013 April 10-11
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Filippov, B.; Srivastava, A. K.; Dwivedi, B. N.; Masson, S.; Aulanier, G.; Joshi, N. C.; Uddin, W.
2015-07-01
We analyse multiwavelength and multiviewpoint observations of a helically twisted plasma jet formed during a confined filament eruption on 2013 April 10-11. Given a rather large-scale event with its high spatial and temporal resolution observations, it allows us to clearly understand some new physical details about the formation and triggering mechanism of twisting jet. We identify a pre-existing flux rope associated with a sinistral filament, which was observed several days before the event. The confined eruption of the filament within a null-point topology, also known as an Eiffel tower (or inverted-Y) magnetic field configuration results in the formation of a twisted jet after the magnetic reconnection near a null point. The sign of helicity in the jet is found to be the same as that of the sign of helicity in the filament. Untwisting motion of the reconnected magnetic field lines gives rise to the accelerating plasma along the jet axis. The event clearly shows the twist injection from the pre-eruptive magnetic field to the jet.
VLBA Reveals Formation Region of Giant Cosmic Jet
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
1999-10-01
Astronomers have gained their first glimpse of the mysterious region near a black hole at the heart of a distant galaxy, where a powerful stream of subatomic particles spewing outward at nearly the speed of light is formed into a beam, or jet, that then goes nearly straight for thousands of light-years. The astronomers used radio telescopes in Europe and the U.S., including the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) to make the most detailed images ever of the center of the galaxy M87, some 50 million light-years away. "This is the first time anyone has seen the region in which a cosmic jet is formed into a narrow beam," said Bill Junor of the University of New Mexico, in Albuquerque. "We had always speculated that the jet had to be made by some mechanism relatively near the black hole, but as we looked closer and closer to the center, we kept seeing an already-formed beam. That was becoming embarrassing, because we were running out of places to put the formation mechanism that we knew had to be there." Junor, along with John Biretta and Mario Livio of the Space Telescope Science Institute, in Baltimore, MD, now have shown that M87's jet is formed within a few tenths of a light-year of the galaxy's core, presumed to be a black hole three billion times more massive than the sun. In the formation region, the jet is seen opening widely, at an angle of about 60 degrees, nearest the black hole, but is squeezed down to only 6 degrees a few light-years away. "The 60-degree angle of the inner part of M87's jet is the widest such angle yet seen in any jet in the universe," said Junor. "We found this by being able to see the jet to within a few hundredths of a light-year of the galaxy's core -- an unprecedented level of detail." The scientists reported their findings in the October 28 issue of the journal Nature. At the center of M87, material being drawn inward by the strong gravitation of the black hole is formed into a rapidly-spinning flat
Controlled formation of cyclopentane hydrate suspensions via capillary-driven jet break-up
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Geri, Michela; McKinley, Gareth
2017-11-01
Clathrate hydrates are crystalline compounds that form when a lattice of hydrogen-bonded water molecules is filled by guest molecules sequestered from an adjacent gas or liquid phase. Being able to rapidly produce and transport synthetic hydrates is of great interest given their significant potential as a clean energy source and safe option for hydrogen storage. We propose a new method to rapidly produce cyclopentane hydrate suspensions at ambient pressure with tunable particle size distribution by taking advantage of the Rayleigh-Plateau instability to form a mono-disperse stream of droplets during the controlled break-up of a water jet. The droplets are immediately frozen into ice particles through immersion in a subcooled reservoir and converted into hydrates with a dramatic reduction in the nucleation induction time. By measuring the evolution of the rheological properties with time, we monitor the process of hydrates formation via surface crystallization and agglomeration with different droplet size distributions. This new method enables us to gain new insights into hydrate formation and transport which was previously hindered by uncontrolled droplet formation and hydrate nucleation processes. MITei Chevron Fellowship.
Experimental and theoretical study of combustion jet ignition
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Chen, D. Y.; Ghoniem, A. F.; Oppenheim, A. K.
1983-01-01
A combustion jet ignition system was developed to generate turbulent jets of combustion products containing free radicals and to discharge them as ignition sources into a combustible medium. In order to understand the ignition and the inflammation processes caused by combustion jets, the studies of the fluid mechanical properties of turbulent jets with and without combustion were conducted theoretically and experimentally. Experiments using a specially designed igniter, with a prechamber to build up and control the stagnation pressure upstream of the orifice, were conducted to investigate the formation processes of turbulent jets of combustion products. The penetration speed of combustion jets has been found to be constant initially and then decreases monotonically as turbulent jets of combustion products travel closer to the wall. This initial penetration speed to combustion jets is proportional to the initial stagnation pressure upstream of the orifice for the same stoichiometric mixture. Computer simulations by Chorin's Random Vortex Method implemented with the flame propagation algorithm for the theoretical model of turbulent jets with and without combustion were performed to study the turbulent jet flow field. In the formation processes of the turbulent jets, the large-scale eddy structure of turbulence, the so-called coherent structure, dominates the entrainment and mixing processes. The large-scale eddy structure of turbulent jets in this study is constructed by a series of vortex pairs, which are organized in the form of a staggered array of vortex clouds generating local recirculation flow patterns.
Blob Formation and Ejection in Coronal Jets due to the Plasmoid and KelvinâHelmholtz Instabilities
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Ni, Lei; Lin, Jun; Zhang, Qing-Min
2017-05-20
We perform 2D resistive magnetohydrodynamic simulations of coronal jets driven by flux emergence along the lower boundary. The reconnection layers are susceptible to the formation of blobs that are ejected in the jet. Our simulation with low plasma β (Case I) shows that magnetic islands form easily and propagate upward in the jet. These islands are multithermal and thus are predicted to show up in hot channels (335 â« and 211 â«) and the cool channel (304 â«) in observations by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory . The islands have maximum temperatures of 8 MK,more » lifetimes of 120 s, diameters of 6 Mm, and velocities of 200 km s{sup â1}. These parameters are similar to the properties of blobs observed in extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) jets by AIA. The KelvinâHelmholtz instability develops in our simulation with moderately high plasma β (Case II) and leads to the formation of bright vortex-like blobs above the multiple high magnetosonic Mach number regions that appear along the jet. These vortex-like blobs can also be identified in the AIA channels. However, they eventually move downward and disappear after the high magnetosonic Mach number regions disappear. In the lower plasma β case, the lifetime for the jet is shorter, the jet and magnetic islands are formed with higher velocities and temperatures, the current-sheet fragments are more chaotic, and more magnetic islands are generated. Our results show that the plasmoid instability and KelvinâHelmholtz instability along the jet are both possible causes of the formation of blobs observed at EUV wavelengths.« less
Flux rope breaking and formation of a rotating blowout jet
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Joshi, Navin Chandra; Nishizuka, Naoto; Filippov, Boris; Magara, Tetsuya; Tlatov, Andrey G.
2018-05-01
We analysed a small flux rope eruption converted into a helical blowout jet in a fan-spine configuration using multiwavelength observations taken by Solar Dynamics Observatory, which occurred near the limb on 2016 January 9. In our study, first, we estimated the fan-spine magnetic configuration with the potential-field calculation and found a sinistral small filament inside it. The filament along with the flux rope erupted upwards and interacted with the surrounding fan-spine magnetic configuration, where the flux rope breaks in the middle section. We observed compact brightening, flare ribbons, and post-flare loops underneath the erupting filament. The northern section of the flux rope reconnected with the surrounding positive polarity, while the southern section straightened. Next, we observed the untwisting motion of the southern leg, which was transformed into a rotating helical blowout jet. The sign of the helicity of the mini-filament matches the one of the rotating jets. This is consistent with recent jet models presented by Adams et al. and Sterling et al. We focused on the fine thread structure of the rotating jet and traced three blobs with the speed of 60-120 km s- 1, while the radial speed of the jet is Ë400 km s- 1. The untwisting motion of the jet accelerated plasma upwards along the collimated outer spine field lines, and it finally evolved into a narrow coronal mass ejection at the height of Ë9Rsun. On the basis of detailed analysis, we discussed clear evidence of the scenario of the breaking of the flux rope and the formation of the helical blowout jet in the fan-spine magnetic configuration.
Liquid phase products and solid deposit formation from thermally stressed model jet fuels
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Kim, W. S.; Bittker, D. A.
1984-01-01
The relationship between solid deposit formation and liquid degradation product concentration was studied for the high temperature (400 C) stressing of three hydrocarbon model fuels. A Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester was used to simulate actual engine fuel system conditions. The effects of fuel type, dissolved oxygen concentration, and hot surface contact time (reaction time) were studied. Effects of reaction time and removal of dissolved oxygen on deposit formation were found to be different for n-dodecane and for 2-ethylnaphthalene. When ten percent tetralin is added to n-dodecane to give a simpler model of an actual jet fuel, the tetralin inhibits both the deposit formation and the degradation of n-dodecane. For 2-ethylnaphthalene primary product analyses indicate a possible self-inhibition at long reaction times of the secondary reactions which form the deposit precursors. The mechanism of the primary breakdown of these fuels is suggested and the primary products which participate in these precursor-forming reactions are identified. Some implications of the results to the thermal degradation of real jet fuels are given.
Good News from Big Bad Black Holes: Jet-Induced Star Formation in ``Minkowski's Object"
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
van Breugel, W.; Croft, S.; de Vries, W.; van Gorkom, J. H.; Morganti, R.; Osterloo, T.; Dopita, M.
2004-12-01
We present VLA neutral hydrogen (HI) observations which show that ``Minkowski's Object", a peculiar starburst system, is due to the interaction of a low luminosity (FR-I type) radio jet with the intergalactic medium (IGM) in the cluster of galaxies A194. The transverse size and bimodal structure of the HI cloud, straddling the jet; its location downstream from the star forming region; and kinematic evidence for gas entrainment all are in agreement with previous numerical simulations (Fragile et al 2004) which concluded that FR-I type jets can trigger star formation by driving radiative shocks into the moderately dense, warm gas that is typical of central galaxy cluster regions. We compare the timescales for HI formation with the age of the starburst derived from recent Keck, Lick and HST spectroscopic and imaging data (see poster by Croft et al), which allows us to put constraints on the physical conditions in the radio jet (speed) and its ambient medium (density).
Evolution of Fine-scale Penumbral Magnetic Structure and Formation of Penumbral Jets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Tiwari, S. K.; Moore, R. L.; Rempel, M.; Winebarger, A. R.
2015-12-01
Sunspot penumbra consists of spines (more vertical field) and penumbral filaments (interspines). Spines are outward extension of umbra. Penumbral filaments are recently found, both in observations and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations, to be magnetized stretched granule-like convective cells, with strong upflows near the head that continues along the central axis with weakening strength of the flow. Strong downflows are found at the tails of filaments and weak downflows along the sides of it. These lateral downflows often contain opposite polarity magnetic field to that of spines; most strongly near the heads of filaments. In spite of this advancement in understanding of small-scale structure of sunspot penumbra, how the filaments and spines evolve and interact remains uncertain. Penumbral jets, bright, transient features, seen in the chromosphere, are one of several dynamic events in sunspot penumbra. It has been proposed that these penumbral microjets result from component (acute angle) reconnection of the magnetic field in spines with that in interspines and could contribute to transition-region and coronal heating above sunspots. In a recent investigation, it was proposed that the jets form as a result of reconnection between the opposite polarity field at edges of filaments with spine field, and it was found that these jets do not significantly directly heat the corona above sunspots. We discuss how the proposed formation of penumbral jets is integral to the formation mechanism of penumbral filaments and spines, and may explain why penumbral jets are few and far between. We also point out that the generation of the penumbral jets could indirectly drive coronal heating via generation of MHD waves or braiding of the magnetic field.
Constraints on Jet Formation Mechanisms with the Most Energetic Giant Outbursts in MS 0735+7421
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Shuang-Liang; Cao, Xinwu
2012-07-01
Giant X-ray cavities lie in some active galactic nuclei (AGNs) locating in central galaxies of clusters, which are estimated to have stored 1055-1062 erg of energy. Most of these cavities are thought to be inflated by jets of AGNs on a timescale of >~ 107 years. The jets can be either powered by rotating black holes or the accretion disks surrounding black holes, or both. The observations of giant X-ray cavities can therefore be used to constrain jet formation mechanisms. In this work, we choose the most energetic cavity, MS 0735+7421, with stored energy ~1062 erg, to constrain the jet formation mechanisms and the evolution of the central massive black hole in this source. The bolometric luminosity of the AGN in this cavity is ~10-5 L Edd, however, the mean power of the jet required to inflate the cavity is estimated as ~0.02L Edd, which implies that the source has previously experienced strong outbursts. During outbursts, the jet power and the mass accretion rate should be significantly higher than its present values. We construct an accretion disk model in which the angular momentum and energy carried away by jets are properly included to calculate the spin and mass evolution of the massive black hole. In our calculations, different jet formation mechanisms are employed, and we find that the jets generated with the Blandford-Znajek (BZ) mechanism are unable to produce the giant cavity with ~1062 erg in this source. Only the jets accelerated with a combination of the Blandford-Payne and BZ mechanisms can successfully inflate such a giant cavity if the magnetic pressure is close to equipartition with the total (radiation+gas) pressure of the accretion disk. For a dynamo-generated magnetic field in the disk, such an energetic giant cavity can be inflated by the magnetically driven jets only if the initial black hole spin parameter a 0 >~ 0.95. Our calculations show that the final spin parameter a of the black hole is always ~0.9-0.998 for all the computational
Explaining formation of Astronomical Jets using Dynamic Universe Model
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Naga Parameswara Gupta, Satyavarapu
2016-07-01
Astronomical jets are observed from the centres of many Galaxies including our own Milkyway. The formation of such jet is explained using SITA simulations of Dynamic Universe Model. For this purpose the path traced by a test neutron is calculated and depicted using a set up of one densemass of the mass equivalent to mass of Galaxy center, 90 stars with similar masses of stars near Galaxy center, mass equivalents of 23 Globular Cluster groups, 16 Milkyway parts, Andromeda and Triangulum Galaxies at appropriate distances. Five different kinds of theoretical simulations gave positive results The path travelled by this test neutron was found to be an astronomical jet emerging from Galaxy center. This is another result from Dynamic Universe Model. It solves new problems like a. Variable Mass Rocket Trajectory Problem b. Explaining Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations c. Astronomical jets observed from Milkyway Center d. Prediction of Blue shifted Galaxies e. Explaining Pioneer Anomaly f. Prediction of New Horizons satellite trajectory etc. Dynamic Universe Model never reduces to General relativity on any condition. It uses a different type of mathematics based on Newtonian physics. This mathematics used here is simple and straightforward. As there are no differential equations present in Dynamic Universe Model, the set of equations give single solution in x y z Cartesian coordinates for every point mass for every time step
Development of a water-jet assisted laser paint removal process
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Madhukar, Yuvraj K.; Mullick, Suvradip; Nath, Ashish K.
2013-12-01
The laser paint removal process usually leaves behind traces of combustion product i.e. ashes on the surface. An additional post-processing such as light-brushing or wiping by some mechanical means is required to remove the residual ash. In order to strip out the paint completely from the surface in a single step, a water-jet assisted laser paint removal process has been investigated. The 1.07 μm wavelength of Yb-fiber laser radiation has low absorption in water; therefore a high power fiber laser was used in the experiment. The laser beam was delivered on the paint-surface along with a water jet to remove the paint and residual ashes effectively. The specific energy, defined as the laser energy required removing a unit volume of paint was found to be marginally more than that for the gas-jet assisted laser paint removal process. However, complete paint removal was achieved with the water-jet assist only. The relatively higher specific energy in case of water-jet assist is mainly due to the scattering of laser beam in the turbulent flow of water-jet.
Experimental Characterization of the Jet Wiping Process
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mendez, Miguel Alfonso; Enache, Adriana; Gosset, Anne; Buchlin, Jean-Marie
2018-06-01
This paper presents an experimental characterization of the jet wiping process, used in continuous coating applications to control the thickness of a liquid coat using an impinging gas jet. Time Resolved Particle Image Velocimetry (TR-PIV) is used to characterize the impinging gas flow, while an automatic interface detection algorithm is developed to track the liquid interface at the impact. The study of the flow interaction is combined with time resolved 3D thickness measurements of the liquid film remaining after the wiping, via Time Resolved Light Absorption (TR-LAbs). The simultaneous frequency analysis of liquid and gas flows allows to correlate their respective instability, provide an experimental data set for the validation of numerical studies and allows for formulating a working hypothesis on the origin of the coat non-uniformity encountered in many jet wiping processes.
Photoexcitation cascade and quantum-relativistic jet formation in graphene
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lewandowski, Cyprian; Levitov, Leonid
Interactions between ultra-relativistic particles can lead to striking behavior in which a high-energy particle creates showers of softer particles characterized by a collimated angular distribution aligned with the particle velocity. These showers, known as jets, are a generic phenomenon relevant for all quantum cascades of linearly dispersing particles. This talk will discuss jets formed upon photoexcitation in graphene, which due to its linear dispersion provides an appealing medium for exploring quantum-relativistic phenomena. We will study the cascade generated by carrier-carrier collisions in photon absorption, wherein a single photon creates an electron-hole (e-h) excitation that decays producing multiple near-collinear secondary e-h excitations. We will argue that the cascade can occur through an off-shell mechanism such that all the particles and holes involved reside outside the energy-momentum dispersion manifold, relieving the bottleneck arising in the on-shell process due to energy and momentum conservation. The characteristics of the jets such as the angular and energy distribution of the particles will be discussed. Photogenerated jets provide an interesting setting to investigate the carrier-carrier collision processes in graphene and other Dirac materials. We acknowledge support of the Center for Integrated Quantum Materials (CIQM) under NSF award DMR-1231319.
Experimental evidence for collisional shock formation via two obliquely merging supersonic plasma jets
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Merritt, Elizabeth C., E-mail: emerritt@lanl.gov; Adams, Colin S.; University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131
We report spatially resolved measurements of the oblique merging of two supersonic laboratory plasma jets. The jets are formed and launched by pulsed-power-driven railguns using injected argon, and have electron density â¼10{sup 14}âcm{sup â3}, electron temperature â1.4âeV, ionization fraction near unity, and velocity â40âkm/s just prior to merging. The jet merging produces a few-cm-thick stagnation layer, as observed in both fast-framing camera images and multi-chord interferometer data, consistent with collisional shock formation [E. C. Merritt et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 085003 (2013)].
Formation and crystallisation of a liquid jet in a film exposed to a tightly focused laser beam
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Anisimov, S. I.; Zhakhovsky, V. V.; Inogamov, N. A.; Murzov, S. A.; Khokhlov, V. A.
2017-06-01
This paper considers the effect of an ultrashort laser pulse on a thin gold film on a glass substrate at a focal spot size near 1 μm. We analyse the motion and thermal history of a film that has peeled off from the substrate in the heating spot as a consequence of melting. The detached zone is shown to form a domeshaped bump whose motion is hindered by surface tension. After the dome stops and turns back, towards the substrate, a jet begins to grow on its top. Concurrently, because of the heat dissipation in the film, melt recrystallisation begins, involving first the dome and then the jet. The liquid part of the jet elongates and breaks up into droplets because of the Plateau-Rayleigh instability development. The formation of a neck and the detachment of the last droplet occur in the solidification zone between the crystalline and liquid parts of the jet. The propagation of the crystallisation zone in the jet leads the necking process, so neck disruption occurs in the solid phase under nonequilibrium crystallisation conditions (the melt temperature is hundreds of kelvins lower than the melting point), at limiting mechanical stress and at high deformation rates. As a result, the jet transforms into a high needle with an extremely small tip radius (a few nanometres).
Process Development of Porcelain Ceramic Material with Binder Jetting Process for Dental Applications
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Miyanaji, Hadi; Zhang, Shanshan; Lassell, Austin; Zandinejad, Amirali; Yang, Li
2016-03-01
Custom ceramic structures possess significant potentials in many applications such as dentistry and aerospace where extreme environments are present. Specifically, highly customized geometries with adequate performance are needed for various dental prostheses applications. This paper demonstrates the development of process and post-process parameters for a dental porcelain ceramic material using binder jetting additive manufacturing (AM). Various process parameters such as binder amount, drying power level, drying time and powder spread speed were studied experimentally for their effect on geometrical and mechanical characteristics of green parts. In addition, the effects of sintering and printing parameters on the qualities of the densified ceramic structures were also investigated experimentally. The results provide insights into the process-property relationships for the binder jetting AM process, and some of the challenges of the process that need to be further characterized for the successful adoption of the binder jetting technology in high quality ceramic fabrications are discussed.
Formation of Bipolar Lobes by Jets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Soker, Noam
2002-04-01
I conduct an analytical study of the interaction of jets, or a collimated fast wind (CFW), with a previously blown asymptotic giant branch (AGB) slow wind. Such jets (or CFWs) are supposedly formed when a compact companion, a main-sequence star, or a white dwarf accretes mass from the AGB star, forms an accretion disk, and blows two jets. This type of flow, which I think shapes bipolar planetary nebulae (PNs), requires three-dimensional gasdynamical simulations, which are limited in the parameter space they can cover. By imposing several simplifying assumptions, I derive simple expressions which reproduce some basic properties of lobes in bipolar PNs and which can be used to guide future numerical simulations. I quantitatively apply the results to two proto-PNs. I show that the jet interaction with the slow wind can form lobes which are narrow close to, and far away from, the central binary system, and which are wider somewhere in between. Jets that are recollimated and have constant cross section can form cylindrical lobes with constant diameter, as observed in several bipolar PNs. Close to their source, jets blown by main-sequence companions are radiative; only further out they become adiabatic, i.e., they form high-temperature, low-density bubbles that inflate the lobes.
Observations of breakup processes of liquid jets using real-time X-ray radiography
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Char, J. M.; Kuo, K. K.; Hsieh, K. C.
1988-01-01
To unravel the liquid-jet breakup process in the nondilute region, a newly developed system of real-time X-ray radiography, an advanced digital image processor, and a high-speed video camera were used. Based upon recorded X-ray images, the inner structure of a liquid jet during breakup was observed. The jet divergence angle, jet breakup length, and fraction distributions along the axial and transverse directions of the liquid jets were determined in the near-injector region. Both wall- and free-jet tests were conducted to study the effect of wall friction on the jet breakup process.
Drug recrystallization using supercritical anti-solvent (SAS) process with impinging jets: Effect of process parameters
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Careno, Stéphanie; Boutin, Olivier; Badens, Elisabeth
2012-03-01
The aim of this study is to improve mixing in supercritical anti-solvent process (SAS) with impinging jets in order to form finer particles of sulfathiazole, a poorly water-soluble drug. The influence of several process parameters upon the powder characteristics is studied. Parameters are jets' velocity (0.25 m s-1 to 25.92 m s-1), molar ratio solvent/CO2 (2.5% to 20%), temperature (313 K to 343 K), pressure (10 MPa to 20 MPa) and sulfathiazole concentration in the organic solution (0.5% to 1.8%). Two solvents are used: acetone and methanol. Smaller particles with a more homogeneous morphology are obtained from acetone solutions. For the smallest jets' velocity, corresponding to a non-atomized jet, the stable polymorphic form is obtained, pure or in mixture. At this velocity, pressure is the most influential parameter controlling the polymorphic nature of the powder formed. The pure stable polymorph is formed at 20 MPa. Concerning the particle size, the most influential parameters are temperature and sulfathiazole concentration. The use of impinging jets with different process parameters allows the crystallization of four polymorphs among the five known, and particle sizes are varied. This work demonstrates the studied device ability of the polymorph and the size control. A comparison with the classical SAS process shows that particle size, size distribution and morphology of particles crystallized with impinging jets are different from the ones obtained with classical SAS introduction device in similar operating conditions. Mean particle sizes are significantly smaller and size distributions are narrower with impinging jets device.
Origin of Pre-Coronal-Jet Minifilaments: Flux Cancellation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Panesar, N. K.; Sterling, A. C.; Moore, R. L.
2017-12-01
We recently investigated the triggering mechanism of ten quiet-region coronal jet eruptions and found that magnetic flux cancellation at the neutral line of minifilaments is the main cause of quiet-region jet eruptions (Panesar et al 2016). However, what leads to the formation of the pre-jet minifilaments remained unknown. In the present work, we study the longer-term evolution of the magnetic field that leads to the formation of pre-jet minifilaments by using SDO/AIA intensity images and concurrent line of sight SDO/HMI magnetograms. We find that each of the ten pre-jet minifilaments formed due to progressive flux cancellation between the minority-polarity and majority-polarity flux patches (with a minority-polarity flux loss of 10% - 40% prior to minifilament birth). Apparently, the flux cancellation between the opposite polarity flux patches builds a highly-sheared field at the magnetic neutral line, and that field holds the cool transition region minifilament plasma. Even after the formation of minifilaments, the flux continues to cancel, making the minifilament body more thick and prominent. Further flux cancellation between the opposite-flux patches leads to the minifilament eruption and a resulting jet. From these observations, we infer that flux cancellation is usually the process that builds up the sheared and twisted field in pre-jet minifilaments, and that triggers it to erupt and drive a jet.
Formation and extraction of a dense plasma jet from a helicon-plasma-injected inertial electrostatic confinement device
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ulmen, Benjamin Adam
An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device has several pressure and grid-geometry dependent modes of operation for the confinement of plasma. Although the symmetric grid star-mode is the most often studied for its application to fusion, the asymmetric grid jet-mode has its own potential application for electric space propulsion. The jet-mode gets its name from the characteristic bright plasma jet emanating from the central grid. In this dissertation work, a full study was undertaken to provide an understanding on the formation and propagation of the IEC plasma jet-mode. The IEC device vacuum system and all diagnostics were custom assembled during this work. Four diagnostics were used to measure different aspects of the jet. A spherical plasma probe was used to explore the coupling of an external helicon plasma source to the IEC device. The plasma current in the jet was measured by a combination of a Faraday cup and a gridded energy analyzer (GEA). The Faraday cup also included a temperature sensor for collection of thermal power measurements used to compute the efficiency of the IEC device in coupling power into the jet. The GEA allowed for measurement of the electron energy spectra. The force provided by the plasma jet was measured using a piezoelectric force sensor. Each of these measurements provided an important window into the nature of the plasma jet. COMSOL simulations provided additional evidence needed to create a model to explain the formation of the jet. It will be shown that the jet consists of a high energy electron beam having a peak energy of approximately half of the full grid potential. It is born near the aperture of the grid as a result of the escaping core electrons. Several other attributes of the plasma jet will be presented as well as a way forward to utilizing this device and operational mode for future plasma space propulsion.
Effect of Production Process on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Copper Coatings of Jet Charges
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Gleener, R. E.; Cheerova, M. N.; Shadiev, B. Sh.; Katyukhin, E. B.
2017-07-01
Special features of formation of the grain structure and mechanical properties of copper during recrystallization annealing after cold deformation with a wide range of reduction are studied. The constants of the Hall-Petch equation are determined for copper, the microstructure of which forms in the course of plastic deformation and subsequent heat treatment. The results of the study are allowed for in the process of production of claddings for jet charges.
Deflection of jets induced by jet-cloud and jet-galaxy interactions
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mendoza, S.; Longair, M. S.
2001-06-01
The model first introduced by Raga & Cantó in which astrophysical jets are deflected on passing through an isothermal high-density region is generalized by taking into account gravitational effects on the motion of the jet as it crosses the high-density cloud. The problem is also generalized for relativistic jets in which gravitational effects induced by the cloud are neglected. Two further cases, classical and relativistic, are discussed for the cases in which the jet is deflected on passing through the interstellar gas of a galaxy in which a dark matter halo dominates the gravitational potential. The criteria for the stability of jets due to the formation of internal shocks are also discussed.
Metal and polymer melt jet formation by the high-power laser ablation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Yoh, Jack J.; Gojani, Ardian B.
2010-02-01
The laser-induced metal and polymer melt jets are studied experimentally. Two classes of physical phenomena of interest are: first, the process of explosive phase change of laser induced surface ablation and second, the hydrodynamic jetting of liquid melts ejected from a beamed spot. We focus on the dynamic link between these two distinct physical phenomena in a framework of forming and patterning of metallic and polymer jets using a high-power Nd:YAG laser. The microexplosion of ablative spot on a target first forms a pocket of hot liquid melt and then it is followed by a sudden volume change of gas-liquid mixture leading to a pressure-induced spray jet ejection into surrounding medium.
Jet Propagation Through Irregular Media and the Impact of Lobes on Galaxy Formation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Wiita, Paul J.
2004-09-01
We review results of two- and three-dimensional simulations of jets striking clouds with a view toward determining the conditions under which extragalactic jets might stably survive such collisions, and thereby produce âdog-legâ or wide-angle-tail morphologies. Under most circumstances, the jet either destroys the cloud and has its stability little affected or it stalls and is rapidly destabilized by the impact. But there does appear to be a limited range in parameter space where jets can be deflected by clouds but still survive for an extended period. Some of the effects of radio lobes on protogalactic clouds are also considered. At redshifts above 2, the number of radio galaxies (RGs) is much larger than it is in the local universe, and their lobes may well have filled a large fraction of the web of baryonic matter that is still forming galaxies at that epoch. The overpressures in those lobes can trigger extensive star formation on galactic scales and also may have major implications for the spreading of magnetic fields and metals through the intergalactic medium.
Rebound and jet formation of a fluid-filled sphere
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Killian, Taylor W.; Klaus, Robert A.; Truscott, Tadd T.
2012-12-01
This study investigates the impact dynamics of hollow elastic spheres partially filled with fluid. Unlike an empty sphere, the internal fluid mitigates some of the rebound through an impulse driven exchange of energy wherein the fluid forms a jet inside the sphere. Surprisingly, this occurs on the second rebound or when the free surface is initially perturbed. Images gathered through experimentation show that the fluid reacts more quickly to the impact than the sphere, which decouples the two masses (fluid and sphere), imparts energy to the fluid, and removes rebound energy from the sphere. The experimental results are analyzed in terms of acceleration, momentum and an energy method suggesting an optimal fill volume in the neighborhood of 30%. While the characteristics of the fluid (i.e., density, viscosity, etc.) affect the fluid motion (i.e., type and size of jet formation), the rebound characteristics remain similar for a given fluid volume independent of fluid type. Implications of this work are a potential use of similar passive damping systems in sports technology and marine engineering.
Integrated coke, asphalt and jet fuel production process and apparatus
DOEpatents
Shang, Jer Y.
1991-01-01
A process and apparatus for the production of coke, asphalt and jet fuel m a feed of fossil fuels containing volatile carbon compounds therein is disclosed. The process includes the steps of pyrolyzing the feed in an entrained bed pyrolyzing means, separating the volatile pyrolysis products from the solid pyrolysis products removing at least one coke from the solid pyrolysis products, fractionating the volatile pyrolysis products to produce an overhead stream and a bottom stream which is useful as asphalt for road pavement, condensing the overhead stream to produce a condensed liquid fraction and a noncondensable, gaseous fraction, and removing water from the condensed liquid fraction to produce a jet fuel-containing product. The disclosed apparatus is useful for practicing the foregoing process. the process provides a useful method of mass producing and jet fuels from materials such as coal, oil shale and tar sands.
Protostellar Jets: The Revolution with ALMA
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Podio, Linda
2017-11-01
Fast and collimated molecular jets as well as slower wide-angle outflows are observed since the earliest stages of the formation of a new star, when the protostellar embryo accretes most of its final mass from the dense parental envelope. Early theoretical studies suggested that jets have a key role in this process as they can transport away angular momentum thus allowing the star to form without reaching its break-up speed. However, an observational validation of these theories is still challenging as it requires to investigate the interface between jets and disks on scales of fractions to tens of AUs. For this reason, many questions about the origin and feedback of protostellar jets remain unanswered, e.g. are jets ubiquitous at the earliest
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WGSS
Attention Majors and Minors - requirements have changed! Students who enter the major or minor Fall 2020 or after are under new requirements. For those of you that will need the distribution requirements the lists are here: critical race feminisms, sexuality studies, transnational feminisms. For questions, contact the undergraduate advisor.
WGSS 187 – Gender, Sexuality and Culture
Monday, Wednesday 10:10-11:00 a.m.
Friday discussions 9:05, 10:10, 11:15 and 12:20
Kiran Asher
This course offers an introduction to some of the basic concepts and theoretical perspectives in Women, Gender and Sexuality Studies. Drawing on disciplinary, interdisciplinary and cross-cultural studies, students will engage critically with issues such as gender inequities, sexuality, families, work, media images, queer issues, masculinity, reproductive rights, and history. Throughout the course, students will explore how experiences of gender and sexuality intersect with other social constructs of difference, including race/ethnicity, class, and age. Special attention will be paid to the ways in which interlocking systems of oppression have shaped and influenced the historical, cultural, social, political, and economical contexts of our lives, and the social movements at the local, national and transnational levels which have led to key transformations. (Gen. Ed. I, DU)
WGSS 201 – Gender and Difference: Critical Analyses
Section #1 Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m. – Rachel Briggs
Section #2 Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m. – Miliann Kang
An introduction to the vibrant field of women, gender, and sexuality studies, this course familiarizes students with the basic concepts in the field and draws connections to the world in which we live. An interdisciplinary field grounded in commitment to both intellectual rigor and individual and social transformation, WGSS asks fundamental questions about the conceptual and material conditions of our lives. What are “gender,” “sexuality,” “race,” and “class?” How are gender categories, in particular, constructed differently across social groups, nations, and historical periods? What are the connections between gender and socio-political categories such as race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, (dis)ability and others? How do power structures such as sexism, racism, heterosexism, and classism and others intersect? How can an understanding of gender and power enable us to act as agents of individual and social change? Emphasizing inquiry in transnational feminisms, critical race feminisms, and sexuality studies, this course examines gender within a broad nexus of identity categories, social positions, and power structures. Areas of focus may include queer and trans studies; feminist literatures and cultures; feminist science studies; reproductive politics; gender, labor and feminist economics, environmental and climate justice; the politics of desire, and others. Readings include a range of queer, feminist and women thinkers from around the world, reflecting diverse and interdisciplinary perspectives in the field.
WGSS 230 – Politics of Reproduction
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Laura Briggs
From the Black Panther Party and Young Lords in the 1970s to SisterSong and Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice in the 1990s to Ferguson and Familia: Trans Queer Liberation Movement in the present, communities of color and socialist feminists have fought for a comprehensive reproductive freedom platform--birth control and abortion to be sure, but also the right to raise wanted children that are safe, cherished, and educated. The names of these issues have included freedom from sterilization, high quality affordable day care, IVF, immigrant justice, social reproduction and wages for housework, welfare and neoliberalism, foreclosure and affordable housing.
WGSS 290B – Introduction to Sexuality Studies: Movements for Justice in the Contemporary World (DG, SB)
Monday, Wednesday 11:15-12:05 p.m.
Friday discussions 12:20 and 1:25
Svati Shah
This interdisciplinary course will help students to understand what the term "sexuality studies" means by providing a foundation in the key concepts, historical and social contexts, topics, and politics that inform the fields of sexuality studies; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender studies; and queer studies. Course instruction will be carried out through readings, lectures, films, and discussions, as well as individual and group assignments. Over the course of the semester, students will develop and use critical thinking skills to discern how "sexuality" becomes consolidated as a distinct category of analysis in the late nineteenth century, and what it means to speak about sexuality and transgender politics and categories today. Topics will include queer theories and politics, trans theories and politics, LGBTQ social movements within and outside of the US, relationships with feminist reproductive justice movements, heterosexuality, homophobia, and HIV/AIDS and health discourses. The range of materials covered will prioritize developing analyses that examine the interplay between sexuality and class, gender, race, ethnicity, and neoliberalism. (Gen. Ed. SB, DG)
WGSS 290C – History of Sexuality and Race in the U.S.
UWW Section – Kirsten Leng
Section 1 – Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m. – Kirsten Leng
Section 2 – Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m. – Derek Siegel
This course is an introduction to the interdisciplinary feminist study of sexuality. Its primary goal is to provide a forum for students to consider the history of sexuality and race in the U.S. both in terms of theoretical frameworks within women's and gender studies, and in terms of a range of sites where those theoretical approaches become material, are negotiated, or are shifted. The course is a fully interdisciplinary innovation. It will emphasize the links rather than differences between theory and practice and between cultural, material, and historical approaches to the body, gender, and sexuality. Throughout the course we will consider contemporary sexual politics "from the science of sex and sexuality to marriage debates" in light of histories of racial and sexual formations. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
WGSS 292S - Damsels in Distress and Heroes: Issues of Representations in Film
Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Rachel Briggs
This course will examine representations of damsels in distress and heroes in cinema. We will screen a wide variety of films, mostly mainstream Hollywood movies since the 1970s, including Thelma and Louise, Set it Off, and Jordan Peele?s Us. Course content will use feminist theories to explore and critique how race and gender work to construct both the damsel and the hero in cinematic representations. We will view and analyze films that construct white femininity as vulnerable and in need of protection, often from villains that are problematically depicted as ?other? and dangerous. Films that complicate narratives of the hero and the damsel will be viewed to explore ways in which our ideas of heroes, damsels, and narratives are constrained by generic categories prevalent in film?particularly in mainstream movies. We will interrogate the figure of the hero in relation to an ideology of individualism prevalent in U.S. neoliberalism and examine how narratives might depict characters that instead work in collective to create change.
WGSS 293D – Public Health/Private Decisions: Ethics and Medicine
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Banu Subramaniam/Karen Lederer
The field of medicine is shaped by both private and public dimensions. At the individual level, we are assured of privacy through HIPAA, and decisions on our individual health cannot be made without our consent. But there are also larger public dimensions to health that impinge on our individual and collective wellness. For example, if an individual chooses not to vaccinate themselves, that impacts the larger health of the public. What are the public costs and consequences of enacting or not enacting such rules? What are our public health and social obligations vs. our private needs and preferences? Using the tools of Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies, the course investigates the real life practices and dilemmas in medicine and the U.S. health care system. What ethical and professional guidelines do or don't or should doctors follow? How much authority should governments (state, local or federal) have to control actions for example in quarantines, reallocation of resources, and other questions. How should health care costs be regulated? What is and should be the role of industry and profit in producing medical products? Should governments be involved in production? Some of the issues explored include: the politics of health care, epidemics and pandemics, medicalization of childbirth, dr/patient confidentiality, categories of race, sex, and sexuality in medicine, disability, genetic testing, abortion, organ transplants, vaccination, euthanasia and more.
WGSS 293J/COMP-LIT 293J - Gender and Global Literatures
Tuesday, Thursday 4:00-5:15 p.m
Sandra Russell
Using the prisms of gender and sexuality studies, this course explores how "desire" is represented in global literatures. Adopting a comparative perspective, the course will examine representations of gendered, racialized, and sexualized bodies in contemporary works of fiction, non-fiction, poetry, and criticism. We will look at both the “local,” in the United States, and the “global,” in transnational contexts, including literatures from East/Central Europe and the Global South. The course will also explore how bodies and their literary representations shape and are shaped by our imaginings about nation, citizenship, and belonging. Authors may include, Audre Lorde, Tsitsi Dangarembga, Oksana Zabuzhko, Mariama Bâ, Carmen Maris Machado, Dubravka Ugrešić, among others.
WGSS 301 – Theorizing Gender, Race and Power
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m
Laura Briggs
Ways of analyzing and reflecting on current issues and controversies in feminist thought within an international context sensitive to class, race, and sexual power concerns. Topics may include work and international economic development, violence against women, racism, class and poverty, heterosexism, the social construction of gender, race and sexuality, global feminism, women, nationalism and the state, reproductive issues, pornography and media representations of women.
WGSS 310 – Writing for Majors
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45
Rachel Briggs
Fulfills Junior Year Writing requirement for majors. Modes of writing and argumentation useful for research, creative, and professional work in a variety of fields. Analysis of texts, organization of knowledge, and uses of evidence to articulate ideas to diverse audiences. Includes materials appropriate for popular and scholarly journal writing. Popular culture reviews, responses to public arguments, monographs, first-person narratives and grant proposals, and a section on archival and bibliographic resources in Women's Studies. May include writing for the Internet. Nonmajors admitted if space available. You must have fulfilled your CW Gen. Ed. requirement to enroll in this course.
WGSS 391A – Rape and Representation
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Laura Ciolkowski
Rebecca Solnit has written, "Liberation is always in part a storytelling process: breaking stories, breaking silences, making new stories. A free person tells her own story. A valued person lives in a society in which her story has a place." This course approaches the study of rape and other forms of gender-based violence with particular attention to storytelling, narrative, and the politics of representation. Our focus will be on the representation, politicization and theorization of violence through the interdisciplinary and intersectional lens of social justice feminism, gender and sexuality studies, and critical race theory. We will explore literary, artistic, legal, and activist efforts to interpret and address violence and, ultimately, to re-imagine and re-build the world otherwise; and we will interrogate the politics of silence and speech and the act of witnessing and testimony in the long history of organizing against sexual violence by a wide variety of actors, including people of color, incarcerated people, gender non-conforming people, enslaved, and undocumented people. Course materials will include fiction, poetry, and memoir, along with readings in law, trauma theory, carceral studies, reproductive health, rights and justice, and media studies.
WGSS 392J/692J – Feminisms and Environmental Justice
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Kiran Asher
While feminism and environmental justice are both political projects of social change, their objects or objectives are not the same. As we sink into the 21st century, amid looming fears of ecological catastrophes and socio-economic crises, is a conversation between these two projects likely to be productive for both struggles, or are their goals at odds with each other? This class will examine the perceived, existing, and potential links (or disjuncts) between feminism and environmental justice. Our interdisciplinary inquiry will be guided by questions such as: What is understood by the terms "feminism" and "environmental justice"? How have nature and the environment figured in feminist writings and feminist ideas of justice? Conversely, how do women and gender figure in ideas and struggles for environmental justice? Indeed, how do feminist ideals inform (or not) other struggles for social change (such as those of peasants, workers, ethnic groups, queer folk, and more)?
WGSS 392T/ENGLISH 392T - Reading Transgender
Monday, Wednesday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Joy Hayward-Jansen
From newspaper chronicles of nineteenth-century gender outlaws to the present-day explosion of transgender poetry, our personal, cultural, and political understandings of gender nonconformity in the United States have long been tied to particular modes of representation. Through sustained engagement with such creative work, as well as background reading in transgender history and theory, this course will explore the literary history of trans. Although we will pull material from across time and genre, we will focus on contemporary writers like Janet Mock and Joshua Jennifer Espinoza. Together, we will ask questions about authorship; the relationship between social conditions and representational strategies; the possibilities and limitations of different genres; and, ultimately, what makes literature "trans."
WGSS 395J – Imagining Justice
Tuesday 6:00-8:30 p.m.
Laura Ciolkowski
This course was designed to be conducted inside the Hampshire County Jail and House of Corrections in Northampton, enrolling an equal number of students from UMass and students who are incarcerated in the facility. Due to the ongoing health concerns both inside the jail and in the UMass community, however, the course has been changed to a fully remote format and may include incarcerated students only if the jail is able to accommodate distance learning this semester.
This course is an interdisciplinary exploration of the critical, aspirational, artistic, and creative forms that Justice takes in literature and the humanities more broadly. What sorts of ethical, social, and political questions are animated by writers and thinkers who seek to imagine and build a different world? What are the tangled roots of inequality and the legacies of sexual, racial, and economic injustice? How do writers, poets, artists, and “freedom dreamers,” as Robin D.G. Kelley so memorably called them, labor to expose injustice and re-invent our universe? Ursula Le Guin has written, “We will not know our own injustice if we cannot imagine justice. We will not be free if we do not imagine freedom. We cannot demand that anyone try to attain justice and freedom who has not had a chance to imagine them as attainable.” Taking Le Guin’s focus on the radical imagination as a starting point, this course explores the relationship between literature, the arts, and a wide range of social justice projects. Topics will include: Afrofuturism; utopian and dystopian fiction; art and social justice; bioethics and literature; prison writing, poetry, and the literature of restorative and transformative justice; diaspora studies and literary and artistic representations of movement, forced migration and displacement.
WGSS 492G/692G – Gender and U.S. Empire
Thursday 2:30-5:00 p.m.
Laura Briggs
There is an old debate among historians of the United States over whether to consider the US an empire; the answer turns, basically, on how you define ?empire.? This course is not very interested in that question. Rather, it begins with the problem of how to collapse two very different faces of the analysis of US imperialism. One is public/boy/policy/official: the military, diplomacy, NGOs, and medicine and science. The other is private/girl/racialized/marginal: questions of gender, children, race, indigeneity, sexuality. The course, asks, then: how has the United States gained influence globally through settler colonialism, territorial government, military interventions, counterinsurgency, the rule of experts, military bases, and U.S. global markets? What is the relationship of enslavement and debt in the context of the Americas? How have scholars in a variety of fields, including particularly history, anthropology, and interdisciplinary queer, feminist, ethnic, and American Studies, shed light on how gender, racialization, and sexuality are configured and reconfigured in relationship to US empire? This seminar will be reading-intensive.
WGSS 493W/693W (also ANTHRO 693W) - Worlds of Migration
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Svati Shah
This seminar takes an expansive view of migration, beginning with readings from archaeology, physical anthropology and antiquity, all of which show that humans have always traveled great distances, for resources, because of climate disturbances, and for reasons that are yet to be understood. Indeed, migration has been a consistent feature and `producer? of human existence. Taking human migration as the norm rather than the exception, we will examine when, how and why `nativism? and reactionary discourses of ethnic and racialized citizenship began imagining a different view of migration to the one we find in the records of human history. Readings on contemporary migration will focus on India, South Africa, Greece, Australia and the US, all of which have had intense debates on questions of nation, sexuality, race and labor in recent years. Theoretically, we will rely on critiques of migration that emphasize temporality, political economy and postcoloniality, especially with respect to understanding borders and how they are surveilled and enforced. Our readings and discussions will expand the terrain of what counts as `migration?, why certain forms of human movement across great distances are not thought of as `migration? at all, and why legal and policy debates around the world tend to focus on cross-border migration, often at the expense of equally important discussions of domestic, `circular? and seasonal migrations that people everywhere undertake as a means of survival.
WGSS 791B – Feminist Theory
Tuesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Fumi Okiji
This graduate seminar in feminist theory constitutes a core course for students enrolled in the Graduate Certificate in Advanced Feminist Studies. The seminar will be organized around questions that emerge for feminisms from the rubrics of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, transnationalism, human rights, economics and postcolonialism. Feminist theory is inherently interdisciplinary and we will draw on classic and contemporary writings from the many fields that contribute to the "field."
WGSS 692G/492G – Gender and U.S. Empire
Thursday 2:30-5:00 p.m.
Laura Briggs
There is an old debate among historians of the United States over whether to consider the US an empire; the answer turns, basically, on how you define ?empire.? This course is not very interested in that question. Rather, it begins with the problem of how to collapse two very different faces of the analysis of US imperialism. One is public/boy/policy/official: the military, diplomacy, NGOs, and medicine and science. The other is private/girl/racialized/marginal: questions of gender, children, race, indigeneity, sexuality. The course, asks, then: how has the United States gained influence globally through settler colonialism, territorial government, military interventions, counterinsurgency, the rule of experts, military bases, and U.S. global markets? What is the relationship of enslavement and debt in the context of the Americas? How have scholars in a variety of fields, including particularly history, anthropology, and interdisciplinary queer, feminist, ethnic, and American Studies, shed light on how gender, racialization, and sexuality are configured and reconfigured in relationship to US empire? This seminar will be reading-intensive.
WGSS 692J/392J – Feminisms and Environmental Justice
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Kiran Asher
While feminism and environmental justice are both political projects of social change, their objects or objectives are not the same. As we sink into the 21st century, amid looming fears of ecological catastrophes and socio-economic crises, is a conversation between these two projects likely to be productive for both struggles, or are their goals at odds with each other? This class will examine the perceived, existing, and potential links (or disjuncts) between feminism and environmental justice. Our interdisciplinary inquiry will be guided by questions such as: What is understood by the terms "feminism" and "environmental justice"? How have nature and the environment figured in feminist writings and feminist ideas of justice? Conversely, how do women and gender figure in ideas and struggles for environmental justice? Indeed, how do feminist ideals inform (or not) other struggles for social change (such as those of peasants, workers, ethnic groups, queer folk, and more)?
WGSS 693W/493W (also ANTHRO 693W) - Worlds of Migration
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Svati Shah
This seminar takes an expansive view of migration, beginning with readings from archaeology, physical anthropology and antiquity, all of which show that humans have always traveled great distances, for resources, because of climate disturbances, and for reasons that are yet to be understood. Indeed, migration has been a consistent feature and `producer? of human existence. Taking human migration as the norm rather than the exception, we will examine when, how and why `nativism? and reactionary discourses of ethnic and racialized citizenship began imagining a different view of migration to the one we find in the records of human history. Readings on contemporary migration will focus on India, South Africa, Greece, Australia and the US, all of which have had intense debates on questions of nation, sexuality, race and labor in recent years. Theoretically, we will rely on critiques of migration that emphasize temporality, political economy and postcoloniality, especially with respect to understanding borders and how they are surveilled and enforced. Our readings and discussions will expand the terrain of what counts as `migration?, why certain forms of human movement across great distances are not thought of as `migration? at all, and why legal and policy debates around the world tend to focus on cross-border migration, often at the expense of equally important discussions of domestic, `circular? and seasonal migrations that people everywhere undertake as a means of survival.
UMass Courses Outside of WGSS (Departmental)
AFROM 391K – Black Love, Sex and Marriage in the U.S.
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Traci Parker
This course explores African American love, sexual encounters, and marriage from slavery to present. It pays special attention to intraracial relationships among African Americans in the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements and beyond; but it also considers interracial relationships; sexual violence; reproduction and reproductive rights; childrearing and family; pleasure, happiness, and desire; pornography (or more broadly, the commodification and exploitation of black bodies); autonomy and property; and disease and medicine. As we interrogate these topics, we will investigate the political, economic, and social drivers of the aforementioned and their implications on black experiences.
ANTHRO 205 – Power and Inequality in the United States
Monday, Wednesday 11:15-12:05 p.m.
Discussions Wednesday and Friday
Jennifer Sandler
The roots of racism and sexism and the issues they raise. The cultural, biological, and social contexts of race and gender and examination of biological variation, genetic determinism, human adaptation, and the bases of human behavior. (Gen Ed SB, DU)
ART-HIS 397R/697R – Women in Architecture
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 p.m.
Margaret Vickery
This course begins with an examination of gendered, architectural spaces and how and why they were structured for women in the 19th century in both Britain and America. Looking at primary and secondary sources, students will gain insight into societal norms and how they conditioned architecture generally associated with women, such as houses, asylums, and early women's colleges. This study will serve as a platform from which to understand the pressures upon women and the pioneers who rejected such norms and pursued architecture as a profession. The latter half of the course will look at the work of early women architects, the hurdles they faced and the examples they set. The course will conclude with a critical examination of women architects practicing today and how they navigate the profession.
CHINESE 394WI – Women in Chinese Cultures
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 p.m.
Elena Chiu
This course focuses on the representation of women and the constitution of gender in Chinese culture as seen through literature and mass media. It focuses on literary and visual representations of women to examine important issues such as the relationship between gender and power, self and society, and tradition and modernity. This course has a dual goal: to explore how women's social role has evolved from pre-modern China to the present and to examine important issues such as women's agency, "inner-outer" division, and the yin-yang dichotomy in Chinese literature and culture. Satisfies the Integrative Experience requirement for BA-Chinse majors.
CLASSICS 335 – Women in Antiquity
Tuesday, Thursday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
TBD Lauren Caldwell
Lives, roles, contributions, and status of women in Greek and Roman societies, as reflected in classical literature and the archaeological record. (Gen.Ed. HS)
COMM 288 – Gender, Sex and Representation
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Sut Jhally
This course will examine the relationship between commercialized systems of representation and the way that gender and sexuality are thought of and organized in the culture. In particular, we will look at how commercial imagery impacts upon gender identity and the process of gender socialization. Central to this discussion will be the related issues of sexuality and sexual representation (and the key role played by advertising). Students can register for the in-person lecture version or the online lecture version. The in-person lectures will be available a day later to watch online. Exams for all students will take place in person three times during the semester.
COMM 497QP – Queer Performance and Publics
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Kimberlee Perez
The culture and legislature of the United States shape discourses that produce the rights, recognitions, relations, im/mobilities, in/visibility, and mis/understandings of LGBTQIA persons and groups. In the context of history and from various social positions, these changes are read and enacted in multiple ways. This course considers the ways LGBTQIA persons and groups use performance, on the stage and in everyday life, as a form of communication, as communicative strategies that generate dialogue, resistance, and social action in order to more fully participate in mainstream publics as well as create counterpublics and queer world-making.
ECON 347 – Economics of LGBT Issues
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Lee Badgett
The economic, social, and legal position of LGBT people has changed very rapidly in the U.S. This course focuses on how policy change happened and whether and why LGBT people still face economic inequality. This course explores that position from the perspective of economics, politics, and policy, primarily in the U.S., but also in other regions of the world. Major questions addressed include: What was the role of the economy and political factors in shaping LGBT identities and social movements? What factors made the LGBT social movement successful? What are the remaining sources of legal inequality? What causes employment discrimination against LGBT people? Does the state of the economy affect anti-LGBT prejudice and political change? Are LGBT families different? Why and how? Do public policies reduce economic inequality for LGBT people? What kinds of economic inequalities do LGBT people still face? What has been the role of business in supporting LGBT equality? How do businesses gain from LGBT equality? How does economic development contribute to LGBT equality and vice versa in other parts of the world?
ECON 348 – Political Economy of Women
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Lisa Saunders
A critical review of neoclassical, Marxist, and feminist economic theories pertaining to inequality between men and women in both the family and the firm. Open to students whose primary major is ECON, RES-ECON, STPEC, or MANAGECON. Prerequisite: ECON 103 or RES-ECON 102 Open only to Econ/STPEC/ResEc/MANAGECON primary majors until after juniors enroll.
ENGLISH 132 – Gender, Sexuality, Literature, and Culture
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 11:15-12:05 p.m. – TBD Angela Rain Kim
Monday, Wednesday 12:20-1:10 p.m. – TBD Tyler Smart
Literature treating the relationship between man and woman. Topics may include: the nature of love, the image of the hero and heroine, and definitions, past and present, of the masculine and feminine. (Gen. Ed. AL, DG)
ENGLISH 378 - Amerian Women Writers
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 9:05-9:55 a.m.
Gloria Biamonte
Fiction by women exploring the social and sexul arrangements of American culture.
GERMAN 363 – Witches: Myth and Reality
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 1:25-2:15 p.m.
Kerstin Mueller Dembling
This course focuses on various aspects of witches/witchcraft in order to examine the historical construction of the witch in the context of the social realities of women (and men) labeled as witches. The main areas covered are: European pagan religions and the spread of Christianity; the "Burning Times" in early modern Europe, with an emphasis on the German situation; 17th-century New England and the Salem witch trials; the images of witches in folk lore and fairy tales in the context of the historical persecutions; and contemporary Wiccan/witch practices in their historical context. The goal of the course is to deconstruct the stereotypes that many of us have about witches/witchcraft, especially concerning sexuality, gender, age, physical appearance, occult powers, and Satanism. Readings are drawn from documentary records of the witch persecutions and witch trials, literary representations, scholarly analyses of witch-related phenomena, and essays examining witches, witchcraft, and the witch persecutions from a contemporary feminist or neo-pagan perspective. The lectures will be supplemented by related material taken from current events in addition to visual material (videos, slides) drawn from art history, early modern witch literature, popular culture, and documentary sources. Conducted in English. (Gen Ed. I, DG)
HISTORY 297WL/LEGAL 297WL – Women and the Law
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Jennifer Nye
This course examines the legal status of women in the United States, focusing specifically on the 20th and 21st centuries. How has the law used gender, sex, sexuality, and race to legally enforce inequality between women and men (and among women)? We will examine the legal arguments feminists have used to advocate for legal change and how these arguments have changed over time, paying specific attention to debates about whether to make legal arguments based on formal equality, substantive equality, liberty, or privacy. We will also consider the pros and cons of using the law to advocate for social justice. Specific issues that may be covered include the civil and political participation of women (voting, jury service), employment discrimination, intimate relationships, reproduction, contraception and abortion, violence against women, women as criminal defendants, and women as law students, lawyers, and judges.
HISTORY 349H – Sex and Society
Monday, Wednesday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Jennifer Heuer
This honors course examines the social organization and cultural construction of gender and sexuality. We will look at how women and men experienced the dramatic changes that have affected Europe since 1789 and consider how much these developments were themselves influenced by ideas about masculinity and femininity. We will explore topics such as revolutionary definitions of citizenship; changing patterns of work and family life; fin-de-siecle links between crime, madness, and sexual perversion; the fascist cult of the body; battle grounds and home fronts during the world wars; gendered aspects of nationalism and European colonialism, and the sexual revolution of the post-war era.
HISTORY 389 – U.S. Women’s History Since 1890
Tuesday, Thursday 5:30-6:45 p.m.
Adeline Broussan
Explores the relationship of women to the social, cultural, economic and political developments shaping American society from 1890 to the present. Examines women's paid and unpaid labor, family life and sexuality, feminist movements and women's consciousness; emphasis on how class, race, ethnicity, and sexual choice have affected women's historical experience. Sophomore level and above. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
HISTORY 397REH – Race, Sex, and Empire: Britain and India
Monday, Wednesday 4:00-5:15 p.m
Priyanka Srivastava
Imperialism cannot be understood merely as an economic-military-territorial system of control and exploitation. Cultural domination is integral to any sustained system of global exploitation. Focusing on cultural aspects of imperialism, this course explores the racial and sexual politics of British Empire in India from the late eighteenth to early twentieth century. Using a combination of primary and secondary sources as well as visual and literary material the course will examine how socially constructed racial and gendered hierarchies, and myths about the sexual practices of colonized people were linked to the pursuit and maintenance of imperial rule over India. Simultaneously, we will consider how the complex intersection of race, sexuality, and class influenced the political and social cultures of both Britain (the metropole) and India (the colony). We will analyze key scholarly perspectives on the following: forms of colonial knowledge, theories of Aryanism, colonial masculinities, regulation of sexual behavior and prostitution, and the varying roles of colonial institutions, medical practices, popular discourses, and cultural artifacts in producing racial and sexual stereotypes and in creating distinctions between the colonizers and the colonized.
HISTORY 397RL – Rape Law: Gender, Race, (In)justice
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Jennifer Nye
The history of the legal response to rape has often resulted in injustice for both the victim/survivor and the alleged perpetrator. This course will examine the evolution of the U.S. legal system's treatment of rape, paying particular attention to the movement against lynching in the post-civil war era, the rise of the feminist anti-rape movement in the 1970s and the student movement against campus sexual assault. Through an analysis of court cases, legislation, and other texts we will consider the role sexual violence has played in maintaining gender and racialized power relationships. We will examine how and why such violence came to be seen as a crime, including who is worthy of the law's "protection" and who is subject to the law's “punishment." We will explore issues such as: rape as a form of racialized and imperial violence, especially against black and Native American women; the criminal legal treatment of rape and the evolution of the legal concepts of force, resistance, and consent; and the civil responses to rape under the Violence Against Women Act and Title IX. We'll also look at the international law responses to rape as a weapon of war. Finally, we'll think about how the legal responses, or non-responses, to rape have differed over time depending on factors such as the race/ethnicity, income level, immigration status, sexual orientation/gender identity, age, and marital status of the victim/survivor and the perpetrator. Finally, we’ll consider how the legal system can or should respond to rape, particularly in this age of mass criminalization and mass incarceration, and whether restorative justice responses might be preferable. Prior law-related coursework is helpful, but not required.
HONORS 499CN – Women Organize/Better World
Tuesday, Thursday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Graciela Monteagudo
Throughout the planet, women create common spaces for a better world in response to threats to their livelihood. This course uses the concept “woman” to refer to bodies feminized by power, to include both transgender and cis women. Students will analyze the axis of oppression and resistance that sit at the core of women’s experiences. Focusing on gender, sexuality, the economy, and ethnic/racial oppression will help students zero on the structural aspect of women’s organizing. Students will prepare to write their thesis by learning about a wide range of movements, such as movements against gender violence, against racism, for access to full reproductive rights, for living wages, and to de-naturalize domestic work’s hidden unpaid labor.
JAPANESE 391S/591S – Women Writers of Japan
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Amanda Seaman
See department for description.
JAPANESE 391M/591M – Queer Japan in Literature and Culture
Tuesday, Thursday 5:30-6:45 p.m.
Stephen Miller
See department for description.
JUDAIC 383/WGSS 391D – Women, Gender, Judaism
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Susan Shapiro
Historically, the figure of the "Jew" has been thought of as male. Making male experience normative has in turn shaped how Judaism itself has been understood. Shifting the basic terms and focus to include attention to women, gender, and sexuality significantly re-shapes our understanding of both Judaism and of Jewish culture/history. This course not only "fills in the blanks" of the missing women of Jewish history and tradition, but attends to questions of contemporary forms of Jewish women's and men's gendered lives, identities and sexualities. Beginning with the Bible, the course proceeds historically, concluding with contemporary views of and debates surrounding matters of gender and sexuality.
PHIL 371 – Philosophical Perspectives on Gender
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Louise Antony
This course will offer systematic examination of a variety of philosophical issues raised by the existence of gender roles in human society: Is the existence or content of such roles determined by nature? Are they inherently oppressive? How does the category gender interact with other socially significant categories, like race, class, and sexual orientation? What would gender equality look like? How do differences among women complicate attempts to generalize about gender? In the last part of the course, we will bring our theoretical insights to bear on some topical issue related to gender, chosen by the class, such as: Is affirmative action morally justifiable? Should pornography be regulated? Is abortion morally permissible? Reading will be drawn from historical and contemporary sources. Methods of analytical philosophy, particularly the construction and critical evaluation of arguments, will be emphasized throughout. (Gen. Ed. SB)
POLISCI 392AP – Activism, Participation and Protest
Wednesday 2:30-5:00 p.m.
Sonia Alvarez
This course examines contemporary forms of political activism, participation, and protest. Drawing on select case studies, principally from Latin America, the U.S, and Europe, we will pay particular attention to the dynamic development of feminisms, anti-racist/Black mobilizations, anti-austerity and pro-democracy protests, and LGBTQ organizing.
POLSCI 395F – Women and Politics
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Sarah Tanzi
Women have made tremendous gains in every aspect of social, economic and political life in the United States, particularly since the second wave of the women's movement in the 1960s. Yet, women's progress in terms of achieving elected office has reached a puzzling plateau since the 1990s. We will examine the course of women's movements towards achieving political incorporation in the United States. We consider the debate over why women's political progress has stagnated and we consider the impact of the gender imbalance in American electoral politics - to what extent do these disparities matter? We begin by exploring women's suffrage campaigns and voting behavior in the period immediately following their achievement of the right to vote and beyond. We then turn to the relationship between women and party politics before discussing the challenges women face as candidates in American politics. We will focus on understanding why women remain underrepresented as legislators. We then consider the extent to which women's participation in campaigns and elections makes a substantive difference in policy making.
PSYCH 391ZZ – Psychology of the Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Experience
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 11:15-12:05
John Bickford
Students in this course will explore psychological theory and research pertaining to gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. Topics include sexual orientation, sexual identity development, stigma management, heterosexism & homonegativity, gender roles, same-sex relationships, LGB families, LGB diversity, and LGB mental health.
PUBHLTH 328 - Fundamentals of Women's Health
Thursday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Sara Sabelawski
This course will provide a comprehensive overview of issues related to health in women, addressing areas including but not limited to biology, psychology, geography, economics, health policy, and social issues.
PUBHLTH 372 – Maternal and Child Health in the Developing World
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Bridget Thompson
This course is designed to give students a broad overview to pertinent topics in the field of global maternal and child health. Topics covered include causes of maternal and infant mortality, treatment of malaria in pregnancy, HIV and pregnancy, infant nutrition, maternal and child nutrition, gender roles, and cultural and religious concepts in relation to working in a global setting. This course will explore approaches to public health programming that acknowledge and incorporate cultural differences.
SOC 106 – Race, Gender, Class and Ethnicity
Society RAP Section in Moore Hall
Kelly Giles
Introduction to Sociology. Analysis of the consequences of membership in racial, gender, class and ethnic groups on social, economic and political life. (Gen.Ed. SB, DU)
Open to first year Exploring Society RAP students in Moore Hall. http://www.umass.edu/rap/exploring-society-rap
Students in Exploring Society RAP in Moore Hall will enroll together in "Race, Gender, Class and Ethnicity" (Sociology 106). In this class, we will examine how sociologists study social inequalities related to race, ethnicity, class, gender, and sexuality. (1) We will begin by exploring how these identities are experienced in people's everyday lives. (2) Next, we will examine how these identities are constructed and maintained within our dominant institutions from families, schools, and workplaces, to media and the state. (3) We will end the course by considering creative solutions that work to end social inequalities as seen through resistance and social change efforts. Besides thinking sociologically about the world around you through engaging with foundational and cutting edge sociological research and theory, you will take part in interactive lectures, class discussions and group work with your peers. This course is designed to be useful for your success in college by developing your critical thinking, writing, researching, and speaking skills. It will also be of interest to those concerned with social justice efforts, and who wish to discuss ways of creating positive social change.
SOC 106 – Race, Gender, Class and Ethnicity
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
C.N. Le
Introduction to Sociology. Analysis of the consequences of membership in racial, gender, class and ethnic groups on social, economic and political life. (Gen.Ed. SB, DU)
SOC 283 – Gender & Society
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 11:15-12:05 p.m.
TBD Pia Furkan
Analysis of: 1) historical and cross-cultural variation in positions and relationships of women and men; 2) contemporary creation and internalization of gender and maintenance of gender differences in adult life; 3) recent social movements to transform or maintain "traditional" positions of women and men. Prerequisite: 100-level Sociology course.
UMass Courses Outside of WGSS (Component)
For component courses, majors and minors must focus their work on WGSS topics in order for these courses to count. Note that 100-level courses only count towards the minor.
AFROAM 245 – The Slave Narrative
Tuesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
A Yemisi Jimoh
An examination of the African American genre of slave narratives, from the shortest paragraph-long examinations to book-length manifestations that captured the imaginations of 19th century America and the world. The course will encompass issues of race, gender, sexuality, and historical and literacy contexts of important narratives, which may include those of Olaudah Equiano, Nat Turner, Frederick Douglass, William Wells Brown, and Harriet Jacobs, as well as modern and contemporary narratives influenced by the genre.
AFROAM 297B – Black Workers in the U.S.
Wednesday 6:00-8:30 p.m.
John Bracey
This seminar will attempt to accomplish two goals; to examine some of the significant issues in the history of African American workers since Emancipation and to introduce you to some of the most recent scholarship addressing those issues. We will begin with general studies of the history of capitalism in the U.S. and Black workers then proceed to a study of 1) The role of Black labor in several industries, 2) Black women as workers 3) Black labor and the Black power movement and 4) Herbert Hill's critiques of organized labor and the labor history establishment.
AFROAM 391L – Soul, Country and the USA
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Stephanie Shonekan
Soul and country are musical genres that are unmistakably and proudly native to the United States. However, they often appear to be poles apart in terms of their audiences, aesthetics, messages, and most importantly how they communicate the notion of what it is to be an American. In this class, students will be inspired to think critically about the impact and significance of American popular music generally. More specifically, students will focus on how soul and country music are rooted in the history, culture and identity of the people who create and "consume" them. Students will study the evolution and aesthetics of these genres and will interrogate how they deal with concepts like identity, class, race, religion, and ethnicity; gender and sexuality; politics and patriotism.
ANTHRO 258 – Food and Culture
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m.
TBD Dana Conzo
This course surveys how cultural anthropologists have studied the big questions about food and culture. How and why do people restrict what foods are considered "edible" or morally acceptable? How is food processed and prepared, and what does food tell us about other aspects of culture like gender and ethnic identity? How have power issues of gender, class, and colonialism shaped people's access to food? How has industrialization changed food, and where are foodways headed in the future? Along the way, students will read and see films about foodways in Europe, Africa, Asia, the United States, and Latin America. (Gen. Ed. SB, DG)
ART-HIS 324/624 – Modern Art, 1880-present
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m.
Karen Kurczynski
This course takes a new and interactive look at 20th Century art, from the move toward total abstraction around 1913 to the development of Postmodernism in the 1980s. We examine the impact on art of social and political events such as World War I, the Russian Revolution, the rise of Fascism, the Mexican Revolution, the New Woman in the 1920s, World War II, the Cold War, and the rise of consumer culture. We will investigate the origins and complex meanings of movements such as Fauvism, Cubism, Dada, Surrealism, Mexican Muralism, Abstract Expressionism, and Pop Art. We will reconsider and reevaluate major issues in Modern art and culture such as the evolution of personal expression, the recognition of non-western culture in Euro-America, the interest in abstraction as a universal language, new technologies in art, the politics of the avant-garde and its attempts to reconnect art and life, issues of gender, race and representation, the role of myth and the unconscious, and the dialogue between art and popular culture. (Gen. Ed. AT, DG)
ART-HIS 391C – Caravaggio
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Monika Schmitter
Was Caravaggio a "rebel" artist? What was so revolutionary about his art? How did it relate to violence of his times, to the Catholic Church, to his own sexuality? These are some of the questions we will investigate in this course. Together we will create a virtual exhibition of Caravaggio's paintings examining the themes of his art and investigating their resonances for our lives today and for contemporary art. Assignments include assembling the collaborative exhibition website, as well as writing individual research papers.
ASIAN 397B – Bridging Asian and Asian American
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
C.N. Le
Talks by local and visiting faculty, as well as film screenings and performances, designed to introduce students to the multi-layered connections between Asia and Asian America. Areas that will be considered include: popular culture, youth subcultures, labor, issues of gender and sexuality, and migration and immigrant communities. Discussions emphasize how issues play out at local, national and transnational levels.
COMM 271 – Humor in Society
Monday, Wednesday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Stephen Olbrys Gencarella
This course examines humor as a significant form of creative expression in social and political life. In recent decades, scholars of all persuasions from the humanities, social sciences, and even hard sciences have examined this subject through a critical lens, leading to the development of an interdisciplinary field known as humor studies. This course provides an introduction to that burgeoning field. Topics will include different theories of humor, the relationship between humor and play, the differences between humor and comedy, the use of humor in the redress of political and social tensions, the importance of the body in humor, and the role of humor in maintaining identity, especially in the negotiation of race, gender, class, ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation. (Gen. Ed. SB) This course was formerly numbered COMM 297C. If you have already taken COMM 297C you cannot take this course.
COMM 297FA – Spirit and Stories: The Folklore of Alcohol
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Stephen Olbrys Gencarella
This course examines the vast store of folklore inspired by and directed at alcohol and its cultural reach. Folklore means traditional expressive practices ranging from the verbal arts (such as stories and songs) to material culture (such as crafts and medicine) to customary activities (such as rituals and beliefs). The range of folklore herein is both global and ancient; that is, it concerns the entire history of alcohol, which in effect necessitates attention to the entire history of humanity in a global perspective. Specific lectures will address cultural differences concerning alcohol in the negotiation of race, ethnicity, class, nationhood, religion, gender, and political identity.
COMM 297FS – Introduction to Fashion Studies
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Anne Ciecko
See department for description.
COMM 338 – Children, Teens and Media
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m.
Erica Scharer
In this seminar, we will explore the role of media (television, Internet, video games, mobile media, film, etc.) in shaping the lives of children and teens. We will consider how much time children devote to various media, what they think about what they encounter through media, and the implications of media for children's lives. We will draw on social science research to examine a wide range of topics, including: depictions of race, class, gender, and sexuality in ads, programming, and other media forms; the role of media in the development of adolescent identity; media uses and effects in the realms of educational TV and apps, advertising and consumer culture, violence, and sex; and the possibilities of media literacy, parental rules and dialogue, and public policies to shape children's interactions with media.
COMM 394I – Performance and the Politics of Race
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Kimberlee Perez
This course looks at the ways race, racial identities, and interracial relations are formed through and by communication practices in present-day U.S. America. Though focusing on U.S. America in the current historical moment, the course takes into account the ways history as well as the transnational flows of people and capital inform and define conversations about race and racial identities. Race will be discussed as intersectional, taking into account the ways race is understood and performed in relation to gender, sexuality, class, and nation. The course will focus on the performance and communications of race, ranging from everyday interactions, personal narratives and storytelling, intra- and inter-racial dialogue, and staged performances.
COMP-LIT – Comedy
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
TBD
Our course begins with the premise that contemporary American comedy is informed by the histories of ethnic American groups -- African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans and U.S. Latinos/Latinas -- along with issues of race, class, sexuality and citizenship. American comedians, independent filmmakers, feminists and transgendered comics deploy the language of comedy to invoke serious social matters in contemporary American life: racism, heterosexism, homophobia, class biases against the poor and the undocumented, misogyny, war and other burning issues of the day. We will thus consider that the ends of comedy are more than laughter. Comedy confronts political issues that are constitutive of and threatening to the U.S. body politic. (Gen. Ed. AL)
EDUC 590Z - Critical Pedagogy of Media and Literature
Tuesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Kysa Nygreen
This course brings the rigorous study of educational inequality together with the tools of critical media analysis to explore representations and realities of inequality in schools with a focus on race, class, ability, gender, and sexuality. Students will also develop skills to teach for critical media literacy using critical pedagogical methods.
ENGLISH 269 – American Literature and Culture after 1865
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Sarah Patterson
Figures of Contestation in American Literature and Film. In this class, we will address literary and theoretical works that tackle America’s changing cultural landscape from 1865 to 1930. In mainstream entertainment culture, fiction constituted the one of the nation’s most popular forms of artistic and political expression, creating spaces for dissent and hagiography alike. From images of workers in industrial squalor, poverty and prostitution in urban city streets to utopian depictions of feminist communities and rallying orations at national conventions, this course will introduce turn-of-the-century figures of contestation taken from the Civil War, Gilded Age, Women’s Rights and the Harlem Renaissance eras. Canonical and lesser-known readings include Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s Herland, Paul Laurence Dunbar’s The Sport of the Gods, Nella Larsen’s Quicksand and the 1915 propaganda film Birth of a Nation. Alongside core readings and film viewings, students will have an opportunity to experience the textual formats and iconography that undergirded past reading cultures using digitized historical newspapers and image archives. Assignments include discussion, a class presentation and short critical responses.
ENGLISH 279 – Introduction to American Studies
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Hoang Phan
Interdisciplinary approach to the study of American culture. Focus on issues of race, class, gender, and ethnicity. Readings drawn from literature, history, the social sciences, philosophy and fine arts. Supplemented with audio-visual materialsofilms , slides of paintings, architecture, photography and material culture, and music. Required for students with a concentration in American Studies. (Gen. Ed. AL, DU)
ENGLISH 359 – The Victorian Imagination
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m.
Jill Franks
We will focus on Jane Austen and Charles Dickens—their lives and selected works. Austen’s prolific years were the 1810s; Dickens’s, the 1840s and 1850s. Reading key works of both authors, we’ll trace developments in English history from Austen’s Regency period through Dickens’s mid-Victorian era. Supplementing our novels with Claire Tomalin’s authoritative biographies of the writers, we’ll ground our reading of fictional narratives in real-life events and the authors’ personal challenges. Discussion of social issues will include these topics: gender roles, the marriage market, class satire, poverty, imperialism, the prison system, and racism.
FRENCHST 280 - Love & Sex in French Culture
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Patrick Mensah
Is love a French invention? How do we explore, through literature, the substance behind the stereotypical association of love, romance, and sexual pleasure with French culture? Do sex, passion, and love always unite in the pursuit of emotional fulfillment in human relations, according to this literature? What affiliations does this literature interweave between such relations of love, requited or unrequited, and pleasure, enjoyment, freedom, self-empowerment, on the one hand, and on the other hand, suffering, jealousy, crime, violence, negativity, notions of perversion, morbidity, and even death? How are problems of gender roles and human sexuality --i.e. Hetero-, bi-, homo- and other forms of sexuality--approached in this literature? What connections or conflicts are revealed in this literature between human love relationships and the social norms and conventions within which they occur, as well as the forms of political governance that have been practiced in France over the centuries? Those are some of the issues that are investigated in this course, which offers a broad historical overview of selective ways in which love, passion, desire and erotic behavior in French culture have been represented and understood in Literature and, more recently, in film, from the middle ages to the twentieth century. Readings are from major French authors drawn from various centuries such as Marie de France, Beroul, Moliere, de Sade, Flaubert, Gide, and Duras. They will be supplemented with screenings of optional films that are based on those texts or are pertinent to them in important ways. (Gen. Ed. AL)
FRENCHST 444/644 – Eighteenth Century Theatre and Novel
Thursday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Patrick Mensah
The French Enlightenment involved a critical renewal of European political and philosophical self-understanding through an iconoclastic revision of literary and philosophical representational forms associated with the ancient regime. This ‘renewal’ entailed a rethinking of the role of reason in political and social life, a re-conception of gender relations, and a redefinition of Europe’s relationship with non-European cultures. We will follow the staging of this triple agenda in the works (novels and plays) of Montesquieu, Beaumarchais, Marivaus, Rousseau, Diderot, Laclos, Prevost, Voltaire, and other luminaries of the Encyclopedie movement.
GERMAN 270 – From the Grimms to Disney
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Sara Jackson
This course focuses on selected fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm (Hansel & Gretel, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, Iron Hans) and Hans Christian Andersen (Little Sea Maid, The Red Shoes), locating them in the 19th-century German or Danish culture of their origins and then examining how they became transformed into perennial favorites of U.S. popular culture through their adaptations by Disney (feature animation films), Broadway (musicals), or bestselling self-help books (Iron John, Women Who Run With the Wolves). As a point of comparison, this course will also introduce popular fairy-tale films of the former East Germany (GDR) from the UMass DEFA archives & library, which present the same stories as popular fare in a Cold War communinistcommunist cultural context. Conducted in English. (Gen. Ed. AL).
HISTORY 154 – Social Change in the 1960s
Social Justice RAP – Moore Hall
Joie-Lynn Campbell Jason Higgins
Open to first-year students in the Connecting to Social Justice RAP in Moore Hall. Students in Connecting with Social Justice RAP in Moore Hall will enroll together in "Social Change in the 1960s" (History 154). This course examines the major historical events and social justice movements that took place from the mid ?1950s into the 1970s through the lens of pop culture, including rock 'n' roll. Considering race, class, gender, sexuality, and nation, students will be encouraged to think critically about music's impact then, as well as its connections to the world today
HISTORY 154 – Social Change in the 1960s
Social Justice RAP – Kennedy Hall
Andrew Grim
Few periods in United States. history experienced as much change and turmoil as the "Long Sixties" (1954-1975), when powerful social movements overhauled American gender norms, restructured the Democratic and Republican parties, and abolished the South's racist "Jim Crow" regime. This course examines the movements that defined this era. We will explore the civil rights and Black Power movements; the student New Left and the antiwar movement; the women's and gay liberation movements; struggles for Asian American, Chicano/a, Native American, and Puerto Rican freedom; as well as the rise of conservatism. Throughout the semester, we will assess Sixties social movements' ideals, strategies, and achievements, and their ongoing influence upon U.S. politics, society, and culture. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
HISTORY 264 – History of Health Care and Medicine in the U.S.
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-10:5 a.m.
Friday discussions
Emily Hamilton
This course explores the history and social meaning of medicine, medical practice, health care, and disease in the United States from 1600 to the present. Using a variety of sources aimed at diverse audiences students will investigate topics such as: the evolution of beliefs about the body; medical and social responses to infectious and chronic disease; the rise of medical science and medical organizations; the development of medical technologies; mental health diagnosis and treatment; changing conceptions of the body; the training, role, and image of medical practitioners and the role of public and government institutions in promoting health practices and disease treatments. We will pay particular attention to the human experience of medicine, with readings on the experience of being ill, the delivery of compassionate care, and the nature of the relationship between practitioners and patients. Course themes will include race, gender, cultural diversity, women and gender, social movements, science, technology, politics, industry, and ethics. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
LABOR 297S/SOCIOL 297S – Sports, Labor and Social Justice
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Jerrold Levinsky
Protests by professional and amateur athletes against racial and gender discrimination are not new or isolated events in U.S. history. In fact, sports have long been connected to the social, economic, and political issues of the day. With a particular focus on labor and civil rights struggle, our goal is to better understand the history of sports as it relates to social class, race, and gender. Students will analyze current controversies through this critical approach to sports and society.
PUBLHLTH 389 – Health Inequities
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 10:10-11:00 a.m.
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 11:!5-12:05 p.m.
Jya Plavin
While the health and wellbeing of the nation has improved overall, racial, ethnic, gender and sexuality disparities in morbidity and mortality persist. To successfully address growing disparities, it is important to understand social determinants of health and translate current knowledge into specific strategies to undo health inequalities. This course will explore social justice as a philosophical underpinning of public health and will consider the etiology of disease rooted in social conditions. It aims to strengthen critical thinking, self-discovery, and knowledge of ways in which socioeconomic, political, and cultural systems structure health outcomes. (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
PSYCH 391U – Close Relationships
Tuesday, Thursday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Evelyn Mercado
This course will explore the many psychological mechanisms that play a part in close personal relationships. Using psychological research as our foundation, students will be led in discussions and about attraction, love, lust, and other topics pertinent to close relationships. Students will be asked to think deeply about the social constructs that influence human preferences, and the bio-psychosocial processes at play. The course will begin by dissecting the concepts of attraction and love. We will also discuss attachment theory and interpersonal dynamics such as jealousy, power, and communication. We will explore how notions of love and attraction are defined or re-defined or lived by the LGBTQ+ community, and how or why these relationships come/came to be stigmatized. Lastly, we will finish the course discussing the portrayal of sex in the media and online, and its implications on sex education and sexual understanding.
SOCIOL 222 – The Family
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:20 p.m.
Discussions Friday
Naomi Gerstel
First part: historical transformations in family life (relationships between husbands and wives, position and treatment of children, importance of kinship ties); second part: the contemporary family through life course (choice of a mate, relations in marriage, parenthood, breakup of the family unit). (Gen.Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 224 – Social Class & Inequality
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 10:10-11:00 a.m.
TBD Venus Green
The nature of social classes in society from the viewpoint of differences in economic power, political power, and social status. Why stratification exists, its internal dynamics, and its effects on individuals, subgroups, and the society as a whole. Problems of poverty and the uses of power. (Gen.Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 248 – Conformity and Deviance
Monday, Wednesday, Friday 9:05-9:55 a.m.
TBD Anthony Huaqui
This course examines the social processes of rule-making and rule-breaking, and how categories of "normal" and "deviance" change historically. We examine different theories of conformity and deviance, using topics such as sexuality and politics.
SOCIOL 288 – Introduction to Latin American Societies
Monday, Wednesday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Millicent Thayer
This class will serve as a gateway into the discipline of sociology. It examines Latin America using a sociological lens and helps students to grasp some of the basic concepts that sociologists use to understand the social world. At the same time, it takes an interdisciplinary approach drawing on history, anthropology, political science, development and education, as well as sociology.
SOCIOL 329 – Social Movements
Monday, Wednesday 4:00-5:15 p.m.
Millicent Thayer
Explores how and why social movements occur, what strategies they use, how they create collective identities, how issues such as civil rights, workers' rights, women's rights, the environment, the global economy mobilize activists' participation within the circumstances faced.
SOCIOL 397ED – Sociology of Eating Disorders
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Veronica Everett
This course is designed to look at eating disorders through the lens of Sociology. We will be discussing relevant topics such as social narratives around body image and media (including social media), gender norms, race, feminism, socioeconomic influences related to weight, the history of some of these variables and how they've evolved over time. We will also look at issues related to development and mental health including self-esteem, peer relationships, family systems/environment, mood disorders, trauma, diagnoses, healthcare policy and treatment. Lastly, as its relevant to you as students, we will look at college life and eating disorders as it is often a time when eating disorders develop or peak.
STPEC 189 – Introduction to Radical Social Theory
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Graciela Monteagudo
This is an introductory course to radical social theory. Our focus is the history of social thought in the West, and the decolonial critiques of some of these ideas. In this course, students will learn that "radical" means "at the root," and radical social theory is theory that explains the roots of social inequalities and proposes ways of transforming society to build a better world. As a General Education course, our goal is for students to have the opportunity to discuss key societal issues through a variety of disciplines, including philosophy, anthropology, history, economics, Black, Latinx, and gender and sexuality studies. Through analysis of readings and films, we will explore the connection between cultural processes and power in the West and the implications for People of Color on a global scale and across time and space. Seats in this course are reserved for freshmen and sophomores of SBS or HFA. STPEC students may enroll. Gen Ed: HS and DG
STPEC 391H – Core Seminar I
Tuesday, Thursday 2:30-3:45 p.m.
Graciela Monteagudo
STPEC Core Seminar I focuses on major theoretical currents in political theory and the historical circumstances that gave rise to those theories - in particular Liberalism, Marxism, Anarchism, Decolonial, and Poststructural theories. As this is an interdisciplinary class, we will be bringing in analytic tools from various disciplines paying attention to the historical construction and reception of ideas. Enrollment is limited to 15 students. STPEC majors only.
STPEC 392H - Core Seminar II
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Shemon Salam
STPEC Core Seminar II focuses on the development of social struggles, political economy, and theory from the 1960s to the present. Continuing our analysis of racial capitalism and empire, Core II will explore how these formations changed due to economic crisis, national liberation, and class struggle. We will research the connections between race, class, gender, sexuality, disease, and other axes of oppression under racial capitalism. A major research paper of the student's choosing will be produced over the course of the semester allowing students to more deeply engage with a topic, and to practice applying the critical methodological and theoretical tools developed in the STPEC curriculum. Enrollment is limited to 15 students. STPEC majors only.
STPEC 492H – Focus Seminar II
Wednesday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Stellan Vinthagen
Topic: Constructive Resistance: Building a new society out of the ashes of the old
This course focuses on movements and communities that apply "constructive resistance" or build new societies while simultaneously resisting the existing oppressive systems. Constructive resistance is pre-figurative action that change here and now (as "direct action"), and as such it stands in contrast to "protest," "demands" or "respectability politics" by activists who wants to compel or force the state, elites or others to create the change. Constructive resistance is a neglected concept, in academia and among activists, despite being practiced everywhere. It shows a wide variation, with more or less "construction" of alternatives or “resistance” to existing systems; and, is guided by very different values, principles, strategies and visions. Such productive resistance is particularly developed among Indigenous communities and poor people's movements in the Global South. They fight to survive against physical and cultural genocide, marginalization or colonization of their land, resources and communities, and stay alive by regenerating, recreating and developing resilience through autonomous social structures. They create parallel societies of political, economic, cultural or spiritual organizations, which also serve as the basis of their ability to resist repression, cooptation and marginalization. We also find at least elements of "constructive resistance" in the Global North, as for example within cooperatives, counter-cultural centers, food-banks, mutual aid networks, local exchange trading systems, non-profit banks, and within resistance movements that care for each other during repression. This course builds on both academic and activist texts, films and examples, making sure the course has both a clear activist perspective and an academic basis. The course gives social science concepts and theories to analyze resistance, creation of alternatives and parallel structures, but focuses on empirical examples of how poor and marginalized communities go to direct action: try to create autonomy, self-governance and build their own constructive programs and resist injustices. Key themes are community-based struggles and the combination of resisting injustice with building new societies and alternatives. Seminars will involve students through discussions, which follow up on background lectures, guest visits from researchers and activists, films, literature readings, student projects, etc. Assignments consist mainly of a book review, oral presentations, and a course paper analyzing a chosen case of relevance. Extra credits are offered for excursions to relevant projects in New England. The overall aim with this course is to develop strategies of social change: to critically assess popular struggles that build alternative ways of life, and what challenges and possibilities movement activists face when they try to combine resistance with the building of new societies.
STPEC 320 – Writing for Critical Consciousness
Monday 4:00-6:30 p.m.
Graciela Monteagudo
Students hone skills necessary to write in the genres that STPEC majors encounter most often in the course of their academic and professional careers. Contact department for details.
SPANISH 324 – Introduction to Latina/o Literature
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m.
Stephanie Fetta
In this course students will think critically about the various "wild tongues" that have defined U.S. Latinx literature and culture in the 20th and 21st centuries. Our analysis will center on issues of power as they are experienced by diverse U.S. Latinx populations. Specifically, we will focus on Latinx writers, performers, and scholars that push the boundaries of acceptable gender, sexuality, and racialization within U.S. Latinx cultures, focusing specifically on Caribbean and Chicanx populations in the United States. Students will be required to engage critically with primary texts, as well as reflect on the ways in which these issues exist in the world around us. Because Latinx thinkers often blur the boundaries of traditional literary and scholarly genres, we will consider pinnacle works of Latinx studies - such as those of Pedro Pietri, Gloria Anzaldua, and Junot Diaz - alongside other forms of cultural production, such as performance art and film. We will also try our hands at these art forms in an effort to find new, embodied ways to interact with expressions of Latinx culture. Course texts are written in both English and Spanish. Class discussion will take place in Spanish. All assignments must be completed in Spanish. (Gen. Ed. AL, DU)
THEATER 130 – Contemporary Playwrights of Color
Tuesday, Thursday 10:00-11:15 a.m. – Priscilla Page
Tuesday, Thursday 11:30-12:45 p.m. – TBD Tatiana Godfrey
Theater movements of Blacks, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans, and the body of literature by contemporary playwrights of color within a historical context. (Gen. Ed. AL, DU)
THEATER 329 – Contemporary Native American Performance
Tuesday, Thursday 1:00-2:15 p.m.
Priscilla Page
Contemporary Native American Performance is an area of study with deep roots in culturally specific production and an ever-evolving practice by a wide range of artists. In this Junior Year Writing course we will read plays and performative texts created by Native American artists since the 1960's. We will begin our study by acknowledging the limitations of language and the always contentious issue of labels. Within this critical framework, we will study the art as well as the attending social, political, and historical contexts. We will examine innovations and experimentation with artistic form and study each artist’s use of language, style and thematic content. Imperative topics of discussion will include gender roles, expressions of sexuality, class position, and cultural identity as articulated by the artists we study. Theater is an interactive, living art form. With this in mind, we will attend relevant performances and generate in-class performances.
SUMMER/FALL 2020 UWW (ONLINE) COURSES
WGSS Majors and Minors must focus their papers or projects on WGSS topics to count courses listed as "component." 100-level courses only count toward the minor. All other courses listed 200-level and above may count towards the minor. Registration
WGSS 187 – Gender, Sexuality and Culture
Adina Giannelli
Summer Sessions 1 and 2 (Session 2 cancelled)
This course offers an introduction to some of the basic concepts and theoretical perspectives in Women, Gender and Sexuality Studies. Drawing on disciplinary, interdisciplinary and cross-cultural studies, students will engage critically with issues such as gender inequities, sexuality, families, work, media images, queer issues, masculinity, reproductive rights, and history. Throughout the course, students will explore how experiences of gender and sexuality intersect with other social constructs of difference, including race/ethnicity, class, and age. Special attention will be paid to the ways in which interlocking systems of oppression have shaped and influenced the historical, cultural, social, political, and economical contexts of our lives, and the social movements at the local, national and transnational levels which have led to key transformations. (Gen. Ed. I, DU)
WGSS 292S – The Cultural Politics of Pandemics
Kirsten Leng
Summer Session 2
The ongoing COVID-19 crisis has shed light—often harsh light—upon the realities of life in 2020. It has exposed the implications of the decades-long rollback of social and economic welfare programs; the vulnerability of globally-interconnected economic systems premised on free markets and entrepreneurship; the gendered and raced division of productive and reproductive labour; and the perennial racist and xenophobic impulses that seek to scapegoat a crisis. COVID-19 has also raised questions about the nature of community and compassion, the importance of interpersonal relationships, the meaning of freedom in public health emergencies, and the ethics of collective responsibility, particularly for the most vulnerable among us. In The Cultural Politics of Pandemics, we will explore all of these issues, using COVID-19 as a launching point but broadening out to consider pandemics of the past. Materials will include theoretical and historical texts regarding health and pandemics, contemporary journalistic coverage, and cultural works including novellas, graphic novels, and films.
WGSS 295M - Making Monsters: Gender, Race and Monstrosity From Mary Shelley to the Walking Dead
Laura Ciolkowski
Summer Session 2
From Frankenstein's monster to the Walking Dead the figure of the monster has always been a powerful presence, threatening social order, unsettling racial divisions and sexual norms, inciting fear and desire, and complicating our understanding of Nature and the Human. In this course we will grapple with the representation of monstrosity in literature, art, and classic and contemporary film. Approaching the figure of the monster through the interdisciplinary and intersectional lens of social justice feminism, gender and sexuality studies, and critical race theory, we will ask how monstrosity is represented and defined at various moments in history, what sociocultural and political purposes are served, and how the transgressive figure of the monster helps us to discipline, organize, and also reimagine fundamental aspects of ourselves and the world around us. How do monsters help us to classify, regulate, and also refigure what (and who) gets to count as Human? What do monsters reveal for us about our complicated investments in cultural norms, our nuanced relationships to racialized and sexualized “difference,” and the desire to reinvent our universe and ourselves otherwise? Course materials may include: Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, Katherine Dunn, Geek Love; Octavia Butler, Fledgling; William Shakespeare, The Tempest; Angela Carter, Black Venus; the art of Kara Walker and Romare Bearden; and film and video, including Jordan Peele’s Get Out and Us; episodes from The Walking Dead and Black Mirror; Monsters, Inc.; and Nosferatu.
WGSS 395G – Gender, Sexuality, Race and the Law: Critical Interventions
Adina Giannelli
Summer Session 1
Drawing on U.S. Supreme Court jurisprudence, gender and sexuality studies, sociological literature, policy papers, documentary, and international law, we will examine the ways in which gender, sexuality, and race are constructed, contested, and regulated within legal, legislative, and juridical frameworks, across systems, spaces, and temporalities. Throughout this course, we will consider what the law is, what it does, how it operates to uphold systems of power and oppression and how it can be deployed in the service of intervention. More relevant issues and problems within civil rights will be considered including: constitutional, family, and criminal law; the legal construction of race, gender, and sexuality; feminist approaches to the law of gender, sexuality, and race; the role of privacy, morality, and "rights" in the regulation of sexuality and the family; reproductive rights; adoption, bioethics, family formation, immigration, reproductive technologies, and violence; and finally, the relationship between legal intervention, critical race & feminist theory, activism, and praxis.
ANTHRO 106 – Culture Through Film
Justin Helepololei
Summer Session 1
Component
Exploration of different societies and cultures, and of the field of cultural anthropology through the medium of film. Ethnographic and documentary films; focus on gender roles, ethnicity, race, class, religion, politics, and social change. (Gen.Ed. SB, DG)
ANTHRO 258 – Food and Culture
Dana Conzo
Summer Session 2
Component
This course surveys how cultural anthropologists have studied the big questions about food and culture. How and why do people restrict what foods are considered "edible" or morally acceptable? How is food processed and prepared, and what does food tell us about other aspects of culture like gender and ethnic identity? How have power issues of gender, class, and colonialism shaped people's access to food? How has industrialization changed food, and where are foodways headed in the future? Along the way, students will read and see films about foodways in Europe, Africa, Asia, the United States, and Latin America. (Gen. Ed. SB, DG)
COMM 284 – Possible Futures: SciFi Cinema
Kevin Anderson
Summer Session 1
Component
There are multiple growing concerns regarding issues of climate, class, race, gender identity, and the nature of democracy in our contemporary world. Science fiction has proven to be a thought-provoking genre to help raise awareness to many of these social and environmental issues. This course takes a global perspective on such pressing issues by examining science fiction films from around the world. As such, the course uses science fiction films as primary texts, accompanied by weekly readings. Students will engage in a critical analysis of the assigned films and readings in order to better appreciate what we can begin to anticipate regarding our future. (Gen. Ed. SB, DG)
COMM 287 -Advertising as Social Communication
Sut Jhally
Summer Session 2
Component
This course looks at how the industries of media and public relations have been used as instruments of social control and propaganda by economic and political elites. Examined will be the following: the historical roots of the public relations industry in government propaganda efforts; the contemporary influence of the public relations industry on public debate of social issues; the role of public relations in distorting discussion of the military/industrial complex; the effects of structuring media systems around the needs of advertisers; the role of media and public relations in how the public understands both domestic and international issues (such as war).
COMM 288 – Gender, Sex and Representation
Sut Jhally
Summer Session 1
This course will examine the relationship between commercialized systems of representation and the way that gender and sexuality are thought of and organized in the culture. In particular, we will look at how commercial imagery impacts upon gender identity and the process of gender socialization. Central to this discussion will be the related issues of sexuality and sexual representation (and the key role played by advertising).
COMM 336 – Consumer Culture
Emily West
Summer Session 2
Component
The mass media are frequently criticized for their role in creating or perpetuating materialism and a consumer culture. This course will consider different theoretical and disciplinary approaches to understanding our consumer culture and the mass media's place in it. Topics will include the influence of advertisers on a media environment that promotes consumption; the experience of shopping; the exercise of taste through consumption; the relationship between consumerism, citizenship, and patriotism; consumer rights; and the meaning of consumption for economically disadvantaged groups.
EDUC 210 – Social Diversity in Education
Warren Blumenfeld
Summer Session 1
Component
Focus on issues of social identity, social and cultural diversity, and societal manifestations of oppression. Draws on interdisciplinary perspectives of social identity development, social learning theory, and sociological analyses of power and privilege within broad social contexts. (Gen.Ed. I, DU)
ENGLISH 132 – Gender, Sexuality, Literature and Culture
Summer Session 1 - Leslie Leonard
Summer Session 2 – Hazel Gedikli
Literature treating the relationship between man and woman. Topics may include: the nature of love, the image of the hero and heroine, and definitions, past and present, of the masculine and feminine. (Gen. Ed. AL, DG)
FRENCHST – Love and Sex in French Culture
Patrick Mensah
Summer Session 1
Component
Course taught in English. This course offers a broad historical overview of the ways in which love and erotic behavior in French culture have been represented and understood in the arts, especially in Literature and, more recently, in film, from the middle ages to the twentieth century. (Gen. Ed. AL)
HISTORY 160 – Social Change in the 1960s
Julia Sandy-Bailey
Summer Session 2
Component
Few periods in United States history experienced as much change and turmoil as the "Long Sixties" (1954-1975), when powerful social movements overhauled American gender norms, restructured the Democratic and Republican parties, and abolished the South's racist "Jim Crow" regime. This course examines the movements that defined this era. We will explore the civil rights and Black Power movements; the student New Left and the antiwar movement; the women's and gay liberation movements; struggles for Asian American, Chicano/a, Native American, and Puerto Rican freedom; as well as the rise of conservatism. Throughout the semester, we will assess Sixties social movements' ideals, strategies, and achievements, and their ongoing influence upon U.S. politics, society, and culture. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
HISTORY 264 – History of Health Care and Medicine in the U.S.
Emily Hamilton
Summer Session 2
Component
This course explores the history and social meaning of medicine, medical practice, health care, and disease in the United States from 1600 to the present. Using a variety of sources aimed at diverse audiences students will investigate topics such as: the evolution of beliefs about the body; medical and social responses to infectious and chronic disease; the rise of medical science and medical organizations; the development of medical technologies; mental health diagnosis and treatment; changing conceptions of the body; the training, role, and image of medical practitioners and the role of public and government institutions in promoting health practices and disease treatments. We will pay particular attention to the human experience of medicine, with readings on the experience of being ill, the delivery of compassionate care, and the nature of the relationship between practitioners and patients. Course themes will include race, gender, cultural diversity, women and gender, social movements, science, technology, politics, industry, and ethics. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
HISTORY 265 – US and LGBT and Queer History
Shay Olmstead
Summer Session 1
This course explores how queer individuals and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities have influenced the social, cultural, economic, and political landscape in United States history. With a focus on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the course covers topics such as the criminalization of same-sex acts, cross-dressing, industrialization and urbanization, feminism, the construction of the homo/heterosexual binary, transsexuality and the "lavender scare" during the Cold War, the homophile, gay liberation, and gay rights movements, HIV/AIDS, and (im)migration. We will often look to examples from the present to better explore change over time and the modes and influences that shape both current and past understandings of gender and sexual difference. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
POLISCI 395F – Women and Politics
Sarah Tanzi
Summer Session 2
Women have made tremendous gains in every aspect of social, economic and political life in the United States, particularly since the second wave of the women's movement in the 1960s. Yet, women's progress in terms of achieving elected office has reached a puzzling plateau since the 1990s. We will examine the course of women's movements towards achieving political incorporation in the United States. We consider the debate over why women's political progress has stagnated and we consider the impact of the gender imbalance in American electoral politics - to what extent do these disparities matter? We begin by exploring women's suffrage campaigns and voting behavior in the period immediately following their achievement of the right to vote and beyond. We then turn to the relationship between women and party politics before discussing the challenges women face as candidates in American politics. We will focus on understanding why women remain underrepresented as legislators. We then consider the extent to which women's participation in campaigns and elections makes a substantive difference in policy making.
PUBHLTH 340 – LGBTQ Health
Kelsey Jordan
Summer Session 2
This course is about the unique health needs and health disparities within the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) communities, and among the individuals who make up each of these communities. We will learn about gender identity and sexual orientation development in kids and young adults, sexual health, global perspectives, strategies for improving the healthcare experience of LGBT people (e.g., patient-centered and compassionate care), barriers to accessing health care, and many other relevant topics. This is an important course for public health students, because it teaches more than just the facts, but also skills for creating a compassionate and inclusive environment for vulnerable populations. (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
PUBHLTH 370 – Public Health Through the Ages: A History of Public Health Practice in the United Stages
Kelsey Jordan
Summer Session 1
Component
This course will provide emerging public health professionals with an overview of the historical evolution of the field of public health, from Hippocrates to war and industrialization; from the sanitary movement, quarantine, and the development of public health boards; to the ethical concerns linked to the management and control of disease and promotion of health. In the second half of the semester, we will use the example of maternal and reproductive health to illustrate some of the underlying tensions in current public health research and programming. Enhancing student’s understanding of the history of public health will provide essential perspectives on current public health events and concerns to both inform and strengthen approaches to improving overall health.
PUBHLTH 389 – Health Inequities
Torin Moore
Summer Session 2
Component
While the health and wellbeing of the nation has improved overall, racial, ethnic, gender and sexuality disparities in morbidity and mortality persist. To successfully address growing disparities, it is important to understand social determinants of health and translate current knowledge into specific strategies to undo health inequalities. This course will explore social justice as a philosophical underpinning of public health and will consider the etiology of disease rooted in social conditions. It aims to strengthen critical thinking, self-discovery, and knowledge of ways in which socioeconomic, political, and cultural systems structure health outcomes. (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 106 – Race, Gender, Class and Ethnicity
Juyeon Park
Summer Session 1
Introduction to Sociology. Analysis of the consequences of membership in racial, gender, class and ethnic groups on social, economic and political life. (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 222 – The Family
Whitney Russell
Summer Session 1
component
First part: historical transformations in family life (relationships between husbands and wives, position and treatment of children, importance of kinship ties); second part: the contemporary family through life course (choice of a mate, relations in marriage, parenthood, breakup of the family unit). (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 224 – Social Class and Inequality
Skylar Davidson
Summer Session 2
Component
The nature of social classes in society from the viewpoint of differences in economic power, political power, and social status. Why stratification exists, its internal dynamics, and its effects on individuals, subgroups, and the society as a whole. Problems of poverty and the uses of power. (Gen. Ed. SB, DU)
SOCIOL 244 – Conformity and Deviance
Jennifer Abrams
Summer Session 2
Component
This course examines the social processes of rule-making and rule-breaking, and how categories of "normal" and "deviance" change historically. We examine different theories of conformity and deviance, using topics such as sexuality and politics.
SOCIOL 397AM – Asylums, Madness and Mental Illness in American Culture
Janice Irvine
Summer Session 1
Component
This course uses the rise and fall of the asylum movement to examine shifting ideas about "mental illness" and its treatment, from the mid-19th century to the deinstitutionalization movement of the 1970s. Born of a utopian spirit dedicated to healing minds broken by the modern world, insane asylums devolved into "theaters of madness" where "lunatics" were stigmatized and warehoused. Race, gender, class, and sexuality shaped how mental illness has been conceptualized and treated over a pivotal century in American culture. Using sociological research and popular culture - such as films, novels, and television - we examine the asylum as a type of social control, and mid-20th century criticisms of asylums as "total institutions."
UWW 397SV – Sexual Violence
Lisa Fontes
Session 2
This course explores sexual violence in the United States from psychological, sociological, public health, feminist, legal, historical, and criminal justice perspectives. It addresses the sexual victimization of teenagers and adults of all genders in a variety of social contexts, using an anti-oppression framework. The course also focuses on ways to make sexual violence prevention and intervention services better suited to culturally diverse people.
FALL 2020 UWW (ONLINE) COURSES
WGSS Majors and Minors must focus their papers or projects on WGSS topics to count courses listed as "component." 100-level courses only count toward the minor. All other courses listed 200-level and above automatically count.
WGSS 290C – History of Sexuality and Race in the U.S.
Kirsten Leng
This course is an introduction to the interdisciplinary feminist study of sexuality. Its primary goal is to provide a forum for students to consider the history of sexuality and race in the U.S. both in terms of theoretical frameworks within women's and gender studies, and in terms of a range of sites where those theoretical approaches become material, are negotiated, or are shifted. The course is a fully interdisciplinary innovation. It will emphasize the links rather than differences between theory and practice and between cultural, material, and historical approaches to the body, gender, and sexuality. Throughout the course we will consider contemporary sexual politics "from the science of sex and sexuality to marriage debates" in light of histories of racial and sexual formations. (Gen. Ed. HS, DU)
ANTHRO 258 – Food and Culture
Dana Conzo
component
See Spire for description.
COMP-LIT 231 – Comedy
Juan Carlos Pons
Component
Our course begins with the premise that contemporary American comedy is informed by the histories of ethnic American groups -- African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans and U.S. Latinos/Latinas -- along with issues of r
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Synchrotron x-ray imaging of acoustic cavitation bubbles induced by acoustic excitation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Jung, Sung Yong; Park, Han Wook; Park, Sung Ho; Lee, Sang Joon
2017-01-01
The cavitation induced by acoustic excitation has been widely applied in various biomedical applications because cavitation bubbles can enhance the exchanges of mass and energy. In order to minimize the hazardous effects of the induced cavitation, it is essential to understand the spatial distribution of cavitation bubbles. The spatial distribution of cavitation bubbles visualized by the synchrotron x-ray imaging technique is compared to that obtained with a conventional x-ray tube. Cavitation bubbles with high density in the region close to the tip of the probe are visualized using the synchrotron x-ray imaging technique, however, the spatial distribution of cavitation bubbles in the whole ultrasound field is not detected. In this study, the effects of the ultrasound power of acoustic excitation and working medium on the shape and density of the induced cavitation bubbles are examined. As a result, the synchrotron x-ray imaging technique is useful for visualizing spatial distributions of cavitation bubbles, and it could be used for optimizing the operation conditions of acoustic cavitation. (paper)
Observations of the Dynamics and Acoustics of Travelling Bubble Cavitation
Science.gov (United States)
1990-06-25
Bubbles 6.1 Introduction The detailed relationship between the collapse mechanism of hydrodynamic cavitation bubbles and the resulting noise generation is...Contribution to 11th International Towing Tank Conference. Il’ichev, V. I. 1968. Statistical Model of the Onset of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Noise. Soviet...On the Theory of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Noise. Soviet Physics-Acoustics, Vol. 15, pp. 494-498. Marboe, M. L., Billet, M. L. and Thompson, D. E. 1986
Nano-scale bubble thermonuclear fusion in acoustically cavitated deuterated liquid
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Robert I Nigmatulin; Richard T Lahey Jr; Rusi Taleyarkhan
2005-01-01
Full text of publication follows: It has been experimentally shown (Taleyarkhan, West, Cho, Lahey, Nigmatulin, Block, 2002, 2004) that neutron emission and tritium formation may occur in deuterated acetone (D-acetone C 3 DO 6 ) under acoustic cavitation conditions. Intensity of the fast neutron (2.45 MeV) emission and tritium nucleus production is â¼ 4 x 10 5 s -1 . This suggests ultrahigh compression of matter produced inside bubbles during their collapse. In the paper a systematic theoretical analysis of the vapor bubble growth and subsequent implosion in intense acoustic fields in D-acetone is presented. The goal is to describe and explain the experimental observations of thermonuclear fusion for collapsing cavitation bubble in D-acetone. The dynamics of bubbles formed during maximum rarefaction in the liquid is numerically studied on the basis of the developed models of a single bubble and bubble clusters. It is supposed that during their growth the bubbles coagulate and form a few bigger bubbles, which then collapse under the action of additional pressure pulses produced in the liquid through the intensification of acoustic waves within the cluster. A shock wave is shown to be formed inside the bubble during the latter's rapid contraction. Focusing of this shock wave in the bubble center initiates dissociation and ionization, violent increases in density (10 4 kg m 3 ), pressure (10 10 -10 11 bar) and temperature (2 x 10 8 K), high enough to produce nuclear fusion reactions. The bubble looks like micro-hydrogen bomb. The diameter of the neutron emission zone is about 100 nm. The highest neutron emission is recorded at about 10-20 nm from the bubble center. It is found out that the intensity of bubble implosion and the number of neutron emitted increase with variations in nucleation phase, positive half-wave amplitude, liquid temperature and also with the involvement of coagulation mechanisms within the cluster during the bubble simultaneous growth. The number
Simultaneous observation of cavitation bubbles generated in biological tissue by high-speed optical and acoustic imaging methods
Science.gov (United States)
Suzuki, Kai; Iwasaki, Ryosuke; Takagi, Ryo; Yoshizawa, Shin; Umemura, Shin-ichiro
2017-07-01
Acoustic cavitation bubbles are useful for enhancing the heating effect in high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment. Many studies were conducted to investigate the behavior of such bubbles in tissue-mimicking materials, such as a transparent gel phantom; however, the detailed behavior in tissue was still unclear owing to the difficulty in optical observation. In this study, a new biological phantom was developed to observe cavitation bubbles generated in an optically shallow area of tissue. Two imaging methods, high-speed photography using light scattering and high-speed ultrasonic imaging, were used for detecting the behavior of the bubbles simultaneously. The results agreed well with each other for the area of bubble formation and the temporal change in the region of bubbles, suggesting that both methods are useful for visualizing the bubbles.
Dynamics and noise emission of laser induced cavitation bubbles in a vortical flow field
Science.gov (United States)
Oweis, Ghanem F.; Choi, Jaehyug; Ceccio, Steven L.
2004-03-01
The sound produced by the collapse of discrete cavitation bubbles was examined. Laser-generated cavitation bubbles were produced in both a quiescent and a vortical flow. The sound produced by the collapse of the cavitation bubbles was recorded, and its spectral content was determined. It was found that the risetime of the sound pulse produced by the collapse of single, spherical cavitation bubbles in quiescent fluid exceeded that of the slew rate of the hydrophone, which is consistent with previously published results. It was found that, as collapsing bubbles were deformed by the vortical flow, the acoustic impulse of the bubbles was reduced. Collapsing nonspherical bubbles often created a sound pulse with a risetime that exceeded that of the hydrophone slew rate, although the acoustic impulse created by the bubbles was influenced largely by the degree to which the bubbles became nonspherical before collapse. The noise produced by the slow growth of cavitation bubbles in the vortex core was not detectable. These results have implications for the interpretation of hydrodynamic cavitation noise produced by vortex cavitation.
Cavitation bubble nucleation induced by shock-bubble interaction in a gelatin gel
Science.gov (United States)
Oguri, Ryota; Ando, Keita
2018-05-01
An optical visualization technique is developed to study cavitation bubble nucleation that results from interaction between a laser-induced shock and a preexisting gas bubble in a 10 wt. % gelatin gel; images of the nucleated cavitation bubbles are captured and the cavitation inception pressure is determined based on Euler flow simulation. A spherical gas cavity is generated by focusing an infrared laser pulse into a gas-supersaturated gel and the size of the laser-generated bubble in mechanical equilibrium is tuned via mass transfer of the dissolved gas into the bubble. A spherical shock is then generated, through rapid expansion of plasma induced by the laser focusing, in the vicinity of the gas bubble. The shock-bubble interaction is recorded by a CCD camera with flash illumination of a nanosecond green laser pulse. The observation captures cavitation inception in the gel under tension that results from acoustic impedance mismatching at the bubble interface interacting with the shock. We measure the probability of cavitation inception from a series of the repeated experiments, by varying the bubble radius and the standoff distance. The threshold pressure is defined at the cavitation inception probability equal to one half and is calculated, through comparisons to Euler flow simulation, at -24.4 MPa. This threshold value is similar to that from shock-bubble interaction experiments using water, meaning that viscoelasticity of the 10 wt. % gelatin gel has a limited impact on bubble nucleation dynamics.
Control of acoustic cavitation with application to lithotripsy
Science.gov (United States)
Bailey, Michael Rollins
Control of acoustic cavitation, which is sound-induced growth and collapse of bubbles, is the subject of this dissertation. Application is to extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), used to treat kidney stones. Cavitation is thought to help comminute stones yet may damage tissue. Can cavitation be controlled? The acoustic source in a widely used clinical lithotripter is an electrical spark at the near focus of an underwater ellipsoidal reflector. To control cavitation, we used rigid reflectors, pressure release reflectors, and pairs of reflectors aligned to have a common focus and a controlled delay between sparks. Cavitation was measured with aluminum foil, which was placed along the axis at the far focus of the reflector(s). Collapsing bubbles pitted the foil. Pit depth measured with a profilometer provided a relative measure of cavitation intensity. Cavitation was also measured with a focused hydrophone, which detected the pressure pulse radiated in bubble collapse. Acoustic pressure signals produced by the reflectors were measured with a PVdF membrane hydrophone, digitally recorded, and input into a numerical version of the Gilmore equation (F. R. Gilmore, 'The growth or collapse of a spherical bubble in a viscous compressible liquid,' Rep#26-4, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena (1952), pp.1-40.). Maximum pressure produced in a spherical bubble was calculated and employed as a relative measure of collapse intensity. Experimental and numerical results demonstrate cavitation can be controlled by an appropriately delayed auxiliary pressure pulse. When two rigid-reflector pulses are used, a long interpulse delay (150-200 μs) of the second pulse 'kicks' the collapsing bubble and intensifies cavitation. Foil pit depth and computed pressure three times single pulse values were obtained. Conversely, a short delay (ESWL.
Interactions of Inertial Cavitation Bubbles with Stratum Corneum Lipid Bilayers during Low-Frequency Sonophoresis
OpenAIRE
Tezel, Ahmet; Mitragotri, Samir
2003-01-01
Interactions of acoustic cavitation bubbles with biological tissues play an important role in biomedical applications of ultrasound. Acoustic cavitation plays a particularly important role in enhancing transdermal transport of macromolecules, thereby offering a noninvasive mode of drug delivery (sonophoresis). Ultrasound-enhanced transdermal transport is mediated by inertial cavitation, where collapses of cavitation bubbles microscopically disrupt the lipid bilayers of the stratum corneum. In...
Single-transducer dual-frequency ultrasound generation to enhance acoustic cavitation.
Science.gov (United States)
Liu, Hao-Li; Hsieh, Chao-Ming
2009-03-01
Dual- or multiple-frequency ultrasound stimulation is capable of effectively enhancing the acoustic cavitation effect over single-frequency ultrasound. Potential application of this sonoreactor design has been widely proposed such as on sonoluminescence, sonochemistry enhancement, and transdermal drug release enhancement. All currently available sonoreactor designs employed multiple piezoelectric transducers for generating single-frequency ultrasonic waves separately and then these waves were mixed and interfered in solutions. The purpose of this research is to propose a novel design of generating dual-frequency ultrasonic waves with single piezoelectric elements, thereby enhancing acoustic cavitation. Macroscopic bubbles were detected optically, and they were quantified at either a single-frequency or for different frequency combinations for determining their efficiency for enhancing acoustic cavitation. Visible bubbles were optically detected and hydrogen peroxide was measured to quantify acoustic cavitation. Test water samples with different gas concentrations and different power levels were used to determine the efficacy of enhancing acoustic cavitation of this design. The spectrum obtained from the backscattered signals was also recorded and examined to confirm the occurrence of stable cavitation. The results confirmed that single-element dual-frequency ultrasound stimulation can enhance acoustic cavitation. Under certain testing conditions, the generation of bubbles can be enhanced up to a level of five times higher than the generation of bubbles in single-frequency stimulation, and can increase the hydrogen peroxide production up to an increase of one fold. This design may serve as a useful alternative for future sonoreactor design owing to its simplicity to produce dual- or multiple-frequency ultrasound.
Numerical modelling of ultrasonic waves in a bubbly Newtonian liquid using a high-order acoustic cavitation model.
Science.gov (United States)
Lebon, G S Bruno; Tzanakis, I; Djambazov, G; Pericleous, K; Eskin, D G
2017-07-01
To address difficulties in treating large volumes of liquid metal with ultrasound, a fundamental study of acoustic cavitation in liquid aluminium, expressed in an experimentally validated numerical model, is presented in this paper. To improve the understanding of the cavitation process, a non-linear acoustic model is validated against reference water pressure measurements from acoustic waves produced by an immersed horn. A high-order method is used to discretize the wave equation in both space and time. These discretized equations are coupled to the Rayleigh-Plesset equation using two different time scales to couple the bubble and flow scales, resulting in a stable, fast, and reasonably accurate method for the prediction of acoustic pressures in cavitating liquids. This method is then applied to the context of treatment of liquid aluminium, where it predicts that the most intense cavitation activity is localised below the vibrating horn and estimates the acoustic decay below the sonotrode with reasonable qualitative agreement with experimental data. Copyright © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Bubble dynamics under acoustic excitation with multiple frequencies
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Zhang, Y N; Zhang, Y N; Li, S C
2015-01-01
Because of its magnificent mechanical and chemical effects, acoustic cavitation plays an important role in a broad range of biomedical, chemical and mechanical engineering problems. Particularly, irradiation of the multiple frequency acoustic wave could enhance the effects of cavitation. The advantages of employment of multi-frequency ultrasonic field include decreasing the cavitation thresholds, promoting cavitation nuclei generation, increasing the mass transfer and improving energy efficiency. Therefore, multi-frequency ultrasonic systems are employed in a variety of applications, e.g., to enhance the intensity of sonoluminenscence, to increase efficiency of sonochemical reaction, to improve the accuracy of ultrasound imaging and the efficiency of tissue ablation. Compared to single-frequency systems, a lot of new features of bubble dynamics exist in multi-frequency systems, such as special properties of oscillating bubbles, unique resonances in the bubble response curves, and unusual chaotic behaviours. In present paper, the underlying mechanisms of the cavitation effects under multi-frequency acoustical excitation are also briefly introduced
Interactions of inertial cavitation bubbles with stratum corneum lipid bilayers during low-frequency sonophoresis.
Science.gov (United States)
Tezel, Ahmet; Mitragotri, Samir
2003-12-01
Interactions of acoustic cavitation bubbles with biological tissues play an important role in biomedical applications of ultrasound. Acoustic cavitation plays a particularly important role in enhancing transdermal transport of macromolecules, thereby offering a noninvasive mode of drug delivery (sonophoresis). Ultrasound-enhanced transdermal transport is mediated by inertial cavitation, where collapses of cavitation bubbles microscopically disrupt the lipid bilayers of the stratum corneum. In this study, we describe a theoretical analysis of the interactions of cavitation bubbles with the stratum corneum lipid bilayers. Three modes of bubble-stratum corneum interactions including shock wave emission, microjet penetration into the stratum corneum, and impact of microjet on the stratum corneum are considered. By relating the mechanical effects of these events on the stratum corneum structure, the relationship between the number of cavitation events and collapse pressures with experimentally measured increase in skin permeability was established. Theoretical predictions were compared to experimentally measured parameters of cavitation events.
The acoustic detection of cavitation in pumps
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Macleod, I.D.; Gray, B.S.; Taylor, C.G.
1978-01-01
A programme was initiated to develop a reliable technique for detecting the onset of acoustic noise from cavitation in a pump and to relate this to cavitation inception data, since significant noise from collapse of vapour bubbles arising from such cavitation would reduce the sensitivity of a noise detection system for boiling of sodium in fast breeder reactors. Factors affecting the detection of cavitation are discussed. The instrumentation and techniques of frequency analysis and pulse detection are described. Two examples are then given of the application of acoustic detection techniques under controlled conditions. It is concluded that acoustic detection can be a reliable method for detecting inception of cavitation in a pump and the required conditions are stated. (U.K.)
Application of analyzer based X-ray imaging technique for detection of ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles from a physical therapy unit.
Science.gov (United States)
Izadifar, Zahra; Belev, George; Babyn, Paul; Chapman, Dean
2015-10-19
The observation of ultrasound generated cavitation bubbles deep in tissue is very difficult. The development of an imaging method capable of investigating cavitation bubbles in tissue would improve the efficiency and application of ultrasound in the clinic. Among the previous imaging modalities capable of detecting cavitation bubbles in vivo, the acoustic detection technique has the positive aspect of in vivo application. However the size of the initial cavitation bubble and the amplitude of the ultrasound that produced the cavitation bubbles, affect the timing and amplitude of the cavitation bubbles' emissions. The spatial distribution of cavitation bubbles, driven by 0.8835Â MHz therapeutic ultrasound system at output power of 14 Watt, was studied in water using a synchrotron X-ray imaging technique, Analyzer Based Imaging (ABI). The cavitation bubble distribution was investigated by repeated application of the ultrasound and imaging the water tank. The spatial frequency of the cavitation bubble pattern was evaluated by Fourier analysis. Acoustic cavitation was imaged at four different locations through the acoustic beam in water at a fixed power level. The pattern of cavitation bubbles in water was detected by synchrotron X-ray ABI. The spatial distribution of cavitation bubbles driven by the therapeutic ultrasound system was observed using ABI X-ray imaging technique. It was observed that the cavitation bubbles appeared in a periodic pattern. The calculated distance between intervals revealed that the distance of frequent cavitation lines (intervals) is one-half of the acoustic wave length consistent with standing waves. This set of experiments demonstrates the utility of synchrotron ABI for visualizing cavitation bubbles formed in water by clinical ultrasound systems working at high frequency and output powers as low as a therapeutic system.
Visualization of ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles using the synchrotron x-ray Analyzer Based Imaging technique
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Izadifar, Zahra; Izadifar, Mohammad; Izadifar, Zohreh; Chapman, Dean; Belev, George
2014-01-01
Observing cavitation bubbles deep within tissue is very difficult. The development of a method for probing cavitation, irrespective of its location in tissues, would improve the efficiency and application of ultrasound in the clinic. A synchrotron x-ray imaging technique, which is capable of detecting cavitation bubbles induced in water by a sonochemistry system, is reported here; this could possibly be extended to the study of therapeutic ultrasound in tissues. The two different x-ray imaging techniques of Analyzer Based Imaging (ABI) and phase contrast imaging (PCI) were examined in order to detect ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles. Cavitation was not observed by PCI, however it was detectable with ABI. Acoustic cavitation was imaged at six different acoustic power levels and six different locations through the acoustic beam in water at a fixed power level. The results indicate the potential utility of this technique for cavitation studies in tissues, but it is time consuming. This may be improved by optimizing the imaging method. (paper)
Visualization of ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles using the synchrotron x-ray Analyzer Based Imaging technique.
Science.gov (United States)
Izadifar, Zahra; Belev, George; Izadifar, Mohammad; Izadifar, Zohreh; Chapman, Dean
2014-12-07
Observing cavitation bubbles deep within tissue is very difficult. The development of a method for probing cavitation, irrespective of its location in tissues, would improve the efficiency and application of ultrasound in the clinic. A synchrotron x-ray imaging technique, which is capable of detecting cavitation bubbles induced in water by a sonochemistry system, is reported here; this could possibly be extended to the study of therapeutic ultrasound in tissues. The two different x-ray imaging techniques of Analyzer Based Imaging (ABI) and phase contrast imaging (PCI) were examined in order to detect ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles. Cavitation was not observed by PCI, however it was detectable with ABI. Acoustic cavitation was imaged at six different acoustic power levels and six different locations through the acoustic beam in water at a fixed power level. The results indicate the potential utility of this technique for cavitation studies in tissues, but it is time consuming. This may be improved by optimizing the imaging method.
Acoustic methods for cavitation mapping in biomedical applications
Science.gov (United States)
Wan, M.; Xu, S.; Ding, T.; Hu, H.; Liu, R.; Bai, C.; Lu, S.
2015-12-01
In recent years, cavitation is increasingly utilized in a wide range of applications in biomedical field. Monitoring the spatial-temporal evolution of cavitation bubbles is of great significance for efficiency and safety in biomedical applications. In this paper, several acoustic methods for cavitation mapping proposed or modified on the basis of existing work will be presented. The proposed novel ultrasound line-by-line/plane-by-plane method can depict cavitation bubbles distribution with high spatial and temporal resolution and may be developed as a potential standard 2D/3D cavitation field mapping method. The modified ultrafast active cavitation mapping based upon plane wave transmission and reception as well as bubble wavelet and pulse inversion technique can apparently enhance the cavitation to tissue ratio in tissue and further assist in monitoring the cavitation mediated therapy with good spatial and temporal resolution. The methods presented in this paper will be a foundation to promote the research and development of cavitation imaging in non-transparent medium.
Prediction of Cavitation Depth in an Al-Cu Alloy Melt with Bubble Characteristics Based on Synchrotron X-ray Radiography
Science.gov (United States)
Huang, Haijun; Shu, Da; Fu, Yanan; Zhu, Guoliang; Wang, Donghong; Dong, Anping; Sun, Baode
2018-04-01
The size of cavitation region is a key parameter to estimate the metallurgical effect of ultrasonic melt treatment (UST) on preferential structure refinement. We present a simple numerical model to predict the characteristic length of the cavitation region, termed cavitation depth, in a metal melt. The model is based on wave propagation with acoustic attenuation caused by cavitation bubbles which are dependent on bubble characteristics and ultrasonic intensity. In situ synchrotron X-ray imaging of cavitation bubbles has been made to quantitatively measure the size of cavitation region and volume fraction and size distribution of cavitation bubbles in an Al-Cu melt. The results show that cavitation bubbles maintain a log-normal size distribution, and the volume fraction of cavitation bubbles obeys a tanh function with the applied ultrasonic intensity. Using the experimental values of bubble characteristics as input, the predicted cavitation depth agrees well with observations except for a slight deviation at higher acoustic intensities. Further analysis shows that the increase of bubble volume and bubble size both leads to higher attenuation by cavitation bubbles, and hence, smaller cavitation depth. The current model offers a guideline to implement UST, especially for structural refinement.
Acoustical signature of the collapse of a cavitation bubble
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Chahine, G.L.
1978-10-01
The influence of the proximity of a wall on the noise emitted when an isolated cavitation bubble collapses is studied qualitatively by correlation between the noise emitted and the dynamics of the bubble, by amplitude analysis and by time analysis [fr
Synchrotron quantification of ultrasound cavitation and bubble dynamics in Al-10Cu melts.
Science.gov (United States)
Xu, W W; Tzanakis, I; Srirangam, P; Mirihanage, W U; Eskin, D G; Bodey, A J; Lee, P D
2016-07-01
Knowledge of the kinetics of gas bubble formation and evolution under cavitation conditions in molten alloys is important for the control casting defects such as porosity and dissolved hydrogen. Using in situ synchrotron X-ray radiography, we studied the dynamic behaviour of ultrasonic cavitation gas bubbles in a molten Al-10 wt%Cu alloy. The size distribution, average radius and growth rate of cavitation gas bubbles were quantified under an acoustic intensity of 800 W/cm(2) and a maximum acoustic pressure of 4.5 MPa (45 atm). Bubbles exhibited a log-normal size distribution with an average radius of 15.3 ± 0.5 μm. Under applied sonication conditions the growth rate of bubble radius, R(t), followed a power law with a form of R(t)=αt(β), and α=0.0021 &β=0.89. The observed tendencies were discussed in relation to bubble growth mechanisms of Al alloy melts. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Effect of ultrasound on dynamics characteristic of the cavitation bubble in grinding fluids during honing process.
Science.gov (United States)
Guo, Ce; Zhu, Xijing
2018-03-01
The effect of ultrasound on generating and controlling the cavitation bubble of the grinding fluid during ultrasonic vibration honing was investigated. The grinding fluid on the surface of the honing stone was measured by utilizing the digital microscope VHX-600ESO. Based on analyzing the cavitation mechanism of the grinding fluid, the bubble dynamics model under conventional honing (CH) and ultrasonic vibration honing (UVH) was established respectively. Difference of dynamic behaviors of the bubble between the cases in UVH and CH was compared respectively, and the effects of acoustic amplitude and ultrasonic frequency on the bubble dynamics were simulated numerically using the Runge-Kutta fourth order method with variable step size adaptive control. Finally, the cavitation intensity of grinding fluids under ultrasound was measured quantitatively using acoustimeter. The results showed that the grinding fluid subjected to ultrasound can generate many bubbles and further forms numerous groups of araneose cavitation bubbles on the surface of the honing stone. The oscillation of the bubble under UVH is more intense than the case under CH, and the maximum velocity of the bubble wall under UVH is higher two magnitudes than the case under CH. For lower acoustic amplitude, the dynamic behaviors of the bubble under UVH are similar to that case under CH. As increasing acoustic amplitude, the cavitation intensity of the bubble is growing increased. Honing pressure has an inhabitation effect on cavitation effect of the grinding fluid. The perfect performance of cavitation of the grinding fluid can be obtained when the device of UVH is in the resonance. However, the cavitation intensity of the grinding fluid can be growing weakened with increasing ultrasonic frequency, when the device of UVH is in the off-resonance. The experimental results agree with the theoretical and numerical analysis, which provides a method for exploring applications of the cavitation effect in
Development of an Acoustic Localization Method for Cavitation Experiments in Reverberant Environments
Science.gov (United States)
Ranjeva, Minna; Thompson, Lee; Perlitz, Daniel; Bonness, William; Capone, Dean; Elbing, Brian
2011-11-01
Cavitation is a major concern for the US Navy since it can cause ship damage and produce unwanted noise. The ability to precisely locate cavitation onset in laboratory scale experiments is essential for proper design that will minimize this undesired phenomenon. Measuring the cavitation onset is more accurately determined acoustically than visually. However, if other parts of the model begin to cavitate prior to the component of interest the acoustic data is contaminated with spurious noise. Consequently, cavitation onset is widely determined by optically locating the event of interest. The current research effort aims at developing an acoustic localization scheme for reverberant environments such as water tunnels. Currently cavitation bubbles are being induced in a static water tank with a laser, allowing the localization techniques to be refined with the bubble at a known location. The source is located with the use of acoustic data collected with hydrophones and analyzed using signal processing techniques. To verify the accuracy of the acoustic scheme, the events are simultaneously monitored visually with the use of a high speed camera. Once refined testing will be conducted in a water tunnel. This research was sponsored by the Naval Engineering Education Center (NEEC).
Cavitation inception by the backscattering of pressure waves from a bubble interface
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Takahira, Hiroyuki, E-mail: takahira@me.osakafu-u.ac.jp; Ogasawara, Toshiyuki, E-mail: oga@me.osakafu-u.ac.jp; Mori, Naoto, E-mail: su101064@edu.osakafu-u.ac.jp; Tanaka, Moe [Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai-shi, Osaka 599-8531 (Japan)
2015-10-28
The secondary cavitation that occurs by the backscattering of focused ultrasound from a primary cavitation bubble caused by the negative pressure part of the ultrasound (Maxwell, et al., 2011) might be useful for the energy exchange due to bubble oscillations in High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU). The present study is concerned with the cavitation inception by the backscattering of ultrasound from a bubble. In the present experiment, a laser-induced bubble which is generated by a pulsed focused laser beam with high intensity is utilized as a primary cavitation bubble. After generating the bubble, focused ultrasound is emitted to the bubble. The acoustic field and the bubble motion are observed with a high-speed video camera. It is confirmed that the secondary cavitation bubble clouds are generated by the backscattering from the laser-induced bubble. The growth of cavitation bubble clouds is analyzed with the image processing method. The experimental results show that the height and width of the bubble clouds grow in stepwise during their evolution. The direct numerical simulations are also conducted for the backscattering of incident pressure waves from a bubble in order to evaluate a pressure field near the bubble. It is shown that the ratio of a bubble collapse time t{sub 0} to a characteristic time of wave propagation t{sub S}, η = t{sub 0}/t{sub s}, is an important determinant for generating negative pressure region by backscattering. The minimum pressure location by the backscattering in simulations is in good agreement with the experiment.
Effect of acoustic parameters on the cavitation behavior of SonoVue microbubbles induced by pulsed ultrasound.
Science.gov (United States)
Lin, Yutong; Lin, Lizhou; Cheng, Mouwen; Jin, Lifang; Du, Lianfang; Han, Tao; Xu, Lin; Yu, Alfred C H; Qin, Peng
2017-03-01
SonoVue microbubbles could serve as artificial nuclei for ultrasound-triggered stable and inertial cavitation, resulting in beneficial biological effects for future therapeutic applications. To optimize and control the use of the cavitation of SonoVue bubbles in therapy while ensuring safety, it is important to comprehensively understand the relationship between the acoustic parameters and the cavitation behavior of the SonoVue bubbles. An agarose-gel tissue phantom was fabricated to hold the SonoVue bubble suspension. 1-MHz transmitting transducer calibrated by a hydrophone was used to trigger the cavitation of SonoVue bubbles under different ultrasonic parameters (i.e., peak rarefactional pressure (PRP), pulse repetition frequency (PRF), and pulse duration (PD)). Another 7.5-MHz focused transducer was employed to passively receive acoustic signals from the exposed bubbles. The ultraharmonics and broadband intensities in the acoustic emission spectra were measured to quantify the extent of stable and inertial cavitation of SonoVue bubbles, respectively. We found that the onset of both stable and inertial cavitation exhibited a strong dependence on the PRP and PD and a relatively weak dependence on the PRF. Approximate 0.25MPa PRP with more than 20μs PD was considered to be necessary for ultraharmonics emission of SonoVue bubbles, and obvious broadband signals started to appear when the PRP exceeded 0.40MPa. Moreover, the doses of stable and inertial cavitation varied with the PRP. The stable cavitation dose initially increased with increasing PRP, and then decreased rapidly after 0.5MPa. By contrast, the inertial cavitation dose continuously increased with increasing PRP. Finally, the doses of both stable and inertial cavitation were positively correlated with PRF and PD. These results could provide instructive information for optimizing future therapeutic applications of SonoVue bubbles. Copyright é 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Application of analyzer based X-ray imaging technique for detection of ultrasound induced cavitation bubbles from a physical therapy unit
OpenAIRE
Izadifar, Zahra; Belev, George; Babyn, Paul; Chapman, Dean
2015-01-01
Background The observation of ultrasound generated cavitation bubbles deep in tissue is very difficult. The development of an imaging method capable of investigating cavitation bubbles in tissue would improve the efficiency and application of ultrasound in the clinic. Among the previous imaging modalities capable of detecting cavitation bubbles in vivo, the acoustic detection technique has the positive aspect of in vivo application. However the size of the initial cavitation bubble and the am...
Dynamic behaviors of cavitation bubble for the steady cavitating flow
Science.gov (United States)
Cai, Jun; Huai, Xiulan; Li, Xunfeng
2009-12-01
In this paper, by introducing the flow velocity item into the classical Rayleigh-Plesset dynamic equation, a new equation, which does not involve the time term and can describe the motion of cavitation bubble in the steady cavitating flow, has been obtained. By solving the new motion equation using Runge-Kutta fourth order method with adaptive step size control, the dynamic behaviors of cavitation bubble driven by the varying pressure field downstream of a venturi cavitation reactor are numerically simulated. The effects of liquid temperature (corresponding to the saturated vapor pressure of liquid), cavitation number and inlet pressure of venturi on radial motion of bubble and pressure pulse due to the radial motion are analyzed and discussed in detail. Some dynamic behaviors of bubble different from those in previous papers are displayed. In addition, the internal relationship between bubble dynamics and process intensification is also discussed. The simulation results reported in this work reveal the variation laws of cavitation intensity with the flow conditions of liquid, and will lay a foundation for the practical application of hydrodynamic cavitation technology.
Experimental study of formation and dynamics of cavitation bubbles and acoustic flows in NaCl, KCl water solutions
Science.gov (United States)
Rybkin, K. A.; Bratukhin, Yu. K.; Lyubimova, T. P.; Fatallov, O.; Filippov, L. O.
2017-07-01
The acoustic flows and the phenomena associated with them arising under the action of ultrasound of different power on distilled water and aqueous solutions of a mixture of NaCl and KCl salts of various concentrations are studied experimentally. It is found that in the distilled water, under the action of ultrasound, the appearance of inertial and non-inertial cavitation bubbles takes place, then the formation of stable clusters, the distance between which depends on the power of the ultrasound source is observed. Experiments show that an increase in the mass concentration of salts in water leads to the decrease in the average diameter of the arising inertial cavitation bubbles and to the gradual decrease in their number, up to an almost complete disappearance at nearly 13% of the concentration of the salt mixture in the water.
Acoustic cavitation in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(triflluoromethyl-sulfonyl)imide based ionic liquid.
Science.gov (United States)
Merouani, Slimane; Hamdaoui, Oualid; Haddad, Boumediene
2018-03-01
In this work, a comparison between the temperatures/pressures within acoustic cavitation bubble in an imidazolium-based room-temperature ionic liquid (RTIL), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(triflluoromethyl-sulfonyl)imide ([BMIM][NTf 2 ]), and in water has been made for a wide range of cavitation parameters including frequency (140-1000kHz), acoustic intensity (0.5-1Wcm -2 ), liquid temperature (20-50°C) and external static pressure (0.7-1.5atm). The used cavitation model takes into account the liquid compressibility as well as the surface tension and the viscosity of the medium. It was found that the bubble temperatures and pressures were always much higher in the ionic liquid compared to those predicted in water. The valuable effect of [BMIM][NTf 2 ] on the bubble temperature was more pronounced at higher acoustic intensity and liquid temperature and lower frequency and external static pressure. However, confrontation between the predicted and the experimental estimated temperatures in ionic liquids showed an opposite trend as the temperatures measured in some pure ionic liquids are of the same order as those observed in water. The injection of liquid droplets into cavitation bubbles, the pyrolysis of ionic liquids at the bubble-solution interface as well as the lower number of collapsing bubbles in the ionic liquid may be the responsible for the lower measured bubble temperatures in ionic liquids, as compared with water. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Numerical analysis of the effects of radiation heat transfer and ionization energy loss on the cavitation Bubble's dynamics
Science.gov (United States)
Mahdi, M.; Ebrahimi, R.; Shams, M.
2011-06-01
A numerical scheme for simulating the acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation was developed. Bubble instantaneous radius was obtained using Gilmore equation which considered the compressibility of the liquid. A uniform temperature was assumed for the inside gas during the collapse. Radiation heat transfer inside the bubble and the heat conduction to the bubble was considered. The numerical code was validated with the experimental data and a good correspondence was observed. The dynamics of hydrofoil cavitation bubble were also investigated. It was concluded that the thermal radiation heat transfer rate strongly depended on the cavitation number, initial bubble radius and hydrofoil angle of attack.
Influence of cavitation bubble growth by rectified diffusion on cavitation-enhanced HIFU
Science.gov (United States)
Okita, Kohei; Sugiyama, Kazuyasu; Takagi, Shu; Matsumoto, Yoichiro
2017-11-01
Cavitation is becoming increasingly important in therapeutic ultrasound applications such as diagnostic, tumor ablation and lithotripsy. Mass transfer through gas-liquid interface due to rectified diffusion is important role in an initial stage of cavitation bubble growth. In the present study, influences of the rectified diffusion on cavitation-enhanced high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) was investigated numerically. Firstly, the mass transfer rate of gas from the surrounding medium to the bubble was examined as function of the initial bubble radius and the driving pressure amplitude. As the result, the pressure required to bubble growth was decreases with increasing the initial bubble radius. Next, the cavitation-enhanced HIFU, which generates cavitation bubbles by high-intensity burst and induces the localized heating owing to cavitation bubble oscillation by low-intensity continuous waves, was reproduced by the present simulation. The heating region obtained by the simulation is agree to the treatment region of an in vitro experiment. Additionally, the simulation result shows that the localized heating is enhanced by the increase of the equilibrium bubble size due to the rectified diffusion. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP26420125,JP17K06170.
Numerical analysis of the effects of radiation heat transfer and ionization energy loss on the cavitation Bubble's dynamics
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Mahdi, M.; Ebrahimi, R.; Shams, M.
2011-01-01
A numerical scheme for simulating the acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation was developed. Bubble instantaneous radius was obtained using Gilmore equation which considered the compressibility of the liquid. A uniform temperature was assumed for the inside gas during the collapse. Radiation heat transfer inside the bubble and the heat conduction to the bubble was considered. The numerical code was validated with the experimental data and a good correspondence was observed. The dynamics of hydrofoil cavitation bubble were also investigated. It was concluded that the thermal radiation heat transfer rate strongly depended on the cavitation number, initial bubble radius and hydrofoil angle of attack. -- Highlights: â Heat transfer and ionization energy losses were analyzed in the cavitation bubble. â Radiation of hydrodynamic bubble was approximately equal to the black body. â Radiation heat transfer did not affect the bubble dynamic. â Conduction decreased the bubble pressure and increased the bubble temperature. â Ionization decreased the temperature and increased the pressure in the bubble.
Localized removal of layers of metal, polymer, or biomaterial by ultrasound cavitation bubbles
NARCIS (Netherlands)
Rivas, David Fernandez; Verhaagen, Bram; Seddon, James R. T.; Zijlstra, Aaldert G.; Jiang, Lei-Meng; van der Sluis, Luc W. M.; Versluis, Michel; Lohse, Detlef; Gardeniers, Han J. G. E.
We present an ultrasonic device with the ability to locally remove deposited layers from a glass slide in a controlled and rapid manner. The cleaning takes place as the result of cavitating bubbles near the deposited layers and not due to acoustic streaming. The bubbles are ejected from air-filled
Localized removal of layers of metal, polymer, or biomaterial by ultrasound cavitation bubbles
NARCIS (Netherlands)
Fernandez Rivas, David; Verhaagen, B.; Seddon, James Richard Thorley; Zijlstra, A.G.; Jiang, L.M.; van der Sluis, L.W.M.; Versluis, Michel; Lohse, Detlef; Gardeniers, Johannes G.E.
2012-01-01
We present an ultrasonic device with the ability to locally remove deposited layers from a glass slide in a controlled and rapid manner. The cleaning takes place as the result of cavitating bubbles near the deposited layers and not due to acoustic streaming. The bubbles are ejected from air-filled
A derivation of the stable cavitation threshold accounting for bubble-bubble interactions.
Science.gov (United States)
Guédra, Matthieu; Cornu, Corentin; Inserra, Claude
2017-09-01
The subharmonic emission of sound coming from the nonlinear response of a bubble population is the most used indicator for stable cavitation. When driven at twice their resonance frequency, bubbles can exhibit subharmonic spherical oscillations if the acoustic pressure amplitude exceeds a threshold value. Although various theoretical derivations exist for the subharmonic emission by free or coated bubbles, they all rest on the single bubble model. In this paper, we propose an analytical expression of the subharmonic threshold for interacting bubbles in a homogeneous, monodisperse cloud. This theory predicts a shift of the subharmonic resonance frequency and a decrease of the corresponding pressure threshold due to the interactions. For a given sonication frequency, these results show that an optimal value of the interaction strength (i.e. the number density of bubbles) can be found for which the subharmonic threshold is minimum, which is consistent with recently published experiments conducted on ultrasound contrast agents. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Interaction of Impulsive Pressures of Cavitation Bubbles with Cell Membranes during Sonoporation
Science.gov (United States)
Kodama, Tetsuya; Koshiyama, Ken-ichiro; Tomita, Yukio; Suzuki, Maiko; Yano, Takeru; Fujikawa, Shigeo
2006-05-01
Ultrasound contrast agents (UCAs), are capable of enhancing non-invasive cytoplasmic molecular delivery in the presence of ultrasound. Collapse of UCAs may generate nano-scale cavitation bubbles, resulting in the transient permeabilization of the cell membrane. In the present study, we investigated the interaction of a cavitation bubble-induced shock wave with a cell membrane using acoustic theory and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. From the theory, we obtained the shock wave propagation distance from the center of a cavitation bubble that would induce membrane damage. The MD simulation determined the relationship between the uptake of water molecules into the lipid bilayer and the shock wave. The interaction of the shock wave induced a structural change of the bilayer and subsequently increased the fluidity of each molecule. These changes in the bilayer due to shock waves may be an important factor in the use of UCAs to produce the transient membrane permeability during sonoporation.
A reduced-order, single-bubble cavitation model with applications to therapeutic ultrasound.
Science.gov (United States)
Kreider, Wayne; Crum, Lawrence A; Bailey, Michael R; Sapozhnikov, Oleg A
2011-11-01
Cavitation often occurs in therapeutic applications of medical ultrasound such as shock-wave lithotripsy (SWL) and high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Because cavitation bubbles can affect an intended treatment, it is important to understand the dynamics of bubbles in this context. The relevant context includes very high acoustic pressures and frequencies as well as elevated temperatures. Relative to much of the prior research on cavitation and bubble dynamics, such conditions are unique. To address the relevant physics, a reduced-order model of a single, spherical bubble is proposed that incorporates phase change at the liquid-gas interface as well as heat and mass transport in both phases. Based on the energy lost during the inertial collapse and rebound of a millimeter-sized bubble, experimental observations were used to tune and test model predictions. In addition, benchmarks from the published literature were used to assess various aspects of model performance. Benchmark comparisons demonstrate that the model captures the basic physics of phase change and diffusive transport, while it is quantitatively sensitive to specific model assumptions and implementation details. Given its performance and numerical stability, the model can be used to explore bubble behaviors across a broad parameter space relevant to therapeutic ultrasound.
Numerical analysis of the effects of radiation heat transfer and ionization energy loss on the cavitation Bubble's dynamics
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Mahdi, M. [Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran (Iran, Islamic Republic of); Ebrahimi, R. [Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran (Iran, Islamic Republic of); Shams, M., E-mail: shams@kntu.ac.ir [Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Pardis St., Molla-Sadra Ave, Vanak. Sq., P.O. Box: 19395-1999, Tehran (Iran, Islamic Republic of)
2011-06-13
A numerical scheme for simulating the acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation was developed. Bubble instantaneous radius was obtained using Gilmore equation which considered the compressibility of the liquid. A uniform temperature was assumed for the inside gas during the collapse. Radiation heat transfer inside the bubble and the heat conduction to the bubble was considered. The numerical code was validated with the experimental data and a good correspondence was observed. The dynamics of hydrofoil cavitation bubble were also investigated. It was concluded that the thermal radiation heat transfer rate strongly depended on the cavitation number, initial bubble radius and hydrofoil angle of attack. -- Highlights: â Heat transfer and ionization energy losses were analyzed in the cavitation bubble. â Radiation of hydrodynamic bubble was approximately equal to the black body. â Radiation heat transfer did not affect the bubble dynamic. â Conduction decreased the bubble pressure and increased the bubble temperature. â Ionization decreased the temperature and increased the pressure in the bubble.
Activating molecules, ions, and solid particles with acoustic cavitation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Pflieger, Rachel; Chave, Tony; Virot, Matthieu; Nikitenko, Sergey I.
2014-01-01
The chemical and physical effects of ultrasound arise not from a direct interaction of molecules with sound waves, but rather from the acoustic cavitation: the nucleation, growth, and implosive collapse of micro-bubbles in liquids submitted to power ultrasound. The violent implosion of bubbles leads to the formation of chemically reactive species and to the emission of light, named sono-luminescence. In this manuscript, we describe the techniques allowing study of extreme intra-bubble conditions and chemical reactivity of acoustic cavitation in solutions. The analysis of sono-luminescence spectra of water sparged with noble gases provides evidence for nonequilibrium plasma formation. The photons and the 'hot' particles generated by cavitation bubbles enable to excite the non-volatile species in solutions increasing their chemical reactivity. For example the mechanism of ultra-bright sono-luminescence of uranyl ions in acidic solutions varies with uranium concentration: sono-photoluminescence dominates in diluted solutions, and collisional excitation contributes at higher uranium concentration. Secondary sono-chemical products may arise from chemically active species that are formed inside the bubble, but then diffuse into the liquid phase and react with solution precursors to form a variety of products. For instance, the sono-chemical reduction of Pt(IV) in pure water provides an innovative synthetic route for monodispersed nanoparticles of metallic platinum without any templates or capping agents. Many studies reveal the advantages of ultrasound to activate the divided solids. In general, the mechanical effects of ultrasound strongly contribute in heterogeneous systems in addition to chemical effects. In particular, the sono-lysis of PuO 2 powder in pure water yields stable colloids of plutonium due to both effects. (authors)
Cavitation inception from bubble nuclei
DEFF Research Database (Denmark)
Mørch, Knud Aage
2015-01-01
, and experimental investigations of bubbles and cavitation inception have been presented. These results suggest that cavitation nuclei in equilibrium are gaseous voids in the water, stabilized by a skin which allows diffusion balance between gas inside the void and gas in solution in the surrounding liquid....... The cavitation nuclei may be free gas bubbles in the bulk of water, or interfacial gaseous voids located on the surface of particles in the water, or on bounding walls. The tensile strength of these nuclei depends not only on the water quality but also on the pressure-time history of the water. A recent model...
Acoustic cavitation studies
Science.gov (United States)
Crum, L. A.
1981-09-01
The primary thrust of this study was toward a more complete understanding of general aspects of acoustic cavitation. The effect of long-chain polymer additives on the cavitation threshold was investigated to determine if they reduced the acoustic cavitation threshold in a similar manner to the observed reduction in the cavitation index in hydrodynamic cavitation. Measurements were made of the acoustic cavitation threshold as a function of polymer concentration for additives such as guar gum and polyethelene oxide. The measurements were also made as a function of dissolved gas concentration, surface tension and viscosity. It was determined that there was a significant increase in the acoustic cavitation threshold for increased concentrations of the polymer additives (measurable effects could be obtained for concentrations as low as a few parts per million). One would normally expect that an additive that reduces surface tension to decrease the pressure required to cause a cavity to grow and thus these additives, at first thought, should reduce the threshold. However, even in the hydrodynamic case, the threshold was increased. In both of the hydrodynamic cases considered, the explanation for the increased threshold was given in terms of changed fluid dynamics rather than changed physical properties of the fluid.
Hydrodynamic cavitation for sonochemical effects.
Science.gov (United States)
Moholkar, V S; Kumar, P S; Pandit, A B
1999-03-01
A comparative study of hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation has been made on the basis of numerical solutions of the Rayleigh-Plesset equation. The bubble/cavity behaviour has been studied under both acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation conditions. The effect of varying pressure fields on the collapse of the cavity (sinusoidal for acoustic and linear for hydrodynamic) and also on the latter's dynamic behaviour has been studied. The variations of parameters such as initial cavity size, intensity of the acoustic field and irradiation frequency in the case of acoustic cavitation, and initial cavity size, final recovery pressure and time for pressure recovery in the case of hydrodynamic cavitation, have been found to have significant effects on cavity/bubble dynamics. The simulations reveal that the bubble/cavity collapsing behaviour in the case of hydrodynamic cavitation is accompanied by a large number of pressure pulses of relatively smaller magnitude, compared with just one or two pulses under acoustic cavitation. It has been shown that hydrodynamic cavitation offers greater control over operating parameters and the resultant cavitation intensity. Finally, a brief summary of the experimental results on the oxidation of aqueous KI solution with a hydrodynamic cavitation set-up is given which supports the conclusion of this numerical study. The methodology presented allows one to manipulate and optimise of specific process, either physical or chemical.
Comparison of cavitation bubbles evolution in viscous media
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Jasikova Darina
2018-01-01
Full Text Available There have been tried many types of liquids with different ranges of viscosity values that have been tested to form a single cavitation bubble. The purpose of these experiments was to observe the behaviour of cavitation bubbles in media with different ranges of absorbance. The most of the method was based on spark to induced superheat limit of liquid. Here we used arrangement of the laser-induced breakdown (LIB method. There were described the set cavitation setting that affects the size bubble in media with different absorbance. We visualized the cavitation bubble with a 60 kHz high speed camera. We used here shadowgraphy setup for the bubble visualization. There were observed time development and bubble extinction in various media, where the size of the bubble in the silicone oil was extremely small, due to the absorbance size of silicon oil.
Interaction mechanism of double bubbles in hydrodynamic cavitation
Science.gov (United States)
Li, Fengchao; Cai, Jun; Huai, Xiulan; Liu, Bin
2013-06-01
Bubble-bubble interaction is an important factor in cavitation bubble dynamics. In this paper, the dynamic behaviors of double cavitation bubbles driven by varying pressure field downstream of an orifice plate in hydrodynamic cavitation reactor are examined. The bubble-bubble interaction between two bubbles with different radii is considered. We have shown the different dynamic behaviors between double cavitation bubbles and a single bubble by solving two coupling nonlinear equations using the Runge-Kutta fourth order method with adaptive step size control. The simulation results indicate that, when considering the role of the neighbor smaller bubble, the oscillation of the bigger bubble gradually exhibits a lag in comparison with the single-bubble case, and the extent of the lag becomes much more obvious as time goes by. This phenomenon is more easily observed with the increase of the initial radius of the smaller bubble. In comparison with the single-bubble case, the oscillation of the bigger bubble is enhanced by the neighbor smaller bubble. Especially, the pressure pulse of the bigger bubble rises intensely when the sizes of two bubbles approach, and a series of peak values for different initial radii are acquired when the initial radius ratio of two bubbles is in the range of 0.9Ë1.0. Although the increase of the center distance between two bubbles can weaken the mutual interaction, it has no significant influence on the enhancement trend. On the one hand, the interaction between two bubbles with different radii can suppress the growth of the smaller bubble; on the other hand, it also can enhance the growth of the bigger one at the same time. The significant enhancement effect due to the interaction of multi-bubbles should be paid more attention because it can be used to reinforce the cavitation intensity for various potential applications in future.
Towards the concept of hydrodynamic cavitation control
Science.gov (United States)
Chatterjee, Dhiman; Arakeri, Vijay H.
1997-02-01
A careful study of the existing literature available in the field of cavitation reveals the potential of ultrasonics as a tool for controlling and, if possible, eliminating certain types of hydrodynamic cavitation through the manipulation of nuclei size present in a flow. A glass venturi is taken to be an ideal device to study the cavitation phenomenon at its throat and its potential control. A piezoelectric transducer, driven at the crystal resonant frequency, is used to generate an acoustic pressure field and is termed an âultrasonic nuclei manipulator (UNM)â. Electrolysis bubbles serve as artificial nuclei to produce travelling bubble cavitation at the venturi throat in the absence of a UNM but this cavitation is completely eliminated when a UNM is operative. This is made possible because the nuclei, which pass through the acoustic field first, cavitate, collapse violently and perhaps fragment and go into dissolution before reaching the venturi throat. Thus, the potential nuclei for travelling bubble cavitation at the venturi throat seem to be systematically destroyed through acoustic cavitation near the UNM. From the solution to the bubble dynamics equation, it has been shown that the potential energy of a bubble at its maximum radius due to an acoustic field is negligible compared to that for the hydrodynamic field. Hence, even though the control of hydrodynamic macro cavitation achieved in this way is at the expense of acoustic micro cavitation, it can still be considered to be a significant gain. These are some of the first results in this direction.
Acoustic cavitation bubbles in the kidney induced by focused shock waves in extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
Science.gov (United States)
Kuwahara, M.; Ioritani, N.; Kambe, K.; Taguchi, K.; Saito, T.; Igarashi, M.; Shirai, S.; Orikasa, S.; Takayama, K.
1990-07-01
On an ultrasonic imaging system a hyperechoic region was observed in a focal area of fucused shock waves in the dog kidney. This study was performed to learn whether cavitation bubbles are responsible for this hyperechoic region. The ultrasonic images in water of varying temperatures were not markedly different. In the flowing stream of distilled water, the stream was demonstrated as a hyperechoic region only with a mixture of air bubbles. Streams of 5%-50% glucose solutions were also demonstrated as a hyperechoic region. However, such concentration changes in living tissue, as well as thermal changes, are hardly thought to be induced. The holographic interferometry showed that the cavitation bubbles remained for more than 500 msec. in the focal area in water. This finding indicate that the bubble can remain for longer period than previously supposed. These results support the contentions that cavitation bubbles are responsible for the hyperechoic region in the kidney in situ.
Long-time cavitation threshold of silica water mixture under acoustic drive
Science.gov (United States)
Bussonniére, Adrien; Liu, Qingxia; Tsai, Peichun Amy
2017-11-01
The low cavitation threshold of water observed experimentally has been attributed to the presence of pre-existing tiny bubbles stabilized by impurities. However, the origin and stability of these cavitation nuclei remain unresolved. We therefore investigate the long-time cavitation evolution of water seeded with micron-sized silica particles under the influences of several parameters. Experimentally, cavitation is induced by a High Intensity Focused Ultrasound and subsequently detected by monitoring the backscattered sound. Degassed or aerated solutions of different concentrations are subjected to acoustic pulses (with the amplitude ranging from 0.1 to 1.7 MPa and a fixed repetition frequency between 0.1 and 6.5 Hz). The cavitation threshold was measured by fitting the cavitation probability curve, averaged over 1000 pulses. Surprisingly, our results shown that the cavitation threshold stabilizes at a reproducible value after a few thousand pulses. Moreover, this long-time threshold was found to decrease with increasing particle concentration, pulse period, and initial oxygen level. In contrast to the depletion of nuclei expected under long acoustic cavitation, the results suggest stabilized nuclei population depending on concentration, oxygen level, and driving period.
Shock wave emission from laser-induced cavitation bubbles in polymer solutions.
Science.gov (United States)
Brujan, Emil-Alexandru
2008-09-01
The role of extensional viscosity on the acoustic emission from laser-induced cavitation bubbles in polymer solutions and near a rigid boundary is investigated by acoustic measurements. The polymer solutions consist of a 0.5% polyacrylamide (PAM) aqueous solution with a strong elastic component and a 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) aqueous solution with a weak elastic component. A reduction of the maximum amplitude of the shock wave pressure and a prolongation of the oscillation period of the bubble were found in the elastic PAM solution. It might be caused by an increased resistance to extensional flow which is conferred upon the liquid by the polymer additive. In both polymer solutions, however, the shock pressure decays proportionally to r(-1) with increasing distance r from the emission centre.
Method of generating energy by acoustically induced cavitation fusion and reactor therefor
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Flynn, H.G.
1982-01-01
Two different cavitation fusion reactors (cfr's) are disclosed. Each comprises a chamber containing a liquid (host) metal such as lithium or an alloy thereof. Acoustical horns in the chamber walls operate to vary the ambient pressure in the liquid metal, creating therein small bubbles which are caused to grow to maximum sizes and then collapse violently in two steps. In the first stage the bubble contents remain at the temperature of the host liquid, but in the second stage the increasing speed of collapse causes an adiabatic compression of the bubble contents, and of the thin shell of liquid surrounding the bubble. Application of a positive pressure on the bubble accelerates this adiabatic stage, and causes the bubble to contract to smaller radius, thus increasing maximum temperatures and pressures reached within the bubble. At or near its minimum radius the bubble generates a very intense shock wave, creating high pressures and temperatures in the host liquid. These extremely high pressures and temperatures occur both within the bubbles and in the host liquid, and cause hydrogen isotopes in the bubbles and liquid to undergo thermonuclear reactions. In one type of cfr the thermonuclear reaction is generated by cavitation within the liquid metal itself, and in the other type the reaction takes place primarily within the bubbles. The fusion reactions generate energy that is absorbed as heat by the liquid metal, and this heat is removed from the liquid by conduction through the acoustical horns to an external heat exchanger, without any pumping of the liquid metal
Effect of free-air nuclei on fully developed individual bubble cavitation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Danel, F.; Lecoffre, Y.
1976-01-01
Fully developed individual-bubble cavitation was studied. Nuclei population and pressure distribution at the boundary of a cavitating converging-diverging test section were measured. It was shown that some cavitation tests can only yield valid results if the free air content of the water is known. During the initial stages of bubble growth the wall pressure in the cavitation region is lower than the vapor pressure. Wall pressure rises later. For a given cavitation number and flow velocity, the pressure distribution depends on the number of expanding bubbles on the hydrofoil. Minimum pressure coefficient depends only on the cavitation number, the flow velocity and the number of expanding bubbles present. Bubbles generate pressure pulses at the wall; combined effect of all such pulses is to shift the wall pressure away from the value that would be obtained at the same cavitation number if no cavitation was present. The greater the number of expanding bubbles, the more the wall pressure tends to approach the vapor pressure. An important result of the work is to pin-point free air contents of water tunnel which lead to correct scaling of cavitation flows [fr
Excitation of cavitation bubbles in low-temperature liquid nitrogen
Science.gov (United States)
Sasaki, Koichi; Harada, Shingo
2017-06-01
We excited a cavitation bubble by irradiating a Nd:YAG laser pulse onto a titanium target that was installed in liquid nitrogen at a temperature below the boiling point. To our knowledge, this is the first experiment in which a cavitation bubble has been successfully excited in liquid nitrogen. We compared the cavitation bubble in liquid nitrogen with that in water on the basis of an equation reported by Florschuetz and Chao [J. Heat Transfer 87, 209 (1965)].
Processing of Microalgae: Acoustic Cavitation and Hydrothermal Conversion
Science.gov (United States)
Greenly, Justin Michael
The production of energy dense fuels from renewable algal biomass feedstocks -- if sustainably developed at a sufficiently large scale -- may reduce the consumption of petroleum from fossil fuels and provide many environmental benefits. Achieving economic feasibility has several technical engineering challenges that arise from dilute concentration of growing algae in aqueous media, small cell sizes, and durable cell walls. For microalgae to be a sustainable source of biofuels and co-products, efficient fractionation and conversion of the cellular contents is necessary. Research was carried out to address two processing options for efficient microalgae biofuel production: 1. Ultrasonic cavitation for cell disruption and 2. Hydrothermal conversion of a model algal triglyceride. 1. Ultrasonic cell disruption, which relies on cavitating bubbles in the suspension to produce damaging shock waves, was investigated experimentally over a range of concentrations and species types. A few seconds of high intensity sonication at fixed frequency yielded significant cell disruption, even for the more durable cells. At longer exposure times, effectiveness was seen to decline and was attributed, using acoustic measurements, to ultrasonic power attenuation in the ensuing cloud of cavitating bubbles. Processing at higher cell concentrations slowed cell disintegration marginally, but increased the effectiveness of dissipating ultrasonic energy. A theoretical study effectively predicted optimal conditions for a variety of parameters that were inaccessible in this experimental investigation. In that study, single bubble collapse was modeled to identify operating conditions that would increase cavitation, and thus cell disruption. Simulations were conducted by varying frequency and pressure amplitude of the ultrasound wave, and initial bubble size. The simulation results indicated that low frequency, high sound wave amplitudes, and small initial bubble size generate the highest shock
Intensely oscillating cavitation bubble in microfluidics
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Siew-Wan, Ohl; Tandiono; Klaseboer, Evert; Dave, Ow; Choo, Andre; Claus-Dieter, Ohl
2015-01-01
This study reports the technical breakthrough in generating intense ultrasonic cavitation in the confinement of a microfluidics channel [1], and applications that has been developed on this platform for the past few years [2,3,4,5]. Our system consists of circular disc transducers (10-20 mm in diameter), the microfluidics channels on PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane), and a driving circuitry. The cavitation bubbles are created at the gas- water interface due to strong capillary waves which are generated when the system is driven at its natural frequency (around 100 kHz) [1]. These bubbles oscillate and collapse within the channel. The bubbles are useful for sonochemistry and the generation of sonoluminescence [2]. When we add bacteria (Escherichia coli), and yeast cells (Pichia pastoris) into the microfluidics channels, the oscillating and collapsing bubbles stretch and lyse these cells [3]. Furthermore, the system is effective (DNA of the harvested intracellular content remains largely intact), and efficient (yield reaches saturation in less than 1 second). In another application, human red blood cells are added to a microchamber. Cell stretching and rapture are observed when a laser generated cavitation bubble expands and collapses next to the cell [4]. A numerical model of a liquid pocket surrounded by a membrane with surface tension which was placed next to an oscillating bubble was developed using the Boundary Element Method. The simulation results showed that the stretching of the liquid pocket occurs only when the surface tension is within a certain range. (paper)
Travelling Bubble Cavitation and Resulting Noise.
Science.gov (United States)
1981-03-02
pp. 22-26, 1968. 16. Il’ichev, V. I. "Statistical Model of the Onset of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Noise," Sixth All-Union Acoustic Conference...Collected Papers, Moscow, 1968. 17. Lyamshev, L. M. "On the Theory of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Noise," Soviet Physics-Acoustics, Vol. 15, pp. 494-498, 1970. 18
Letter: Entrapment and interaction of an air bubble with an oscillating cavitation bubble
Science.gov (United States)
Kannan, Y. S.; Karri, Badarinath; Sahu, Kirti Chandra
2018-04-01
The mechanism of the formation of an air bubble due to an oscillating cavitation bubble in its vicinity is reported from an experimental study using high-speed imaging. The cavitation bubble is created close to the free surface of water using a low-voltage spark circuit comprising two copper electrodes in contact with each other. Before the bubble is created, a third copper wire is positioned in contact with the free surface of water close to the two crossing electrodes. Due to the surface tension at the triple point (wire-water-air) interface, a small dip is observed in the free surface at the point where the wire is immersed. When the cavitation bubble is created, the bubble pushes at the dip while expanding and pulls at it while collapsing. The collapse phase leads to the entrapment of an air bubble at the wire immersion point. During this phase, the air bubble undergoes a "catapult" effect, i.e., it expands to a maximum size and then collapses with a microjet at the free surface. To the best of our knowledge, this mechanism has not been reported so far. A parametric study is also conducted to understand the effects of wire orientation and bubble distance from the free surface.
Nanoparticle dispersion in liquid metals by electromagnetically induced acoustic cavitation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Kaldre, Imants; BojareviÄs, Andris; Grants, IlmÄrs; Beinerts, Toms; KalvÄns, MatÄ«ss; MilgrÄvis, Mikus; Gerbeth, Gunter
2016-01-01
Aim of this study is to investigate experimentally the effect of magnetically induced cavitation applied for the purpose of nanoparticle dispersion in liquid metals. The oscillating magnetic force due to the azimuthal induction currents and the axial magnetic field excites power ultrasound in the sample. If the fields are sufficiently high then it is possible to achieve the acoustic cavitation threshold in liquid metals. Cavitation bubble collapses are known to create microscale jets with a potential to break nanoparticle agglomerates and disperse them. The samples are solidified under the contactless ultrasonic treatment and later analyzed by electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). It is observed that SiC nanoparticles are dispersed in an aluminum magnesium alloy, whereas in tin the same particles remain agglomerated in micron-sized clusters despite a more intense cavitation.
Enhancing the aggressive intensity of hydrodynamic cavitation through a Venturi tube by increasing the pressure in the region where the bubbles collapse
Science.gov (United States)
Soyama, H.; Hoshino, J.
2016-04-01
In this paper, we used a Venturi tube for generating hydrodynamic cavitation, and in order to obtain the optimum conditions for this to be used in chemical processes, the relationship between the aggressive intensity of the cavitation and the downstream pressure where the cavitation bubbles collapse was investigated. The acoustic power and the luminescence induced by the bubbles collapsing were investigated under various cavitating conditions, and the relationships between these and the cavitation number, which depends on the upstream pressure, the downstream pressure at the throat of the tube and the vapor pressure of the test water, was found. It was shown that the optimum downstream pressure, i.e., the pressure in the region where the bubbles collapse, increased the aggressive intensity by a factor of about 100 compared to atmospheric pressure without the need to increase the input power. Although the optimum downstream pressure varied with the upstream pressure, the cavitation number giving the optimum conditions was constant for all upstream pressures.
Enhancing the aggressive intensity of hydrodynamic cavitation through a Venturi tube by increasing the pressure in the region where the bubbles collapse
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
H. Soyama
2016-04-01
Full Text Available In this paper, we used a Venturi tube for generating hydrodynamic cavitation, and in order to obtain the optimum conditions for this to be used in chemical processes, the relationship between the aggressive intensity of the cavitation and the downstream pressure where the cavitation bubbles collapse was investigated. The acoustic power and the luminescence induced by the bubbles collapsing were investigated under various cavitating conditions, and the relationships between these and the cavitation number, which depends on the upstream pressure, the downstream pressure at the throat of the tube and the vapor pressure of the test water, was found. It was shown that the optimum downstream pressure, i.e., the pressure in the region where the bubbles collapse, increased the aggressive intensity by a factor of about 100 compared to atmospheric pressure without the need to increase the input power. Although the optimum downstream pressure varied with the upstream pressure, the cavitation number giving the optimum conditions was constant for all upstream pressures.
Bifurcation of ensemble oscillations and acoustic emissions from early stage cavitation clouds in focused ultrasound
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Gerold, Bjoern; Prentice, Paul; Rachmilevitch, Itay
2013-01-01
The acoustic emissions from single cavitation clouds at an early stage of development in 0.521 MHz focused ultrasound of varying intensity, are detected and directly correlated to high-speed microscopic observations, recorded at 1 Ã 10 6 frames per second. At lower intensities, a stable regime of cloud response is identified whereby bubble-ensembles exhibit oscillations at half the driving frequency, which is also detected in the acoustic emission spectra. Higher intensities generate clouds that develop more rapidly, with increased nonlinearity evidenced by a bifurcation in the frequency of ensemble response, and in the acoustic emissions. A single bubble oscillation model is subject to equivalent ultrasound conditions and fitted to features in the hydrophone and high-speed spectral data, allowing an effective quiescent radius to be inferred for the clouds that evolve at each intensity. The approach indicates that the acoustic emissions originate from the ensemble dynamics and that the cloud acts as a single bubble of equivalent radius in terms of the scattered field. Jetting from component cavities on the periphery of clouds is regularly observed at higher intensities. The results may be of relevance for monitoring and controlling cavitation in therapeutic applications of focused ultrasound, where the phenomenon has the potential to mediate drug delivery from vasculature. (paper)
Laser-nucleated acoustic cavitation in focused ultrasound.
Science.gov (United States)
Gerold, Bjoern; Kotopoulis, Spiros; McDougall, Craig; McGloin, David; Postema, Michiel; Prentice, Paul
2011-04-01
Acoustic cavitation can occur in therapeutic applications of high-amplitude focused ultrasound. Studying acoustic cavitation has been challenging, because the onset of nucleation is unpredictable. We hypothesized that acoustic cavitation can be forced to occur at a specific location using a laser to nucleate a microcavity in a pre-established ultrasound field. In this paper we describe a scientific instrument that is dedicated to this outcome, combining a focused ultrasound transducer with a pulsed laser. We present high-speed photographic observations of laser-induced cavitation and laser-nucleated acoustic cavitation, at frame rates of 0.5Ã10(6) frames per second, from laser pulses of energy above and below the optical breakdown threshold, respectively. Acoustic recordings demonstrated inertial cavitation can be controllably introduced to the ultrasound focus. This technique will contribute to the understanding of cavitation evolution in focused ultrasound including for potential therapeutic applications. © 2011 American Institute of Physics
Cavitation Generation and Usage Without Ultrasound: Hydrodynamic Cavitation
Science.gov (United States)
Gogate, Parag R.; Pandit, Aniruddha B.
Hydrodynamic Cavitation, which was and is still looked upon as an unavoidable nuisance in the flow systems, can be a serious contender as an alternative to acoustic cavitation for harnessing the spectacular effects of cavitation in physical and chemical processing. The present chapter covers the basics of hydrodynamic cavitation including the considerations for the bubble dynamics analysis, reactor designs and recommendations for optimum operating parameters. An overview of applications in different areas of physical, chemical and biological processing on scales ranging from few grams to several hundred kilograms has also been presented. Since hydrodynamic cavitation was initially proposed as an alternative to acoustic cavitation, it is necessary to compare the efficacy of both these modes of cavitations for a variety of applications and hence comparisons have been discussed either on the basis of energy efficiency or based on the scale of operation. Overall it appears that hydrodynamic cavitation results in conditions similar to those generated using acoustic cavitation but at comparatively much larger scale of operation and with better energy efficiencies.
Scale effect on bubble growth and cavitation inception in cavitation susceptibility meters
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Shen, Y.T.; Gowing, S.
1985-01-01
The Reynolds number alone is not adequate to predict cavitation inception scaling. Recent experiments on headforms once again show that the cavitation inception data are very sensitive to the nuclei tensile strength which, in turn depends on the velocity scale. This paper theoretically investigates the influence of Reynolds number and velocity scale on cavitation inception in a cavitation susceptibility meter. The numerical examples given are based on a single bubble spherical model
Techniques of Ultrasound Cavitation Control
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
S. P. Skvortsov
2015-01-01
Full Text Available The control methods of ultrasonic cavitation applied now within the range from 20 kHz to 80 kHz use either control of ultrasound source parameters (amplitude, acoustic power, etc. or control of one of the cavitation effects (erosion of materials, sonoluminescence, power of acoustic noise, etc.. These methods provide effective management of technological processes, however, make it impossible to relate the estimated effect with parameters of pulsations of cavitation bubbles. This is, mainly, due to influence of a number of uncontrollable parameters, in particular, such as temperature, composition of liquid, gas content, etc. as well as because of the difficulty to establish interrelation between the estimated effect and parameters of pulsations. As a result, in most cases it is difficult to compare controlled parameters of ultrasonic cavitation among themselves, and quantitative characteristics of processes become depending on the type of ultrasonic installation and conditions of their measurement.In this regard, methods to determine parameters of bubble pulsations through sounding a cavitation area by low-intensity laser radiation or to record cavitation noise sub-harmonics reflecting dynamics of changing radius of cavitation bubbles are of interest. The method of optical sounding, via the analysis of spectral components of a scattered signal recorded by a photo-detector, allows us to define a phase of the bubbles collapse with respect to the sound wave and a moving speed of the bubbles wall, as well as to estimate a cavitation index within the light beam section.The method to record sub-harmonicas of cavitation noise allows us to define parameters of pulsations, average for cavitation areas.The above methods allow us both to study mechanisms of cavitation action and to form quantitative criteria of its efficiency based on the physical processes, rather than their consequences and are convenient for arranging a feedback in the units using
Dynamic adsorption properties of n-alkyl glucopyranosides determine their ability to inhibit cytolysis mediated by acoustic cavitation.
Science.gov (United States)
Sostaric, Joe Z; Miyoshi, Norio; Cheng, Jason Y; Riesz, Peter
2008-10-09
Suspensions of human leukemia (HL-60) cells readily undergo cytolysis when exposed to ultrasound above the acoustic cavitation threshold. However, n-alkyl glucopyranosides (hexyl, heptyl, and octyl) completely inhibit ultrasound-induced (1057 kHz) cytolysis (Sostaric, et al. Free Radical Biol. Med. 2005, 39, 1539-1548). The efficacy of protection from ultrasound-induced cytolysis was determined by the n-alkyl chain length of the glucopyranosides, indicating that protection efficacy depended on adsorption of n-alkyl glucopyranosides to the gas/solution interface of cavitation bubbles and/or the lipid membrane of cells. The current study tests the hypothesis that "sonoprotection" (i.e., protection of cells from ultrasound-induced cytolysis) in vitro depends on the adsorption of glucopyranosides at the gas/solution interface of cavitation bubbles. To test this hypothesis, the effect of ultrasound frequency (from 42 kHz to 1 MHz) on the ability of a homologous series of n-alkyl glucopyranosides to protect cells from ultrasound-induced cytolysis was investigated. It is expected that ultrasound frequency will affect sonoprotection ability since the nature of the cavitation bubble field will change. This will affect the relative importance of the possible mechanisms for ultrasound-induced cytolysis. Additionally, ultrasound frequency will affect the lifetime and rate of change of the surface area of cavitation bubbles, hence the dynamically controlled adsorption of glucopyranosides to their surface. The data support the hypothesis that sonoprotection efficiency depends on the ability of glucopyranosides to adsorb at the gas/solution interface of cavitation bubbles.
Cavitation in confined water: ultra-fast bubble dynamics
Science.gov (United States)
Vincent, Olivier; Marmottant, Philippe
2012-02-01
In the hydraulic vessels of trees, water can be found at negative pressure. This metastable state, corresponding to mechanical tension, is achieved by evaporation through a porous medium. It can be relaxed by cavitation, i.e. the sudden nucleation of vapor bubbles. Harmful for the tree due to the subsequent emboli of sap vessels, cavitation is on the contrary used by ferns to eject spores very swiftly. We will focus here on the dynamics of the cavitation bubble, which is of primary importance to explain the previously cited natural phenomena. We use the recently developed method of artificial tress, using transparent hydrogels as the porous medium. Our experiments, on water confined in micrometric hydrogel cavities, show an extremely fast dynamics: bubbles are nucleated at the microsecond timescale. For cavities larger than 100 microns, the bubble ``rings'' with damped oscillations at MHz frequencies, whereas for smaller cavities the oscillations become overdamped. This rich dynamics can be accounted for by a model we developed, leading to a modified Rayleigh-Plesset equation. Interestingly, this model predicts the impossibility to nucleate bubbles above a critical confinement that depends on liquid negative pressure and corresponds to approximately 100 nm for 20 MPa tensions.
Gas transport into a cavitation bubble during the explosion
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Oldenziel, D.M.
1976-01-01
When considering cavitation bubbles exploding from small stream nuclei the surface tension plays an important role, and mostly negative pressures exist in the surroundings of such a bubble. During the short explosion time, the gas and vapor pressure in the bubble plays no important role in the dynamic process. The high radial velocity of the bubble wall introduces a steep gradient in the concentration of dissolved air near it, which results in some enforced gas transport into the bubble. During the bubble implosion it is necessary to take into account the amount of gas in the bubble, as it certainly plays an important role in exploring the cavitation erosion. In this survey the solution of a mathematical model for the gas diffusion process is compared with some experimental results
Dendrites fragmentation induced by oscillating cavitation bubbles in ultrasound field.
Science.gov (United States)
Wang, S; Kang, J; Zhang, X; Guo, Z
2018-02-01
The fragmentation of the dendrites of succinonitrile (SCN)-2-wt.% acetone organic transparent alloy caused by ultrasound-induced cavitation bubbles was studied by using ultra-high-speed digital camera with a rate of 40,000fps. Real-time imaging reveals that the vibrating cavitation bubbles can fragment not only secondary arms but also the primary ones under high ultrasound power. The secondary arms always broke at their roots as a result of stress concentration induced by oscillated cavitation bubble and then ripped off from their primary arms. Generally the fragment process takes tens of milliseconds from bending to breaking, while the break always occurs immediately in less than 25μs. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Characterizing the collapse of a cavitation bubble cloud in a focused ultrasound field
Science.gov (United States)
Maeda, Kazuki; Colonius, Tim
2017-11-01
We study the coherent collapse of clouds of cavitation bubbles generated by the passage of a pulse of ultrasound. In order to characterize such collapse, we conduct a parametric study on the dynamics of a spherical bubble cloud with a radius of r = O(1) mm interacting with traveling ultrasound waves with an amplitude of pa = O(102 -106) Pa and a wavelength of λ = O(1 - 10) mm in water. Bubbles with a radius of O(10) um are treated as spherical, radially oscillating cavities dispersed in continuous liquid phase. The volume of Lagrangian point bubbles is mapped with a regularization kernel as void fraction onto Cartesian grids that defines the Eulerian liquid phase. The flow field is solved using a WENO-based compressible flow solver. We identified that coherent collapse occurs when λ >> r , regardless of the value of pa, while it only occurs for sufficiently high pa when λ r . For the long wavelength case, the results agree with the theory on linearized dynamics of d'Agostino and Brennen (1989). We extend the theory to short wave length case. Finally, we analyze the far-field acoustics scattered by individual bubbles and correlate them with the cloud collapse, for applications to acoustic imaging of bubble cloud dynamics. Funding supported by NIH P01-DK043881.
Evaluation of Acoustic Cavitation in Terephthalic Acid Solutions Containing Gold Nanoparticles by the Spectrofluorometry Method
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Ameneh Sazgarnia
2012-01-01
Full Text Available Background. When a liquid is irradiated with high intensity and low-frequency ultrasound, acoustic cavitation occurs. The existence of particles in a liquid provides nucleation sites for cavitation bubbles and leads to a decrease in the ultrasonic intensity threshold needed for cavitation onset. Materials and Methods. The study was designed to measure hydroxyl radicals in terephthalic acid solutions containing gold nanoparticles in a near field of a 1âMHz sonotherapy probe. The effect of ultrasound irradiation parameters containing mode of sonication and ultrasound intensity in hydroxyl radicals production have been investigated by the spectrofluorometry method. Results. Recorded fluorescence signal in terephthalic acid solution containing gold nanoparticles was higher than the terephthalic acid solution without gold nanoparticles. Also, the results showed that any increase in intensity of the sonication would be associated with an increase in the fluorescence intensity. Conclusion. Acoustic cavitation in the presence of gold nanoparticles has been introduced as a way for improving therapeutic effects on the tumors in sonodynamic therapy. Also, the terephthalic acid dosimetry is suitable for detecting and quantifying free hydroxyl radicals as a criterion of cavitation production over a certain range of conditions in medical ultrasound fields.
Visualization of cavitation bubbles induced by a laser pulse
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Testud-Giovanneschi, P.; Dufresne, D.; Inglesakis, G.
1987-01-01
The I.M.F.M. researchers working on Laser-Matter Interaction are studying the effects induced on matter by a pulsed radiation energy deposit. In this research, the emphasis is on the laser liquids interaction field and more particularly the cavitation induced by a laser pulse or ''optical-cavitation'' as termed by W. Lauterborn (1). For bubbles investigations, the visualizations form a basic diagnostic. This paper presents the experimental apparatus of formation of bubbles, the visualization apparatus and different typical examples of photographic recordings
Report of sodium cavitation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Murai, Hitoshi; Shima, Akira; Oba, Toshisaburo; Kobayashi, Ryoji; Hashimoto, Hiroyuki
1975-01-01
The damage of components for LMFBRs due to sodium cavitation is serious problem. This report summarizes the following items, (1) mechanism of the incipience of sodium cavitation, (2) damage due to sodium cavitation, (3) detection method for sodium cavitation, and (4) estimation method for sodium cavitation by the comparison with water cavitation. Materials were collected from the reports on liquid metal cavitation, sodium cavitation and water cavitation published from 1965 to now. The mechanism of the incipience of sodium cavitation cavitation parameters (mean location, distributed amount or occurrence aspect and stability), experiment of causing cavitation with Venturi tube, and growth of bubbles within superheated sodium. The sodium cavitation damage was caused by magnetostriction vibration method and with Venturi tube. The state of damage was investigated with the cavitation performance of a sodium pump, and the damage was examined in view of the safety of LMFBR plants. Sodium cavitation was detected with acoustic method, radiation method, and electric method. The effect of physical property of liquid on incipient cavitation was studied. These are thermodynamic effect based on quasistatic thermal equilibrium condition and the effect of the physical property of liquid based on bubble dynamics. (Iwase, T.)
Relationship between thrombolysis efficiency induced by pulsed focused ultrasound and cavitation bubble size
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Xu, S; Liu, X; Wang, S; Wan, M
2015-01-01
In this study, the relationship between the efficiency of pulsed focused ultrasound (FUS)-induced thrombolysis and the size distribution of cavitation bubbles has been studied. Firstly, the thrombolysis efficiency, evaluated by degree of mechanical fragmentation was investigated with varying duty cycle. Secondly, the size distribution of cavitation bubbles after the 1st, 10 3 th and 10 5 th pulse during experiments for various duty cycles was studied. It was revealed that the thrombolysis efficiency was highest when the cavitation bubble size distribution was centred around linear resonance radius of the emission frequency of the FUS transducer. Therefore, in cavitation enhanced therapeutic applications, the essential of using a pulsed FUS may be controlling the size distribution of cavitation nuclei within an active size range so as to increase the treatment efficiency. (paper)
Sono-chemiluminescence from a single cavitation bubble in water
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Brotchie, Adam; Shchukin, Dmitry; Moehwald, Helmuth; Schneider, Julia; Pflieger, Rachel
2012-01-01
In summary, this study has revealed the conditions required for a single bubble to be sono-chemically active. Evidence of radical-induced processes surrounding the bubble was only observed below the SL threshold, where the bubble was not spatially stable, and did not correlate with emission from excited molecular states inside the bubble. Moreover, this work substantiates recent progress that has been made in bridging the gap between single and multi-bubble cavitation. (authors)
Cavitation propagation in water under tension
Science.gov (United States)
Noblin, Xavier; Yip Cheung Sang, Yann; Pellegrin, Mathieu; Materials and Complex Fluids Team
2012-11-01
Cavitation appears when pressure decreases below vapor pressure, generating vapor bubbles. It can be obtain in dynamical ways (acoustic, hydraulic) but also in quasi-static conditions. This later case is often observed in nature, in trees, or during the ejection of ferns spores. We study the cavitation bubbles nucleation dynamics and its propagation in a confined microfabricated media. This later is an ordered array of microcavities made in hydrogel filled with water. When the system is put into dry air, it dehydrates, water leaves the cavities and tension (negative pressure) builds in the cavities. This can be sustained up to a critical pressure (of order -20 MPa), then cavitation bubbles appear. We follow the dynamics using ultra high speed imaging. Events with several bubbles cavitating in a few microseconds could be observed along neighboring cells, showing a propagation phenomenon that we discuss. ANR CAVISOFT 2010-JCJC-0407 01.
Numerical simulation of the cavitation's hydrodynamic excitement
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Hassis, H.; Dueymes, E.; Lauro, J.F.
1993-01-01
First, we study the motion, the velocity, the phases plane and the acoustic sources associated to a spherical bubble in a compressible or incompressible medium. The bubble can be excited by periodic or random excitements. We study the parameters which influence their behaviour: periodicity or not of motion, implosion and explosion or oscillation of bubble. We take into account this behaviour in a model of cavitation: it is a numerical simulation using population of bubbles which are with positions (in the cavitation volume) and sizes are random. These bubbles are excited by a random excitement: a model of turbulent flow or implosion and explosion of bubble. (author)
Principles and effects of acoustic cavitation - A review
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Corina GÃMBUÅ¢EANU
2013-12-01
Full Text Available In the recent years, food industry has shown a real interest in ultrasound use because of its effect on physical, biochemical and microbial properties of food systems. In order to better understand how the acoustic cavity effects could be best applied in food industry, a review on acoustic cavitation and its effects was done. The present paper describes in detail the basic principles underlying the effects of ultrasounds on food processing applications. It
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Encyclopedia of applied and computational mathematics Volume 1. A
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EACM is a comprehensive reference work covering the vast field of applied and computational mathematics. Applied mathema...
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Citation preview
Björn Engquist Editor
Encyclopedia of Applied and Computational Mathematics 1 3Reference
Encyclopedia of Applied and Computational Mathematics
¨ Engquist Bjorn Editor
Encyclopedia of Applied and Computational Mathematics Volume 2 L–Z
With 361 Figures and 33 Tables
Editor Bj¨orn Engquist University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, USA
ISBN 978-3-540-70528-4 ISBN 978-3-540-70529-1 ISBN 978-3-540-70530-7 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/ 978-3-540-70529-1
(eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015953230 Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Preface
The scientific field of applied and computational mathematics has evolved and expanded at a very rapid rate during the last few decades. Many subfields have matured, and it is therefore natural to consider publishing an encyclopedia for the field. Traditional encyclopedias are, however, becoming part of history. For fast, simple, and up-to-date facts they cannot compete with web search engines and web-based versions of the Wikipedia type. For much more extensive and complete treatments of topics, traditional monographs and review articles in specialized journals are common. There is an advantage with web-based articles as in Wikipedia, which constantly evolves and adapts to changes. There is also an advantage with articles that do not change, have known authors, and can be referred to in other publications. With the Encyclopedia for Applied and Computational Mathematics (EACM), we are aiming at achieving the best of these two models. The goal with EACM is a publication with broad coverage by many articles, which are quality controlled through a traditional peer review process. The articles can be formally cited, and the authors can take credit for their contributions. This publication will be frozen in its current form, obviously on paper as well as on the web. In parallel there will be an electronic version, where the authors can make changes to their articles and where new articles will be added. After a couple of years, this dynamic version will result in a publication of a new edition of EACM, which can be referenced while the dynamic electronic version continues to evolve. The length of the articles is also chosen to fill the gap between the common shorter web versions and more specialized longer publications. They are here typically between 5 and 10 pages. A few are introductory overviews and a bit longer than the average article. An encyclopedia will never be complete, and the decision to define the first edition at this time is based on a compromise between the desire of covering the field well and a timely published version. This first edition has 312 articles with the overall number of 1,575 pages in 2 volumes. There are few contributions with animations, which will appear in the electronic version. This will be expanded in the future. The above discussion was about the “E” in EACM. Now we turn to rest of the acronym, “ACM.” Modern applied and computational mathematics is more applied, more computational, and more mathematical than ever. The exponential growth of computational power has allowed for much more complex mathematical models, and these new models are typically more realistic for applications. It is natural to include both applied and computational mathematics in the encyclopedia even though these two fields are philosophically different. In computational mathematics, algorithms are developed and analyzed and may in principle be independent from applications. The two fields are, however, now very tightly coupled in practice.
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Almost all applied mathematics has some computational components, and most computational mathematics is directly developed for applications. Computation is now mentioned as the third pillar of science together with the classical theory and experiments. Scientific progress of today is often based on critical computational components, which can be seen in the growing contribution from computations in recent Nobel Prizes. The importance of mathematical modeling and scientific computing in engineering is even more obvious. The expression “Computational Science and Engineering” has emerged to describe a scientific field where computations have merged with applications. Classical fields of applied mathematics, for example, asymptotic analysis and homogenization, are today not so often used for achieving quantitative results. They are, however, very important in mathematical modeling and in deriving and understanding a variety of numerical techniques for multiscale simulations. This is explained in different settings throughout EACM. We mentioned above that modern applied and computational mathematics are more mathematical than ever. In the early days, this coupling was natural. Many algorithms that are used today and also discussed in this encyclopedia have the names of Newton and Gauss. However, during the century before the modern computer, mathematics in its pure form evolved rapidly and became more disconnected from applications. The computational tools of pen and paper, the slide rule, and simple mechanical devices stayed roughly the same. We got a clear division between pure and applied mathematics. This has changed with the emergence of the modern computer. Models based on much more sophisticated mathematics are now bases for the quantitative computations and thus practical applications. There are many examples of this tighter coupling between applied and computational mathematics on the one hand and what we regard as pure mathematics on the other. Harmonic analysis is a typical example. It had its origin in applied and computational mathematics with the work of Fourier on heat conduction. However, only very special cases can be studied in a quantitative way by hand. In the years after this beginning, there was substantial progress in pure directions of harmonic analysis. The emergence of powerful computers and the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm drastically changed the scene. This resulted, for example, in wavelets, the inverse Radon transform, a variety of spectral techniques for PDEs, computational information, and sampling theory and compressed sensing. The reader will see illustrative examples in EACM. Partial differential equations have also had a recent development where ideas have bounced back and forth between applications, computations, and fundamental theory. The field of applied and computational mathematics is of course not well defined. We will use the term in a broad sense, but we have not included areas that have their own identity and where applied and computational mathematics is not what you think of even if in a strict sense applied and computational mathematics would be correct. Statistics is the most prominent example. This was an editorial decision. Through the process of producing the EACM, there has been a form of self-selection. When section editors and authors were asked to cover an area or a topic closer to the core of applied and computational mathematics, the success rate was very high. Examples are numerical analysis and inverse problems. Many applied areas are also well covered, ranging from general topics in fluid and solid mechanics to computational aspects of chemistry and the mathematics of atmosphere and ocean science.
Preface
Preface
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In fields further from the core, the response was less complete. Examples of the latter are the mathematical aspects of computer science and physics, where the researchers generally do not think of themselves as doing applied and computational mathematics even when they are. The current encyclopedia naturally does not cover all topics that should ideally have their own articles. We hope to fill these holes in the evolving web-based version and then in the future editions. Finally, I would like to thank all section editors and authors for their outstanding contributions and their patience. I also hope that you will continue to improve EACM in its dynamic form and in future editions. Joachim Heinze and Martin Peters at Springer initiated the process when they came with the idea of an encyclopedia. Martin Peters’ highly professional supervision of the development and publication process has absolutely been critical. I am also very grateful for the excellent support from Ruth Allewelt and Tina Shelton at Springer. Austin, USA September 2015
Bj¨orn Engquist
About the Editor
Bj¨orn Engquist received his Ph.D. in Numerical Analysis from Uppsala University in the year 1975. He has been Professor of Mathematics at UCLA, Uppsala University, and the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. He was Michael Henry Strater University Professor of Mathematics and Applied and Computational Mathematics at Princeton University and now holds the Computational and Applied Mathematics Chair I at the University of Texas at Austin. He was Director of the Research Institute for Industrial Applications of Scientific Computing and of the Centre for Parallel Computers at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. At Princeton University, he was Director of the Program in Applied and Computational Mathematics and the Princeton Institute for Computational Science, and he is now the Director of the ICES Center for Numerical Analysis in Austin. Engquist is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences, and the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He was a Guggenheim fellow and received the first SIAM Prize in Scientific Computing 1982, the Celsius Medal 1992, the Henrici Prize 2011, the George David Birkhoff Prize in Applied Mathematics 2012, and the ICIAM Pioneer Prize 2015. He was an ICM speaker in the years 1982 and 1998. His research field is development, analysis, and application of numerical methods for differential equations. A particular focus has been multiscale problems and applications to fluid mechanics and wave propagation. He has had 40 Ph.D. students.
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Section Editors
Mark Alber Department of Applied and Computational Mathematics and Statistics University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, IN, USA
Ernst Hairer Section de Math´ematiques Universit´e de Gen`eve Gen`eve, Switzerland
Johan H˚astad Royal Insitute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden
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Section Editors
Arieh Iserles Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics Centre for Mathematical Sciences University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
Hans Petter Langtangen Simula Research Laboratory Center for Biomedical Computing Fornebu, Norway Department of Informatics University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Claude Le Bris Ecole des Ponts – INRIA Paris, France
Christian Lubich Mathematisches Institut University of T¨ubingen T¨ubingen, Germany
Section Editors
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Andrew J. Majda Department of Mathematics and Climate Atmosphere, Ocean Science (CAOS) Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences New York University New York, NY, USA
Joyce R. McLaughlin Department of Mathematical Sciences Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, NY, USA
Risto Nieminen School of Science Aalto University Espoo, Finland
J. Tinsley Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Science The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, USA
xiv
Section Editors
Aslak Tveito Simula Research Laboratory Center for Biomedical Computing Fornebu, Norway Department of Informatics University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Contributors
´ Assyr Abdulle Mathematics Section, Ecole Polytechnique F´ed´erale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland Andrew Adamatzky Unconventional Computing Centre, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Todd Arbogast Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA Douglas N. Arnold School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Simon R. Arridge Department of Computer Science, Center for Medical Image Computing, University College London, London, UK Uri Ascher Department of Computer Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Kendall E. Atkinson Department of Mathematics and Department of Computer Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Paul J. Atzberger Department of Mathematics, University of California Santa Barbara (UCSB), Santa Barbara, CA, USA Florian Augustin Technische Universit¨at M¨unchen, Fakult¨at Mathematik, Munich, Germany Winfried Auzinger Institute for Analysis und Scientific Computing, Technische Universit¨at Wien, Wien, Austria Owe Axelsson Division of Scientific Computing, Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Institute of Genomics, ASCR, Ostrava, Czech Republic Ruth E. Baker Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Guillaume Bal Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Vijay Balasubramanian Department of Physics and Astronomy, Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Contributors
Roberto Barrio Departamento de Matem´atica Aplicada and IUMA, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Timothy Barth NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA Catherine A.A. Beauchemin Department of Physics, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada Margaret Beck Department of Mathematics, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Mikhail I. Belishev PDMI, Saint-Petersburg, Russia Alfredo Bellen Department of Mathematics and Geosciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy Ted Belytschko Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Rafael D. Benguria Departamento de F´ısica, Pontificia Universidad Cat´olica de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile Fredrik Bengzon Department of Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics, Ume˚a University, Ume˚a, Sweden Jean–Paul Berrut D´epartement de Math´ematiques, Universit´e de Fribourg, Fribourg/P´erolles, Switzerland ˚ Bj¨orck Department of Mathematics, Link¨oping University, Link¨oping, Sweden Ake Petter E. Bjørstad Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway Sergio Blanes Instituto de Matem´atica Multidisciplinar, Universitat Polit`ecnica de Val`encia, Val`encia, Spain Pavel Bochev Computational Albuquerque, NM, USA
Mathematics,
Sandia
National
Laboratories,
Liliana Borcea Department of Mathematics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Brett Borden Physics Department, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USA John P. Boyd Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Space Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Michal Branicki School of Mathematics, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Claude Brezinski Laboratoire Paul Painlev´e, UMR CNRS 8524, UFR de Math´ematiques Pures et Appliqu´ees, Universit´e des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France Hermann Brunner Department of Mathematics, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL, Canada
Contributors
xvii
Martin Buhmann Mathematisches Institut, Justus-Liebig-Universit¨at, Giessen, Germany Martin Burger Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics, Westf¨alische Wilhelms-Universit¨at (WWU) M¨unster, M¨unster, Germany John C. Butcher Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Michel Caffarel Laboratoire de Chimie et Physique Quantiques, IRSAMC, Universit´e de Toulouse, Toulouse, France Russel Caflisch UCLA – Department of Mathematics, Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics, Los Angeles, CA, USA Xing Cai Simula Research Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Computing, Fornebu, Norway University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Fioralba Cakoni Department of Mathematics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA Daniela Calvetti Department of Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, and Statistics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA Mari Paz Calvo Departamento de Matem´atica Aplicada, Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain Eric Canc`es Ecole des Ponts ParisTech – INRIA, Universit´e Paris Est, CERMICS, Projet MICMAC, Marne-la-Vall`ee, Paris, France Fernando Casas Departament de Matem`atiques and IMAC, Universitat Jaume I, Castell´on, Spain Jeff R. Cash Department of Mathematics, Imperial College, London, England Carlos Castillo-Chavez Mathematical and Computational Modeling Sciences Center, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM, USA Isabelle Catto CEREMADE UMR 7534, CNRS and Universit´e Paris-Dauphine, Paris, France ˇ ık Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA Ondˇrej Cert´ Raymond Chan Department of Mathematics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong Philippe Chartier INRIA-ENS Cachan, Rennes, France Gui-Qiang G. Chen Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Jiun-Shyan Chen Department of Structural Engineering, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA Margaret Cheney Department of Mathematics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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Christophe Chipot Laboratoire International Associ´e CNRS, UMR 7565, Universit´e de Lorraine, Vandœuvre-l`es-Nancy, France Theoretical and Computational Biophysics Group, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, UrbanaChampaign, IL, USA Emiliano Cristiani Istituto per le Applicazioni del Calcolo “Mauro Picone”, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, RM, Italy Daan Crommelin Scientific Computing Group, Centrum Wiskunde and Informatica (CWI), Amsterdam, The Netherlands Korteweg-de Vries Institute for Mathematics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Felipe Cucker Department of Mathematics, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Constantine M. Dafermos Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Eric Darve Mechanical Engineering Department, Institute for Computational and Mathematical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Clint N. Dawson Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA Ben De Lacy Costello Unconventional Computing Centre, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Jean-Pierre Dedieu Toulouse, France Paul Dellar OCIAM, Mathematical Institute, Oxford, UK Leszek F. Demkowicz Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences (ICES), The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Luca Dieci School of Mathematics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Bernard Ducomet Departement de Physique Theorique et Appliquee, CEA/DAM Ile De France, Arpajon, France Iain Duff Scientific Computing Department, STFC – Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK CERFACS, Toulouse, France Nira Dyn School of Mathematical Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel Bo Einarsson Link¨oping University, Link¨oping, Sweden Heinz W. Engl Johann Radon Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics (RICAM), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Linz, Austria Charles L. Epstein Departments of Mathematics and Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Contributors
Contributors
xix
Maria J. Esteban CEREMADE, CNRS and Universit´e Paris-Dauphine, Paris, France Adel Faridani Department of Mathematics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Jean-Luc Fattebert Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA Hans Georg Feichtinger Institute of Mathematics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Yusheng Feng NSF/CREST Center for Simulation, Visulization and Real-Time Prediction, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA David V. Finch Department of Mathematics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA Mathias Fink Institut Langevin, ESPCI ParisTech, Paris, France Michael S. Floater Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Aaron L. Fogelson Departments of Mathematics and Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA A.S. Fokas DAMTP Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Massimo Fornasier Department of Mathematics, Technische Universit¨at M¨unchen, Garching bei M¨unchen, Germany Bengt Fornberg Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Piero Colli Franzone Dipartimento di Matematica “F. Casorati”, Universit`a degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy Avner Friedman Department of Mathematics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Dargan M.W. Frierson Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Gero Friesecke TU M¨unchen, Zentrum Mathematik, Garching, M¨unich, Germany Martin J. Gander Section de Math´ematiques, Universit´e de Gen`eve, Geneva, Switzerland Carlos J. Garc´ıa-Cervera Mathematics Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA Edwin P. Gerber Center for Atmosphere Ocean Science, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY, USA Dimitrios Giannakis Center for Atmosphere Ocean Science (CAOS), Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY, USA Amparo Gil Departamento de Matem´atica Aplicada y Ciencias de la Computaci´on, Universidad de Cantabria, E.T.S. Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Santander, Spain
xx
Vivette Girault Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, UPMC University of Paris 06 and CNRS, Paris, France Ingrid Kristine Glad Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Dominik G¨oddeke Applied Mathematics, TU Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany Serdar G¨oktepe Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey Jerzy Gorecki Institute of Physical Chemistry and Warsaw University, Warsaw, Poland Nicholas Ian Mark Gould Scientific Computing Department, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK Brian Granger Department of Physics, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA Frank R. Graziani Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA Andrey Gritsun Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Moscow, Russia Martin Grohe Department of Computer Science, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany Nicola Guglielmi Dipartimento di Matematica Pura e Applicata, Universit`a dell’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy ¨ Osman Guler Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA Jeremy Gunawardena Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA ¨ Michael Gunther Fachbereich Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften, Bergische Universit¨at Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany Max Gunzburger Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Bertil Gustafsson Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Wolfgang Hackbusch Max-Planck-Institut f¨ur Mathematik in den Naturwissenschaften, Leipzig, Germany George A. Hagedorn Department of Mathematics, Center for Statistical Mechanics, Mathematical Physics, and Theoretical Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA Ernst Hairer Section de Math´ematiques, Universit´e de Gen`eve, Gen`eve, Switzerland Nicholas Hale Oxford Centre for Collaborative Applied Mathematics (OCCAM), Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Contributors
Contributors
xxi
Laurence Halpern Laboratoire Analyse, G´eom´etrie and Applications, UMR 7539 CNRS, Universit´e Paris, Villetaneuse, France John Harlim Department of Mathematics and Department of Meteorology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA Fr´ed´eric Hecht Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, UPMC University of Paris 06 and CNRS, Paris, France Dieter W. Heermann Institute for Theoretical Physics, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany Gabor T. Herman Department of Computer Science, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA Jan S. Hesthaven Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Nicholas J. Higham School of Mathematics, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Helge Holden Department of Mathematical Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Jan Homann Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Kai Hormann Universit`a della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland Bei Hu Department of Applied and Computational Mathematics and Statistics, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA Arne Bang Huseby Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Daan Huybrechs Department of Computer Science, K.U. Leuven, Leuven, Belgium Victor Isakov Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA Arieh Iserles Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Kazufumi Ito Center for Research in Scientific Computation and Department of Mathematics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA Yasushi Ito Aviation Program Group, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan Zdzisław Jackiewicz Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Vincent Jacquemet Centre de Recherche, Hˆopital du Sacr´e-Coeur de Montr´eal, Montr´eal, QC, Canada Department of Physiology, Universit´e de Montr´eal, Institut de G´enie Biom´edical and Groupe de Recherche en Sciences et Technologies Biom´edicales, Montr´eal, QC, Canada
xxii
Laurent O. Jay Department of Mathematics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Shi Jin Department of Mathematics and Institute of Natural Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA Christopher R. Johnson Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Warnock Engineering Building, Salt Lake City, UT, USA ¨ Ansgar Jungel Institut f¨ur Analysis und Scientific Computing, Technische Universit¨at Wien, Wien, Austria Rajiv K. Kalia Department of Computer Science, Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA Erich L. Kaltofen Department of Mathematics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA George Em Karniadakis Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Boualem Khouider Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada Isaac Klapper Department of Mathematical Sciences and Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA Rupert Klein FB Mathematik and Informatik, Freie Universit¨at Berlin, Berlin, Germany Peter Kloeden FB Mathematik, J.W. Goethe-Universit¨at, Frankfurt am Main, Germany Matthew G. Knepley Searle Chemistry Laboratory, Computation Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA ¨ Huseyin Koc¸ak Department of Computer Science, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA Jussi T. Koivum¨aki The Center for Biomedical Computing, Simula Research Laboratory, Lysaker, Norway The Center for Cardiological Innovation, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Anatoly B. Kolomeisky Department of Chemistry-MS60, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA Natalia L. Komarova Department of Mathematics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA Nikos Komodakis Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, Universite Paris-Est, Champs-surMarne, France UMR Laboratoire d’informatique Gaspard-Monge, CNRS, Champs-sur-Marne, France
Contributors
Contributors
xxiii
Alper Korkmaz Department of Mathematics, C¸ankiri Karatekin University, C¸ankiri, Turkey Gunilla Kreiss Division of Scientific Computing, Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Peter Kuchment Mathematics Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA ´ M. Pawan Kumar Ecole Centrale Paris, Chˆatenay-Malabry, France ´ Equipe GALEN, INRIA Saclay, ˆIle-de-France, France Angela Kunoth Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Universit¨at Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany Thomas Kurtz University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA Gitta Kutyniok Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Berlin, Germany Michael Kwok-Po Ng Department of Mathematics, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong Hans Petter Langtangen Simula Research Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Computing, Fornebu, Norway Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Mats G. Larson Department of Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics, Ume˚a University, Ume˚a, Sweden Matti Lassas Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Chun-Kong Law Department of Applied Mathematics, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan Armin Lechleiter Zentrum f¨ur Technomathematik, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany Sunmi Lee School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Department of Applied Mathematics, Kyung Hee University, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea ¨ Ors Legeza Theoretical Solid State Physics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary Benedict Leimkuhler Edinburgh University School of Mathematics, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK Melvin Leok Department of Mathematics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA Randall J. LeVeque Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Adrian J. Lew Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
xxiv
Mathieu Lewin CNRS and D´epartement de Math´ematiques, Universit´e de CergyPontoise/Saint-Martin, Cergy-Pontoise, France Tien-Yien Li Department of Mathematics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Zhilin Li Center for Research in Scientific Computation and Department of Mathematics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA Knut-Andreas Lie Department of Applied Mathematics, SINTEF ICT, Oslo, Norway Guang Lin Fundamental and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Per L¨otstedt Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden John S. Lowengrub Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Benzhuo Lu Institute of Computational Mathematics and Scientific/Engineering Computing, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Christian Lubich Mathematisches Institut, Universit¨at T¨ubingen, T¨ubingen, Germany Franz Luef Department of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Li-Shi Luo Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA Beijing Computational Science Research Center, Beijing, China Mitchell Luskin School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Jianwei Ma Department of Mathematics, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China Yvon Maday Sorbonne Universit´es, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7598, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, Paris, France Institut Universitaire de France and Division of Applied Maths, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Philip K. Maini Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Bradley T. Mallison Chevron Energy Technology Company, San Ramon, CA, USA Francisco Marcell´an Departamento de Matem´aticas, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Legan´es, Spain
Contributors
Contributors
xxv
Per-Gunnar Martinsson Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Francesca Mazzia Dipartimento di Matematica, Universit`a degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy Robert I. McLachlan Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Joyce R. McLaughlin Department of Mathematical Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Volker Mehrmann Institut f¨ur Mathematik, MA 4-5 TU, Berlin, Germany Jens Markus Melenk Institute for Analysis and Scientific Computing, Vienna University of Technology, Wien, Austria Benedetta Mennucci Department of Chemistry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy Roeland Merks Life Sciences (MAC-4), Centrum Wiskunde and Informatica (CWI), Netherlands Consortium for Systems Biology/Netherlands Institute for Systems Biology (NCSB-NISB), Amsterdam, The Netherlands Aaron Meurer Department of Mathematics, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA Juan C. Meza School of Natural Sciences, University of California, Merced, CA, USA Owen D. Miller Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Graeme Milton Department of Mathematics, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA J.D. Mireles James Department of Mathematics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA Konstantin Mischaikow Department of Mathematics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA Nicolas Mo¨es Ecole Centrale de Nantes, GeM Institute, UMR CNRS 6183, Nantes, France Mohammad Motamed Division of Mathematics and Computational Sciences and Engineering (MCSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia Hans Z. Munthe-Kaas Department of Mathematics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway Ander Murua Konputazio Zientziak eta A.A. Saila, Informatika Fakultatea, UPV/EHU, Donostia/San Sebasti´an, Spain Aiichiro Nakano Department of Computer Science, Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
xxvi
Frank Natterer Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Instrumental, University of M¨unster, M¨unster, Germany Philip C. Nelson Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Qing Nie Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Harald Niederreiter RICAM, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Linz, Austria H. Frederik Nijhout Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Fabio Nobile EPFL Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland Dipartimento di Matematica “F. Brioschi”, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy Sarah L. Noble School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Clifford J. Nolan Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Ken-ichi Nomura Department of Computer Science, Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA Jan Martin Nordbotten Department of Mathematics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway W.L. Oberkampf Georgetown, TX, USA J. Tinsley Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Roger Ohayon Structural Mechanics and Coupled Systems Laboratory, LMSSC, Conservatoire National des Arts et M´etiers (CNAM), Paris, France Luke Olson Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Urbana, IL, USA Sheehan Olver School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Robert O’Malley Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Ahmet Omurtag Bio-Signal Group Inc., Brooklyn, NY, USA Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA Christoph Ortner Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK Alexander Ostermann Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Universit¨at Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Jos´e-Angel Oteo Departament de F´ısica Te`orica, Universitat de Val`encia, Val`encia, Spain
Contributors
Contributors
xxvii
Hans G. Othmer Department of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Gianluca Panati Dipartimento di Matematica, Universit di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Alexander Panfilov Department of Physics and Astronomy, Gent University, Gent, Belgium Mateusz Paprocki refptr.pl, Wroclaw, Poland Nikos Paragios Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, Universite Paris-Est, Champs-surMarne, France ´ Ecole Centrale Paris, Chˆatenay-Malabry, France ´ Equipe GALEN, INRIA Saclay, ˆIle-de-France, France Lorenzo Pareschi Department of Mathematics, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy John E. Pask Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA Geir K. Pedersen Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Michele Piana Dipartimento di Matematica, Universit`a di Genova, CNR – SPIN, Genova, Italy Olivier Pinaud Department of Mathematics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA Gernot Plank Institute of Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria Oxford e-Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Gerlind Plonka Institute for Numerical and Applied Mathematics, University of G¨ottingen, G¨ottingen, Germany Aleksander S. Popel Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Jason S. Prentice Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Luigi Preziosi Department of Mathematics, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy Andrea Prosperetti Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Department of Applied Sciences, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands ´ Serge Prudhomme Department of Mathematics and Industrial Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique de Montr´eal, Montr´eal, QC, Canada Amina A. Qutub Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA Venkat Raman Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
xxviii
Ronny Ramlau Institute for Industrial Mathematics, Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria Rakesh Ranjan NSF/CREST Center for Simulation, Visulization and Real-Time Prediction, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA Thilina Rathnayake Department of Computer Science, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Holger Rauhut Lehrstuhl C f¨ur Mathematik (Analysis), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany Stephane Redon Laboratoire Jean Kuntzmann, NANO-D – INRIA Grenoble – Rhˆone-Alpes, Saint Ismier, France Michael C. Reed Department of Mathematics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Peter Rentrop Technische Universit¨at M¨unchen, Fakult¨at Mathematik, Munich, Germany Nils Henrik Risebro Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Philip L. Roe Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Thorsten Rohwedder Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Berlin, Germany Dana Ron School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel Einar M. Rønquist Department of Mathematical Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Jos´e Ros Departament de F´ısica Te`orica and IFIC, Universitat de Val`encia-CSIC, Val`encia, Spain Christopher J. Roy Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA ¨ Ulrich Rude Department of Computer Science, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany Siegfried M. Rump Institute for Reliable Computing, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan Ann E. Rundell School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Robert D. Russell Department of Mathematics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada Lenya Ryzhik Department of Mathematics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Contributors
Contributors
xxix
Yousef Saad Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Paul E. Sacks Department of Mathematics, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Mikko Salo Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Jyv¨askyl¨a, Jyv¨askyl¨a, Finland Bj¨orn Sandstede Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA J.M. Sanz-Serna Departamento de Matem´atica Aplicada, Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain Murat Sari Department of Mathematics, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey Trond Saue Laboratoire de Chimie et Physique Quantiques, CNRS/Universit´e Toulouse III, Toulouse, France Robert Schaback Institut f¨ur Numerische und Angewandte Mathematik (NAM), Georg-August-Universit¨at G¨ottingen, G¨ottingen, Germany Otmar Scherzer Computational Science Center, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Johann Radon Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics (RICAM), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Linz, Austria Tamar Schlick Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, NY, USA Reinhold Schneider Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Berlin, Germany John C. Schotland Department of Mathematics and Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Christoph Schwab Seminar for Applied Mathematics (SAM), ETH Z¨urich, ETH Zentrum, Z¨urich, Switzerland Javier Segura Departamento de Matem´aticas, Estad´ıstica y Computaci´on, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain ´ Eric S´er´e CEREMADE, Universit´e Paris-Dauphine, Paris, France James A. Sethian Department of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Mathematics Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA ¨ Rudiger Seydel Mathematisches Institut, Universit¨at zu K¨oln, K¨oln, Germany Lawrence F. Shampine Department of Mathematics, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA Qin Sheng Department of Mathematics, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
xxx
Chi-Wang Shu Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Avram Sidi Computer Science Department, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel David J. Silvester School of Mathematics, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Bernd Simeon Department of Mathematics, Felix-Klein-Zentrum, TU Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany Kristina D. Simmons Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Mourad Sini Johann Radon Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics (RICAM), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Linz, Austria Ralph Sinkus CRB3, Centre de Recherches Biom´edicales Bichat-Beaujon, Hˆopital Beaujon, Clichy, France Ian H. Sloan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Barry Smith Mathematics and Computer Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA Moshe Sniedovich Department of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Gustaf S¨oderlind Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Numerical Analysis, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Christian Soize Laboratoire Mod´elisation et Simulation Multi-Echelle, MSME UMR 8208 CNRS, Universite Paris-Est, Marne-la-Vall´ee, France Jan Philip Solovej Department of Mathematics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Erkki Somersalo Department of Mathematics, Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA Thomas Sonar Computational Mathematics, TU Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany Euan A. Spence Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, UK Samuel N. Stechmann Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin– Madison, Madison, WI, USA Plamen Stefanov Department of Mathematics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Gabriel Stoltz Universit´e Paris Est, CERMICS, Projet MICMAC Ecole des Ponts, ParisTech – INRIA, Marne-la-Vall´ee, France
Contributors
Contributors
xxxi
Arne Storjohann David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada ¨ Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Endre Suli Joakim Sundnes Simula Research Laboratory, Lysaker, Norway Denis Talay INRIA Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France Martin A. Tanner Department of Statistics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Vladimir Temlyakov Department of Mathematics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA Steklov Institute of Mathematics, Moscow, Russia Nico M. Temme Centrum voor Wiskunde and Informatica (CWI), Amsterdam, The Netherlands ´ Tempone Division of Mathematics and Computational Sciences and EngineerRaul ing (MCSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia Luis Tenorio Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA Kukatharmini Tharmaratnam Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Florian Theil Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK Franc¸oise Tisseur School of Mathematics, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Gaˇsper Tkaˇcik Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Øystein Tr˚asdahl Department of Mathematical Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway M.V. Tretyakov School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK Yen-Hsi Tsai Department of Mathematics, Center for Numerical Analysis, Institute for Computational Engineering and Science, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA Xuemin Tu Department of Mathematics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA Stefan Turek Applied Mathematics, TU Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany Gabriel Turinici D´epartement MIDO, CEREMADE, Universit´e Paris-Dauphine, Paris, France Aslak Tveito Simula Research Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Computing, Fornebu, Norway Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
xxxii
Gunther Uhlmann Department of Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Erik S. Van Vleck Department of Mathematics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA Robert J. Vanderbei Department of Operations Research and Financial Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Priya Vashishta Department of Computer Science, Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA ´ Gilles Vilmart D´epartement de Math´ematiques, Ecole Normale Sup´erieure de Cachan, antenne de Bretagne, INRIA Rennes, IRMAR, CNRS, UEB, Bruz, France Gerhard Wanner Section de Math´ematiques, Universit´e de Gen`eve, Gen`eve, Switzerland Andy Wathen Mathematical Institute, Oxford University, Oxford, UK Christian Wieners Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied and Numerical Mathematics, Karlsruhe, Germany Ragnar Winther Center of Mathematics for Applications, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Henryk Wo´zniakowski Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Institute of Applied Mathematics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Luiz Carlos Wrobel School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK M. Wu Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Christos Xenophontos Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Dongbin Xiu Department of Mathematics and Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Eli Yablonovitch Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Chao Yang Computational Research Division, MS-50F, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA Robert Young Department of Mathematics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Harry Yserentant Institut f¨ur Mathematik, Technische Universit¨at Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Contributors
Contributors
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Ya-xiang Yuan State Key Laboratory of Scientific/Engineering Computing, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Scientific/Engineering Computing, Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China Yong-Tao Zhang Department of Applied and Computational Mathematics and Statistics, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA Ding-Xuan Zhou Department of Mathematics, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Ting Zhou Department of Mathematics, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA Tarek I. Zohdi Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Enrique Zuazua BCAM – Basque Center for Applied Mathematics, Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain Ikerbasque – Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain
A
problems based on partial differential equations necessarily produces approximations that are in error when compared to the exact solutions. Methods to estimate discretization errors were proposed as early as the Serge Prudhomme 1970s [3] and initially focused on developing error estiDepartment of Mathematics and Industrial mators in terms of global (energy) norms (subdomain´ Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique de Montr´eal, residual methods, element residual methods, etc., see Montr´eal, QC, Canada [1,4,22] and references therein). One issue in those approaches is that they provide error estimates in abstract norms, which fail to inform the users about specific Synonyms quantities of engineering interest or local features of the solutions. It is only in the mid-1990s that a new type Adjoint-based method; Dual-weighted residual of error estimators was developed, usually referred to method; Goal-oriented error estimation as dual-weighted residual [6,8,9] or goal-oriented error estimators [15, 18], based on the solution of adjoint problems associated with user-defined quantities of inShort Description terest. In this case, the user is able to specify quantities A posteriori error estimation for quantities of interest of interest, written as functionals defined on the space is concerned with the development of computable es- of admissible solutions, and to assess the accuracy of timators of approximation errors (due to discretization the approximations in terms of these quantities. and/or model reduction) measured with respect to userdefined quantities of interest that are functionals of the Model Problem, Quantities of Interest, solutions to initial boundary-value problems.
A Posteriori Error Estimates of Quantities of Interest
and Adjoint Problem
Description A posteriori error estimation for quantities of interest is the activity in computational sciences and engineering that focuses on the development of computable estimators of the error in approximations of initialand/or boundary-value problems measured with respect to user-defined quantities of interest. The use of discretization methods (such as finite element and finite volume methods) to approximate mathematical
For the sake of simplicity in the exposition, we consider a linear boundary-value problem defined on an open bounded domain Rd ; d D 1; 2, or 3, with boundary @. Assume that the boundary is decomposed into two parts, D and N , on which Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions are prescribed, respectively. Let U and V be two Hilbert spaces. The weak formulation of an abstract linear problem reads: Find u 2 U such that B .u; v/ D F .v/ ; 8v 2 V (1)
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 B. Engquist (ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied and Computational Mathematics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-70529-1
2
A Posteriori Error Estimates of Quantities of Interest
where B.; / is a bilinear form on U V and F ./ is a linear form on V . We suppose that B.; / and F ./ satisfy the hypotheses of the generalized Lax-Milgram Theorem to ensure that there exists a unique solution to the above problem. The goal of computer simulations is not necessarily to accurately approximate the solution u everywhere in the domain, but rather to predict certain quantities of the solution u. Quantities may be local averages of the solution, point-wise values (if u is sufficiently smooth), or local values of the gradient of u in some given direction. Let us suppose that the quantity of interest can be formulated as the linear functional Q: U ! R such that Z Z k .x/ u .x/ dx C kN .x/ u .x/ ds Q .u/ D
N
and u0 denotes the first derivative of u, subjected to the Dirichlet boundary condition u D 0 on @. We suppose that one is interested in evaluating u.x0 /; x0 2 . In this case, U D V D H01 ./ and Z Q .u/ D u .x0 / D
ı .x x0 / u .x/ dx
(6)
Z F .v/ D
f .x/ v .x/ dx
(7)
Z
u0 .x/ v 0 .x/ dx
B .u; v/ D
(8)
where ı is the Dirac function. For this quantity of interest, the adjoint solution z is called the Green’s function (often denoted by G.x; x0 /) and allows one to calculate u at point x0 in terms of the loading term (2) f , i.e.,
where k and kN represent two kernel functions (sometimes referred to as extractors) defined on and N , respectively, that are introduced in order to be able to consider local quantities. For example, the local average of u in a subdomain ! can be evaluated by choosing k as the characteristic function: ( Z 1 1 if x 2 ! k .x/ D k .x/ dx D 1 with j!j 0 otherwise (3)
Z u .x0 / D Q .u/ D F .z/ D
f .x/ G .x; x0 / dx (9)
The strong form of the adjoint problem reads in this case: .K T z0 /0 D ı.x x0 / in , subjected to the boundary condition z D 0 on @. We observe here that the differential operator associated with the adjoint problem is the same as that of the primal problem whenever the tensor K is symmetric.
Most quantities of interest frequently encountered in Goal-Oriented Error Estimation applications can be written in the above form. With a given quantity of interest, let us introduce the We suppose that the solution u of the primal problem following problem in weak form: cannot be computed exactly and must be approximated by a discretization method such as the finite difference Find z 2 V such that B .v; z/ D Q .v/ ; 8v 2 U (4) or finite element methods. Denoting by h and p the size and polynomial degree of the finite elements, let This problem is called the dual or adjoint problem U h;p U and V h;p V be conforming finite element and its solution z 2 V is referred to as the adjoint subspaces of U and V , respectively, with dim U h;p D solution, the dual solution, the influence function, or dim V h;p . Using the Galerkin method, a finite element the generalized Green’s function. We emphasize here approximation uh;p to the primal problem (1) is given that the adjoint solution z to Problem (4) is unique by the following discrete problem: as long as the linear quantity Q./ is bounded. A fundamental observation using the primal problem (1) Find uh;p 2 U h;p such that with v D z and the adjoint problem (4) with v D u is B uh;p ; v h;p D F v h;p ; 8v h;p 2 V h;p (10) that Q .u/ D B .u; z/ D F .z/ (5) We denote by e 2 U the error in uh;p , i.e., e D u Example 1 (Green’s function) Let D .0; 1/ R. uh;p , and suppose that one is interested in evaluating We consider the problem of finding u that satisfies the quantity Q.u/: In other words, we aim at estimating .Ku0 /0 D f in , where K is a two-by-two tensor the error quantity:
A Posteriori Error Estimates of Quantities of Interest
E D Q .u/ Q uh;p
3
(11) An estimate of the error is then provided by
Using the adjoint problem (4) and the primal problem (1), the error in the quantity of interest can be represented as
E D R uh;p I zQ C R uh;p I z zQ R uh;p I zQ WD (16)
Remark 1 Some error estimators have been proposed that consider the approximate solution zh;p to (14) h;p in order to get and estimate h;p the error " z z h;p (12) E R u I " or simply, E B.u u ; "/. See for example [15, 17–19]. where R uh;p I is the residual functional associated Remark 2 The goal-oriented error estimation procewith the primal problem. From the discrete problem dure presented so far can be easily extended to linear (10), one can also straightforwardly derive the so- initial boundary-value problem. In this case, the adjoint called orthogonality property problem is a problem that is solved backward in time.
E D B .u; z/ B uh;p ; z D F .z/ B uh;p ; z WD R uh;p I z
R uh;p I v h;p D F uh;p B uh;p ; v h;p D 0;
v h;p 2 V h;p (13)
which states that the solution uh;p is in some sense the “best approximation” of u in U h;p . From the error representation (12), it is clear that the error in the quantity of interest could be obtained if the adjoint solution z were known. Unfortunately, the adjoint problem (4) cannot be solved exactly and only on rare occasions is an analytical solution available. The idea is thus to compute a discrete (finite element) approximation zQ of the adjoint solution z. If one considers the finite element solution zh;p on space VQ D V h;p , with test functions vQ 2 UQ D U h;p (i.e., using the same finite element spaces as for uh;p ), i.e., by solving the problem
In order to capture errors due to the spatial and temporal discretization, the adjoint problem is approximated by halving the mesh size and time step.
Adaptive Strategies The estimator D R uh;p I zQ can be used for mesh adaptation. Let h;p zQ be a projection of zQ on V h;p . Thanks to the orthogonality property, the estimate is equivalent to D R uh;p I zQ h;p zQ . The objective is then to decompose into element-wise contributions. Recalling the definition of the residual, one has D R uh;p I zQ h;p zQ D F zQ h;p zQ B uh;p I zQ h;p zQ
(17)
Because F ./ and B.; / are defined as integrals over the whole computational domain , they can be h;p h;p decomposed into a sum of contributions FK ./ and Find z 2 V such that BK .; / on each element of the mesh. It follows that h;p h;p h;p DQ v ; 8v h;p 2 U h;p (14) B v ;z X D FK zQ h;p zQ BK uh;p I zQ h;p zQ then it is straightforward to show K from the orthogonal X ity property that R uh;p I zh;p D 0. In other words, WD K (18) such an approximation of the adjoint solution would K fail to bring sufficient information about the error in the quantity of interest. It implies that the adjoint needs The quantities K define contributions on each element to be approximated on a discretization vector space K to the error in the quantity of interest. The represenfiner than V h;p . In practice, one usually selects VQ D tation of these contributions is not unique as one can V h=2;p ; VQ D V h;pC1 , or even VQ D V h=2;pC1 (and actually integrate by parts the terms BK to introduce similarly for UQ ) to get the approximation: interior residuals (with respect to the strong form of the differential equation inside each element) and jump Find zQ 2 VQ such that B .v; Q zQ/ D Q .v/ Q ; 8vQ 2 UQ residuals (with respect to solution fluxes across the (15) interfaces of the elements). We do not present here
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A Posteriori Error Estimates of Quantities of Interest
the details of the different representations as these are where we have assumed that Q and B are differentiable problem-dependent. with respect to u, i.e., One can use the contributions K to determine refinement indicators in an adaptive mesh refinement h;p Q uh;p C v Q uh;p 0 Q u I v D lim (AMR) strategy. Actually, there exist several methods !0 for element marking, such as the maximum strategy, h;p h;p the fixed fraction strategy, the equidistribution strategy, B 0 uh;p I v; z D lim B u C vI z B u I v !0 etc. In the case of the maximum contribution method, (22) one considers the refinement indicator K on each element K; 0 K 1, as: and Q and B denote higher-order terms due to jK j K WD (19) the linearization of Q and B, respectively. In the maxK jK j above error representation, we have also introduced the All elements such that K ˛ can then be marked for adjoint problem: refinement (with respect to h, p; or to h and p), where ˛ is a user-defined tolerance chosen between zero and Find z 2 V such that unity. In practice, the parameter is usually chosen to be (23) B 0 uh;p I v; z D Q0 uh;p I v ; 8v 2 U ˛ D 0:5. One area of active research in AMR deals with the theoretical analysis of adaptive methods, the objective It is important to note that the adjoint problem is a being to show whether the adaptive methods ensure linear problem in z, which makes it easier to solve than convergence and provide optimal meshes [13, 14]. the primal problem. Proceeding as in the linear case, one can solve for an approximate solution zQ 2 VQ to the adjoint problem and derive the error estimator Extension to Nonlinear Problems Goal-oriented error estimators, originally defined for linear boundary-value problems and linear quantities of interest, have been extended to the case of nonlinear problems and nonlinear quantities of interest. Let u 2 U be the solution of the nonlinear problem:
E D Q .u/ Q uh;p D R uh;p I zQ C R uh;p I z zQ C R uh;p I zQ WD
(24)
As before, the estimator can be decomposed into Find u 2 U such that B .uI v/ D F .v/ ; 8v 2 V element-wise contributions K for mesh adaptation. (20) where B.I / is a semilinear form, possibly nonlinear with respect to the first variable. Suppose also that one Concluding Remarks is interested in the nonlinear quantity of interest Q.u/ and that uh;p is a finite element approximation of the Goal-oriented error estimation is a topic that, to date, is solution u to (20). Then, by linearization, fairly well understood. It has actually been extended to modeling error estimation, where the modeling error h;p E D Q .u/ Q u is the difference between the solutions of two differ ent models [10, 16], and has been applied to numer0 h;p h;p D Q u Iu u C Q ous applications of engineering and scientific interests (solid mechanics [21], fluid mechanics [19], wave D B 0 uh;p I u uh;p ; z C Q (21) phenomena[5], Cahn-Hilliard equations [23], multi D B.uI z/ B uh;p I z C Q B scale modeling [7, 20], partial differential equations with uncertain coefficients [2, 11, 12] etc.). The main D F .v/ B uh;p I z C Q B challenge in goal-oriented error estimation essentially WD R uh;p I z C Q B lies in the determination of approximate solutions of
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the adjoint problem that provide for accurate and re- 16. Oden, J.T., Prudhomme, S.: Estimation of modeling error in computational mechanics. J. Comput. Phys. 182, 496–515 liable error estimators while being cost-effective from (2002) a computational point of view. Another challenge in 17. Paraschivoiu, M., Peraire, J., Patera, A.T.: A posteriori finite the case of nonlinear problems is the design of adapelement bounds for linear-functional outputs of elliptic partial differential equations. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. tive methods that simultaneously control discretization Eng. 150(1–4), 289–312 (1997) errors and linearization errors.
References 1. Ainsworth, M., Oden, J.T.: A Posteriori Error Estimation in Finite Element Analysis. Wiley, New York (2000) 2. Almeida, R.C., Oden, J.T.: Solution verification, goaloriented adaptive methods for stochastic advectiondiffusion problems. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 199(37–40), 2472–2486 (2010) 3. Babuˇska, I., Rheinboldt, W.C.: Error estimates for adaptive finite element computations. SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 15(4), 736–754 (1978) 4. Babuˇska, I., Strouboulis, T.: The Finite Element Method and Its Reliability. Oxford University Press, New York (2001) 5. Bangerth, W., Rannacher, R.: Adaptive finite element techniques for the acoustic wave equation. J. Comput. Acoust. 9(2), 575–591 (2001) 6. Bangerth, W., Rannacher, R.: Adaptive Finite Element Methods for Differential Equations. Lectures in Mathematics. ETH Z¨urich, Birkh¨auser (2003) 7. Bauman, P.T., Oden, J.T., Prudhomme, S.: Adaptive multiscale modeling of polymeric materials with Arlequin coupling and Goals algorithms. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 198, 799–818 (2009) 8. Becker, R., Rannacher, R.: A feed-back approach to error control in finite element methods: basic analysis and examples. East West J. Numer. Math. 4, 237–264 (1996) 9. Becker, R., Rannacher, R.: An optimal control approach to a posteriori error estimation in finite element methods. Acta Numer. 10, 1–102 (2001) 10. Braack, M., Ern, A.: A posteriori control of modeling errors and discretization errors. Multiscale Model. Simul. 1(2), 221–238 (2003) 11. Butler, T., Dawson, C., Wildey, T.: A posteriori error analysis of stochastic spectral methods. SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 33, 1267–1291 (2011) 12. Mathelin, L., Le Maˆıtre, O.: Dual-based a posteriori error estimate for stochastic finite element methods. Commun. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci. 2(1), 83–115 (2007) 13. Mommer, M., Stevenson, R.P.: A goal-oriented adaptive finite element method with convergence rates. SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 47(2), 861–886 (2009) 14. Nochetto, R.H., Siebert, K.G., Veeser, A.: Theory of adaptive finite element methods: An introduction. In: DeVore, R.A., Kunoth, A. (eds.) Multiscale, Nonlinear and Adaptive Approximation, pp. 409–542. Springer, Berlin (2009) 15. Oden, J.T., Prudhomme, S.: Goal-oriented error estimation and adaptivity for the finite element method. Comput. Math. Appl. 41, 735–756 (2001)
18. Prudhomme, S., Oden, J.T.: On goal-oriented error estimation for elliptic problems: application to the control of pointwise errors. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 176, 313–331 (1999) 19. Prudhomme, S., Oden, J.T.: Computable error estimators and adaptive techniques for fluid flow problems. In: Barth, T.J., Deconinck, H. (eds.) Error Estimation and Adaptive Discretization Methods in Computational Fluid Dynamics. Lecture Notes in Computational Science and Engineering, vol. 25, pp. 207–268. Springer, Heidelberg (2003) 20. Prudhomme, S., Chamoin, L., ben Dhia, H., Bauman, P.T.: An adaptive strategy for the control of modeling error in two-dimensional atomic-to-continuum coupling simulations. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 198(21–26), 1887–1901 (2001) 21. Stein, E., R¨uter, M.: Finite element methods for elasticity with error-controlled discretization and model adaptivity. In: Stein, E., de Borst, R., Hughes, T.J.R. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Computational Mechanics. Solids and Structures, vol. 2, chapter 2, pp. 5–58. Wiley (2004) 22. Verf¨urth, R.: A Posteriori Error Estimation Techniques for Finite Element Methods. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2013) 23. van der Zee, K.G., Oden, J.T., Prudhomme, S., HawkinsDaarud, A.J.: Goal-oriented error estimation for CahnHilliard models of binary phase transition. Numer. Methods Partial Differ. Equ. 27(1), 160–196 (2011)
A Priori and A Posteriori Error Analysis in Chemistry Yvon Maday Sorbonne Universit´es, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7598, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, Paris, France Institut Universitaire de France and Division of Applied Maths, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
Synonyms Convergence analysis; Error estimates; Guaranteed accuracy; Refinement
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Definition For a numerical discretization chosen to approximate the solution of a given problem or for an algorithm used to solve the discrete problem resulting from the previous discretization, a priori analysis explains how the method behaves and to which extent the numerical solution that is produced from the discretization/algorithm is close to the exact one. It also allows to compare the numerical method of interest with another one. With a priori analysis though, there is no definite certainty that a given computation provides a good enough approximation. It is only when the number of degrees of freedom and the complexity of the computation is large enough that the convergence of the numerical method can be guaranteedly achieved. On the contrary, a posteriori analysis provides bounds on the error on the solution or the output coming out of the simulation. The concept of a posteriori analysis can even contain an error indicator that informs the user on the strategy he should follow in order to improve the accuracy of its results by increasing the number of degrees of freedom in case where the a posteriori estimation is not good enough.
Overview Computational chemistry is a vast field including a variety of different approaches. At the root, the Schr¨odinger equation plays a fundamental role since it describes the behavior of matter, at the finest level, with no empirical constant or input. However, almost no simulation is based on the resolution of this equation since it is exceedingly expensive to solve for more than about ten atoms. The reason is that the wave function that describes at this level the state of matter is a time-dependent function of 3 .N C M / variable when a molecule with M nucleons and N electrons all around is to be simulated. Many approaches have been proposed to circumvent this impossibility to build a numerical simulation well suited for these equations. The first element takes into account the fact that the understanding of the state of the matter at the ground state, i.e., at the state of minimal energy, is already a valuable information out of which the calculation of excited states or unsteady solutions comes as a second step. This allows to get rid of the time dependency in these solution. The second element,
A Priori and A Posteriori Error Analysis in Chemistry
known as the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, is based on a dimensional analysis that allows somehow to decouple, among the particles that are in presence, the heaviest ones (the nucleons) from the lightest ones (the electrons); see the entry Born–Oppenheimer Approximation, Adiabatic Limit, and Related Math. Issues. In this approximation, the behavior of the electrons is considered, given a fixed state of the nuclei, while the analysis of the behavior of the nucleons is done in a frame where the interaction with the electron is replaced by a potential in which the nucleons evolve. As for the analysis of the behavior of the electrons, the density functional theory is nowadays widely used since the seminal work of Hohenberg and Kohn [12] that establishes a one-toone correspondence between the ground state electron density and the ground state wave function of a manyparticle system. This is the archetype of ab initio approximations for electronic structures. Another approach is the Hartree-Fock and post-Hartree-Fock approximation, where the electronic wave function is sought as minimizing the ground state Schr¨odinger equation under the constraint of being a (sum of) Slater determinant(s) of one-particle orbitals. Invented by Dirac and Heisenberg, these determinants appear as a simple way to impose the antisymmetric property of the exact solution, resulting from the Pauli exclusion principle. Time dependance can be restored in these models to give rise to time-dependent Hartree or Hartree-Fock approximations. When the behavior of the electrons is understood, the analysis of the nucleons can then be based on molecular mechanics or dynamics, where the quantum electronic information is aggregated into force fields and the charged nuclei move in these force fields. Whatever model approximation is used, from ab initio approaches to empirical ones where models are added on the top of the Schr¨odinger equation, the problems are still challenging for the computation. Indeed, the complexity due to the number of variables of the N C M –body wave function solution of the linear Schr¨odinger model is replaced by complex and large nonlinearities in the resulting equations, the precise formula of which is actually not known in the DFT framework (we refer to Density Functional Theory). The most common implementation is based on the Kohn-Sham model [14]. Note that the most accurate DFT calculations employ semi-empirical corrections, whose functional form is usually derived from a lot of
A Priori and A Posteriori Error Analysis in Chemistry
know-how and depends on parameters that need to be properly tuned up. The a priori and a posteriori analysis allows at this stage to quantify the quality of the actual model that is chosen as a surrogate to the Schr¨odinger equations. Let us denote as IF.U / D 0 the Schr¨odinger model and U the associated solution for conveniency and by F .u/ D 0 the chosen model with associated solution u, that is, a (set of) function(s) in three variables and from which informations about U can be reconstructed. This first stage of (modeling) approximation is complemented with a second step related to numerical implementations on computer that actually involves two associated stages of approximation. The first one, standard for approximating solution of partial differential equations, corresponds to the discretization of functions of three variables in IR by discrete functions depending on a finite (and generally high) number of degrees of freedom the most common candidates are found in the family of finite element or spectral (plane waves) discretizations when variational framework is present (generally preferred as it represents well the minimization of the associated energy traducing the ground state that is searched) or in the family of finite difference discretizations. We denote by Fı .uı / D 0 the associated discretization with uı being a function belonging to a finite dimensional space. The a priori and a posteriori analysis allows here to quantify the quality of the numerical discretization for the particular model that is considered. The second stage associated with approximation is related to the algorithms that are used in order to solve the finite dimensional problem that comes out of the discretization method. An example that illustrates this feature is provided by the way the nonlinearities of the model are treated since computers can only solve a linear system of finite dimension. Classically, this imply the use of iterative solvers, based on fixed point strategies. In order to illustrate this point, we first have to indicate that the problem to be solved is nonlinear. This can be done by writing the problem under the form Fı .uı / D F .uı I uı /; the iterative solver then consists in computing uı as the limit, when the iteration parameter k tends to infinity, of ukı solution of the fixed point iterative procedure F .ukı I uk1 ı / D 0. In order to provide a precise enough approximation in a small enough time, the algorithm that is used for these iterations must be smart enough and stopped at the right number of iterations so that the ukı is close enough to its limit uı . Here again, a priori
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and a posteriori analysis allows to be confident in the convergence of the algorithm and the stopping criteria. Numerical analysis is involved in the three stages above in the approximation process and requires different pieces of analysis. All this is quite recent work and only very partially covered. We present in the following sections some details of the existing results. We refer also to Numerical Analysis of Eigenproblems for Electronic Structure Calculations for a particular focus on a priori error analysis for nonlinear eigenproblems.
Error on the Model On the a priori side, the number of existing work is very small. In [11] for instance, the author considers the approximation by Hartree Fock (we refer to Hartree–Fock Type Methods) and post-HartreeFock approaches of the Schr¨odinger equation (we refer to Post-Hartree-Fock Methods and Excited States Modeling) – CI (configuration interaction) and MCSCF (multiconfiguration, self-consistent field) methods. It is proven that such an approach, even if it is based on an expansion on many Slater determinant, is never exact. However, MC-SCF methods approximate energies correctly and also wavefunctions, in the limit where the number K of Slater determinants goes to infinity. An actual quantification of the decay rate of the difference between the MC-SCF energy based on K Slater determinants and the exact quantum-mechanical ground state energy as K becomes large is quoted as an open question in this entry and is still as far as we know. For a more complete analysis, where the excited states are also considered, see [17]. Another piece of a priori analysis is presented in [9] and deals with the convergence of the timedependent Hartree problem, in which the solution to the Schr¨odinger equation is searched as a sum of K tensorial products known as the MCTDH approximation. The a priori analysis of the difference between the exact solution u.t/ (to the Schr¨odinger equation) and the discrete solution uK .t/ states that the error is upper bounded by the sum of the best approximation error (of u.t/ by a sum of K tensorial products) and a linear in time growing contribution ct " where " measures in some sense the best approximation error in the residual (Schr¨odinger equation) norm (close to a H 2 -type norm). We refer to [9] for the precise statement of the analysis.
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As far as we know, there exists currently no result of a posteriori type in the literature on the evaluation of the error on the model. Yet, we can remind that such an a posteriori analysis exists in other contexts (see, e.g., [4] for a coupling of two models: one full and one degenerated that are used in different regions) leading to the idea that this is a feasible mathematical and numerical tool that would be very helpful in the present context.
Error on the Discretization The analysis of the discretization error is certainly the one that has been the most considered in the literature, even if the current results in the chemistry field are mostly very recent and still partial. There are essentially three types of discretizations differing from the basis sets that are chosen to approximate the molecular orbitals or the density functional and from the formulation of the discrete problem: (i) those based on a strong formulation of the equations (finite difference methods; see, e.g., the entry Finite Difference Methods) where we are not aware of any full numerical analysis justification, (ii) those based on variational approximations either with universal complete basis sets (finite element; see, e.g., the entry Finite Element Methods for Electronic Structure, plane wave, wavelets methods [13]) or (iii) with linear combination of ad hoc atomic orbitals (LCAO, e.g., of Gaussian basis sets, reduced basis methods [7,19]). For the two first approaches, the universality of the discrete approximation spaces allows to state that there exists a discrete function (e.g., the best fit, i.e., the projection in some appropriated norm) that is as close to the exact solution as required, at least whenever the dimension of the discrete space goes to infinity (known, e.g., for the Hartree-Fock approximation as the Hartree-Fock limit) and provided some regularity exists on the solution. The challenge is then to propose a discrete method able to select a unique solution in the discrete space that is almost as good as the best fit. This challenge is actually quite simple to face in case of a linear problem, but is very difficult if the problem is nonlinear – and as we explained above, the problem in the current context are almost always nonlinear. For the last type of discretization, the basis set is problem dependent and is only built up to approximate the solution of the very problem under consideration.
A Priori and A Posteriori Error Analysis in Chemistry
There are then two challenges: (i) does the best fit in this ad hoc discrete space eventually approximate well the exact solution and (ii) does the discrete method propose a fair enough approximation and again how does it compare with the best fit. Most of the works related to the a priori convergence analysis deal with the second type of approximation above. A summary of these results focusing on the particular case of the computation of the ground state for electronic structures (resulting in the approximation of eigenstates for a nonlinear eigenvalue problem) is presented in the above quoted entry Numerical Analysis of Eigenproblems for Electronic Structure Calculations and states a complete enough convergence analysis with optimal rate on both the energies and wave functions, provided that the numerical integration rules that are used to compute the integrals stemming out of the variational formulation are computed with a good enough accuracy. We shall thus mainly focus here on the existing results that are not detailed in the above cited entry. For LCAO variational approximations, the choice of the basis defining the discrete space is generally taken as follows: (i) to any atom A of the periodic table, a of nA linearly independent AO is associated, ˚collection nA 1nnA ; (ii) the discrete basis associated to a given molecule is built up by gathering all AO relative to the atoms in the ˚ e.g., for the molecule A-B, one ˚ system, chooses
D 1A .x xN A /; ; nAA .x xN A /I 1B .x xN B /; ; nBB .x xN B /g ; where xN A , xN B denote the respective positions in IR3 of the atoms A and B. After the paper of Boys’ [2], the polynomial Gaussian basis sets have become of standard use for the variational approximations of the solution of the Hartree-Fock equations. What is remarkable – even though a large amount of know-how is required in order to define the proper AOs – is that actually very few AOs are required to yield a very good approximation of the ground state of any molecular system. There exists very few papers dedicated to the a priori convergence; most of the current studies are restricted to the particular case of hydrogenoid solutions, i.e., the solution of the Hydrogen atom, whose analytic expression is known. An example is given by the papers [16] and [3] where exponential convergence is proven. By analogy, these results are extrapolated on molecules, looking at the shape of the cusps that the solution exhibit, and explain somehow the good behavior of these approximations; currently,
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no complete analysis exists as far as we are aware of. Based on these results related to the best fit, the numerical analysis of the variational approximation of the ground state for Hartree-Fock or Kohn-Sham equations can proceed. This analysis uses the general paradigm of definition of explicit lower and upper bounds for outputs depending on the solution of a partial differential equation and is explained in [20] for the a posteriori analysis, and latter in [8] for the a priori analysis: optimal results are proven, under a hypothesis stating a kind of local uniqueness of the ground state solution. In a different direction, another problem recently analyzed deals with the approximation of the electronic structure on perturbed lattices of atoms. This model leads to the analysis of the spectrum of perturbations of periodic operators either for the Schr¨odinger equations or the Dirac equations. The periodic operator has a spectrum that is composed of bands (that can be analyzed by Bloch-Floquet theory); the perturbed operator has a spectrum that is composed of the same bands with possibly eigenvalues in the gaps. These localized eigenvalues are of physical interest, and the numerical methods should be able to approximate them well. The problem is that, very often, reasonable enough approximations produce discrete eigenvalues that have nothing to do with exact eigenvalues. These are named as spurious eigenvalues and analyzed in [1, 5, 18] from an a priori point of view. Some constructive approaches have been proposed in these papers to avoid the phenomenon of spurious eigenvalues and get optimal a priori convergence rate for the approximation of true eigenstates both for the wave functions and associated energies.
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point of view, the correct number of iterations is not known and very few analysis is done in this direction. From the a priori point of view, the only analysis we are aware of is the self-consistent field (SCF) algorithms that has been, for years, the strategy of choice to solve the discretized Hartree-Fock equation (see e.g., Self-Consistent Field (SCF) Algorithms). In practice, though, the method has revealed successes and failures both in convergence and in convergence rates. A large amount of literature has proposed various tricks to overcome the lack of robustness of the original Roothaan algorithm. It is reported that this algorithm sometimes converges toward a solution to the HF equations but frequently oscillates between two states. The definitive answer to the questions raised by these convergence problems has been given by a series of papers of Canc`es and coauthors among which [6, 15]. An interesting cycle of order 2 has been identified in the behavior of the algorithm in frequent cases explaining why the algorithm oscillates between two states, none of which being a solution of the original nonlinear problem. The simple addition of a penalty term in the same spirit as a basic level shift or DIIS algorithms allows to avoid this oscillating behavior and corrects definitively the fixed point algorithm. This mathematical analysis has been a very important success in the community of computational chemists and has been implemented as a default method in classical softwares. The above results are almost the only ones existing in this category. We are still at the very beginning of this kind of analysis focussing on the algorithms, the variety of which is even larger than the variety of discrete schemes.
Conclusion Error on the Algorithm Most of the algorithms used for solving the above problems after a proper discretization has been implemented are iterative ones, either to solve a linear problem through a conjugate gradient algorithm or to solve an eigenvalue problem through a QR or a simple power algorithm (see, e.g., the entry Fast Methods for Large Eigenvalues Problems for Chemistry) or finally to take into account the nonlinearities arising in the problem being solved by a fixed point procedure. These iterative algorithms may eventually converge (or not) after a large enough number of iterations. From the practical
We have presented some results on the a priori and a posteriori analysis focussing on approximations on the model, on the discretization strategy, and on the a chosen algorithm to simulate the solutions to problems in chemistry. Most of the results are partial only, and we are quite far from a full a posteriori analysis that would tell the user, after he performed a given discretization with a given number of degrees of freedom resulting in a discrete problem solved with a given algorithm using a fixed number of iterations, how far the discrete solution coming out from the computer is from the exact solution and we are even farther from a
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procedure able to tell what should be done in order to improve the accuracy: either to increase the number of degrees of freedom or the increase number of iterations or change the model. This procedure though exists for a totally different context as is explained in [10]. This is certainly a direction of research and effort to be done by applied mathematicians that will lead to future and helpful progress for the reliability of approximations in this field.
References 1. Boulton, L., Boussa, N., Lewin, M.: Generalized Weyl theorem and spectral pollution in the Galerkin method. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1011.3634v2 2. Boys, S.F.: Electronic wavefunction I. A general method of calculation for the stationary states of any molecular system. Proc. R. Soc. A 200, 542–554 (1950) 3. Braess, D.: Asymptotics for the approximation of wave functions by sums of exponential sums. J. Approx. Theory 83, 93–103 (1995) 4. Brezzi, F., Canuto, C., Russo, A.: A self-adaptive formulation for the Euler/NavierStokes coupling. CMAME Arch. 73(3), 317–330 (1989) 5. Canc`es, E., Ehrlacher, V., Maday, Y.: Periodic Schrdinger operators with local defects and spectral pollution, arXiv:1111.3892 6. Canc`es, E., LeBris, C.: On the convergence of SCF algorithms for the HartreeFock equations. Math. Model. Numer. Anal. 34, 749–774 (2000) 7. Canc`es, E., LeBris, C., Maday, Y., Turinici, G.: Towards reduced basis approaches in ab initio electronic structure computations. J. Sci. Comput. 17(1), 461–469 (2002) 8. Canc`es, E., LeBris, C., Maday, Y.: M´ethodes Math´ematiques en chimie quantique: une Introduction (in French). Math´ematiques and Applications (Berlin), vol. 53. Springer, Berlin (2006) 9. Conte, D., Lubich, C.: An error analysis of the multiconfiguration time-dependent Hartree method of quantum dynamics. ESAIM M2 AN 44, 759–780 (2010) 10. El Alaoui, L., Ern, A., Vohralk, M.: Guaranteed and robust a posteriori error estimates and balancing discretization and linearization errors for monotone nonlinear problems. Comput. Method Appl. Mech. Eng. 200, 2782–2795 (2011) 11. Friesecke, G.: The multiconfiguration equations for atoms and molecules: charge quantization and existence of solutions. Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 169, 35–71 (2003) 12. Hohenberg, P., Kohn, W.: Inhomogeneous electron gas. Phys. Rev. 136(3B), B864–B871 (1964) 13. Kobus, J., Quiney, H.M., Wilson, S.: A comparison of finite difference and finite basis set Hartree-Fock calculations for the N2 molecule with finite nuclei. J. Phys. B Atomic Mol. Opt. Phys. 34, 10 (2001) 14. Kohn, W., Sham, L.J.: Self-consistent equations including exchange and correlation effects. Phys. Rev. 140(4A), A1133–A1138 (1965)
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers 15. Kudin, K., Scuseria, G.E., Canc`es, E.: A black-box selfconsistent field convergence algorithm: one step closer. J. Chem. Phys. 116, 8255–8261 (2002) 16. Kutzelnigg, W.: Theory of the expansion of wave functions in a Gaussian basis. Int. J. Quantum Chem. 51, 447–463 (1994) 17. Lewin, M.: Solution of multiconfiguration equations in quantum chemistry. Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 171, 83–114 (2004) ´ Spectral pollution and how to avoid 18. Lewin, M., S´er´e, E.: it (with applications to Dirac and periodic Schr¨odinger operators). Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 100(3), 864–900 (2010) 19. Maday, Y., Razafison, U.: A reduced basis method applied to the restricted HartreeFock equations. Comptes Rendus Math. 346(3–4), 243–248 (2008) 20. Maday, Y., Turinici, G.: Error bars and quadratically convergent methods for the numerical simulation of the Hartree-Fock equations. Numer. Math. 94, 739–770 (2003)
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers Laurence Halpern Laboratoire Analyse, G´eom´etrie and Applications, UMR 7539 CNRS, Universit´e Paris, Villetaneuse, France
Synonyms Artificial; Computational; Free-Space; Nonreflective; Open or Far-Field Boundary Conditions; Sponge Layers
Summary Absorbing boundaries and layers are used to limit the computational domain in the numerical approximation of partial differential equations in infinite domains, such as wave propagation problems or computational fluid dynamics. In a typical seismic problem, the wave equation Lu D f must be solved in the subsurface with data g on the surface; the solution u is sought in the domain DS in magenta in Fig. 1. The domain in blue is a computational layer LC ; their union is the computational domain DC .
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers
11
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers, Fig. 1 Absorbing layer (courtesy of L. M´etivier [19])
A DS
In the theory of absorbing boundaries, the original equation is solved in DC , and a special boundary condition is imposed on its boundary to simulate the entire subsurface, which amounts to reducing as much as possible the reflection of waves inside the domain of interest DS . Note that in the early history of the theory, the computational domain and the domain of interest were the same. The layer strategy is to modify the equation inside the computational layer, using LC v D f instead, with simple boundary condition at the exterior border. In both cases, the modified problem in the computational domain is required to fulfill important properties: 1. Well posedness: For any data g, there exists a unique solution v, with estimates in some norms: kvk1 C.kf k2 C kgk3 /: 2. Transparency: For a given ", one can choose either the absorbing boundary conditions or the size of the layer, such that ku vkDS ": 3. Simplicity: The additional amount of code writing due to the layer should be limited. 4. Cost: The layer should be as small as possible. Regarding item 4, note that Dirichlet boundary conditions for the wave equation would act as a wall, thus producing a 100 % error after a time T equal to twice the size of the domain.
LC
Absorbing Boundaries The question emerged in the mid-seventies, with an illustrating idea for the wave equation by the geophysicist from Berkeley W.D. Smith [23]. It relies on the plane wave analysis, which will be a useful tool all throughout. Consider the wave equation in R2 , @t t u @11 u @22 u D 0:
(1)
Suppose one wants to reduce the computational domain to R2 D fx; x1 < 0g. The plane waves are solutions of (1), of the form u D Ae i.!t k x / , with the dispersion relation ! 2 D jkj2 D k12 C k22 . The waves propagating toward x1 > 0 are such that their group velocity rk ! e 1 is positive, i.e., k!1 > 0. Place a fixed boundary at x1 D 0 (Dirichlet boundary condition u D 0), and launch a plane wave from x1 < 0 toward . By the Descartes’ law, it is reflected into uR D Ae i.!t Ck1x1 k2 x2 / : the reflection coefficient is equal to 1. Replace the fixed boundary by a free one (Neumann boundary condition @1 u D 0). Now the reflected wave is uR D CAe i.!t Ck1x1 k2 x2 / : the reflection coefficient is equal to 1. Perform the computation twice – once with Dirichlet, then with Neumann – and add the results to eliminate the reflection. This ingenious idea is of course too simple: if more than one boundary is required to be nonreflecting, more elementary computations have to be made. For instance, eight computations have to be made at a three-dimensional corner. Furthermore, the argument is no longer exact when the velocity is variable in
12
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers
N the domain. However, it launched the Holy Grail for X aj X 12 ; .1 X / a0 C 30 years. 1 bj X j D1 The breakthrough came with the plasma physicist E.L. Lindmann [18], who paved the way for much N X aj k22 of the subsequent work in the subject. His analysis : (4) G.i k2 ; i !/ D a0 C ! 2 bj k22 was purely discrete but will be presented below at the j D1 continuous level. Consider again a plane wave traveling to the right, Substituting into (2) leads to the absorbing boundary impinging the boundary , where a boundary condi- condition tion is defined via an operator G.@2 ; @t /: N X @t u C @1 u C Gj @1 u D 0; (2) @t u C G.@2 ; @t /@1 u D 0: j D1
The reflected wave is RAe i.!t Ck1x1 k2 x2 / , where R is where each Gj operates on functions ' defined on defined by the boundary condition, .0; T /, Gj ' D j solution of i ! i k1 G.i k2 ; i !/CR.i ! Ci k1 G.i k2 ; i !// D 0: ! 12 k2 2 . Then by the Define G0 .i k2 ; i !/ D 1 ! dispersion relation, the reflection coefficient is equal to G G0 RD . If G 1, the boundary operator is the G C G0 transport operator in the x1 direction and is transparent to the waves at normal incidence, i.e., if k2 D 0, R D 0. This condition will be referred to as first-order absorbing and can be generalized in
@t u C
1 @1 u D 0; sin 0
(3)
which is transparent to the waves impinging the boundary at incidence angle 0 . With some more caution, G0 would be the symbol of the Neumann to Dirichlet map for the wave equation and the half-space R2C . Choosing G to be G0 eliminates all reflections. A similar analysis can be made for spherical boundaries as well and led, together with fast integral methods, to some successful tools by H.B. Keller and followers (see [11] for a review). However, in the physical variables, G0 is an integral operator in time and space, therefore numerically costly. It is then worthwhile trying to get approximations to G0 , which starts by an approximation of the square root. E.L. Lindmann was the first to notice that a Taylor series expansion would lead to an unstable boundary condition and proposed a continuous fraction approximation:
@t t
j
bj @22
j
D aj @22 ';
with the initial conditions j D @t j D 0. The coefficients .aj ; bj / were found such as to optimize the reflection coefficient over all angles of incidence. The idea of approximation was developed further, but with a Pad´e approximation of G01 instead of G0 , by B. Engquist and A. Majda in [7, 8]. Their first two approximations, named 15ı and 45ı , respectively, in the geophysical literature, at the boundary x1 D 0 for the half-space x1 < 0, were @t u C c@1 u D 0;
1 @t t u C c@t1 u @22 u D 0: (5) 2
In those two papers, an entire theory, in the frame of the theory of reflection of singularities, permitted an extension to hyperbolic systems (elastodynamics, shallow water, Euler), variable coefficients, and curved boundaries. For instance, the extension of (3) to a circle of radius R is, with a derivative @r in the radial direction, @t u C @r u C
1 u D 0 in 2D; 2R
@t u C @r u C
1 u D 0 in 3D: R
Among the approximations, those that generate well-posed initial boundary value problems were identified in [25]. Various extensions to other type
Absorbing Boundaries and Layers
13
of problems, mainly parabolic (advection-diffusion, Stokes, Navier-Stokes), followed in the 1990s; see, for instance, [13, 24]. There is not much extra cost compared to Dirichlet since the boundary conditions are local in time and space. R. Higdon [15] found an expression for the absorbing boundary conditions as a product of first orderoperators (3) that is very useful on the discrete level. Another concept of far-field boundary condition was developed by A. Bayliss and E. Turkel, based on asymptotic expansions of the solution at large distances [3]. They proposed a sequence of radiation operators for the wave equation in the form n Y 2j 1 u; LC r j D1
Absorbing Layers M. Israeli and S. Orszag introduced and analyzed in 1981 the sponge layers for the one-dimensional wave equation [17]. They added in a layer of width ı, what they called a Newtonian cooling .x/.@t u C @x u/ to the equation. The right-going waves cross the interface without seeing it, while the left-going waves, reflected by the exterior boundary of the layer, are damped. This strategy was coupled with an absorbing boundary condition at the end of the layer. For more complicated equations, the numerical performance of such layers with discontinuous coefficient is not as good as one would hope. One reduces reflections at the interface for the right-going waves by choosing .x/ > 0, vanishing to order k > 0 at the origin:
.x/ D A.k C 1/.k C 2/
and showed well-posedness and error estimates. At these early times, no layer was used. It is only in [10, 12] that optimized layers were introduced. The evanescent waves are damped in the layer of width ı, and the coefficients in (4)
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https://railroad.net/will-reading-ma-ever-see-freights-trains-again-t49636.html
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en
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Will Reading, MA ever see freights trains again?
|
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2008-03-11T21:12:49+00:00
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RAILROAD.NET
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https://railroad.net/will-reading-ma-ever-see-freights-trains-again-t49636.html
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Guilford Rail System changed its name to Pan Am Railways in 2006. Discussion relating to the current operations of the Boston & Maine, the Maine Central, and the Springfield Terminal railroads (as well as the Delaware & Hudson while it was under Guilford control until 1988). Official site can be found here: PANAMRAILWAYS.COM.
Moderator: MEC407
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https://bedforddepot.org/lexington-branch/
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Lexington Branch
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https://bedforddepot.org/lexington-branch/
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At first, the Lexington & West Cambridge (renamed Lexington & Arlington in 1867) was leased by the Fitchburg and operated using that company’s equipment. Having acquired some used engines and cars in 1857, the L&WC/L&A ran its own trains thereafter. Although certainly an improvement over stagecoaches and freight wagons, the little railroad disappointed both investors and passengers. In most years the company failed to pay dividends. It and the Fitchburg were often at odds, and the unreliable service that resulted limited passenger revenue. After 1857, the L&WC/L&A was unable to operate through trains to and from Boston. Each trip was interrupted at Brick Yards until connecting Fitchburg trains arrived to pick up passenger cars left there. Freight revenue was never enough to support the railroad on its own. As a result of limited income and rapidly growing costs, by the end of the Civil War the company was failing.
The Boston & Lowell’s purchase of the Lexington & Arlington in December 1869 began a dramatic turnaround. The B&L had come to see the part of Middlesex County between itself and the Fitchburg, penetrated just by the little L&A, as ripe with opportunity. It immediately (in 1870) relocated the Boston end of its acquisition by building a little over two miles of track from East Arlington to its Lowell main line at Somerville Junction. Bypassing Brick Yards allowed it to provide through service to Boston entirely on its own rails and, of course, take the Branch traffic away from the rival Fitchburg. By 1871 it was operating eight daily round trips.
The B&L then created a subsidiary, the Middlesex Central Railroad, to extend the railroad 8.0 miles from Lexington to Concord, via Bedford. Concord-Boston service with eight daily round trips began in August 1873. The number of trains had not increased but the distance they covered almost doubled (19.0 miles from Boston to Concord vs. 11.0 miles from Boston to Lexington). In 1879 the Middlesex Central built an additional 2.6 miles to what would be called Reformatory (next to today’s Concord state prison) and 0.5 miles beyond that to Middlesex Junction. It connected there with the Framingham & Lowell Railroad. The B&L’s hopes to develop profitable through traffic with the F&L’s tenant, the Nashua, Acton & Boston Railroad, were mostly unrealized.
Changes in residential and work patterns in the “Minuteman towns” were noticeable by the 1870s and in time would accelerate. As the area gradually transformed from rural to suburban, passenger traffic grew. In 1877, service to the more populous towns nearer Boston was selectively increased by adding round trips that covered only part of the line. By 1884, Arlington had 18 daily round trips, Lexington 14, and Bedford 9. The branch had entered a golden era that would last until about 1900. Concord, which was served also by the double-track Fitchburg main line, was the exception to the increase in service. It went from 8 round trips via the Middlesex Central in 1873 to 5 in 1884.
The 1880s brought major changes in the infrastructure. In 1883 Bedford became an engine terminal, replacing Concord. In May 1885 the Boston & Lowell (which had absorbed the Middlesex Central in 1883) opened an 8.1-mile line from Bedford to North Billerica, giving the branch a Y-shape. That extension reused most of the right-of-way of the two-foot narrow gauge Billerica & Bedford Railroad, which had been abandoned in 1878. The junction switch was just south of the Bedford depot. The Concord and Billerica forks would eventually be called the Reformatory Branch and Bedford & Billerica Branch, respectively, but for practical purposes they were simply part of the Lexington Branch. Traffic grew enough for the B&L to justify completing a second track between Somerville Junction and Lexington in 1886.
In 1887 the Boston & Maine leased the B&L system and thereby assumed control of what would be its Lexington Branch. During the first two decades of B&M operation, improvements in infrastructure and operations continued. At the peak of passenger service in 1900, there were 29 daily round trips for Arlington, 21 for Lexington, 13 for Bedford, 7 for Concord and Reformatory, and 5 for Lowell via Billerica. Including the local freight that made its own round trip from Boston, at least 60 steam trains daily operated as far as Arlington. Over an 18-hour operating day, that is an average of one train every 20 minutes!
During the railroad’s first half-century, no other conveyance to Boston went faster than a horse could trot. Although in 1859 the West Cambridge Horse Railroad began providing another option for residents of what would become Arlington, serious competition did not arrive until 1900. That is when the Lexington & Boston Street Railway began electric trolley service over routes that closely paralleled the Lexington Branch. The trolleys were cheap, ran as little as 15 minutes apart during peak periods, and soon became a major factor in local travel. By 1915, the number of weekday trains serving Arlington and Lexington had each been cut in half, although service to Bedford was only slightly reduced. Travel from the outlying stations to Boston was affected less because the trolleys, although faster than horsecars, could not match the speed of trains.
The most serious, and ultimately fatal, threat to the Lexington Branch was the private automobile. The rapid increase in automobile ownership after World War I was accompanied by the paving of more and more roads. A major round of passenger service cuts on the Lexington Branch came in 1926, when the number of daily round trips from Arlington, Lexington, and Bedford was reduced to five, that from Lowell via Billerica was cut to one, and service to Concord was discontinued. The trackage from Concord to Reformatory was abandoned in 1927, although that between Bedford and Concord was retained for freight service. Starting in 1933, the line from Bedford to North Billerica also became freight-only. Thereafter, all passenger trains on the Lexington Branch originated or terminated in Bedford. Street railways were not immune to the challenge from motor vehicles. The Middlesex & Boston Street Railway, successor (since 1912) to the Lexington & Boston, discontinued its trolley service on the L&B routes in 1924, substituting buses.
As part of a major revamping of the B&M’s Boston terminal, in 1927 the south end of the Lexington Branch was moved back to where it connected with the Fitchburg in 1846–70. (The Fitchburg Railroad had been absorbed by the B&M in 1900.) The junction formerly called Brick Yards was renamed Fens. Also, in 1927, the second track to Lexington was taken out of service. The trackage from North Cambridge to Somerville Junction that all trains of the Lexington and Central Massachusetts Branches had been sharing since the 1880s became part of a freight-only cutoff to Boston.
The daily number of passenger trains on the Lexington Branch remained constant, at five round trips, during the Great Depression and World War II. Gasoline and tire rationing during the war discouraged automobile use and stimulated ridership on all forms of public transport. However, by the postwar years the passenger service that had once made the Lexington Branch profitable had become its greatest liability. Consistent with national trends, revenues on the Boston & Maine’s commuter routes had failed to keep pace with rising costs. The unusually large fraction of its business that involved commuters made the B&M particularly vulnerable to the growing deficits from such services.
To improve its operational efficiency and at least arrest the declines in ridership, the Boston & Maine began upgrading its commuter equipment. By the end of 1953 it had replaced its fleet of wooden coaches with more sturdy (albeit second-hand) steel cars. At about that time, it also began phasing out the steam locomotives assigned to commuter trains in favor of diesel roadswitchers. The B&M had been quick to recognize the operational superiority and economies of diesels and had dieselized its principal freight and passenger trains by 1946. However, it had retained dozens of elderly, medium-size steam locomotives for local trains. Steam passenger operation on the Branch was discontinued in May 1955, resumed for a few weeks in March and April 1956, and then ceased permanently. The local freight had been dieselized in August 1953.
Even before it completed the steam-to-diesel transition, the Boston & Maine was preparing for a more radical reequipping of its commuter trains. In 1949 the Budd Company of Philadelphia introduced its Rail Diesel Car (RDC), an innovative self-propelled passenger car. RDCs were bidirectional and could be run singly or as multiple units coupled together. Offered with or without baggage or mail compartments, they were an alternative to small locomotive-hauled passenger trains and usually paid for themselves with operational cost savings. The B&M began acquiring them in 1952, assigned them to commuter service beginning in 1954, and eventually owned the largest fleet anywhere. The Lexington Branch was among the last B&M commuter routes to undergo the transition from diesel-hauled coaches to RDCs, in May 1958.
Despite the equipment upgrades, the declines in Lexington Branch ridership proved to be irreversible. The number of daily trains each way between Bedford and Boston, which had remained at five since 1926, was reduced to three in 1949, two in 1955, and one in 1958. The reduction to a single round trip in May 1958 coincided with the change from diesel-hauled coaches to RDCs. A three-unit set of RDCs was used at first on the remaining trains, but that was reduced to two units in 1960 and one in 1973. By then, track conditions severely limited train speeds. Whereas in 1911 the 14.8-mile trip between Bedford and Boston’s North Station took as little as 32 minutes, the 1973 schedule (with several fewer stops) allowed 51 minutes.
Plagued not just by passenger losses but also a steady decline in system freight traffic, the Boston & Maine began losing money in 1958. Its financial condition worsened in the 1960s and in 1970 it would declare bankruptcy and begin a 12-year reorganization. On the Lexington Branch, the trackage from Bedford to Concord and from Bedford to Billerica was abandoned in 1962. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA), the public agency that had become responsible for mass transit in the Boston area, began subsidizing commuter services in 1965. In December 1976 the MBTA purchased all the B&M’s commuter trackage and equipment, including the Lexington Branch. The B&M continued to operate the passenger trains under contract and provide freight service on its former trackage.
Passenger service on the Lexington Branch ended abruptly after a January 1977 snowstorm stranded the train in Bedford. The last freight movement, from Arlington Heights to Boston, was in January 1981. Soon thereafter the Branch was severed to prepare for the extension of the Red Line subway to Alewife, which was completed in 1985. The disconnected track from Arlington to Bedford was dismantled in the early 1990s to make way for the Minuteman Bikeway. That paved path, which opened in 1993, occupies the Lexington Branch right-of-way from Arlington to Bedford. It has been among the most popular rail trails in the country.
For much more about the Lexington Branch and its predecessors, see Minuteman Railroad: Boston & Maine Railroad’s Lexington Branch by William M. Deen (2023), available at the Store.
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http://www.middlesexcanal.org/towpath/towpathtopicsMay2021.htm
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Towpath Topics
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Middlesex Canal Association P.O. Box 333 Billerica, Massachusetts 01821
www.middlesexcanal.org
Volume 59 No. 3 May 2021
The first floor of the future site of the MCA Museum and Visitor Center.
The interior framing and temporary stairway are pictured here on February 17, 2021.
After a month and a half break work will at the site will continue in April.
Please mark your calendars!
MCA Sponsored Events – 2021 Schedule
Spring Meeting: 1:00pm, Sunday, May 16, 2021
“Lowell’s Part of the 27¼ Miles of the Middlesex Canal”
Presenter: J. Jeremiah Breen, MCA President
Thoreau Towpath Walk: 10:00am, Saturday June 19, 2021
Leader: Marlies Henderson, CIG
Registration Required
Eventbrite Signup: https://www.eventbrite.com/e/145377338533
Special Event: World Canal Conference
August 30 – September 3, 2021
Hosted by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Association
Hagerstown, Maryland
19th Annual Bicycle Tour, North: 9:00am, Saturday, October 2, 2021
Fall Walk: 1:30pm, Saturday, October 17, 2021
Medford Segment Walk
The Visitors Center/ Museum is open Saturday and Sunday, Noon – 4:00pm, except on a holiday.
The Board of Directors meets the 1st Wednesday of each month, 3:30-5:30pm, except July and August.
Check the MCA website for updated information during the COVID-19 pandemic.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editors’ Letter
MCA Sponsored Events and Directions to the MCA Museum and Visitors’ Center
President’s Message by J. Jeremiah Breen
Progress on 2 Old Elm Street by Betty Bigwood
Charles Anderson Retires by Debra Fox
MCA Spring Walk: A Report by Jim Winkler
Sheldon Brought Oxen as a Revenge on Elegant Hotel by Larz Neilson
Loammi Baldwin in the New York Times by Howard Winkler
Nominees for MCA Officers & Directors, 2021-2022
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https://massbytrain.com/lines/
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Discover Lines on the Commuter Rail
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2024-04-26T18:45:06+00:00
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Discover the Commuter Rail’s 12 lines leading you through Boston, Eastern MA, Central MA, and RI. Explore the city & have a weekend getaway.
|
en
|
Keolis Commuter Services
|
https://massbytrain.com/lines/
|
Need help trip planning? Give us a call at 617-222-3200. © 2024 Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, all rights reserved. Website designed and developed by Sperling Interactive.
The itineraries provided herein are for informational purposes only. Neither Sperling Interactive, Keolis Commuter Services, LLC (Keolis) and or the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) are responsible for transporting a rider to any end destination other than those Commuter Rail Stations identified within the “Schedules” tab highlighted herein. Sperling Interactive, Keolis, and or the MBTA are not responsible for any changes, errors, omissions, or cancellations of any of the itineraries, events, locations, promotions, or services of any kind highlighted herein. Riders should reach out to the providers directly to obtain more information related to the same.
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https://massbytrain.com/lines/lowell/
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Lowell Line on the Commuter Rail
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2024-04-17T21:20:31+00:00
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Learn more about the Lowell Line on the Commuter Rail. Find stations and explore things to do, restaurants to eat at, places to see, and plan your day out.
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Keolis Commuter Services
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https://massbytrain.com/lines/lowell/
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Need help trip planning? Give us a call at 617-222-3200. © 2024 Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, all rights reserved. Website designed and developed by Sperling Interactive.
The itineraries provided herein are for informational purposes only. Neither Sperling Interactive, Keolis Commuter Services, LLC (Keolis) and or the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) are responsible for transporting a rider to any end destination other than those Commuter Rail Stations identified within the “Schedules” tab highlighted herein. Sperling Interactive, Keolis, and or the MBTA are not responsible for any changes, errors, omissions, or cancellations of any of the itineraries, events, locations, promotions, or services of any kind highlighted herein. Riders should reach out to the providers directly to obtain more information related to the same.
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https://www.winchester.us/498/Village-to-Town
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FROM A RURAL VILLAGE TO A SUBURBAN TOWN
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Winchester lies in the Mystic Valley north of Boston, an area of abundant water which both enabled the cultivation of its land and provided power for the first mills.
Composite of maps of Charlestown and Woburn from 1794, showing what would become Winchester, feature the water bodies, Horn Pond Mountain, the Great Road, and the site of the first mill in the center.
The area was connected to points north and south via the Great Road (Main Street) and during the late 18th and early 19th centuries provided a stop on stagecoach routes, the Black Horse Tavern, but it was not until the construction of the Middlesex Canal and especially the Boston and Lowell Railroad in the early 19th century that the population began to grow markedly and the settlement began to develop a village center and its own identity, despite its territory belonging to three separate towns.
With the nineteenth century came an era of industrialization. This was a time of considerable expansion for the community. A survey of South Woburn made in 1831 listed sixty dwellings, almost double from 1798. After the railroad opened in 1835, a number of new businesses were founded, many businessmen and workers moved here, and the population steadily rose. During this era, Winchester was incorporated. The population was then 1,350.
Following incorporation, several public buildings were erected in the town center which provided retail space and meeting rooms for an increasing number of community groups and activities, (such as the Lyceum and Brown & Stanton Buildings pictured right). Winchester became a popular suburban residential community for those working in Boston, and its industries brought an influx of immigrant workers. As the population continued to expand in the latter part of the nineteenth century, residential development began to replace the old farms.
“Old ways are closed up, new avenues lead to higher civilization and broader life. The world moves, and Winchester is in the front rank,” said Nathaniel Richardson who had been born in South Woburn and watched the little village transformed.1
Looking back in 1900, Richardson said, “Fifty years ago Winchester was a small village with a few plain dwellings, crooked and ill constructed streets, two small school houses, one meeting house, the aspect of the town simple and rural; to-day it is inviting and impressive in every feature, imposing homes, magnificent in style and comfort, with fine lawns picturesque with flowers and shrubs. Six churches…. Eight school houses… Streets wide and costly built, taste and beauty respond to the wish of the people, growth and prosperity are developed with marvelous advance.”2
From the 1890s through the twentieth century, the trend toward suburbia led to the closure of heavy industries and limitations on new light industries, leaving the town primarily a residential community. Richardson might not recognize Winchester today. However, within modern Winchester is a range of architecture documenting its life as a town that has been home to farmers, industrial workers, commuters, affluent families, social and political leaders, and artists.
BLACK HORSE VILLAGE
Today’s Winchester Center surrounds the Mill Pond created by the first settler, Edward Converse. A leader in the establishment of the town of Woburn, Converse built a home and a grist mill by the Aberjona River. In that early era, however, other businesses did not locate around this mill. Maps from the early 1830s show that there were clusters of buildings in other places than what is now Winchester center. Around the Bacon mills near Mystic Lake, for example, there was a little cluster with homes for the mill owners and the mill users. There was employment there; there were houses here. The area became known as Baconville, but it did not develop as a commercial center - nor did any other mill site.
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, a tiny commercial center formed around the Black Horse Tavern. “No spot in Middlesex County is more historical in all its narrative than this once famous tavern,” Nathaniel Richardson declared in 1900. It history began in the 1720s, when “a mansion house” was built. From the 1740s (or earlier) it operated as a hostelry known as the Black Horse Tavern. Located on Main Street not far from the juncture with Washington Street, it was a favorite stopping place for travelers. In the 1790s, it was on the stagecoach routes from Boston to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and Portland, Maine, and the area was frequently called Black Horse Village. [Read more: Black Horse Tavern]
“This tavern was formerly in great repute for its excellent suppers,” it was written in 1885, “and it was a favorite drive with the Bostonians to the Black Horse and back, including the supper.”3 But the tavern was not just a place to quench the thirst. It was a meeting place. If there were meetings during the Revolutionary War, the tavern was the place for them. The first singing-school met there before the church was built, and it was the headquarters for the first Winchester band.4
Nearby there was a blacksmith shop. At the junction of Main and Washington Streets, Paul Wyman and his son Jesse operated the first known store from about 1775 to 1840. Across from the smithy, in 1825, the Grammer brothers, William and Seth, built a store near the junction of Main & Washington on the west side of Main (near the present-day classroom wing of McCall Middle School). It was called an “English and West India Goods Store.” Goods for sale included salt fish, oil and molasses; sugar, tea, and coffee; pepper, cinnamon, cloves and allspice; plus rum, brandy, gin, and wine. Near it was a sash and blind factory run by steam power. Another store was built on the opposite side of the street a little north of the Sharon House. There were also some residences, including one which was named “Lamb Tavern” though it was simply a dwelling house. [Read more: Lamb Tavern]
The first Liberty Pole in the village was raised at the junction of Main and Washington Streets near the blacksmith shop in 1826. “It was quite an elaborate affair with main-mast, cross-trees and top-mast.”5 But when the second Liberty Pole was erected in 1862, it was placed at the new center of commerce by the railroad crossing at Main and Church Streets.
FORMATION OF A VILLAGE CENTER AT MILL POND
A few decades before Winchester was incorporated, a village center had begun developing around the Converse mill pond created by Edward Converse. But, back in the 1820s, the old Converse mill, then owned by Abel Richardson, was in a decline. It had actually gone to decay. The Cutter mill on Horn Pond Brook was only grinding corn for local convenience. There was only one blacksmith shop and one wheelwright shop. There were a succession of shoe shops attached or next to homes along Washington Street, as well as Main Street, Church Street, and Cambridge Street. South Woburn was not a business center.
What changed that was the railroad. In 1835, South Woburn got a railroad line, not because it was an important destination, but because it happened to lie between Boston and Lowell. In the late 19th century, Oliver R. Clark wrote “The original scheme of the railway connecting Boston and Lowell did not appear to contemplate any provision for business at this point, so the building first used as a station was a small shoemaker’s shop, about 10x15, which answered every purpose till the increasing size of the village rendered a larger building necessary.” For two years after the opening of the railroad, Clark wrote, only a few changes were observed. But then there came a man whose eagle eye saw the advantages of that spot as a good locality for business and the founding of a new town.
That person was Samuel Steele (“S.S.”) Richardson. Having already established a prosperous shoe-making business in Woburn and seeing the possibilities of South Woburn at the site of the railroad stop, he bought the old Converse/Abel Richardson mill site, rebuilt the mill, built several houses, and a new shoe shop. He bought the Black Horse Tavern site. He overextended himself. The Panic of 1837 (a major recession which lasted nearly a decade) left him financially embarrassed, which might have been the undoing of the fledgling village, but then Benjamin F. Thompson moved from Woburn to South Woburn. He purchased land and built a tannery down at the end of Thompson Street, creating jobs. He lived first at the corner of Main and Thompson Streets. He then bought the Converse/Richardson home site and built a new house.
Harrison Parker, who married a Richardson, took over the old Richardson mill near the Woburn line, then bought the Converse/Richardson mill site from S.S. Richardson, moved his business there and was very successful, and created more jobs. From 1845, he shared the mill with Joel Whitney who ran a machine shop there, and also prospered.
An anonymous watercolor of Mill Pond c. 1900
The jobs available at these sites and the Cutter mills just up the street attracted people to South Woburn, as did the convenience of having a country home near a railroad stop of the Boston train. As the population grew, more stores were needed. The U.S. postal department opened a post office here in 1841. The first physician known to settle here arrived in 1846 and settled on Thompson Street. [Read more: Development of the Village Center]
INCORPORATION
With the village of South Woburn growing and developing as a community, a movement for independence grew.
Although the first house in the Winchester-Woburn area was built in Winchester, the site chosen for the community church was situated in Woburn. For about two centuries much of land now encompassed by Winchester's boundaries was part of Woburn and designated South Woburn. For two centuries the area south of South Woburn remained part of Charlestown. The eastern section of that was annexed to Medford in 1753. The western part briefly belonged to West Cambridge (now Arlington).
The advent of the railroad and the consequent industrialization of the community spurred the growth of the village of South Woburn (pictured right c. 1845). The village took the first earnest step towards independence in 1840 by establishing the First Congregation Society of South Woburn. Political differences between the village and Woburn and wrangling over municipal spending led, nine years later, to earnest talk on incorporating a new town. Though not universally favored by those who lived within the proposed boundaries of the town, it was championed by the majority. The Town of Winchester was incorporated in 1850. [Read more: Steps to Incorporation]
Prior to submitting a bill for incorporation to the Commonwealth, a name had to be chosen. After a vote on a name failed to settle the choice, the committee acted on a suggestion to name the town for a man of wealth who would reward the town for the honor. Thus, the town was named for William Parsons Winchester, a merchant of Boston, who died in the same year the town was born and never set foot in it. [Read more: Naming the Town, Col. William Winchester, andNamed for Winchester.]
DEVELOPMENT OF A SUBURBAN BUSINESS & CIVIC CENTER
After 1850, Winchester was steadily built up, and its development as a Victorian town remains visible in its architecture today, including its Center. At the time of incorporation, the buildings that housed shops around the railroad stop were small, wood-frame buildings, including houses converted to business use. Benjamin Thompson’s sons, in fact, turned his house into a business building by raising it up over a new first floor, making it a commercial building.
In 1851, a number of men of the community who thought that the town should have a space for public, secular meetings and functions provided the funding to build Lyceum Hall (pictured left c. 1871). It accommodated shops in the basement, stores on the ground level and a hall which could be divided by folding doors, above which was the main hall and four offices, over which was another hall and office or committee rooms. Town Meeting used to meet there. Several eminent speakers, like Oliver Wendell Holmes, participated in a Lyceum series, and a young Teddy Roosevelt came to stump for the Republican ticket in 1884. [Read more: Teddy Roosevelt in Winchester]
Another large wooden building was the Kelley & Hawes livery stable, demolished as recently as 2001. Some other old wooden buildings survive today. However, beginning in the 1880s, the next significant step in developing the Center was to build in brick and stone. The first of these sturdy buildings was the Richard son Block at 607 Main Street, built in 1872 by Sumner Richardson. Like the Lyceum Building, it was a building for mixed use. The tallest building in town, it had three floors and a large hall at the top, the site of dancing parties and meetings of social and fraternal organizations. The building later (about 1897) became the Hotel Winchester.6 Before its conversion to a hotel, the Town Library was located on the second floor, until it moved to the Brown & Stanton Building, built in 1886. This building also had shops, offices, and a hall above. Others substantial business buildings followed, the White Building, the White Block of 1890, the Savings Bank in 1892 (pictured), and Richardson Building on Mt. Vernon Street in 1893. [Read more: Kelley & Hawes, Hotel Winchester.]
A view of the Center from Rangeley (left) to the Town Hall (right) c. 1895
Civic buildings were raised in the Center. In 1887, a Town Hall and Library building was built next to the northern end of Mill Pond. The police station was in its basement. The Fire Station (first a wooden structure) was on Winchester Place. Although the first high school building was at School Street, when the time came for a new one, it opened in 1904 on a hill overlooking Mill Pond. And when a separate library building was constructed in 1931, it also overlooked the pond. The new Public Safety Building was constructed across from the pond. [Read more: Town Hall, Public Library, Public Safety Building]
Not every building built at the end of the 19th century was big, tall, or substantial. Next to the Brown & Stanton Block was the two-story Lieberman Block. Moving into the next century, in 1913 the Lane Building was built on Church Street and in 1914 the wooden Morrill building was demolished to make room for the Star Building. Two stories were enough, since there was no longer a need to create space for meeting halls. (Left: The Brown & Stanton, Lieberman, and Thompson buildings on Main Street)
With the population growing, the town got a new depot in 1872, located on the south edge of the downtown business district (where an even newer one stands today). It was one of four stations (the others at Wedgemere, Highlands, and Cross Street) used by commuters. Local industry also relied on the railroad and several had railroad sidings for their freight. Trains, including long freight trains, passing back and forth through the town were a common sight, as well as a constant danger to pedestrians downtown. [Read more: Waterfield Lot and Center Train Station, The Evolution of Winchester's Four Railroad Depots, and Murder at the Depot]
PARKS MOVEMENT
Although industry was the making of the village of South Woburn and early town of Winchester, the time came when it was ousted from the town center and other parts of town. Along the river, in the place of factories, the Town created parks.
The first landscaped public area in town was Wildwood Cemetery. The money Col. Winchester gave to the town was used to purchase the property (and was paid back through the sale of lots). Amasa Farrier of Stoneham designed the original plan of lots, carriage-ways, and footpaths. [Read more: Wildwood Cemetery]
In 1867, the Town purchased the lot across from the First Congregational Church. Two years after a bandstand was erected there in 1873, an appropriation was voted for landscaping it into a place to be enjoyed as the Town Common. But at first little happened. [Read more: Town Common]
Improvements got a boost from the citizenry. In 1882, the Village Improvement Society was organized. Interested in the care and beautification of the town, it focused early on the Common. Under its influence, the next Town Meeting established a Committee on the Common and gave it money to improve the area. The Society promoted tree-planting, so a Tree Committee was formed and a Tree Warden appointed. “To the efforts of the association also we owe the establishment of a tradition of well-cared for lawns and private grounds, which has made Winchester one of the most attractive towns in the state.”7
The creation of more parks accompanied the river improvement program, which began with Mystic Valley Parkway in the 1890s and lasted through the 1930s. It resulted in Ginn Field, Manchester Field, Shore Road Field (now site of the high school), Davidson Park, and the Washington Street Park. The parks were created to prevent the return of river-side, polluting industries, provide flood-expansion areas, and to develop a green ribbon through the town. [Read more: Aberjona River] (Right: the wood and coal yards formerly at the site of Manchester Field and, below, the original field with its bandstand)
Parks were not confined to the riverside. Though never developed for active recreation, a gift in 1913 provided for the Irving S. Palmer Field at Palmer and Middlesex streets, although it was never developed as a playground or sports field. Rather, the town invested, in 1917, in the land where it built tennis courts and, in 1929, a strip of land on Main Street adjacent to Wedge Pond later (1966) the site of Elliott Park. The most recently created public park is Bellino Park on north Main Street, dedicated in 2004. Several fields, such as Leonard Field, were created for school and community sports.
While the population boomed and more land was divided for house lots, other areas preserved for the enjoyment of the citizenry and the protection of native species, include the conservation areas, the Town Forest, and Locke Farm. [Read more: Town Forest]
NEIGHBORHOODS
The earliest home building quite naturally occurred along the major thoroughfares. The first road, the Great Road, connected Medford and Woburn along what are now Grove and Main streets, though it was soon laid out to follow Main Street’s current course. Cambridge, Church, and Washington Streets were other early roads. The main roads shown on the first map of Winchester, drawn in 1854, designate where the early habitations were. Those that were accepted public ways were Main, Washington, Forest, Cross, Pleasant, Pond, Bacon, Grove, Church, Cambridge, High, and Fruit (now Hutchinson).
As the farms spread over large acreage, the earliest neighborhoods were the clusters of homes around industries, like Baconville and Cutter Village. Homes built for workers still survive in areas where there were factories. (Right: former tenant housing on Cutting Street)
As Winchester became increasingly residential, other neighborhoods were formed by developers who subdivided old farm land for housing. One remarkable development was Rangeley, owned by David Nelson Skillings who planned a park-like setting and chose an architect to design homes for professional gentlemen and their families whom he wanted as neighbors. While he and next owner Edwin Ginn lived, it was a country estate in the center of Winchester. (Left, Skillings' own tower house.)
Several other developments carved up the valley sections of Winchester in the latter part of the 19th century. The Wyman Plains north of Church Street (a.k.a The Flats), though once considered “remote and undesirable for residences,”8 was laid out for houses lots in 1891. Despite some setbacks, over 90 Victorian homes were raised in the Wedgemere district. Smaller in scope, but also successful, was the Firth Development, where local architect Robert Coit designed a number of middle-class homes. Striking architecture is a noteworthy element of the third major development, Everett Avenue, where homes were designed for more prosperous residents. All three of these districts have been on the National Register since 1989.
Different areas of town acquired different characters based on the social status of the residents. By the early 20th century, the west side of town – which did not yet include the Hill – was inhabited by the Yankees, the white-collar professionals, the most prosperous families of the town. The East side of town lay to the east of Main and Washington Streets. The Highlands was centered on the intersection of Washington and Cross streets, though the name “The Plains” lasted longer for the area between the railroad and Washington Street, north of the high school site. The term “North End” has been applied both to north Main Street and the area between Main and Washington Streets. In The Plains and the North End of Main Street, industry persisted longer than in the center, and those areas contained the most worker’s housing and the most ethnic minorities. Another name, which has dropped out of use, is “The Bowery” for the area around Main and Lake Streets where there was a tannery and a series of houses for the tannery workers.
“The railroad tracks really divided Winchester,” Mildred Newell (1912-2011) recalled. “There was a little funny feeling between the two sides, and it wasn’t until you went to Wadleigh [Grammar] School that you mingled with the kids from the other side of the track.”9
Looking back in 1955 to his childhood, Robert E. Sanborn (1905-1984) commented, “Then, as now, there was the ‘West side,’ whose residents were reputed to spend money and there was very evidence that they did, and the ‘East Side’ whose residents meticulously paid their bills, and lived and looked like the solid conservative citizens that they were. The West side looked down its nose at the East Side, and the East Side looked askance at the extravagance of the West Side…. Both East and West Sides were extremely condescending toward the inhabitants [of The Plains.] They were poor, Irish and Italian immigrants, tannery and farm workers.” (Pictured is a view from a Harvard Street garden)
The poor of about 1912, Sanborn said, suffered from “a combination of low wages, liquor, large families, and wretched housing” but benefitted from many charitable acts. By 1955, he added, the situation was wholly different.10 A 1944 study of the school system agreed, stating that although those in the Plains had a lower income they were still prosperous. “The residents of the plains area largely conduct the local business, do the necessary work within the community and furnish laborers for the one major local industry, the tannery. In this part of the town there are important racial groups of Italians, Irish, and Negroes. There is a conscious effort on the part of the residents of the hills areas of the town to confine these families to the plain, but they tend to encroach upon the adjacent hills as family income rises. The effort is to reserve the hills for older residents of good income employed largely in Boston in important executive and professional positions.”11
As less land in the valley area of Winchester was available to be subdivided and as automobiles were making access to the hills easier, the hills on both east and west sides began to see some development. In the first decade of the 20th century, Samuel McCall (later governor) and George Fernald built their own homes and laid out other building lots on Myopia Hill. Prominent and wealthy men like Handel Pond, Jere Downs, and Oren Sanborn built mansions in other areas of the west-side hills. (Right: the McCall Mansion) [Read More: Myopia Hill]
In the 1920s, 660 new homes were built in town, accounting for about one-fifth of the total dwelling units in 1930. New growth in the 1930s occurred mostly on the slopes of the Middlesex Fells and the eastern part of the western hills, though farms still occupied the Ridge Street area. There was also growth around Wedge Pond and the Mystic Lake. By the end of the decade, there were 528 new dwelling units. In the 1940s, 591 new dwellings were added, mostly in southeast and western Winchester.12
By then, the Ridge Street area was the only one not intensively built up with houses. However, with a post-war housing boom and people leaving off farming, the latter part of the 20th century saw this area developed.
The latter part of the 20th century saw many social distinctions and barriers break down (though not entirely).13 Still, the town’s various neighborhoods retain distinctive qualities related to their early development.
TOWN PLANNING
In 1915, the very first Planning Board was elected. One of its first priorities was to collect data on which to base a plan for future development, for the town was indeed developing. The first set of Zoning Bylaws and a Zoning Map appeared in 1924. A Building Department was added to oversee compliance with both state codes and local zoning. Various changes to the zoning have occurred over time.
A Master Plan was developed in 1953 which focused on development of the west side. Not until 2010 did a new Master Plan begin to roll out, with Part I reporting on housing, neighborhoods, town center, and economic development. As the town is essentially built out, the focus in this plan and the new Master Plan currently underway (as of 2018) is on redevelopment.
LATER DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTER
In 1986, many architectural achievements of Winchester’s past were recognized when Winchester Center became a National Register Historic District. However, while much historic architecture has been preserved, the Town Center has continued to evolve. The demolition of the Hotel Winchester (1941) and major fires which took the upper floors of the Lyceum Building (1950) and White Building (1951) and destroyed the Waterfield Building (1961) reduced the overall building height downtown. Some building façades changed with alterations in architectural aesthetics or new uses. The one industry which survived in the center, the Winchester Laundry, was transformed into an office building in 1973.] Some old buildings were replaced, as when the Fire Department moved into a sturdy brick building in 1915. Others were removed to make way for new ones, like the Post Office of 1928. Expansion of the high and junior high schools and the library took several old residences out of the civic center.
In the latter part of the 20th century, dwindling open space only rarely allowed construction on new sites. The 1971 high school was constructed on the former Shore Road Field (formerly the northern end of Judkins Pond). The Jenks Senior Center was built on land which the Town bought in 1943, leveled for the construction of the Skillings Bypass in 1956, and used for a parking lot.
The greatest physical change occurred in the 1950s with the erection of the railroad viaduct or overpass. Trains crossing at grade through the intersection of Main, Church, Mount Vernon, and Shore Roads, had always been dangerous. For decades townspeople and boards examined plans and debated what to do. Not only a safety issue, it was wrapped up with plans to improve the civic center. The eventual solution was the erection of an overpass which opened in 1956. Though safer, it also created a great wall dividing the downtown. [Read more: The Railroad Overpass]
Like the railroad, automobiles also posed problems. At the same time the overpass was created, Skillings Road was added as a way to bypass the Center. Still, dealing with ever increasing traffic has been a major challenge. Different schemes for parking meters and lots have been employed. Studies have been made for a public parking garage, though one has yet to be enacted. [Read more:First Automobiles Made News in Town, Automobile Era]
CENTER REVITALIZATION
“Before the town renovated Winchester’s Town center,” former selectman Ed O’Connell recalled, “the center unfortunately had lost some of its glamour and some of its shops that were the real attraction of Winchester. At one time, for example, we had in Winchester Center a small version of Filene’s. People would come to Winchester from other communities just to shop at Filene’s. We had our own Brigham’s ice cream shop. There was a woman who owned a children’s shop and it was spectacular, but that too has faded out. The downtown area was unfortunately going through an unhealthy number of empty stores. We really did a major overhaul with new sidewalks, new street lamps and much more attractive additions than whatever had been there before the remodeling of the downtown area. I think that we’ve probably rescued the town from an almost unhealthy clearing out of good shops. Most residents were supportive of that. Everyone wanted a change. We were going to do it, and we did it right.”14
Both the 20th and 21st centuries have seen Center revitalization programs, focused on improving the business economy and, in the latter case, Smart Growth. In 1972, during an era when malls were attracting customers, the Board of Selectmen received a study (the Robert Oppenheimer Plan), met with the Winchester Business Association, and formed an ad hoc Center Committee to make recommendations concerning the future of the Center. In 1982, the Winchester Economic Development Committee issued a program for center revitalization (the one O’Connell noted). In 2009, in connection with its new Master Plan, the Planning Board in conjunction with the Board of Selectman undertook studies and community conversations on downtown revitalization in order to re-examine and change the Zoning Bylaw to promote residential and commercial uses in the Center.
21st-CENTURY HOUSING CHALLENGES
Winchester is essentially built out. Thus, new construction generally takes the form of redevelopment. Redevelopment proposals and activities have often clashed with residents’ interests in preserving the built character and natural environment of their neighborhoods.
For example, residents have consistently opposed Ch. 40B developments. In 2016, the Zoning Board of Appeal approved a Ch. 40B project for Cambridge Street called Winchester North, subsequently appealed. Proposals for other Ch.40B projects have followed. A proposal to build a 40B apartment complex off Forest Circle and a proposal to develop a lot between Highland Avenue and North Border Road both failed. Other proposals are in development.
Other housing issues in the 21st century include tear-downs, mansionization, affordable housing, and the need for moderately priced homes.
WINCHESTER APPEAL
In 1901, life-long resident Nathaniel A. Richardson reported on a conversation he had with the grandson of John Quincy Adams, writing that Charles Francis Adams said “he regarded Winchester as one of the most beautiful and desirable towns outside of Boston, whichever direction one might go. I told him some of the towns south of Boston are thought to be more pleasing and popular. He said, ‘No, they are not’ Winchester is equal or above them all in its scenery, location, and progress.”
“I was impressed with the town right from the beginning (1956),” resident Bob Gallant said. “We loved the school system, and we figured it was right up on the top of list as far as education was concerned. It was a typical bedroom community that had enough businesses in town that could meet our needs and had good transportation. One of the reasons why we moved to Winchester, because of the excellent train service that has always existed from Winchester to Boston. And at the time there was bus service as well. We have always been a one-car family. If I took the car, that left my wife with two small children and without any means of transportation. So it was much to our advantage to have a facility like the trains or buses for me to get into Boston. She would drive me down to the train station or the bus station, whatever it was, and then she had the car. And we thought it was a very attractive community, plus one that was reasonably affordable.”
The railroad, the schools, the attractiveness still draw residents. But other things have changed.
“And one of the things that attracted us to Winchester was,” Gallant continued, “it was countrified. There was a lot of open space. What we had in back of us was an apple orchard with one or two cows that were tethered. And that made it kind of a bucolic setting. As a matter of fact, in the whole town there was a lot more open space than there is now. There was no Skillings bypass and, of course, the new high school hadn’t been built. There was no supermarket, no Jenks Center. There was the Town Hall and across the street was open land. And that was true all around town. Out High Street as far as Ridge Street, it was all farmland. St. Eulalia’s wasn’t there, nothing was there, just one house where the farmer owners lived. The shopping center along Cambridge Street, the Ledges, the Gables, all of that was open land. It was just like driving through the country. But now it’s all changed.” For these and other reasons, he concluded, “I still like the town, but it’s different from what it used to be.”
Through all its history, the town has grown and changed. Today it continues to change, and long-time residents still voice regrets over perceived loss. Still, it continues to appeal.15
Envision Winchester wrote an idyllic description in 2002: “Winchester is a charming town distinguished by its appealing panorama of residential neighborhoods, rich architecture, and vital town center. Adorned by a ribbon of serene parks, forests, and waterways, Winchester is an engaging community enriched by its proximity to Boston, its accessibility to greater New England and its tradition of exceptional education.”16
In 2017, Boston Magazine chose Winchester as one of the “Best Places to Live North of Boston.” In 2018, the Boston Globe ranked Winchester second after Cambridge among top spots to live with a $1 million-plus price point. “Winchester is a desirable place to call home — if you can afford it.”17
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Stay up-to-date with the latest news and events with our blog at The Henry Ford. Find out about upcoming events, new artifacts, and rare inside stories!
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As the 21st century began, The Henry Ford’s automotive exhibit, Automobile in American Life, was into its second decade of life, and needed a refresh. In a major change that affected 80,000 square feet on the Museum floor, Driving America roared into life in January of 2012.
Not only were the themes and artifacts included in the exhibit completely rethought, but digital technologies were integrated from the beginning to fuel touchscreen kiosks containing activities, curator interviews, and tens of thousands of digitized artifacts from The Henry Ford’s collections—including a substantial new set of glamour shots for each vehicle in the exhibit. This first big experiment with digitized collections within an exhibit is forming the basis for the use of interactive technologies in upcoming exhibits.
Technology Accelerates at the Rouge
In late 2014, Ford Motor Company began producing the first mass-produced truck in its class featuring a high-strength, military-grade, aluminum-alloy body and bed after having completely redesigned its F-150 assembly line at the Ford Rouge plant. This posed a challenge for the Ford Rouge Factory Tour—the manufacturing story had completely changed. An overhaul of the entire experience involved updated experiences in both theaters, particularly in the Manufacturing Innovation Theater, offering a multisensory, multidirectional show. An interactive kiosk, similar to those installed in Driving America, was also installed to allow visitors to access The Henry Ford’s digital collections with the touch of a finger.
Village Growth
While the Village has not yet seen any more changes as substantial as those that occurred in the early part of the 21st century, the period since 2010 has brought a couple of notable upgrades to the working districts of Greenfield Village. One was the 2014 addition of a 50-foot-tall coaling tower, based on historic designs and used to store and load coal into the historic operating locomotives of Greenfield Village.
The other recent project was the physical expansion of the Pottery Shop in 2013, a project sparked by the need to replace a salt kiln that was nearly three decades old. The kiln room was rebuilt and slightly expanded, and by reconfiguring the layout, a spacious area for the decorators to work was also created.
Anniversaries and Remembrances
Despite the growth in digital experiences, the power of physical artifacts is still undeniable. Many significant anniversaries related to the objects and stories of The Henry Ford have been observed with events within Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in recent years.
One of the largest and most notable was the Day of Courage, celebrated with an all-day event on February 4, 2013. Historians, musicians, students, and Museum guests remembered the life of Rosa Parks on her 100th birthday. In November 2013, lectures by newscaster Dan Rather and former Secret Service agent Clint Hill, as well as an opportunity to visit the fateful limousine, formed a remembrance of President John F. Kennedy on the 50th anniversary of his assassination. April 2015, the 150th anniversary of President Abraham Lincoln’s assassination, was marked with a lecture by historian Doris Kearns Goodwin and the first removal of the Lincoln chair from its display case in decades.
Innovation Focus
Our collecting continues to focus on resourcefulness, innovation, and ingenuity—and both new and old artifacts, along with their stories, are featured in new ways. In particular, as digital technologies became ubiquitous, The Henry Ford began developing new strategies to accomplish its mission to share, teach, and inspire, particularly focused on the “innovation” portion of the mission statement.
The Henry Ford Archive of American Innovation™ represents the core assets of The Henry Ford that illustrate the process and context of innovation. It refers to artifacts and documents in the collection that provide an unprecedented window into America’s traditions of resourcefulness, innovation, and ingenuity. It is the key to understanding how our entire modern world was created.
Related stories of artifacts and innovation are featured on The Henry Ford’s Innovation Nation, a weekly educational TV program produced by Litton Entertainment and hosted by Mo Rocca, which has aired since Fall 2014. Innovation is also brought in through events such as Maker Faire Detroit, hosted annually at The Henry Ford since 2010.
Active Collecting
Though the world has become increasingly digital, The Henry Ford continues to collect hundreds or even thousands of physical artifacts each year. In the second decade of the 21st century, this has included material related to significant artifacts we already hold (John F. Kennedy material, to add additional context to the Kennedy Limousine; and the George Devol collection, which relates to the world’s first industrial robot), design (an Eames-designed, IBM-used kiosk and hundreds of examples of 20th century soap packaging), and auto racing (photographic collections from John Clark and Ray Masser and dozens of tether cars or “spindizzies”).
Major recent acquisitions include the John Margolies Roadside America collection, the Bachmann studio collection of American glass, the Roddis clothing collection, and Mathematica, a circa 1960 exhibit designed by Charles and Ray Eames.
The Collections Go Digital
The Henry Ford began scaling up its collections digitization effort in 2010, hiring new staff with new skills to advance this technology-intensive effort that involves conservation, cataloging, photography, and scanning. Images of tens of thousands of artifacts are now freely available online, from our Digital Collections, and provide the basis for additional layers of supporting content, helping the public to understand artifacts in the context of their original time and place as well as the context of today.
Digitization efforts include artifacts on display within the Museum or Village, new acquisitions, and “hidden” items currently in storage. In 2013–15, for example, more than 1,200 communications-related artifacts in storage, including many significant rediscovered treasures, were digitized through a grant from the Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS).
From Digital Artifacts to Digital Stories
While more than 20,000 artifacts are on public exhibit in Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, the Benson Ford Research Center, and the Ford Rouge Factory Tour, The Henry Ford’s collection holds many more—about 250,000 objects and millions more photographs and documents within our archives. Institutional commitment to the digitization of The Henry Ford Archive of American Innovation™ is making these collections, and the ideas behind them, more accessible to more people in more ways than ever.
Acquisitions Made to the Collections - 2010s
Apple 1 Computer, 1976
In 2013, The Henry Ford acquired an Apple 1 computer—one of the first fifty ever made, and fully operational. This groundbreaking device documents an important “first,” as one of the earliest desktop computers to be sold with a pre-assembled motherboard (although users had to purchase a separate keyboard, monitor, and power source). The Apple 1 is also the beginning of something in the sense that it led to the founding of one of today’s most successful computer companies in the world. This artifact demonstrates The Henry Ford’s commitment to collecting the hardware, software, and the ephemeral culture that powers the digital age. You can see a video describing the Apple 1 acquisition and the process of booting it up here. - Kristen Gallerneaux, Curator of Communication & Information Technology
Throstle Spinning Frame
This rare spinning frame was part of a landmark acquisition, perhaps the largest since Henry Ford’s time--nine truckloads of textile history-related objects and archival materials! Spinning frames like this circa 1835 example--likely the earliest surviving American industrial textile machine--helped spin the large quantities of thread that growing industrial weaving operations needed in the early and mid-19th century. In 2016, the American Textile History Museum in Lowell, Massachusetts closed its doors and began to transfer their collections to other organizations. The Henry Ford was among them--able to provide a home for many thousands of objects dating from the 18th to 21st centuries: textile machinery and tools, clothing and domestic textiles, and hundreds of sample books of printed fabrics from several major New England companies. This rich collection from ATHM tells the story of a key player in America’s Industrial Revolution--the textile industry. - Jeanine Head Miller, Curator of Domestic Life
La-Z-Boy Reclina Rocker
La-Z-Boy is a story of technological innovation, marketing, and sales savvy. Two cousins created the first chair in the late 1920s but didn’t gain acclaim until the 1960s with the Reclina Rocker, which combined a built-in ottoman with a rocking feature. Multi-faceted promotional strategies, including celebrity endorsements, caught the eye of middle-class Americans, who eagerly bought the chair for their homes. - Charles Sable, Curator of Decorative Arts
2016 General Motors First-Generation Self-Driving Test Vehicle
Self-driving cars have the potential to reduce accidents, ease traffic, reduce pollution, and improve mobility for people unable to drive themselves. Assuming we can solve the remaining technical, legal, and psychological challenges, autonomous cars promise to bring the most significant change in our relationship with the automobile since the Model T itself. This experimental vehicle represents General Motors' first major step toward our autonomous future -- and The Henry Ford's first major step to document the journey. - Matt Anderson, Curator of Transportation
Ruth Adler Schnee Textiles
Designer Ruth Adler Schnee's modern textiles are bold, colorful, and pushed the mid-20th century modern design movement forward. She drew inspiration from the world around her, the ordinary as well as the extraordinary. The Henry Ford's acquisition of her textiles in 2000 and in 2018 speak to her continued relevance to our collection-- as a modern design pioneer, a female entrepreneur, and a Jewish immigrant. - Katherine White, Associate Curator
Robert Propst Papers
Noted industrial designer Robert L. Propst is best known for his work with Herman Miller and for designing the “Action Office,” an office furnishing system which became the basis for the modern cubicle. Propst’s papers cover the design and business aspects of “Action Office” as well many of his other projects such as a residential housing system, hotel housekeeping carts, hospital furniture, an industrial timber harvester, and even children's playground equipment. - Brian Wilson, Sr. Manager, Archives and Library
Champion Egg Case Machine, 1900-1925
This artifact furthers The Henry Ford's mission in several ways –it’s the product of an innovator. James Ashley first patented a box-making machine in 1892. Resourceful farm families with eggs to sell built boxes with this machine, marked the contents "farm fresh," and shipped their product to meet the growing demand of chicken-less urban consumers. The machine created a standardized box which held 12 flats (six on each side). Each flat held 30 eggs for a total of 360 eggs (30 dozen) in one box. Consumers today eat eggs transported to market on flats in boxes similar to the ones this machine was designed to build. Ashley's egg-case maker helps document the long history of farm-market exchange that responded to wary consumers' concerns over the freshness of the agricultural product. - Debra A. Reid, Curator of Agriculture and the Environment
events, Ford Rouge Factory Complex, Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, #Behind The Scenes @ The Henry Ford, THF90
Robert O. Derrick, about 1930. THF 124645
As part of our 90th anniversary celebration the intriguing story of Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation’s design bears repeating. It was last discussed in depth in the 50th anniversary publication “A Home for our Heritage” (1979).
Our tale begins on the luxury ocean liner R.M.S. Majestic, then the largest in the world, on its way to Europe in the spring of 1928. On board were Henry and Clara Ford, their son Edsel and Edsel’s wife Eleanor. Serendipitously, Detroit-based architect Robert O. Derrick and his wife, Clara Hodges Derrick, were also on board. The Derricks were approximately the same age as the Edsel Fords and the two couples were well-acquainted. According to Derrick’s reminiscence, housed in the Benson Ford Research Center, he was invited by Henry Ford to a meeting in the senior Fords’ cabin, which was undoubtedly arranged by Edsel Ford. During the meeting Derrick recalled that Mr. Ford asked how he would hypothetically design his museum of Americana. Derrick responded, “well, I’ll tell you, Mr. Ford, the first thing I could think of would be if you could get permission for me to make a copy of Independence Hall in Philadelphia. It is a wonderful building and beautiful architecture and it certainly would be appropriate for a collection of Americana.” Ford enthusiastically approved the concept and once back in Detroit, secured measured drawings of Independence Hall and its adjacent 18th century buildings which comprise the façade of the proposed museum. Both Derrick and Ford agreed to flip the façade of Independence Hall to make the clock tower, located at the back side of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, a focal point of the front of the new museum in Dearborn.
Robert Ovens Derrick (1890-1961) was an unlikely candidate for the commission. He was a young architect, trained at Yale and Columbia Universities, with only three public buildings to his credit, all in the Detroit area. He was interested in 18th century Georgian architecture and the related Colonial Revival styles, which were at the peak of their popularity in the 1920s.
In his reminiscence, he states that he was overwhelmed with the commission, but was also confident in his abilities: “I did visit a great many industrial and historical museums and went to Chicago. I remember that I studied the one abroad in Germany, [The Deutsches Museum in Munich] which is supposed to be one of the best. I studied them all very carefully and I did make some very beautiful plans, I thought. Of course, I was going according to museum customs. We had a full basement and a balcony going around so the thing wouldn’t spread out so far. We had a lot of exhibits go in the balcony. I had learned that, in museum practice, you should have a lot more storage space, maintenance space and repair shops than you should have for exhibition. That is why I had the big basement. I didn’t even get enough there because I had the floor over it plus the balconies all around.”
Original museum proposal, aerial view. THF 170442
Original museum proposal, facade design. THF 170443
Original museum proposal, side view. THF 170444
In the aerial view [THF0442], the two-story structure is a warren of courtyards and two-story buildings, with exhibition space on the first floor and presumably balconies above, although no interior views of this version survive. A domed area on the upper right was to be a roundhouse, intended for the display of trains. THF0443 shows a view of the front of the museum from the southeast corner. This view is close to the form of the completed museum, at least from the front. An examination of the side of the building [THF0444] shows a two-storied wing.
Derrick recalled Mr. Ford’s initial response to his proposals, “What’s this up here? and I said, that is a balcony for exhibits. He said, I wouldn’t have that; there would be people up there, I could come in and they wouldn’t be working. I wouldn’t have it. I have to see everybody. Then he said: What’s this? I said, that is the basement down there, which is necessary to maintain these exhibits and to keep things which you want to rotate, etc. He said, I wouldn’t have that; I couldn’t see the men down there when I came in. You have to do the whole thing over again and put it all on one floor with no balconies and no basements. I said, okay, and I went back and we started all over again. What you see [today] is what we did the second time.”
Henry Ford Museum proposed Exhibit Hall. THF294368
A second group of presentation drawings show the museum as it was built in 1929. THF294368 is the interior of the large “Machine Hall,” the all-on-one-floor exhibit space that Mr. Ford requested. The unique roof and skylight system echo that of Albert Kahn’s Ford Engineering Laboratory, completed in 1923 and located just behind the museum. Radiant heating is located in the support columns through what appear to be large flanges or fins. The image also shows how Mr. Ford wanted his collection displayed – in long rows, by types of objects – as seen here with the wagons on the left and steam engines on the right.
Proposal for museum corridor. THF 294390
Proposal for museum corridor. THF 294388
These corridors, known today as the Prechter Promenade, run the width of the museum. Floored with marble and decorated with elaborate plasterwork, the promenade is the first part of the interior seen by guests. Mr. Ford wanted all visitors to enter through his reproduction of the Independence Hall Clock Tower. The location of Light’s Golden Jubilee, a dinner and celebration of the 50th anniversary of Thomas Edison’s development of incandescent electric lamp, held on October 21, 1929 is visible at the back of THF294388. This event also served as the official dedication of the Edison Institute of Technology, honoring Ford’s friend and mentor, Thomas Edison. Today the entire institution is known as The Henry Ford, which includes the Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation and Greenfield Village.
Museum Auditorium. THF 294370
Just off the Prechter Promenade is the auditorium, now known as the Anderson Theater. Intended to present historical plays and events, this theater accommodates approximately 600 guests. During Mr. Ford’s time it was also used by the Greenfield Village schools for recitals, plays, and graduations. Today, it is used by the Henry Ford Academy, a Wayne County charter high school, and the museum for major public programs.
Virginia Courtyard inside Henry Ford Museum. THF294374
Pennsylvania Courtyard inside Henry Ford Museum. THF294392
Derrick created two often-overlooked exterior courtyards between the Prechter Promenade and the museum exhibit hall. Each contains unique garden structures, decorative trees and plantings, and both are accessible to the public from neighboring galleries.
Greenfield Village Gatehouse front view, about 1931. THF 294382
Greenfield Village Gatehouse rear view, about 1931. THF 294386
The Greenfield Village Gatehouse was completed in 1932 by Robert Derrick, in a Colonial Revival style to complement the Museum. From its opening in 1932 until the Greenfield Village renovation of 2003, the gatehouse served as the public entrance to the Village. Today, visitors enter the Village through the Josephine Ford Plaza behind the Gatehouse. Although the exterior was left unchanged in the renovation, the Gatehouse now accommodates guests with an updated facility, including new, accessible restrooms and a concierge lounge with a will-call desk for tickets.
Lovett Hall in 1941. THF 98409
Edison Institute students dancing in Lovett Ballroom, 1938. THF 121724
Edison Institute students in dancing class with Benjamin Lovett, instructor, 1944. THF 116450
In 1936 Robert Derrick designed the Education Building for Mr. Ford. Now known as Lovett Hall, the building served many purposes, mainly for the Greenfield Village School system. It housed a swimming pool, gymnasium, classrooms, and an elaborately-decorated ballroom, where young ladies and gentlemen were taught proper “deportment.” Like all the buildings at The Henry Ford, it was executed in the Colonial Revival style. Today the well-preserved ballroom serves as a venue for weddings and other special occasions.
Obviously, Mr. Derrick was a favorite architect of Mr. Ford, along with the renowned Albert Kahn, who designed the Ford Rouge Factory. The museum was undoubtedly Derrick’s greatest achievement, although he went on to design Detroit’s Theodore J. Levin Federal Courthouse in 1934. Unlike the Henry Ford commissions, the courthouse was designed in the popular Art Deco, or Art Moderne style. Derrick is also noted for many revival style homes in suburban Grosse Pointe, which he continued to design until his retirement in 1956. He is remembered as one of the most competent, and one of the many creative architects to practice in 20th century Detroit.
Charles Sable is Curator of Decorative Arts at The Henry Ford.
Henry Ford, Dearborn, by Charles Sable, THF90, Michigan, Henry Ford Museum, drawings, design, #Behind The Scenes @ The Henry Ford
Nighttime Lighting Rehearsal at Henry Ford Museum, Preparing for Light's Golden Jubilee, October 18, 1929. THF96024
Invitation to Light's Golden Jubilee Celebration and Edison Institute Dedication, Dearborn, Michigan, 1929. THF9173
"Light's Golden Jubilee" Reception Badge, 1929. THF294662
On October 21, 1929, Henry Ford hosted an elaborate celebration in Dearborn, Mich., in honor of his friend Thomas A. Edison. Known as Light’s Golden Jubilee, the date marked the 50th anniversary of Edison’s invention of the electric light. Ford also planned his event as a dedication of his own lasting tribute to Thomas Edison and to American innovation, the Edison Institute of Technology (now known as Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation) and Greenfield Village. Here, Henry Ford had moved the Menlo Park, New Jersey, laboratory where the inventor made his discovery so many years before.
The RSVPs for Light's Golden Jubilee began pouring in to Ford Motor Company by early October 1929. Prominent businessmen like John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and J.P. Morgan, scientist Marie Curie, inventor Orville Wright, and humorist Will Rogers were among those who enthusiastically accepted Ford’s invitation to be part of the landmark event.
At 10 am that morning, President Herbert Hoover, Henry Ford and Thomas Edison arrived at Smiths Creek depot at Greenfield Village in a railroad car pulled by an 1858 steam-powered locomotive, reminiscent of Edison’s youth when he sold newspapers on Michigan’s Grand Trunk railroad line. Edison, Ford, and Hoover and their wives were met by invited guests that numbered more than 500. The crowd roared their approval and congratulations as Edison stepped from the train to begin the day’s festivities.
Ford, Hoover and Edison arrive at the Smiths Creek, Michigan depot where a young Edison had been thrown off the train 67 years earlier when he accidentally started a fire in a baggage car. The station was one of several Edison-related buildings that Henry Ford moved to Greenfield Village. THF294682
This painting of the Light’s Golden Jubilee banquet was begun in 1938 at the request of Henry Ford. Completed by artist Irving Bacon seven years later, the 17 x 7-foot painting hangs in the museum. THF119552
Edison and Jehl recreate the successful lighting of the first electric light in the restored Menlo Park Laboratory in Greenfield Village. President Hoover and Henry Ford look on. THF 118508
After the guests had been properly greeted and the throngs of media had gotten their quotes and photographs, Henry Ford gave Hoover a personal tour of the massive Ford Motor Company Rouge industrial complex, five miles away. Eighty-two-year-old Edison retired to Ford’s nearby Fair Lane estate to rest while the hundreds of guests gathered at the Clinton Inn (now known as Eagle Tavern) to enjoy lunch followed by afternoon horse-and-carriage tours of Greenfield Village.
The morning of the celebration brought forth rain. Twenty-eight historic buildings had been assembled in Greenfield Village from around the United States. The muddy grounds made sightseeing around the outdoor museum challenging, but they didn’t dampen enthusiasm. To combat the rain and mud, Ford supplied enclosed horse-drawn carriages to transport guests on tours of Greenfield Village. THF124662
That evening, guests gathered at the museum—the front galleries of which had been hurriedly completed just in time for the celebration. Fine crystal chandeliers, fitted with candles, cast a soft glow about the rooms. NBC Radio broadcaster Graham McNamee set the mood for the evening in a coast-to-coast live broadcast:
"Imagine the checkered effect of black and white evening dress, the brilliant splashes of color provided by the uniforms of military attaches and the great stylists of Paris and Fifth Avenue ...I have attended many celebrations, but I cannot recall even attempting to describe one staged in a more perfect setting."
After a sumptuous banquet, Edison, Ford, and Hoover went to the reconstructed Menlo Lab in Greenfield Village to re-create the lighting of the first electric lamp. There, Edison and Francis Jehl, his former assistant, both went to work—much like they had half a century earlier, preparing to forever change the world. As they worked, McNamee narrated to a hushed world: "Mr. Edison has two wires in his hand; now he is reaching up to the old lamp; now he is making the connection.… It lights! Light's Golden Jubilee has come to a triumphant climax."
As the connection was made in the Menlo Lab, the museum building was bathed in light and the museum’s replica of the Liberty Bell pealed for the first time. Overhead a plane flew by with the word “Edison” and the dates “79” and “29” illuminated under the wings. Car horns sounded, lights flashed on and off, and the world bathed itself in an electric light tribute to Edison.
Worldwide publicity of the Light’s Golden Jubilee event encouraged Americans from coast to coast—and people around the world—to participate in the celebration. People huddled around their radios, plunged into near darkness, using only candles or gas lamps for light, waiting for Edison's successful re-creation as a cue to turn on their lights as part of the celebration. Small towns and large cities put on elaborate light displays.
After the reenactment, Ford, Hoover, Edison and Jehl returned to the museum to hear accolades from President Hoover, a radio address by Albert Einstein broadcast from Germany, and Edison’s heartfelt remarks. Henry Ford, not wishing to steal the spotlight from his friend, did not speak or allow photographs at the evening ceremony.
This event was just the beginning—Ford’s tribute to Edison and to American innovation and inventiveness was a lasting one. The artifacts and buildings Ford gathered for his indoor and outdoor museums, now known collectively as The Henry Ford, have told stories of American innovation, ingenuity, and resourcefulness for 90 years. They will continue to inspire countless generations to come.
Terry Hoover is a Former Archivist at The Henry Ford.
Additional Readings:
Thomas Edison: Inventor AND Chemist
The Henry Ford's Innovation Nation: Thomas Edison and Menlo Park Laboratory
Menlo Park Laboratory
Edison Talking Dolls
by Terry Hoover, Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, Greenfield Village buildings, Greenfield Village, Henry Ford Museum, events, lighting
Henry Ford Museum, 1965. THF133278
During the 1950s and the 1960s, the museum prepared to engage a new generation of visitors. Fresh paint, improved exhibits, special events, and enhanced amenities began to transform the museum into an increasingly attractive destination for the visiting public.
Staffordshire Case in Decorative Arts Gallery in Henry Ford Museum, circa 1960. THF139326
In Henry Ford Museum, curators reduced the number of objects on display in the main exhibit hall, arranged the artifacts in a more orderly fashion, and provided explanatory labels. The transportation collections were rearranged, presenting the trains, automobiles, and bicycles in chronological order for the first time. This helped visitors see more clearly how technology and design had evolved over time, Similarly, the decorative arts galleries grouped furniture, ceramics, glassware, and silver to show the evolution of American taste.
Edison Institute Board of Trustees, 1967. THF133538
In 1969, as the institution celebrated its 40th anniversary, William Clay Ford, then board chairman of Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, announced that both the Ford Motor Company and the Ford Foundation would each donate $20 million in grants to the organization. In speaking at the anniversary celebration that year, William Clay Ford said, “I think the institute is one of the great philanthropic legacies of my grandfather. It in no way diminishes the significance of this historic resource to note that he underestimated its financial needs when he conceived it more than a generation ago.”
Nearly half of the money was used for needed improvements to museum and village facilities and programming. The remainder was used to create an endowment fund to provide for future income. The announcement launched a period of development not see seen since Henry Ford’s era.
Acquisitions Made to the Collections in the 1960s
Samuel Metford Silhouette of Noah and Rebecca Webster
The museum purchased this 1842 silhouette of Noah and Rebecca Webster in 1962--just in time to be placed in the Webster House as it was being opened to the public for the first time since it was moved from New Haven, Connecticut in 1936. This silhouette, mentioned in Rebecca’s will, had been left to a Webster daughter. Curators were fortunate to have also acquired an original Webster desk, sofa, and some portraits to include along with other period furniture, tableware, paintings, quilts, and accessories. Yet, when completed, the rooms were more effective at showcasing fine decorative arts objects than reflecting the Webster family’s life. The era of historically accurate, immersive settings had not yet arrived in the museum field. - Jeanine Head Miller, Curator of Domestic Life
Oil Painting, "Sarah ... at the Age of Four," 1830-1840
Throughout the mid-20th century, curators sought out the best examples of decorative and folk arts, one of which is this portrait of a 4-year-old girl named Sarah. Painted around 1830 by an itinerant artist, this endearing girl carries a basket of stylized fruit and flowers and wears a necklace of coral beads, which were thought to ward off illness. - Charles Sable, Curator of Decorative Arts
1965 Ford Mustang Serial Number One
Mustang fans know the story well. Canadian airline pilot Stanley Tucker bought Serial Number One in Newfoundland on April 14, 1964. After Mustang became a sales sensation, Ford spent two years convincing Tucker to give it back (ultimately, in trade for a fully-loaded '66 Mustang). Ford Motor Company then gave Serial Number One to The Henry Ford where the landmark vehicle immediately... went into storage until 1984. Such was the museum's philosophy in those days. A vehicle wasn't truly historic -- and worthy of display -- until it reached 20 years of age. Happily, exhibit policies and visitor expectations are quite different today! - Matt Anderson, Curator of Transportation
License plate - "Michigan License Plate, 1913" - Michigan. Dept. of State
The museum's collection not only includes automobiles, but automotive accessories and registration materials. In the 1960s, the State of Michigan donated a run of Michigan license plates dating from about 1906 to 1968. Alongside the museum's historic vehicles, these objects help tell the rich story of America's automotive history. -Andy Stupperich, Associate Curator, Digital Content
First Portable Superheterodyne Radio Receiver, Made by Edwin Howard Armstrong, 1923
By the 1960s, Curator of Mechanical Arts, Frank Davis, and his curatorial colleagues had started to organize the thousands of artifacts collected during Henry Ford's lifetime. The collections displayed in the museum's vast Mechanical Arts Hall, curated by Davis, contained machines related to agriculture, power generation, lighting, transportation, and communication. With a special interest in radio, Davis couldn't pass up the chance to add this radio to the collection in 1967. Created by pioneer of radio engineering and credited inventor of FM radio, Edwin Howard Armstrong, this radio was a gift to Armstrong’s wife for their 1923 honeymoon and the first portable "superhet" radio receiver ever made. - Ryan Jelso, Associate Curator of Digital Content
Torch Lake Steam Locomotive, 1873
In 1969, as the institution celebrated its 40th anniversary, board chairman William Clay Ford announced an extensive expansion and improvement program that would include the creation of a perimeter railroad for Greenfield Village. The 1873 Torch Lake, originally used by a copper mining company in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, fit in perfectly with these plans. Returned to operating condition, the engine shifted from hauling ore to transporting passengers and was just shy of 100 years old when the railroad opened in 1972. - Saige Jedele, Associate Curator of Digital Content
Ford Motor Company Historic Business Records Collection
In 1964, the Ford Motor Company donated its archive to Edison Institute, with the records from the office of Henry Ford at the collection’s core. Housed in over 3,000 boxes and forming an unbroken run of correspondence from 1921 through 1952, the Engineering Lab Office Records are a remarkable group of materials that document a period of more than thirty years of activity of one of the world's great industrialists and his company. -Brian Wilson, Sr. Manager, Archives and Library
1960 Advertisement for the Ford 981 Diesel Tractor and Ford 250 Hay Baler, "Up To 10 Tons Per Hour...That's Making Hay the Ford Way!"
The Ford Motor Company transferred business records to the Edison Institute in 1964. The transfer included this 1960 advertisement for the Ford 981 diesel tractor and the Ford 250 hay baler. Existing collections had not covered this time period. Henry Ford and collectors such as Felix Roulet focused on earlier technological innovations as they built the collection between the 1920s and 1940s. When Peter Cousins joined the staff in 1969 as the first trained historian hired to curate agriculture, his research confirmed inventors and patent numbers and affirmed the richness of the collection. He also identified items still needed to tell authentic stories about technological history after Henry Ford's era. - Debra A. Reid, Curator of Agriculture and the Environment
#Behind The Scenes @ The Henry Ford, Henry Ford Museum, THF90
"Allegheny" Locomotive Arrives at Henry Ford Museum, 1956. THF112196
Henry Ford’s energy had been the animating force behind the Edison Institute. His death in 1947 challenged the institution to manage a collection that had grown to massive proportions – with no adequate storage solutions and no formal cataloging system.
Aerial View of Henry Ford Museum, circa 1953. THF112188
Clara Ford took over for her husband after his death, and the skeletal staff maintained the status quo at the Institute for the next few years without real direction. In 1950, the death of Clara signaled the end of another era. The Ford family stepped away from the daily management of the institution and began a strong tradition of lay leadership. In the early 1950s, all three of the Fords’ grandsons served on the Board of Trustees. William Clay Ford took over the position of board president in 1951 and remained chairman of the board for 38 years.
Museum Executives and "Today" Show Staff after Live Broadcast from Greenfield Village, October 25, 1955. THF116184
In January 1951, the board appointed A.K. Mills to the new post of executive director of Greenfield Village and the Edison Institute Museum. He implemented business practices and hired professional staff members. During the 1950s, the public – especially the vast traveling public – became the focus of the institution’s attention. In 1952, as a tribute to its founder, the Edison Institute was renamed Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village. Mills died suddenly in 1954; Donald Shelley replaced him as executive director, a position he held for the next 22 years.
Industrial Progress U.S.A. Exhibit, Henry Ford Museum, 1952-1954. THF112172
Traveling exhibits, developed by the institution in the 1950s, offered the museum a chance to promote itself beyond the local area, increase awareness, and increase visitation. Henry Ford Museum’s attendance steadily climbed each year. The number of visitors doubled over the decade, from 500,000 in 1950, to 1 million by 1960. The village and museum had become a national attraction.
Acquisitions to the Collections: 1950s
Walking Doll
In the 1950s, the museum’s curators acquired many objects for the collection through a network of antique collectors and dealers. Curators were especially looking for folk art and other “early American” objects. Collector Titus Geesey of Wilmington, Delaware had filled his home with three decades worth of collecting. Ready to pare down a bit, Geesey sold over 300 objects to the museum over the years, including prints, tableware, coverlets, a weathervane, and toys. This late 19th-century mechanical doll from Geesey’s collection came in 1958. - Jeanine Head Miller, Curator of Domestic Life
Moravian Bowl with Stylized Fish and Turtles in Center, 1810-1820
In the mid-20th century, Henry Ford Museum built on its early holdings to become one of the preeminent collections of American decorative and folk arts. This ceramic serving bowl was made by Moravian-German immigrants in Alamance County, North Carolina. The playfully arranged turtles and fish are unique representations in Moravian ceramics, which usually emphasizes abstract decoration. - Charles Sable, Curator of Decorative Arts
1941 Allegheny Steam Locomotive
It's perhaps the most photographed object in Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation, and certainly among the best-remembered by our visitors. The mighty Allegheny has anchored the museum's railroad collection since 1956. Used steam locomotives were a dime a dozen in those days as railroads switched to diesel-electric power. Some went to museums and some to tourist railroads. But many more went to city parks and county fairgrounds, left to the mercies of the weather. The Allegheny is a gem carefully preserved indoors for more than 60 years now -- four times longer than it actually operated on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway. - Matt Anderson, Curator of Transportation
"Battle Scenes of the Rebellion" Battle of Gettysburg, Civil War Panorama"
In the 1880s, Thomas Clarkson Gordon (1841-1922), a self-taught artist and Civil War veteran, created a panorama depicting scenes from the Civil War. Gordon toured his 15-paneled panorama throughout eastern Indiana, retelling the history of the conflict through his vivid illustrations. In 1956, Thomas Gordon's daughters wrote to Henry Ford II, hoping he would want the panorama for his grandfather's "Dearborn Museum." The request was redirected to the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village. The donation arrived in 1958. - Andy Stupperich, Associate Curator, Digital Content
Birth and Baptismal Certificate for Maria Heimbach, 1784|
German immigrants in Pennsylvania created fraktur – highly-decorated documents – to commemorate life’s most significant events. This particular fraktur is a Geburts-und Taufscheine – or a birth and baptismal certificate – and is the most common type. The name fraktur is rooted in a German calligraphic tradition and was primarily used for official documents. The Pennsylvania German frakturs continue this typographic tradition but expand upon it to create a new cultural tradition for a new homeland. - Katherine White, Associate Curator
1953 Ford X-100 Concept Car
During its 50th anniversary in 1953, Ford Motor Company celebrated the past and looked to the future. A. K. Mills -- former head of Public and Employee Relations and recently-appointed Executive Director of the newly-renamed Henry Ford Museum -- managed multiple anniversary projects. While Mills organized new exhibits, oral histories, books, films, and -- most importantly -- a company archive, Ford engineers completed a special project of their own. Their fully-functional concept car, known as the X-100, was showcased during anniversary celebrations and featured more than 50 futuristic innovations, including heated seats and a telephone. - Ryan Jelso, Associate Curator
Print of Mary Vaux Walcott Wildflower Sketch, "Trumpet Honeysuckle," 1925
Clara Ford was an active gardener who presided over several gardening organizations during her lifetime. Citing her interest in flowers, the William Edwin Rudge Printing House of New York sent Mrs. Ford a set of prints originally illustrated by Mary Vaux Walcott in 1925. (The gift also served to demonstrate the quality of the firm’s color reproductions.) When Clara Ford died in 1950, a group of items from her estate – including these prints – came into the museum’s collection. - Saige Jedele, Associate Curator, Digital Content
Sears, Roebuck and Company Mail-Order Catalog, "Consumers Guide, 1901," Catalogue No. 111
Mail order catalogs opened up the world of retail to families around the country. With thousands of items right at their fingertips this Sears and Roebuck catalog would give access to clothing, equipment, home goods, and everything in between to anyone in the United States. The Benson Ford Research Center now utilizes trade catalogs like this to document fashion and innovation of the time. - Sarah Andrus, Librarian
H.J. Heinz Company Collection
Expansion at the H.J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh during the early 1950s looked to be the end for “The Little House Where We Began,” the small brick building where H.J. Heinz began his business and that had been moved by barge to Pittsburgh in 1904. To save it from demolition, the H.J. Heinz Company donated the building to the Edison Institute, where it was reconstructed in Greenfield Village as the Heinz House. Along with the building, the H.J. Heinz Company donated this sizable archival collection that includes photographs, advertising layouts, publications, scrapbooks, and business records, all of which help convey the history of the Heinz House, the H.J. Heinz Company, and other stories of innovation and entrepreneurship. - Brian Wilson, Senior Manager, Archives and Library
Ford-Ferguson Model 9N Tractor, 1940
The Ford Motor Company re-entered the tractor business in the United States in 1939 with the 9N, a Ford tractor with a 3-point hydraulic hitch-and-lift system invented by Harry Ferguson. After Edsel and Henry both died, Henry Ford II ended the Ford-Ferguson arrangement and released a new model, the 8N, marketed through the Dearborn Motor Corporation, not through Ferguson. Ferguson sued, and after four years he accepted $9.25 million paid by FMC to settle the patent-infringement case. This tractor was one of eight that FMC assembled for the litigation and then transferred to the Edison Institute to complete its display of Ford tractors. - Debra Reid, Curator of Agriculture and the Environment
Henry Ford Museum, #Behind The Scenes @ The Henry Ford, THF90
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https://keystonearches.com/History.html
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Welcome to the 1841 Keystone Arches Web Site
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"Chester Ma Mass Massachusetts Keystone Arches k.a.b. trail historic railroad bridges chester 1841 museum wooden caboose camping rent party's freight tank cars music concert Western Railroad parade speeder work car Fairmont CSX B&A New York Central"
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[
"Peter White"
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A series of keystone arch bridges in Western Massachusetts
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| null |
A second, very early railway, the Boston & Providence (1835) which features the Canton Viaduct in Canton, MA, had Capt William Gibbs McNeill as Chief Engineer. He was the brother of Anna Matilda McNeill Whistler, immortalized as "Whistler's Mother" by James A. McNeill Whistler; her and George's son.
Maj. Whistler had also been Chief Engineer of the Boston & Lowell Railroad, the first railroad chartered in New England. This was an adjunct of the Lowell Locks & Canals Co. On the B&L, he built the first shops capable of manufacturing locomotives in New England.
Stone bridges were constructed only in the West Branch Gorge, a remote area where their durability insured limited maintenance, making them cost effective. Three of these bridges were abandoned 100 years ago and have stood without any maintenance whatsoever for all that time.
When Whistler began work on the Western Railway project, in virtually the Paleolithic era of the industry, the only proven best practices and pre-existing standards to draw upon were those he had developed in his own career. At the time, America had no foundries capable of rolling rail and all rail used in construction of the Western was imported from England. Some lines were still laying strap rail (wood topped with metal strapping) during this period.
The Western Railroad was surveyed on horseback, by men who were writing the book on railroad engineering as they went. It is said they presented at least a half-dozen alternate routes for each segment upon return from their expeditions. Much of the surveying in the wilderness had to be done from towers built above the trees or at night with torches, in order to be able to spot the mark through the forest on adjoining hillsides.
Farmers along the route leased horse and ox teams to the project to move the stone and displaced earth. Most walked the beasts to work daily, sometimes for many miles each way.
Among famous persons who passed over these Arches were Abe Lincoln, before he was president, Harry Truman, on a "whistle-stop" tour, and Charles Dickens who wrote in 1842, only a year after this railway opened, "The train stops at stations in the woods, where the wild impossibility of anyone having the smallest reason to get out is only to be equaled by the apparently desperate hopelessness of there being anybody to get in."
His snobbery arose from the fact that Britain had invented railroads and theirs were much better established. He was clearly un-aware in the immediacy of history, that this road had launched America to the forefront of railway engineering, leaving Great Britain behind.
Maj. Whistler built this rail line through some of the most forbidding wilderness the Berkshires had to offer, without dynamite, using picks, shovels and black powder; removing rock with ox teams and wooden wheelbarrows. He completed the project in 2" years.
The abandoned Arches are a result of a re-alignment to ease two sharp curves. Out of 150 miles of innovative railroad, a correction of less than a mile reveals an amazing talent. The mountain section of the railroad consists of 13.89 miles and cost $980,000.00 or $70,000.00 per mile to build in 1841. Construction here slowed to a rate of 20 miles per year.
Beyond the resistance factor present in all curvature, a 30 car train going 25 mph in 1841 would have had little trouble with the superseded curves. By 1910, when 100 car trains reached 65 mph, it became cost-effective to re-configure this small segment of Whistler's original survey. There was much wheel and rail wear here, and it forced trains to slow near the base of the hill. The recent addition of nitroglycerin to the contractors" arsenal also made the adjustment more practicable.
By 1842, Whistler's reputation was beginning to spread around the world. Immediately after completion of the Western Railroad, summoned by Czar Nicholas I, Whistler left for Russia to construct their first railroad, now known as the October Railroad, from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The same man was responsible for initiating Russian eastward and U.S. westward railroad expansion!
It was in America that he encountered the most daunting obstacles geographically. In Russia, The grades and terrain were much less challenging and Whistler thought he would be gone for a couple years at most. Instead, he got bogged down by the politics of Czarist Russia, unrealistic and arbitrary standards, serf labor, and his own integrity, which wouldn"t permit him to abandon the project due to hardship alone.
Maj. Whistler died in Russia, on April 7, 1849 at the age of 49, after a long period of illness. Generally believed to have been caused by cholera, some historians claim it was a simple heart attack. Others, including his own son George William, completed the railroad after his passing.
The enigmatic Maj. Whistler had stood at the crossroads of history; between British and American eras, railroads and canals, cottage industry and the Industrial Revolution. He managed to insure American leadership in the Industrial Age but died in service to the Russian Empire.
The most destructive event in the history of the Arches was the flood of November 4, 1927 when the Ballou and the Silk Mill Dams of Becket both failed, sending a wall of water down the narrow valley. This catastrophe took out three Arches. It skipped some and leveled others. The roadbed and track were totally gone in places. The New York Central brought in crews from all over the system and they were able to open the line in eleven days.
Walnut Hill Conservation Area is part of the largest roadless wilderness in the state. The Westfield River is Massachusetts's first National Wild & Scenic River, making the surroundings remarkably alluring and tranquil. They host a number of endangered and "of concern" species. For an appealing glimpse of these environs just as they are about to awake from a long winter, check out: You Tube / The Westfield Beneath the Arches.
"Whistler's Western" was substantially built, despite its magnitude. Nowhere is this more evident than in the Keystone Arch Historic District, where up to 70 foot high bridges sit in silent testimony to the labors of the thousands of immigrants who constructed this line.
The standards of the Western Railway were set very high by Whistler. How high was largely unfathomable to supporters of the project, as there was little to compare them to. Investors pushed for a single-track line to save money, Whistler insisted on double. All cuts and bridges were built to double track width, though only a single track was initially laid.
Within a decade, traffic mandated the second track. Whistler's planning saved the road millions in expansion costs. He had a rare combination of business and scientific acumen. Project backers had insisted that the line could well follow the narrow crooked contours of the land to conserve capital. Thomas B. Wales, President of the corporation, convinced of the correctness of Whistler's vision, declared he would "have nothing to do with such a tuppenny cow path."
After the road opened to Chester, The Westfield News-Letter wrote: "It is the last route in the world where we should ever dream of making a railroad." nonetheless it was judged to be "one of the safest and best that we have passed over."
The Keystone Arches have surpassed all expectations of their builders. The examples still in use carry trains 30 times heavier than they were designed for. In 1840, a steam locomotive weighed about 12,000 lbs. The average locomotive of 2012 weighs in the neighborhood of 350,000 lbs.
A combination of heroic feats of engineering, coupled with superb workmanship, resulted in one of the epochal moments in transportation history, yet remains one of the least celebrated in historic record. TRAINS Magazine called this "the most underrated mountain crossing".
The stats of The Western Railroad remain dominant even as subsequent Berkshire crossings, both rail and highway, were built. Whistler, using cut and fill methodology, never lost a foot of altitude as he pushed westward. All but one succeeding crossing utilized a summit higher than the Western.
The Fitchburg Railroad sought to lessen altitude through the use of a tunnel, but the technology of the time did not equal the vision. Digging the 5 mile long tunnel put the state of MA in the red deeper than did the 1990's "Big Dig". While it eventually crossed lower (836 ft. ASL) it delayed for 45 years opening that line. Not even begun until 20 years after the Western commenced operations, the tunnel took 25 years and the invention of nitro-glycerin to materialize.
Rapid access to the transportation revolution appears to have had more profound effects on local economies than those realized through fuel savings and reduced locomotive costs. Cities and towns along the tunnel route; North Adams, Greenfield and Fitchburg, never attained the size or status of locations like Worcester, Springfield or Pittsfield served by the earlier Western Railroad.
In 1910, The "Huckleberry" Trolley Line, designed for light rail, reached a height of about 1,700 ft crossing further south at Blandford, with some grades approaching 7%.
Becket, Huntington and Chester are three hilltowns which, in addition to the world's first mountain railroad, play host to the world's first trans-mountain highway designed specifically for the automobile. This is Jacob's Ladder Trail, now U.S. 20, which crosses in Becket at 1,794 ft.
The Mass Turnpike, surveyed with helicopters in the 1950's, crosses the Berkshires at Blandford at 1,724 ft. ASL. Those civil engineers are said to have highly praised Whistler's work.
The Western Railroad represented a colossal technological leap for railroads, increasing their range, use, and influence. Phase II of railroad development was inaugurated by the Western. It unleashed an explosion of growth, which quickly surpassed the grades, bridges and all the rest which made the Western a superlative civil engineering achievement. Its stats were rapidly eclipsed by its spawn.
SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1In 1780, national visionary Thomas Jefferson predicted it would take until the year 2000 to settle all the land in the west. The only thing missing from his hypothesis was the railroad.
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https://www.nhbr.com/private-rail-service-to-nh-picking-up-steam/
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Private rail service to NH picking up steam
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"NH Business Review Staff"
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2018-09-12T12:00:00+00:00
|
Boston Surface Railroad would eventually link Nashua, Manchester-Boston Airport to Lowell and beyond
|
en
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NH Business Review
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https://www.nhbr.com/private-rail-service-to-nh-picking-up-steam/
|
Boston Surface Railroad would eventually link Nashua, Manchester-Boston Airport to Lowell and beyond
Boston Surface Railroad Co., the firm seeking to develop a mostly privately funded rail line that would eventually commuters departing from Nashua to Lowell, Mass., and eventually Boston is moving ahead with its plans.
The company recently purchased the first train cars that would run from Worcester to Providence, Vincent Bono, CEO of Boston Surface, told the Nashua Telegraph.
“We’re pretty excited,” Bono said.
Bono told the newspaper his company is working with the Massachusetts Department of Transportation to negotiate the rights to passenger rail service. His company is also applying for a federal matching grant of up to $1 million.
The newspaper reported that the company is 20 months away from starting its Worcester-to-Providence operations. After that, Boston Surface will work on expanding to New Hampshire, in addition to a service connecting Lowell to Worcester.
Bono said his company kept a wary eye on the effort in New Hampshire to win state support for a commuter rail line. That effort eventually failed in the Legislature.
“There is no way we could compete with a publicly funded competition,” Bono said.
Bono said without government support, the price per ticket will be higher than government-backed services, such as the MBTA.
The New Hampshire line is proposed to have a stop in Bedford, near the Manchester-Boston Regional Airport, and one in Nashua, before ending its run in Lowell, Mass. There, commuters could get MBTA service into Boston.
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https://www.brian-coffee-spot.com/2022/02/17/amtrak-downeaster-part-ii/
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Brian’s Travel Spot: Amtrak Downeaster, Part II
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[
""
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[
"Brian Williams"
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2022-02-17T00:00:00
|
Welcome to the second and final part of my Travel Spot dedicated to Amtrak’s Downeaster, which connects Boston with Brunswick, Maine, providing five daily services in each direction, departing from…
|
en
|
Brian's Coffee Spot
|
https://www.brian-coffee-spot.com/2022/02/17/amtrak-downeaster-part-ii/
|
Welcome to the second and final part of my Travel Spot dedicated to Amtrak’s Downeaster, which connects Boston with Brunswick, Maine, providing five daily services in each direction, departing from/arriving at Boston’s North Station. In Part I, I took a trip from Portland, where I was staying, to Brunswick, taking the opportunity to check out Amtrak’s business class along the way, before returning by bus.
Part II covers the journey Amanda and I took two days later in the other direction, from Portland to Boston, where we travelled in coach class (Amtrak’s standard class for travel). Incidentally, although I’d travelled in coach class many times before, this was my first detailed look at Amtrak’s refurbished coach-class seating. Along the way, we tried out the café car, sampling the on-board coffee which we put up against some of our own that we’d made on the train.
Other than my trip to Brunswick two days before, I’d only taken the Downeaster once before, at the start of my Portland-to-Portland trans-America train trip in June 2015. Since then, for a variety of reasons, the bus had always proved more convenient, so I was keen to see how the train stacked up against the bus.
As I did for Part I, I’ve split this post into the following parts:
Downeaster Scheduling
Departing Portland
Amtrak’s Amfleet Carriages
Coach Class on the Downeaster
More Thoughts on Coach
Portland to Boston
Café Car and Making Coffee
Arriving in Boston
Final Thoughts
You can read more about the Downeaster after the gallery.
In Part I, I promised to talk about the Downeaster’s quirky scheduling, so let’s start with that. Amtrak bases its Downeaster rolling stock at Brunswick, with the trains making the 3½ hour journey to Boston’s North Station, before turning around for the return journey. Naively, you might think that this would lead to trains at regular intervals throughout the day. However, with rare exceptions, Amtrak’s services don’t work like that.
The first train leaves Brunswick for Boston each day at 04:30, followed by two further morning departures at 07:10 and 11:00. There’s another train just two hours later at 12:55, at which point you might expect a few more trains in the afternoon. However, you’d be wrong. There’s a near five hour gap before the last train of the day heads off for Boston at 17:45.
Since the trains turn around at Boston’s North Station, the first northbound departure doesn’t leave until 08:50, after the first train from Brunswick gets in (which probably explains the 04:30 start!). The second one departs at 11:50 but since there’s a four-hour gap between the second and third Brunswick to Boston trains, there’s a similar gap between the second and third northbound departures, so the first afternoon train from Boston isn’t until at 15:45, followed by the fourth train of the day at 17:20, with the last train leaving at 22:30 (handy if you’ve been at a basketball or hockey game at the TD Garden, the sports complex above North Station). There’s also an “Event Nite Train” which departs at 23:25 when there’s a major concert at the TD Garden, presumably having run down empty from Brunswick.
This all results in an interesting, irregular schedule, which makes the bus (between Boston and Portland at least) a much more attractive option since it runs close to once an hour. However, on this particular occasion, Amanda and I weren’t on a strict timetable, simply wanting to get to Boston on Friday to spend some time in the city before my flight home on Saturday evening. Since neither of us are morning people, that ruled out the first two trains (which leave Portland at 05:18 and 07:58). We also wanted to see something of Boston while the daylight lasted on Friday afternoon, which ruled out the last two trains (arriving into Boston at 16:15 and 21:05).
That just left the “middle” train, which left at the reasonable hour of 11:48, arriving into Boston at 14:20. After the interesting experience I had in getting to the station (Portland Transportation Center) on Wednesday, we decided to get a taxi rather than hauling ourselves and all our (mostly my) luggage on the buses.
Having already written about the Portland Transportation Center in Part I, I won’t repeat myself here. In contrast to my mid-afternoon trip to Brunswick, when I was the only passenger and able to wander around taking pictures, this time there were maybe 20 people already in the waiting room when we arrived 25 minutes before the train, just in time for the departure of the 11:25 to Brunswick. I really wanted to wander down to the platform to see that one off, but that would have probably upset the Amtrak staff as well as Amanda, who would have been left looking after all our luggage, so I stayed where I was.
We were called for boarding at 11:40, making our way down to the platform along the long, sloping corridor from Gate C. I was surprised to see that the train was already there, so we just got straight onboard, making our way to the back of the train where there were plenty of seating.
You can see how we got on after the gallery.
On my trip to Brunswick on Wednesday, my train had been running a few minutes late, which, with hindsight, explained why it had come into the station and then almost immediately departed. This time, the Downeaster was right on schedule, pulling into the platform about 15 minutes ahead of its departure time. This gave the staff ample opportunity to get everyone off before letting us all down onto the platform to board the train.
The Downeaster typically consists of five carriages (four coach class and one combined café car/business class) with a diesel locomotive (a Genisis P42DC) at one end and what’s called a NPCU (non-powered control unit) at the other. The diesel locomotive is always at the northern end of the train, so pulls the service from Boston to Brunswick, but going the other way, it pushes the train, with the NPCU acting as a driving cab.
I’d travelled business class on my way to Brunswick, so in order to compare the two, Amanda and I went coach class this time. At Portland, the platform is quite short, so you can only board in the middle carriage, where the train was quite full. We turned right, heading towards the back of the train, where we found the final coach class carriage (next to the locomotive) to be almost empty.
We had time to get settled in before the train pulled out, heading back the way it had come. As I explained in Part I, the Portland Transportation Center is on a spur off the mainline. The northbound Downeasters effectively reverse out of the station to re-join the mainline, then switch direction to carry on. Meanwhile, the southbound trains do all this before entering the station, effectively overshooting the junction, then reversing up to the platform.
The good news is that when the train is ready to depart, it goes straight down the spur, onto the mainline and then it’s on its way to Boston, which is what happened to us when we pulled out right on time at 11:48. I recommend sitting on the left of the train for the best views on the first part of the journey, although for the short stretch leaving Portland, you get some decent views from either side of the train as it runs alongside the Fore River before re-joining the mainline.
It then swings west to cross the river alongside the Veterans Memorial Bridge before swinging south again to pass by the massive Pan Am Railways Rigby Yard. Pan Am (which was previously Guilford Rail System) owns the vast majority of the track that the Downeaster runs on in Maine and New Hampshire. If you like freight trains, you should definitely sit on the left when passing the yard.
Up until this point, it’s fairly slow going (roughly 5 km in around 8 minutes), but beyond the yard, the train starts to pick up speed as it makes its way down the Maine coast towards Boston.
You can see what we made of coach class after the gallery.
Along with the combined café car/business class seating, which I experienced on my previous trip to Brunswick, the Downeaster has four coach class carriages. These are at the back of the train for the southbound Brunswick to Boston run, with the café car/business carriage at the front, while this arrangement is reversed for northbound trains.
The Downeaster uses Amtrak’s 45-year old Amfleet I carriages, a classic of American steel construction, although the interiors were refurbished in 2017/18 (the entire fleet is set to be replaced by the end of the decade). There are doors at either end of each carriage, along with a pair of spacious toilets at one end. There plenty of space for luggage, with racks at either end, and even more space in large, overhead racks which run above the seats on both sides of the carriage.
One neat feature of all Amtrak rolling stock is the doors between carriages. These have a large button at chest height, which cause the door to slide open, but there’s a second one at foot level which you can kick to activate. This comes in extremely handy when carrying luggage or food from the café car! Maybe it’s only me, but I just find it fun to kick the doors to open them.
Overall, I’ve always liked the Amfleet carriages, although they do have very small, widely-spaced windows. My main criticism is that they’re not very tall, which you don’t really notice if you’re sitting next to the window. However, if you’re in an aisle seat, the lack of height really restricts your view, which is also the case if you’re trying to look out of any window on the other side of the train.
The seats, all airline-style with no table seats, are arranged in a 2 x 2 configuration on either side of the central aisle. Unfortunately, these don’t line up with the windows, so if you’re not careful, you could end up with your main view being the pillar between the windows! I counted 19 rows in our carriage, making 76 seats in all. Interestingly, each pair of seats rotates, something I’ve only seen before on Shinkansen in Japan, so in theory they can face either forwards or backwards. In practice, the staff only rotate the seats in the small business class section to ensure that they are always facing forwards.
In coach class, the seats are configured with the first nine rows facing the end of the carriage, while rows 10 to 18 face the other way. As a result, seats in rows 9 and 10 are back-to-back, providing extra storage space for luggage in the centre of each carriage. The 19th row is also rotated to form a set of four with the 18th row, although the seats are very close together in this configuration, so I’m not sure how two people could sit opposite each other! Finally, there’s a wheelchair space at the start of each carriage, with the two seats facing it (Row 1) reserved for passengers with disabilities.
Of course, since the seats rotate, you could, if you wanted to, rotate a pair yourself to create your own set of four (to rotate the seats, press down on the big pedal and push hard!). However, I’m not sure if you’re supposed to do that, so I decided that it was probably not best to try. This also got me wondering if the old coach class seating rotated as well, since I thought that the refurbishment only changed the seat upholstery rather than changing out the entire seat. If anyone knows, please do tell in the comments at the end of the post!
You can see what we made of the seats and the general coach class experience after the gallery.
I had originally thought that this was my first time travelling in coach class on Amtrak’s refurbished Amfleet carriages, but looking back, I can see that when I travelled on the Northeast Corridor in early 2018, the trains were using the (then newly) refurbished carriages too (the quick way to tell is by the colour: the refurbished seats are grey while the old ones were blue).
As I’ve pointed out before, not all of Amtrak’s Amfleet carriages are the same. The majority of the Northeast Corridor, including the Downeaster, is classified as short haul, using Amfleet I carriages for coach class seating. Meanwhile, long haul services (east of the Mississippi) use Amfleet II, which have a lot more space between the seats, as well as slightly taller windows and doors at just one end of the carriage (the easiest way to tell them apart from the outside). As far as I can tell, if the train has a sleeper car, it’s classed as long haul, otherwise it’s short haul, although there are some exceptions (for example, I’m fairly sure that the Northeast Regional 65 I took from Boston to Washington DC had Amfleet I coaches).
The reason for bringing this up is that while I’ve travelled on a lot of Amtrak trains, recently it’s been predominantly in sleeper cars and, when in coach class, usually on long haul trains with Amfleet II coaches. All of this colours my expectations about travelling in coach class, which in turn influences my perception of the refurbished coach class seating.
Let’s start with the positives. I’ve always had a very high opinion of Amtrak’s coach class and enjoyed travelling coach. The Downeaster has free Wifi (although it wasn’t working in our carriage) and at-seat power. That said, the two power outlets are in the wall under the window, so if you’re in the aisle seat, you’ll need to trail a wire across your neighbour. The seats themselves are very comfortable and wide enough that you don’t feel that you’re encroaching on your neighbour, although there’s no armrest between the seats. Amanda, by the way, was very impressed with the comfort of the seats, particularly when compared to the bus, which she is used to.
One of my biggest complaints about UK trains is the lack of legroom in the airline-style seating (and don’t get me started on legroom in actual airline seats), and this is something that Amtrak has always been good at. By any objective measure, there’s plenty of legroom, although my first reaction was that it was a tight fit. Before long, sitting by the window with Amanda in the aisle seat next to me, my claustrophobia was starting to get triggered, enough that we had to swap seats (which made taking photos out of the window rather tricky!).
You can read more about this, and some of the other issues we had with the refurbished coach class seats, after the gallery.
I’ve been struggling to work out why my claustrophobia was triggered this time, since I’ve never had this problem before on Amtrak, even when I travelled in the newly-refurbished coach class in 2018. However, on that occasion I was travelling alone, which may have had something to do with it. I also think that the new seats are slightly taller than the old ones, which added to that feeling of being enclosed when I sat by the window (I’m tall and used to being able to see over the top of the seats). Another issue I have with the new seats is that they recline and by quite a fair amount. This can be nice for the person sitting in them, but given my struggles with a perceived lack of space, I would have needed to move if someone sat in front of me and reclined the seat.
My most recent comparable experience is when I travelled on the Acela in November. Although the standard Acela seating is technically business class (and charged as such), it felt at the time much more like coach class. I even commented that it felt less spacious than coach, although I may have been remembering the Amfleet II seats, which are definitely more spacious. I didn’t experience any claustrophobia on the Acela, even though I was in a window seat with someone next to me, but looking back at the photos, the Acela had more legroom, while the seats weren’t as tall and only reclined a small amount, both contributing to my not feeling too enclosed.
My final issue with the coach class refurbishment is the table. This is big enough, folding down from the base of the seat in front, but on metal runners, which means that it projects out from the seat back, leaving a gap (in contrast, the Acela table is more like an airline table, folding down from the seat back). This style of table works really well for the Amfleet II seating and in business class on the Amfleet Is, since in both cases the seat in front is that much further away.
Unfortunately it really doesn’t work in coach class, where the seats are that much closer together. I found that because of the gap between the table and the seat back, it was far too close to me and I wasn’t able to comfortably use it unless I reclined my seat. It was practically in my lap, which didn’t help with my feelings of claustrophobia either. It also comes down a long way, so if I wasn’t careful when folding it down, it would hit my thighs. Amanda, who is a lot shorter than me, had similar issues with the table and was very unimpressed.
Overall, I came away disappointed, feeling that the refurbished seats weren’t as good as the ones they replaced, although that may be partly the fault of my memory, conflating this with past trips in coach on long haul trains using Amfleet IIs. However, I don’t remember feeling claustrophobic when travelling coach class before. Objectively, though, Amtrak’s coach class seating is still head and shoulders above anything an equivalent British train can offer and, for comfort, certainly beats either taking the bus or flying domestically in the US.
For a second opinion, check out this video by Simply Railway, which takes a look at the refurbished Amfleet coach class seating on the Northeast Regional (essentially the same as the Downeaster).
You can see how the rest of the journey went after the gallery.
The conductor came through to check our tickets just after we left the Pan Am Yard. I only had my ticket on my phone and was a bit worried since the Wifi wasn’t working in our carriage. However, this wasn’t a problem, with the Amtrak app happily displaying the QR Code for the conductor to scan.
The best (coastal) scenery is along this section of the line, where, if you sit on the left, you get to gaze out over the wetlands around Scarborough as the train crosses the Nonesuch River. From there, it briefly runs along the coast and through Old Orchard Beach, where the train stops in the summer. In winter, however, we just rolled through, getting some views of the fun fare and, in the distance, the Atlantic Ocean.
Just after Old Orchard Beach, the line cuts inland, making its way to Saco, to cross the Saco River. The station is actually on Factory Island, a small island in the middle of the Saco River, with some good views of the river from either side of the train. If you get the chance, Saco (which is on the east bank of the river) and Biddeford (west bank) are worth a visit, particularly if (like me) you have a soft spot for old mill town architecture.
From Saco, the line runs parallel to the coast, but some way inland, until it reaches Wells. We completely missed the station at Wells since, like many of the Downeaster stations, it’s just a single short platform on one side of the track. In this case, it was on the right, while we were sitting on the left, thinking that we’d just stopped in the forest! The town of Wells, by the way, is strung out along US 1, but the station is a couple of kilometres inland, right by an I-95 off ramp, a sure sign that it was built for commuters using it as a park-and-ride facility rather than directly serving the residents of the town.
Whereas I-95 and US 1 stick relatively close to the coast on their way to Portsmouth, just over the state line in New Hampshire, the train cuts further inland after Wells. This avoids having to cross the Piscataqua River, the line instead crossing the much narrower Salmon Falls River, one of the Piscataqua’s two tributaries (together with the Piscataqua, it forms the border between Maine and New Hampshire). The next stop is Dover, which has a more sizeable station, the line crossing the Piscataqua’s other tributary, the Cocheco River, just after the station.
There are two more stops in New Hampshire, Durham – UNH (which serves the large University of New Hampshire campus) and Exeter, where the train ran alongside the frozen Squamscott River for a while. After Exeter, the line crosses into Massachusetts just before Haverhill, another old mill town from the looks of it. Up until this point, the Downeaster had been running on Pan Am’s tracks, but from Haverhill onwards, the tracks are owned by the MBTA (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority). While the majority of the line from Portland is single track, it’s dual track almost all the way from Haverhill, the Downeaster sharing the line with commuter trains into Boston’s North Station.
Immediately after leaving Haverhill station, with the novelty of full length platforms on both sides of the track, the Downeaster crosses the Merrimack River, running along its south bank for a while, with some great views of the river from the right-hand side of the train. From here, the Haverhill line offers the most direct route to Boston, but to avoid conflict with the commuter trains (which stop at every station), the Downeaster crosses over to the Lowell line on the delightfully-named Wildcat Branch, a kilometre long section of single-track line, which joins the Lowell line just before Wilmington. The final stop before Boston is Anderson RTC/Woburn, after which the Downeaster follows the Lowell line through Somerville and Cambridge on its way into Boston’s North Station.
However, before we reach the end of the line, I want to tell you about the café car, which you can read about after the gallery.
One of the joys of travelling by train in America is the dining car. While Amtrak’s short haul trains, like the Downeaster, don’t have a full dining car, there’s always a café car, serving a range of light meals, snacks and drinks. I didn’t get the chance to sample the café car on my short trip to Brunswick two days before, but Amanda and I more than made up for that (deliberate) oversight on this trip.
Since we’d sat at the back of the train, we had to walk through the three other coach class carriages (all of which were considerably more busy than ours) to reach the café car, which was at the front. That said, in theory we could have ordered online via the QR Codes displayed in each carriage, but as well as the Wifi not working our carriage, we both wanted to stretch our legs (and I wanted to nose around the train).
We decided to have a light lunch, forgoing the delights of pizza, hot dog and burger in favour of a pair of bagels with cream cheese from the breakfast menu, plus a hummus snack box, both of which were pretty good. We could have sat at one of the tables (the café car has six four-person tables exclusively for the use of café car customers) but decided to take our food back to the relative seclusion of our own seats instead.
Of course, there had to be coffee as well. We’d already decided to get some hot water, which I was going to use back at our seats to make our own coffee. In the past, I’ve had problems with café car attendants insisting that hot water can only be dispensed in an Amtrak disposable cup, something which I usually experience east of the Mississippi. For some reason, they’re generally fine about it to the west of the Mississippi. I have no idea why!
I’d brought my Frank Green Ceramic cup with me, fully expecting to have to pour the hot water into it from a disposable cup (which would then be thrown away). However, to my surprise (and great pleasure), the café car attendant was more than happy to fill it with hot water for me, so that’s another win for the Downeaster.
We also bought a cup of coffee from café car itself. We weren’t expecting too much, but the café car attendant told us that it was a lighter roast from a company in Maine that was exclusive to the Downeaster. Sadly, Amanda and I didn’t recognise the name, and foolishly I neglected to write it down, although I’ve since learned (see the comments section) that it’s the Carrabassett Coffee Company, a speciality coffee roaster up in Kingfield.
When we got back to our seats and tried the coffee, it was surprisingly good, a gentle, well-brewed cup. Of course, I still made my own, using some pre-weighed Bird Dog beans from Speckled Ax. I ground these in my Aergrind before using the hot water from the café car to make the coffee in my Travel Press. The end result was pretty good, but the café car coffee held its own in comparison, which was impressive. Notch up another win for the Downeaster!
You can see how we got on arriving into Boston, along with my overall thoughts about the Downeaster, after the gallery.
When I first travelled on the Downeaster in June 2015, I remember being rather disappointed with the line, although I loved the coach class carriages, commenting that I had plenty of room, even when the seat in front was reclined. This leads me to think that the refurbished carriages do have less space between the seats. In contrast, my initial reactions were the other way around for this trip: I enjoyed the scenery, but was unimpressed with the seats.
So why the turnaround? I think that the snow helped: everything looks better in snow, including endless vistas of trees. I also think that in 2015 I wasn’t appreciating the journey for what it was. I had expected the train to take a more coastal route, so never quite forgave the trees for not being coastline. The same applies to the rest of the scenery.
This time around, I was much more appreciative. The landscape is more varied than I’d given it credit for and it’s certainly better than the bus as it trundles along I-95 (although I do miss crossing the Piscataqua at Portsmouth). I also appreciated the urban environments more. From Haverhill onwards, it’s a mix of old, industrial towns, steadily giving way to more continuous suburbs beyond Woburn. I also enjoyed rolling through the various commuter stations (having travelled on both lines on MBTA services, they can be painfully slow with their continuous stops).
The final approach to Boston, coming in through old haunts in Somerville and Cambridge, was interesting (I had forgotten that the Downeaster came in that way) as was the final approach to North Station. I’ve caught many MBTA commuter trains from North Station over the years, particularly on my early (pre-Coffee Spot) visits to Boston, so there was a large measure of nostalgia on rolling into the station, where one final surprise waited for me.
I mentioned at the start of this post that the Downeaster is unusual for Amtrak trains since it has a NPCU (non-powered control unit), which acts as a driving cab when the train does this, its southbound run. The Downeaster NPCUs are old EMD F40PH diesel locomotives, with their engines taken out. Having missed out at Brunswick two days before, I’d really been looking forward to seeing one up close at the head of the train once we got into North Station.
However, when I got to the end of the platform, I was surprised to find another Genisis P42DC diesel locomotive in place of the NPCU. I suspect this had been pulling the train rather than the one at the back pushing it (with hindsight, it had been rather quiet in the rear carriage, which was right next to the other locomotive). I must confess to being disappointed, but to make up for it, our second locomotive was done out in a special red, white and blue livery to mark Amtrak’s 50th anniversary. Amtrak has just six of these commemorative locomotives, each with a different livery (ours was “Phase VI”), so to have had one on our Downeaster cheered me up immensely.
With that out of the way, we walked out of North Station to enjoy 24 hours in Boston on what turned out to be a very pleasant spring weekend (although slightly disturbing, given that it was mid-February!).
So, what did I make of the Downeaster? It was an interesting mix, including disappointment at the refurbished coach class seating and being pleasantly surprised at how scenic the line was. The quality of the coffee was definitely a bonus! I think that the lesson here is to judge things by what they are, not what you expect them to be, a lesson I keep having to relearn.
Yes, I prefer the old coach seating to the new, but by any objective standard, these are spacious and comfortable trains. As Amanda pointed out to me, it is so much better than taking the bus, with more space, more comfortable seats, plus you have the ability to get up and wander around, as well a café car, both of which are lacking on the bus.
Where the Downeaster suffers in comparison to the bus is the schedule. While I appreciate that there are many factors at play, there are simply large parts of the day when taking the Downeaster makes no sense at all. It only really worked for us on this occasion because we were in no hurry to get to Boston and could be flexible with our departure and arrival times.
Pricewise, if you book more than a day in advance, it’s the same as the bus, $24 from Portland to Boson (and a pleasing $48 for a return). This is a non-refundable saver ticket, and must be booked for a specific train. If you want more flexibility, you can book a $29 ticket, while for another $5, you have a fully flexible ticket, although at that price ($34) you might want to consider spending another $5 for a $39 business class ticket. Note that if you book on the day or one day ahead, saver tickets are no longer available.
One final thought: coach or business class? Well, although I really liked business class and enjoyed the extra space, in some way the small compartment is a drawback. In contrast, although I had my problems with coach class, now I know what they are, I can take steps to counter them. If the train is going to be full (and, when you book, Amtrak gives you a helpful estimate to how full the train is at that point), then I’d take business class and happily spend the extra. However, if the train was like it was on this trip (50% full was the estimate when I booked) then I’d go coach and find some space to spread out.
Either way, if you’re not in a hurry, I can definitely recommend the Downeaster!
This concludes my two-part Travel Spot on the Downeaster. Don’t forget to check out Part I if you haven’t already.
If you want to know more about the rolling stock that will replace the Amfleet coaches, check out this review of the new Venture coaches by Simply Railway. The first of these coaches is already in service with Amtrak Midwest and will be rolled out across the network, starting in California and the Midwest, over the next five or so years.
If you liked this post, please let me know by clicking the “Like” button. If you have a WordPress account and you don’t mind everyone knowing that you liked this post, you can use the “Like this” button right at the bottom instead. [bawlu_buttons]
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https://forgottennewengland.com/2012/10/14/the-men-of-the-boston-lowell-and-nashua-line-train-life-in-the-1870s/
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en
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The Men of the Boston, Lowell and Nashua Line – Train Life in the 1870s
|
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"Forgotten New England"
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2012-10-14T00:00:00
|
My two-year-old son loves trains. One of his first words was "train". And, he likes to announce the arrival and departure of trains, with the word "train", repeatedly, while pointing. The fascination people have with trains can be traced back much further than today's living generations. In fact, before planes and automobiles, trains, or iron…
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en
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https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/2c266ba2f2cfe38d321f9683f872ffaf63db6ecf82a041cb991e5e909157918b?s=32
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Forgotten New England
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https://forgottennewengland.com/2012/10/14/the-men-of-the-boston-lowell-and-nashua-line-train-life-in-the-1870s/
|
My two-year-old son loves trains. One of his first words was “train”. And, he likes to announce the arrival and departure of trains, with the word “train”, repeatedly, while pointing.
The fascination people have with trains can be traced back much further than today’s living generations. In fact, before planes and automobiles, trains, or iron horses – as they were sometimes admiringly called, captivated young people in cities, towns, and out on country farms. In the years following the close of the Civil War, young men on rural farms looked with fascination at the trains that passed through their New England towns. They looked to the trains to deliver them from the boredom they had come to associate with farm life. For young rural women, a trip to the depot to watch the train come in allowed them to break up the monotony of farm life by seeing who was arriving from Boston, the ‘big city’.
In the 1870s, young people everywhere saw railroad life as offering a certain charm and urban sophistication. Men who were able to land positions with the railroad could count on steady employment and a solid career. And, they would travel through the city and surrounding countryside once or maybe even twice daily.
Men landing railroad jobs started off as brakemen, who brought trains to a stop at approaching stations. From there, with time, experience, and some politicking, they were elevated into baggage-master positions. Baggage masters were charged with caring for and delivering the bags and suitcases to traveling passengers. All young men on the railroad hoped one day to become conductors, who held the awe of all. Conductors wore gold-laced caps, and were the ones who announced the ‘all aboard!’ at each stop along the line.
Railway men, and those who loved them, knew that a job on the railroad meant many hours away from home, but most of the men wouldn’t trade the job for any other, and often, a man who started his career as a brakeman retired decades later after a lifetime of employment on the railroad.
The conductors of the railroad were known by their uniforms. Made of distinctive dark blue cloth, each man wore a sack coat and vest with pants, decorated with stripes. The men fastened their uniforms in place with brass buttons, which bore the date of the railroad’s incorporation. As part of their compensation, conductors received a stipend of $200 annually to buy their uniforms. Strict regulations were enforced to ensure that conductors always appeared in uniform, and that they were neatly dressed. Upon each completion of five years of experience, conductors added a black velvet stripe with gold trimming to their right sleeves.
Life on The Boston, Lowell, and Nashua Line
In 1874, the vast network of railroad lines connecting Boston with the outside world included the Boston & Providence, the Old Colony, the Fitchburg, the Boston & Albany, the Boston & Maine, the Eastern, and the Boston, Lowell & Nashua.
During the years following the Civil War, the Boston, Lowell, and Nashua line was known for its austere, direct conductors. Most of the men who ran the line had grown up in the towns of New Hampshire where, as boys, they dreamt of one day becoming conductors. In 1874, sixteen men served as conductors for the Boston, Lowell, and Nashua line on its “Boston End”; three more served as additional help when collecting and punching tickets on the trains when they ran their short trips. Forty-six men supported the conductors’ efforts in the roles of and baggage masters. The line prided itself on hiring men who had the ability to grow into the conductor role.
On the Boston, Lowell & Nashua line, men working the Lowell, Concord and Greenfield routes averaged 120 miles daily. Men who worked the Woburn, Lexington, and Stoneham routes averaged some 60 or 80 miles, daily. It was said that the more frequent stops on the shorter routes were more exhausting.
Conductors earned monthly salaries between $70 and $85. Brakemen and baggage masters earned salaries around $50, monthly. The men of the Boston, Lowell & Nashua line were described as a “steady-going” set, and almost all were married. Those who had seen the conductors’ room described scenes of “high, low, jack” or backgammon. The conductors on the line included some of the railroad’s longest-serving veterans. One, John Barrett, had run the first train to ever make the route some forty years earlier, on June 26, 1835. Barrett had held his conductorship through 1860, when he became a depot master for several more years. By the 1870s, Barrett was still serving the railroad, even at the advanced age of 74. Another veteran of the line, Josiah Short, had served the railroad some forty years; by the mid-1870s, he had become a ticket agent at the Lowell station. Another conductor, Albert Carter, had served for so long on the line’s Woburn branch that generations of schoolboys had come to know him as “Old Carter”. Old Carter had developed no small part of his reputation by catching and reprimanding train stowaways who tried to steal rides between stations in the Winchester area during the years surrounding the Civil War.
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https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/lowell-mill-girls-and-factory-system-1840
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en
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Lowell Mill Girls and the factory system, 1840
|
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"Lowell Mill Girls and the factory system",
"1840 | Lowell",
"Massachusetts",
"named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell",
"was founded in the early 1820s as a planned town for the manufacture of textiles. It introduced a new system of integrated manufacturing to the United States and established new patterns of employment and urban development that were soon replicated around New England and elsewhere. | Lowell",
"Massachusetts",
"named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell",
"was founded in the early 1820s as a planned town for the manufacture of textiles. It introduced a new system of integrated manufacturing to the United States and established new patterns of employment and urban development that were soon replicated around New England and elsewhere. By 1840",
"the factories in Lowell employed at some estimates more than 8",
"000 textile workers",
"commonly known as mill girls or factory girls. These \"operatives\"—so-called because they operated the looms and other machinery—were primarily women and children from farming backgrounds. The Lowell mills were the first hint of the industrial revolution to come in the United States",
"and with their success came two different views of the factories. For many of the mill girls",
"employment brought a sense of freedom. Unlike most young women of that era",
"they were free from parental authority",
"were able to earn their own money",
"and had broader educational opportunities. Many observers saw this challenge to the traditional roles of women as a threat to the American way of life. Others criticized the entire wage-labor factory system as a form of slavery and actively condemned and campaigned against the harsh working conditions and long hours and the increasing divisions between workers and factory owners. The Transcendentalist reformer Orestes Brownson first published \"The Laboring Classes\" in his journal",
"the Boston Quarterly Review",
"in July 1840. It is an attack on the entire wage system but particularly focuses on how factory jobs affect the mill girls: \"‘She has worked in a Factory",
"’\" Brownson argues",
"\"is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl.\" In response",
"\"A Factory Girl\" published a defense of the mill girls in the December 1840 issue of the Lowell Offering",
"a journal of articles",
"fiction",
"and poetry written by and for the Lowell factory operatives. The author was probably Harriet Jane Farley",
"a mill girl who eventually became editor of the Lowell Offering. [1] [1] \"The Lowell Offering Index",
"\" by Judith Ranta",
"Center for Lowell History",
"University of Massachusetts Lowell Libraries",
"http://library.uml.edu/clh/index.Html. Excerpts Orestes Brownson",
"The Laboring Classes: An Article from the Boston Quarterly Review",
"Boston: Benjamin H. Greene",
"1840. The operatives are well dressed",
"and we are told",
"well paid. They are said to be healthy",
"contented",
"and happy. This is the fair side of the picture . . . There is a dark side",
"moral as well as physical. Of the common operatives",
"few",
"if any",
"by their wages",
"acquire a competence . . . the great mass wear out their health",
"spirits",
"and morals",
"without becoming one whit better off than when they commenced labor. The bills of mortality in these factory villages are not striking",
"we admit",
"for the poor girls when they can toil no longer go home to die. The average life",
"working life we mean",
"of the girls that come to Lowell",
"for instance",
"from Maine",
"New Hampshire",
"and Vermont",
"we have been assured",
"is only about three years. What becomes of them then? Few of them ever marry; fewer still ever return to their native places with reputations unimpaired. \"She has worked in a Factory",
"\" is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl. A Factory Girl",
"\"Factory Girls",
"\" Lowell Offering",
"December 1840 Whom has Mr. Brownson slandered? . . . girls who generally come from quiet country homes",
"where their minds and manners have been formed under the eyes of the worthy sons of the Pilgrims",
"and their virtuous partners",
"and who return again to become the wives of the free intelligent yeomanry of New England and the mothers of quite a proportion of our future republicans. Think",
"for a moment",
"how many of the next generation are to spring from mothers doomed to infamy! . . . It has been asserted that to put ourselves under the influence and restraints of corporate bodies",
"is contrary to the spirit of our institutions",
"and to that love of independence which we ought to cherish. . . . We are under restraints",
"but they are voluntarily assumed; and we are at liberty to withdraw from them",
"whenever they become galling or irksome. Neither have I ever discovered that any restraints were imposed upon us but those which were necessary for the peace and comfort of the whole",
"and for the promotion of the design for which we are collected",
"namely",
"to get money",
"as much of it and as fast as we can; and it is because our toil is so unremitting",
"that the wages of factory girls are higher than those of females engaged in most other occupations. It is these wages which",
"in spite of toil",
"restraint",
"discomfort",
"and prejudice",
"have drawn so many worthy",
"virtuous",
"intelligent",
"and well-educated girls to Lowell",
"and other factories; and it is the wages which are in great degree to decide the characters of the factory girls as a class. . . . Mr. Brownson may rail as much as he pleases against the real injustice of capitalists against operatives",
"and we will bid him God speed",
"if he will but keep truth and common sense upon his side. Still",
"the avails of factory labor are now greater than those of many domestics",
"seamstresses",
"and school-teachers; and strange would it be",
"if in money-loving New England",
"one of the most lucrative female employments should be rejected because it is toilsome",
"or because some people are prejudiced against it. Yankee girls have too much independence for that. . . . And now",
"if Mr. Brownson is a man",
"he will endeavor to retrieve the injury he has done; . . . though he will find error",
"ignorance",
"and folly among us",
"(and where would he find them not?) yet he would not see worthy and virtuous girls consigned to infamy",
"because they work in a factory."
] | null |
[
"Orestes Brownson",
"\"A Factory Girl\""
] | null |
Lowell Mill Girls and the factory system, 1840 | Lowell, Massachusetts, named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell, was founded in the early 1820s as a planned town for the manufacture of textiles. It introduced a new system of integrated manufacturing to the United States and established new patterns of employment and urban development that were soon replicated around New England and elsewhere. | Lowell, Massachusetts, named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell, was founded in the early 1820s as a planned town for the manufacture of textiles. It introduced a new system of integrated manufacturing to the United States and established new patterns of employment and urban development that were soon replicated around New England and elsewhere. By 1840, the factories in Lowell employed at some estimates more than 8,000 textile workers, commonly known as mill girls or factory girls. These "operatives"—so-called because they operated the looms and other machinery—were primarily women and children from farming backgrounds. The Lowell mills were the first hint of the industrial revolution to come in the United States, and with their success came two different views of the factories. For many of the mill girls, employment brought a sense of freedom. Unlike most young women of that era, they were free from parental authority, were able to earn their own money, and had broader educational opportunities. Many observers saw this challenge to the traditional roles of women as a threat to the American way of life. Others criticized the entire wage-labor factory system as a form of slavery and actively condemned and campaigned against the harsh working conditions and long hours and the increasing divisions between workers and factory owners. The Transcendentalist reformer Orestes Brownson first published "The Laboring Classes" in his journal, the Boston Quarterly Review, in July 1840. It is an attack on the entire wage system but particularly focuses on how factory jobs affect the mill girls: "‘She has worked in a Factory,’" Brownson argues, "is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl." In response, "A Factory Girl" published a defense of the mill girls in the December 1840 issue of the Lowell Offering, a journal of articles, fiction, and poetry written by and for the Lowell factory operatives. The author was probably Harriet Jane Farley, a mill girl who eventually became editor of the Lowell Offering. [1] [1] "The Lowell Offering Index," by Judith Ranta, Center for Lowell History, University of Massachusetts Lowell Libraries, http://library.uml.edu/clh/index.Html. Excerpts Orestes Brownson, The Laboring Classes: An Article from the Boston Quarterly Review, Boston: Benjamin H. Greene, 1840. The operatives are well dressed, and we are told, well paid. They are said to be healthy, contented, and happy. This is the fair side of the picture . . . There is a dark side, moral as well as physical. Of the common operatives, few, if any, by their wages, acquire a competence . . . the great mass wear out their health, spirits, and morals, without becoming one whit better off than when they commenced labor. The bills of mortality in these factory villages are not striking, we admit, for the poor girls when they can toil no longer go home to die. The average life, working life we mean, of the girls that come to Lowell, for instance, from Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, we have been assured, is only about three years. What becomes of them then? Few of them ever marry; fewer still ever return to their native places with reputations unimpaired. "She has worked in a Factory," is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl. A Factory Girl, "Factory Girls," Lowell Offering, December 1840 Whom has Mr. Brownson slandered? . . . girls who generally come from quiet country homes, where their minds and manners have been formed under the eyes of the worthy sons of the Pilgrims, and their virtuous partners, and who return again to become the wives of the free intelligent yeomanry of New England and the mothers of quite a proportion of our future republicans. Think, for a moment, how many of the next generation are to spring from mothers doomed to infamy! . . . It has been asserted that to put ourselves under the influence and restraints of corporate bodies, is contrary to the spirit of our institutions, and to that love of independence which we ought to cherish. . . . We are under restraints, but they are voluntarily assumed; and we are at liberty to withdraw from them, whenever they become galling or irksome. Neither have I ever discovered that any restraints were imposed upon us but those which were necessary for the peace and comfort of the whole, and for the promotion of the design for which we are collected, namely, to get money, as much of it and as fast as we can; and it is because our toil is so unremitting, that the wages of factory girls are higher than those of females engaged in most other occupations. It is these wages which, in spite of toil, restraint, discomfort, and prejudice, have drawn so many worthy, virtuous, intelligent, and well-educated girls to Lowell, and other factories; and it is the wages which are in great degree to decide the characters of the factory girls as a class. . . . Mr. Brownson may rail as much as he pleases against the real injustice of capitalists against operatives, and we will bid him God speed, if he will but keep truth and common sense upon his side. Still, the avails of factory labor are now greater than those of many domestics, seamstresses, and school-teachers; and strange would it be, if in money-loving New England, one of the most lucrative female employments should be rejected because it is toilsome, or because some people are prejudiced against it. Yankee girls have too much independence for that. . . . And now, if Mr. Brownson is a man, he will endeavor to retrieve the injury he has done; . . . though he will find error, ignorance, and folly among us, (and where would he find them not?) yet he would not see worthy and virtuous girls consigned to infamy, because they work in a factory.
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https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/lowell-mill-girls-and-factory-system-1840
|
Lowell, Massachusetts, named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell, was founded in the early 1820s as a planned town for the manufacture of textiles. It introduced a new system of integrated manufacturing to the United States and established new patterns of employment and urban development that were soon replicated around New England and elsewhere.
By 1840, the factories in Lowell employed at some estimates more than 8,000 textile workers, commonly known as mill girls or factory girls. These "operatives"—so-called because they operated the looms and other machinery—were primarily women and children from farming backgrounds.
The Lowell mills were the first hint of the industrial revolution to come in the United States, and with their success came two different views of the factories. For many of the mill girls, employment brought a sense of freedom. Unlike most young women of that era, they were free from parental authority, were able to earn their own money, and had broader educational opportunities. Many observers saw this challenge to the traditional roles of women as a threat to the American way of life. Others criticized the entire wage-labor factory system as a form of slavery and actively condemned and campaigned against the harsh working conditions and long hours and the increasing divisions between workers and factory owners.
The Transcendentalist reformer Orestes Brownson first published "The Laboring Classes" in his journal, the Boston Quarterly Review, in July 1840. It is an attack on the entire wage system but particularly focuses on how factory jobs affect the mill girls: "‘She has worked in a Factory,’" Brownson argues, "is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl." In response, "A Factory Girl" published a defense of the mill girls in the December 1840 issue of the Lowell Offering, a journal of articles, fiction, and poetry written by and for the Lowell factory operatives. The author was probably Harriet Jane Farley, a mill girl who eventually became editor of the Lowell Offering. [1]
[1] "The Lowell Offering Index," by Judith Ranta, Center for Lowell History, University of Massachusetts Lowell Libraries, http://library.uml.edu/clh/index.Html.
Excerpts
Orestes Brownson, The Laboring Classes: An Article from the Boston Quarterly Review, Boston: Benjamin H. Greene, 1840.
The operatives are well dressed, and we are told, well paid. They are said to be healthy, contented, and happy. This is the fair side of the picture . . . There is a dark side, moral as well as physical. Of the common operatives, few, if any, by their wages, acquire a competence . . . the great mass wear out their health, spirits, and morals, without becoming one whit better off than when they commenced labor. The bills of mortality in these factory villages are not striking, we admit, for the poor girls when they can toil no longer go home to die. The average life, working life we mean, of the girls that come to Lowell, for instance, from Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, we have been assured, is only about three years. What becomes of them then? Few of them ever marry; fewer still ever return to their native places with reputations unimpaired. "She has worked in a Factory," is almost enough to damn to infamy the most worthy and virtuous girl.
A Factory Girl, "Factory Girls," Lowell Offering, December 1840
Whom has Mr. Brownson slandered? . . . girls who generally come from quiet country homes, where their minds and manners have been formed under the eyes of the worthy sons of the Pilgrims, and their virtuous partners, and who return again to become the wives of the free intelligent yeomanry of New England and the mothers of quite a proportion of our future republicans. Think, for a moment, how many of the next generation are to spring from mothers doomed to infamy! . . . It has been asserted that to put ourselves under the influence and restraints of corporate bodies, is contrary to the spirit of our institutions, and to that love of independence which we ought to cherish. . . . We are under restraints, but they are voluntarily assumed; and we are at liberty to withdraw from them, whenever they become galling or irksome. Neither have I ever discovered that any restraints were imposed upon us but those which were necessary for the peace and comfort of the whole, and for the promotion of the design for which we are collected, namely, to get money, as much of it and as fast as we can; and it is because our toil is so unremitting, that the wages of factory girls are higher than those of females engaged in most other occupations. It is these wages which, in spite of toil, restraint, discomfort, and prejudice, have drawn so many worthy, virtuous, intelligent, and well-educated girls to Lowell, and other factories; and it is the wages which are in great degree to decide the characters of the factory girls as a class. . . . Mr. Brownson may rail as much as he pleases against the real injustice of capitalists against operatives, and we will bid him God speed, if he will but keep truth and common sense upon his side. Still, the avails of factory labor are now greater than those of many domestics, seamstresses, and school-teachers; and strange would it be, if in money-loving New England, one of the most lucrative female employments should be rejected because it is toilsome, or because some people are prejudiced against it. Yankee girls have too much independence for that. . . . And now, if Mr. Brownson is a man, he will endeavor to retrieve the injury he has done; . . . though he will find error, ignorance, and folly among us, (and where would he find them not?) yet he would not see worthy and virtuous girls consigned to infamy, because they work in a factory.
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https://www.faracresfarm.com/jbvb/rr/bmrr/b_and_m.html
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Unofficial Boston and Maine Railroad Page
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
"Boston and Maine Railroad",
"Boston & Maine",
"B&M",
"Flying Yankee",
"Minuteman",
"roster",
"modeling information"
] | null |
[] | null |
Unofficial Boston and Maine Railroad page
with HO scale model railroad passenger cars, steam engine roster,
diesel engine roster, caboose roster, passenger car roster, freight car roster, model
detailing information
|
./favicon.ico
| null |
Unofficial Boston & Maine Railroad Page
Copyright 1997 - 2021 by James B. Van Bokkelen . This document may be duplicated and distributed for non-commercial purposes only, all other rights reserved.
Credit: Dwight Smith took the Black & White period photos used on the Unofficial B&M Page.
Table of Contents
Introduction to the B&M Boston & Maine RR Historical Society Modeling Eras on the B&M The B&M in (Recent) Print
Boston & Maine Equipment
B&M Passenger Equipment Roster and Modeling Information
Preserved B&M Passenger Equipment
B&M Freight Equipment Roster and Modeling Information B&M Wood and Steel Caboose Roster and Modeling Information B&M Steam Locomotive Roster and Painting Information
Information on Detailing B&M Steam Locomotives
B&M Diesel Locomotive Roster and Painting Information
Information on Detailing B&M Diesels
Boston & Maine Operations
B&M Notes By Location B&M Operations
New England Railroads and Railroad Operations
My New England RR index page.
Railway Post Office Routes in New England Inter-Line Passenger Services in New England
Introduction
The Boston and Maine Railroad began as a second through route from Boston towards Portland, Maine, after the Eastern RR, incorporated in 1833 and completed in 1843. The next 70 years involved a great deal of financial and political finagling, but by 1915 the B&M reached from Troy and Saratoga in New York to Southern Quebec. This system map, from Employee's Timetable #4, January 4, 1964, shows what remained after the first surge of Interstate construction.
The B&M was pretty parsimonious; few other Class 1 roads put as much energy into old equipment. Thus, the 1950s were particularly interesting: The steam-diesel transition began in earnest in 1943 with the arrival of the first EMD FT freight diesels. It finally ended in Spring 1956 after the first big order of self-propelled Budd Rail Diesel Cars replaced both WWI-era 4-6-2 steam locomotives and three- to seven-year-old diesel road-switchers hauling a dog's breakfast of second-hand steel commuter coaches. The B&M innovated with early diesel switchers, the Budd articulated streamliner The Flying Yankee , and the complete dieselization of the Hoosac Tunnel main line west of Greenfield by 1946. Conversely, the B&M ran one of the last big fleets of open-platform wood passenger cars, certainly the last hauling commuters into a major metropolis, and used ball signals and covered bridges well into the diesel era.
I didn't see much of this personally: I can barely remember being taken to trackside at North Station in 1960 to see the last arrival of the Gull from St. John and Halifax. My own B&M memories are of the RDCs and Geeps going about their business during the long decline under indifferent ownership in the 1960s, and then bankruptcy and a revitalization that was finally smothered in Guilford Gray. Still, I find the pre-interstate era interesting to research and model, and thus I owe a great deal to those who documented it.
Acknowlegements
Sincere thanks to the dedicated B&MRRHS volunteers who've prepared the B&M Bulletin articles I've compiled much of this information from, particularly Roger Hinman. I count myself lucky to have almost all the issues back to 1972, and hope that this effort will in turn be found useful by others. Thanks to Andy Miller for info on the ex-PRR cars. As I've prepared this, I've also been reminded how often it turns out that D. L. Ellis of Concord Junction Car Shops (Box 592, W. Acton, MA 01720) has made important B&M equipment available to the modeler, and my thanks go out to him as well as other manufacturers who give attention to the Route of the Minuteman.
Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society (unofficial)
The B&MRRHS has an official web site which has information on current Society events. They also have a web forum.
The B&MRRHS was organized in 1971. After a few initial photocopied publications, they began producing a quarterly glossy paper magazine called the B&M Bulletin with the Fall 1971 issue. Publication has continued fairly regularly: Volume 20 Number 4 came out in late 1996, but Volume 21 Number 1 didn't appear until late in 1998. Initially, all Bulletin photography was black and white; color covers began with the Winter 1978 - 1979 issue, and a few from the mid 1980s have color photo sections inside.
Besides the B&M Bulletin , the B&MRRHS also publishes the bi-monthly B&MRRHS Newsletter , which includes a section called Modeler's Notes . The B&MRRHS has also published several softbound books (all presently out of print) and various B&M plans, datasheets, videocasettes and specially decorated kits. Members receive the B&M Bulletin and the Newsletter as they are issued. The B&M Bulletin is also available over the counter at some hobby shops, and the B&MRRHS has offered back issues and other merchandise at various New England train shows.
B&MRRHS Archives
The B&MRRHS has a sizeable collection of archival material, held at the University of Lowell, in Lowell, Massachusetts. The collection includes photographs, timetables, detailed track maps of most lines updated through the 1950s, the ICC Valuation Report from the WWI era, and a substantial amount of corporate information on the B&M and some of its predecessors. More information is available on-line from the ULowell Library , though there is no on-line catalog as yet.
Modeling Eras on the B&M
As I view it, there are six main modeling eras accessible to those who need to use mostly commercially produced models, each defined by major changes in equipment and/or paint schemes:
Pre-World War II (circa 1925 - 1941)
Before WWII, the B&M was typified by passenger equipment in the dark green scheme with imitation gold letters and a locomotive roster dominated by 2-6-0s, 2-8-0s and 4-6-2s. Heavy freight power included 2-10-2s, early Lima Super-Power 2-8-4s in 1928 and thirteen modern dual-service Baldwin 4-8-2s beginning in 1935. The largest passenger steam on the B&M was also built by Lima - two classes of heavy 80" drivered 4-6-2s built in 1934 and 1937. A few 4-4-2s and the survivors of large numbers of 4-4-0s and 4-6-0s filled out the main line roster, and 0-6-0s and 0-8-0s worked the yards and industrial districts. Use of the block herald scheme on locomotives began before the depression, but the 1911 scheme wasn't all gone for a decade.
A large portion of the passenger fleet was still wood cars built before the turn of the century. Most, if not all of the survivors had steel underframes, but open platforms and truss rods were common. Monitor-roof steel heavyweights held down most of the intercity trains, though after 1934 "American Flyer" lightweight coaches replaced deluxe heavyweights on the showpiece Boston-Portland services. Gas-electrics with and without trailers handled many branch lines, and after the mid-1930s the Budd Flying Yankee and no. 1140, a large EMC motor-baggage car capable of hauling a 3 or 4 car train (unofficially known as the Sacred Cow ) served alongside the old and new steam. A few EMD SC and Alco HH-600 switchers arrived in the late 1930s, painted basic black . The B&M's last new steam engines were five R-1d 4-8-2s purchased in 1941, but they were followed in 1943 by four used P-5 4-6-2s purchased from the DL&W.
Until late 1941, the B&M's standard structure paint scheme used #1A Gray with #2A Dark Green Trim. At that point it was changed to Cream with Maroon trim and wainscotting (where applicable). There wasn't a rush to repaint; many stations and other buildings remained gray/green a decade or more later.
Steam - Diesel Transition (1943 - 1956)
The Hoosac Tunnel electrification was a bottleneck on the shortest, most lightly-graded route to the ports of New England, which gave the B&M priority for twenty-four of EMD's wartime FT A-B freighters. After the war ended in 1945, the B&M sampled two E-7s, and then bought fourteen more in 1946. Five more E-7s in 1949 and a single E-8 in 1950 finished the fleet. Single F-2As were bought to complement A-B FTs, along with several F-2s, F-3s and F-7s in A-B sets. Alco supplied S1s, S2s, S3s, S4s, S5s, RS-2s and RS-3s, EMD supplied SW-1s, NW-2s, SW-8s, SW-9s, BL-2s and GP-7s, but the dieselization wasn't complete until six months after the largest-ever order of Budd RDCs arrived in 1955; The official last run of steam was a fan trip with P-4 3713 (under restoration at Steamtown) on April 22, 1956 but the remaining 4-6-2s and 2-6-0s on standby duty didn't make their last trips to Billerica shops until July. For most of this period, the Minuteman image was the prevalent paint scheme. The 1946 E-7s arrived in a short-lived Rock Island-like maroon and white paint, and many EMD and Alco switchers and the first RS-2 did their chores in the black with red nose stripes .
Starting in the early 1940s, passenger cars were painted maroon, usually with dulux gold lettering and black roofs and underbodies. Twenty-four stainless-sheathed lightweight cars arrived in 1947 for the joint B&M - MEC service between Boston and Bangor, ME. Most of the open-platform wood cars were replaced by several large purchases of second-hand steel commuter coaches between 1940 and 1952, but some survived almost to the end of steam. The first Budd RDCs arrived in 1952, with no decoration on their ends. They began to receive Minuteman heralds soon after, probably next year, as road diesels started to get silver trucks. A few photos of RDCs show a number on the end between the fireman's window and the top of the Minuteman herald, but this wasn't universal.
McGinnis Era (1956 - 1962)
While profitable, the B&M wasn't profitable enough for its investors - the railroad was vulnerable to a takeover. New management arrived in the form of Patrick B. McGinnis, who had recently stirred up quite a bit of controversy during a brief tenure as president of the New York, New Haven & Hartford. While a great many of McGinnis' programs were window dressing for questionable financial manuvering, he did have a profound and lasting effect on the railroad from the modeler's point of view.
First, a set of modernistic blue, black and white paint schemes were introduced with considerable fanfare. Then, more Budd RDCs were purchased, including single-motor RDC-9s without control cabs. All but the RDC-9s arrived with white ends sporting interlaced blue, black and white BM heralds. By late 1958 RDCs completely replaced all remaining locomotive-hauled passenger service other than interline trains. McGinnis also bought an ACF Talgo Train with the railroad's first and only Fairbanks-Morse locomotives, possibly to honor promises dating from his ill-fated lightweight train program at the New Haven. Finally, he took advantage of EMD's "buy now, pay later" plan to replace the FTs and a few other units with 50 new GP-9s in the "Bluebird" scheme . The new RDCs combined with the decline in overall passenger traffic to leave dozens of locomotives idle. The F-2s, RS-2s, E-7s and older switchers were scrapped rather than sold, hinting that maintenance had been neglected.
McGinnis's machinations apparently favored his friends rather than the stockholders as a body, and a net began to close around him. He resigned as president in 1962, was indicted in 1963 and went to prison in 1966 for taking kickbacks on the sale of the 1947 streamlined passenger cars.
The older RDCs quickly got white ends and BM heralds to match the newer ones, but after less than a dozen locomotives repainted in the initial rush, diesels that had been delivered in maroon and gold stayed that way. The joint management agreement with the MEC had ended before McGinnis arrived, but during his tenure the two railroads drifted further apart: The MEC didn't want to run either RDCs or the Talgo beyond Portland, possibly because it would have meant paying mileage rates to the B&M. Neither did they concur with the B&M's decision to drop most mail and express service as unprofitable in 1959.
The few new B&M structures erected after 1957 were painted varying combinations of white/gray, black and blue. Existing structures with Cream/Maroon almost always retained it till they were demolished.
Adrift (1962 - 1971)
The B&M eroded slowly through the 1960s under absentee owners mostly interested in a tax loss. The last interline trains dropped away, and the RDC runs were pruned back until finally only the Boston commuter service subsidized by the MTA (later MBTA) remained:
1958: RDCs west of Greenfield, MA on the Fitchburg Division discontinued
1960: RDCs from Dover to North Conway, NH, discontinued
1960: RDCs beyond Fitchburg to Greenfield discontinued April 23.
1960: Boston - St. John, New Brunswick Gull discontinued
1960: New York - Portland State of Maine discontinued
1964: RDC service to Laconia, NH cut back to Concord, NH.
1965: RDC service to Portland ends, leaving one weekday round-trip to Dover
1965: RDC service to Portsmouth, NH discontinued in January. One except-Sunday round-trip to Newburyport restored later in the year.
1964: RDC service on the Fitchburg Division cut back to Ayer, MA.
1965: Boston - White River - Newport - Montreal RDCs (joint w/CPR) discontinued
1966: New York - Springfield - Montreal Ambassador, Washingtonian/Montrealer discontinued
1967: Last round-trips to Dover and Concord, NH discontinued
During this period, older locomotives were gradually scrapped or sold; The motive power surplus continued and many B&M engines and even a few RDCs spent a year or two out on lease. The BL-2s and one F-unit went to EMD as trade-ins for six GP-18s in 1961, the only new locomotives purchased during the decade. Some surplus RDCs were sold to the CNR, CPR and RDG; a few more were destroyed in accidents. In the late '60s, the RDCs started to lose their white ends, receiving BM heralds applied to bare stainless steel as the Minuteman had once been. Simultaneously, a new solid blue scheme started to appear on switchers, GP-7s, Fs and RSs shopped for major overhauls.
Bankruptcy and Revitalization (1971 - 1981)
When "pay later" time for McGinnis's schemes finally came in 1971, the B&M hit bottom. A fortunate choice of trustees helped start the revival, and energetic executives like John Barriger and Alan Dustin contributed a lot, but the key part came with the Metropolitan Boston Transit Authority's use of Federal funds to buy the Boston commuter district, track, RDCs, stations and engine facilities. The B&M continued to operate the North Side commuter service, and even took over the former New Haven and Boston & Albany operations out of South Station when Conrail wanted out of the commuter business. Several New Hampshire branches were abandoned, but this was momentarily balanced by taking over some ex-NH and ex-NYC trackage in Massachusetts and Connecticut.
New power arrived in the form of twelve GP-38s in 1973 and eighteen GP-40s in 1977, painted in variations of the solid blue scheme . The GP-40s idled many of the GP-7s, and this, combined with a 1977 decision to remove the enclosures from the RDCs' underfloor diesel engines (officially due to risk of fires from oil leaks) doomed the RDCs as self-propelled units. After the harsh winter of 1977-78, most were reduced to push-pull coaches, with one underfloor diesel idling to provide heat, light and occasionally air conditioning. It's peculiarly ironic that the GP-7s worked out their last few years hauling de-motored RDCs on the commuter services the RDCs had displaced them from 20 years previously.
The MBTA applied various new purple-themed paint schemes to the RDCs as they went through the shops, and finally eliminated decrepit ex-NH power and units leased from the B&M and D&H by buying its own F-40PHs and rebuilt F-units. Some RDCs were used as cab and steam generator cars with ex-NH coaches in this era. More RDCs were rebuilt by M-K in Boise to coaches with the radiator blisters removed (Boise Budds). Alas, modifications to the suspension made them noiser and rougher-riding than originally. All were disposed of as the MBTA expanded its builty-new coach fleet.
Guilford Transportation Industries/Pan Am Railways (1981 - present)
Once in a while I feel nostalgic for the pre-strike days, when B&M, MEC and D&H power mixed on the Freight Main Line (Bangor - Binghampton). Then I think of all the traffic and opportunities lost, of seeing trains sit a day or more on the main track waiting for crews and the long battle with Amtrak and the State of Maine over Boston - Portland passenger trains, and the feeling passes. I'll leave the rest of the story (and modeling it) for others.
The B&M in (Relatively Recent) Print
This is a start, and mostly reflects books that I myself have. Eventually, as I get information on other sources I will expand it. I've found useful B&M content in all of them, though some cover other railroads as well. The order is roughly chronological.
Books Whose Primary Subject is the B&M
Boston & Maine Steam Vol. 1 Class P-3, P-4 and P-5 Pacifics by Liljestrand & Sweetland (B&W, softcover, Bob's Photo 2008)
Trackside along the Boston & Maine with Donald G. Hills by Carl Byron (hardcover, Morning Sun 2005)
Passenger Cars of New England Vol. 1 - Boston & Maine by R. A. Liljestrand (B&W, softcover, The Railroad Press 2000)
Equipment of the Boston & Maine Vol. 1 Diesel Switchers and Road Switchers by Liljestrand & Sweetland (B&W, softcover, Bob's Photo)
Equipment of the Boston & Maine Vol. 3 Gas/Diesel Railcars, Talgo & Electric Locomotives by Liljestrand & Sweetland (B&W, softcover, Bob's Photo)
Equipment of the Boston & Maine Vol. 2 Diesel Cab Units by Liljestrand & Sweetland (B&W, softcover, Bob's Photo)
Railroad Cities: Concord, New Hampshire by Liljestrand & Sweetland (B&W, softcover, Bob's Photo)
The Boston and Maine - Forest, River & Mountain by Robert W. Jones (hardcover, Pine Tree Press 2000) The Boston and Maine - City & Shore by Robert W. Jones (hardcover, Pine Tree Press 1999) Boston and Maine Trackside by Carl Byron with Arthur Mitchell (Morning Sun 1999)
B&M Cabooses - A History of Devlopment & Use 1914 - 1955 by Tim Gilbert (B&W, Salisbury Point Railroad Historical Society 1999).
The Boston and Maine - Three Colorful Decades of New England Railroading by Robert W. Jones (hardcover, Trans-Anglo 1991) Boston and Maine in Color by Plant & Plant (Morning Sun 1997) The Boston and Maine by Philip Hastings (B&W, hardcover, Locomotive and Railway Preservation Society 1989) Minuteman Steam by Harry Frye (B&W, hard and soft cover, B&MRRHS 1983) Memories of the Boston & Maine by Henry Maywald (color, softcover, N.J. International circa 1980) The Route of the Minuteman by Nelligan & Hartley (B&W, softcover, Quadrant Press 1980) ISBN 0-915276-26-7 Railroad Stations of New England Today, Vol. 1: The Boston and Maine Railroad by Beauregard (B&W, softcover, RR Ave. Enterprises 1980) Vanishing Markers by Ralph E. Fisher (B&W hardcover, Stephen Green Press 1976) The Central Massachusetts B&MRRHS (B&W, B&MRRHS 1975, reprinted with revisions 2008) Through Covered Bridges to Concord by Edgar T. Mead (B&W, softcover, Stephen Green Press 1970) The Up-Country Line by Edgar T. Mead (B&W, Stephen Green Press 197?)
Other Books With Worthwhile B&M Information
Trackside around New Hampshire with Ben English Jr. by George Melvin (hardcover, Morning Sun 2009) Trackside in search of Northern New England Steam with John T. Morrison by John R. Canfield (hardcover, Morning Sun 2006) Trackside around Massachusetts with Russ Monroe by Jeremy Plant (hardcover, Morning Sun 2004) Passenger Trains of Northern New England in the Streamline Era by Kevin Holland (hardcover, TLC 2004)
Railroad Cities - Springfield, MA by R. A. Liljestrand and D. Sweetland (B&W, softcover, 2000)
Railroad Cities - Worcester, MA by R. A. Liljestrand and D. Sweetland (B&W, softcover, 2001)
Railway Milk Cars Vol. 2 by R. A. Liljestrand and J. Nehrich (B&W, softcover)
Maine Central In Color, Vol. 2 by Plant and Melvin (hardcover, Morning Sun 1999) Trackside East of the Hudson 1941 - 1953 by McChesney and Plant (hardcover, Morning Sun 1998) The Northern New England Color Guide to Freight and Passenger Equipment by Sweetland and Horsley (hardcover, Morning Sun 1994) Green Mountain Rails by Robert W. Jones (hardcover, Pine Tree Press 1994) Connecticut River Railroads and Connections 10 volumes, written and published by R.W. Nimke (B&W, 1991 - 1995) New England Rail Album written and published by George Phelps (B&W, softcover 1990) New England Rails 1948 - 1968 by David Sweetland (hardcover, Morning Sun 1989) Before Guilford by Preston Cook (hardcover, Old Line Graphics 1988) Moguls, Mountains and Memories B&MRRHS (B&W, softcover, B&MRRHS 1981) The Railroad That Came Out at Night by Frank Kyper (B&W softcover, Carstens Publications 1977, 1990) New England Diesels by D. Albert and G. Melvin (B&W, George R. Cockle and Assoc. 1975)
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Boston and Lowell Railroad
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_and_Lowell_Railroad
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Former railroad in Massachusetts, United States
Boston and Lowell RailroadOverviewLocaleBoston to Lowell, Massachusetts and beyond into New Hampshire and VermontDates of operation1835–1887SuccessorBoston and Maine RailroadTechnicalTrack gauge4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge
The Boston and Lowell Railroad was a railroad that operated in Massachusetts in the United States. It was one of the first railroads in North America and the first major one in the state. The line later operated as part of the Boston and Maine Railroad's Southern Division.
The Boston and Lowell Railroad was preceded by the Middlesex Canal. Converting the canal to a railroad would eliminate the issue of transportation being unavailable during the winter, when the canal froze. Patrick Tracy Jackson led the task of convincing the state legislature to fund the project. This proved difficult, as the investors of the Middlesex Canal were against building a new form of transportation designed to replace their canal.[1]
Because, prior to 1872, there was no provision in Massachusetts state law for chartering railroads, all had to be chartered by special acts of legislature. This made it slow and inefficient to charter a railroad because the politicians had to agree; the issue would become partisan. This also meant that the legislature would not let the investors build the line unless they could show it was completely necessary.
The investors were successful because they convinced the legislature that the canal was inherently incapable of providing what they needed: reliable, year-round freight transport. Investors in the Boston and Lowell Railroad received a charter on June 5, 1830, with no provision for reparations to the Middlesex Canal's investors. It was a favorable charter because in addition to the right to build and operate a railroad between Lowell and Boston, it gave a thirty-year monopoly on the right to have a railroad there. The people along the road and in terminal-end cities bought large amounts of stock, financing half the company.
The Board of Directors of the Boston and Lowell Railroad, armed with a charter, now had the task of surveying and building the line. They brought in James Fowle Baldwin, son of Col. Loammi Baldwin, who had engineered the Middlesex Canal, to do the surveying, and charged him with finding a gently sloped path from Lowell to Boston, with few grade crossings and well away from town centers. This latter point ended up being quite inconvenient later on. No one had any idea of the future possibility of railroads acting as public transportation, or if they did they were not paid any attention by the builders or financiers of the road.
The right-of-way that Baldwin surveyed did well in each of these characteristics. The path sloped up at a gentle ten feet per mile at the maximum, and there were only three grade crossings over the entire 26-mile (42 km) distance. The path was close to the older Middlesex Canal path, but was straighter - as boats can turn more sharply than trains. To achieve this superior linearity, it needed small amounts of grade elevation in places. The route ignored Medford center entirely, going through West Medford instead, and totally bypassed Woburn and Billerica. This would have to be corrected later with various spurs (the one to Medford being built off the Boston and Maine Railroad), but were always sources of annoyance to both riders and operators.
The proposed route was accepted by the Board of Directors of the Boston and Lowell Railroad, and work began on the building phase. The road was begun from both ends at once, and some sources say that they both started on the right hand side of the right-of-way, missing in the middle and having to put in an embarrassing reverse curve to tide them over until they built the other side. Yankee and Irish laborers were hired to construct the railroad, which was made especially difficult and because the Directors wanted to make the road using the best techniques then known. This, for them, meant laying imported British iron rails with a 4-foot-deep (1.2 m) wall of granite under each rail. They did this because it was commonly believed that the train would sink into the ground if the rails did not have strong support.[citation needed]
The first track was completed in 1835, and freight service began immediately. On May 27, 1835, it made its maiden trip to Boston, with Patrick Tracy Jackson, George Washington Whistler, and James Baldwin aboard.[2] The solid granite roadbed proved to be much too rigid, jolting the engine and cars nearly to pieces. Repairs on the locomotives (there were two at the time) would sometimes take most of the night, trying to get them ready for the next day's service. The much poorer Boston and Worcester Railroad could not afford a granite bed and so was built with modern wooden ties. This turned out to be far superior, so the owners of the Boston and Lowell decided they would upgrade their entire roadbed to wood when they added a second track.
The original Boston terminal was at the north corner of Causeway Street and Andover Street (halfway between Portland and Friend streets), at the westernmost edge of the current North Station. The bridge over the Charles River to access it was the first movable railroad bridge in the United States. [1] The original Lowell terminal was at the south corner of Merrimack Street and Dutton Street.
The quantity of freight traffic on the Boston and Lowell Railroad was large from the start (as was expected) with Lowell's textile companies bringing in raw materials and sending out finished goods. The high level of passenger traffic, however, was not anticipated.[3]: 92 Trains traveled on unwelded rails which were laid on a granite roadbed, which made for an extremely bumpy ride. The railroad switched to wooden ties.[3]: 84
The Boston and Lowell was faced with a new problem; it had a reputation for speed which made it very popular and highly competitive with stagecoaches. Many people wanted to go not only from Lowell to Boston but to places in between. The Boston and Lowell ordered another locomotive and cars for local passenger rail in 1842, and had them make six stops along the route. Passenger rail proved to be almost as profitable as freight.[4]
The first locomotives on the B&L were copies of the successful Planet class 2-2-0 built locally in Lowell.[5]
Another railroad was chartered in the early 1840s whose fortunes would be closely tied to those of the Boston and Lowell. This was the Boston and Maine Railroad. This railroad ran down from Portland, Maine, through a bit of southern New Hampshire, to Haverhill in northeastern Massachusetts, connected to the Boston and Lowell in Wilmington, and then used Boston and Lowell track to Boston. This route was conceptualized in 1834, but took a long time to be built, mostly because, unlike the Boston and Lowell, it did not have a secure base of funding like the Lowell textile companies. It took two years to get to Andover, another year to get to Haverhill, three more to get to Exeter, New Hampshire, and did not get to Portland until 1852.
This extra traffic on the Boston and Lowell Railroad, especially with the line still over granite, provided the extra impetus to double track and upgrade. In 1838, the B&L began two years of extensive track improvements, first laying a second track on wood, and with that one built, going back and re-laying the old track on the more forgiving wood as well. Boston and Lowell traffic continued to increase, and even with double tracks the schedule became tight enough that the Boston and Maine trains, as renters, began to be pushed around to annoying hours, often having to wait over an hour in Wilmington before being allowed to proceed on to Boston.
The B&M soon tired of what they perceived as selfishness and decided to build its own track to Boston from Haverhill so that it would not have to rely on the B&L. The B&L tried to fight the B&M in court but failed because the monopoly granted in its charter was only good for traffic between Boston and Lowell. The shortcut, part of today's Haverhill/Reading Line, was started in 1844 and was in use by 1848. While the B&M was building it, they were still running their trains to Boston on the B&L. This made for a lot of conflict, with the B&L trying to squeeze every last penny out of the B&M before it lost the opportunity. The B&M tried to deal with this in court, and got the judge to forbid the B&L from raising rates until the case was done, but by the time they were close to an agreement, the bypass was complete.
With B&M business gone, the B&L realized how much they had been relying upon their renters. Additionally, the Lowell mills began to decline somewhat and there was less freight traffic for the line to move. Over the next four decades, the B&L declined until the more successful B&M leased it on April 1, 1887.
The B&L built or leased many branches to serve areas not on its original line. Immediately before its lease by the B&M in 1887, it had five divisions—the Southern Division (including the original line), the Northern Division, the White Mountains Division, the Vermont Division, and the Passumpsic Division. Additionally, it leased the Central Massachusetts Railroad in 1886.
The main part of the Southern Division was the mainline between Boston and Lowell.
Charlestown
The Charlestown Branch Railroad was not itself taken over by the B&L, but as originally built in 1840 it was a short spur from the B&L to wharves in Charlestown. In 1845 the Fitchburg Railroad leased it and incorporated it into their main line.
Mystic River
The Mystic River Branch served the Mystic River waterfront on the north side of Charlestown.
Woburn Loop
The Woburn Branch Railroad (aka the Woburn Loop) opened in 1844, connecting Woburn to the main line towards Boston. The Horn Pond Branch Railroad was a short freight-only branch off the Woburn Branch to ice houses on Horn Pond. The northern loop, built in 1885, continued the line back north to the main line at North Woburn Jct. in South Wilmington. The Horn Pond branch line was abandoned in 1911, the northern loop in 1961, and the original line in 1982.
Stoneham
The Stoneham Branch Railroad was built in 1862 to connect to Stoneham.
Lowell and Lawrence
The Lowell and Lawrence Railroad was chartered in 1846 to build a line between Lowell and Lawrence, which opened in 1848. In 1858 the B&L leased the line.
Salem and Lowell
The Salem and Lowell Railroad was chartered in 1848 as a branch from the Lowell and Lawrence at Tewksbury Junction to the Essex Railroad at Peabody, along which it used trackage rights to Salem. The line was opened in 1850 and operated by the Lowell and Lawrence until 1858, when the B&L leased it along with the Lowell and Lawrence.
Wilmington (Wildcat) Branch
The Wilmington Branch, now known as the Wildcat Branch, was built just west of the original Boston and Maine Railroad alignment to connect the main line at Wilmington to the Salem and Lowell at Wilmington Junction, providing a shorter route between Boston and Lawrence.
Lexington and Arlington (Middlesex Central Railroad)
The Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad was chartered in 1845 and opened in 1846, connecting the Fitchburg Railroad at West Cambridge to Lexington, although the "West Cambridge" in the name referred to what is now the town of Arlington. It was operated by the Fitchburg from opening, and leased to the Fitchburg from 1847 to 1859. The line was reorganized as the Lexington and Arlington Railroad in 1868, following the renaming of Arlington. The B&L bought the line in 1870 and built a new connection to their main line at Somerville Junction.
The Middlesex Central Railroad was chartered in 1872 and opened in 1873, extending the line from Lexington to Concord. It was leased from completion to the B&L. An extension west to the Nashua, Acton and Boston Railroad at Middlesex Junction was built in 1879.[6]
Billerica and Bedford
The Billerica and Bedford Railroad was built in 1877 as a narrow gauge line between the Middlesex Central at Bedford and the B&L at North Billerica. It was sold and abandoned in 1878, and the rails were taken to Maine for the Sandy River Railroad. A new standard gauge branch was built by the B&L in 1885, mostly on the same right-of-way.[6]
Lowell and Nashua
The Lowell and Nashua Railroad was chartered in 1836 as an extension of the B&L from Lowell north to the New Hampshire state line. The Nashua and Lowell Railroad, chartered in 1835, would continue the line in New Hampshire to Nashua. The two companies merged in 1838 to form a new Nashua and Lowell Railroad, and the road opened later that year. In 1857 the B&L and N&L agreed to operate as one company from 1860, and in 1880 the B&L leased the N&L.
Stony Brook
The Stony Brook Railroad was chartered in 1845 and opened in 1848, connecting the Nashua and Lowell at North Chelmsford with Ayer. The N&L leased the Stony Brook in 1848.
Nashua to Keene
The Wilton Railroad was chartered in 1844. It opened a line from Nashua west to Danforth's Corner in 1848, to Milford in 1850 and to East Wilton in 1851. Since completion it was operated by the N&L.
The Peterborough Railroad was chartered in 1866 to continue the Wilton Railroad northwest to Greenfield, New Hampshire. In 1873 the N&L leased it; the road opened in 1874.
The Manchester and Keene Railroad was chartered in 1864 and opened in 1878, continuing the Peterborough Railroad west from Greenfield to the Connecticut River Railroad in Keene. In 1880 the company went bankrupt, and it was operated by the Connecticut River Railroad until 1882, when it was bought half-and-half by the B&L and the Concord Railroad.
Central Massachusetts Railroad
The Massachusetts Central Railroad was chartered in 1869 to build a line east–west across the middle of the state, between the Boston and Albany Railroad and the Fitchburg Railroad. The first section opened in 1881, splitting from the B&L's Lexington and Arlington Branch at North Cambridge Junction, and the company was reorganized as the Central Massachusetts Railroad in 1883. The B&L leased the line in 1886, a year before the B&M leased the B&L.
Northern Division
The Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad was chartered in 1844, and opened in stages from 1848 to 1853, eventually running from Concord to Woodsville, New Hampshire. That railroad, along with its branches, became part of the B&L Northern Division in 1884, when the B&L leased the BC&M.
The Northern Railroad was also chartered in 1844, opening in 1847 from Concord to Lebanon, New Hampshire, and later extending to White River Junction, Vermont. The B&L leased it in 1884 as another part of its Northern Division.
The only connection between the Southern and Northern divisions was at Hancock Junction, where the Manchester and Keene Railroad (Southern) and Peterborough and Hillsborough Railroad (Northern) met.
In 1889 the BC&M merged with the Concord Railroad to form the Concord and Montreal Railroad, taking it out of B&M control until 1895, when the B&M leased the C&M.
White Mountains Division
The White Mountains Railroad was chartered in 1848 and opened a line from Woodsville to Littleton, New Hampshire, in 1853. Along with extensions and branches, it was leased to the Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad in 1859 and consolidated into it in 1872, becoming its White Mountains Division. In 1884 the B&L leased the BC&M and the old White Mountains Railroad became the B&L's White Mountains Division.
The Northern and White Mountains Divisions were connected at Woodsville.
Vermont Division
The Essex County Railroad (chartered 1864), Montpelier and St. Johnsbury Railroad (chartered 1866) and Lamoille Valley Railroad (chartered 1867) were consolidated into the Portland and Ogdensburg Railroad in 1875 as their Vermont Division. The line was finished in 1877, and in 1880 it was reorganized as the St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad, which was taken over by the B&L as their Vermont Division. The line did not stay in the B&M system, and the easternmost part was leased to the Maine Central Railroad in 1912.
The White Mountains and Vermont Divisions were connected at Scott's Mills, New Hampshire.
Passumpsic Division
The Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad was organized in 1846 and opened a line from White River Junction on the Northern Railroad to the border with Quebec, Canada, in 1867, junctioning the Northern and White Mountains Divisions at Wells River and the Vermont Division at St. Johnsbury. The Massawippi Valley Railway, leased in 1870, continued to Sherbrooke, Quebec, where it junctioned the Grand Trunk Railway among others. The B&L leased the line on January 1, 1887, three months before the B&M acquired the B&L.
Over the next 70 years or so, things were reasonably stable and constant for the Lowell Line as a part of the B&M's Southern Division. Passenger train round trips per day hovered in the low 20s, and while freight from Lowell itself did not last too long, the Lowell line got some traffic from railroads that connected from the west.
In the early 20th century, the economics of railroading began to change. With the advent of the internal combustion engine, trains slowly began to lose their advantage as a transportation option. Automobiles and trucks began to increase in popularity as highways improved, siphoning ridership and freight traffic off railroads. The advent of the Interstate Highway System tipped the economic balance by increasing mobility as factories and offices were now able to be located further away from the fixed routes of the railroads. The decline in both passenger and freight traffic occurred at a point when the B&M, like most other railroads, had just switched over to diesel locomotives, meaning that they had large debts. The pressure from the debts and the large infrastructure costs associated with operating a disparate passenger and freight network amongst declining traffic forced the B&M to cut costs. The most noticeable effect to the general public was the reductions in passenger operation. In the late 1950s, the B&M began to eliminate routes and substituted Multi-Unit diesel-powered passenger cars on many of its routes. The effort did not succeed, as the B&M was bankrupt by 1976.
As its fortunes declined, the B&M shed its passenger operation in 1973 by selling the assets to the MBTA. The new state agency bought the Lowell line, along with the Haverhill and all other commuter operations in the Greater Boston area. Along with the sale, the B&M contracted to run the passenger service on the Lowell line for the MBTA. After bankruptcy, the B&M continued to run and fulfill its commuter rail contract under the protection of the Federal Bankruptcy Court, in the hopes that a reorganization could make it profitable again. It emerged from the court's protection when newly formed Guilford Transportation Industries (GTI) bought it in 1983.
When GTI bought the B&M, commuter rail service was in jeopardy. The MBTA had owned the trains and the tracks since 1973, but it had outsourced the operation to the B&M. When GTI bought the B&M in 1983, it had to honor the B&M contract, but GTI management was very much against passenger rail, and, in 1986, as soon as the contract expired, they let the job go to Amtrak.
From 1986 until 2003, Amtrak managed the entirety of Boston's commuter rail. It did decently, though at times had strained relations with the MBTA. Quibbles centered on equipment failures, numbers of conductors per train, and who took responsibility when trains are late. Because of these bad relations and Amtrak's repeated announcements that the contract was unreasonable, few people were surprised at Amtrak's decision not to bid again for the commuter rail contract when it came up for renewal in 2003.
When the MBTA asked for new bids on the commuter rail operation contract, Amtrak did not bid, but Guilford and the Massachusetts Bay Commuter Railroad Company did. The MBCR ended up getting the contract and began operating the commuter rail in July 2004.
Guilford's main line between Mattawamkeag, Maine, and Mechanicville, New York, now uses the Stony Brook Branch and the old main line north of Lowell. At Lowell, it shifts to the B&M's original Lowell Branch to get to the B&M main line towards Maine.
During the years since B&M's bankruptcy, highway congestion has increased significantly, resulting in growing demand for passenger and freight options. During this time frame, the MBTA has been slowly investing in some infrastructure changes in its rail operations. In 1995, a new North Station was opened. In 2001, it opened the Anderson Regional Transportation Center on the Boston & Lowell to centralize ridership and provide a superstation with convenient access to Interstates 93 and 95 (Route 128). In southern Maine, frustration with bus service drove the state to explore restarting passenger service, resulting in contracting with Amtrak to operate the Downeaster, which runs from North Station to Haverhill and up to Portland. Due to scheduling conflicts with the MBTA, the Downeaster runs up the Lowell Line to Wilmington and then out the old B&M Wildcat Branch to the Haverhill/Reading Line. This route allows the Downeaster to pass a commuter train on the Haverhill/Reading Line without schedule conflicts. The route is also historically significant because it is the same route that the original B&M used to Portland.
Milepost City Station Opened Closed Notes 0.0 Boston North Station 1893 Replaced original terminal on Nashua Street. 0.8 Boston Engine Terminal A flag stop for railroad employees only 0.5 Cambridge East Cambridge By 1846[7] By 1865 Original location at Prison Point Bridge 0.9 By 1865 1927 Closed when North Station approaches were realigned 1.8 Somerville Prospect Hill 1840s 1927 Originally Milk Row; closed when North Station approaches were realigned 2.4 Winter Hill January 1, 1863[8] February 19, 1937[9] 2.8 Somerville Junction By 1850 c. 1946 Formerly Somerville and Taylor's Ledge.[10] Junction with Lexington Branch and Central Massachusetts Branch. 3.6 North Somerville By 1850 May 18, 1958 Formerly Willows Bridge 4.0 Medford Tufts University By 1850
September 15, 1977
May 18, 1958
October 1979
Formerly Stearns Steps, College Hill, and Tufts College 4.6 Medford Hillside By 1850 May 18, 1958 Formerly Medford Steps 5.5 West Medford By 1838 Originally Medford Gates 5.9 Gorham Brooks' By 1846 Early flag stop for Woburn Branch trains[7] 7.3 Winchester Wedgemere By 1850 Previously called Mystic, Bacons Bridge, and Symmes Bridge 7.8 Winchester Center Junction with Woburn Branch. Originally South Woburn. 9.0 Winchester Highlands 1877 June 1978 Originally Winchester Heights 9.8 Woburn Montvale January 1, 1942 Junction with Stoneham Branch; originally East Woburn. 10.5 Walnut Hill January 17, 1965 Originally Woburn and Water Place 10.9 Lechmere Warehouse 1979 1996 11.6 Mishawum September 24, 1984 Originally North Woburn 12.7 Anderson/Woburn April 28, 2001 Former station was South Wilmington 13.9 Wilmington North Woburn Junction Junction with Woburn Loop (never a station) 15.2 Wilmington c. 1836 Junction with Wildcat Branch 17.0 Silver Lake June 27, 1965 19.2 Billerica East Billerica June 27, 1965 Originally Billerica & Tewksbury 21.8 North Billerica Junction with Billerica and Bedford Branch. Originally Billerica Mills. 23.3 Lowell South Lowell 1932[11][12] 24.6 Bleachery June 14, 1959[13] Junction with Lowell and Lawrence Railroad, Lowell Branch (B&M), and Framingham and Lowell Railroad (NYNH&H) 25.3 Lowell Junction with Nashua and Lowell Railroad; formerly called Middlesex Street 26.0 Merrimack Street 1905
Wall & Gray. 1871 Atlas of Massachusetts. Map of Massachusetts. USA. New England. Counties - Berkshire, Franklin, Hampshire and Hampden, Worcester, Middlesex, Essex and Norfolk, Boston - Suffolk,Plymouth, Bristol, Barnstable and Dukes (Cape Cod). Cities - Springfield, Worcester, Lowell, Lawrence, Haverhill, Newburyport, Salem, Lynn, Taunton, Fall River. New Bedford. These 1871 maps of the Counties and Cities are useful to see the extent and names of the rail lines.
Beers, D.G. 1872 Atlas of Essex County Map of Massachusetts Plate 5. Click on the map for a very large image. This map and the 1871 map of Middlesex County shows the original Boston and Lowell Railroad route through Billerica, Wilmington, Woburn, Winchester, and Medford. It also show the slightly later competing track of the Boston and Maine Railroad through Andover, Reading, Wakefield, Melrose, and Malden. The Wildcat Branch connector in Wilmington is shown in the 1872 maps but not the 1871 map. Also see detailed map of 1872 Essex County Plate 7.
Changes to Transit Service in the MBTA district (PDF)
Railroad History Database
1886 Boston and Lowell Railroad Map
Railways portal
MBTA - The Lowell Line
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Why is the Fitchburg Line Commuter Rail so slow between Porter and North Station?
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North Station in Boston, Massachusetts and Porter in Cambridge, Massachusetts are two adjacent stations on the Fitchburg Line, a commuter rail line extending northwest from Boston.
The two stations...
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Travel Stack Exchange
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https://travel.stackexchange.com/questions/180930/why-is-the-fitchburg-line-commuter-rail-so-slow-between-porter-and-north-station
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Speaking from first-hand experience, the train often goes slower than this speed on sections of this track, going at a crawling pace.
It's quite frustrating being so close to the destination and moving so slowly. Why does the train move so slowly here?
Most of the line is straight, but the last mile is absolutely bonkers.
Entailing a bunch of tight curves where they pushed tracks around to fit a bunch of storage tracks next to the Boston Engine Terminal (maintenance yard).
Then a junction with the Rockport, Newburyport, Haverhill and Lowell lines. Crossovers galore, as 13 tracks neck down to four for the ...
... Bascule drawbridge over the Charles River. And immediately into
the fan-out at the station proper. This isn't even a proper yard throat; there just isn't space for that. Look at the south side of the bridge, there isn't even a crossover there, so each of the two drawbridges serves half the terminal, and trains either enter or exit on the "wrong side". If they lose a bridge they lose half their tracks. Really, the bulk of what could be laughably called a "yard throat" is on the north side of the drawbridge. The single ladder track used by your line is obscured under the US-1 bridge. Fortunately the other lines have another half mile to get sorted, but wow. That is a lot of track work in not a lot of space.
And to answer your question about "why so slow", all the switches are #8 (15 MPH) - they don't have the physical space for #20 (40 MPH) crossovers. And with the yard throat so spread out because of the drawbridge, yeah, you're going most of a mile *with some part of your train" on top of a 10-15 MPH switch.
Also, all these switches are signaled, which means a dispatcher has to talk to the train and work controls to get the track switches thrown over and the proper signal given. When they're at walking speed, they're crawling up on a red signal waiting for the switch to throw and get their green.
Hell of a place to put a train station.
So yeah, I know it's fashionable in Boston to paint the MBTA like a bunch of klutzes that can't punch their way out of a paper bag, but I can't honestly say Metra, Caltrain or GO/Toronto would do much better with those constraints. And really, yards like Chicago Union Station aren't fantastically better. The only people who really have it dialed in is Philadelphia - imagine the moment you reach the bridge you pick up speed and make normal stops again - North Station, City Hall, South Station and onward to Kingston, because most inbound lines run through to become outbound lines, dispensing with terminal nonsense. That's Philly.
And that bridge is a bottleneck, but mainly because there are 4 tracks not 8. (Because there was, but somebody really wanted a few grand of scrap steel).
However, this trip takes 15 minutes inbound to Boston and 10 minutes outbound to Boston.
That's a different thing. That's called "padding". Think about how train schedules work. If the train publishes a schedule, it can't leave the station early or it will leave people behind. However, that doesn't apply at the last station; they can certainly arrive early there, so that's the only place you can "pad" the schedule. By calling it 15 minutes instead of 10, that means if they are up to 5 minutes late, that counts as "not late".
Is it honest? Well, I don't know. What if they are on time but are delayed 4 minutes in the congested yard throat by late trains from Haverhill and Newburyport. Is it the crew's fault? No.
There are probably a few factors.
Track design
The trains and most of the tracks are designed for an operational speed of 60m/h. However that's less the case in the densely populated cities. The tracks are old, have lots of switches close the main stations, frequent crossing with other traffic etc. It's not just North Stations: all trains in and out of South station are also excruciating slow close to the station.
North Station seems to be particularly bad not just for trains but for the subway as well. The green line crosses the river on the museum's bridge. There is an actual stop sign when it goes underground again at North Station, the posted speed limit is 3m/h (yes, that's THREE) and it's famous for it's screeching noise when going through the right turns at this spot.
Intentional mismanagement
A few years ago the Boston MBTA had the worst on-time record of all commuter rail systems in the US (which is already a low bar). At the time the governor yelled at them to fix it (threating reduced funding). Instead of improving the operational efficiency, they simply padded the schedules and increased the nominal ravel time. For example, the express lines from Worcester have a fairly long stretch without any stops (West Natick to Landsdowne). In normal conditions it's hard for them to go as slow as the schedule is planned so they have to stop somewhere in the middle to run down the clock. The choice of location appears to be up the engineer. On the inbound it's often the golf course in Weston and on the outbound it's Lake Cochichuate, both being the most scenic spots on the route.
Boston has outsourced the management of the Commuter Rail to French company called Keolis. Keolis has performed poorly and in 2017 the state decided to not renew their contract which even more lowered Keolis' motivation. Spooked by the pandemic, the state reversed that decision in 2020, so Keolis is sill mismanaging the trains.
The sheet amount of incompetence and not caring at all is hard to understate. A simple example: in Framingham the trains often arrive in the "wrong" track and there is no signage or indication for it. If you are waiting on the inbound side for an inbound train that happens to randomly arrive on the outbound side, you will miss the train. It takes a while to get to the other side and they won't wait. As a result, most people have taken to waiting ON THE BRIDGE that crosses the platforms as it's the midpoint between the two possible embarkation spots. It's still a mad scramble but at least you have a good chance of making it. Unless, of course, you are elderly, injured, disabled, have luggage, or have slightly limited mobility, in which case you are sheer out of luck,
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< HOLDEN HISTORY
A Brief on Railroads in Holden
In 1869, the Boston, Barre and Gardner Railroad (BB&G) commenced construction of a railroad from Worcester (at Barber), through Holden, to Gardner. This 26-mile line, which cost 1.2 million dollars to build, opened in 1871. It was extended 10 miles to Winchendon in January, 1874 and later that same year the company leased the Monadnock Railroad north another 16 miles to Peterborough, New Hampshire. The BB&G thus attained a total length of 52 miles.
Beset by financial reversals, the Monadnock lease was surrendered to the Cheshire Railroad in 1880. The BB&G was leased itself to the Fitchburg Railroad in 1884. The following year it was merged into the Fitchburg and became that road's Worcester Division. In 1900 the Fitchburg was leased and soon thereafter merged into the Boston & Maine Railroad (B&M), becoming the B&M's Fitchburg Division. As a part of the B&M system's Fitchburg Division the line through Holden was referred to at different times by various names including the Worcester & Contoocook (N.H.) Branch, the Worcester & Hillsboro (N.H.) Branch, the Peterboro (N.H.) Branch, and finally after the line was severed north o f Gardner, as the Worcester Branch of the Fitchburg Division. At Worcester, the line joined the B&M Portland Division's "Worcester Main Line" at Barber.
The original 52-mile BB&G line through Holden remained under B&M control for 73 years. In 1974, the line was bought by the Providence and Worcester Railroad (P&W). The last B&M freight left Holden for Worcester in January 1974 and the P&W operated its first train over the line on February 2, 1974.
At various times, passenger stops existed at Chaffins, Dawson, Holden, Jefferson, and at North Woods. Holden and Jefferson were small country depots, while the others were flag stops with small shelters. Only two station structures remain: the Holden depot in its original location and the Jefferson depot which was moved in 1975 to a site next to the Wong Dynasty Chinese Restaurant on Reservoir Street.
In 1878 there were four round trip passenger trains between Worcester and Winchendon. This increased to six round trips at the turn of the century. Under B&M ownership, the old BB&G line became part of a rather unlikely through passenger route from Worcester to Concord, NH. This service ended after the floods of 1936 severed the line north of Peterboro. However, a round trip passenger local from Worcester to Peterboro would survive another 17 years, handling passengers and mail. In its last years, it acquired a certain degree of fame and became known as the "Peterboro Local" or the "Blueberry Special." By the early 1950s the B&M was hemorrhaging financially from passenger train losses and was given permission to discontinue this train. It made its last run, with extra coaches and much fanfare, on March 7, 1953. It had remained a steam train with an ancient wooden combine and one coach almost to the very end, at which time steam power had been taken off and a diesel locomotive substituted.
In the late 19th century, traffic was mostly milk and ice. Ice originated at many ice-houses on the ponds along the route. In winter, the first passenger train north would stop at each of these ice-houses to let off the ice harvesting crews. In summer, long strings of box cars would be lined up on the ice-house sidings. They were loaded with ice and dispatched daily to Worcester, Boston, Providence and other cities for next day delivery by horse-drawn wagon. This business declined rapidly with the advent of modern refrigeration.
B&M operated through symbol freights Worcester to Mechanicville, NY (WM-1), and Mechanicville, NY, to Worcester (WM-2), as well as a local freight that switched customers between Worcester and Gardner. The through freights between Worcester and Mechanicville, NY, operated until about 1968. WM-1 would arrive punctually in Holden at 7:30 every evening, switch the small yard, and then depart for Gardner and points west. The eastbound WM-2 passed through in the small hours of the night. The local switcher out of Worcester worked during the day. By the end of B&M control, through service on the line had been discontinued and the Worcester switcher ventured out the line only to service customers as needed.
The line underwent a dramatic renaissance when the P&W commenced operations in 1974. The P&W rehabilitated the line and operates through freights from Providence, RI, and other southern New England points to Gardner, where traffic is interchanged with the B&M. Currently (2005), P&W runs about six trains each way through Holden weekly, hauling coal, lumber, scrap iron, paper goods, plastic resins and other commodities. Currently there are no customers receiving or shipping by rail in Holden.
Twelve years after the BB&G was built, a second railroad line, the Massachusetts Central Railroad, was built into Holden, running roughly east-west across the northern part of town. This railroad, which was chartered to build a line from Stony Brook on the Fitchburg Railroad west to Northampton (distance of 98 miles) opened as far as Jefferson in 1882. The company then encountered financial problems and promptly shut down in May 1883. In November of that year the company reorganized as the Central Massachusetts Railroad.
The directors contracted with the Boston and Lowell Railroad (B&L) to operate the line until final lease arrangements were consummated and operations restarted on September 28, 1885. The line was formally leased to the B&L on December 7, 1886 and construction of the line westward from Jefferson into Rutland and beyond resumed. The line was completed and opened to Northampton in December 1887. Meanwhile, the B&L had been leased for 99 years to the B&M on April 1, 1887, and was later purchased outright by the B&M on February 20, 1902. Thus the Central Massachusetts came to be the B&M Southern Division's Central Massachusetts Branch.
Passenger service began as soon as the line opened. There were four station stops in Holden: Springdale, Canada Mills, Quinapoxet, and Jefferson. Thus, the BB&G and the Central Massachusetts each had their own separate Jefferson Stations. The two lines intersected at a point known as Holden Junction on the Central Massachusetts and Carr Junction on the BB&G. One can still view the old abutments that once carried the Central Massachusetts over the BB&G. Although the two lines were connected at this point, little traffic was ever interchanged here.
The Massachusetts Central/Central Massachusetts Railroad is often cited as a railroad that should never have been built. It was largely a redundant road from the start, located as it was between two dominant east-west roads: the Boston & Albany to the south and Boston & Maine's Fitchburg Division across the northern part of the state. Although there were times when freight and passenger traffic were strong, the road served a very sparsely populated area and it ultimately failed to meet expectations. All service from Oakdale through Holden to Rutland was discontinued June 1, 1938. This turned out to be a prescient decision as the line was seriously compromised later that year by the Hurricane of 1938. On November 7, 1939, track was formally abandoned between Oakdale and Barre Junction, thus breaking the Central Massachusetts into western and eastern parts.
Listen carefully and you will sometimes hear especially in the night train whistles (2 long, 1 short, and a long) at Industrial Drive, Bailey Road, Pleasant Street, Sunnyside Avenue, Quinapoxet Street and Princeton Street. On still nights, one can sometimes hear the whistles for crossings further out the line into Princeton for Brooks Station Road, Ball Hill Road, and Hubbardston Road. Today, while the remaining railroad line through Holden is part of a viable, modern railroad, the locomotive whistles offer an unmistakable sense of historical continuity.
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8. The Market Revolution
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*The American Yawp is an evolving, collaborative text. Please click here to improve this chapter.*
I. Introduction
In the early years of the nineteenth century, Americans’ endless commercial ambition—what one Baltimore paper in 1815 called an “almost universal ambition to get forward”—remade the nation. Between the Revolution and the Civil War, an old subsistence world died and a new more-commercial nation was born. Americans integrated the technologies of the Industrial Revolution into a new commercial economy. Steam power, the technology that moved steamboats and railroads, fueled the rise of American industry by powering mills and sparking new national transportation networks. A “market revolution” remade the nation.
The revolution reverberated across the country. More and more farmers grew crops for profit, not self-sufficiency. Vast factories and cities arose in the North. Enormous fortunes materialized. A new middle class ballooned. And as more men and women worked in the cash economy, they were freed from the bound dependence of servitude. But there were costs to this revolution. As northern textile factories boomed, the demand for southern cotton swelled, and American slavery accelerated. Northern subsistence farmers became laborers bound to the whims of markets and bosses. The market revolution sparked explosive economic growth and new personal wealth, but it also created a growing lower class of property-less workers and a series of devastating depressions, called “panics.” Many Americans labored for low wages and became trapped in endless cycles of poverty. Some workers, often immigrant women, worked thirteen hours a day, six days a week. Others labored in slavery. Massive northern textile mills turned southern cotton into cheap cloth. And although northern states washed their hands of slavery, their factories fueled the demand for slave-grown southern cotton and their banks provided the financing that ensured the profitability and continued existence of the American slave system. And so, as the economy advanced, the market revolution wrenched the United States in new directions as it became a nation of free labor and slavery, of wealth and inequality, and of endless promise and untold perils.
II. Early Republic Economic Development
The growth of the American economy reshaped American life in the decades before the Civil War. Americans increasingly produced goods for sale, not for consumption. Improved transportation enabled a larger exchange network. Labor-saving technology improved efficiency and enabled the separation of the public and domestic spheres. The market revolution fulfilled the revolutionary generation’s expectations of progress but introduced troubling new trends. Class conflict, child labor, accelerated immigration, and the expansion of slavery followed. These strains required new family arrangements and transformed American cities.
American commerce had proceeded haltingly during the eighteenth century. American farmers increasingly exported foodstuffs to Europe as the French Revolutionary Wars devastated the continent between 1793 and 1815. America’s exports rose in value from $20.2 million in 1790 to $108.3 million by 1807. But while exports rose, exorbitant internal transportation costs hindered substantial economic development within the United States. In 1816, for instance, $9 could move one ton of goods across the Atlantic Ocean, but only thirty miles across land. An 1816 Senate Committee Report lamented that “the price of land carriage is too great” to allow the profitable production of American manufactures. But in the wake of the War of 1812, Americans rushed to build a new national infrastructure, new networks of roads, canals, and railroads. In his 1815 annual message to Congress, President James Madison stressed “the great importance of establishing throughout our country the roads and canals which can best be executed under national authority.” State governments continued to sponsor the greatest improvements in American transportation, but the federal government’s annual expenditures on internal improvements climbed to a yearly average of $1,323,000 by Andrew Jackson’s presidency. .
State legislatures meanwhile pumped capital into the economy by chartering banks. The number of state-chartered banks skyrocketed from 1 in 1783, 266 in 1820, and 702 in 1840 to 1,371 in 1860. European capital also helped build American infrastructure. By 1844, one British traveler declared that “the prosperity of America, her railroads, canals, steam navigation, and banks, are the fruit of English capital.”
Economic growth, however, proceeded unevenly. Depressions devastated the economy in 1819, 1837, and 1857. Each followed rampant speculation in various commodities: land in 1819, land and enslaved laborers in 1837, and railroad bonds in 1857. Eventually the bubbles all burst. The spread of paper currency untethered the economy from the physical signifiers of wealth familiar to the colonial generation, namely land. Counterfeit bills were endemic during this early period of banking. With so many fake bills circulating, Americans were constantly on the lookout for the “confidence man” and other deceptive characters in the urban landscape. Con men and women could look like regular honest Americans. Advice literature offered young men and women strategies for avoiding hypocrisy in an attempt to restore the social fiber. Intimacy in the domestic sphere became more important as duplicity proliferated in the public sphere. Fear of the confidence man, counterfeit bills, and a pending bust created anxiety in the new capitalist economy. But Americans refused to blame the logic of their new commercial system for these depressions. Instead, they kept pushing “to get forward.”
The so-called Transportation Revolution opened the vast lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1810, before the rapid explosion of American infrastructure, Margaret Dwight left New Haven, Connecticut, in a wagon headed for Ohio Territory. Her trip was less than five hundred miles but took six weeks to complete. The journey was a terrible ordeal, she said. The roads were “so rocky & so gullied as to be almost impassable.” Ten days into the journey, at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Dwight said “it appeared to me that we had come to the end of the habitable part of the globe.” She finally concluded that “the reason so few are willing to return from the Western country, is not that the country is so good, but because the journey is so bad.” Nineteen years later, in 1829, English traveler Frances Trollope made the reverse journey across the Allegheny Mountains from Cincinnati to the East Coast. At Wheeling, Virginia, her coach encountered the National Road, the first federally funded interstate infrastructure project. The road was smooth and her journey across the Alleghenies was a scenic delight. “I really can hardly conceive a higher enjoyment than a botanical tour among the Alleghany Mountains,” she declared. The ninety miles of the National Road was to her “a garden.”
If the two decades between Margaret Dwight’s and Frances Trollope’s journeys transformed the young nation, the pace of change only accelerated in the following years. If a transportation revolution began with improved road networks, it soon incorporated even greater improvements in the ways people and goods moved across the landscape.
New York State completed the Erie Canal in 1825. The 350-mile-long human-made waterway linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean. Soon crops grown in the Great Lakes region were carried by water to eastern cities, and goods from emerging eastern factories made the reverse journey to midwestern farmers. The success of New York’s “artificial river” launched a canal-building boom. By 1840 Ohio created two navigable, all-water links from Lake Erie to the Ohio River.
Robert Fulton established the first commercial steamboat service up and down the Hudson River in New York in 1807. Soon thereafter steamboats filled the waters of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. Downstream-only routes became watery two-way highways. By 1830, more than two hundred steamboats moved up and down western rivers.
The United States’ first long-distance rail line launched from Maryland in 1827. Baltimore’s city government and the state government of Maryland provided half the start-up funds for the new Baltimore & Ohio (B&O) Rail Road Company. The B&O’s founders imagined the line as a means to funnel the agricultural products of the trans-Appalachian West to an outlet on the Chesapeake Bay. Similar motivations led citizens in Philadelphia, Boston, New York City, and Charleston, South Carolina to launch their own rail lines. State and local governments provided the means for the bulk of this initial wave of railroad construction, but economic collapse following the Panic of 1837 made governments wary of such investments. Government supports continued throughout the century, but decades later the public origins of railroads were all but forgotten, and the railroad corporation became the most visible embodiment of corporate capitalism.
By 1860 Americans had laid more than thirty thousand miles of railroads. The ensuing web of rail, roads, and canals meant that few farmers in the Northeast or Midwest had trouble getting goods to urban markets. Railroad development was slower in the South, but there a combination of rail lines and navigable rivers meant that few cotton planters struggled to transport their products to textile mills in the Northeast and in England.
Such internal improvements not only spread goods, they spread information. The transportation revolution was followed by a communications revolution. The telegraph redefined the limits of human communication. By 1843 Samuel Morse had persuaded Congress to fund a forty-mile telegraph line stretching from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore. Within a few short years, during the Mexican-American War, telegraph lines carried news of battlefield events to eastern newspapers within days. This contrasts starkly with the War of 1812, when the Battle of New Orleans took place nearly two full weeks after Britain and the United States had signed a peace treaty.
The consequences of the transportation and communication revolutions reshaped the lives of Americans. Farmers who previously produced crops mostly for their own family now turned to the market. They earned cash for what they had previously consumed; they purchased the goods they had previously made or gone without. Market-based farmers soon accessed credit through eastern banks, which provided them with the opportunity to expand their enterprise but left also them prone before the risk of catastrophic failure wrought by distant market forces. In the Northeast and Midwest, where farm labor was ever in short supply, ambitious farmers invested in new technologies that promised to increase the productivity of the limited labor supply. The years between 1815 and 1850 witnessed an explosion of patents on agricultural technologies. The most famous of these, perhaps, was Cyrus McCormick’s horse-drawn mechanical reaper, which partially mechanized wheat harvesting, and John Deere’s steel-bladed plow, which more easily allowed for the conversion of unbroken ground into fertile farmland.
Most visibly, the market revolution encouraged the growth of cities and reshaped the lives of urban workers. In 1820, only New York had over one hundred thousand inhabitants. By 1850, six American cities met that threshold, including Chicago, which had been founded fewer than two decades earlier. New technology and infrastructure paved the way for such growth. The Erie Canal captured the bulk of the trade emerging from the Great Lakes region, securing New York City’s position as the nation’s largest and most economically important city. The steamboat turned St. Louis and Cincinnati into centers of trade, and Chicago rose as it became the railroad hub of the western Great Lakes and Great Plains regions. The geographic center of the nation shifted westward. The development of steam power and the exploitation of Pennsylvania coalfields shifted the locus of American manufacturing. By the 1830s, for instance, New England was losing its competitive advantage to the West.
Meanwhile, the cash economy eclipsed the old, local, informal systems of barter and trade. Income became the measure of economic worth. Productivity and efficiencies paled before the measure of income. Cash facilitated new impersonal economic relationships and formalized new means of production. Young workers might simply earn wages, for instance, rather than receiving room and board and training as part of apprenticeships. Moreover, a new form of economic organization appeared: the business corporation.
States offered the privileges of incorporation to protect the fortunes and liabilities of entrepreneurs who invested in early industrial endeavors. A corporate charter allowed investors and directors to avoid personal liability for company debts. The legal status of incorporation had been designed to confer privileges to organizations embarking on expensive projects explicitly designed for the public good, such as universities, municipalities, and major public works projects. The business corporation was something new. Many Americans distrusted these new, impersonal business organizations whose officers lacked personal responsibility while nevertheless carrying legal rights. Many wanted limits. Thomas Jefferson himself wrote in 1816 that “I hope we shall crush in its birth the aristocracy of our monied corporations which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength, and bid defiance to the laws of our country.” But in Dartmouth v. Woodward (1819) the Supreme Court upheld the rights of private corporations when it denied the attempt of the government of New Hampshire to reorganize Dartmouth College on behalf of the common good. Still, suspicions remained. A group of journeymen cordwainers in New Jersey publically declared in 1835 that they “entirely disapprov[ed] of the incorporation of Companies, for carrying on manual mechanical business, inasmuch as we believe their tendency is to eventuate and produce monopolies, thereby crippling the energies of individual enterprise.”
III. The Decline of Northern Slavery and the Rise of the Cotton Kingdom
Slave labor helped fuel the market revolution. By 1832, textile companies made up 88 out of 106 American corporations valued at over $100,000. These textile mills, worked by free labor, nevertheless depended on southern cotton, and the vast new market economy spurred the expansion of the plantation South.
By the early nineteenth century, states north of the Mason-Dixon Line had taken steps to abolish slavery. Vermont included abolition as a provision of its 1777 state constitution. Pennsylvania’s emancipation act of 1780 stipulated that freed children must serve an indenture term of twenty-eight years. Gradualism brought emancipation while also defending the interests of northern enslavers and controlling still another generation of Black Americans. In 1804 New Jersey became the last of the northern states to adopt gradual emancipation plans. There was no immediate moment of jubilee, as many northern states only promised to liberate future children born to enslaved mothers. Such laws also stipulated that such children remain in indentured servitude to their mother’s enslaver in order to compensate the enslaver’s loss. James Mars, a young man indentured under this system in Connecticut, risked being thrown in jail when he protested the arrangement that kept him bound to his mother’s enslaver until age twenty-five.
Quicker routes to freedom included escape or direct emancipation by enslavers. But escape was dangerous and voluntary manumission rare. Congress, for instance, made the harboring of a freedom-seeking enslaved person a federal crime as early as 1793. Hopes for manumission were even slimmer, as few northern enslavers emancipated their own enslaved laborers. Roughly one fifth of the white families in New York City owned enslaved laborers, and fewer than eighty enslavers in the city voluntarily manumitted their enslaved laborers between 1783 and 1800. By 1830, census data suggests that at least 3,500 people were still enslaved in the North. Elderly enslaved people in Connecticut remained in bondage as late as 1848, and in New Jersey slavery endured until after the Civil War.
Emancipation proceeded slowly, but proceeded nonetheless. A free Black population of fewer than 60,000 in 1790 increased to more than 186,000 by 1810. Growing free Black communities fought for their civil rights. In a number of New England locales, free African Americans could vote and send their children to public schools. Most northern states granted Black citizens property rights and trial by jury. African Americans owned land and businesses, founded mutual aid societies, established churches, promoted education, developed print culture, and voted.
Nationally, however, the enslaved population continued to grow, from less than 700,000 in 1790 to more than 1.5 million by 1820. The growth of abolition in the North and the acceleration of slavery in the South created growing divisions. Cotton drove the process more than any other crop. Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, a simple hand-cranked device designed to mechanically remove sticky green seeds from short staple cotton, allowed southern planters to dramatically expand cotton production for the national and international markets. Water-powered textile factories in England and the American Northeast rapidly turned raw cotton into cloth. Technology increased both the supply of and demand for cotton. White southerners responded by expanding cultivation farther west, to the Mississippi River and beyond. Slavery had been growing less profitable in tobacco-planting regions like Virginia, but the growth of cotton farther south and west increased the demand for human bondage. Eager cotton planters invested their new profits in more enslaved laborers.
The cotton boom fueled speculation in slavery. Many enslavers leveraged potential profits into loans used to purchase ever increasing numbers of enslaved laborers. For example, one 1840 Louisiana Courier ad warned, “it is very difficult now to find persons willing to buy slaves from Mississippi or Alabama on account of the fears entertained that such property may be already mortgaged to the banks of the above named states.”
New national and international markets fueled the plantation boom. American cotton exports rose from 150,000 bales in 1815 to 4,541,000 bales in 1859. The Census Bureau’s 1860 Census of Manufactures stated that “the manufacture of cotton constitutes the most striking feature of the industrial history of the last fifty years.” Enslavers shipped their cotton north to textile manufacturers and to northern financers for overseas shipments. Northern insurance brokers and exporters in the Northeast profited greatly.
While the United States ended its legal participation in the global slave trade in 1808, slave traders moved one million enslaved people from the tobacco-producing Upper South to cotton fields in the Lower South between 1790 and 1860. This harrowing trade in human flesh supported middle-class occupations in the North and South: bankers, doctors, lawyers, insurance brokers, and shipping agents all profited. And of course it facilitated the expansion of northeastern textile mills.
IV. Changes in Labor Organization
While industrialization bypassed most of the American South, southern cotton production nevertheless nurtured industrialization in the Northeast and Midwest. The drive to produce cloth transformed the American system of labor. In the early republic, laborers in manufacturing might typically have been expected to work at every stage of production. But a new system, piecework, divided much of production into discrete steps performed by different workers. In this new system, merchants or investors sent or “put out” materials to individuals and families to complete at home. These independent laborers then turned over the partially finished goods to the owner to be given to another laborer to finish.
As early as the 1790s, however, merchants in New England began experimenting with machines to replace the putting-out system. To effect this transition, merchants and factory owners relied on the theft of British technological knowledge to build the machines they needed. In 1789, for instance, a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, contracted twenty-one-year-old British immigrant Samuel Slater to build a yarn-spinning machine and then a carding machine. Slater had apprenticed in an English mill and succeeded in mimicking the English machinery. The fruits of American industrial espionage peaked in 1813 when Francis Cabot Lowell and Paul Moody re-created the powered loom used in the mills of Manchester, England. Lowell had spent two years in Britain observing and touring mills in England. He committed the design of the powered loom to memory so that, no matter how many times British customs officials searched his luggage, he could smuggle England’s industrial know-how into New England.
Lowell’s contribution to American industrialism was not only technological, it was organizational. He helped reorganize and centralize the American manufacturing process. A new approach, the Waltham-Lowell System, created the textile mill that defined antebellum New England and American industrialism before the Civil War. The modern American textile mill was fully realized in the planned mill town of Lowell in 1821, four years after Lowell himself died. Powered by the Merrimack River in northern Massachusetts and operated by local farm girls, the mills of Lowell centralized the process of textile manufacturing under one roof. The modern American factory was born. Soon ten thousand workers labored in Lowell alone. Sarah Rice, who worked at the nearby Millbury factory, found it “a noisy place” that was “more confined than I like to be.” Working conditions were harsh for the many desperate “mill girls” who operated the factories relentlessly from sunup to sundown. One worker complained that “a large class of females are, and have been, destined to a state of servitude.” Female workers went on strike. They lobbied for better working hours. But the lure of wages was too much. As another worker noted, “very many Ladies . . . have given up millinery, dressmaking & school keeping for work in the mill.” With a large supply of eager workers, Lowell’s vision brought a rush of capital and entrepreneurs into New England. The first American manufacturing boom was under way.
The market revolution shook other industries as well. Craftsmen began to understand that new markets increased the demand for their products. Some shoemakers, for instance, abandoned the traditional method of producing custom-built shoes at their home workshops and instead began producing larger quantities of shoes in ready-made sizes to be shipped to urban centers. Manufacturers wanting increased production abandoned the old personal approach of relying on a single live-in apprentice for labor and instead hired unskilled wage laborers who did not have to be trained in all aspects of making shoes but could simply be assigned a single repeatable aspect of the task. Factories slowly replaced shops. The old paternalistic apprentice system, which involved long-term obligations between apprentice and master, gave way to a more impersonal and more flexible labor system in which unskilled laborers could be hired and fired as the market dictated. A writer in the New York Observer in 1826 complained, “The master no longer lives among his apprentices [and] watches over their moral as well as mechanical improvement.” Masters-turned-employers now not only had fewer obligations to their workers, they had a lesser attachment. They no longer shared the bonds of their trade but were subsumed under new class-based relationships: employers and employees, bosses and workers, capitalists and laborers. On the other hand, workers were freed from the long-term, paternalistic obligations of apprenticeship or the legal subjugation of indentured servitude. They could theoretically work when and where they wanted. When men or women made an agreement with an employer to work for wages, they were “left free to apportion among themselves their respective shares, untrammeled . . . by unwise laws,” as Reverend Alonzo Potter rosily proclaimed in 1840. But while the new labor system was celebrated throughout the northern United States as “free labor,” it was simultaneously lamented by a growing powerless class of laborers.
As the northern United States rushed headlong toward commercialization and an early capitalist economy, many Americans grew uneasy with the growing gap between wealthy businessmen and impoverished wage laborers. Elites like Daniel Webster might defend their wealth and privilege by insisting that all workers could achieve “a career of usefulness and enterprise” if they were “industrious and sober,” but labor activist Seth Luther countered that capitalism created “a cruel system of extraction on the bodies and minds of the producing classes . . . for no other object than to enable the ‘rich’ to ‘take care of themselves’ while the poor must work or starve.”
Americans embarked on their Industrial Revolution with the expectation that all men could start their careers as humble wage workers but later achieve positions of ownership and stability with hard work. Wage work had traditionally been looked down on as a state of dependence, suitable only as a temporary waypoint for young men without resources on their path toward the middle class and the economic success necessary to support a wife and children ensconced within the domestic sphere. Children’s magazines—such as Juvenile Miscellany and Parley’s Magazine—glorified the prospect of moving up the economic ladder. This “free labor ideology” provided many northerners with a keen sense of superiority over the slave economy of the southern states.
But the commercial economy often failed in its promise of social mobility. Depressions and downturns might destroy businesses and reduce owners to wage work. Even in times of prosperity unskilled workers might perpetually lack good wages and economic security and therefore had to forever depend on supplemental income from their wives and young children.
Wage workers—a population disproportionately composed of immigrants and poorer Americans—faced low wages, long hours, and dangerous working conditions. Class conflict developed. Instead of the formal inequality of a master-servant contract, employer and employee entered a contract presumably as equals. But hierarchy was evident: employers had financial security and political power; employees faced uncertainty and powerlessness in the workplace. Dependent on the whims of their employers, some workers turned to strikes and unions to pool their resources. In 1825 a group of journeymen in Boston formed a Carpenters’ Union to protest their inability “to maintain a family at the present time, with the wages which are now usually given.” Working men organized unions to assert themselves and win both the respect and the resources due to a breadwinner and a citizen.
For the middle-class managers and civic leaders caught between workers and owners, unions enflamed a dangerous antagonism between employers and employees. They countered any claims of inherent class conflict with the ideology of social mobility. Middle-class owners and managers justified their economic privilege as the natural product of superior character traits, including decision making and hard work. One group of master carpenters denounced their striking journeymen in 1825 with the claim that workers of “industrious and temperate habits, have, in their turn, become thriving and respectable Masters, and the great body of our Mechanics have been enabled to acquire property and respectability, with a just weight and influence in society.” In an 1856 speech in Kalamazoo, Michigan, Abraham Lincoln had to assure his audience that the country’s commercial transformation had not reduced American laborers to slavery. Southerners, he said, “insist that their slaves are far better off than Northern freemen. What a mistaken view do these men have of Northern labourers! They think that men are always to remain labourers here—but there is no such class. The man who laboured for another last year, this year labours for himself. And next year he will hire others to labour for him.” This essential belief undergirded the northern commitment to “free labor” and won the market revolution much widespread acceptance.
V. Changes in Gender Roles and Family Life
In the first half of the nineteenth century, families in the northern United States increasingly participated in the cash economy created by the market revolution. The first stirrings of industrialization shifted work away from the home. These changes transformed Americans’ notions of what constituted work and therefore shifted what it meant to be an American woman and an American man. As Americans encountered more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the ability to remove women and children from work determined a family’s class status. This ideal, of course, ignored the reality of women’s work at home and was possible for only the wealthy. The market revolution therefore not only transformed the economy, it changed the nature of the American family. As the market revolution thrust workers into new systems of production, it redefined gender roles. The market integrated families into a new cash economy. As Americans purchased more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the purity of the domestic sphere—the idealized realm of women and children—increasingly signified a family’s class status.
Women and children worked to supplement the low wages of many male workers. Around age eleven or twelve, boys could take jobs as office runners or waiters, earning perhaps a dollar a week to support their parents’ incomes. The ideal of an innocent and protected childhood was a privilege for middle- and upper-class families, who might look down upon poor families. Joseph Tuckerman, a Unitarian minister who served poor Bostonians, lamented the lack of discipline and regularity among poor children: “At one hour they are kept at work to procure fuel, or perform some other service; in the next are allowed to go where they will, and to do what they will.” Prevented from attending school, poor children served instead as economic assets for their destitute families.
Meanwhile, the education received by middle-class children provided a foundation for future economic privilege. As artisans lost control over their trades, young men had a greater incentive to invest time in education to find skilled positions later in life. Formal schooling was especially important for young men who desired apprenticeships in retail or commercial work. Enterprising instructors established schools to assist “young gentlemen preparing for mercantile and other pursuits, who may wish for an education superior to that usually obtained in the common schools, but different from a college education, and better adapted to their particular business,” such as that organized in 1820 by Warren Colburn of Boston. In response to this need, the Boston School Committee created the English High School (as opposed to the Latin School) that could “give a child an education that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether Mercantile or Mechanical” beyond that “which our public schools can now furnish.”
Education equipped young women with the tools to live sophisticated, genteel lives. After sixteen-year-old Elizabeth Davis left home in 1816 to attend school, her father explained that the experience would “lay a foundation for your future character & respectability.” After touring the United States in the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville praised the independence granted to the young American woman, who had “the great scene of the world . . . open to her” and whose education prepared her to exercise both reason and moral sense. Middling young women also used their education to take positions as schoolteachers in the expanding common school system. Bristol Academy in Taunton, Massachusetts, for instance, advertised “instruction . . . in the art of teaching” for female pupils. In 1825, Nancy Denison left Concord Academy with references indicating that she was “qualified to teach with success and profit” and “very cheerfully recommend[ed]” for “that very responsible employment.”
Middle-class youths found opportunities for respectable employment through formal education, but poor youths remained in marginalized positions. Their families’ desperate financial state kept them from enjoying the fruits of education. When pauper children did receive teaching through institutions such as the House of Refuge in New York City, they were often simultaneously indentured to successful families to serve as field hands or domestic laborers. The Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents in New York City sent its wards to places like Sylvester Lusk’s farm in Enfield, Connecticut. Lusk took boys to learn “the trade and mystery of farming” and girls to learn “the trade and mystery of housewifery.” In exchange for “sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging, and Washing, fitting for an Apprentice,” and a rudimentary education, the apprentices promised obedience, morality, and loyalty. Poor children also found work in factories such as Samuel Slater’s textile mills in southern New England. Slater published a newspaper advertisement for “four or five active Lads, about 15 Years of Age to serve as Apprentices in the Cotton Factory.”
And so, during the early nineteenth century, opportunities for education and employment often depended on a given family’s class. In colonial America, nearly all children worked within their parent’s chosen profession, whether it be agricultural or artisanal. During the market revolution, however, more children were able to postpone employment. Americans aspired to provide a “Romantic Childhood”—a period in which boys and girls were sheltered within the home and nurtured through primary schooling. This ideal was available to families that could survive without their children’s labor. As these children matured, their early experiences often determined whether they entered respectable, well-paying positions or became dependent workers with little prospects for social mobility.
Just as children were expected to be sheltered from the adult world of work, American culture expected men and women to assume distinct gender roles as they prepared for marriage and family life. An ideology of “separate spheres” set the public realm—the world of economic production and political life—apart as a male domain, and the world of consumers and domestic life as a female one. (Even nonworking women labored by shopping for the household, producing food and clothing, cleaning, educating children, and performing similar activities. But these were considered “domestic” because they did not bring money into the household, although they too were essential to the household’s economic viability.) While reality muddied the ideal, the divide between a private, female world of home and a public, male world of business defined American gender hierarchy.
The idea of separate spheres also displayed a distinct class bias. Middle and upper classes reinforced their status by shielding “their” women from the harsh realities of wage labor. Women were to be mothers and educators, not partners in production. But lower-class women continued to contribute directly to the household economy. The middle- and upper-class ideal was feasible only in households where women did not need to engage in paid labor. In poorer households, women engaged in wage labor as factory workers, pieceworkers producing items for market consumption, tavern- and innkeepers, and domestic servants. While many of the fundamental tasks women performed remained the same—producing clothing, cultivating vegetables, overseeing dairy production, and performing any number of other domestic labors—the key difference was whether and when they performed these tasks for cash in a market economy.
Domestic expectations constantly changed and the market revolution transformed many women’s traditional domestic tasks. Cloth production, for instance, advanced throughout the market revolution as new mechanized production increased the volume and variety of fabrics available to ordinary people. This relieved many better-off women of a traditional labor obligation. As cloth production became commercialized, women’s home-based cloth production became less important to household economies. Purchasing cloth and, later, ready-made clothes began to transform women from producers to consumers. One woman from Maine, Martha Ballard, regularly referenced spinning, weaving, and knitting in the diary she kept from 1785 to 1812. Martha, her daughters, and her female neighbors spun and plied linen and woolen yarns and used them to produce a variety of fabrics to make clothing for her family. The production of cloth and clothing was a year-round, labor-intensive process, but it was for home consumption, not commercial markets.
In cities, where women could buy cheap imported cloth to turn into clothing, they became skilled consumers. They stewarded money earned by their husbands by comparing values and haggling over prices. In one typical experience, Mrs. Peter Simon, a captain’s wife, inspected twenty-six yards of Holland cloth to ensure that it was worth the £130 price. Even wealthy women shopped for high-value goods. While servants or enslaved people routinely made low-value purchases, the mistress of the household trusted her discriminating eye alone for expensive or specific purchases.
Women might also parlay their skills into businesses. In addition to working as seamstresses, milliners, or laundresses, women might undertake paid work for neighbors or acquaintances or combine clothing production with management of a boardinghouse. Even enslaved laborers with particular skill at producing clothing could be hired out for a higher price or might even negotiate to work part-time for themselves. Most enslaved people, however, continued to produce domestic items, including simpler cloths and clothing, for home consumption.
Similar domestic expectations played out in the slave states. Enslaved women labored in the fields. Whites argued that African American women were less delicate and womanly than white women and therefore perfectly suited for agricultural labor. The southern ideal meanwhile established that white plantation mistresses were shielded from manual labor because of their very whiteness. Throughout the slave states, however, aside from the minority of plantations with dozens of enslaved laborers, most white women by necessity continued to assist with planting, harvesting, and processing agricultural projects despite the cultural stigma attached to it. White southerners continued to produce large portions of their food and clothing at home. Even when they were market-oriented producers of cash crops, white southerners still insisted that their adherence to plantation slavery and racial hierarchy made them morally superior to greedy northerners and their callous, cutthroat commerce. Southerners and northerners increasingly saw their ways of life as incompatible.
While the market revolution remade many women’s economic roles, their legal status remained essentially unchanged. Upon marriage, women were rendered legally dead by the notion of coverture, the custom that counted married couples as a single unit represented by the husband. Without special precautions or interventions, women could not earn their own money, own their own property, sue, or be sued. Any money earned or spent belonged by law to their husbands. Women shopped on their husbands’ credit and at any time husbands could terminate their wives’ access to their credit. Although a handful of states made divorce available—divorce had before only been legal in Congregationalist states such as Massachusetts and Connecticut, where marriage was strictly a civil contract rather than a religious one—it remained extremely expensive, difficult, and rare. Marriage was typically a permanently binding legal contract.
Ideas of marriage, if not the legal realities, began to change. The late eighteenth and early nineteenth century marked the beginning of the shift from “institutional” to “companionate” marriage. Institutional marriages were primarily labor arrangements that maximized the couple’s and their children’s chances of surviving and thriving. Men and women assessed each other’s skills as they related to household production, although looks and personality certainly entered into the equation. But in the late eighteenth century, under the influence of Enlightenment thought, young people began to privilege character and compatibility in their potential partners. Money was still essential: marriages prompted the largest redistributions of property prior to the settling of estates at death. But the means of this redistribution was changing. Especially in the North, land became a less important foundation for matchmaking as wealthy young men became not only farmers and merchants but bankers, clerks, or professionals. The increased emphasis on affection and attraction that young people embraced was facilitated by an increasingly complex economy that offered new ways to store, move, and create wealth, which liberalized the criteria by which families evaluated potential in-laws.
To be considered a success in family life, a middle-class American man typically aspired to own a comfortable home and to marry a woman of strong morals and religious conviction who would take responsibility for raising virtuous, well-behaved children. The duties of the middle-class husband and wife would be clearly delineated into separate spheres. The husband alone was responsible for creating wealth and engaging in the commerce and politics—the public sphere. The wife was responsible for the private—keeping a good home, being careful with household expenses, and raising children, inculcating them with the middle-class virtues that would ensure their future success. But for poor families, sacrificing the potential economic contributions of wives and children was an impossibility.
VI. The Rise of Industrial Labor in Antebellum America
More than five million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1860. Irish, German, and Jewish immigrants sought new lives and economic opportunities. By the Civil War, nearly one out of every eight Americans had been born outside the United States. A series of push and pull factors drew immigrants to the United States.
In England, an economic slump prompted Parliament to modernize British agriculture by revoking common land rights for Irish farmers. These policies generally targeted Catholics in the southern counties of Ireland and motivated many to seek greater opportunity elsewhere. The booming American economy pulled Irish immigrants toward ports along the eastern United States. Between 1820 and 1840, over 250,000 Irish immigrants arrived in the United States. Without the capital and skills required to purchase and operate farms, Irish immigrants settled primarily in northeastern cities and towns and performed unskilled work. Irish men usually emigrated alone and, when possible, practiced what became known as chain migration. Chain migration allowed Irish men to send portions of their wages home, which would then be used either to support their families in Ireland or to purchase tickets for relatives to come to the United States. Irish immigration followed this pattern into the 1840s and 1850s, when the infamous Irish Famine sparked a massive exodus out of Ireland. Between 1840 and 1860, 1.7 million Irish fled starvation and the oppressive English policies that accompanied it. As they entered manual, unskilled labor positions in urban America’s dirtiest and most dangerous occupations, Irish workers in northern cities were compared to African Americans, and anti-immigrant newspapers portrayed them with apelike features. Despite hostility, Irish immigrants retained their social, cultural, and religious beliefs and left an indelible mark on American culture.
While the Irish settled mostly in coastal cities, most German immigrants used American ports and cities as temporary waypoints before settling in the rural countryside. Over 1.5 million immigrants from the various German states arrived in the United States during the antebellum era. Although some southern Germans fled declining agricultural conditions and repercussions of the failed revolutions of 1848, many Germans simply sought steadier economic opportunity. German immigrants tended to travel as families and carried with them skills and capital that enabled them to enter middle-class trades. Germans migrated to the Old Northwest to farm in rural areas and practiced trades in growing communities such as St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Milwaukee, three cities that formed what came to be called the German Triangle.
Catholic and Jewish Germans transformed regions of the republic. Although records are sparse, New York’s Jewish population rose from approximately five hundred in 1825 to forty thousand in 1860. Similar gains were seen in other American cities. Jewish immigrants hailing from southwestern Germany and parts of occupied Poland moved to the United States through chain migration and as family units. Unlike other Germans, Jewish immigrants rarely settled in rural areas. Once established, Jewish immigrants found work in retail, commerce, and artisanal occupations such as tailoring. They quickly found their footing and established themselves as an intrinsic part of the American market economy. Just as Irish immigrants shaped the urban landscape through the construction of churches and Catholic schools, Jewish immigrants erected synagogues and made their mark on American culture.
The sudden influx of immigration triggered a backlash among many native-born Anglo-Protestant Americans. This nativist movement, especially fearful of the growing Catholic presence, sought to limit European immigration and prevent Catholics from establishing churches and other institutions. Popular in northern cities such as Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and other cities with large Catholic populations, nativism even spawned its own political party in the 1850s. The American Party, more commonly known as the Know-Nothing Party, found success in local and state elections throughout the North. The party even nominated candidates for president in 1852 and 1856. The rapid rise of the Know-Nothings, reflecting widespread anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant sentiment, slowed European immigration. Immigration declined precipitously after 1855 as nativism, the Crimean War, and improving economic conditions in Europe discouraged potential migrants from traveling to the United States. Only after the American Civil War would immigration levels match and eventually surpass the levels seen in the 1840s and 1850s.
In industrial northern cities, Irish immigrants swelled the ranks of the working class and quickly encountered the politics of industrial labor. Many workers formed trade unions during the early republic. Organizations such as Philadelphia’s Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers or the Carpenters’ Union of Boston operated within specific industries in major American cities. These unions worked to protect the economic power of their members by creating closed shops—workplaces wherein employers could only hire union members—and striking to improve working conditions. Political leaders denounced these organizations as unlawful combinations and conspiracies to promote the narrow self-interest of workers above the rights of property holders and the interests of the common good. Unions did not become legally acceptable until 1842 when the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in favor of a union organized among Boston bootmakers, arguing that the workers were capable of acting “in such a manner as best to subserve their own interests.” Even after the case, unions remained in a precarious legal position.
In the 1840s, labor activists organized to limit working hours and protect children in factories. The New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics and Other Workingmen (NEA) mobilized to establish a ten-hour workday across industries. They argued that the ten-hour day would improve the immediate conditions of laborers by allowing “time and opportunities for intellectual and moral improvement.” After a citywide strike in Boston in 1835, the Ten-Hour Movement quickly spread to other major cities such as Philadelphia. The campaign for leisure time was part of the male working-class effort to expose the hollowness of the paternalistic claims of employers and their rhetoric of moral superiority.
Women, a dominant labor source for factories since the early 1800s, launched some of the earliest strikes for better conditions. Textile operatives in Lowell, Massachusetts, “turned out” (walked off) their jobs in 1834 and 1836. During the Ten-Hour Movement of the 1840s, female operatives provided crucial support. Under the leadership of Sarah Bagley, the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association organized petition drives that drew thousands of signatures from “mill girls.” Like male activists, Bagley and her associates used the desire for mental improvement as a central argument for reform. An 1847 editorial in the Voice of Industry, a labor newspaper published by Bagley, asked, “who, after thirteen hours of steady application to monotonous work, can sit down and apply her mind to deep and long continued thought?” Despite the widespread support for a ten-hour day, the movement achieved only partial success. President Martin Van Buren established a ten-hour-day policy for laborers on federal public works projects. New Hampshire passed a statewide law in 1847, and Pennsylvania followed a year later. Both states, however, allowed workers to voluntarily consent to work more than ten hours per day.
In 1842, child labor became a dominant issue in the American labor movement. The protection of child laborers gained more middle-class support than the protection of adult workers. A petition from parents in Fall River, a southern Massachusetts mill town that employed a high portion of child workers, asked the legislature for a law “prohibiting the employment of children in manufacturing establishments at an age and for a number of hours which must be permanently injurious to their health and inconsistent with the education which is essential to their welfare.” Massachusetts quickly passed a law prohibiting children under age twelve from working more than ten hours a day. By the midnineteenth century, every state in New England had followed Massachusetts’s lead. Between the 1840s and 1860s, these statutes slowly extended the age of protection of labor and the assurance of schooling. Throughout the region, public officials agreed that young children (between ages nine and twelve) should be prevented from working in dangerous occupations, and older children (between ages twelve and fifteen) should balance their labor with education and time for leisure.
Male workers sought to improve their income and working conditions to create a household that kept women and children protected within the domestic sphere. But labor gains were limited, and the movement remained moderate. Despite its challenge to industrial working conditions, labor activism in antebellum America remained largely wedded to the free labor ideal. The labor movement later supported the northern free soil movement, which challenged the spread of slavery in the 1840s, simultaneously promoting the superiority of the northern system of commerce over the southern institution of slavery while trying, much less successfully, to reform capitalism.
VII. Conclusion
During the early nineteenth century, southern agriculture produced by enslaved labor fueled northern industry produced by wage workers and managed by the new middle class. New transportation, new machinery, and new organizations of labor integrated the previously isolated pockets of the colonial economy into a national industrial operation. Industrialization and the cash economy tied diverse regions together at the same time that ideology drove Americans apart. By celebrating the freedom of contract that distinguished the wage worker from the indentured servant of previous generations or the enslaved laborer in the southern cotton field, political leaders claimed the American Revolution’s legacy for the North. But the rise of industrial child labor, the demands of workers to unionize, the economic vulnerability of women, and the influx of non-Anglo immigrants left many Americans questioning the meaning of liberty after the market revolution.
VIII. Primary Sources
1. James Madison asks Congress to support internal improvements, 1815
After the War of 1812, Americans looked to strengthen their nation through government spending on infrastructure, or what were then called internal improvements. In his seventh annual address to congress, Madison called for public investment to create national roads, canals, and even a national seminary. He also called for a tariff, or tax on certain imports, designed to make foreign goods more expensive, giving American producers an advantage in domestic markets.
2. A traveler describes life along the Erie Canal, 1829
Basil Hall, a British visitor traveled along the Erie Canal and took careful notes on what he found. In this excerpt, he described life in Rochester, New York. Rochester, and other small towns in upstate New York, grew rapidly as a result of the Erie Canal.
3. Blacksmith apprentice contract, 1836
The factories and production of the Market Revolution eroded the wealth and power of skilled small business owners called artisans. This indenture contract illustrated the former way of doing things, where a young person would agree to serve for a number of years as an apprentice to a skilled artisan before venturing out on his own.
4. Maria Stewart bemoans the consequences of racism, 1832
Maria Stewart electrified audiences in Boston with a number of powerful speeches. Her most common theme was the evil of slavery. However, here she attacks the soul-crushing consequences of racism in American capitalism, claiming that the lack of social and economic equality doomed Black Americans to a life of suffering and spiritual death.
5. Rebecca Burlend recalls her emigration from England to Illinois, 1848
Rebecca Burlend, her husband, and children emigrated to Illinois from England in 1831. These reflections describe her reaction to landing in New Orleans, sailing up the Mississippi to St. Louis, and finally arriving at her new home in Illinois. This was her first experience encountering American slavery, the American landscape, and the rugged living conditions of her new home.
6. Harriet H. Robinson remembers a mill workers’ strike, 1836
The social upheavals of the Market Revolution created new tensions between rich and poor, particularly between the new class of workers and the new class of managers. Lowell, Massachusetts was the location of the first American factory. In this document, a woman reminisces about a strike that she participated in at a Lowell textile mill.
7. Alexis de Toqueville, “How Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes,” 1840
The French political thinker Alexis de Toqueville travelled extensively through the United States in gathering research for his book Democracy In America. In this excerpt, he described the belief that American men and women lived in “separate spheres:” men in public, women in the home. This expectation justified the denial of rights to women. All women were denied political rights in nineteenth century America, but only a small number of wealthy families could afford to remove women from economic production, like de Toqueville claimed.
8. Abolitionist sheet music cover page, 1844
The “transportation revolution” shaped economic change in the early 1800s, but the massive construction of railroads also had a profound impact on American politics and culture. This sheet music title page shows how abolitionists used railroad imagery to advocate for the immediate emancipation of enslaved people and to promote their political platform before the 1844 presidential election.
9. Anti-Catholic cartoon, 1855
Irish immigration transformed American cities. Yet many Americans greeted the new arrivals with suspicion or hostility. Nathanial Currier’s anti-Catholic cartoon reflected the popular American perception that Irish Catholic immigrants posed a threat to the United States.
IX. Reference Material
This chapter was edited by Jane Fiegen Green, with content contributions by Kelly Arehart, Myles Beaurpre, Kristin Condotta, Jane Fiegen Green, Nathan Jeremie-Brink, Lindsay Keiter, Brenden Kennedy, William Kerrigan, Christopher Sawula, David Schley, and Evgenia Shayder Shoop.
Recommended citation: Kelly Arehart et al., “Market Revolution,” Jane Fiegen Green, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
Recommended Reading
Balleisen, Edward J. Navigating Failure: Bankruptcy and Commercial Society in Antebellum America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
Blewett, Mary H. Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780–1910. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
Boydston, Jeanne. Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Dublin, Thomas. Transforming Women’s Work: New England Lives in the Industrial Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.
Faler, Paul G. Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1760–1860. Albany: SUNY Press, 1981.
Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Greenberg, Joshua R. Advocating the Man: Masculinity, Organized Labor, and the Household in New York, 1800–1840. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Halttunen, Karen. Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830–1870. Yale University Press, 1982.
Hartigan-O’Connor, Ellen. The Ties That Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Innes, Stephen, ed. Work and Labor in Early America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.
Jabour, Anya. Marriage in the Early Republic: Elizabeth and William Wirt and the Companionate Ideal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
Larson, John Lauritz. The Market Revolution in America: Liberty, Ambition, and the Eclipse of the Common Good. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Levy, Jonathan. Freaks of Fortune: The Emerging World of Capitalism and Risk in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
Luskey, Brian P. On the Make: Clerks and the Quest for Capital in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: New York University Press, 2010.
Matson, Cathy, and Wendy A. Woloson. Risky Business: Winning and Losing in the Early American Economy, 1780–1850. Philadelphia: Library Company of Philadelphia, 2003.
McNeur, Catherine. Taming Manhattan: Environmental Battles in the Antebellum City. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.
Melish, Joanne Pope. Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and “Race” in New England, 1780–1860. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Mihm, Stephen. A Nation of Counterfeiters: Capitalists, Con Men, and the Making of the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Murphy, Teresa Anne. Ten Hours’ Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
Rice, Stephen P. Minding the Machine: Languages of Class in Early Industrial America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.
Rothenberg, Winifred Barr. From Market-Places to a Market Economy: The Transformation of Rural Massachusetts, 1750–1850. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Ryan, Mary P. Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1865. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Sellers, Charles Grier. The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Tucker, Barbara M. Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790–1860. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984.
Notes
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MBTA Commuter Rail: A General Guide
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The MBTA's commuter rail network spans 394 miles of track to 135 stations and is a critical component of Boston's transportation network.
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https://www.american-rails.com/mbta.html
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Home
›
Commuter Rail
›
MBTA Commuter Rail
MBTA Commuter Rail: A General Guide
Published: July 31, 2024
By: Adam Burns
Boston, a city with rich historical roots and modern flair, can be challenging to navigate. Happily, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) provides an efficient solution with its comprehensive commuter rail service.
The system has been in operation since 1964 and is a vital component of the transportation needs within the greater Boston region.
Trains utilize 394 miles of total track and serve 135 stations. It is operated under contract by Keolis, which took over operations on July 1, 2014, from the Massachusetts Bay Commuter Railroad Company (MBCR).
This article offers a blend of historical context, current insights, and practical knowledge for anyone planning to use the MBTA's commuter rail.
Historical Background
Origins
The origins of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) commuter rail service trace back to the early 19th century when the industrial revolution was rapidly transforming the United States.
The country's first successful passenger rail service began between Boston and Newton in 1834, a pivotal move by the Boston and Worcester Railroad (a later component of the Boston & Albany, a New York Central subsidiary), highlighting the region's early adoption of train travel.
Expansion and Early Milestones
Multiple railroad companies began to operate in the greater Boston area, spurring economic growth and urban development.
The early dominance of the Boston and Providence Rail Road, Boston and Maine Railroad, and the Old Colony Railroad established several lines that would much later be incorporated into the MBTA's commuter rail network.
The intricate spider web of railroads served not just commuters but freight and military needs during crucial periods, including the Civil War and both World Wars.
Advent of Public Control
By the mid-20th century, the decline of railroads due to the rise of the automobile era was evident. Railroads conglomerates were fragmenting and many were nearing bankruptcy.
At the time, the Greater Boston region was primarily served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford (which blanketed much of Massachusetts) and the Boston & Maine. In addition, the New York Central's Boston & Albany operated a through route heading west towards Albany, New York.
In response to this decline, Massachusetts was one of the first states to take steps in consolidating and preserving this valuable mode of transportation. The MBTA, established in August, 1964, gradually assumed control and integrated these disparate rail services into a cohesive network over the following decades.
Present-Day Operations
System Overview
Today, MBTA's commuter rail serves more than 122,000 passengers on weekdays, operating over 394 miles of track and encompassing 14 primary lines that radiate from Downtown Boston's two major hubs: North Station and South Station. These routes serve some outlying 50 communities.
Key Lines and Destinations
The MBTA commuter rail network extends far beyond Boston, reaching into various parts of Massachusetts and even touching neighboring states. Notable lines include:
- **Framingham/Worcester Line**: Connects Boston with Worcester, passing through key suburban areas like Newton and Framingham.
- **Lowell Line**: Travels from North Station through historic, mill-era Lowell, an early center of America's industrialization.
- **Haverhill Line**: Running through scenic Merrimack Valley, ending in Haverhill.
- **Providence/Stoughton Line**: Provides service from South Station to Providence, Rhode Island, making a crucial cross-state connection.
Rolling Stock and Technology
The MBTA fleet is divided into locomotive-hauled coaches and new self-propelled diesel multiple units (DMUs), focusing on efficiency and environmental sustainability.
Technological advancements, including Positive Train Control (PTC) implementationprovide enhanced safety and operational reliability.
Passenger information systems have also seen upgrades, with real-timetracking apps and modernized station displays to keep riders informed.
Traveler’s Guide
Planning Your Trip
**Route Planning**
Utilize the online MBTA trip planner or mobile applications such as Transit and Moovit to determine your optimal route and schedule.
**Ticketing and Fares**
Commuter rail tickets can be purchased in various ways:
- **Onboard (cash only with a higher fare)**
- **Ticket machines at key stations**
- **MBTA mTicket app**: This is the most convenient, allowing you to buy and display tickets through your smartphone.
Fares are zone-based, ranging from Zone 1A (inner-city Boston) to Zone 10 (furthest points). Discounts are available for seniors, people with disabilities, and children.
**Parking**
Many commuter rail stations offer parking facilities but be sure to check MBTA's website for specific details on fees and availability.
On the Train and at the Station
**Boarding Tips**
Arrive a few minutes early, especially during peak hours. Most stations will have clearly marked boarding areas, but when in doubt, check with station staff or use the MBTA app for track assignments.
**Riding Guide**
- **Seating**: Choose open seating in general cars, or utilize quiet cars if you prefer a tranquil environment.
- **Onboard Amenities**:
Wi-Fi, restrooms, and bike storage are available on selected services. Make sure to check specifics based on your route.
Accessibility
The MBTA is committed to providing accessible services for all passengers. Stations are equipped with ramps, elevators, and designated boarding assistance for the disabled. Always communicate special needs in advance for the smoothest journey.
Enhancements and Future Prospects
Recent Developments
MBTA has been actively focusing on improving infrastructure and services. Recent projects include:
- **South Coast Rail Expansion**: A significant project aimed to extend service to Fall River and New Bedford by spring 2025.
- **Fleet Upgrades**: New coaches and locomotives designed for better fuel efficiency and passenger comfort.
Planned Improvements
Future enhancements plan to focus on:
- **Electrification**: The agency is currently considering converting diesel lines to electric, reducing environmental impact.
- **Network Extensions and Frequency Increases**: Proposals for expanding service coverage and increasing train frequency, particularly during peak hours.
Tips for an Enjoyable Experience
Navigating the MBTA's commuter rail system can be effortless and enjoyable with a bit of planning. Here are some tips for both locals and tourists:
- **Peak vs. Off-Peak**: Travel during off-peak times if possible to avoid crowded trains and to enjoy a more relaxed journey.
- **Exploring Beyond Boston**: Utilize the commuter rail to discover other parts of Massachusetts and beyond. Historical towns like Salem, Lexington, and Concord are easily accessible.
- **Stay Informed**: Follow MBTA’s social media accounts and register for alerts to stay updated on service changes or disruptions.
Light Rail Service
Beyond commuter rail operations, MBTA also operates a 26.7 mile light rail line known as the Green Line.
The Green Line, is one of the most iconic and widely used. This guide provides an overview and essential details about navigating the Green Line.
The Green Line is the oldest subway line in the United States, with its first section opening in 1897. It serves as the spine of MBTA's light rail network, connecting downtown Boston with its western and northern suburbs.
The route is color-coded and divided into four branches: B, C, D, and E. Each branch originates from Park Street or Kenmore Station in downtown Boston and extends outward to various destinations.
- **Green Line B (Boston College):** Starts at Boston College and runs along Commonwealth Avenue, passing through Brighton and Allston neighborhoods before reaching Kenmore Station.
- **Green Line C (Cleveland Circle):** Begins at Cleveland Circle, travels along Beacon Street through Brookline, and proceeds to Kenmore Station.
- **Green Line D (Riverside):** Originates from Riverside Station in Newton, following a former commuter rail line, and provides a more suburban route into the city.
- **Green Line E (Heath Street):** Begins at Heath Street in the Mission Hill neighborhood, running along Huntington Avenue, serving major institutions like Northeastern University and several hospitals.
Tips for Using the Green Line
1. **Fares and Tickets:** MBTA's fare system includes both single-ride tickets and reloadable CharlieCards. A CharlieCard offers discounts compared to paper tickets. You can purchase these at vending machines in most major stations.
2. **Schedule and Frequency:** The Green Line operates from early morning until late at night, with varying frequencies depending on the time of day.
3. **Transfers:** The Green Line intersects with the Red, Orange, and Blue lines at Park Street, Downtown Crossing, and Government Center, making transfers relatively straightforward.
4. **Accessibility:** All Green Line trains and most stations are wheelchair accessible. Elevators and ramps are available, but it’s advisable to check the MBTA website for real-time updates on elevator outages or maintenance.
5. **Etiquette and Safety:** It's common courtesy to allow passengers to exit before boarding and to offer seats to those in need. Pay attention to announcements for any service changes or delays, especially during winter when weather can affect operations.
6. **Apps and Real-time Tracking:** Utilize the MBTA’s official app or websites like Transit and Moovit for real-time tracking, route planning, and service alerts, ensuring a smooth journey on the Green Line.
By understanding the branches and operational nuances, using the Green Line can be a convenient and efficient way to navigate Boston, whether you’re a daily commuter or a tourist exploring the city's attractions.
The MBTA commuter rail is more than just a transportation system; it's a historical artifact and a modern-day vital artery for Boston and its suburbs. Knowing its background, current operations, and future developments can enrich your travel experience.
Whether you're a daily commuter or a weekend traveler, the MBTA's services provide a bridge between history and modernity, ensuring that the rich cultural and economic tapestry of Massachusetts remains connected.
Embrace the journey, enjoy the ride, and discover all the treasures that lie within and beyond Boston, courtesy of the MBTA commuter rail.
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Lowell Line on the Commuter Rail
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Learn more about the Lowell Line on the Commuter Rail. Find stations and explore things to do, restaurants to eat at, places to see, and plan your day out.
|
en
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Keolis Commuter Services
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https://massbytrain.com/lines/lowell/
|
Need help trip planning? Give us a call at 617-222-3200. © 2024 Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, all rights reserved. Website designed and developed by Sperling Interactive.
The itineraries provided herein are for informational purposes only. Neither Sperling Interactive, Keolis Commuter Services, LLC (Keolis) and or the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) are responsible for transporting a rider to any end destination other than those Commuter Rail Stations identified within the “Schedules” tab highlighted herein. Sperling Interactive, Keolis, and or the MBTA are not responsible for any changes, errors, omissions, or cancellations of any of the itineraries, events, locations, promotions, or services of any kind highlighted herein. Riders should reach out to the providers directly to obtain more information related to the same.
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https://www.lowellma.gov/1152/Construction-Projects
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Lowell, MA
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https://www.lowellma.gov/images/favicon.ico
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https://www.lowellma.gov/images/favicon.ico
|
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Overview of ongoing construction projects in Lowell, MA.
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Updated August 21, 2024:
Shattuck St Cobblestone Restoration:
Starting Monday, August 26, 2024, Shattuck St will be closed to vehicular traffic from Market St to Merrimack St to allow for cobblestone restoration as part of a gas main restoration program. Middle St will be open to two-way traffic from Palmer St to Shattuck St for the duration of the closure. Access to City Ave will be blocked at Shattuck.
Concord River Greenway:
Work to complete the connection between Jolene Dubner Park to the Lawrence Street portion of the greenway wrapped up in Spring 2022. The final phase of the Concord River Greenway, a stretch that spans from the terminus at the Davidson Street Lots to Jolene Dubner Park, will be completed when the City is able to negotiate access and construction rights along this stretch with multiple private property owners.
Connector Trail:
This project will create a multi-use path that connects the Bruce Freeman Rail Trail in the Cross Point towers area with the Target shopping plaza along Plain Street. While portions of the project have been completed in the past year (paving and connection on the Industrial Avenue side of the trail, removal of vegetation and train tracks, and preparation for paving, including the initial gravel), the remaining portion of this project is still part of the Department of Planning and Development's goals. DPD has already contracted an engineering firm to update the drawings and construction scope (based on what has been completed so far) for a new bid to come out during the winter/spring of 2024. Concurrently, the legal department is working on the updated access agreement with the Target shopping plaza. DPD expects to resume construction during the summer of 2024 to finally connect the two ends of this much anticipated project, and to keep the efforts of expanding and improving the Bruce Freeman Rail Trail.
Lowell High School Construction Project:
Please visit our dedicated site for more information about this project, including regular video updates: lowellhsproject.com
Roadway Projects:
View current and completed roadway projects with the City of Lowell's Engineering Department: https://lowellma.gov/1765/Roadway-Projects
State Transportation Projects
Beaver Street Bridge Project:
The Beaver St. Bridge construction is substantially complete. The bridge is fully open to vehicular and pedestrian traffic as of July 25, 2024. A ribbon cutting is planned for September 2024, details to come.
Rourke Bridge Replacement Project:
The Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT) is designing a new Rourke Bridge to replace the temporary structure across the Merrimack River in Lowell. The existing bridge was constructed in 1983 as a temporary bridge. The new bridge will connect Middlesex Street to Pawtucket Boulevard, improve mobility for all users, and meet current standards, including ADA accessibility.
Please visit the MassDOT Project site for more information: https://www.mass.gov/rourke-bridge-replacement-project
Recently Completed Projects
Andover Street (Route 133) and River Road Intersection Improvements
The project consisted of improvements to intersection safety, access and capacity, pedestrian facilities, bicycle accommodations and roadway rehabilitation. The project is substantially complete. Landscaping and hydroseeding was completed in spring 2024.
Please visit the MassDOT site for more information: https://hwy.massdot.state.ma.us/projectinfo.asp?num=609038
330 Jackson Street Garage Construction:
This project is substantially complete, and new sidewalks were poured.
2023 Roadways
Lord Overpass/Thorndike Street
This transformative infrastructure project removed aging overpass bridges, connected Jackson Street to Thorndike Street, improved the intersection at Dutton/Thorndike/Fletcher/Jackson Streets, and updated traffic signals to more effectively move travel into and out of the HCID and Downtown Lowell
Please visit the Lord Overpass page for more information: https://www.lowellma.gov/771/Lord-OverpassGateway-to-Lowell
Lowell Canal Bridges (TIGER) Project:
This project rehabilitated and replaced a network of critically important bridges over several canals in Lowell in order to eliminate weight restrictions that interfere with transportation circulation and access in the downtown area. Full beam replacement will provide an extended bridge life of approximately 40 to 50 years.
HCID Parking Garage:
This project was completed on December 16, 2020. A 900-space parking garage was constructed to support public and private development in the Hamilton Canal Innovation District. The completion of the $38 million city-funded facility marks a significant and long anticipated milestone in the development of the Hamilton Canal District and represents the district's first completed ground-up construction project. The garage is considered to be a critical component in supporting future development throughout the 15-acre district.
Hamilton Canal Innovation District (HCID) North Infrastructure Project ("Streets F and G"):
This project will build two new streets and install utility infrastructure in the northern section of the HCID. The project includes major pedestrian and traffic improvements to the bridge at Dutton and Broadway, and construction of a new Signature Bridge over the Pawtucket Canal that will connect the north and south sides of the HCID. Newport Construction remobilized to the site this spring to complete minor punchlist items. All work, including minor lighting and railing changes to the signature bridge will be completed in the coming weeks. As of now, we are working with Atlantic Bridge & Engineering, (the contractor installing the railings and lighting) to set up a final installation date. Since Winn Development is done with their work, the bridge is now open to circulation pending additional safety and guiding signage around the area. VHB provided signage recommendations, which are currently being reviewed by the City before deciding on the bridge opening. That decision will be made in the next couple of weeks.
Merrimack Riverwalk Phase II:
This project will extend the Merrimack Riverwalk under the Bridge Street Bridge, behind Massachusetts Mills, and over the Concord River to a new terminus in front of Lowell Memorial Auditorium via a new pedestrian bridge. The pedestrian bridge over the Concord River was installed in early October. The work area in front of LMA has been significantly reduced as work is now focused mostly on the interceptor along the river. A majority of the remaining work for the Riverwalk Project is limited to the interceptor area and should not cause traffic or pedestrian disruptions. Work on the interceptor will continue until a winter shutdown is necessary. Next spring contractors will finish off remaining work including landscaping, tree plantings and monument reinstallation in front of LMA. At this time we are anticipating a summer 2022 opening for the Riverwalk.
JFK Plaza Improvements:
A minor project to improve safety and remove deferred maintenance will commence this spring. DPD, in coordination with DPW, is working on the upgrades and improvements to the John F Kennedy Civic Center, including the transformation of selected sets of stairs into planting areas. DPD coordinated with LPD and Cultural Affairs & Special Events on the specific areas to remain open and closed for increased safety, security, and usability.
This project, consisting of stairs and landscape improvements at the JFK Civic Center Plaza in front of City Hall, is currently in final engineering phases and will proceed to bidding later in the month in December to secure a builder to begin work in the spring of 2022. The engineering phase includes structural details, construction methods and costs estimates.
Prior Communications
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NHARPC CORNER: The Ups and Downs of Passenger Rail in New Hampshire
|
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https://www.nhmunicipal.org/town-city-article/nharpc-corner-ups-and-downs-passenger-rail-new-hampshire
|
The information contained in this article is not intended as legal advice and may no longer be accurate due to changes in the law. Consult NHMA's legal services or your municipal attorney.
Passenger rail is an endemic topic of conversation in transportation and planning circles and increasingly, is surfacing as a key economic development issue; especially in the aftermath of the state’s recent bid to lure Amazon’s highly sought after HQ2. In the political arena, the discourse has focused primarily on the proposed Capital Corridor initiative and recent efforts to include $4 million in federal and state matching funds in the state’s Ten-Year Transportation Improvement Plan. As with any issue of consequence, the public discourse includes a mix of fact, fiction and hyperbole. This article is intended to provide a board overview of the principal passenger rail alternatives that are currently under consideration as well as the often-overlooked passenger rail services that are available to Granite State residents today. The most significant of these existing services in terms of ridership and physical footprint in the state is the Downeaster.
The Downeaster
The Downeaster is a passenger rail service operated by Amtrak under contract with the Northern New England Passenger Rail Authority (NNEPRA). NNEPRA is a public transportation authority created in 1995 by the State of Maine to facilitate passenger rail service between various points in Maine and the City of Boston. The service was formally launched on December 15, 2001. The Downeaster currently provides five-round trips per day along an approximately 145-mile corridor between Boston and Brunswick, ME with three stops in New Hampshire: Dover, Durham (at the University of New Hampshire) and Exeter. The service, which reaches speeds of up to 79 miles per hour, boasted 511,422 passenger trips in 2017 with some of the largest boardings occurring at the New Hampshire stops. The Downeaster has been notably entrepreneurial in its approach to maximize tourist draws on both ends of the line with special services such as providing dome cars for viewing fall foliage and flexing evening schedules to accommodate passengers attending Red Sox games in Boston. Innovative on-board accommodations include the ability to purchase MBTA Charlie Card passes on the train for a more seamless transfer to the Green or Orange line subways at North Station in Boston. Given its frequency of service, the Downeaster also functions as a commuter line. Operating funds are covered through a combination of federal subsidies and state matching funds, passenger fares and other miscellaneous revenue sources. Though New Hampshire benefits from Downeaster service, the State provides no operating subsidies for the Downeaster. The costs for each of the three New Hampshire stations are covered by their host communities.
The Vermonter
The second passenger rail line currently serving New Hampshire residents is The Vermonter. The Vermonter is also operated by Amtrak, providing one round trip a day between St. Albans, Vermont and Washington, D.C. through New York City, with several key stops in between. The Vermonter has only one stop in New Hampshire at Claremont, but stations in White River Junction, Windsor, Bellows Falls and Brattleboro, VT also serve New Hampshire residents. The Vermonter carries close to 90,000 passengers per year over its approximately 600-mile course. Between 2010 and a 2012, 190 miles of track in Vermont and New Hampshire received a $70 million upgrade funded through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) to facilitate increased speeds along portions of the line of up to 79 miles per hour. Another ARRA funded improvement resulted in a relocation of a portion of the line in western Massachusetts. Completed in December of 2014, the $73 million Knowledge Corridor project shaved approximately 30 minutes of time off of the schedule and restored passenger rail service to the western Massachusetts cities of Greenfield, Northampton and Holyoke for the first time in decades. This initiative was followed by an approximately $90 million rehabilitation of the historic Union Station in Springfield, MA, also a stop on the Vermonter line, and a $190 million upgrade of the line between New Haven, CT and Springfield MA which included double tracking approximately twenty-six miles of single-track to allow for more frequent trips through the corridor paralleling I-91.
New Hampshire Capital Corridor
Downeaster and Vermonter lines do provide passenger rail service for significant areas of the state, however, no passenger rail lines serve New Hampshire’s largest cities, Nashua, Manchester and Concord. Motivated by a desire to connect these cities as well as the Manchester-Boston Regional Airport to Boston, an initiative known as the New Hampshire Capital Corridor began to gain momentum in the early 2000s. Though the form of the service conceived has varied, the Capital Corridor has generally been defined as an extension of the existing Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operated commuter line that currently terminates in Lowell, MA, to New Hampshire with stops in Nashua, the Manchester-Boston Regional Airport and downtown Manchester with an eventual extension to Concord. In addition to providing a transportation alternative for New Hampshire residents who currently commute to Boston, advocates for the project see the Capital Corridor as a means of attracting young talent to New Hampshire, providing increased access to jobs and stimulating economic development along the route. Opponents have focused largely on the initial cost as well as the potential for on-going demands on state resources to cover operating costs.
In 2007, the New Hampshire Rail Transit Authority (NHRTA) was formed to oversee the development of rail transit in New Hampshire with a specific focus on advancing the Capital Corridor project. In 2014, NHDOT released the New Hampshire Capital Corridor Rail & Transit Analysis which was viewed as a key milestone in the process of developing the line. The study evaluated a range of rail and bus transit alternatives for the Corridor and concluded that a long-favored alternative providing two stations in Nashua, one in downtown Manchester and one at the Airport would offer “[] the greatest economic benefit with moderate construction investment.” Capital costs were estimated at approximately $246 million with $10.8 million in annual operating costs. Capital and operating costs were assumed to come from federal, state and MBTA sources along with nongovernmental revenue sources such as passenger fares and parking fees. Ridership was estimated 3,120 per day or 668,000 weekday riders per year, a figure more than 30% higher than the Downeaster.
To advance the project to the next step, $4 million in funding (80% federal and 20% state) was sought to develop a more detailed service plan, financial plan and to complete engineering. The funding, however, has not been included in the state’s Ten-Year Plan and despite the passionate advocacy of its supporters, including business groups, the Capital Corridor project has not progressed since completion of the 2014 study. Earlier this year, House Bill 267 was passed which replaced the NRHTA with the newly formed New Hampshire Transportation Council (NHTC). The NHTC will have a broader purpose with a scope encompassing passenger rail as well as other alternative transportation modes.
Other Alternatives Explored
Another passenger rail alternative proposed in recent years was also planned as an extension of existing MBTA commuter rail service; in this case from Boston to Plaistow, NH via Haverhill, MA. The MBTA’s interest in the proposal was primarily stimulated by a desire to relocate an existing layover facility in Haverhill. In 2015, the NHDOT completed a study that evaluated alternatives for a new station and a layover facility together with potential environmental impacts, ridership and costs. The Plaistow initiative has also failed to advance, due in large part to local opposition.
With the failure of the Capital Corridor initiative to move forward, a more limited privately funded passenger rail alternative recently surfaced. The Boston Surface Railroad Company (BSRC), founded in 2012, has proposed offering a more limited service between Bedford, NH and Lowell, MA with one stop near downtown Nashua at an existing city-owned Park & Ride at Crown Street. The service would utilize an existing Pan Am rail line with minimal upgrades and operate with refurbished rather than new locomotives and passenger cars. Because of its reduced scope of service and its reliance on private funds, BSRC anticipates that the service could be in operation in as soon as four years. BSRC is also planning to operate passenger rail service between Worcester, MA and Providence, RI which it hopes to have operational as soon as 2019. The City of Nashua has entered into a memorandum of understanding with BSRC and has formed a local Rail Transit Committee to help advance the extension of passenger rail service to the Gate City.
Conclusion
Though the challenge of providing expanded passenger rail service to New Hampshire residents has seemed daunting at times, the state has benefited from significant improvements in access, frequency and speed for nearly 20 years. These improvements include an entirely new line of service with the advent of the Downeaster and significant upgrades to the Vermonter line. Despite these advances, New Hampshire’s largest cities are still striving for access to the larger New England passenger rail network. The extension of commuter rail from Boston up the Merrimack Valley, therefore, will undoubtedly continue to be a focal point of economic development and transportation planning, as well as debate, for years to come.
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Two Terminals — North South Rail Link
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Our current regional rail systems are largely the product of bold but uncoordinated expansion followed by incomplete integration. Each line was built by private companies serving particular destinations, and fostering development all along the routes.
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https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/561e6ed5e4b039248a6a94aa/1448310735364-GIK2AMEKF0X1E614US4U/favicon.ico
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North South Rail Link
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http://www.northsouthraillink.org/two-terminals
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Boston's Two Terminals and Early Efforts to Link Them
Our current regional rail systems are largely the product of bold but uncoordinated expansion followed by incomplete integration.
Each line was built by private companies serving particular destinations, and fostering development all along the routes. In the late 19th century, as traffic grew and the rail yards became ever more unwieldy, the many small terminals that served the lines extending north and south of the city were consolidated into two great terminals, at North and South Stations. North Station was completed in 1893. South Station followed in 1900.
North Station, built in 1893, was once the busiest rail station in the nation and a stunning gateway to (and from) points north. Architecture was deployed not just as a noble civic device, but for savvy commercial purposes, helping to make the railroads attractive and seductive, for all social classes.
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https://railroad.net/boston-s-wildcat-branch-t104328.html
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Boston's Wildcat Branch
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2012-09-19T14:48:38+00:00
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RAILROAD.NET
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https://railroad.net/boston-s-wildcat-branch-t104328.html
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Discussion relating to commuter rail, light rail, and subway operations of the MBTA.
Moderators: sery2831, CRail
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https://www.nashuacitystation.org/history/
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Railroads & Street Railways
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http://www.nashuacitystation.org/history/
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Nashua's Railroads Past and Present
The first railroad to be constructed in New Hampshire was the Nashua & Lowell Railroad, extending Massachusetts's first railroad between Boston and Lowell. By train, goods could now travel between the mill cities and down to Boston in under an hour, rather than the day it took to travel by horse-drawn wagon or canal. Besides being faster, railroads provided reliable year-round service as canals would freeze during the winter and stagecoach paths would become muddy and be nearly impassible during spring thaws.
As technology improved from the first trains of the 1830s, trains were able to haul more people and goods faster and farther - but so did other modes of transportation. As the car and truck industry developed along with the railroads, and highways were built parallel to most railroad routes, the short distances between communities in New England lent itself to trucking and personal automobiles being the economical choice. Today, the railroad network in New Hampshire is a fraction of what it once was, but it still does what it was built for well - moving bulk commodities and products long distances efficiently.
Nashua's Street Railways
Before buses connected the edges of our communities, trolley cars rattled down our main streets, connecting home with work, school, and play.
All Railroads and Street Railways
Railroads :: Connecticut • Maine • Massachusetts • New Hampshire • New York • Rhode Island • Vermont
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Railroads of Connecticut
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Railroads of Maine
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Railroads of New York
Railroads listed for New York state are focused on those related to the Boston & Albany, Boston & Maine, Delaware & Hudson, New Haven, and Rutland Railroads.
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Railroads of Rhode Island
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Connecticut
Maine
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Street Railways & Public Transit
The companies and agencies listed here primarily focus on those that served New Hampshire and those merged into New England's major railroads.
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State Governments & Railroad-related Agencies and Departments
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Lowell Regional Transit Authority
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Realtime Arrivals from RouteMatch
Where's my Bus?
View a system map of real-time bus locations
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Regional Rail Proof of Concept — TransitMatters
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TransitMatters
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https://transitmatters.org/regional-rail-proof-of-concept-web
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Our guiding principle, as always, is organization before electronics before concrete. This means that before investing in anything else, the MBTA should immediately take steps to improve rail operations by maximizing train throughput. Some modifications are required to make sure trains can run more frequently, but these modifications involve better scheduling, more reliable electrical equipment, resignaling the terminal zone, and minor trackwork, all of which are significantly less expensive and more cost-effective than relocating property in Downtown Boston to expand the station footprint. With better operations, SSX is unnecessary and its budget can be reinvested in better projects, such as high-level platforms and electrification across the entire MBTA regional rail system. The resources exist; they simply need to be spent wisely.
The essential lesson is that the capacity of a terminal zone is dependent on how fast trains can enter and exit the station and its throat. At both South and North Stations, there are 10 mph speed limits for about half a mile out, which can be lifted to about 30 mph. There are also generous margins of error required by frequent failure rates endemic to the MBTA’s current diesel locomotive fleet, margins that can be specifically decreased with modern equipment.
Rather than run any meaningful level of reverse-peak service and midday service, the MBTA instead sends morning peak trains to sit idle in large, inefficient layover yards within Boston (the second most expensive real estate market on the east coast of North America.) This wasteful practice requires conflicting movements of trainsets across the main line, imposing further strain on downtown terminal capacity. The precious terminal capacity tied up by these practices could instead go toward providing transformative levels of regional rail service to the Greater Boston area.
TransitMatters proposes to eliminate these capacity-killing problems through a cost-effective combination of operational reforms and targeted investments. No station footprint expansion is needed. The trackwork required is at very small scale and entirely within the right-of-way. In the mid-to-long term, following implementation of these reforms and targeted investments, construction of the North-South Rail Link (NSRL) would provide a more direct trip to downtown Boston from the North Side, thus warranting higher frequency of service for all North Side lines and full realization of a transformative Regional Rail vision.
The Terminal Interlockings and Speed
Our projected schedules have trains traveling between South Station and Back Bay in 2.5 minutes, and between South Station and Ruggles in 4.5 minutes. Today, trains are timetabled to take 5 and 8 minutes respectively. This difference is due in part to the assumption of electrification, and partly to speeding up the slowest part of the route - namely, the South Station approaches and terminal capacity limits. While city center terminals such as North and South Station will always face inflexible constraints absent costly expansion, the switches can support much higher speeds than the current 10 mph limit.
There are two primary reasons for today’s conservative 10 mph speed limit. First, as is typical in the United States, many passenger train speed limits are simply too low, a legacy of the steam era, and have never been revised. For example, the extent of legally allowable centrifugal force on a train moving through a curve, which in turn governs its maximum speed, is based on a passenger comfort experiment conducted in the 1950s with New Haven Railroad trains; this outdated requirement reduces allowable speed on curves by 15-30% relative to best practice. Thankfully, the regulations were recently superseded by the Federal Railroad Administration (“FRA”), but the MBTA has not taken advantage of the change.
Second, the design of American switches (or “turnouts”) is handed down from a bygone era and does not properly control for the change in acceleration experienced by a diverging train. Based again on steam-era standards, current American industry standards for switches require the diverging rail to be straight where it crosses the straight rail, a point called the “frog.” In contrast, for example, German switches are curved through the frog and are designed for smoother transition between the straight segments and the curved ones, enabling greater speed through the curves. The point being, our switch turnouts are significantly slower than other world-class train systems. These are resolvable barriers to better train speed and throughput.
It is hard to overstate the importance of removing the slowest speed restrictions, which are in place at both North and South Stations. A half mile at 10 mph takes 3 minutes to traverse. In contrast, at 30 mph, with dedicated tracks to improve reliability, that time is cut by two-thirds; trains in that same half-mile approach would spend a minute going into a station terminal and a minute going out. This is not done today as a result of suboptimal switch design and antiquated signaling circuits, some of which hail from the steam era. These slow zones are unnecessary and relatively easy to fix, alongside fixes to terminal capacity. To add perspective to the relative cost and impact of our proposal, the modest investments in reliability and switch design that we propose can save more time in the last half mile into North or South Station than would Amtrak’s $450 million project to increase top speed in New Jersey from 135 to 160 mph.
The pinch point in the South Station throat is an interlocking called Tower 1. It features a complex of switches called a ladder track: trains from tracks at one end can take the diverging path on a series of switches, thus gaining access to all of the different South Station terminal track options. North Station has an interlocking called Tower A with similar characteristics that allow trains from any track to access any other track at the North Station terminal. While on the surface this seems practical, it is one more vestige of prior century railroading and it slows the trains down, thereby limiting the capacity of each terminal. With all day service by reliable trains and separated track assignments for each line, there is no need for trains to have infinite track options.
Fortunately, the process of reconfiguring the switches to allow smoother, faster travel, called “kinematic gauge optimization”, does not require infrastructure modifications beyond the rails themselves. The switches do not need to be made longer. Modifying the switches to smooth the transition to the curve requires track geometry changes so subtle they can be done within the right of way, without hitting various utility and catenary poles. The project requires laying rails but does not require any of the usual difficult sitework complicating capital construction. Thus, this improvement is relatively inexpensive and has also been recently undertaken and completed by one of our neighbor railroads: Metro-North Railroad recently upgraded 40 mph turnouts to 65 mph at a cost of only a few hundred thousand dollars each.
With the switches so modified, trains could enter and exit the terminals at speeds up to 30-35 mph, allowing trains to clear the station throats rapidly. This alone would serve to increase terminal station capacity, since moving trains in and out faster increases the maximum throughput.
The Importance of Clockface Scheduling and Rapid Turn Times
A disciplined schedule must repeat on a clockface pattern. This means that if a train runs every 15 minutes and serves a station inbound at 9:05, it will serve it in that direction at :05, :20, :35, and :50 every hour all day. Passengers can memorize these schedules more easily than the complex schedules favored by American planners. Moreover, infrastructure planning is simplified when trains run at consistent intervals, since overtakes and meets on single track are at predictable locations. One Swiss planner humorously put it this way: “We Swiss are lazy, so we plan one hour and repeat it for the rest of the day.”
If trains enter and exit a station throat on a frequent, repeating timetable, and they only occupy the interlocking for a minute in each direction, the maximum capacity of the throat is much higher than current practices allow. Functions such as refueling, which currently require trains to reverse to the yard and not back onto the mainline at downtown terminals, can be handled at suburban terminals and layover yards (and with electrification, refueling ceases to be relevant.)
Turning trains more quickly increases terminal throughput and capacity. American commuter trains turn in 10 minutes at New Haven, and occasionally in Worcester when recovering from delays. Amtrak Keystone trains regularly turn in 10 minutes at Philadelphia’s 30th Street Station. By contrast, in Germany, trains routinely turn in less than 5 minutes. The MBTA can achieve these turn-around metrics as well if it adopts the global best practices we set forth in this supplement.
High frequency all day in both directions, proof-of-payment fare collection, and automatic door opening all combine to increase labor efficiency to the point that train crews can quickly disembark from the train they used to reach Boston, and operate another train ready for departure. This way crews can be perfectly positioned on standby (these are called dropback crews) for departure, reducing turnback times below 5 minutes.
Even accepting 10 minutes as a turnaround time, trains can be scheduled to occupy each track for 15 minutes: 10 minutes of turn time and 5 minutes of approach time and schedule contingency. While far from world class, even improving the MBTA’s turn times to this extent would allow a peak frequency of 4 tph per terminal track. With 4 tph, South Station’s 13 tracks could accommodate 52 trains per hour. Today, peak traffic into South Station is 20 trains per hour per direction, less than half of what is realistically possible, while still being at the lower end of best-in-class railroads.
In Tokyo, the crowding level is such that practically all equipment is single-level with many doors, usually four pairs per car. Bilevel trains would simply take too long to unload. Berlin and Munich use single-deckers as well on their S-Bahn networks, with three door pairs per car. The Munich S-Bahn does so in a context in which one line has 840,000 riders per weekday, almost as many as all MBTA rail lines combined.
Ultimately, theoretical capacity based on seats per train set is an insufficient metric against which to weigh the merits of single-level versus bilevel cars. At frequencies sufficient to achieve all-day frequent service (a minimum headway of 15 minutes at peak inside Route 128), the excessive dwell times and accessibility challenges imposed by bilevels cancel out their theoretical capacity gains. If passengers fill single-level trains to capacity, the solution is to buy more cars and run longer, more frequent trains. This serves to not only move more passengers, but increase flexibility of the service through more frequent trips. When trains are sufficiently frequent, passengers become relatively indifferent to which train they are on so long as they can get on the next one. This reduces the extent of peak crowding now seen on specific trains.
Though the MBTA is accustomed to ordering and maintaining bespoke equipment, modern trains are more like commodities. Vendors offer modular products, fabricating them at their existing plants with customization for local needs. Such trains have wide doors, weigh about 44 short tons per US-length car, and cost about $2.5 million. The contrast with today’s MBTA equipment is stark. The MBTA’s coaches do not all have automatic doors - conductors manually operate the doors. The aisles are narrow (and easily obstructed) and the doors are at the ends of the car rather than at the quarter points (four evenly spaced doors per car-side), slowing down the boarding and alighting process. Some trains take 5 minutes to fully unload at South Station at rush hour. It can feel like waiting to deplane from the rear of an aircraft. These dwell times completely undermine the speed and frequency required for regional rail to be a functional, competitive, and favorable transportation mode.
We are now well past the point of delaying the decision that must be correctly made in the public interest: Massachusetts must immediately commit to procuring single-level EMUs, starting with the Providence Line and continuing rollout to other lines while in the course of rapid and successive electrification of the entirety of the current and planned commuter rail system. Any further investment in bilevel coaches or diesel locomotives would be, in our view, not merely questionable – it would be irresponsible as it continues a system that is highly inefficient and that, because of its inherent inefficiency, serves as a constant drag on better frequencies and requires unnecessary costly initiatives like SSX. Our proposed Regional Rail operating model would move more people by optimizing frequency gains from single-level EMUs. The existing equipment, both locomotives and coaches, is not compatible with modern operations, and the write-down on its remaining useful life is less than the damage it causes through slow operations and limited capacity.
Nonetheless, assuming a staged adoption of electrification, current coaches with remaining useful life should be reallocated to the non-electrified lines to increase service frequency and capacity to the extent possible prior to electrification and completion of high-level platform construction. They may also be useful for new intercity service to western Massachusetts, or even as far as Albany, at least until such service is electrified.
The Role of NSRL
In our Regional Rail report, we said that while the North-South Rail Link was not critical to implementing a robust Regional Rail system, it would be a “highly useful enhancement providing the flexibility and connectivity to which many riders and potential riders would be drawn.” If NSRL is constructed, frequencies are likely to rise because of an increase in passenger traffic demand (especially on the North Side, as North Station is not in the CBD and South Station is) and the more useful service would induce much greater demand. Thankfully, through-stations do not have problems with terminal interlockings and turn access capacity to which much of this paper is devoted. The following frequencies will become viable upon completion of the NSRL:
Worcester Line: 8 tph on the inner segment to Newton, 4 continuing farther out
Providence Line: 4 tph
Stoughton Line: 4 tph
Franklin Line: 4 tph
Fairmount Line: 12 tph if Franklin trains operate via Fairmount, or 8 if Franklin trains remain on the Southwest Corridor
Old Colony Lines (Kingston/Plymouth, Greenbush, and Middleborough/Lakeville): 12 tph, 4 per branch
Eastern Lines (Newburyport/Rockport): 12 tph on the inner segment to Salem, 4 per branch
Haverhill Line: 4 tph
Lowell Line: 4 tph if Haverhill Line trains continue to operate as today, 8 if they go via the Wildcat Branch
Fitchburg Line: 12 tph on the inner segment to Brandeis/Roberts, 4 continuing farther
NSRL would also allow a further increase in speed, since the tracks would continue through downtown rather than terminating at stub end terminals where trains must slow to approach. The reason to enter South and North Stations at 30 mph (as advised in this report) is that the consequences of overrunning the bumpers are catastrophic. At through-stations, entering at 50-60 mph even in city centers is feasible.
With NSRL in place, only a small subset of trains would still need to navigate the surface terminal interlockings at North and South Stations. Within the tunnel, tracks should be dedicated similar to the track separation we propose for terminal stations, in the sense that one portal only pairs with the Providence and Worcester Lines and another only with Fairmount and Old Colony. This would permit about 24 tph in each direction per tunnel pair, or 48 for the four-track system. The remaining additional trains not traversing the tunnels would use surface terminal platforms.
Schedules would continue to run clockface, except at higher frequency. The S-Bahns in Berlin and Munich have high frequency and almost total through-running and maintain their clockface patterns, as does the Paris RER off-peak.
Single-level trains become even more crucial with NSRL. The minimum headway in the NSRL tunnel is determined by the sum of station dwell time and the time it takes the train to stop decelerating from full speed. Bi-level train dwell times will never support the necessary headways for running a regional rail system through NSRL tunnels.
Ultimately, NSRL is a major booster for Regional Rail. It is not necessary for the basic Regional Rail system, nor for more efficient use of current South Station platforms, which require good operations and electrification. But as a non-trivial investment in concrete infrastructure, NSRL is the logical extension building upon the modernization of organization and electronics as prescribed above because it greatly improves access to Boston and the entire metro area. As such, NSRL engineering must be based upon optimized Regional Rail operations, specifically the use of single-level EMUs. Unfortunately, as we’ve pointed out, the 2018 NSRL feasibility reassessment commissioned by MassDOT grossly understated the benefits of the NSRL by building in assumptions of antiquated operations and equipment in the tunnels, which had the added effect of artificially driving up the projected cost. Moving forward with NSRL without first committing to achieving Regional Rail operations as a predicate would result in a NSRL tunnel that could never live up to its true potential.
Current situation
The Framingham/Worcester Line is a major transportation link traversing the corridor between Boston and Worcester, serving the MetroWest region of Massachusetts. With 18,637 average weekday riders as of 2018, the line is the MBTA’s second-busiest. It connects the Commonwealth’s two largest cities to each other and numerous intermediate suburbs. It also provides access to people along the corridor to job centers, primarily in Downtown Boston and Back Bay but also in smaller job clusters in Worcester and suburbs in between.
The Commonwealth faces a decade of significant vehicular mobility disruption on Interstate 90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike) due to anticipated reconstruction and relocation of the elevated highway approaching downtown Boston and private sector air rights developments in the same area. The need for frequent and reliable transit and rail mobility along this corridor is urgent. The MBTA should immediately increase off-peak frequency, and invest money in electrification and new rolling stock to commence high-quality Regional Rail operations as soon as possible.
The plan we propose supports both short-and long-term mobility along the corridor. The ultimate goal is a transition to Regional Rail (according to the vision for fast, frequent, all day, electrified service set forth in our Regional Rail report), and all future infrastructure investments must be undertaken with this goal in mind.
Turnpike Reconstruction & Relocation Mitigation: A First Step Towards Regional Rail
The near-term goal is to implement an achievable and meaningful mitigation program in response to the planned reconstruction and relocation of the Massachusetts Turnpike in Allston, mitigation that will boost the frequency of all-day service to the maximum enabled by existing infrastructure. Accordingly, it is essential for the relevant state agencies to commit to keeping both tracks on the Worcester Line in operation during all service hours for the duration of the I-90 realignment project.
This mitigation program would consist of higher frequency bidirectional service throughout the entire service day from early morning to late-night. Outside of rush hour, trains would run at least hourly at a consistent interval. Half-hourly service would be optimal; however, current signaling constraints may dictate that in the short-term hourly off-peak frequency is the limit. Implementing this short-term goal would require maintaining two tracks during operating hours throughout turnpike reconstruction, moving any layover area from Allston to somewhere near the intersection of Interstate 90 and Route 128, and resolution of equipment and staffing constraints, to potentially include reassigning split shifts in the off-peak midday period. Negotiations with Keolis and rail unions ought to commence promptly, with the objective of resolving all barriers to implementing this program within the next 12 months. If half-hourly off-peak trains were implemented during the mitigation period, they may need to skip the Newton stations in the reverse peak direction until the Newton stations have platforms on both tracks, as discussed further below.
Our mid-term goals for the line incorporate efforts already underway along with additional efforts that should be achievable in a reasonable period of time. These include the following:
Completion of the construction project at Natick Center (currently in design), which will convert this station to a fully accessible station with full-length high-level platforms;
Conversion of the three Newton stations to full-length high-level platforms (already planned on one side of each station). We advocate that high-level platforms be added to the opposite sides of these Newton stations as soon as possible and on an accelerated timeline;
Completion of the upgrades to the signaling system (ATC / cab signals) on the Framingham to Boston segment (currently in design); and
Completion of the new island platform at Worcester Union Station, along with the associated interlocking improvements near Worcester Station (both currently in design).
These treatments will greatly improve service relative to the status quo, and lay the groundwork for the broader transformation of the line’s operation along a Regional Rail operating model. We describe the necessary conditions towards achieving this standard for the remainder of this document.
Needed Improvements
The Worcester Line had some of the worst performance in the system from the late 1990s through early 2000s, suffering from freight interference, low passenger train priority, and aging infrastructure. The purchase of the rail right-of-way from CSX in 2009 and progressive upgrades to track infrastructure have led to significant improvements. The entire line is double tracked up to Worcester, and has only five at-grade street crossings. Further incremental improvements are required to enable Regional Rail-type service.
High Level Platforms
As discussed in our Regional Rail report, high level platforms enable step-free accessibility to the train and decrease train boarding/deboarding dwell times dramatically, which will significantly decrease the train trip times over the line. Unfortunately, of the 18 stations on the route, only South Station, Lansdowne, and Boston Landing have full-length high-level platforms. Worcester has a partial high-level platform, while Back Bay, West Natick, Framingham, Ashland, Southborough, Westborough, and Grafton have mini high-level platforms built in the early 2000s. The half-measure of “mini-high platforms” meets a bare minimum accessibility standard, but requires passengers needing high platforms to register intent with conductors, wait in the correct portion of the train, or force the train to stop twice at a given station stop. In addition, rush hour crowds require passengers to spread out throughout the low-level platform, making it prohibitive to restrict boarding to mini-highs. All stations from Newtonville to Natick Center lack even mini-highs and are thus totally inaccessible and highly inefficient.
As a result, dwell times are far too lengthy and accessibility is insufficient, a condition completely unacceptable for modern rail service. High-level platforms must be added at all stations in order to enable the fastest possible service. The most urgent priorities are at Back Bay and the three stations in Newton.
Back Bay is the third highest-ridership commuter rail station in downtown Boston, serving what is effectively the city’s second downtown; some 62,000 jobs are located in a half-mile radius. The lack of high-level platforms on the Worcester side of the station imposes a substantial delay on peak-hour trains in particular. The addition of a full high-level platform here is an immediate need.
The stations in Newton currently have only a single platform on one track, which prevents higher frequency at those stations. While switches in Brighton and Weston allow for some flexibility of operation, the status quo severely inhibits potential service levels. Service is configured such that the Newton stations receive primarily rush hour station stops (inbound AM, outbound PM). Currently only one inbound train makes stops in Newton during the evening, and only one outbound train stops in the morning well after the morning peak is over (10:35 -10:45 AM).
As a result of the advocacy of TransitMatters, the MBTA changed course on a short-sighted plan to construct a high-level platform for one track at Auburndale. In practice, the plan would have permanently single-tracked the station on the opposite track from the existing platforms at the other two Newton stations, severely altering the schedule pattern at all the Newton stations. The MBTA completed a study to reexamine the Newton stations holistically, and the resulting plan advanced now includes full-length high-level platforms on a single track - but the same track - at all three stations. The designs for each station also allow for the future addition of high-level platforms on the opposite track. The execution of that future option should be accelerated in order to permit bidirectional service to the three Newton stations all day. Combined with electrification allowing for EMU-operated service, this would improve trip times for the local neighborhoods, and relieve overcrowding on some of the express and local buses operating along this corridor.
Speed and Signaling
The maximum speed on most of the line is currently 60 MPH. However, the MBTA has recently upgraded the limit to 79 MPH in places where track has been upgraded.
Most of the line can support 90 MPH and some segments are straight enough for 100. Between Allston and Framingham, the tightest curve (at Riverside) permits 87 MPH provided trains can take it at modern speeds. Railroad tracks can be banked (known as “superelevation”) to facilitate taking curves at speed. The Worcester Line’s curves currently have weak levels of banking which stand to be increased significantly. Moreover, federal regulations for train speed on curves were modified at the beginning of this decade allowing trains to run faster, subject to testing; unfortunately, the MBTA is still not making use of the new rules.
It is possible that signals will need to be updated to allow for the requisite frequency improvements. The MBTA should explore best-practice signaling technology and procedures, drawing on international expertise. Keolis Commuter Services, the present commuter rail concessionaire, has experience operating high-frequency services, chiefly the RER network in Paris (one of the systems which informs our operating model). MassDOT and the MBTA should draw on this knowledge base, and future contracting decisions should take experience with modern signaling into account.
The Issue of Express Service
At 44.2 miles, the Framingham/Worcester Line is the second-longest line in the commuter rail network, behind the Fitchburg Line. The line has numerous stations, with an average stop spacing of 2.6 miles, while also connecting Massachusetts’ two largest cities. The MBTA operates both local and express service on the line to keep travel times reasonable at peak hours. In recent years, two super-express one-way trains have been introduced, one running from Worcester to Boston in the morning and another running back in the evening, nonstop between Lansdowne and Worcester. Under a Regional Rail operating model, with frequent all-day service and possible infill stations on the urban end, intra-urban service would be provided as well.
To improve express service, the MBTA is currently in the process of planning for an express-only third track between Framingham and Route 128. This express track would extend from just east of Framingham Station (specifically Control Point (CP) 21, between Concord Street and Bishop Street) to a point between Wellesley Farms and Auburndale (CP 11, just west of Route 128). Triple-tracking is a significant project that would require realignment of all the tracks and reconstruction of all the stations, but the existing ROW is sufficiently wide to avoid land takings or displacement of buildings, and no major bridge reconstruction will be required. The tracks would be arranged such that the center track is an express track with no platforms at the five affected stations, which would have full-length high-level side platforms on the outer “local” tracks. The almost complete design for Natick Center accommodates the potential center third express track.
We do not, however, believe that a third track spanning the entire length of this distance is necessary. Building an overtake “siding” track at a strategic location between CP 21 and CP 11 (at Wellesley) instead would save money on tracks that could be redirected to spending on measures that further reduce trip time, specifically electrification. In particular, the time savings from electrification and clockface scheduling optimization would provide trip times better than those provided by the nonstop Worcester-Lansdowne service.
When the schedule repeats itself on a clockface pattern throughout the day, express trains always overtake local trains at the same location. Thus, only that location needs additional tracks. Typically, this requires quadruple rather than triple tracking, or else the express trains are forced into what is for them a single-track bottleneck; however, it is feasible, though difficult, to schedule the trains around the bottleneck.
All medium- and long-term investment in the Worcester Line must take into account increases in service quality based on Regional Rail upgrades. The gains described above from full-length high-level platforms lead to significant reductions in dwell time. Moreover, achieving the ultimate goal of an all-EMU fleet is critical for providing the best speed and service possible, as they have low operating costs, high reliability, and a very high acceleration rate. These treatments have other benefits, but they particularly reduce the speed difference between local and express trains.
With minor track improvements allowing trains to take curves at higher speed than today (by increasing the banking through curves), EMU-operated local trains could go between Boston and Worcester in less than an hour, faster than today’s nonstop trains. Trains running express to Framingham could do the trip in 45 minutes, making local stops from Framingham west; there is no need for nonstop Boston-Worcester trains, which take service from intermediate stations. Even before the line is fully electrified, the improvements in trip time from increased banking would be beneficial in the short term. Each station that is converted to full-length high-level platforms also adds incremental reductions in trip duration.
If Worcester Line service runs every 15 minutes, the speed difference between local and express trains requires a single overtake location. That necessary overtake location is in Wellesley, where the station platforms need to be completely rebuilt anyway. With a Wellesley overtake, there is enough capacity for an express as well as a local every 15 minutes. Off-peak, local trains should still run every 15 minutes to guarantee frequent service to Newton, but express trains can run at a lower frequency, every half hour. A half-hourly frequency is not so onerous to passengers between Worcester and Boston, a 45-minute trip, as to passengers between West Newton and Boston, a 17-minute trip.
There are consequences of the express train option on potential future service growth. Due to scheduling complexity, the presence of express trains will impose a limit of 4 trains per hour (“tph”) for local service between Boston and Auburndale . To operate more frequent local service while preserving express trains, additional tracks would be required.
Infill Stations
Between Lansdowne and Newtonville, the line passes through the dense neighborhoods of Allston, Brighton, and northern Newton. The addition of Boston Landing station has proven successful, serving many weekday passengers. With fast EMU acceleration and full high-level platforms reducing the time it takes to make stops, trains could make multiple additional stops without increasing overall trip times vs. current levels. The most immediately promising location is “West Station” in Allston, at the former Beacon Park freight yards. West Station is discussed in greater detail below.
Newton Corner is another strong candidate, and we include it on our schedules. A station was located here until 1959. The site still has somewhat denser development than Newtonville, West Newton, and Auburndale. While the station would potentially require complex engineering work - the footprint is surrounded by a hotel built over the Turnpike and tracks - strong value is added from allowing a transfer from local buses. Several bus routes pass by Newton Corner between downtown Boston and Newton, Watertown, Waltham, and Needham. With a transfer to fast and frequent rail service, it may become possible to terminate at least some of these routes in Newton, and use the buses and operators that don’t need to go all the way to Boston to increase bus service, frequency, and potentially geographical reach in the surrounding area. Improvements to rail service in Newton and other communities along the Worcester line corridor should be accompanied by a re-evaluation of connecting local bus service, which will be more useful and necessary as ridership demand increases in response to Regional Rail.
A more speculative infill location is in Brighton at Brooks Street. Like Newton Corner, it historically had a station, called Faneuil, and abuts dense housing. Moreover, the area is far from the Green Line, and a station here could provide a transfer to the 57 and 64 buses, the former being among the MBTA’s busiest. We do not include it on our schedule, but we do plan the overtakes in a way that makes future addition of Faneuil Station easy with minor timetable modifications.
The proximity of the Worcester Line to major highways presents at least one opportunity to capture auto traffic outside the urban core. It may be feasible to open a park-and-ride station near the interchange between I/90 (the turnpike) and Route 128 (I/95). Commuters from locations far from the line bound for jobs in the Back Bay and Allston-Brighton, or reverse commuting to Framingham and Worcester, could easily take advantage of frequent regional rail. Such a location would also be ideal for connections to shuttle bus service to job centers in the 128 corridor west from Waltham to Needham.
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Will Boston ever build the North-South Rail Link?
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"Chloe Courtney Bohl"
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2024-03-19T00:00:00
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The rail link could unify public transit up and down the New England corridor. But are Mass. lawmakers ready for another tunnel project?
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en
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Boston.com
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https://www.boston.com/news/wickedpedia/2024/03/19/will-boston-ever-build-the-north-south-rail-link/
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Practically speaking, Boston’s commuter rail system is actually two separate systems. One extends from South Station down the Worcester, Needham, Fairmount, Franklin, Providence/Stoughton, Middleborough/Lakeville, Kingston, and Greenbush lines. The other stretches from North Station along the Fitchburg, Lowell, Haverhill, and Newburyport/Rockport lines.
The North-South Rail Link — a 2.8-mile tunnel connecting North and South stations — would bridge the north/south divide, allowing trains to run interrupted across the region. Advocates say the benefits are clear: Building the link would facilitate faster commutes into the city from farther away, easing pressure on Boston’s choked housing market and taking cars off congested highways. Better regional transit is good for economic growth, they say, and for the climate.
So why has this seemingly simple fix never quite gained traction? Depending who you ask, it’s a testament to the eye-popping price tag, Boston’s Big Dig hangover, or a deeper aversion to big, ambitious projects.
A decades-long debate
Massachusetts lawmakers have been talking about building the NSRL since at least the administration of Gov. Michael Dukakis in the 1970s. Congress even voted to fund the Rail Link’s construction in 1987, as part of an $87.5 billion highway and mass transit bill — which also included money for the Big Dig and over 100 other projects around the country. But President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill, spurring a tooth-and-nail fight in the Senate to override the veto and save the legislation. In the course of that battle, the Rail Link project was sacrificed to appease the 13 Republican senators who broke ranks with Reagan and voted to override.
Since the ’80s, successive generations of national, state, and local elected officials have thrown their support behind the NSRL. Congressman Seth Moulton is a particularly staunch advocate; former governors Dukakis and Bill Weld, Sen. Ed Markey, and Mayor Michelle Wu are also supporters, along with a laundry list of state senators and representatives.
But building another tunnel beneath downtown Boston would be complicated and expensive. In 2017 a Harvard Kennedy School cost analysis estimated the Rail Link would cost between $3.8 and $5.9 billion in 2025 dollars. The price range reflected different build options: two versus four tracks, different routes beneath the city.
The year after the Harvard study came out, Gov. Charlie Baker’s administration released it own “feasibility study.” This time, the Rail Link was estimated to cost a hair-raising $12.3 to $21.4 billion. (For reference, the infamous Big Dig ended up costing about $24 billion.)
Which estimate is most accurate? And how would the benefits of this major transit project measure up to its costs? Ever since Maura Healey replaced Baker in 2023, proponents of the North-South Rail Link have been asking these questions with renewed urgency.
In response to questions from Boston.com, a spokesperson for the state Department of Transportation said that “currently there is no new study planned regarding creating passenger rail service between South Station and North Station in Boston.”
But supporters of the project are lobbying the Healey administration to reexamine the 2018 feasibility study and recognize their vision for the Rail Link.
Why build the North-South Rail Link?
Moulton, who represents Massachusetts’ 6th District, has been pushing for the North-South Rail Link for years. In a statement to Boston.com, he stressed the need for bold changes to Massachusetts’ transit landscape.
“We say people should use transit, but we only invest in our highways and airports,” Moulton wrote to Boston.com. “I don’t buy the argument that fixing our rail network is too hard or too expensive. If we make smart, transformative investments like North-South Rail, they will pay for themselves in economic benefits many times over.”
Today, the disconnected transit system limits where people can live and work within Greater Boston. According to Moulton, the Rail Link would enable you to “travel straight from Salem to Providence, or Worcester to Maine, and the jobs and housing opportunities that open up will be extraordinary.”
One of the key promises of the Rail Link is that it would create stronger links between Boston and smaller satellite economies like Chelsea, Everett, Lynn, and Salem. The Rail Link could also open up prime real estate in downtown Boston that’s currently occupied by Amtrak and commuter rail train yards. If North and South Station’s “stub ends” were linked, those yards could be moved outside the city.
Jarred Johnson is the executive director of TransitMatters, a nonprofit that advocates for better public transportation in Greater Boston. The way he sees it, the question of whether to invest in improved public transit is an existential one for Boston.
“Other places will eat our lunch,” he said, pointing to cities like Toronto, Montreal, and New York, where major transit expansions are either planned or already underway. “A city where the trains are slow, and where they’re not expanding to meet demand — that’s a city that falls behind.”
Johnson pointed out that the 2018 feasibility study only looked at costs — not benefits or value created.
“Let’s be honest, the last governor had no intention to ever do the project,” he said. “We need a study that actually presupposes that we think this is a good idea.”
How much would it cost, really?
Remember that Harvard Kennedy School study that estimated the North-South Rail Link would cost at most $5.9 billion, not $21 billion? It was directed by Linda Bilmes, a leading expert on public finance who serves on the United Nations Committee of Experts on Public Administration. Bilmes and her graduate students used Federal Transit Administration data to estimate the cost of each component of the Rail Link. They double-checked the result against cost estimates for comparable tunnel projects in other countries, then triple-checked it using a Monte Carlo analysis, a mathematical model that accounts for uncertainty.
“We have pretty good confidence that we have got the right order of magnitude amount because of the way that we did the study,” Bilmes told Boston.com.
Since 2017, high inflation has raised the expected costs of the tunnel. The study also didn’t account for the cost of electrification. Together, Bilmes estimates those factors could add about $2 billion onto her original estimate, raising the price tag to about $8 billion.
That’s still significantly lower than the 2018 Baker-commissioned study’s low-end estimate of $12.3 billion.
Plus, Bilmes said, “We weren’t asked to look at the benefits. … If I were going to do a cost-benefit study, I’d be delighted, because the benefits are enormous.”
Over 20 years, the economic benefits of opening up North/South travel through Greater Boston for business, recreation, and touristic purposes would “more than pay for the cost of the tunnel, many times,” Bilmes said.
The South Station expansion
In the short term, though, the MBTA has no budget for capital projects. So state lawmakers have set their sights on a less ambitious plan to relieve congestion on the commuter rail: an expansion of South Station.
The South Station Expansion would add 10 new train tracks (alongside the current 13) and a new bus terminal to the downtown transit hub at an estimated cost of $4.7 billion. The plan involves purchasing and redeveloping the adjoining U.S. Post Office site to make space for the new tracks.
“MassDOT considers this a priority project as South Station is currently at capacity,” a DOT spokesperson told Boston.com.
But the South Station Expansion wouldn’t address the fundamental problem of the north/south divide across Boston’s rail network. Moulton and Johnson both see it as a band-aid solution.
“The best way to expand capacity at South Station is to build the North-South Rail Link,” Moulton said.
Johnson added: “When I think about South Station Expansion and how expensive that is … and contemplate building tracks all the way up to the [Fort Point] channel, that to me is a wasted opportunity and a waste of money,” considering that land is “some of the most valuable real estate on Earth.”
What’s next for the Rail Link?
Congressman Moulton expressed optimism that the Healey administration is taking a forward-looking view of the state’s public transportation.
“My team and I are in a continuous dialogue with the Healey Administration, from the Governor and Secretary of Transportation on down, and we are pleased to see an administration finally taking the future of transportation seriously,” he wrote to Boston.com.
Johnson called for a new feasibility study and an updated cost estimate for the North-South Rail Link. He also urged the Department of Transportation to consider the Rail Link as an alternative to the South Station Expansion.
Bilmes and her team at Harvard are working on a cost-benefit analysis comparing the two projects. Results will come out later this year.
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https://ariofsevit.com/apb/
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2024-08-03T08:35:31-05:00
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en
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Boston has the worst airport transit in the country (and maybe the world), at least by a metric I devised below. The airport lies less than two miles from Downtown but under even the best of circumstances a trip there can take 25 to 30 minutes. If it wasn’t for the harbor, it would be a pleasant walk (San Diego, the only similarly-close airport in the country, is a nice walk from downtown). But it’s not, and it should be better.
Airport transit can be, and has been, measured in many ways, including:
Your boyfriend Nate Silver (This is a reference to Wonkette in … 2008? God I’m old.) looking at transit travel time versus driving and whether it makes sense to take transit just from a time standpoint and Honolulu somehow has faster transit than driving (not until HART opens, if it ever does).
The Points Guy who somehow has Boston on the Nice List (it’s close, I guess)
CityNerd who uses a similar metric to the one I will, but also doesn’t differentiate based on the distance from the airport, so airports near cities aren’t penalized when they have lousy transit connections (and he also doesn’t do buses, which I get, but they should be included).
My approach is a bit different: I wanted to look at each airport, the typical travel time to “downtown” with half a headway added to penalize infrequency and calculate the “speed” which this is based on a straight-line distance this covers. Most cities only have one airport. Cities with close-in airport transit connections should not get special treatment over those with airports far away with good transit connections. (This is where I disagree with Ray’s—uh, CityNerd’s—methodology, although that was one of his earlier videos and he has since moved to often using more complex analyses.) In a sense, it’s sort of a second derivative of travel time.
So what does it give us? For the 30ish largest airports (I added a couple extras for … fun, or in the case of Pittsburgh, because my wife was taking the 28X) the speeds range from 25 mph in Denver to a almost literal pedestrian 3.9 mph in Boston (although the pedestrian route would be longer since there’s a bit of ocean in the way, but a fast triathlete could make it faster than taking transit).
This metric has a flaw, however: there is a significant correlation between distance from city center and speed. It’s not surprising that the two closest cities to their airports, Boston and San Diego, are two of the three worst performers. A longer distance allows more time at speed and less time in congested areas. Similarly, some of the “fastest” connections are some of the furthest. Denver clocks in at 25 mph and while the A Line is a convenient trip, the airport seems halfway to Kansas, and it takes a good deal longer than Boston or San Diego.
So I plotted out these data, and took a regression, and figured out what the “speed” “should be” for each airport based on its distance from the city center. (Yes, that’s a lot of quotation marks in on sentence; this is a made-up metric.) Far-out airports should be faster, the trip doesn’t take place entirely near downtown (and the two closest airports to their respective downtowns are two of the three slowest), so trains can move faster over longer distances between stops and buses can benefit from less-congested highways. This gives us an idea of how fast a trip “should” be based on the distance traveled, so airports close in aren’t penalized compared with those far away. The R-squared here is about 0.6, and the line slope is 0.85 mph per mile from Downtown, plus a constant of 5 (which is basically half of a “decent” headway). So an airport 10 miles from a Downtown should have a travel speed of about 13.5 mph, meaning a 45 minute travel time, which seems about right.
Put this all together, and we can now compute, for each city, how fast we expect a trip to be compared to the actual speed, and then compare this. This adds a couple more columns to the chart but changes the order significantly. Also note that for this run at the data, I’ve added in the four big airports in Canada (Montreal, Toronto, Calgary, Vancouver) and for airports with under-construction links—namely, Montreal and Honolulu—added them in as well. (LAX also has something under construction, but I’m not sure it will make it any faster to get there, at least from downtown.) This changes the slope of the line slightly and the calculations are based on that slope. I’ve also bolded the airport name if it has an all-rail connection and italicized it the connection is a one-seat ride (nonstop for buses), and, yes, bold-italic shows a one-seat rail trip.
So Boston is still lowest on the list. We’d expect a trip for the two miles between Logan Airport and Downtown Boston to go about 7.5 mph, and for the trip to take about 14 minutes. Instead, it takes twice that. San Diego is no longer as close to the top of the list, beating out Portland, which has a direct rail connection but, because it takes so long to cover a relatively short distance, is worse.
The best transit, by this metric, is Atlanta, which is just 8.4 miles from downtown but averages 24 mph, nearly double what we’d expect, making the trip in 21 minutes. Toronto’s current rail line (the UP Express) and Montreal’s upcoming REM are also high, although Montreal’s will be part of an integrated transit system and not an airport-only route. Honolulu will vault near the top of the list, just shy of Atlanta, once it opens, and SFO and DCA are both near the top. Note that DCA is ranked similarly to SFO even though it’s speed is half as fast: we wouldn’t expect such high speeds for such a close airport.
Other than Atlanta, the two fastest domestic airports are DEN and IAD, each in the 22 to 24 mph range. At DIA’s distance, it still outpaces its expected speed. Dulles is, by five miles, the furthest airport from its downtown (if you assign BWI to Washington, and FLL to Fort Lauderdale, as I have), and we’d expect its transit link to be faster, but the distance and number of stops mean that even the well-running Silver Line is relatively slow. BWI and PDX are the two worst direct rail links, with slow (and in the case of BWI, infrequent) trains even if they are convenient to the terminal.
Only one bus connection exceeds the expected travel time, in Milwaukee (which is one of the additions to this list; the airport doesn’t crack the top 30), the airport has a bus from downtown which runs every 13 to 15 minutes basically 24/7 (with some slightly longer headways—and a one hour gap—in the middle of the night). Notably, it’s not even an airport-specific bus, but just a city bus which serves the airport. Pittsburgh’s 28X doesn’t quite have the span or frequency of Milwaukee, but provides a good service given the airport’s distance from Downtown.
Is Atlanta the best airport transit link in the world? No, but it seems to be close. Zurich and Frankfurt both often fast, frequent service to nearby airfields, each about five miles away (similar to National in DC, although with regional and national rail links, not just the subway). Arlanda outside Stockholm is an outlier. It’s as far from the city as Dulles, but the in vehicle travel time is just 22 minutes, compared to 56 for Dulles, operating over a 200 km/h railroad (Oslo’s airport is the same distance and a minute faster, but somewhat less frequent). Somewhat notably, Asian airports seem to have middling airport rail connections, around the 100% mark, while Europe leads the pack. (The chart below shows major airports >180% better than expected travel time; the next best I found—SYD—is just 152%, but I likely missed some.)
There may be others, but Atlanta, and maybe at some point in the future, Honolulu, certainly seems to hold up against the best airports to get to by transit in the world.
And Boston? A fix won’t be cheap. The Silver Line is slow and prone to tunnel traffic. The Blue Line is a mile from the airport and the buses are … slow and prone to terminal traffic. An airport people mover would be expensive and improve connectivity marginally, a direct link from Downtown quite a bit more expensive. And because the connection is so short, a world-class connection in the 180% range would require a 9 minute trip, including wait time. A 100% trip, 15 minutes including the wait, may be more reasonable. But for now it remains stuck on the bottom of the list.
[updated with post-race experience in italics]
I’m not running the Boston Marathon this year. It’s not for lack of interest: I ran a 2:59:56 last year, my best finish in Boston (by time) and an improvement of 11 seconds over my previous best (and first) race in 2015. I thought it would be plenty fast to qualify, but the weather was good enough last year (fun fact: with more than 13,000 qualifiers more than 51% of finishers requalified. and it had the single highest number of Boston qualifiers of any race, ever), and new sponsor Bank of America stingy enough (apparently they took more sponsor bibs, so the number of qualifiers accepted was about 1000 fewer than previous years) that I missed out. By 24 seconds. Or, since I am in the final year of an age bracket, by 3 months and change.
(As you can tell, I am not bitter about this at all. It would be exceedingly petty to hope for temperatures in the low 70s for the race, but it would also mean that the -7:20 qualifier I ran last fall would be almost a shoo-in if Boston had 4000 qualifiers instead of 14,000. I will make no further comment as I check a weather model. But who am I kidding, it will be 48˚, dry, cloudy with a 20 mph tailwind with my luck.) [it wasn’t, so I have a shot next year]
It does mean that I’ve had extra time to look at the T’s somewhat impressive marathon schedule. For the first time since 2019, the T has the resources to provide extra service, and this is on top of a schedule which already has more frequent midday service. With 64 total trains, it is likely the busiest day on the Worcester Line since the 1950s (at a time when they had four tracks to Framingham before the Turnpike cannibalized two). In addition, several trains have been extended to Southborough, making taking the train to the start a much more reasonable proposition. There are basically trains every 20 to 40 minutes in both directions, so spectating runners in three locations is somewhat reasonable. Plus, there’s a $10 all-weekend pass, so you can hop on and off basically for free. (They are undercharging for this; it should be a separate fare for Monday, but they probably don’t want to have to sell more tickets. It’s good for ridership, at least.)
So with no further ado, here is Ari’s Official Guide to the Railways on Marathon Monday. A couple of notes.
I use train numbers here preceded with a “P.” At least back in the day, trains on the Worcester Line were numbered with a “P” by CSX designating them as Passenger trains. This naming convention makes the text a bit more readable. Also Dave does this, so it is the right thing to do.
Three-digit train numbers (e.g. P518) are normally-scheduled trips. Four-digit numbers (e.g. P7564) are extras or have changed schedules.
This all assumes that everything runs on schedule. So, you know, take it with a small grain of salt. [especially after about 10:00, trains experience 15-25 minute delays between Framingham and Wellesley Hills because without level boarding, it takes a lot of time for people to get on and off]
In Wellesley, I sometimes refer to the stations as “Square,” “Hills” or “Farms” just so I don’t have to type “Wellesley” so much.
If you want to watch the lead men:
Arrive on any train in Framingham before 10:00. There are trains departing at 10:08 and 10:35. The 10:08 train (P7556) will depart almost exactly when the lead men’s pack arrives; you may be able to watch from the train as you roll out of town (the men may outpace the train for the first few hundred yards). The 10:35 (P7564) train will depart after the lead men (and women) are through and when the first Wave 1 runners begin to arrive.
If you take the 10:08 train, you can get off at Wellesley Square (10:23) or Wellesley Hills (10:26) to catch the lead men, who should arrive at Wellesley Square around 10:31 or 10:32 and Hills a few minutes after. P7564 departs Hills at 10:53 if you want to attempt to catch the runners again. The lead women will probably arrive a few minutes later; train P7514 (11:13) will allow you to comfortably watch the lead women run through. These trains will get you to Lansdowne by 11:17/11:37. The first would allow you to get to Lansdowne in time to see the lead men, the latter unlikely.
(Rosie Ruiz would be proud!)
Speaking of women, if you want to watch the lead women:
Arrive in Framingham by 10:15 (train 7653 arrives 10:14). Train P7564 will depart after the lead pack of women has gone through and get you to Wellesley Hills at 10:53, a couple of minutes before they arrive there. Train P7514 will leave Hills at 11:13, and get you to Lansdowne in time to see the lead women a third time quite easily.
If you want to watch a first-wave runner with a 3:00 or faster (given the depth of this year’s field, the entire first wave qualified under ~3:01).
You will still need to be on train P7563 and arrive in Framingham by 10:14, so you’ll get to see the lead women (get there earlier and you’ll see the lead men, too). Your runner should pass in time to take P7514 inbound at 10:55 and get you to Wellesley Square/Hills at 11:10/11:13. From there, P7516’s departure at 11:45/11:48 will give you plenty of time to get Downtown; even P7568 half an hour later would do the trick if your runner is running slower than a 2:50 or so.
If you want to watch a second-wave runner with a 3:15 finish time:
You’ll want to arrive in Framingham by 10:47 (although, of course, you can get there earlier to watch more) on P7513. Your runner should pass through well before 11:30, allowing you to take train P7516 and get to Wellesley Square with plenty of time to cheer. From there P7568 will get you downtown to see them finish.
The third wave is much more spread out with finish times spanning an hour between 3:25 and 4:25. Here are some scenarios:
3:25 runner: P7565 out arriving Framingham at 11:19 (or earlier, of course). P7568 inbound at 12:05, P518 inbound at 12:55 from the Wellesleys.
4:25 runner: You still probably want to arrive in Framingham by 11:19 as above. Depending on the time to cross the start line and your runner’s speed, they will clear Framingham around noon; if so, you can catch the 12:05. Otherwise the 12:40 train (P518) should get you to Wellesley in time to watch them there; you may want to ride it to Wellesley Farms and jog to the course to get ahead of them. From there, you may wish to walk to Riverside and take the Green Line downtown, although the Green Line is often quite slow on Marathon Monday.
For Wave 4 runners, the finish times are even more spread out. A Wave 4 runner may be a charity runner without a qualifying time and run faster, or an older runner with a slower qualifying time running a 4:50 race or slower. In these cases, consult the schedule.
Are you a runner who wants to skip the buses and take the train out?
I’ve never done this, but with the schedules this year it seems quite reasonable. There is a spectator shuttle from the state park near Southborough to Hopkinton and, apparently, to the Commuter Rail station as well. [There is definitely a shuttle from the Commuter Rail Station!] For spectators this might mean that you could watch the start, take a bus to the train station, and potentially see your runner a fourth time (although taking the bus to Southborough and then the train to Framingham in 40 minutes would be tricky; this might work better for later waves and then only if the timing is perfect, you could at least make it to, like, Natick).
But to get to the race, sure, why not? The “athlete village” at the high school is a glorified port-o-let line; and there are plenty more of these near the start line anyway behind the CVS. You could probably even have someone travel out with you to the start spectator area, take your gear, and see you off. (They could drive you there, too, but where’s the fun in that).
Trains P7507, P7561, P7509 and P511 arrive in Southborough at 8:11, 8:45, 9:12 and 9:53, about 50 minutes from Back Bay (and 40 from Boston Landing). Given the convoluted route the buses have to take to get to the high school, this may actually be faster than taking the bus, especially if getting Downtown would require some backtracking. And you’re not crammed into a bus designed for 6-year-olds worried that the driver is going to get on 495 north and wind up in New Hampshire. (Yes, this happened. In 2022 my bus driver—the bus itself was from Methuen so the driver was not familiar with the area—wound up on 495 north. No one batted an eye, because no one was from the area. I made my way to the front of the bus and guided the driver through the cloverleaf at Route 9 and back south to Hopkinton.)
So would I do it? I’m not entirely sure. [Most assuredly.] I trust the T well enough, but I guess the question would be getting from the T to Hopkinton. If all else fails, it’s a 2.5 mile warm-up run (albeit uphill). [I saw people doing this] I assume the buses would run as advertised and I would bet one could be flagged down on the road from the State Park (if they aren’t running to the train station). [Probably couldn’t flag one down, but definitely could take one from the train station.] It looks like you can get into the corrals from Cedar Street [Yes, you can walk right in, it’s kind of a VIP area with some charter buses parked nearby but they don’t seem to discriminate and/or probably assume you’re special, too.], otherwise from South Street would probably work. I’d leave at least an hour to get from the train to the start, but for a Wave 1 runner, leaving Boston Landing at 7:31 might be far preferable to being on a bus at the Common at 6:45.
If I get in in 2025, and the T runs the same schedule, my plan is to take the 7:56 train from Boston Landing arriving at 8:45 at Southborough, and get on a bus there to the start. The next train (8:31-9:11) should work fine but having some buffer is nice. The earlier train would give enough time to walk back to the Athlete’s Village but there’s really no need to do that. If the weather is awful and I really don’t want to wait in the rain I might consider taking the bus, since there’s usually somewhere dry to wait at the start. Plenty of johns at the CVS.
Perhaps I’ll have to go out and do some reportage on the transit situation myself. Enjoy the race, and if you’re running, you’re welcome for the weather. [yeah, sorry, no one die at the finish line please]
A few notes:
Train numbering convention is that trains running to Worcester begin with 500 and theoretically range up to 549. 550 and up are Framingham turns. Even east, odd west.
There’s no express service in the morning. So there’s half the overall frequency of a normal weekday morning, although each station has about the same number of trains, the express trains run local. Service is then redistributed across the midday.
Previous marathon special service was basically to keep the normal weekday schedule and add a couple of trains in the middle of the morning. This increases service all day long, on the baseline of already increase service (2019 base schedules had four trains between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., current schedules have hourly service, and the Marathon service this year has 14 trains in this timeframe, double the 2019 Marathon schedule and the normal 2024 schedule and more than triple 2019’s base schedule).
Service has also been extended out to Southborough much of the morning, and then as the race moves east, trains turn in Framingham. This really shows that some thought went into making the schedule.
With 63 trains calling at the Wellesleys and at Natick, this will likely be the most trains to stop in Wellesley in the 190 year history of the B&A. There were more trains in 1950, as far as I can tell, but many of them were express and intercity trains (plus, there were still four tracks east of Framingham back then).
The current schedule has 66 trains including the Lake Shore. 1952 had 64, 1950 had 68, 1947 had about 80, 1945 had 94, with nearly hourly service to Springfield (better, if you include local trains). Boston to Springfield in 2:10. Even the 1937 schedule, with about 120 trains daily, and the 1927 schedule, with 160 trains per day (!) has less service to Wellesley. (The 1927 schedule had 8 to 10 local trains between Boston and Riverside between 5 and 6 p.m., running subway-level service on that portion of the four-track railroad.)
Subway stations with long escalators usually have three. There are three escalators in Porter Square in Cambridge, and in all (or most) of the long-escalator Metro stations in DC (those don’t have stairs, even). This is mostly so that when one is shut for maintenance, there is redundancy for the others to run. But when all are operational, generally two run up and one runs down.
There’s a good reason for this: escalators are a natural bottleneck, and people arrive at a station pretty much randomly in a steady stream. But people depart stations in clumps: trains arrive and people get off all together. Even still, there can be queuing at bottlenecks where people have to slow down or navigate something which causes them to change their speed. Like getting on or off an escalator (or stairs).
So, there’s an eclipse on Monday. (I promise this is related!)
First thing first: the eclipse is totality or nothing. 99.3% = 0%. You have to go into totality, and preferably far enough in that you get more than two minutes of totality.
Second thing second: avoid clouds, and don’t plan ahead beyond “eclipse day.” In 2017, my father and I were in Louisville with family. The eclipse path there passed from Missouri to South Carolina, and we were prepared to drive any distance in any direction to see it. Turns out that we were able to go towards our intended destination (Chicago) and it was worth it.
Third: You do not need to go to where a bunch of other people go. Or somewhere specific. No matter where you go, if it’s clear, the sky is the sky. (Okay, climbing Mount Mansfield, which isn’t really allowed this time of year anyway because the trails are muddy, might let you watch the eclipse shadow approach over Lake Champlain at 1100 mph, but also is more likely to be in the fog.)
Expect spotty cell coverage at best. Rural areas may already be uncovered, but even the towers there might be completely overwhelmed. Pack a map, and snacks.
I’m very excited about seeing the eclipse. It’s a brilliant celestial event which occurs once every few years-if-not-decades with reasonable travel distance, it’s not commercialized, it’s a great communal event. And … I’m almost as excited about seeing what happens to traffic afterwards because this is a once-in-a-lifetime event and we really have no idea how it is going to play out.
Traffic happens because of the intersection of two elements: volume and bottlenecks (in another sense, demand and supply). A lane of traffic has a theoretical throughput of 2400 vehicles per hour, although this is rarely achieved. Once it becomes saturated with traffic, both speed and volume decreases; this process can take place solely based on volume around 1600 vehicles per hour (or a bit higher). Volume drops to 1000 or even less, with low speeds: this is called “Level of Service F.” (Far too often we plan roads around avoiding this by building oversupply rather than trying to manage demand.) Bottlenecks can cause additional queuing, and this isn’t solely lane drops: merges can be just as bad, as can what I call “sorting” where vehicles approaching an exit have to change lanes. Given high enough volume, this can devolve into a traffic jam, even if there is no theoretical loss of roadway supply. Once a road is congested, it requires a drop in demand to become less congested. That may not happen post-eclipse.
In most cases, we have a good idea of how traffic will behave. In urban areas, we see this occur on a daily basis. In more rural areas, there are certain locations which have frequent traffic when city-dwellers (and suburb-dwellers) return from weekend travel. In New England, these are somewhat illustrative:
I-95 southbound in New Hampshire traffic is the product of two merges and two sorts. First is the 95-16 merge, a 5-to-4 merge. Then is a sort-and-merge for the Hampton Tolls, which were inexplicably built with only two through lanes of toll booths even though 75% of weekend traffic pays electronically. As people move around and squeeze into these lanes, it causes severe congestion. From there you’d expect that the 4 lanes of traffic feeding into 6 (95 south and 495 south) wouldn’t be congested, but with the toll sorting, traffic then has to re-sort to the two destinations, causing additional congestion. (Northbound traffic, while usually not as bad, also has multiple merges and sorts.)
I-93 between Manchester and Concord. While the toll sort here is also problematic, the main issue is the 4-to-3 merge in both directions, with additional traffic streams joining. So again, a merge impacted by a sort.
The Cape Cod bridges. 3-to-2 merges, short merge distances, narrow lanes with poor sight lines, etc.
The Turnpike at Sturbridge. Eastbound it’s a pretty simple 4-to-3 merge. Outbound it’s theoretically 3-to-4 but the sorting into the exit to 84 often backs up miles. (The 290/395 exit often creates its own traffic jams, sometimes these merge: fun!)
I won’t get into Connecticut but the highways there seem to have been planned by looking at a bowl of spaghetti, with left entrances and exits and merges and sorts which will congest in a slight breeze.
Aside from these, and Connecticut, Providence and Boston, there’s just not a lot of traffic in New England. On some fall foliage days, a few single-lane roadways in New Hampshire can have backups of epic proportions, mostly when a town (or even traffic light) lies between a road and a highway: The Kanc, Route 100, Route 16. These are traffic jams that occur a few days per year; a few miles of highway bypass could reduce them, but there’s other reason to do so, especially when some people are going to “do the Kanc” and don’t mind if it takes 4 hours to look at the leaves.
Once these people high the highway, there’s enough capacity for them until they get to a bottleneck closer to home. So we don’t really know how traffic is going to behave with more people on the roads than ever before. We have a sleepy, low-volume subway station and a once-in-a-lifetime event … and we are all taking the escalator.
This is different than Phish: the Vermont traffic jam then was caused by muddy fields which couldn’t be used for parking, and a backup onto the interstate (a mile of traffic only has about 200 vehicles in it; so this was basically a 30-mile-long stationary queue of cars trying to get to a parking lot that didn’t exist, until everyone abandoned their cars and walked to the show). That was caused by everyone trying to get to a single point (that wound up having limited capacity). The eclipse covers thousands of square miles. Many people will get there with time to spare (given how booked-out hotels are, days in advance for some). But once it’s over, it’s over. It’s on a Monday. Everyone is going home. We’ll converge on the same roads. The usual bottlenecks in New Hampshire may see some traffic. But there are new ones further north which have never seen this much traffic.
Vermont doesn’t have many continual traffic counters. There’s one just south of Barre/Montpelier. Peak traffic there is about 1000 vehicles per hour on weekdays, and up to 1500 per hour during peak season (foliage, ski). This is significantly lower than the capacity of a two-lane roadway (3200 to 4000 per hour). The one near Waterbury is similar, there’s a bit more traffic right near Burlington at commute times. These roadways never operate at even 50% capacity. So we have very little idea how they will operate when at or over capacity, particularly when these flows hit downstream bottlenecks.
The AADT (average annual daily traffic) on I-89 ranges in the 20 to 30 thousand range, other area highways are far lower (in New Hampshire, I-93 has an AADT in Franconia Notch of 11,000, and under 7,000 a few miles north in Vermont). During peak summer and foliage weekends, I-91 in Vermont sees as many as 8000 vehicles per day. The busiest stretches of roadway in Boston see that many vehicles per hour in each direction. There are some expectations of 200,000 people going to Vermont for the eclipse. This is a week’s worth of traffic on I-91 and I-89.
So around 3:15 on Monday, or a few minutes after, we’re going to see all sorts of new bottlenecks and people flow onto highways for the trip south. Where will it be worst? Here are my predictions/guesses:
I-89 south of Burlington. Burlington traffic will fill the road, which then runs along the south side of the path of totality, so additional traffic in Waterbury and Montpelier will attempt to merge on; and this is a road with relatively high baseline traffic.
White River Junction. The ramps here are not designed for peak traffic traffic, although the likely peak demand (89S-91S and 91S-89S) luckily do not overlap.
RIP anyone attempting to get from Vermont to New York on Route 7, single lanes and traffic lights do not have particularly high throughput. 87 in New York may not be much better and I wonder what the ferry lines will look like (although it would be a great place to watch the eclipse).
Franconia Notch. I-93 looks like an Interstate, but was built to non-Interstate standards through Franconia Notch after various legal wrangling. With 10,000 vehicles per day, the single lane merge never really backs up. With most of the Boston area converging on it at the same time, well, I’ll be avoiding it.
We have some data to go off of from 2017, when there were similar traffic jams around a very similar event. I tweeted out some traffic photos, shown here are people headed out of major population centers (Atlanta and Charlotte) towards the eclipse. And here’s what happens when there’s road construction narrowing a two-lane road down to one (I think the state DOTs have the message this time, it’s also still the season of winter, not construction).
TRB wrote about it, as did some academic articles. There were traffic jams reported across the country, and locations which had high levels of traffic for hours before, and especially after the event. Here’s a GIF of Google Maps traffic. A lot of the worst traffic was reported in places like rural Kentucky, Idaho and Wyoming which for all intents and purposes do not have traffic.
The eclipse passed over Wyoming, but not Colorado. So tens if not hundreds of thousands of Coloradans headed up I-25 to find totality near Casper. There are very few highways in Wyoming, so traffic was funneled onto this singular roadway. Southbound traffic from Wyoming to Colorado jumped 10-fold once the event was over. Backups were reported for the entire rest of the day, and a 4 hour drive wound up taking 10. I-25 is somewhat unique in that there are no local roadways to shoulder some of the load, so while it may not be a direct corollary to Northern New England, this level of delay may not be out of the question. For the most part, reports found traffic was densest after the event.
The weather this year may also concentrate traffic. 2017’s eclipse was mostly in the clear, but this year is going to be mostly cloudy, with only Northern New England and a swath from southern Missouri to Indianapolis in the clear. Both of these share the characteristics that they are near large population centers not in totality: the Northeast Corridor for New England (and potentially parts of upstate New York) and Chicago and Saint Louis (and others), so add to that longer-distance eclipse fans fleeing Texas and Ohio and traffic may get even worse.
Tips for optimizing for traffic? Well, first optimize for visibility. This is a couple-times-in-a-lifetime event. Once you’ve done that, consider getting yourself near the eclipse center line but pointed in the direction you want to wind up. Then get ready for a long ride home. And once I’m home, yes, I’ll scrape some data and analyze it in this space. (I might throw in some Mass Pike Superbowl data, too.)
There have been many, many people on the Internet and elsewhere who have talked about the “many” lives saved by the quick actions of several layers of responders this week to close the Key Bridge to traffic. I’ll pick on Yonah Freemark here (sorry, Yonah), but you can find any number of twitterers talking about how many lives were saved. This guy said “it could have been hundreds” in an otherwise informative interview. The New York Times story about the audio says it “likely saved lives” which, as I’ll explain, is probably better phrasing.
The bridge collapse occurred at 1:30 in the morning. There’s a pretty good chance that, had the mayday call not gone out and had the local authorities not intervened, there would have only been two vehicles on the bridge, or perhaps none. The presence of the construction crew, which was not able to evacuate the bridge, may have been the reason the response was so quick, since there were police vehicles nearby. This leads to two lessons and a thought:
Major bridges over busy shipping channels should have means to quickly stop traffic (perhaps even automated gates)
Construction crews on such bridges should have good communications and be prepared to quickly evacuate.
The thought is that people vastly overestimate the use of highways at very off-peak times of day. The MTA probably has better data from electronic tolling, but the most recent public traffic count for this bridge seems to be from 2019 (the user interface for Maryland’s traffic counts—like most such interfaces—leaves a lot to be desired). It includes an early Tuesday morning, so it’s probably good enough for a rough estimate. From that, we can find that somewhere around 180 vehicles cross the bridge per hour between 1 and 2 a.m., which would mean that at any given time, there would be approximately 3 vehicles on any given mile of roadway. Since the collapsed portion of the bridge is about 2/3 of a mile long, we would expect there to have been two vehicles on the bridge when it collapsed, right?
Well, kind of. We actually have tools for figuring this out. What’s that music? It … sounds like the entrance music for the Poisson Distribution! The Poisson Distribution is “a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time if these events occur with a known constant mean rate and independently of the time since the last event.” This is basically how traffic works. (It’s also, for example, how passengers arrive at a transit node.)
We can use the Poisson distribution to find the probability that n vehicles would have been on the collapsed portion of the bridge given the traffic levels. This gives the following:
n = 0: 14%
1: 27%
2: 27%
3: 18%
4: 9%
5: 4%
6: 1%
7 or more: 0.4%
So the modal outcome is (1 or 2) but there’s about the same chance of no cars on the bridge as four or more at that time of day. Given that vehicle occupancy overnight is likely not much more than 1, the number of lives saved by this specific chain of actions is likely in the range of zero to four. If you watch the video, you can see the number of cars on the bridge basically ranges between 0 and 3. As we’d expect. Statistics are fun!
That said, there’s a lot this leaves out. Additional vehicles on a bridge approach could have Thelma-and-Louised off the bridge without warning given driver inattentiveness (although “road” is a major detail). More importantly, having these policies in place means that had this occurred at a higher traffic time of day, it would have prevented a mass casualty event (although it seems like the presence of the work crew may have been part of the reason there were police officials nearby, so we may be very lucky this occurred at 1:30 a.m. and not 5:30 p.m.). Using the Poisson and the peak traffic of 2700 vehicles per hour, there would be a 96% chance of at least 20 vehicles on the span, a 45% chance of at least 30, and a 3% chance of at least 40. (Still, “Hundreds?” Well, Poisson does have a long tail but the probability of that would be quite small.)
Beyond that, there’s an outlier event where the bridge has a traffic jam and vehicles couldn’t clear the bridge with advanced notice. This is why, for example, in the Mont Blanc tunnel, which had a previous mass casualty event, has very specific rules about vehicle separation, and the Tobin Bridge in Boston is closed when an LNG tanker passes underneath. But this roadway had a low-enough traffic count and is far enough from bottlenecks that it’s likely very rare that traffic ever backed up onto the bridge.
There’s also an argument that the ROI for rebuilding the bridge isn’t there for 32,000 vehicles per day (again, thanks, Yonah). Some caveats there. 1) The bridge had $57 million in toll revenue in 2023 ($31 million cars, $26 million commercial vehicles). This is about 8% of the state’s toll revenues, and much of the traffic might move to other tolled facilities. But there would be an overall loss of revenue. 2) The bridge is a haz-mat route and with the other two routes through Baltimore in tunnels, haz-mat would have to detour around the Baltimore Beltway. 3) Would the State of Maryland be able to recover salvage damages from the ship owners and insurers if they chose not to rebuild the bridge? I don’t know, I’m not a lawyer. (Or, for that mattter, a bridge engineer.)
Will such a boat-on-bridge failure happen again? There’s no reason to think it won’t. Ships are getting bigger, and there are only a couple of dozen bridges of this magnitude over waterways with large ships in the country (San Diego, San Francisco and Portland on the West Coast; Houston, New Orleans and Tampa on the Gulf; Jacksonville, Charleston, Chesapeake Bay, Philadelphia, New York and Rhode Island on the Atlantic, plus potentially Boston, Portsmouth, the Penobscot and a couple of canals, although these have much less traffic). In a sense, it already has, and the new Sunshine Skyway has significant deflection infrastructure around it (we just didn’t learn from that disaster). Perhaps this will be a wake-up call to reinforce deflection around vulnerable bridge supports. In the shorter term, large bridge operators should consider having SOP both for bridge users and bridge workers in case of this sort of event.
Recently, Alon asked about the curvature of the MBTA’s Providence Line, which also hosts* Amtrak’s service and has about half of the high-speed rail line in the country. It’s also some of the oldest railroad in the world and the Canton Viaduct is quite possibly the oldest high-speed bridge in the world (barely high speed: 130 mph / 209 km/h), with the bridge dating to 1835 and the rest of the line to 1834. Why is it that the old B&P railroad is suitable for high-speed operation while other railroads are not? It probably is mostly due to luck.
(* “hosts” is a strong word here; the T owns the fee, Amtrak maintains and dispatches the infrastructure and charges the T for this, but the T used to charge Amtrak. This is a whole, uh, thing.)
The first major railroad in the US was in Baltimore, with the Baltimore and Ohio running west along the Patapsco River towards Harper’s Ferry. This route followed the river valley and had numerous sharp curves in the river valley in the 4 to 6 degree range. The railroad was also built on deep granite foundations, much like the Boston and Lowell, as engineers at the time thought that track would be unstable otherwise (it turns out they were dead wrong; track needs some tolerance to move around, which is why today it is mostly laid on ballast). Several other railroads sprang up, mostly from coastal cities, and over a year between 1834 and 1835, three such railroads opened out of Boston, to Providence, Lowell and Worcester.
At this time, when communication between cities took days and across the ocean took weeks or months, there wasn’t much standardization for this new technology. Nothing had moved faster than the speed of a horse up to this point in history, and all of the sudden, large pieces of equipment could move 30 or 40 miles per hour, or faster. No one knew that the rails needed cross ties and not granite support, and no one really seemed to know what kind of curves and grades would be allowable. So, it seems, they guessed.
A note on railway curve measurement. In the US, it is generally expressed in “degrees of curvature” which somewhat paradoxically means “how many degrees of a curve are covered over 100 feet.” (This is a decent shorthand to avoid having to figure out the radius of big circles.) If you think back to trigonometry, a curve has 360˚ in it, so a curve that covers one degree in 100 feet will cover 360˚ in 36,000 feet (about 7 miles) and have a radius of 5730 feet or 1746 meters (the rest of the world often uses curve radius in meters for this). A one degree curve is quite shallow and can support speeds of about 130 mph.
Now, do you use the arc or the chord for this measurement? Generally chords, because the calculations are easier than for arcs (not a lot of pocket calculators in 1832). Highways use arcs. For all but the sharpest curves, the difference is inconsequential. With most mainline railroad track less than 8˚, it doesn’t really matter (it is more of an issue for streetcar track, for instance, Tower 18 on the Chicago L has approximately 70ish degree curves, with an chord of 130′ and an arc of 150′, they use radii).
So the B&O had sharp curves. The Boston railroads were built with fewer, and each company seems to have chosen a standard of sorts. The Boston and Worcester, which had less money than the others for construction and built west through more difficult terrain, was built with a number of curves in the 3˚ to 4˚ range, and many 2˚ or more (so, not really a standard). The Lowell and Providence lines were different: they had greater resources and connected Boston to established mill towns. Railroads at the time didn’t know if they could climb any significant grade, so attempted to avoid hills (they still do). Without any rivers to follow, the B&P and B&L attempted to avoid the glacial hills between their cities and slalomed between them.
For the Boston and Lowell, 2˚ was the measuring stick. The railroad has a number of curves, and nearly all of them measure to almost exactly 2˚, good for about 80 mph (depending on cant deficiency), which is about what the railroad there runs today. I don’t have any definitive information on this, but every major curve on the railroad is just about 2˚, few are less, and none are more. Immediately past Lowell, where the railroad was extended not much later, there is a 5˚ curve: engineers found out trains could make that kind of curve and built it (oh, and there were some expensive factories and a big river in the way).
Providence is similar: it, too, has to run between a number of hills on its way to Providence. The first 10 miles split hills in Boston and then follow the Neponset River, but the river only goes so far and the railroad eventually has to climb. The solution was a grade up to Canton, a bridge across the Canton River (a stream feeding the Neponset) and eventually a straight line from Mansfield to East Providence. The route to Mansfield has a number of curves, including across the Canton Viaduct. Measuring each, they all almost exactly 1˚, a speed good for about 130 mph.
This is the speed the line runs today. While not the highest of high speeds, it means that a trip from Back Bay Station to Providence, a route of 43 miles, takes 30 minutes, including a stop at Route 128 station; without that stop, the average start-to-stop speed would top 100 mph. This also includes the last few miles into Providence, which were built once the B&P realized that sharper curves were possible, so it was built with sharper curves.
The original Providence Station was east of the city, along the Seekonk River. This was suboptimally located for access to the city, and especially for through service (although a now-abandoned tunnel was built in 1909 and could conceivably provide a 3- to 4-minute faster trip between Boston Providence if the right-of-way in the city had not been realigned). In 1847, when the B&P built a connection to the Providence and Worcester railroad to a better location in the city, the connection to the main line was built a sharper curve—approximately 1.25˚—requiring trains there to slow from 150 to 110 mph today. The curvature is still sharper in Providence itself; until they reach the state line the speed limit is 70.
There are not many legacy rail lines which allow for high speed operation, certainly outside of very flat areas. Railroads want to avoid hills and before high speed operations they were generally built to go around them rather than over or under. Pretty quickly (or in the case of the B&O, very quickly) engineers realized that a 3˚ or 4˚ curve was perfectly fine, especially with stronger rails. No one in 1840 was going 100 mph, it was inconceivably fast. A few 5˚ curves were far easier than moving mountains.
But the Providence Line, because of—as far as I can tell—little more than happenstance, wound up with a high-speed right of way. It will never have 180 mph / 300 km/h service on those curves, and smoothing them out, especially at the Canton Viaduct, is nearly impossible. (The median of I-95 would give a straight-enough corridor for a higher-speed alignment to Providence, which would shave only 2 to 3 minutes off travel times but would allow for more redundancy and capacity.) But for a 190-year-old railroad, it’s not bad. It’s a shame engineers figured out so quickly that 1˚ curves weren’t necessary or we could have much faster rail service much more easily.
Note: here is a tool I created to find the curvature of rights-of-way, and no, I definitely didn’t write this post just to call attention to it. Not entirely, anyway.
Or … the case for a stadium-specific train station in Foxboro instead of a sea of parking.
Football stadiums are big, but where do they “belong”?
Football stadiums are generally unlike other types of stadiums. With a few notable exceptions, baseball parks and hockey/basketball arenas are located in relatively urban areas. While they are sometimes surrounded by parking lots (ahem, Chicago) there is usually (but not always, looking especially at you, LA) relatively good transit access. Baseball stadiums generally seat around 40,000 people and are used for 80 to 90 games per year (plus other events), arenas seat fewer than 20,000 but a basketball-football-event arena may be used more than 150 times per year.
Football stadiums are much larger (generally 60,000 to 90,000) but far less frequently used. Aside from 10 or 11 football games, even a large city may only attract a few acts which can fill a 70,000 seat stadium: the Taylor Swifts and Bruce Springsteens and Beyonces of the world. MetLife Stadium in New York has just 23 large events aside from football this year, meaning it sits idle more than 300 days of the year, and it is likely the most heavily-used stadium in the country. There are only a few stadium-level acts touring at any time (it’s a lot easier to fill a 20,000 seat arena compared with a 80,000 seat stadium) and outdoor events can really only take place between May and October in most places. A large stadium will be a ghost town most of the time, not a great land use if you’re trying to build a vibrant area around it.
A ballpark or arena may see upwards of 4 million visitors per year, spread over 100 dates or more. Football stadiums may barely crack one million, concentrated into a couple of dozen dates. These two factors mean that these large stadiums are often sited differently than smaller arenas in the US. But when nearly 100,000 people descend on one location, it’s not easy to accommodate them. Football stadiums can leverage existing downtown infrastructure (transit and parking) but this can lead to or exacerbate to poor surrounding land use. Or they can be built in another existing, American amenity: the suburbs.
A quick aside: American like our stadiums like we like our highways: big. Of the 11 stadiums with a capacity over 100,000, eight are in the US (all college football, two of the other three are cricket, the third is in North Korea so who knows how big it actually is). NFL stadiums are usually a bit smaller, with more premium seating. Still, they’re big, Americans drive cars a lot, and football fans like to stand outside their cars and eat food and drink beer before the game so with few exceptions, at least some outdoor parking is present.
As Ray Delahanty recently pointed out, it’s tricky to get good land use with that size of an arena if it’s placed near a downtown. I’d go further: in the United States, football stadiums are so big and so car-focused and lightly used they don’t belong downtown at all. There are large stadiums in non-US cities which manage to avoid parking seas, although in general they are located in cities where the majority of people don’t drive (don’t worry, they still drink before the game). Of stadiums larger than Soldier Field, the smallest NFL stadium (62,000 seats), 70 of 153 are in the US, including 29 NFL stadiums and plenty of other college stadiums. (Other countries with at least 3 on this list: UK with 7, Germany and China with 5, Brazil with 4, Japan, Mexico, India and Spain with 3, often with access to multiple metro lines or near a major railroad station.) So midsize metro areas and college towns in the US have larger stadiums than the national stadiums in most countries.
Because of these factors (big, America, cars), football stadiums have developed with a lot of parking. The actual football field of play covers 57600 square feet, or about 1.3 acres (wider soccer fields are about 77,000 square feet). The stadium surrounding the field might take up around half a million square feet, or 10 times more. The parking around a football stadium? It takes 10 million square feet (in some cases, more), about 230 acres, which is worth point out is more than about a square kilometer, or nearly 20 times as much space as the stadium and 200 times as much as the field itself.
Many stadiums are indeed surrounded by this sort of sea of parking. Professional American football stadiums tend to fall into two broad categories: those in the suburbs and those downtown. (Larger college stadiums are often much less parking-dependent: many fans come from the adjacent campus and weekend games utilize campus employee parking which otherwise sits empty). Suburban stadiums are generally parking seas: in nearly all cases they utilize stadium-specific parking. (The two exceptions are in Green Bay, when neighborhood streets, yards and lawns soak up much of the parking demand, and Santa Clara, where nearby office parks can be used for weekend events.)
Urban stadiums are rarely islands in the middle of parking seas. For the most case, they rely on existing parking facilities in the downtown neighborhoods they border. There are two glaring exceptions, both of which somewhat paradoxically date back to the early 1900s:
Denver’s Mile High Stadium (or whatever it is called now) is urban-ish. It’s a bit more than a mile from Union Station and the edge of Downtown, too far to take advantage of Downtown parking garages, although there are some closer transit connections. It was originally built on land that existed because it was an early-20th century landfill.
The South Philadelphia Sports Complex, which dates to filled river delta area in the 1920s. The original purpose of the land was to build a large arena for the Army-Navy game larger than the ballparks which football fields were typically squeezed into at the time. This led to perhaps the most robust stadium-only transit service in history. Since neither team was local (the game taking place roughly in between Annapolis and West Point), the Pennsylvania Railroad ran dozens of special trains to a temporary station built on a rail yard adjacent to the stadium, handling tens of thousands of cadets, midshipmen and other attendees. The extension of the Broad Street subway line wouldn’t be built until the 1970s.
No modern stadium has been built near a city center with a full 10-million-acre parking ocean. Even here the economics don’t work to have massive parking lots only used a few days per year. It makes much more sense to utilize nearby parking garages which are usually empty on Sundays and that’s what generally occurs. There is some space for tailgaters, but most event-goers use parking garages. An added benefit: downtown areas are designed (for better or worse) to accommodate a lot of people arriving by car at the same time, and usually has a decent transit system which can bring in a fair number of event-goers as well. It’s interesting that there are a number of cities with NFL stadiums and no appreciable rail service: Las Vegas, Jacksonville, Charlotte, New Orleans, Detroit, Indianapolis, Nashville and Cincinnati, and only Atlanta really has a heavy rail-served downtown stadium
Moving a lot of people to one location is … hard, actually?
While these stadiums are at the center of urban bus networks, bringing tens of thousands of people to one place on buses is difficult (for instance, loading 20,000+ people onto buses for the Boston Marathon requires closing several blocks of streets to stage buses and to load them in two lanes at a time, a large queueing area, and all this for a single origin-destination pair, so there is no need to direct people anywhere than to “get on any bus”). And even if these smaller cities took advantage of their bus systems, they would be quickly overwhelmed. Nashville’s system only operates 150 buses at peak times, and only carried 11,000 people all day on Sundays before the pandemic. (Indianapolis, Jacksonville and Cincinnati operate on a similar scale, and several other cities’ transit systems aren’t much larger.) Even if buses were used at scale, it would require a huge fleet. At 50 people per bus (meaning selling almost exactly 100% of the seats on a bus, not an easy task), transporting 20,000 people would require 400 buses, plus dispatch staff, crowd control and route planning. This would dwarf the bus fleets of smaller cities, and since the buses would only provide a single round trip, it would require a full shift of bus and driver pay to move a single load of people, not a particularly efficient use of resources.
Picking up a lot of people in one place and moving them to another happens to a task at which mainline commuter trains excel. A 10-car train can carry upwards of 2000 people (more if packed with standees), so even if one third of attendees came by transit (unlikely for a football game, but more likely for, say, a concert for a singer popular with teens and 20-somethings) it would only take 10 trains to transport everyone. Trains could also transport event-goers to park-and-ride lots unused at off-peak times. 10 trains might only require 50 staff, an order of magnitude less than buses to move the same number of people.
Football stadiums are not designed with transit in mind. There are three football stadiums for which commuter rail is the only high capacity transit connection (others—Baltimore, Seattle, Santa Clara, Chicago’s current stadium—have rail lines nearby but more heavily utilize other forms of transit): the Meadowlands in New Jersey, Foxboro outside of Boston and the proposed Arlington Park stadium outside of Chicago. Not surprisingly, these are the three most extensive commuter rail networks, and in each case, the rail connection is made far outside the city. Each city provides an interesting example of how commuter rail service does, or does not, provide transit access to large events.
Chicago (Arlington Park)
Chicago doesn’t have a football stadium served by commuter rail, yet, but it may not far in the future. The Bears are planning to move from the smallest-in-the-league, 100-year-old Soldier Field on the periphery of Downtown to a larger, more modern suburban stadium on the site of an old racetrack. It’s hard to fault them for this: a new stadium downtown or anywhere near transit would require a large site that would only be used a few times per year. (I guess adjacent to the United Center or Comiskey would work?) Arlington Park is about 20 million square feet (nearly a square mile, three times the size of Suffolk Downs in East Boston) and adjacent to a three-track commuter railroad, which can support frequent service and a 30 minute ride into the city (it also runs on a diagonal through the Northwest side of Chicago, with a number of stations allowing bus and L connections).
Unlike some agencies, Metra is actually pretty good at running extra service to meet extra demand, and would likely be able to stage as many trains as were necessary to move people from this new arena to the city, and also to satellite commuter parking lots along the line. The third track of the railroad would allow the agency to stage as many trains as necessary to handle crowds while maintaining regular service. The station has two adjacent storage tracks, and a new development could allow for an expanded station to manage higher loads. The Bears’ plans don’t call for a sea of parking, but rather a mixed-use development next to a train station. Would I call it a perfect location? I might not go that far, but it’s a decent place for a 75,000-seat football arena.
New York (New Jersey Meadowlands)
Both the Jets and Giants play in the Meadowlands, build on reclaimed land in the swamps in New Jersey. The shared use of of the stadium means that it gets somewhat more frequent use than it otherwise would (a low bar; it still lies dormant more than 300 days each year), and with many non-drivers in the area a rail spur was eventually built to take people to and from the stadium. (It only cost $185 million—equivalent to $265 million today—for 2.3 miles. Really. It may serve 500,000 people per year, or about 1500 per day on average. And it may not even be the biggest boondoggle in the Meadowlands.) Other than events, there is no use of the line, which only serves the sports arena and the American Dream shopping mall, which opened after a 25-year, on-and-off construction period and may be all but stillborn, hemorrhaging money now that it has finally opened its doors (i.e., boondoggle). For football games, it works fine, with between 6000 and 10,000 people arriving and departing by train. For larger events, like line has been overwhelmed since the stated capacity of the line is just 8000 to 10,000 per hour.
This speaks to a bottleneck somewhere along the line:
Perhaps it is an undersized station, with just three tracks (the rail station at Belmont Park on Long Island was originally built with eight tracks, although only two are now in regular operation). 8000 to 10,000 people per hour means that the rail line only supports a full train every 12 to 15 minutes, which hardly seems like the capacity of the line. With three tracks, the Meadowlands station should be able to turn a train in 15 to 20 minutes on each track (and that’s generous, since trains are only loading or unloading at any given time passenger traffic flows in one direction) meaning that the station should support 9 to 12 trains per hour.
Maybe line capacity? The upper bound of the station may stretch the capacity of a two-track railroad with diesel trains and an intermediate stop and existing service; the 18-track terminal at Hoboken would be able to swallow the traffic at the other end of the line. The Pascack Valley, Bergen and Main Lines, which share a trunk route into Hoboken, only amount to three trains per hour at off-peak times (when nearly all concerts and events end, either on a weekend or late in the evening). These lines support 12 trains per hour through Secaucus and into Hoboken at peak hour, meaning that 9 stadium trains plus the normal service would be reasonable. That should allow 18,000 people per hour to be moved.
My guess is that it’s simply the number of trains on the line for high-use events, and inexperience of the agency. With a cycle time to Hoboken and back of more than an hour, NJT would have needed more than a dozen trains on the line to fill the theoretical capacity of the line and station, so rather than having trains stacked up on the line ready to pull into the station, they were relying on six trains to make the round trip and come back for more. This is certainly better for crew utilization, but not so great for the passenger experience.
The 2014 Superbowl, where fans were highly encouraged to take transit, was a stress test the railroad seems to have failed somewhat spectacularly. It took three hours to clear 35,000 people from the stadium; 12,000 per hour is actually higher than the stated capacity (likely as people pushed onto trains) although some very helpful Internet people suggested just running buses without pointing out that they would have needed about 700 of them. If I had to guess, the issue was a lack of trains and crews:
Boston (Foxboro[ugh])
Which brings us to Foxboro, the third stadium near a commuter rail line. Sort of. There hasn’t been regular passenger service on the Framingham Secondary since 1933. 40 years later, the stadium itself was built, on a shoestring $7 million budget on donated land. At the center of this land deal: parking. The league stipulated that teams play in 60,000-seat stadiums. The itinerant Patriots had used a number of smaller venues: Fenway Park, and three small college stadiums (Harvard, BU and BC) and unlike the Bears, which moved from Wrigley to a “temporary” home at Soldier Field (they’re now looking to move half a century later), there was no large-enough structure in the area.
The owner of a local racetrack offered the land for the stadium but kept the adjacent parking lots which would now generate cash for both horse races and football games. The site happened to be adjacent to a rail line, and from early on some event service was provided. Service, however, is minimal, since the rail line isn’t designed for much more than a few freight trains. In general there is one train from Boston and one from Providence (the Boston train usually sells out) which meet at the platform. There’s no room for anything more. Aside from the poor local infrastructure, the railroad could support direct service from Boston, Providence and Worcester, theoretically linking the stadium to the three largest cities in New England, provided there was room to store more than two trains.
In the past 50 years, Foxboro’s sea of parking has grown, as the complex owner Bob Kraft has since developed a large shopping mall adjacent to the stadium (more of a lifestyle center than the atrocity that is the American Dream in Jersey). This is not a good setup for traffic as Foxboro is accessed by Route 1, a four-lane highway with traffic signals, and traffic is notoriously bad after games (one review calls it a “great stadium with terrible traffic,” a microcosm of Boston, depending on your definition of “great”). Lots of advice to beat the traffic is to take the train, although it means no tailgating and capacity is limited.
Most everyone else has to drive. There are two ways to distribute a lot of vehicles parked in one place. One is to surround the parking lots with highways and ramps (either in the suburbs or downtown). Another is to disperse parking near the stadium, allowing it to filter through nearby neighborhoods (Green Bay does this, but no one in Green Bay complains about Lambeau Field, which is probably against several state laws). Foxboro is located in the corner of a far-flung suburb a quarter the size of the stadium’s capacity. Decisions are made by an open town meeting. The stadium is located on a local four-lane roadway with traffic lights before it spills onto nearby highways. Traffic jams are legendary.
In 2019 the MBTA started, then aborted with the pandemic, and now restarted, a yearlong pilot to bring regular service to Foxboro, partially subsidized by Patriots ownership. Parking is provided for free, which may help apparent ridership, but there’s really little other reason for most riders to go to Foxboro instead of another nearby station, especially since rush hour service from nearby Mansfield is a faster trip by 20 minutes. (Before the pandemic, other lots would be full, but even with ridership bouncing back, parking scarcity is not as much of an issue.) With nothing but parking lots for a mile in any direction, there is about as much need for transit service to the site as there is to a mall Jersey. High ridership, for now is little more than an American Dream.
A station for Foxboro (and Tay Tay and … the World Cup?)
Which is not to say there shouldn’t be a station there. It should, if the 12 million (half square mile) of land were ever developed as something other than parking lots. It may be the largest developable plot of fully-impacted land in the region. And it happens to be next to a railroad. So while the current pilot may not be successful, if the surrounding area were home to 5,000 housing units it would make far more: Windsor Gardens, but on steroids, an anchor a the end of the line. I’m sure the citizens of Foxboro, who enjoy the largesse of the stadium’s tax revenue while keeping the traffic on Route 1 on the periphery of town, would throw a fit, but in Boston right now, nearly any housing is good housing. Transit-oriented? Even better. (In the very long run, a shuttle train to a connecting service on the higher-speed Providence Line might make more sense.)
In the short run, however, the line is wholly inadequate for handling crowds: it consists of one long platform which can handle, at most, two trains, and the slow, single-track lines in either direction make it nearly impossible to store or stage additional equipment near the stadium. So once a train is sold out, it’s sold out. For Patriots games, there’s not too much demand past what is provided. But when a different demographic comes to town, the situation can get dicier.
Enter Taylor Swift. The only ticket hotter than a T Swift ticket to Foxboro was a ticket on a train to get there. Rather than the SUV-driving, tailgating, suburban type, Swifties seemed happy to snag a seat on Commuter Rail from Boston, such that the first batch of tickets sold out almost instantaneously, and when more were added, they went in 90 seconds. (The Swifties who did get onboard seemed to enjoy themselves!)
The lack of any terminal facilities in Foxboro means that there is no way to leverage the existing rail line to bring crowds to the site and reduce the need for parking, parking which could be repurposed for something other than a parking lot only used a few times per year. There is plenty of room for an event rail terminal not significantly different (although at a smaller scale, sketch here) from what the Pennsy ran for the Army-Navy game, in essence, a few tracks facing in each direction allowing trains to park and unload passengers before the game and then swallowing them up afterwards. It need not be fancy, just ramps to platforms to allow accessible boarding for trains waiting for the crowds.
This would allow multiple trains for football games, where there is more demand than current supply and plenty of capacity at nearby park-and-rides at game times. An express train could run from Boston with a local train picking up passengers parking at nearby stations and using the train to avoid the last few miles of gridlock. For an event like a Taylor Swift concert, as many trains as needed to transport the requisite masses. Full trains make money. If the Cape Flyer makes a profit on an $40, 160-mile, 5 hour roundtrip with a couple hundred passengers, 1800 people on a $20, 60 mile roundtrip should be a cash cow. The agency has the resources at off-peak times, and events are scheduled far enough in advance that labor could be arranged well ahead of time. But the real value is in repurposing the land around the stadium from parking to something more beneficial to the region.
It’s hard right now to make an argument that the current Foxboro Stadium land use needs regular transit service. In a region with a housing shortage and relatively few large sites adjacent to rail lines, the half square mile of parking could be put to far better use if it weren’t needed and there was enough transit service to allow people to get to the stadium without driving (even if it just meant parking at an existing Commuter Rail lot elsewhere and taking a train). Should the public pay for this? Certainly not. But if improved rail service were funded by Bob Kraft, it would be a good investment which could leverage the value of the acreage around the stadium to be something other than parking cars for a few days each year.
In the shorter term, Foxboro will host at least 6 games of the 2026 World Cup. These fans will be much closer in demographic to a T Swift concert (international, interested in soccer, less interesting in tailgating) and many will be staying in hotels in Boston (and probably Providence, too). If the T can’t figure out how to manage moving more than 3000 people to and from the stadium on trains, they’ll have to have a fleet of buses, and all of the logistics that go with that. So if there is a good time to build a stadium terminal which can handle larger crowds that time is now.
I’ve run the Boston Marathon five times now, and during three of those, I’ve waited for my bag in a cold rain at the end of the race. While this is certainly preferable to the alternative, the marathon’s bag pick-up illustrates how systems can experience bottlenecks even if the overall system has plenty of capacity.
Boston is a unique race in many ways, but because it requires qualification for most runners, it is perhaps the most “densely-populated” marathon in the world: rather than spreading finishers across a four hour window (2 to 6+ hours), most are concentrated in the qualifying window (under 5 hours, depending on age, with most runners under 4). It certainly isn’t the largest race: New York, London, Paris, Berlin and Chicago all clock in around 50,000 runners, while Boston has settled in at a maximum size of 30,000.
The reason that Boston is smaller is that unlike those other races, it starts in a small town, takes over the high school for the athletes village, and the first few miles are on a two-lane wide road with no shoulders, meaning that even spread across four distinct waves, there are only so many people who can be bused to the start of the race, lined up, and started. (Chicago, by contrast, starts and ends in the Loop, Berlin, London and Paris are served by massive transit systems and New York uses an armada of buses to move people a couple of miles from the ferry to the start, which happens to be on to a major highway). On race morning, the parking lot behind the Hopkinton CVS is a sea of port-o-johns; New York uses the 160-acre Fort Wadsworth, Chicago starts in the middle of Grant Park.
(Aside: as I stood in line for the line for mobile urinals—a Nobel-worthy invention in the field of race waste management—people next to me worried we’d miss the start. “Nonsense,” I said, doing some quick math. “There are 80 urinals. There are about 250 people ahead of us in line. If each person takes 1 minute, we’ll be done peeing in 4 minutes.” We were. Logistically, each urinal holds about 400 liters and men can pee 10 to 20 ml/sec per the Internet, so these urinals will not fill up during the 90 minute pre-race pee period. Let’s move on.)
The roads in Boston eventually widen, although most of the course is less than four lanes wide. When you take this relatively narrow course (parts of London are narrow as well), and add, unlike the other races, the seeding of qualified runners, it means that the field never spreads out. Marathon finish times mostly resemble a bell curve (although with some eccentricities, discussed momentarily). The “average” marathon has a median time of about 4:30 with a standard deviation of about an hour. Boston has a median of about 3:45, with a standard deviation of only about 40 minutes. (Standard deviation data can be found here; European races tend to be a bit faster than American races on the whole per the study linked below.)
Why is it not an exact bell curve? Because many runners attempt to—and generally succeed in running—specific times. [2:59:56 marathoner this year raises hand.] Here is a very interesting business school paper on reference-dependent preferences which included the results from several thousand marathons and shows the distribution of marathon finish times.
The n in this study is 9,789,043, so 100,000 finishers is just about 1% of the race, and other than a peak right around 4 hours, most of the race is under 0.8% per minute. Boston, on the other hand, has a solid hour with more than 0.8% of the race finishing, with a peak minute of 1.4% or 372 runners (in 2023) and several other minutes around 1.2%, or about 320 runners per minute. And that peak reference-dependent preference is a full hour earlier.
In other words, in a typical marathon, 40% of the runners finish in the peak hour (between about 3:35 and 4:35). In Boston, 60% of runners finish in the peak hour (between 2:55 and 3:55). 40% of runners finish across just 38 minutes, a rate more than 50% higher than typical.
Add to this: Boston’s runners are very well-seeded, so the heavy waves tend to start and finish together. In nearly every large race, runners are sorted into waves to start, with each wave starting every 25 to 35 minutes (rather than having one huge field stage and take 30+ minutes to clear the start). In larger races, the wave start means that although there is a peak between 3:55 and 4:00, that peak finishers are spread across multiple start waves. Most runners near the peak in those races do not have a qualifying race time, and are seeded based on interpolated times from other races.
Meanwhile, in Boston, the first three waves of runners almost all have qualifying times based on a recent marathon and are seeded quite well. Boston has less of a reference-dependent preference signature other than at the 3:00 mark, which happens to be the qualifying time for men under 35 and a significant goal for many runners. In fact, the largest single race for people qualifying for the Boston Marathon is usually the previous year’s Boston Marathon (the only exceptions are when the weather is uncooperatively warm). So in other races, at the peak times, runners are spread across multiple waves (not finishing all together), while in Boston most runners coming in at peak times started together (and in some cases ran the whole race within earshot).
Note: I could go and scrape start and finish data with gun times to go into this further, but for now, just trust me on “Boston has a lot of runners finishing together.”
This all means that at peak finishing times, there are not only 1000 people finishing per minute, but for much of the race, those people all started together. And what does this mean for bag pick-up? Here’s how bag drop works:
Before the 2013 attack, Boston had bag drop at the start: you gave a volunteer your bag and it showed up in Boston on a bus a few hours later. (See DC Rainmaker’s blog post, back before he started reviewing every device.)
After 2013, a bag drop policy was instituted at the start: you left your bag there and took a disposable bag to the start (and for cold years, wore extra clothing, transferring throw-away items from the Goodwills in Boston to Hopkinton).
Setting up a bag drop system for 20,000 or more bags requires erecting the infrastructure in Back Bay the day of the race; at first, this was tents and rows of bins with bags, the system has now morphed into one where you drop your bag at a school bus where it is stored through a window specified by your number range, allowing the storage units to be rolled away after the race (this, on its own, is a very good idea, here’s an image which shows how the easy part—the drop-off—works).
However, the system is still quite space-limited. Most every other big marathon ends in a park, or open area. Boston ends on a main street in the middle of a city. So there is not much room for queuing or storage for the bag drop. Which means that each bus stores approximately 1000 runners’ bags. Which is fine when they are dropped off: runners arrive over the course of about an hour per wave, with some early birds and some late arrivals, meaning about 15 drop-offs per minute, and drop-offs do not have to be sorted to the right person, only put into the right “bin” (a window of a school bus and on the inside, I assume, a numbered seat).
The buses are lined up by wave (red, white, blue, yellow) and then bags are ordered within each wave (1-1000, 1001-2000, etc). It is easy for race volunteers to look at a runner’s bib color and send them in the right direction to drop off their bag. They do, and go off to run their race.
On the pickup end, however, metrics are reversed. 1000 runners may show up over three minutes, and I’d guess as many as 600 of them may all need to get their gear from the same bus. Simply throwing random bags to runners would require, at times, more than three bags per second to be thrown at participants. But unlike drop-off, pickup requires sorting through as many as 25 bags (assuming a bus has 30 seats and bags are sorted into these seats). Without perfect ordering, volunteers search through the pile of bags until they retrieve the correct one. This may take 10 to 20 seconds or more, and even with five or ten volunteers on the bus (there really isn’t space for more), it means only 15 to 60 participants receive their bag each minute. If we assume the geometric mean here of 30 runners served per minute, it would take 30 minutes to serve all the bags in a bus, resulting in long queues.
As this occurs, a wave of long queues forms. Once the high rate of finishers starts around 2:50 from the start, the buses have long lines which form a slow-moving wave from bus to bus. After waiting for my bag in the 4000s for a long period of time in the cold rain (as I have in 2015 and 2018) I shuffled past the bus ahead of me with the 3000s. Aside from a few stragglers, it had no queue, the volunteers there had retrieved all of the bags and were catching their breath. Meanwhile, the queue behind me at the 4000s bus was ebbing, while the queue at the 5000s bus behind us had grown. But elsewhere, three-quarters of the buses, for the white, blue and yellow waves, wouldn’t see their first runners for, in some cases, an hour or more.
In introductory computer science courses, students are often taught about efficient search algorithms. Let me stop here and state that I am completely unqualified to write in depth about the efficiency of search algorithms. But mostly, it is very inefficient to search through an entire unordered list each time you want to find an item. It’s better to either sort the list (and then search through it) or sort the search term in a way that only searches part of the list. (That said, this is, let’s just say, a simplification, people write dissertations about this.)
Essentially, searching an unordered list is what the pile of bags search is. One solution would be to build a better sorting apparatus: I have participated in the American Birkebeiner ski race every year since 2006, and even produce the most popular (read: only) podcast about the race. Drop bags there are sorted and lined up, by number, in a parking lot, and distributed to finishers. This would work in Boston, if only there were several acres of parking lots in the Back Bay which could be used to stage the bags. Fortunately, urban renewal mostly steered clear of Boylston Street (the Pru was built mostly on old rail yards) and we lack the luxury of this open space. The school bus solution allows the apparatus to be set up on the streets, while providing cover from the weather for the bags (and volunteers), but does not lend itself to sorting beyond these bins.
If finishers were better distributed amongst the two dozen (or so) buses as they crossed the line, the sorting problem would be less of an issue. If 240 of 300 people crossing the finish line each minute had dropped a bag and they were evenly distributed amongst the buses, it would mean 10 people per bus per minute, and if five volunteers were on each bus, it would allow 30 seconds per bag for each user without long queues forming. The issue is that with this inefficient search algorithm—which is necessitated by the location of the bag pickup—has concentrated finishers. Hundreds of finishers wind up at a single bus at any time, and there are only so many volunteers who fit on this bus. When these “servers” can’t keep up with the demand of the “customers” (to use queuing theory terminology), the queue grows exponentially until, at some point, the wave of runners ebbs, and the speed at which customers are served exceeds the additions to the queue, and the lines dissipate. Of course, by this time, a similar wave has moved to the next bus down the line.
There is, I believe, a solution to this problem: sort the customers before they get to the bags. The main issue with this setup comes from a concentrated wave of people overwhelming a single service point. If the people were dispersed to more servers, it would allow more efficient use of the volunteers, rather than having one bus overrun while others lie idle. There is a simple way to do this: sort first by the last digit of the bib, and then by bib color and number. This would decrease the concentration of the customers by an order of magnitude, distributing them across the buses, rather than having them queue up in one place where there aren’t enough volunteers to handle them.
Here’s how such a system could work. When the BAA gives out drop bags, runners affix a sticker with their number and wave color. For instance, it might say:
4 8 7 6 or 1 8 7 6 5
This allows a rough sort by color and then number, but color is simply a function of the number, so it does not spread out the customers. Here’s a proposed redesign:
4 8 7 6 or 1 8 7 6 5
What I’ve shown here is that the numbers could have the final number highlighted to help inform people of the new sorting method, allowing the runners to be sorted first by the final number of their bib, and then ordered by their number. This would reduce the concentration by a factor of 10.
Directions about the changes could be given to runners with their drop bag sticker, as well as at the bag drop-off in the morning. Instead of signs pointing to different colors, they would instead point to numbers: 0 to 3 to the left, 4 to 6 to the right, 7 to 9 straight ahead. The start would be less tricky: before the race, people are generally more mentally aware than after running 26.2 miles. Once overcoming this small hurdle, runners would proceed to their number, then to the bus assigned to their color (each bus would likely have two waves assigned) and then the correct range. It would introduce an extra sorting step at the start, but would pay dividends later on.
The finish would introduce more complexity: runners and volunteers would have to direct people based on the last number of their race bib. This would be mitigated in a couple of ways. First, racers would have already experienced the system before the race. Second, volunteers already have to sort barely-cogent runners stumbling their way along Boylston Street by color, so they would instead sort “right/straight/left” by bib number. Once on the right street, runners would be able to find their correct bus by last digit and then color and join a much shorter and congested queue. Rather than 15 to 30 minute queues for bags, most runners would be served in just a few moments.
It might also allow the race organization to cut down on number of volunteers required for the system. Rather than moving volunteers between buses as demand changes, each bus would have even demand during the entire bib pick-up procedure. This would reduce “deadhead” time when volunteers are required to move between buses as they are needed elsewhere, by allowing them to maintain a single duty station during the entirety of the bag pickup process. There would still be 300 or more finishers per minute, but they would be spread across 10 pickup locations at any given time, not concentrated at a single site.
Since this is sometimes a transportation-related site, there is a lesson here in the transportation planning realm: A system which seems efficient may have an unforeseen bottleneck which creates a single point of failure, meaning that a small portion of the system is oversubscribed while the rest is underutilized. A wide highway might encounter a lane drop or even a situation where traffic has to sort into different lanes, resulting in a long backup. A rail line may have plenty of capacity along most of the line but a busy station with long dwell times or a single switch may curtail capacity along the rest of the line. For the Boston Marathon bag pick-up, the well-intentioned decision to simplify the drop bag system results in a bottleneck of hundreds of cold runners huddling under thermal sheets, all too often in cold rain. Simply by changing some procedures, this may have a fix which would benefit everyone involved.
I’ve been part of the calls for the transformation of the MBTA’s Commuter Rail network to more of a “regional rail” network, with more frequent service, especially at off-peak times, for quite a while. The agency has been taking some very small steps towards regional rail, most notably by increasing frequencies on most lines to hourly (where, before the pandemic, midday ridership had been every two hours in many cases, and sometimes worse), and improving service on some lines on weekends (where trains in the past ran only every three hours in some cases). This had led to relatively strong ridership, despite less rush hour commuting, with reported ridership at 76% of pre-pandemic levels. (A caveat is that unlike an agency like, say, Metra, the T has not released much public data about commuter rail ridership.)
There are few “legacy” commuter rail networks in the United States, which have had service dating back to privately-run commuter service (generally in the 1800s). A short history of commuter rail (I’ll defer to Sandy Johnston for the definitive history and yes, you should read his history) is that it is almost as old as the railroad itself, with the first “commutation” fare (a reduced fare for frequent riders) showing up in 1843 in on the Boston and Worcester Railroad. Commuters became an important service and income source in certain large cities, although not in all; in many cases, interurbans or streetcars provided longer-distance services (although often with more frequency than commuter rail). For instance, Los Angeles had no historic commuter rail service, but the Southern Pacific-controlled Red Cars provided a similar service (as did the Key System in the Bay Area and even, to some extent, “Speedrail” in Milwaukee).
In the early 1950s, ridership grew as the suburbs grew, but began to quickly decline as the already worn-out physical plants deteriorated further and the services began to lose money, especially as jobs followed residents out of cities and suburban freeways made driving more time-competitive. Suburban riders often had enough political muscle to force money-losing operations to continue, and eventually Commuter Rail systems were given operating subsidies, allowing most to continue operation (although small systems in Pittsburgh, Cleveland and Detroit disappeared entirely—and Boston came close—and some lines in other cities were abandoned as well). What midday service existed was often cut back further, with some systems operating only at rush hour, and others with minimal midday service.
By the 1980s, subsidies and investment helped to improve some systems, and coupled with increasing congestion and parking costs, ridership began to improve. Before the pandemic, commuter railroads were often some of the least-subsidized forms of transit, recouping costs mostly by charging higher fares for their whiter, more-suburban ridership base while, in many cases, maintaining a 1950s operation on 1850s rights-of-way with 1950s rolling stock. This is the paradox of commuter rail service: by utilizing centuries of investment in the railroad, most of the costs are fixed. Original capital costs were paid generations ago, and many operating costs—maintenance of way, stations, signals—don’t vary depending on the amount of service provided. There is an almost-happy medium—which was attained in some cases pre-pandemic—where thousands of commuters drove to parking lots, boarded clunky, diesel trains (or, in some cases, newer electric trains on clunky, old tracks) for a ride to the city and back because while the experience may not have been particularly pleasant, it was preferable to bumper-to-bumper traffic.
Six cities have maintained this legacy service (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Chicago and San Francisco). In the past 20 years, there has been some investment in new commuter rail systems, almost entirely on existing freight rail corridors (or parallel rights-of-way). In 2019, as measured by passenger-miles, 62% of commuter rail riders were in New York City, 12% in Chicago, and almost 90% in the six legacy cities (and 85% of fixed guideway passenger miles overall are in these cities). Los Angeles has built a system larger, by passenger-miles, than DC or San Francisco, but only by building a sprawling system with more track-miles operated than any other system but New Jersey Transit, which has rail lines in three states and includes operations into both New York and Philadelphia. (Metrolink carried about 400 million passenger miles in 2019, New Jersey Transit carried 2 billion. Commuter rail in New York had 8 billion rides: 20 times more than Los Angeles on a network only three times the size.)
Measuring passenger-miles is a measure of outputs, and is sort of just a stand-in for the system size and development patterns, plus factors such as the portion of the region served. Caltrain serves only one corridor in the region, but if San Francisco included BART—a system which derives significant ridership from its outer branches which act as commuter rail, albeit with much better frequencies—it would be the fifth-highest agency in the country by passenger-miles, trailing just the New York City’s subways and commuter rail agencies.
I wondered if I could measure inputs, as in, how much service is provided for each mile of track. Since so much of the cost of providing service is fixed (already paid for), the marginal cost to run more trains (which, in many cases, just means running existing rolling stock more frequently at off-peak times) is quite low. Luckily for me, the National Transit Database requires transit operators to report this (all data here is from the NTD’s 2019 data set; 2022 may begin to paint a reasonable post-pandemic picture but it won’t be released for months). I am also more interested in the number of trains operated as opposed to the number of cars operated; as a passenger, a two-car train every 15 minutes is far superior to an 8-car train every hour, and the NTD tracks this as “train miles.”
So I came up with my utilization intensity metric for fixed guideways: train miles per fixed guideway mile. It’s basically looking at frequency, but over an entire network. I then separated these by mode and agency and sorted them from lowest to highest. The results are not especially surprising, but do paint a bit of a picture of how American transit does, and doesn’t, work. (The data used here can be found in a Google Doc here.)
In the chart above, colors represent modes, where orange is heavy rail, blue light rail and gray commuter rail. Not surprisingly, New York City’s subway system is by far the most intensely-used system in the country. For every mile of track, there are more than 80,000 train miles per year, meaning that on average there is a train approximately every 6.5 minutes. PATH comes in second, followed by the MBTA’s Green Line, which ranks highly since its four branches are interlined in a high-capacity tunnel. The next ten slots are about evenly split between large heavy rail networks (Chicago, DC, Boston) and big-city light rail networks (San Francisco, Seattle, Houston, Minneapolis) which, in some cases, are being asked to perform a role similar to a heavy rail system, with grade separation, tunnels and long vehicles.
Most heavy rail networks cluster at or above 40,000, meaning a train, on average, every 12 minutes, inclusive of off-peak and overnight times. Many smaller light rail systems fall in the 20,000 to 35,000 range, which still means that they provide service every 15 minutes during much of the day, but in some cases with 20 or even 30 minute headways at off-peak times on less-used systems. And eventually, we arrive at our most intensely-used heavy rail system, two of which are above an inflection point where usage begins to drop. Given that two-thirds of commuter rail ridership is in New York City, it’s got to be in New York, right?
Nope.
Denver.
There’s a lot to fault about Denver’s transit system: that it follows freeways and doesn’t serve existing populations, that Colfax should have had a light rail line years ago, that new light rail and regional rail lines are sometimes built with huge parking lots instead of development, that it somehow took three years to figure out the crossing gates on the airport line, and that the light rail maybe should have been regional rail to begin with anyway.
But Denver did, and does, two things right. First, they built a 23 mile rail line in 2016 for $1.2 billion. Yes, the line follows existing rights-of-way (but separated from the freight railroad, because we can’t have nice things), but at an inflation-adjusted cost of $65 million per mile, which includes grade crossings, several flyovers, signals, full electrification, stations and rolling stock. Second, they run the service as frequent regional rail, not commute time-focused commuter rail. Which means that it is the most frequent commuter rail system in the country.
Denver’s airport service runs every 15 minutes from 4 a.m. to early evening, and then every half hour until after midnight on weekdays. And on Saturdays. And Sundays. Philadelphia has an airport service too. It’s run with the same electrified rail cars Denver uses, on a fully grade-separated line with double track the full route (Denver manages 15 minute headways with a portion of single track). It runs every 30 minutes on weekdays … and every hour on weekends (and this is still more frequent than most of Philadelphia’s “Regional Rail” lines). Denver and Philadelphia have the same level of past investment in their rail networks: electrification, grade separation, and in the case of the Airport Line in Philadelphia, level boarding. But Denver provides more than twice as much service.
The next two commuter rail agencies are in New York, MetroNorth (which nearly matches Denver) and the LIRR. Long Island and New Jersey fall down this list because they include more low-frequency tails which provide infrequent service along exurban and even quasi-rural routes (like the Port Jervis Line or Greenport, which only sees four trains per day). Then there’s SEPTA, which despite running trains only every two hours on weekends on some lines and hourly on weekdays still runs more service than other agencies. Beyond that, some newer systems, including in places like Texas, Florida and Utah, provide more service than the two largest non-New York systems: Metra in Chicago and the MBTA in Boston.
Metra doesn’t many good excuses for its lack of service. Before the pandemic, Metra services were very rush hour-focused. Take, for example, the heavily-trafficked BNSF line. With three tracks, Metra ran complex local/express service, filling trains at bus transfers and park-and-rides in the suburbs and depositing them in the city. 11 trains arrived in Chicago between 7 and 8 each morning, and another 12 between 8 and 9. The rest of the day had service every hour, and on Sundays, trains ran every two hours. More trains arrived in Chicago between 7 and 8 a.m. on a weekday than the entire day on Sunday (the 2019 summer schedule added a test train on Sunday morning and afternoon to provide hourly frequencies during part of the day).
One somewhat-reasonable excuse is that the BNSF Line, like some other Chicago-area lines (but not all), had heavy freight traffic, with dozens of freight trains operating each day. These trains were relegated to operating at non-peak times (at peak hour, passenger service occupied all three tracks), so the morning rush hour level of service wouldn’t be possible. Still, service every 30 minutes (or even 20 or 15) could be provided, potentially with some schedule padding built in for freight interference moving on and off of the corridor, with strategic investments to improve conditions (and, maybe some strategic reforms to the freight rail industry as a whole). With changing travel patterns post-pandemic, Metra is looking to move away from the high commuter skew (it has already cut schedules back at commute times based on demand) towards a more regional rail system.
Boston doesn’t have this excuse. While Chicago is the major freight logistics hub in the country, freight rail in and around Boston has dwindled to a few carloads per week aside from some through traffic that crosses the ends of a couple of the regions Commuter Rail lines. The MBTA controls nearly the entire network, and can not point to dozens of freight trains as a reason it can’t run more midday service, and it runs less service than Chicago. During the pandemic, the agency has moved to hourly service on most of its lines on weekdays (still every two hours on weekends) but in 2019 it ran 20% less service than Metra, and only 1/4 the service of Denver, despite similar base infrastructure (two-track railroad with minimal interfering traffic). This means that cities like Boston and Chicago are doing far less to leverage past investment than they could. Traffic congestion has returned—Boston is ranked fourth in the world—but with trains every hour or two, there’s little reason for most people to try to take one. The MBTA has given lip service to a “rail transformation” but actual policy has been at best lacking at at worst forays into technologic gadgetry.
The bottom of the list is populated by smaller systems: regional systems like the Keystone service between Harrisburg and Philadelphia (which, fun fact, is by far the fastest transit service in the country, averaging 56 mph) or the Downeaster from Boston to Maine (which is … not as fast). Aside from LA’s sprawling system, others are usually single-line systems in smaller cities, or, in the case of MARC in Maryland, a full-service line (the Penn Line) with rush-h
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https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/pwhl-boston-hockey-team-explainer/3259714/
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What to know to be a fan of Boston's newest pro sports team
|
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2024-03-10T18:02:43
|
If you’re looking to get in on the hype and become Boston’s biggest fan — or just a casual one to start — here are a few things you need to know about...
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en
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NBC Boston
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https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/pwhl-boston-hockey-team-explainer/3259714/
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Boston welcomed a new sports team this year: one of a new original six franchises that make up the new Professional Women’s Hockey League.
So far, none of the teams have names or mascots (and few of the teams have permanent home rinks), but the league has immediately gained traction, breaking the attendance record for professional women’s hockey games twice in the first week of action in January, and continuing to do so throughout the year.
So, if you’re looking to get in on the hype and become Boston’s biggest fan — or just a casual one to start — here are a few things you need to know.
What is the Professional Women’s Hockey League?
If you're thinking, didn’t Boston already have a professional women’s hockey team, you’re not going crazy.
The Boston Pride, which resided in Boston for eight years, was disbanded in June along with the rest of its league, Premiere Hockey Federation, as the result of a buyout by retired women’s tennis star Billie Jean King and Mark Walter, who owns the Los Angeles Dodgers (MLB) and the Los Angeles Sparks (WNBA).
King and Walter, two financial stakeholders in the former Professional Women’s Hockey Players Association, partnered to negotiate a collective bargaining agreement with the PHF in an effort to pool the resources of the two competitor leagues and create a more sustainable women’s hockey league that provides its players with higher wages.
The agreement, which runs through 2031, offers players on active rosters a salary of between $35,000 and $80,000.
In its final season, the PHF, which was the first women's hockey league to offer players a salary, afforded each of its seven teams a salary cap of $750,000, or about $37,500 per player on a 20-person roster.
In a format reminiscent of the NHL's Original Six, the PWHL comprises six teams: Boston, New York, Minnesota, Toronto, Montreal and Ottawa.
In September, the league hosted its inaugural draft in Toronto, with the teams selecting 90 players through 15 rounds. Other players were signed as free agents around the same time to fill out each team’s roster.
Boston began its inaugural 24-game season Jan. 3, and games will run through the end of April.
The playoffs begin the week of May 6.
The top four teams will qualify for the tournament, with two rounds of best-of-five series. Heading into the final stretch of the regular season, Boston was battling for the final spot.
Gameday in Boston (er… Lowell)
Despite being named for the state’s capital, Boston’s home rink is actually the Tsongas Center at UMass Lowell. (This is a common theme throughout the PWHL — for example, New York’s home games are split between Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Long Island, New York, just outside of Queens.)
The Tsongas Center seats 6,500 people, and PWHL Boston General Manager Danielle Marmer said at the time that it was announced as the team's inaugural host arena that its location in Lowell means it will "draw fans from the Merrimack Valley, North Shore, Southern New Hampshire, and the Greater Boston Area."
Tickets range from $15-$50 and can be purchased at boston.thepwhl.com.
For drivers, there are affordable parking options around the arena. UMass Lowell has a parking garage of its own, and there are other lots and meters scattered around the venue. (Look for a four-hour meter — games typically last between two-and-a-half and three hours.)
For people taking public transit, the Lowell Commuter Rail line will get you into the city, and from there, you can either walk 30 minutes, order an Uber or take the #18 bus to Lowell High School and walk eight minutes to the game.
Can’t make it to Lowell? Is the team on the road this week? No problem — all PWHL Boston games are televised.
And now, your players of the game…
The PWHL is chock-full of talent, and Boston is no different, with Olympic medalists and collegiate record-breakers up-and-down the lineup.
Here are a few of the names you should know:
Hilary Knight (#21)
As one of the most highly decorated American women’s ice hockey players in history, it’s no wonder Knight was named captain of the inaugural PWHL Boston team.
Before she broke into the world of professional hockey, the forward played for the University of Wisconsin where, by her sophomore season, she had broken the program records for single-season points (83), goals (45) and power play goals (16). She also led the NCAA in goals, points and power play goals that season.
Knight finished her tenure with the Badgers holding program career records in points (262), goals (143), game-winning goals (30), power play goals (37), shots (986), hat tricks (9) and most goals scored in one game (5). For her efforts, she was a three-time top-10 finalist for the Patty Kazmaier award, an award given by the USA Hockey Foundation that recognizes the strongest NCAA Division I women’s hockey player each season.
Post-college, Knight played in several pro leagues: with the Boston Blades (Canadian Women’s Hockey League), the Boston Pride (National Women’s Hockey League), and Les Canadiennes de Montréal (CWHL) before becoming one of the first players to sign with the Boston PWHL team in September.
Knight joined the Pride in its inaugural season, scoring the team’s first-ever goal, recording the team’s first multi-point game, becoming the NWHL’s first scoring champion, and helping the team win the inaugural Isobel Cup.
On the national stage, Knight is Team USA's current captain. She's helped carry the red, white and blue to nine gold medals at the International Ice Hockey Federation World Women’s Championship, one gold Olympic medal (2018) and three silver Olympic medals (2010, 2014, 2022). At the 2010 Winter Olympics, Knight, then 20 years old, was the youngest member on either the men’s or women’s squad. She finished the Games with eight points.
Alina Müller (#11)
Taken third overall by Boston in the PWHL Draft in September, the 25-year-old left wing is an offensive powerhouse.
A recent Northeastern University graduate from Lengnau, Switzerland, Müller’s prowess was first recognized on the international level when she was just 15 years old.
In Switzerland’s bronze medal game at the 2014 Winter Olympics, Müller netted the game-winner against Sweden, becoming the youngest ice hockey player to earn an Olympic medal.
Four years later, Müller tallied four goals in the first two periods of Switzerland’s opening match at the 2018 Winter Olympics, tying the Olympic record for most goals scored by a woman in a single game. She was named Swiss Ice Hockey Woman of the Year that year and earned the honor again in 2022.
Over the course of her incredibly successful career at Northeastern, Müller grabbed the program records for career points (254), assists (156) and game-winning goals (28), as well as the Hockey East career points record (175) and Hockey East Tournament scoring record (33 goals). Müller led the Huskies in points in her freshman, sophomore, junior and graduate student seasons, carrying Northeastern to six-consecutive Hockey East Championships and three-straight Frozen Four appearances.
In her final season at Northeastern, the Huskies, who finished the season 34-3-1, were 30-0-0 when Müller recorded a point.
Loren Gabel (#36)
Drafted by Boston in the fourth round, 22nd overall, Gabel's reliable ability to find the back of the net bumped Clarkson University to two consecutive national championships.
As a freshman, she led all Golden Knights rookies in scoring and ranked second among rookies nationally. In her junior campaign, Gabel broke Clarkson’s record for fastest hat trick, scoring thrice in under two and a half minutes on her way to a six-point game. The next year, she potted a goal eight seconds after puck drop, became the all-time scoring leader (213 points) and punctuated her career with the Patty Kazmaier award.
After three seasons with the PWHPA, Gabel signed with the Pride prior to the 2022-23 season. She led the league in points, goals and assists that year.
Megan Keller (#5)
Another former member of the collegiate hockey scene in Boston, Keller is the top defender on the team.
Keller was a staple on the blue line during her time at Boston College, becoming the fastest defender in program history to reach 100 points (102 games). At the time of her graduation, she held the program career records for goals (45) and assists (113) by a defender. She also led the nation in scoring among blue-liners in her latter three years with the program.
As a senior, she became the second-ever defender to be named a top-three Patty Kazmaier finalist.
At 17-years-old, Keller was selected by Team USA for the IIHF Under-18 Women’s World Championship and led all skaters with a +9 rating. The next year, she participated in the IIHF Women’s World Championship for the first time, joining Knight on the U.S.’s run to gold — her first of five gold IIHF medals (she also has two silver under her belt).
Keller then joined Knight on the USA Olympic squads for the 2018 and 2022 games and supported the team to gold and silver finishes, respectively.
Aerin Frankel (#31)
Frankel, who signed as a free agent in September, is one half of Boston’s goalie tandem.
A five-year starter at Northeastern, the 5-foot-5-inch netminder, who spent most of her Husky career sharing the ice with Müller, holds the program records for career shutouts (39), single-season goals against average (1.31), single-season save percentage (.965) and single-season shutouts (11). With 103 career wins, she stands as the winningest goalie in both the men’s and women’s programs.
Frankel made a name for herself across the NCAA early on, posting an NCAA-rookie-leading .934 save percentage as a freshman. By her senior season, she led all goalies in the nation with a .965 save percentage and nine shutouts. That season, she also broke the Northeastern career shutout record (again, for both men and women) with 39.
In 2021, Frankel became the third Northeastern player to win the Patty Kazmaier award and the inaugural Women’s Hockey Commissioners Association Goalie of the Year award. The following season, she won Goalie of the Year again.
After graduating from Northeastern, Frankel spent a year with Team USA. At the 2023 IIHF Women’s World Championship, she backstopped the team through an unbeaten run to gold, racking up a .931 save percentage, 1.48 GAA, and 5-0-1 record.
There you have it — your all-inclusive guide to being a fan of the Boston PWHL team. Now, go grab a jersey and enjoy the season!
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https://peabodyhistorical.org/2021/08/ticket-to-ride/
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Ticket to Ride
|
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[
"Nora Bigelow"
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2021-08-10T16:39:39+00:00
|
Peabody’s first train line was built in 1846 by the Essex Railroad, ultimately connecting Salem, Peabody, Danvers and Lawrence. On July 4, 1848, 3,000 people traveled the Peabody to Danvers section of the journey and marveled at the innovation. In 1850, the South Reading Railroad was built and connected Peabody to Boston via South Reading […]
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Peabody Historical Society
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https://peabodyhistorical.org/2021/08/ticket-to-ride/
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Peabody’s first train line was built in 1846 by the Essex Railroad, ultimately connecting Salem, Peabody, Danvers and Lawrence. On July 4, 1848, 3,000 people traveled the Peabody to Danvers section of the journey and marveled at the innovation.
In 1850, the South Reading Railroad was built and connected Peabody to Boston via South Reading (now Wakefield). The Georgetown Railroad was built in 1854, with stops in Newburyport, Georgetown, Topsfield, Danvers and West Peabody, continuing onto Boston via South Reading. West Peabody was also included in the Salem & Lowell Railroad, which traveled west to Tewksbury Junction.
By 1859, the Boston & Maine Railroad, the Boston & Lowell Railroad Corporation and the Eastern Railroad Company all operated lines passing through Peabody.
As you can imagine, with all these different railroad companies vying for business, each company worked to undercut the other and gain the monopoly of their areas.
In the end, all train lines through Peabody would be owned and operated by the Boston & Maine Railroad.
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Suburbanization, 1870-1915
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See the period between 1870 to 1915
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Between 1870 and 1915, Lexington's population more than doubled - from 2,270 to 5,538. During this period, the improved access offered by the railroad continued to have a major impact on development in town, transforming the rural town into a railroad suburb:
1867: the name of the railroad was changed from the Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad to the Lexington and Arlington Railroad.
1870: the line became part of the larger Boston and Lowell Railroad
1871: service had been expanded with eight trips a day from Lexington to Boston and two on Sundays.
1873: the line was extended to Bedford and Concord.
1886: the Boston and Lowell laid double track to Lexington.
1900: 11 trains ran daily each way between Lexington and Boston with 7 runs on Sundays.
By 1904 there were 5 station stops in Lexington:
the main depot
North Lexington at Bedford Street
East Lexington, at Pierce's Bridge (near Maple Street)
Munroe Station in Tower Park.
Only the main depot stands today.
The Lexington and Boston Street Railway system began service on April 19, 1900. Within a few years, the street railway offered service to Woburn and Waltham as well as Boston.
Speculative development occurred along the trolley routes in the early 20th century:
Massachusetts Avenue in East Lexington
Bedford Street at North Lexington
Waltham Street around Marrett Road.
The streetcar also brought with it new entertainment possibilities. In 1901 the Street Railway Company purchased Boardman's Grove near the Bedford town line for "Lexington Park", a multipurpose amusement facility which included a theater, casino, dining pavilion, shooting gallery, roller skating rink, library, observation tower, women's building, and zoo. animals.
Railroad service introduced several different demographic groups to Lexington. At the lower end of the economic spectrum were a significant number of Irish immigrants who found work in Lexington, building and later maintaining the railroad, laboring on farms, and working as domestics, especially at local hotels. By the late 19th century foreign immigrants constituted a significant proportion of the town's population. The 1885 State Census lists the proportion of residents who were first or second-generation immigrants at 45%.
A number of the Irish immigrants who came to Lexington were farmers. By 1870 about a dozen former Irish farm laborers living in Lexington had bought their own farms. The Maguire family purchased the Katahdin Woods property in 1864 and by the end of the 19th century owned the eastern length of Wood Street. The farm-raised corn, potatoes, apples, strawberries, and milk are for sale in Boston and Cambridge.
The Kinneen Farm was located at the corner of Burlington and Hancock Streets. By 1888 the 200-acre farm spanned from Grove Street to Diamond Middle School and included what is now Kinneen Park.
James Alexander Wilson was born in Ireland in 1859 and came to America in 1877 working on the farm of his uncle, William Wilson, a market gardener who owned land in East Lexington and Arlington. When James became of age, he leased a farm along Pleasant Street, eventually buying it in 1903. He specialized in celery but also grew tomatoes, beets, and carrots.
By the late 19th century, Lexington was renowned for its agriculture, especially dairy and animal breeding. In 1875 only Worcester produced more milk and grazed more cows. In 1885 there were 1,320 cows in Lexington.
In the late 19th century, the Vine Brook Stock Farm on Middleby Road had a herd of nearly 100 cows. It was later owned by Joseph Middleby, a breeder and trainer of horses, who laid out a half-mile track in the meadow between Middleby Road and Reservoir (Reservoir Stock Farm). Members of the Lawrence family on Pleasant Street were also well-known dairy farmers. In 1890 John Willard on North Street maintained a dairy herd as well as 2000 chickens. In 1875 F.H. Reed began selling milk and other dairy products to the town of Arlington from his farm at 72 Lowell Street in East Lexington.
Another important demographic group which came to Lexington due to the railroad was the middle-class businessmen/professionals. The middle-class businessmen and professionals who decided to make Lexington their home settled near the train stations and constructed large Victorian houses on Bloomfield Street and on Meriam Hill and Munroe Hill.
By 1887 it is estimated that 23% of Lexington's business and professional workers were commuters. Rail access from Boston combined with the town's higher elevation led to Lexington's popularity in the late 19th century as a summer and winter destination for city visitors.
Many of those who would later erect homes initially spent time at one of Lexington's hotels. The two primary establishments were the Russell House and the Massachusetts House. At Massachusetts Avenue and Woburn Street, the Russell House was opened by James Russell in 1882 and became a particular favorite of Boston and Cambridge residents. The house itself was built in the pre-Revolutionary period with a large wing added in the 1880s. The establishment continued to operate into the early 20th century (no longer extant).
The Massachusetts House, which was located on the site of 1713 Massachusetts Avenue, also attracted its own following. The building was initially erected as an exhibit at the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition, disassembled, and transported to Lexington to serve as a hotel. It closed as a hotel about 1890 and the building was demolished in 1917 to make way for stores.
Also at Lexington Center, the Monument House, later known as Adair's Tavern, Central House, Leslie House, and Paul Revere Tavern, generally accommodated more transient lodgers. It was demolished in 1929.
Among Lexington's most prosperous late 19th century residents was Francis Brown Hayes, railroad official, lawyer, state senator, and U.S. Congressman, who purchased a home at 45 Hancock Street (no longer extant) in November 1861 and used it as a summer home. Over time he acquired additional small farms extending over Granny Hill to beyond Grant Street, encompassing nearly 400 acres. In 1883-4 Hayes built a 32-room fieldstone mansion "The Castle" or "Oakmount" on what is now Castle Road (it was torn down in 1941). By 1900 only 6 of the 400 acres remained, the rest was sold as house lots.
Another prominent resident of Meriam Hill was Charles Goodwin. His house and barn were torn down in 1937.
Col. William Augustus Tower, a prominent merchant, and banker, constructed his own luxurious Victorian mansion overlooking Massachusetts Avenue in 1873. By 1886 the Tower estate included a barn and stable, 2 cottages, a tea house with a flower garden and greenhouse, a windmill, 8 horses, 2 cows, and 8 carriages. Initially, Tower spent summers in Lexington and winters on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston but later he lived in Lexington year around. By 1904 when he died, Tower owned 127 acres. His mansion was located on the present site of the Museum of Our National Heritage, close to Pelham Road.
Other luxurious, late 19th century mansions which were erected in Lexington but have burned or been demolished include the Cary Mansion which burned in 1895 and 1948, the Benjamin Brown Mansion, and Taylor Mansion. Among those that remain are the A.E. Scott Mansion at 277 Waltham Street (9 Bushnell Drive), the Whipple Mansion at 265 Lowell Street, the Richard Tower Mansion at 33 Marrett Road, and the Harry Fay Mansion at 6 Eliot Road.
The arrival of wealthy, professional residents also brought a new range of leisure activities and clubs to town. In 1864 a driving club for the racing of trotters was built on Hayes' land, the first in the state. The half-mile track with a grandstand on each side was located between what is now Saddle Club Road and Grant Street. Harness racing took place at Reservoir Trotting Park at the town reservoir.
The Lexington Field and Garden Club was formed in 1876 to preserve and enhance the town's aesthetic qualities. In 1892, the Old Belfry Club, one of the first social clubs in Lexington, was organized. Two years later, a clubhouse was dedicated at the corner of Muzzey and Forest Streets. The facility included a tennis court and bowling alley. It was destroyed by fire in 1979.
Three financial clubs - the Lexington Associates, the Lexington Club, and the East Lexington Finance Club - shared an interest in improving the town as well as sharing investment knowledge for personal gain. The Lexington Golf Club was founded in 1895 and began as a nine-hole course on the hill behind the Munroe Tavern. In 1899 the Club leased the Vaille Farm on Hill Street, eventually buying it in 1906.
Some of the wealthy city folks who used Lexington as a summer residence also operated gentleman farms, hiring foremen to run their operations. Leisure activities for these gentleman farmers included horse racing, pigeon shoots, fox hunting, and breeding fancy cattle.
What is now the Idylwilde Farm Conservation Property near Middle and Lincoln Streets was once the elaborate summer estate of the Cary family. J.W. Hayden's 20-acre estate at 376 Lincoln Street was called Ponywold after the 22 Shetland ponies he kept there in addition to poultry and sheep. His residence was constructed from two former schoolhouses that were moved to Lincoln Street and remodeled into a single dwelling.
In the late 19th and early 20th century what was later known as Grassland Farm on Marrett Road near Spring Street was owned by Edward Payson, who operated a stock farm and raised "blooded" Golddust-Morgan horses and Shetland ponies.
By the late 19th century Lexington was being transformed from an isolated agricultural town to a more populated suburb. Many old farms had already been sold off and divided into house lots. Levi Prosser purchased the Munroe farm behind the tavern and in 1872 subdivided it into 150-foot square lots along what are now Bloomfield Street, Eustis Street, and Percy Road (originally Mount Vernon Street). (For more information on these areas see Area Forms N and O).
In 1881 slightly smaller lots were laid out nearby in the Warren, Washington, and Bennington Streets neighborhood. Richard Blinn laid out the "Belfry Hill Stock Farm" on the land that is now Parker Street in 1872 (see Area Form J). The residential streets of Grant, Sherman, Fletcher, and Sheridan Streets (Area Form G) were laid out in the late 1880s on land owned by David Wood Muzzey and Charles G. Fletcher. Meriam Hill was first divided into house lots in the 1870s although construction did not take place in earnest until the 1880s (see Area Form H).
In the northern part of town, Elm Hill Farm, which had passed through six generations of the Reed Family, was sold to Mark Meager in 1891. Meager divided the former farm including Tophet Swamp into over 1,500 building lots measuring 1/16 of an acre (Lexington Heights - Area AJ). By 1895 three hundred lots had been sold but only eleven houses had been built.
Another more successful developer, George F. Tewksbury of Winthrop, opened up the Hill Street/Tewksbury Street/Shirley Street neighborhood. The Fair Oaks subdivision was first laid out in 1909 as was developer J.W. Wilbur's "Liberty Heights" subdivision in East Lexington. (These areas are more fully described in Area Forms Y and Q).
Industrial activity remained limited, compared to many communities. In 1870 the paint mine on Simond's Farm, off Grove Street, was incorporated as the Lexington and Boston Paint Company. A 350' long rope walk was located on the meadow south of Waltham Street opposite Allen Street in 1880. Matthew Merriam's shop manufacturing trimmings for boots and shoes moved to Oakland Street in 1882 and at its peak employed fifty. Muzzey and Whitcher's Grain Mill was built behind what is now 1775 Massachusetts Avenue in 1884. George Grant opened a gear works near the end of Fletcher Avenue in 1888. The factory building was purchased by Jefferson Union Company in 1905.
The influx of professional newcomers along with a number of progressive long-time residents also had a major impact on town government and the provision of local services. Although East Lexington and the Center continued to vie for dominance, a new Town Hall building was constructed at the Center and dedicated on April 19, 1871. The four-story brick building also housed the Cary Library.
The Lexington Minuteman weekly newspaper began publishing in 1871. A new engine house was built on Meriam Street in 1876. The Lexington Gas Company began operation in 1875 and sixty-six gaslights were installed by the town to light the Center Village, replacing kerosene oil lamps. Telephone service was first offered in 1882 and two years later there were thirty-one subscribers.
The Lexington Water Works was founded in 1881 as a private business. The pumping station on Concord Hill was completed by 1885 with a second reservoir constructed north of Marrett Road a few years later. In 1895 and 1901 the City of Cambridge took at least 220 acres in southwestern Lexington and built a reservoir. Lexington joined the Metropolitan Water District in 1902.
At a town meeting in October 1887, William A. Tower offered to fund a library building if the town would provide a site. Mrs. Maria Cary, at the same meeting, offered the town $10,000 toward securing the land. Mr. Tower later withdrew his offer. The Cary Memorial Library was eventually constructed in 1906, a gift of Miss Alice Cary and other family members. In 1892 Miss Ellen Stone gave the Library Trustees the house next to the Follen Church in East Lexington to be used for a branch library.
In 1894 Hastings Park was purchased by the Lexington Field and Garden Club; it was given to the town three years later. The Hayes Fountain, incorporating Henry H. Kitson's Minute-man Statue, was unveiled in 1900.
The 1870-1915 period also witnessed dramatic changes in local education. In 1890 the school committee merged the six ungraded district schools in town into the Adams School and the Hancock School, thus allowing students to learn with peers of similar ages and encouraging teachers to specialize in the subject matter. A new Hancock School was constructed in 1891 after the previous building was destroyed by fire.
As the school population continued to grow, the Munroe School was constructed in 1904. In East Lexington, a new brick Adams School was constructed in 1912 on a site behind the Stone Building. A new High School structure was constructed in 1902 on the same site that had formerly housed the town hall and first high school.
Several new religious congregations were formed and structures were built during this period. St. Brigid's Roman Catholic parish was established in response to the influx of Irish immigrants. Masses were held in the Lexington Town Hall in 1852 and at various other sites before the construction of the church in 1875. The Hancock Congregational Church was organized in 1868 and constructed its own building opposite the Green in 1892. A group of summer residents established the Church of Our Redeemer on Meriam Hill in the early 1880s and a chapel was completed in 1886. In East Lexington, a cornerstone for a Jewish synagogue was laid on Sylvia Street in 1913.
Antiquarian interest has always been strong in Lexington but became more organized in the late 19th century. In 1884 the Town appropriated funds to mark places of historic interest and two years later the Lexington Historical Society was organized. In 1891 the Society was given the Old Belfry on the Hancock School lot on Clarke Street and in 1894 the Society purchased the Hancock Clarke house and moved it across Hancock Street to save it from destruction. After the initial Belfry was destroyed in 1909, a replica was erected.
In 1911 the Munroe Tavern was given to the Society. In 1913 the Town of Lexington acquired the Buckman Tavern. The "restoration" of the Jonathan Harrington House by owner Leroy Brown in 1910 is said to have inspired William Sumner Appleton in establishing the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities the same year.
Surviving Properties - Residential
Along with the Italianate style, the French Second Empire style dominated urban housing in this country between 1860 and 1880. Although it was intended to be an imposing style, it was also translated to smaller, domestic buildings. Examples of the style frequently resemble Italianate designs but are topped by the ever-present mansard roof.
Lexington's most elaborate extant mansard-roofed house is the George Robinson House at 6 Stratham Road. Originally constructed in 1846 as a Gothic cottage, the house was remodeled in the 1870s in the French Second Empire style. Robinson, a successful Boston provisions merchant, made significant additions to the house including a bell-cast mansard roof with arched dormers and bracketed cornice, a bracketed door hood, and a six-sided porch. The addition of a mansard roof could make an older house appear more stylish while adding additional living space. Other houses in Lexington with later mansard roofs include 20 Hancock Street, 956 Massachusetts Avenue, and 2173 Massachusetts Avenue.
The French Second Empire style was also used for more modest cottages including houses on Hanover Avenue and Forest Street. The Hanover Avenue cottages were built on speculation by local builder and developer John L. Norris beginning in 1871. The five cottages on the north side of Forest Street between Waltham and Muzzey Streets were constructed in 1873-1874 for J.E. Hodgman.
The cottage at 58 Hancock Street is notable for retaining its flat-roofed door hood with milled brackets with pendant drops. Other more altered mansarded cottages include 11 Curve Street, 23 Middle Street, 14 East Street, and 3 Stetson Street. In East Lexington, the structure at 851 Massachusetts Avenue appears to have been the first of a grouping of mansard-roofed row houses although it was the only one constructed.
***
The Stick Style is an architectural style which met with limited popularity in Lexington and elsewhere in the 1870s and 1880s. This transitional model is one which was a precursor to the more exuberant Queen Anne style. As its name suggests, it is identified by the vertical and horizontal stickwork which was applied as decoration, with no structural relation to the wood-frame structure. Houses which include elements of the Stick Style include several on Bloomfield Street, Raymond Street, and the Fletcher/Sherman Street neighborhood.
The towered Stick Style houses at 39 Highland Avenue and 36 Forest Street were constructed by prominent local builder Abram C. Washburn according to the same plan. The Forest Street house was the builder's own house for almost forty years.
* * *
The Queen Anne style was widely used throughout Lexington and is evident in many variations, shapes, and sizes. In the most ambitious expressions, there are towers, turrets, projecting pavilions, bays, and porches.
The building at 2139 Massachusetts Avenue is one of the best-preserved Queen Anne houses in town and includes many distinctive finishes including a profusion of gables with half-timbering at the tops, contrasting patterned shingles, and wood clapboards, varied window treatments, and a spindle frieze on the front porch. The use of balloon framing in the late 19th century allowed for irregularities in plan and techniques to avoid flat surfaces including cut-away corners, bay windows, wall insets, and cantilevered gables.
One of the town's exuberant Queen Anne designs is the house at 25 Parker Street which builder Abram C. Washburn constructed in 1890 for Daniel Owen. The house incorporates many hallmarks of the style including a wraparound porch with turned posts, brackets, bay windows, and stained glass but is distinguished by more unusual features including a porch pediment with carved foliate decoration and a broken front gable which is finished with patterned wood shingles interrupted by a curved bay window.
Some examples of Queen Anne-style houses which incorporate prominent towers are houses at 149 Adams Street, 2 and 4 Chandler Street, and 47 Grant Street, 2016 Mass. Avenue, 16 Oakland Street, 29 and 31 Sherman Street, and 14 Stratham Road.
Locally, the Queen Anne was also used for many more modest dwellings as well. Typically these were gablefront dwellings where elements of the style may be limited to turned porch posts, spindlework, windows with colored glass, and/or contrasting clapboards and wood shingles. These houses are found throughout the town along and immediately behind main routes.
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Also dating to the late 19th century, the Shingle Style was a uniquely American style with roots in New England Colonial architecture. Houses built in this style typically mix rough-cut shingles, left to weather naturally, with rubble and fieldstone. Unlike the Queen Anne, decorative detailing is used sparingly.
In Lexington, the style was a perfect fit for those who came to town from the city and built vacation retreats. As a result, many of the Shingle Style homes are found in the affluent neighborhoods that saw development in the 1890s including Munroe Hill, Meriam Hill, and Winthrop Road. Other examples are found on Bloomfield Street, Grant Street, Hancock Street, and Waltham Street. The style continued to be used locally until about 1910.
Lexington's finest Shingle Style house is the Augustus E Scott House at 9 Bushnell Drive (formerly 277 Waltham Street), constructed in 1891. The house is believed to have been designed by prominent Cambridge architects Hartwell and Richardson. The firm also designed the Hancock School in 1891; A.E. Scott served as the chairman of the building committee. Scott was one of Lexington's most prominent citizens. He was a state legislator, organized the Lexington Field and Garden Club was one of the original members and first president of the Historical Society, and a founding member of the Lexington Savings Bank. He was also an accomplished mountain climber, an early president of the Appalachian Mountain Club, and was active in planning and building paths to important points in the White Mountains.
Many of the Shingle Style dwellings in Lexington are capped by gambrel roofs. Among the earliest and best Shingle Style dwellings on Munroe Hill is the house constructed in 1893 at 14 Percy Road for Col. Charles Thornton, a resident of Cambridge who summered at the Russell House for several years. The house next door at 16 Percy Road was constructed at the same time for his sister.
Other examples of Shingle Style dwellings with gambrel roofs include 7 Bennington Road, 183 Waltham Street, 50 Bloomfield Street, and 4 Washington Street. The Shingle Style is also exhibited in a number of smaller-scaled, gambrel-roofed cottages including 9 Audubon Road, 6 Forest Street, 2 Oakland Street, 50 Bloomfield Street, 10 Winthrop Road, 60 Pleasant Street, 6 and 8 Glen Road, and 6 Upland Road.
The Colonial Revival style was widely used in Lexington in the late 19th and early 20th century. Like the Queen Anne and Shingle-style structures, many of these ambitious, high-style homes are found in the town center and along Mass. Avenue Many of the Colonial Revival dwellings of this period are free stylistic mixtures of "Colonial" features with elements of other styles that were popular at the same time. Typically the designs are without regard to historic precedent or accuracy.
Many houses combine the Queen Anne style with the emerging Colonial Revival. Usually, Colonial Revival houses of this period have asymmetrical designs, unlike their historic prototypes, or exaggerated proportions. Some illustrations of this trend include the house which architect SD. Kelley designed in 1893 for Warren Sherburne at 11 Percy Road, 12 Warren Street, 29 Maple Street, and 48 Hancock Street constructed in 1903-4.
The Colonial Revival style was also the style of choice for some of Lexington's most formal homes. In 1906 New York architect Oswald Hering designed a massive brick mansion for Harry Fay at 6 Eliot Road. Nearby, the Richard Tower Mansion at 33 Marrett Road is another brick Colonial Revival manse. It is now part of the Museum of Our National Heritage.
Gambrel-roofed Colonial Revival dwellings were also popular in Lexington's more affluent neighborhoods at the turn of the century. Several notable examples are found on Munroe Hill and include the houses at 4 Bennington Road and 5 Pelham Road.
A number of the most interesting residences constructed in Lexington in the early 20th century were designed by local architect Willard Dalyrimple Brown (1871-1944) who graduated from the MIT School of Architecture in 1894 and set up his own practice in Boston in 1902. Brown's highly original early works reflect the various influences that were prevalent during the eclectic times including the Colonial Revival, Shingle, and Craftsman modes. His own house at 20 Meriam Street (1905), embodies many of his typical details including a low hip roof with broad eaves and exposed rafters and an emphasis on horizontality.
The George Whiting House at 8 Adams Street (1903) is one of Brown's earliest commissions and one of the largest high-style Craftsman houses in Lexington.
Other houses designed by Willard D. Brown during this period include houses at 18 and 20 Adams Street, 28 Meriam Street, 75 Outlook Drive, 376 Lincoln Street, and 11 and 15 Winthrop Road. The use of fieldstone, stucco, and shingles is common to many of these designs.
* * *
Today, there are few remnants of the elegant mansions which were erected by Lexington's turn-of-the-century gentry. One of the few is the Whipple Mansion at 265 Lowell Street, a 1903 English Tudor remodeling of a c.1870 Stick Style house. After housing the Fairlawn Nursing Home for many years, this is now the home of the Lexington Prep School.
The former stone carriage house at 60 Meriam Street is all that remains of Lexington's most splendid estate, the Francis B. Hayes property, also known as Oakmount. It is one of three carriage houses on Meriam Hill that have been remodeled into residences. The others - at 15 Patriots Drive and 6 Wadman Circle - were part of the Benjamin Brown estate.
Other Property Types
Town Buildings
Population growth and expanded town services resulted in the construction of a number of important town buildings in the 1870 -1915 period.
The Meriam Street Fire Station was built in 1876 and stood on its original site until 1947 when the top half of building was moved to 3 Hayes Lane where still stands as VFW Hall (former façade is at the rear).
The brick Romanesque Revival Hancock School at 33 Forest Street was erected in 1891 according to designs by the prominent architectural firm of Hartwell and Richardson. The first building in town constructed to house a high school was built at 1475 Massachusetts Avenue in 1902, designed by architects Cooper and Bailey. (It was later substantially enlarged in 1924).
The fieldstone and stucco Cary Library at 1874 Massachusetts Avenue was constructed in 1906 according to designs by local architect Willard D. Brown. Brown also designed the Munroe School at 1403 Massachusetts Avenue in 1904. The building was later modernized about 1915 by facing the front and side walls with brick.
A new Adams School (739 Massachusetts Avenue) opened behind the Stone Building in East Lexington in 1912. The brick building was designed by Boston architects Brainerd and Leeds.
* * *
Churches
The Church of Our Redeemer (Episcopal) at 17 Meriam Street was completed in 1886. The original simple wood-frame structure with its half-timbered gablefront, slight steeple, and open porch was designed by Boston architect EA.P. Newcomb.
A growing congregation led to the construction of a new Hancock Church at 1912 Massachusetts Avenue beginning in 1892. The fieldstone church with squat tower and repeating arches was designed by Walter J. Paine of the Boston architectural firm of Lewis and Paine. Images of the church were published in the national publication American Architect and Building News in 1893.
The First Baptist Church at 1580 Massachusetts Avenue also dates to 1892 and replaces an earlier Baptist structure constructed on the same site in 1834, remodeled and enlarged during the 1880s, and destroyed by fire on May 13, 1891. The Shingle Style building was designed by Boston architect J. Williams Beal and was reportedly built after the plan of a church "just completed" in Randolph.
The town's first Jewish synagogue was constructed in East Lexington at 23 Sylvia Street in 1913. It was designed to be adaptable for residential use in the event the congregation did not thrive.
* * *
Commercial / Industrial / Agricultural
Constructed in 1903, the Hunt Block at 1752 Massachusetts Avenue (corner of Waltham Street) is of interest as an early work of local architect Willard D. Brown and possibly his only known commercial design.
The so-called "Stone Store" at 2219 Massachusetts Avenue was built in 1906 by Nellie and Thomas Breslin. Constructed entirely of fieldstone, it is the only building of its kind in Lexington.
Lexington has few surviving industrial buildings and even fewer date to this period. Matthew H. Merriam's former shop at 7 Oakland Street, is a 200 x 35' wood-frame structure constructed in 1882 for the manufacture of trimmings for boots and shoes. The building now serves as housing.
George Grant opened a gear works at 31 Fletcher Avenue in 1888. The factory was purchased by Jefferson Union Company, makers of pipe fittings, in 1905. The original building was greatly expanded over the years and a storehouse was built. The property remained in active industrial use until 2005 and has since been converted into residential condominiums.
Although the railroad built four additional stations (North Lexington, East Lexington, Pierce's Bridge, Munroe Station) in town during this period, none of them survives today. The former Lexington and Boston Street Railway Company Powerhouse at 177 Bedford Street was constructed in 1900. The impressive brick building combines fireproof construction, utilitarian function, and graceful Classical Revival design. The building is dominated by corbelled semi-circular arched openings. Brick trim includes window caps and a band above the window openings and below the metal cornice. The summer and car houses that stored the trolleys are no longer extant.
In 1913, the Boston Edison Illuminating Company constructed a transformer station at the corner of Massachusetts Avenue and Grant Street (4 Grant Street). The fireproof building was constructed of brick and concrete with steel frames, concrete floors, and roof, and metal sash and trimmings. The stuccoed exterior is Classical Revival in style, with quoins trimming the building corners and the large arched openings.
Among the documented agricultural buildings dating to the late 19th to early 20th century is the post-and-beam barn at 160 Wood Street. Set on a fieldstone foundation, the 1 ½-story gablefront structure was built in 1889 during the ownership of Joseph Ballard. Indicative of its period of construction the timbers have circular saw marks and are pinned with machine-turned dowels with hand-carved points and toe nailed with machine-cut nails.
* * *
Monuments
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https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2022/september_2022.html
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U.S. Census Bureau
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September 2022 featuring America's first subway
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September 2022
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
U.S. Census Bureau History: America's First Subway
On September 1, 1897, the first underground subway in the United States opened in Boston, MA. Known as the "Tremont Street Line," the half-mile long route initially connected three underground stations to the city's existing above-ground street railway system. On opening day, more than 100,000 people paid 5 cents to take the 3- to 4-minute journey underneath Boston's streets. Today, subways in the United States and Puerto Rico carry an estimated 2.8 million workers aged 16 and over to work every day.
Rail transit to commute to and from Boston began as early as 1830 when the Boston and Lowell Railroad was chartered to provide steam rail service between Lowell and Boston, MA. Dozens of railways were soon establishing routes into Boston from outlying cities and towns. In March 1856, the Cambridge Horse Railroad started horse-drawn streetcar service between Harvard Square in Cambridge, MA—adjacent to Harvard University—and Boston's West End neighborhood. Like the steam railways, the number of streetcar companies plying the streets of Boston and its suburbs multiplied quickly. Horse-drawn trolleys, wagons, and the smelly manure they left behind soon jammed Boston's streets. In response, electric streetcars began replacing horse-drawn trolleys in 1889 and rail companies and the state legislature began planning commuter routes above and below the city's streets.
On March 28, 1895, dignitaries including Massachusetts Governor Frederick T. Greenhalge, broke ground for the nation's first underground subway during a ceremony at the Boston Public Garden. Workers utilized two construction techniques learned from building the subways in London, England, and Paris, France. The first method involved boring a "tube-like" tunnel—the origin of the London subway's "Tube" nickname—through the earth without disturbing traffic or buildings on the surface. A second "cut and cover" technique involved digging trenches, constructing steel beam and concrete tunnel walls with arched brick ceilings, and then filling in the excavation to bury the tunnel underground.
As construction progressed on the Tremont Street Subway, workers discovered they were digging through a forgotten part of Boston's Central Burying Ground. During the subway tunnel's excavation, they unearthed more than 900 graves dating back to the 1750s. Progress slowed again when a broken utility pipe filled the excavated "cut and cover" cavity beneath Boylston and Tremont Streets with gas. On March 4, 1897, a spark from a streetcar passing over the construction site ignited a tremendous explosion. The blast destroyed nearby streetcars, shattered windows for blocks around, injured dozens of pedestrians, and killed eight to ten people [depending on accounts] including: Reverend W.A. Start, who was standing on a nearby sidewalk; streetcar conductors Gilford D. Bigelow and Benjamin R. Sargent; public carriage driver Benjamin Downing and his passenger William L. Vinal; private carriage passenger A. M. Bates; William Mayvour, who was a waiter at the nearby Hotel Thorndike; and cab driver Delano Sibley.
Despite these setbacks, workers completed construction of the Tremont Street Subway early and under budget. In the next decade, New York City, NY (1904), and Philadelphia, PA (1907), , followed Boston's example by moving their rapid transit rail systems underground.
Today, the original 1897 Tremont Street Line remains a vital component of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority's subway system. The rapid transit system's "Green Line" carries more than 100,000 commuters through the historic tunnel every day between the Boylston and Government Center stations.
You can learn more about the history of our nation's railroads, rapid transit systems, and commuting patterns using census data and records. For example:
The U.S. Census Bureau first collected detailed statistics on transportation—including steam railroads, steamboat companies, and incorporated express companies—in 1880. With a particular emphasis on railroads, the census incorporated specially-designed questionnaires that asked hundreds of questions to collect data on the railroads' financial and physical characteristics. Data published in the 1883 Report on the Agencies of Transportation in the United States, showed that total railroad track mileage built and completed grew from 39.8 miles in 1830 to 20,198.99 miles in 1855 and reached 87,801.42 miles at the time of the 1880 Census. Total permanent investment for track, equipment, building, land, etc., by railroad companies in the United States was nearly $5.2 billion at the time of the census. Asset and debt data were available for railroads large and small. For example, the giant New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Co., had assets of more than $121.6 million from construction; $19.5 million in equipment; nearly $1.2 million in land; more than $1.7 million in cash; and total liabilities (including stock, loans, dividends, etc.) of $149.4 million. Meanwhile, the tiny North Brookfield Railroad Co., in North Brookfield, MA, had assets of $105,456.79 from constructing its 4.16 mile branch line in 1876, $0 in equipment, $83.38 in cash, and liabilities of $105,615.17.
The 1890 Census expanded coverage of rail transportation by collecting data from cities' rapid-transit facilities, including railways powered by animals, cable, and electricity. The August 23, 1890, Census Bulletin: Transportation—Rapid Transit in Cities reported that the 286 street railroads responding to the census had a total length of 3,150.93 miles. Animals (usually horses) powered more than 74 percent of these railways. In 1890, animal power was used on 2,351.10 miles; electricity on 260.36 miles; cable on 255.87 miles; and steam on 61.79 miles of elevated and 221.81 miles of surface roads. Philadelphia, PA, led the nation for total rail line length with 283.47 miles, followed by Boston, MA, with 200.86 miles, and Chicago, IL, with 181.78 miles.
The Census Bureau conducted its first census of street and electric railways in 1902. Data showed that between 1890 and 1902, the number of street and electric railways grew from 789 to 987. The number of fare passengers grew from 2,023,010,202 in 1890 to 4,774,211,904 in 1902. One of the greatest changes in the 12 years between the 1890 and 1902 railway censuses was the way systems powered their railways. In 1890, animals (usually horses) powered railcars on 4,061.94 line miles while electricity powered 914.25 line miles. By 1902, electricity powered 16,230.62 line miles compared to just 195.21 line miles using animals; 113.93 line miles using cable; and 111.82 line miles using steam. Additional data and historical information about the construction and growth of the nation's street and electric railways are available in the Census Bureau's Street and Electric Railways Part 1 and Part 2.
One drawback of the rapid growth of street and electric railways between 1890 and 1902 was the dangers this traffic posed to pedestrians who were not accustomed to dodging rapidly moving and difficult to stop railcars. In 1902, 1,217 people were killed and 47,429 people were injured in street railway accidents. By comparison, the Federal Railroad Administration reported 239 fatalities in 2021.
Forty years after Boston's Tremont Street subway opened, the Census Bureau conducted the 1937 Census of Street Railways, Trolley-bus, and Motorbus Operations. As automobiles like the Ford Model T became increasingly affordable and the nation's roads improved, the need for street railways declined. In 1917, there were 1,200 in 1922, 706 in 1932. By 1937, the number of railway companies had fallen to 478. Passenger traffic fell from 14.1 billion in 1927 to 9.4 billion, 10 years later. As the number of street railways and passenger traffic decreased, so too did the number of street railway employees. The number of salaried and wage-earning employees decreased by 35.1 percent, from 27,845 in 1927 to 18,068 in 1937.
The 1960 Census was the first to ask respondents about their place of work and how they commuted to their place of employment. These data helped governments better understand commuting patterns to determine road, highway, and transit spending; locate future transit station locations; and target areas for housing or business development, etc. The Census Bureau published its supplementary report Place of Work and Means of Transportation to Work in January 1963. The report showed that about 83 percent of the workers living in the central cities of standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSA) of 100,000 or more at the time of the 1960 Census also worked in these central cities; about 9 percent commuted to the outlying suburban ring, while and 2 percent worked outside the area. Transportation to work data showed that New York City, NY, was the only SMSA where more than half of workers (54.8 percent) used public transportation to go to work. Other SMSAs with large percentages of people using public transportation to travel from home to work included Boston, MA (25.1 percent); Jersey City, NJ (39.6 percent); New Orleans, LA (32 percent); Philadelphia, PA (27.5 percent); and Washington, DC (23.7 percent).
Although data about the number of people using carpools to commute to work had been asked in previous censuses, the 1980 Census collected more detailed data about carpools. That year, more than 19 million people carpooled, including 13.3 million in a 2-person carpool; more than 3.3 million in 3-person carpools; 1.4 million in 4-person carpools; and 1 million commuted in 5-or-more-person carpools.
The 1990 Census was first to inquire about workers' usual time leaving their home to go to work. In 1990, 54.8 percent of all workers 16 years and over (61,194,181) left home for work between 6:30 a.m. and 8:29 a.m. In 2020, American Community Survey estimates reported that 24.1 percent of the nation's 142,512,559 workers 16 years and over who did not work from home departed for work sometime after the "traditional" morning rush between 9:00 a.m. and 11:59 p.m. During the morning hours in 2020, the largest cohort of commuters—14.6 percent—left between 7:00 a.m. and 7:29 a.m.
The 1990 Census was the first to ask about workers' usual time spent traveling to work. Of the 111,664,249 workers 16 years and over who did not work at home in 1990, the majority (19,026,053) had travel times between 15 and 19 minutes to work. Long commutes of 90 minutes or more were usual for 1,763,991 people, while the average travel time for all workers not working at home was 22.4 minutes. Ten years later, the majority of workers not working at home still had commutes of 15 to 19 minutes (19,634,328), but the number of people reporting commutes of more than 90 minutes rose to 3,435,843 and average time to work increased to 25.5 minutes.
In 2000, 75.7 percent of workers 16 years and over drove to work alone; 12.2 percent carpooled; 4.7 percent used public transportation; 2.9 percent walked; and 1.2 percent rode a motorcycle, bicycle, or had another means of transportation to work. More recently, 2020 American Community Survey estimates revealed that nearly 75.4 percent of the nation's 152,193,868 workers 16 year and over drove to work alone; more than 8.8 percent carpooled; about 4.6 percent used public transportation; 2.2 percent walked; and 1.8 percent usually took a taxi, motorcycle, bicycle, or other mode of transportation to work. As the technology has made working from home easier, the number of people 16 years and over reporting they worked from home rose from 3,406,025 in 1990 to 10,940,462 in 2020.
Many villages, towns, and cities in the United States are named for the train stations they grew up around. Along with towns like Railroad, PA, and Railroad, IN, rail-related places include: Lake Station, IN, which was the western terminus of the Michigan Central Railroad; Fairfax Station, VA, so named because it was a stop on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad; Johnson Siding, SD, named for the rail siding that ran through the area along the Rapid City, Black Hills and Western Railroad; Cook Station in Crawford County, MO, named after becoming a stop on the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway; Laury's Station, PA, named for the town's first station agent and postmaster when the Lehigh Valley Railroad opened a train station in the town previously named "Slate Dam"; Yeehaw Junction, FL, named for the Florida East Coast Railway's Yeehaw Station; and Huntington Station, NY, named for the Long Island Railroad station that opened in the community in 1868.
The Census Bureau's report Commuting by Public Transportation in the United States: 2019 featured data collected from the American Community Survey. Data from the survey's question, "How did this person usually get to work LAST WEEK?" showed that 5 percent of workers 16 years and over (7,778,444) used public transportation, including: 3,601,403 taking the bus; 2,935,633 riding the subway or elevated rail; 921,391 boarding long-distance train or commuter rail; and 242,776 commuting by light rail, streetcar, or trolley.
Data from the Census Bureau's County Business Patterns series showed that in 2020 there were 674 urban transit systems (NAICS 4851) in the United States. Urban transit systems include establishments primarily engaged in operating local and suburban passenger transit systems such as light rail, subways, streetcars, and buses. These establishments employed 53,911 employees during the pay period that included March 12, 2020.
This Month in Census History
In a report by Census Bureau director James C. Capt on September 12, 1942, the 1940 Census of Housing found that 15 million American homes had a refrigerator; 9.2 million used ice boxes; and more than 9.3 million homes had no type of refrigerating equipment.
By 1950, more than 33.7 million homes had electric- or gas-powered mechanical refrigerators.
In 2011, the Survey of Income and Program Participation showed that 99.2 percent of American households had mechanical refrigeration.
Subway Systems
Boston, MA, opened the first subway in the United States in September 1897, but within a decade, it was surpassed in length and ridership by the New York City Subway—the largest subway system in the United States.
New York City's first subway—the "Manhattan Main Line"—opened on October 27, 1904, and transported riders between city hall and Harlem's 145th Street. After more than a century of growth, New York's 248-mile-long subway system carries 1.7 billion passengers annually.
Subways in Washington, DC, and Chicago, IL, are the nation's second and third largest systems. In 2019, Washington's 117-mile Metro carried nearly 238 million passengers, while Chicago's 102.8-mile "L" carried more than 218 million.
In Boston, MA, the Tremont Street Tunnel that opened on September 1, 1897, is still used by the region's subway system. In 2019, the 38-mile-long "T" carried more than 152 million passengers.
The newest—and shortest—subway line in the United States can be found in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The 10.7-mile Tren Urbano system opened in 2004 and carried more than 5.2 million passengers in 2019.
Worldwide, Shanghai, China, had the longest and busiest subway system in 2019. More than 10.6 million people ride the 499-mile-long Shanghai Metro every weekday!
Did you know?
Alfred Ely Beach designed his "Beach Pneumatic Transit" in the 1860s and secretly constructed it beneath New York City's congested Broadway Avenue in 1869 using a tunneling device of his own invention. On February 26, 1870, Beach began offering rides along the 300 foot long test track.
Despite positive reviews, city politicians were reluctant to approve an expansion of the subway. Financier John Jacob Astor III argued construction would damage buildings and worsen surface traffic. When New York governor John Adams Dix finally signed a bill chartering Beach's pneumatic railway in 1873, the Panic of 1873 and advances in electric motors ended Beach's air-driven railway dreams.
More than 2 decades later, a growing population and gridlocked streets convinced New Yorkers to invest in underground transit. Approved in 1894, the New York City Subway opened its first underground segment on October 27, 1904. On its first day, it carried more than 150,000 people along its 9.1 mile route.
Today, New York's subway is the largest and busiest subway system in the United States.
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
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https://itineranturbanist.wordpress.com/2014/09/07/boston-to-albany-how-fast-can-a-slow-trip-be/
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Boston to Albany–How Fast Can A Slow Trip Be?
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2014-09-07T00:00:00
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Personal note: it's been quite a while since I've posted here. Beginning of the semester sucks. But hopefully 2600+ words makes up for it ;-) Expansion of east-west passenger rail service in Massachusetts has been a topic of discussion for quite a long time. Politicians from decaying industrial cities like Worcester, Springfield, and Pittsfield want…
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en
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https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico
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Itinerant Urbanist
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https://itineranturbanist.wordpress.com/2014/09/07/boston-to-albany-how-fast-can-a-slow-trip-be/
|
Personal note: it’s been quite a while since I’ve posted here. Beginning of the semester sucks. But hopefully 2600+ words makes up for it 😉
Expansion of east-west passenger rail service in Massachusetts has been a topic of discussion for quite a long time. Politicians from decaying industrial cities like Worcester, Springfield, and Pittsfield want a reliable connection to Boston’s vibrant economy; travelers want an alternative to the fast-if-there’s-no-traffic-but-there’s-always-traffic Mass Pike, and the state’s liberal voters tend to be more supportive than average of infrastructure projects. There’s also a good bit of nostalgia for Massachusetts’ days as the technological and political haven of American railroading.
Today, there seems to be a good bit of momentum for extension of passenger service west of its current terminus at Worcester. All of the Democratic candidates for governor agree on the necessity of such service, and it given the state’s recent spree of line acquisitions for passenger service, seems likely to happen one of these decades. That seeming momentum got me thinking about the possibilities for a more thorough east-west service along CSX’ Boston Line, the former Boston & Albany division of the New York Central. Service to Springfield is one thing; getting up and over the sparsely inhabited, hilly, and curvy line across the Berkshires to reach Pittsfield and Albany is another entirely.
Of course, I have a personal stake in exploring this possibility; I live in Albany, many of my friends are in Boston, and I would love to have convenient rail service. But is it feasible? The situation I face as a consumer is thus:
Google Maps estimates a driving time of 2:39 from my apartment in Albany to South Station. Realistically, you have to leave 3-3.5 hours, because while the Mass Pike is fast and free-flowing from Albany well past Springfield, once you hit the interchange with 84 in Sturbridge, all bets are off.
Greyhound offers direct schedules in the 3:30 range, with a stop in Worcester, but there are only a few buses per day in each direction. There are also local Greyhound buses that stop in the Berkshires towns, but they require a transfer in Springfield to get to Boston, and the trip is over 4 hours. All Greyhound buses are subject to Mass Pike delays.
The less said about Amtrak’s lone train on the route, the Boston section of the Lake Shore Limited, the better; this post is about the future. But: it’s currently scheduled for 5:45 eastbound and 5:40 westbound. So there’s that.
My hypothesis is that if a train could get between Boston and Albany in 3:30, it would attract high enough levels of ridership to keep it going; I’d probably ride at that time point. And of course anything faster would be a bonus. But can we get the trains going that fast? Albany to South Station is exactly 200 track miles (compared to 170 on the freeway, a major reason trains have had trouble competing in the corridor), so a 3:30 trip time corresponds to an average speed of 57 mph. On the one hand, 57 mph isn’t a particularly ambitious speed goal. On the other hand, Amtrak’s Lincoln Service, which uses predominantly flat, straight lines with stretches of 110 mph running, is scheduled for a 53 mph average speed between Chicago and St. Louis (over 284 miles), and Empire Service trains between New York and Albany are around 60 mph on average. So to achieve competitive travel times, Boston-Albany passenger trains must achieve average speeds comparable to, or even higher than, those on many of Amtrak’s higher-speed corridor services, many of which face fewer geographic obstacles. Is that doable? Let’s delve in.
As mentioned above, the Boston & Albany corridor is notoriously difficult for high (ish)-speed trains. The route opened in 1841 as one of America’s first long-distance railroads; its climb over the Berkshires also claimed the title of the world’s highest railroad at the time. The routing is tortuous and twisting, following river valleys to find an acceptable grade. That being said, unlike most American railroads (at that time and for about 50 years thereafter) the line was designed to an extremely high standard. Supervising engineer George Washington Whistler (the less-famous parent of the painter) insisted on curves as gentle as possible under the circumstances and clearance of the right-of-way for double-tracking from the very beginning. In essence, Whistler and the owners of the B&A traded more severe grades for gentler curves–the rival Fitchburg Railroad/Hoosac Tunnel route 40 miles to the north made essentially the opposite choice, with sharper curves but less severe grades. Those choices have made the B&A an operating nightmare for freight over the years, but they make it not totally hostile to passenger service, unlike the Hoosac Tunnel route.
For our purposes, though, the Hoosac Tunnel isn’t the competitor; the Mass Pike is. And as I already noted, the freeway’s route, built with the advantage of mid 2oth-century technology, is 30 miles shorter than the B&A. Here, too, though, the B&A has at least one advantage. Unlike the Mass Pike, the railroad serves the downtowns of the three major Massachusetts cities along the route–Worcester, Springfield, and Pittsfield–directly. In Worcester and Springfield, freeway spurs lead to downtown, so the distance of the Pike isn’t a big deal, but Pittsfield has no direct freeway access and is a good 20-minute drive off the Pike. The lack of immediate freeway access also means that buses cannot serve the Boston-Albany corridor in a linear manner. That’s why Greyhound doesn’t run buses between Boston and Albany with stops in Worcester, Springfield, and Pittsfield: the repeated backtracking to the Pike would make it an unacceptably long trip. Additionally, these cities are essentially the only feasible stops on a Boston-Albany service, and they fall nicely into an every-50-miles pattern: Pittsfield is 49 track-miles from Albany, Pittsfield-Springfield is 53 miles, Springfield-Worcester 54, and Worcester-South Station 44. The Lake Shore Limited makes an additional stop at Framingham, halfway between Worcester and Boston; that stop could probably eliminated with a timed transfer to/from a local commuter rail train at Worcester. The only other possible stops that I can imagine are Palmer, MA and Chatham, NY, but neither really warrants a stop on an intercity train. This is abnormally few intermediate stops for an Amtrak corridor service, which typically stop every 20-30 miles. The less-frequent stops might–might–help trains maintain a higher average speed, even if top speeds aren’t all that great.
But just how fast can we get the trains going? I know I promised not to speak much of the Boston section of the Lake Shore Limited, but its current schedule is the place to start.
One thing is immediately clear: this schedule is massively padded in both directions. If, following my division of the line into four segments (Albany-Pittsfield, Pittsfield-Springfield, Springfield-Worcester, and Worcester-South Station), we look at the two terminal segments, we can see the insertion of the padding. Boston–Worcester is scheduled for 1:03 outbound (westbound)–and 2:13 inbound (eastbound). Likewise, Albany-Pittsfield is scheduled for 1:04 eastbound, but 1:59 westbound. If we eliminate the massive padding, we can immediately cut a little over an hour off of the Lake Shore‘s scheduled time, cutting it to a still-uninspiring (and non-competitive) 4:45 or so in each direction. Of course, the padding in the current schedule exists for a reason; the Lake Shore‘s on-time performance is notoriously horrific, earning it the nickname Late Shore Limited. Any scenario that envisions increased passenger traffic will certainly involve re-installing double track along the entire B&A corridor (not a problem in terms of ROW), with the state paying in return for absolute passenger dispatching priority. Planned track improvements now that the state owns the Worcester Line between South Station and Worcester should cut another 15 minutes or so off of travel time, leaving us with a nice, round time of 4:30–still an hour slower than might be considered competitive.
One way to improve travel times is by increasing track maintenance to levels that will allow higher speeds. Currently, MBTA is struggling to boost its portion of the Worcester Line from FRA Class III (6o mph for passenger) to Class IV (80 mph for passenger) standards; but more can certainly be done. Most of the rest of the line seems to be maintained to Class III standards, but the ingredients exist for converting it to allow for higher passenger speeds: the entire line west of Framingham is signalled with (antiquated, but upgradeable) cab signals, and there are relatively few grade crossings due to the age of the line. That being said, upgrading absolute train speeds will have relatively little effect because of the line’s severe curvature; with the exception of the more-or-less tangent 20-mile Palmer-Springfield segment, the limiting factor on train speeds is generally curvature, not track or ballast structure. Certainly, building the theorized second track to Class IV or V (V requires cab signals, but luckily the Boston Line has them) would help, but is there a better way to boost average, rather than absolute, top train speeds?
For the answer to that question, we can turn to the opposite coast, where for the last decade and a half Amtrak has been happily operating tilting Talgo trainsets on behalf of the states of Washington and Oregon on the Cascades. These Spanish-designed trainsets are lightweight (though not as lightweight as they could be, thanks to FRA regulations) and their tilt mechanism allows them to navigate curves faster than conventional trains. Various factors–expense, Talgo’s insistence on doing maintenance itself, mechanical discontinuity with other fleets, lower capacity–have kept the Talgos from being adopted more widely in this country, but they’re a very, very strong fit for a curvy, hilly route like the Boston & Albany. The criteria for their ability to save time are complex, but as this Trains Magazine explainer puts it: “Tilting reduces trip time only when the route has a reasonable concentration of curves with curve speeds between 50 and 80 mph. In this speed range, a Talgo-type train will be able to negotiate a curve at speeds 5-10 mph faster than conventional cars. Generally, tilting does not generate significant time savings unless the curve density on a route is 30 percent or higher.” This description could be written for the B&A. There are virtually no tangents of any significant length, but relatively few of the curves are so sharp that they necessarily drop the speed of the train below 50 mph. Equipping corridor trains on a Boston-Albany route with Talgo trainsets could do a lot to boost average speeds–but how much?
The current Cascades schedule shows Talgo-equipped trains saving only about 10 minutes over the Superliner-equipped Pacific Starlight, but that’s a product of ongoing summer trackwork. Historically, Talgo schedules have saved 35 to 45 minutes, or about 15%, on the 187-mile Seattle–Portland segment, which is actually less curvy than the B&A (Talgos save little to no time on the very straight segments between Portland and Eugene, and only some north of Seattle). Knocking 15% off of the theorized 4:30 unpadded Lake Shore Limited time would give us a time of 3:50 or so, getting closer to our goal but not quite there yet, and still over an hour longer than a direct Boston-Albany bus. However, as mentioned the Portland-Seattle segment isn’t actually that comparable to the B&A, being less curvy and with lower potential maximum speeds because of the lack of cab signals. And sure, there is no other modern experience with Talgo operations in the US. A theoretical application of Talgo equipment, though, is perhaps the next-best thing, and that’s what we find in Pennsylvania. Found via this Sic Transit Philadelphia post, Samuel Walker of Test Plant managed to get a Talgo engineer’s estimate of time savings from using their equipment on the old Pennsylvania Railroad mainline between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, a route that in age and alignment is very comparable to the B&A. By the engineer’s calculation, Talgo equipment could cut the 254-mile Harrisburg-Pittsburgh run from 5:30 to 4:10, or from 4:56 to 3:36 if the 34-minute schedule pad is eliminated. That’s a savings of 25% before padding and 28% after. If we cut 25% off of the paddingless 4:30 Boston-Albany running time…we get a time of 202.5 minutes, or 3:22.5–just below the magical (to me!) 3:30 time cutoff. Again, that’s with nothing assumed as to track quality other than the already planned upgrades inside Worcester and the installation of a second track built to Class IV speeds west of Worcester.
Of course, those upgrades are far from nothing–probably on the order of hundreds of millions, if not multiple billions, of dollars. But if Massachusetts can find the money for a second track and signal upgrades along the B&A and if state politicians are willing to negotiate hard with CSX over dispatching priority and if Amtrak or the state are willing to take a risk on Talgo equipment and if the Talgos prove able to do for the B&A what they could do for Pennsylvania…I see no particular reason that a functional Boston-Albany service couldn’t be established in relatively short order. A time of 3:22 end-to-end isn’t magical, but given that a train would be able to hit Pittsfield, Springfield, and Worcester within that time frame. And while a full 3:22 might be at the high end of the time savings that Talgo can offer, even if the time savings are more in the Cascades range of 15% a combination of new equipment and more extensive track upgrades should be able to get travel times down into the 3:30 range. That’s certainly better than any bus can do while stop at all three intermediate cities.
So I do think a renewed, relatively fast Boston-Albany service is possible. It would require significant investment, but it seems to be doable. The main advantage of a train over buses is that one service will be able to stop at all of the major cities in the corridor. Potentially, such a service could become the backbone of a frequent intercity rail network serving the entire state, with the Boston-Albany trains making connections at Springfield and Pittsfield to DMU services in the Pioneer Valley and Berkshires. That’s far, far in the future, but it would be an enormous mobility “win” for the entire state.
A couple of notes:
1. One particular challenge for the introduction of Talgo equipment to the line might be the presence of high-level platforms. There’s no question that the next-generation trains on the line will be built for high-levels; South Station, Back Bay, Worcester, and Albany have full high-level platforms and Springfield is getting them as part of the NHHS project, not to mention that Amtrak is going to an all-high-levels policy in the Northeast. Of current intermediate stops, that leaves only Framingham and Pittsfield. In Pittsfield, building a side track for a high-level platform so as to maintain freight clearances shouldn’t be too hard. Framingham is a little more of a challenge; it currently has mini-highs and will still be on a freight clearance route, which perhaps further militates for not stopping there. That being said, Talgos are low-slung and there are no examples of high-level-platform-equipped ones operating in the US, so that might increase costs some.
2. One of the problems with the current setup on the Worcester Line is that, while there are three tracks in segments, much of the ROW was cut down to two tracks from Newton in to accommodate the Mass Pike. There are, further, very few sets of crossovers. One of these things can be remedied; the other realistically cannot. More crossovers it is (this will help MBTA trains more than intercity service!).
3. CSX may not love the idea of ceding half of their ROW for a second track to be committed mostly to passenger trains, but it’s not like Massachusetts doesn’t have leverage. The state has already paid for full double-stack clearance, and along with that carrot can hold out the stick of capital investment in helping the Pan Am Southern Alliance clear the Hoosac Tunnel route for higher speeds and double-stacks. CSX doesn’t want to lose its huge advantage in the Boston market; the state shouldn’t be afraid to play hardball, perhaps even asking CSX to pick up some of the tab for the second track.
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https://ableebenezer.com/blog/category/Stories
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Stories — Bar Stories — Able Ebenezer Brewing Company
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Carl Soderberg",
"Michael Frizzelle"
] |
2024-03-01T00:00:00
|
en
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|
Able Ebenezer Brewing Company | Merrimack NH Brewery
|
https://ableebenezer.com/blog/category/Stories
|
July 1, 1862
Malvern Hill, southeast of Richmond VA
“Faugh a Ballagh!” (Clear the Way!) the Irishmen of the 69th Regiment cried as they charged downhill into the teeth of the enemy assault.
The previous days had seen a lot of fighting across the Virginia Peninsula, as the Union Army attempted to reach Richmond and force an early end to the war. Alas, General Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia held their own, pushing them back to the banks of the James River. Malvern Hill - a small rise southeast of the Confederate capital, became their last stronghold during the campaign; should they lose it, the entire army would be at risk of folding entirely.
Throughout the day, the Union had held their own against numerous Confederate attacks. But as the sun started to set over the horizon, the rebels still refused to quit the field and began weakening the Union lines. A pivotal moment was upon them all: should their lines break at any point, it could spell ruin for the Union.
---------------
The 69th NY Regiment was formed as a volunteer militia during the 1850’s in Manhattan by young Irish immigrants who had just arrived in the United States. Some fled the famine, some came in search of opportunity, while others were freedom fighters on the run from the United Kingdom, but they all had one thing in common: their heritage.
When the Civil War kicked off in 1861, the 69th NY Regiment was called upon, and the Irishmen answered: they mustered into service and marched out of New York City for Washington DC to join the Union’s newly formed Army of the Potomac.
Their first action came at the First Battle of Bull Run (Virginia). While the battle was a decisive loss for the Union - one of many in the early years of the Civil War - the 69th was one of the few regiments which held their composure during the fight, even stepping up to cover the rear of the Union army as they retreated in defeat. The 69th did not emerge unscathed, however, suffering over 150 casualties, including their commanding officer - Colonel Michael Corcoran - who was wounded on the field of battle and subsequently captured by the Confederates.
Thus, following Bull Run, command of the 69th fell to Thomas Francis Meagher.
------------
Meagher (pronounced “Mar”) had already become somewhat of a celebrity among the Irish in America, having been a leader of the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848; an effort to win Ireland’s independence from the United Kingdom. When that effort failed, he was arrested by the British, and found guilty of treason.
“The common man is not concerned about the passage of time, the man of talent is driven by it.” - Arthur Schopenhauer
Time is an interesting thing; we always feel as though we don’t have enough of it. Sometimes, our days seem to drag on; and yet, at the end of the year, we look back and say how quickly they have all gone by. This past year, 2020, in particular, seemed to have been the longest year ever, yet somehow, it also went by in an instant.
Time is a crucial factor in brewing. To craft any beer, it takes time and patience; however, depending on the variety of the beer you're crafting, you need to allot yourself more or less time. For example, lagers, in comparison to ales, need several weeks to be conditioned before they are ready for consumption. It takes time and patience to boil the wort and then to ferment the beer until it’s done. When developing new recipes, you often spend time brewing small batches and waiting weeks for them to be done just to try the final sample and say, “not good enough.”
In life, we often find the same thing happening. It is commonplace to view time simply as an abundant resource that you can grind through to achieve an end goal. We might dedicate a substantial amount of time working on something only to get to the end and not feel satisfied; as though that time was wasted. However, if the time spent on a particular task was fulfilling in the moment, how could that be considered a waste? Realizing that our time is precious serves as motivation to make sure we spend it on things that we value. For me, I find the work I do to be gratifying and I find fulfillment in spending time with the people working alongside me.
Outside of work, I find that the best way to spend my time is to simply be in the company of close friends and family. Nothing beats an afternoon with old friends- laughing, conversating, and obviously enjoying a few beers together. That’s what I love about beer; it's communal. I mean, no one ever asks if you want to go grab a glass of water after work, right? Beer is meant to be shared. That’s why I enjoy making it so much; because I get to see the final product poured into a glass and shared amongst friends, which makes all the time spent making it worth it.
This beer has been a labor of love for me. I started over a year ago and would brew a sample batch in between other new recipes we were working on whenever I had a free day. I’ve enjoyed many of the recipes along the way; but, it wasn’t until this final batch that I truly felt proud of it. I’m excited to share it with my friends and family and to see it enjoyed amongst others. So think about the time you have every day and, no matter how trivial, spend it doing what makes you happy. Cheers!
- Jim
Stark put a great deal of thought into the timing of his march, ensuring the operation coincided with both low illumination (complete darkness from a waning moon phase) and low tide. Because of this, when Stark’s men reach the shore of Chelsea near the convergence of Belle Isle Creek & Chelsea Creek, they are able to easily evade British boat patrols around the islands and wade across the water to Hog Island. They begin quietly ferrying livestock across the creek to the mainland, then over to Noddle’s Island to do the same.
The operation takes hours, going until late morning, but it’s a complete success: the Patriots now possess hundreds of new horses, cattle & sheep for their young army. With the sun now high in the sky, they know it’s time to begin moving the regiment back to Winter Hill. But Stark, not wanting to leave any supplies behind for the British to obtain, orders his men to begin setting fire to the remaining hay stacks and barns. When the rising smoke becomes visible in Boston, Vice Admiral Samuel Graves - General Gage’s naval commander in the waters around the city - orders his navy to surround the islands & land hundreds of marines on Noddle’s to combat the rebels.
By midday, the New Hampshiremen are decisively engaged with the British on Noddle’s Island, while also enduring cannonfire from the ships around the islands. This is the Granite Stater’s first taste of real combat against British Regulars, and a tough one at that. But Stark’s men - although scattered in small teams about the islands - are able to hold off the 400+ redcoats, most using the low marshland beside the creek separating Noddle’s & Hog Island as cover, forcing the British ranks back to the inland of the island.
With the sun now setting, the British commanders on the ground opt to cut their losses, considering the damage done and the day lost.
“Before we got from Noddle’s Island to Hog Island we was fired upon by a Schooner. But we crossed the river and about fifteen of us squatted down in a ditch on the marsh and stood our ground. And there came a company of Regulars on the marsh on the other side of the river and the Schooner, and we had a hot fire until the Regulars retreated. But notwithstanding the bullets flew very thick yet there was not a man of us killed. Surely God has a favor towards us. Thanks be unto him that so little hurt was done when the balls sung like bees round our heads.”
-Private Amos Farnsworth, from his Diary
The Schooner Amos refers to is the HMS Diana - a 120 ton, 18-gun warship commanded by Lieutenant Thomas Graves - Admiral Graves’ nephew.
The Diana isn’t the largest or most formidable ship in the Boston fleet, but she is one of the fastest and most capable for her size. In fact, she was built at the Boston shipyards in 1774, then acquired by the British shortly after and fitted for combat; Admiral Graves personally selecting her for his fleet:
“I have taken it upon me to purchase the Diana schooner of 120 tons, about eight months old, so exceedingly well built that she is allowed to be the best vessel of the kind that has yet been in the King’s Service.”
-Vice Admiral Samuel Graves, in a letter dated January 8th, 1775
Because of her speed and maneuverability, combined with her firepower, the Diana is instructed to cut off the Patriot’s escape route back across to Chelsea by navigating north of Noddle’s Island and into Chelsea Creek with the high tide. Here, they become engaged with the rebels, such as Amos Farnsworth.
But as the battle wears on and British Marines are forced back on land, the wind and tide also turns in favor of the Patriots: the crew of Diana finds themselves without the conditions needed to navigate back east towards the Mystic River and out into Boston Harbor. She signals for assistance from the main fleet, who dispatch two ships & a dozen barges up the Mystic to help tow the Diana out of Chelsea Creek before low tide.
--------------------
This is where the story should have likely ended: the Battle of Chelsea Creek is only the 2nd major engagement of the war (Lexington & Concord serving as the first), and the Patriots had won the day decisively. They’d succeeded in their mission, making it back to the mainland with a bounty of supplies, while also holding off a combined force of British Regulars, all with minimal casualties. It’s now been over 18 hours since they first stepped off towards Chelsea, and the only task that remains is an easy march back to Winter Hill.
But the story doesn’t end there.
--------------------
The New Hampshiremen see an opportunity to chalk up yet another win for the day. They assume fighting positions along the shoreline and engage the struggling Diana and her would-be rescuers. As night sets in, Colonel Stark sends a rider back to Cambridge requesting reinforcements & additional ammunition to keep up the fight.
At their Headquarters in Cambridge, the Patriot commanders are elated at Stark’s report: not only had the mission been carried out successfully, but the regiment had been decisively engaged with the enemy and came out the victors. Without hesitation, reinforcements led by General Israel Putnam rushes out of Cambridge into the night towards Chelsea Creek.
Side note: Dr. Joseph Warren - Chairman of the MA Committee of Safety, famous Son of Liberty from Boston’s North End, and soon-to-be hero of Bunker Hill fame - was present at the Cambridge Headquarters when the rider arrived. Upon hearing Stark’s report, he volunteered to join Putnam’s men on their march: Dr. Warren did not want to miss the chance to witness what he believed to be history in the making, but was unable to join the fight. What he witnessed that evening at Chelsea Creek motivated him to take the field again - this time as a Private within the ranks - at Bunker Hill a month later, where he would be killed in action while fighting honorably.
It’s now late in the evening, and Putnam’s reinforcements join Stark’s men along the north shore of Chelsea Creek, exchanging fire through the darkness with the British on the water. After hours of attempting to tow the Diana back to deeper waters while under constant fire from the Patriots, the tide finally recedes beyond her waterline: her keel runs aground, settling into the sands just off the shore of Chelsea. Lieutenant Graves orders abandon ship.
The British have a difficult go at it, but are able to use the darkness to transfer her crew over to the HMS Britannia - one of the vessels dispatched to help the Diana. Once aboard, the British tow themselves back to safety in the deeper waters of Boston Harbor, leaving the Schooner Diana behind.
It’s now the early morning hours on the 28th. The musket & cannon fire finally silences, replaced with a loud cheer as the Patriots swarm abroad the abandoned vessel, now listing heavily on one side as the tide continues to recede. They go to work stripping her of any valuables: her 18 guns, powder, shot & supplies and thensome, then load bales of hay to set the Diana ablaze #burntheships.
But before sparking the flame, they have one more trophy to take from the Diana: Her 76’ tall, New England grown, White Pine mast. Yes, these mad lads - now over 24 hours on mission - took the time to cut off HMS Diana’s mast and carry it with them all the way back to Winter Hill.
Not sure there’s any better way to give a nod to the fighters of NH’s Pine Tree Riot.
Months later, her mast would be carried up Prospect Hill - the highest point around Boston, and thus, the most visible to the British held up in the city. There, by order of General Washington himself, the mast was planted to fly the first American Flag. Today, the spot atop Prospect Hill is marked by the "Prospect Hill Monument;” a 4-story structure of stone from which a flag still flies. The City of Somerville continues to raise a new flag every year at their annual Flag Raising Ceremony; 2020’s being the 244th year.
“Orders given from the General for scouting parties to fire at all times whenever they have the opportunity. The same day raised the mast that came out of the schooner that was burnt at Chelsea, for to hoist our new flag upon, in the fort upon Prospect Hill, seventy-six feet high.”
-Lieutenant Paul Lunt, from his Diary
August 1, 1775
By December, 1776, the war for independence was not going well for the Patriots.
The year had started with a win, as the New England militias under command of General George Washington forced the British to evacuate Boston in March. Yet, the remainder of the year would host a series of defeats for Washington & his army: they would suffer a great defeat at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, and subsequently forced to abandon New York City on lower Manhattan Island soon after. From there, they would lose decisively at Pells Point, White Plains, then Fort Washington - the last Patriot position in New York. What remained of their army would flee across the Hudson River to Fort Lee in New Jersey, which would also fall soon after. Finally, Washington receives word that his 2nd in command - General Charles Lee - is captured by the British.
Thus, as December sets in, the Patriots are retreating across New Jersey, then over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, with General Lord Cornwallis’ army in pursuit. The Continental Congress, fearful for their lives, abandons Philadelphia.
Thankfully, harsh winter weather soon sets in, putting a halt to both Patriot & British operations. But while British begin to establish their winter encampments, General Washington & his officers know they must attempt something as their situation is bleak: The army is weak, underfed, and under supplied. Many of their men have deserted, believing the cause to be lost. Further, most of those who remain are due to have their enlistments expire on January 1st. If they settle in for winter, their army would likely fade away before the Spring thaw, and with it, the cause for independence itself.
“I think the game is pretty near up.”
-General George Washington, in a letter to his brother John
December 18, 1776
On December 22nd, Washington calls a meeting with his generals to determine what action - if any - they can muster to save the cause. One officer called to attend the meeting - even though he does not hold a brigade command like Washington’s fellow generals - is Colonel John Stark of the 1st New Hampshire Regiment. He offers only one contribution to the discussion:
“Your men have too long been accustomed to place their dependence for safety on shovels and pickaxes. If you ever mean to establish the independence of these united states, you must teach them to place their dependence upon their arms and their courage.”
-Colonel John Stark
Stark’s words resonate with Washington and his staff, who then began work on a bold counter-offensive. Two days later, Washington calls upon Stark once again:
“We have agreed upon the plan: we are to march tomorrow on Trenton, and you are to command the advance guard.”
General Washington to Colonel Stark
December 24, 1776
Thus, at nightfall on Christmas Day, 1776, in the midst of pounding wind, sleet & snow, the Patriots load themselves into boats along the Delaware River and are ferried across to New Jersey at McKonkey’s Ferry; some 9 miles north of Trenton. Their plan is to surround the town before daybreak and deliver a surprise attack.
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Meanwhile, in Trenton, a combined force of Hessian soldiers and British Cavalry commanded by Colonel Johann Rall are well-established in their warm, dry winter quarters. Rall - an experienced officer and combatant - is so far unimpressed by the colonial rebels, having faced & defeated them handily in the previous months. While he’s received a few vague reports from loyalist spies that the rebels might be planning an attack, Rall scoffs at the notion, whether true or not: “Then let them come,” he tells his messengers. “We will go at them with the bayonet.”
And he has good reason to be cocky: Rall and his Hessians were at Brooklyn, White Plains and Fort Washington, often leading the British attack. Before being called to the colonies, they were veterans of wars in Bavaria, Austria, Russia, Scotland, and in the 7 Years War against France. The Hessians had successfully quelled rebellions and conquered nations many times over. Thus, they are some of the most seasoned, professional soldiers the world can muster…and they know it.
And in their minds, this war is at its end.
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Several miles to the north, Washington’s army is fighting through the blizzard to begin their march. The weather is so bad that 3000 of Washington’s men - who are supposed to cross the Delaware River south of Trenton & secure the rear of the town - are unable to make it across. The 2400 who do cross the Delaware suffer tremendously in the cold, two of whom succumb to the elements and perish during the march. One New England soldier wrote of that harsh night in his journal:
“During the whole night it alternately hailed, rained, snowed, and blew tremendously. I recollect very well that at one time, when we halted on the road, I sat down on the stump of a tree and was so benumbed with cold that I wanted to go to sleep; had I been passed unnoticed I should have frozen to death without knowing it. We then began to march again, just in the old slow way, until the dawn of day, about half-past seven in the morning.”
-Private John Greenwood
The operation is now hours behind schedule, and thus Washington considers abandoning the attack several times throughout the night. But he finds resolve in his men, all who continue onward - albeit slowly - toward Trenton; John Stark & his New Hampshiremen at the front.
The sun has already risen by the time the Patriots arrive on the outskirts of the town. They’ve lost the element of surprise, have less than half the men they intended, and those who survived the brutal river crossing & march are soaked & chilled to the bone, many finding their rifles & powder too wet to fire.
It is in this moment that John Stark orders fixed bayonets, and leads his charging men down 2nd Street into the town of Trenton.
“John Stark had a reputation as a fighter. He was devoted to the revolutionary cause and wrote often to his wife that he was determined to “live free or die,” a phrase his state later made its motto. Stark had trained his New Hampshiremen to use the bayonet, and he led them through the fields along the River Road. The Hessians were astonished to see the despised American rebels running toward them through the storm with fixed bayonets.”
-David Hackett Fischer, “Washington’s Crossing”
Major James Wilkenson of the 1st Pennsylvania Rifles - who were formed with the brigade directly behind Stark’s New Hampshire Regiment during the assault - wrote about this moment in his memoir of the battle:
“We soon marched, Colonel Stark in command of the advance guard, with orders to clear their muskets as best they could as they moved. It was now broad day, and the storm beat violently in our faces. The attack on the left was immediately answered by Colonel Stark in our front, who forced the enemy’s picket and pressed it into town, our column close at his men’s heels. The enemy made a momentary show of resistance by a wild and undirected fire from the windows of their quarters, which they abandoned as he advanced...While I render justice to the services of [other fellow officers], I must not withhold due praise to the dauntless Stark, who dealt death wherever he found resistance, and broke down all opposition before him.”
-Major James Wilkinson, 1st PA Rifles
The fight was over in an hour: By mid-morning, the Hessians were forced out of the streets and into the orchard field just east of the town. It was here they would find themselves surrounded, surrendering to General John Sullivan (of Somersworth NH), who assumed the rear of the town upon hearing 3000 of their men were unable to cross. Washington’s army would find a bounty of arms & supplies, as well as take over 800 prisoners, all with only a handful of casualties. In one daring assault, the Patriots had defeated some of the most renowned soldiers seen at that point in history.
The Battle of Trenton became an instant turning point in the war, saving the cause itself. Having previously been an army constantly on the defensive, or on the run, this served as their first successful offensive operation. The Patriots had finally proven they could hold their own against some of the best, most fierce soldiers in the world. Days later, as enlistments were expiring, many opted to remain with the army, reinvigorated by their victory over the Hessians. Furthermore, as news of the victory spread across the colonies, new enlistments rose dramatically. John Stark personally appealed to his men, convincing all to stay with him in the fight rather than return home to the Granite State. On January 3rd, 1777, they would go on the offensive yet again at Princeton, winning gloriously once more in the cold ice & snow.
Thus, without the daring & courage of Colonel John Stark & his New Hampshiremen, the victory at Trenton may never have been, and the cause for independence would have certainly been lost.
Note: We want to give a big shout-out once again to the team at the NH Historical Society for all of their help & expertise in this effort to share the stories of the NH Regiments. If you’re interested in NH’s history, they’re worth a visit. Please consider supporting their work here: https://www.nhhistory.org/Join/Donate/Ways-To-Give. Cheers!
Andrew McClary was already plowing his field when first light hit on the morning of April 20th, 1775, as the alarm horn was sounded from Epsom town center. Without a second thought, he dropped his work, grabbed what belongings he could from his home, then rounded up fellow men from town and hit the road.
“Like the Roman Cincinnatus, he left the plow in the furrow, hastily armed himself, and dashed off to Deerfield accompanied by a few daring spirits.”
-Elliot Cogswell, History of Nottingham, Deerfield & Northwood NH
By 1 o’clock that afternoon, McClary stood at the front of just over 80 men gathered from the neighboring towns of Northwood & Deerfield, leading them south for Massachusetts with great haste. By nightfall, they arrived in Andover where they stopped for supper. Instead of staying in town until morning, they continued onward and marched all night.
By sunrise on the 21st - less than 48 hours after the British marched on Lexington & Concord - McClary reported to the Patriot headquarters in Cambridge, having led his men 70 miles in under 24 hours. No joke.
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Andrew McClary was a badass.
In 1730, he became the first of his family to be born in the New World, the son of immigrants from Ulster, Ireland. They settled in Epsom, NH, where Andrew would be raised, spending much of his youth climbing Fort Mountain & exploring the surrounding NH countryside. He became an avid outdoorsman, tracker & hunter, then, as a teenager, joined the local militia to serve as a scout. He was also the local champion in boxing & wrestling; he would go undefeated in both.
And one can see why: The man stood over 6 and a half feet tall, and was built like an ox. One local described him as “straight as an arrow, finely proportioned, symmetrical of form, every muscle well formed, rough and ready, jovial, generous, with a stentorial voice, blue eyes, florid complexion. Such a man would be picked out of a thousand as born to command.”
Andrew also excelled as a soldier in the militia. So much in fact that he was selected to join the famous “Roger’s Rangers,” fighting alongside the likes of John Stark & John Goffe throughout the French & Indian War (1754-1763), rising to the rank of Captain.
He was a favorite officer, nearly six and one-half feet in height, with a Herculean form, a voice like Stentor and strength of Ajax, never equaled in athletic exercises and unsubdued in single combat. Whole bodies of men had been overcome by him, and he seemed totally unconscious that he was not equally unconquerable at the cannon’s mouth.
-Warren Tripp, “The McClary’s of Epsom”
Following the war’s end in 1763, Andrew returned to Epsom, where he took charge of the family farm & tavern he had built with his father in his youth. Over the next several years, he would become a successful entrepreneur & leader within the community. His ventures grew to the point where he volunteered his tavern to become the town meeting place (since it was the largest building in town), and the adjacent land the local militia’s muster field (which he maintained himself).
Of he and his neighbors, it was said, “they were a people who would praise good whiskey and drink it; and damn bad whiskey, yet drink it with equal relish.” One tale from his past tells of a bar fight at a Portsmouth tavern, where Andrew overwhelmed six uniformed British officers who attempted to tackle him after a spirited debate over several drinks, throwing each -one after the other - through a window and out onto Court Street.
In December of 1774, he was again in Portsmouth - this time alongside future war heroes John Langdon & John Sullivan - leading the raid on Fort William & Mary to seize all of its arms & supplies (which would be used to combat the British at Boston a few months later).
Now, at the close of April 1775, he is gathered among more than a thousand spontaneously mustered NH citizens along the southern slope of Winter Hill, overlooking the besieged city of Boston. Their first order of business is to organize into something resembling a military regiment, and thus hold a vote to elect their officers. John Stark of Manchester - the well-known, outspoken hero of Roger’s Rangers fame - is chosen as their commander.
Second in command goes to Andrew McClary.
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June 17th, 1775 brings the Battle of Bunker Hill, and McClary’s finest - and final - action.
Less than a couple months into the Siege of Boston, the Patriots are looking to tighten their lines around the city by building fortifications at Bunker & Breed’s Hills just outside Charlestown during the night of June 16th. On the morning of June 17th, the British wake up to the sight of rebels digging these defensive positions directly across the river from Boston’s North End; too close for comfort. General Howe wastes no time, launching a full attack by land & sea to remove the Patriots from the Charlestown peninsula. The New Englander’s respond in kind, ordering reinforcements to Charlestown to support the badly outnumbered Patriots.
The New Hampshire Regiments are some of the first to arrive at the Charlestown Neck - a narrow land bridge connecting Charlestown peninsula to the mainland - but they aren’t the first: Massachusetts Regiments under Colonel Samuel Gerrish are halted in the road leading to Charlestown. Why? Because upon first seeing the thousands of British troops landing on the shores & several warships bombarding the Patriots from the Charles River, Gerrish & his officers are refusing to take the field. In response, Andrew McClary pushes his way to the front, demanding they move out of the way if they do not intend to fight.
“The fire of the gunboats and warships had turned the Neck into a terrifying war zone...it was hardly a surprise that a crowd of fearful soldiers was now blocking the approach to the Neck. In his deep and booming voice, Major McClary demanded that the officers and their men immediately step aside so Colonel Stark & his regiment could march to Bunker Hill.”
-Nathaniel Philbrick, “Bunker Hill: A City, A Siege, A Revolution”
Note: Colonel Gerrish was court-martialed by General Washington following the battle, charged with cowardice. He was found guilty & discharged from the Continental Army.
Once through the neck, they followed Colonel Stark & Major McClary through the cannonade to the base of Bunker Hill, assuming the critical flank position along the rail fence to the Mystic River on the Patriot’s left. It was here the British would endure their greatest losses during the first two assaults, with McClary proving himself a superior combat leader once again:
“During this tremendous fire of musketry and roar of cannon, McClary's gigantic voice was distinctly heard, animating and encouraging the men as though he would inspire every ball that sped with his own fire and energy.”
-Samuel Swett, “History of Bunker Hill Battle”
When British reinforcements arrived later in the afternoon, General Clinton redirected them away from the Patriot flanks & towards the defenses atop Breed’s Hill for their third, and only successful, assault. While the regiments from NH held the field to cover the retreat of their fellow New Englander’s from Connecticut & Massachusetts, it was McClary who was the last man to leave the field, covering the NH men’s retreat back to the Neck.
One of his childhood friends and fellow officers wrote of this moment, when they reached the Charlestown Neck immediately following the battle. Note: I include his full account because it’s told far better than I could ever reiterate:
“A heavy cannonade was kept up upon our line and redoubt, from the commencement to the close of the action, and during the retreat; but with very little effect, except that of killing the brave Major Andrew McClary of Col. Stark's regiment soon after we retired from Bunker Hill. He was among the first officers of the army - Possessing a sound judgment, of undaunted bravery, enterprising, ardent and zealous, both as a patriot and soldier. His loss was severely felt by his compatriots in arms, while his country was deprived of the services of one of her most promising and distinguished champions of liberty.
After leaving the field of battle I met him and drank some spirit and water with him. He was animated and sanguine in the result of the conflict for independence, from the glorious display of valor which had distinguished his countrymen on that memorable day.
He soon observed that the British troops on Bunker Hill appeared in motion, and said he would go and reconnoitre them, to see whether they were coming out over the neck...After he had satisfied himself that the enemy did not intend to leave their strong posts on the heights, he was returning towards me, and when within twelve or fifteen rods of where I stood, with my company, a random cannon shot, from one of the frigates lying near where the centre of Craigie's bridge now is, passed directly through his body and put to flight one of the most heroic souls that ever animated man.
I had him carried to Medford, where he was interred, with all the respect and honors we could exhibit to the manes of a great and good man. He was my bosom friend; we had grown up together on terms of the greatest intimacy, and I loved him as a brother.”
-Captain Henry Dearborn of Epping
He was buried somewhere in the Medford/Somerville area, alongside dozens of fellow men from NH who fell during the battle. While his burial site has been lost to history & no monuments have been erected to commemorate him, the memory & benefit of his heroic efforts remains.
“Thus fell Major McClary, the highest American officer killed at the battle, the handsomest man in the army and the favorite of New Hampshire troops. His dust still slumbers where it was laid by his sorrowing companions in Medford, unhonored by any adequate memorial to tell where lies one of the heroes who ushered in the Revolution with such auspicious omens. His death spreads a gloom not only over the hearts of his men, but all through the Suncook valley; his sun went down at noon on the day that ushered in our nation’s birth.”
-Daniel Webster, at the Dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument
Bar story: Tonight, in 1863, the 54th Massachusetts Regiment led Union forces across the narrow beaches of Morris Island in the main assault on Fort Wagner; the key defensive position protecting the harbor of Confederate-held Charleston, SC.
The 54th Massachusetts - renowned as the first regiment comprised of African-American enlisted soldiers - was formed by Governor John Andrew following the Emancipation Proclamation. Recruitment was assisted by famous abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass (two volunteers being his sons) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (who also frequently attended their training in Boston).
Selected to command the unit was Robert Gould Shaw; the son of prominent Boston abolitionists, a veteran of many battles with the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry (including Antietam), and the recipient of 2 Purple Hearts. He accepted the assignment, was promoted to Colonel, then made for Boston to begin organizing and training the new regiment.
Although the Confederacy had recently issued a proclamation stating they would execute any captured African-American soldier - or white officer leading them - far more men came forward to volunteer than required. So many in fact, that the 55th Massachusetts was formed with the surplus. After months of training and with a building hunger to prove themselves in battle against the Confederacy, the 54th Massachusetts - 1,007 enlisted African-Americans and 37 white officers - gathered on the Boston Commons and, with great fanfare & celebration throughout the city, began their March south to join the fight.
Before departing, Shaw wrote to his father, “There is not the least doubt that we will leave the State with as good a regiment as any that has marched."
Upon arrival in South Carolina, Colonel Shaw was disappointed to find his regiment was not slated to join combat units at the front due to questions regarding their readiness & ability. After lobbying his commanders, the 54th was attached to General Quincy Gillmore’s division to assist in occupying James Island - located immediately south of Charleston - on July 8th as part of a larger campaign to take the city. It was here where Shaw’s men saw their first action: Confederate units moved to retake the island, but were successfully repelled by the 54th during the Battle of Grimball’s Landing on July 16th. Although not a major engagement, the men of the 54th had proven themselves in combat, earning a reputation for their effectiveness and composure.
The next day, Union Generals began planning their assault on the Confederate’s main defensive position protecting Charleston Harbor: Fort Wagner.
Fort Wagner was well protected, not just by its man-made defenses, but also by it's surrounding geography. With the Atlantic to the east, harbor to the north, and thick marshland to the west & south, the only ground approach was a narrow strip of sandy beach barely 60-yards wide; enough space to move only one unit at a time. Soldiers advancing on its walls would need to move quickly over a 1000 yards through this narrow stretch while under concentrated artillery and rifle fire.
Colonel Shaw - fresh off his first victory as commander of the 54th - requested his regiment lead the assault. General Gillmore granted his request.
In preparation, Union artillery and naval guns bombarded the fort throughout the day on the 18th of July. At dusk, the barrage ceased, and the 54th Massachusetts began their march forward, Colonel Shaw at the front.
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One soldier within the ranks of the 54th that night was a young man named William Harvey Carney.
Born a slave in Virginia in 1840, Carney escaped north to Massachusetts via the Underground Railroad, settling in New Bedford. Upon hearing of the formation of the 54th, he traveled to Boston to volunteer, not wanting to miss the opportunity to return south to fight. During training, Carney quickly emerged as a disciplined soldier and capable leader among his fellow volunteers and thus, was promoted to Sergeant in C Company.
Now standing on the beaches of Morris Island, with Fort Wagner ahead of him, Carney and his fellow soldiers set off and advanced quickly as the sun began to set. Almost immediately, the regiment began to take indirect fires from artillery, and endured continued fire throughout their approach. Although Carney would be hit during advance, and as many others around him fell, he continued forward towards Fort Wagner directly behind Colonel Shaw. The men cleared the narrow beach and neared the fort’s walls when the color guard (the soldier carrying the US flag into battle) took a fatal shot. Carney - charging beside him - quickly grabbed the flag and continued onward towards the wall.
Those of the 54th who made it to the fort began to advance up its sandy walls as reinforcing regiments attempted to make their way across the beach behind them. Shaw and Carney were among the first to make it to the top; Carney planted & waved the flag from atop Wagner’s walls to rally the charging men as Colonel Shaw and the rest of the 54th poured over the walls around him and engaged in hand-to-hand combat.
Yet, they would be the only Union men to enter the fort that night.
Regiments outside were unable to make it over the walls, and the 54th - now on their own - was eventually overwhelmed & pushed back. Colonel Shaw would fall fighting at close quarters atop the parapet; he was 25 years old, and buried in an unmarked mass grave in the sands outside the fort. Carney, severely wounded, ended up at the base of the walls. With his last ounce of strength he struggled to make it back across the beach to his lines, still maintaining a tight grip on the flag until he was finally carried from the field.
A writer from the United States Service Magazine, who witnessed the battle first hand, captured this moment: “As our forces retire, Sergeant Carney, who has kept the colors of his regiment flying upon the parapet of Wagner during the entire conflict, is seen creeping along on one knee, still holding up the flag, and only yielding its sacred trust upon finding an officer of his regiment. As he entered the field-hospital, where his wounded comrades are being brought in, they cheer him and the colors. Though nearly exhausted with the loss of blood, he says, ‘Boys, I only did my duty; the old flag never touched the ground.’”
For his actions and bravery under fire that day, William H. Carney would be awarded the Medal of Honor; the first African-American to do so. The official citation accompanying the award states:
“When the color sergeant was shot down, this soldier grasped the flag, led the way to the parapet, and planted the colors thereon. When the troops fell back he brought off the flag, under a fierce fire in which he was twice severely wounded.”
After nearly a year of recovery, Carney would be honorably discharged from service. He returned to New Bedford where he first took a job maintaining the city’s street lights, then made a career in the mail service. After retiring from 37 years with the postal service, he served in the Massachusetts Department of State office at the State House. William Carney died in December of 1908 at age 68, buried at Oak Grove Cemetery in New Bedford; an image of the Medal of Honor engraved on his headstone.
The performance of Sergeant Carney and the 54th Massachusetts at the Battle of Fort Wagner ended any debate about African-American’s ability to serve alongside their fellow countrymen. The 54th continued fighting throughout the South - as did the many other integrated units which followed - until the war’s end in 1865.
Bar Story: It was on the evening of April 18th, 1775, that Paul Revere climbed into the rowboat he hid days before along the north shore of Boston, and made his way across the harbor under cover of darkness. Behind him, two lights could be seen hanging in the steeple of the Old North Church, alerting the militia in Charlestown ahead of him. They received him on the banks of the Charles River, where he was provided a horse for his ride.
This is a moment years in the making: New England had already built a reputation of civil disobedience against British rule, with Boston becoming the most notorious. After a decade of insubordination, King George declared the colonies in outright rebellion, and ordered General Gage - commander of the British army occupying Boston - to arrest rebel leaders to stand trial for treason, as well as march his army out to the Massachusetts countryside and seize the arms & supplies of local militias.
However, the people of Massachusetts were prepared: their Provincial Government - led by rebels such as Samuel Adams & John Hancock - had spent the fall of 1774 building a system of routes, riders & militiamen designed to “alarm & muster” a large force trained to “turn out for service at a minute's notice.” In the greater Boston area alone, over 16,000 “minutemen” quietly enlisted and began to train.
As the sun set on the 18th of April, Doctor Joseph Warren of Boston - later General Warren of Bunker Hill fame - received word that the British were making their move, gathering the majority of their troops on the Commons to be ferried to Cambridge. He needed to get word out, but Boston was already under martial law, and with darkness setting in, mounted patrols were out & no one would be allowed to enter or leave the city.
At 9pm, he called on silversmith Paul Revere & tanner William Dawes, giving them instructions to ride to Concord - location of both the Provincial Government & militia stores - and trigger the alarm along the way. Revere was to try and go north across the Charles River, while Dawes would attempt to go south across the Boston Neck.
Contrary to popular belief, the lanterns hung in the Old North Church were not intended to alert Revere, but were Revere’s idea to notify the militia across the river of which route the British were taking in order to coordinate their movements, and in case he didn’t make it out of the city. That evening, on the way to his hidden boat, Revere stopped at the Old North Church and instructed Robert Newman - sextant of the church - to hang the lanterns.
And so it was that, just after 10pm, the lanterns were hung as Paul Revere rowed across the river, successfully sneaking past HMS Somerset sitting at anchor, which was providing protection over the British soldiers landing at Cambridge.
Revere would ride quickly through Charlestown, Somerville, Medford, Arlington and finally into Lexington, where he would arrive right around midnight. At each stop, he cried “the Regulars are coming out!” as minutemen poured into the streets and increasing numbers of riders were dispatched out to further communities. The alarm had been given, and the people mustered.
There were countless other riders, most of whose names have been lost to history, who spread the word across New England and the colonies beyond. Without their planning, determination and effort, the American Revolution would not have been. Riders Paul Revere, Samuel Prescott, William Dawes, Israel Bissel and the many others have thus earned their place in our nation’s history.
In addition to other express riders delivering messages, bells, drums, guns, bonfires, and trumpets were used for rapid communication from town to town, notifying the rebels across Massachusetts to muster their militias. This system was so effective that people in towns 25 miles from Boston were aware of the British army's movements while they were still unloading their boats in Cambridge. In matter of days, the news made it all the way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia.
The quickly massing militias caused the British to fail in their mission; they met defeat at the Battle of Concord, and were forced to retreat back to Boston. Following the battle, General Gage offered a pardon to all who would "lay down their arms, and return to the duties of peaceable subjects.” There were no takers.
In the days which followed, militiamen from across New England arrived and surrounded the city, thus beginning a nearly year-long siege. General Washington would arrive & take command later that summer, and the British would finally evacuate Boston in March, 1776.
Fun fact: The Lexington Green hosted the start of the American Revolution for one reason only: it was the site of the Buckman Tavern (still standing), which was a favorite hangout for the Lexington Training Band (militia) after a day of training on the green. So much in fact that the tavern became the rally point for the unit when the alarm was sounded. On the night of April 18th, they mustered at the tavern in the middle of the night, and enjoyed pints of ale as they waited for the British to arrive. They also failed to stop the British advance 🤷♂️
Bar story: It was on this day in 1794 that Congress passed the “Naval Act,” which authorized the building of six frigates; our nation’s first warships.
Joshua Humpreys - a shipbuilder and naval architect from Philadelphia - was selected to design them. The challenge he was presented was much more than designing a few ships; since only six would not rival any of the other established fleets of the world, he had to reimagine what a frigate was in order for them to compete on the high seas. His vision: the largest, heaviest & fastest ships ever built; mighty enough to beat any opponent in battle, yet fast enough to outrun all others when outnumbered. Humphreys’ final designs were the most complex ever attempted to that point in the history of shipbuilding.
President George Washington selected the 6 shipyards where the ships would be built simultaneously. “Frigate B” was to be built at Edmund Hartt’s shipyard in Boston’s north end.
Frigate B would be one of the larger ships at 50-guns, and thus Humphreys’ design called for a complex bill of raw materials. Roughly 60 acres worth of trees were required for her construction: Live Oak - a sturdy, dense hardwood which is difficult to cut and work with - from St. Simon island in Georgia was used for her heavy frame. The keel and hull were built of White Oak from across New England, while her masts were of tall White Pine (of course) from Unity, Maine. From those masts, 36 sails made of flax at the Boston Manufacturing Company were hung, totalling over 42,000 square feet (or roughly one acre).
Her large, 5000+ lb anchors were cast by Nathaniel Cushing of Pembroke, MA. The anchor cable was woven of hemp, measuring 22-inches in diameter and over 700 feet long; it took nearly 300 men to carry the rope from Jeffrey’s wharf at the North Battery down the street to Hartt’s shipyard to be installed on the frigate. The North End’s own Paul Revere would cast the thousands of copper bolts & fasteners for her hull, as well as her 250-lb bell.
This was construction on a scale not yet seen for a frigate.
She was so large & heavy that when the builders attempted to launch her in September of 1797 (an event attended by President John Adams), her hull forced the ways (ramps) into the earth and she came to a stop after sliding only 27 feet. It took a month to rebuild the ways for another attempt.
Finally, on October 21st, 1797, she was successfully launched into Boston Harbor. With a bottle of Madeira wine broken over her hull, she was christened the USS Constitution.
The Constitution would become famous at the onset of the War of 1812: as the US declared war on Britain in June 1812, over 80 Royal Navy vessels were operating in American waters. The US Navy, by comparison, was a much smaller fleet of only 22 ships; the original 6 frigates among them. Yet, with a max expected lifespan of only 10 to 15-years after their completion, they were aging. Thus, the British were heavy favorites on the seas.
After a resupply, the Constitution set out of Boston in August of 1812 with the intent of raiding British merchant ships. She instead came face-to-face with the British frigate HMS Guerriere off the coast of Halifax, Nova Scotia. As they closed, Guerriere was first to break and fire off full broadsides at Constitution. It was during this initial barrage that cannonballs from Guerriere were witnessed “bouncing” off the sides of the Constitution. In this moment, a crew member is said to have cried out “Huzzah! Her sides are made of iron!”
Constitution continued to close rapidly as she took fire, maneuvering within 25 yards before opening up her first full broadsides of grape and round shot. This barrage brought down Guerriere’s masts and crippled her; the British surrendering shortly after. Captain Isaac Hull of the Constitution took Guerriere’s crew prisoner, then set fire to what remained of the tattered vessel. #BurntheShips
Word of their decisive victory spread quickly, and the Constitution was given a hero’s welcome upon her return to Boston. Although the loss of Guerriere was insignificant to the British (who maintained a worldwide fleet of over 600 ships at the time), the battle provided a tremendous boost to American morale & patriotism during the war, serving as proof we could hold our own against the world’s best. After the stories of British cannon being unable to penetrate her mighty, New England-built oak hull, the Constitution earned the nickname “Old Ironsides.”
Years later in 1830, when rumors the Navy was planning to scrap her, thousands of Americans from across the country wrote letters urging she be saved. The Navy obliged.
She has undergone many refits in the years since, but the USS Constitution still serves today as the oldest active vessel in the United States Navy, stationed at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston.
Fun fact: During WW2, 1st Armored Division (with whom Able brewers Mike & Carl both served with) was nicknamed “Old Ironsides” by General Bruce Magruder in honor of the Constitution.
Image: USS Constitution setting sail at her 200th anniversary in 1997, with destroyer USS Ramage, frigate USS Halyburton and the Blue Angels.
Bar story: It was in the early spring of 1826, as the snow and ice from winter began to thaw, that the waters of the Nashua River were set loose into the town’s newly dug canal, providing the first power to the turbines at Nashua Manufacturing Company’s Mill #1 in downtown.
This was a defining moment for Nashua, as the town would quickly grow to become a centerpiece of New England manufacturing. Downtown alone would go on to lead in the production of textiles, shoes, steam boilers, paper, tools, lumber, furniture and more. Even armor for our nation’s first iron-clad warship - the USS Monitor (which has its own story to tell) - was forged at the Nashua Iron & Steel Company on East Hollis Street. By the 1860’s, six separate rail lines would run through the city, with over 50 trains coming and going each day to bring its goods across the country.
This expansion was not the product of one person’s ingenuity & know-how, but of many.
Daniel Abbot - one of Nashua’s founding fathers - led a group of local entrepreneurs in chartering the would-be Nashua Manufacturing Company in 1823, believing the Nashua River and surrounding community held great potential. They envisioned a canal running from Mine Falls (today, a fantastic city park) into the center of town, where its waters would power a series of manufactories that would serve as the foundation for a new city. Daniel Webster was among the company’s founders, and its largest investor.
They hired James Baldwin - a young, ambitious civil engineer - to construct the canal. After surveying the terrain, he spent the entirety of 1825 with his crew of locals reshaping the earth from Mine Falls to near the Main Street Bridge (which was also first built in 1825 by the Nashua Mfg Co). At completion, the canal was 3-miles long, 60-feet wide, 6-feet deep, and handled a 33-foot change in elevation. The canal’s locks were constructed of solid stone measuring 24-feet high, 10-feet wide and 82-feet long, and set in place by Baldwin’s team.
The canal’s dams & locks, as well as Nashua Manufacturing Co’s first mill buildings, were all designed by famed New England architect - and one of the fathers of American Architecture - Asher Benjamin. He also designed Nashua’s Unitarian Church on Canal Street (still standing), as well as inspired many of the city’s historic Federal style homes in the north end, including Daniel Abbot’s (now the Abbot-Spaulding Museum operated by the Nashua Historical Society; go check it out). His federal building style became a staple in Nashua’s early architecture, including with the first City Hall (1843), designed by Nashua inventor & architect (and student of Asher's), Samuel Shepard.
In the years that followed the opening of the canal, Nashua became a boomtown. Within a decade, the population more than tripled as more factories, shops, homes, schools, churches and infrastructure were built. Nashua quickly evolved into a city of innovative builders, tinkerers, craftsmen and inventors, all who played a vital role in our country’s growth during those early, defining years. Very Able indeed.
“When we see the position Nashua assumed as the mother of new enterprises, we wonder at the results...Any history of Nashua that left the workers (the men & women who work with their hands) out of consideration would not be complete. It was the superior intelligence of the help, rather than their acquired skill, to which we are indebted for the results.”
- Edward Everett Parker, “History of the City of Nashua,” 1897
“Why, I could make anything anybody wanted—anything in the world, it didn't make any difference what; and if there wasn't any quick new-fangled way to make a thing, I could invent one—and do it as easy as rolling off a log...A man like that is a man that is full of fight—that goes without saying.”
-Mark Twain, “A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court”, 1889
Following the American Revolution and ratification of the Constitution, our new nation ventured forward into the unknown; no one was quite sure what would become of a culture who embraced the then-radical ideas of individualism, liberty and free markets in a world run by monarchies and mercantilism.
It was a rough go at the start: In the 1790’s, the United States was well behind the developed nations of western Europe, lacking industry, population and funding; aspects we had become reliant upon from England during our colonial days. As colonies, the majority of our economy was agrarian, centered around producing raw materials for the British Empire. America didn’t produce finished goods, didn’t invent new technologies, and lacked even the most basic of resources to participate in either.
But then, something happened.
Within the span of a generation, the United States suddenly emerged as a global economic powerhouse. We became leaders in the production of iron and steel, textiles, boots and shoes, paper, packaged foods, firearms, machinery, engines, tools and more. Our once-hostile frontier was quickly conquered by a series of roads, canals and railways.
Wild new inventions and innovations became a staple of American culture, as one European attendee at the Centennial Exhibition remarked, “the American invents as the Italian paints and the Greek sculpts. It is genius.”
By the 1840’s, we were exporting everything from small tools to steam locomotives back over to Europe. The US economy’s shift was so profound that in England, Parliament formed a special committee to investigate and report on what had become known around the world as the “American System.”
One historian even notes that although we were once “monarchical, hierarchy-ridden subjects on the margin of civilization, Americans had become, almost overnight, the most liberal, the most democratic, the most commercially minded, and the most modern people in the world."
So, what happened?
Modern historians and economists continue to debate this period of American history today since, in many other parts of history, large leaps by a nation or society can typically be attributed to a key event or innovation; but this is not the case in the United States following the Revolution. We had none of the ingredients deemed necessary to quickly and profoundly change the landscape of the global economy, yet we did so anyways.
“The contrast between the mechanical capabilities of [New England] craftsmen in 1800 and in 1850 is so striking that it would appear to demand an explanation.”
-Eugene S. Ferguson, “The Origin and Development of American Mechanical ‘Know-How’”, 1965
And the best explanation many have pointed to is a rather un-academic one: “Yankee Ingenuity.”
The term Yankee Ingenuity refers to the dogged determination of the citizenry to get things done, no matter the challenge. You could call it work-ethic, creativity, talent, imagination, genius or just plain stubbornness, and you wouldn’t be wrong; one could argue it’s a combination of all of the above. In essence, New Englanders know how to “get sh*t done.”
As such, projects thought to be impossible at the onset were worked tirelessly until complete, and then improved upon continuously by others: The Erie Canal, the great factories of New England, massive steam engines, expansive railroads, and thensome. Towns grew into cities rivaling those of London and Paris, production and exports skyrocketed, and our once poor nation quickly became a wealthy superpower. It was with this home-grown Ingenuity from the countryside of New England that America was built.
“You can hardly find an eminent Yankee inventor or machinist who didn’t spring up from what has been called ‘that best school of mechanics,’ the New England farm.”
-Edmund Fuller, “Tinkers and Genius: The Story of the Yankee Inventors”, 1955
We believe this characteristic is still a part of our culture here in New England; we’re hungry for complex challenges, and are relentless in finding the best solutions for them. As Mark Twain wrote, New Englanders are “full of fight.”
Thus, we couldn’t imagine a better name for our latest project: Ingenuity.
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A year ago, we overhauled our production equipment with a new brewhouse and several new fermenters. The move increased our capacity and efficiency, which produced something we’ve rarely seen since opening in 2014: time to dedicate towards new beer designs.
Brewing small scale batches, where we can explore various ingredients and methods, is definitely the fun side of beer brewing. Once a recipe is complete and scaled, brewing feels less like an art and more like manufacturing (which, it is). After all, sticking to procedure at scale is key in continuously providing the consistent, quality product you have come to expect and demand. For us at Able Ebenezer, we’ve had to spend the better part of 4+ years dedicated to keeping up with the demand for just 2 of our brands: “Burn the Ships” & “Victory nor Defeat.”
Yet, in the spring of 2018, we were finally able to begin firing up our pilot system on a regular basis, producing 5-gallon batches of experimental designs behind the scenes. Many of you who are regulars at the brewery are familiar with these experiments, and have asked repeatedly when we’ll make one available at scale. As such, our team has decided that once a design has been explored, adjusted and perfected to our standards, we will bring it to scale for one production batch as part of a series of experimental beers under the banner of “Ingenuity.”
With that, we are excited to announce the release of Ingenuity #1; a New England IPA containing over three pounds of hops per barrel, giving it a strong citrus and tropical fruit aroma and flavor. Since this is new for us - and since we have to keep the core brands flowing - only one batch of #1 will be produced, and it will only be available on draft.
Details: The first kegs will be tapped at the brewery on Friday, February 8th @ 4pm. To ensure we have enough volume for our regulars, we will not release any kegs out for distribution. Heads up: we will offer growler and quart fills at the start, but may have to limit them after the initial release.
With that, we’re excited to finally share this fun project with you. Thank you for joining us in this effort; it wouldn’t be possible without you. Cheers!
A F-18 Super Hornet screams overhead as we walk from the parking lot into the White Labs yeast production facility. Being located across the street from Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, San Diego (a.k.a. Fighter Town, USA - made famous by the movie Top Gun) already makes the typical run-of-the-mill industrial park a little more exciting. I’m not sure what to expect from a beer tasting at a company known for making yeast, but as a recent homebrewer, with only a couple not-very-good batches under my belt, I’m curious how to make my beers a little bit better.
I’m with my roommate David, whose idea it was to come here in the first place. While David helped me with brewing once, I could tell he was more interested in drinking the final product than learning the science behind it. To my surprise, the tasting room opens up to a 40-foot bar with no less than 30 taps on the wall behind it. There is a large menu of beers, all made on-site, separated by style. I’m fascinated as the bartender explains to me everything I didn’t know about yeast, which turns out to be everything: all yeasts are either ales or lagers… ales ferment at room temperature and tend to give off a fruity flavor, while lagers like to be cold and are more “clean” tasting…lager yeasts sometimes smell like rotten eggs when fermenting…the word lager means “to store…”
David has had enough of my questions and the bartender’s in-depth answers, and orders the Wheat Ale Flight. I get the hint that it’s time to start drinking and order the IPA Flight. The beers on each flight are exactly the same with the only varying ingredient being the yeast. Same grain, same hops. Each beer tastes completely different!
My mind is blown! The taste of clove in Belgian ales…the banana flavor in Hefeweizens…I’m hooked! We each get another flight. I’m on the third one down on a Lager sample board; the Mexican Lager Yeast.
“The best one yet,” I tell myself in a mumble under my breath.
As a homebrewer, lager beers are tougher to make since they require a dedicated refrigerator, and buying a fridge for something that you do a few times a year was not exactly in my grad school budget. So in my mind, I table the idea of using my new favorite yeast for a time when I have a little more means. But, the chase to find new beer flavors was just getting started.
Fast forward: It’s November 2017, and Able Ebenezer has been open for almost three and half years. Carl and I go through the financials and realize that we’re in a position to buy new brewing equipment. It took seven years, but finally, I have the means to buy that lager refrigerator. My excitement finally boils over with a “we should do a Mexican Lager!” Understandably, this is met with confused looks from everyone in the room. Hops and IPAs dominate most beer conversations these days.
Nobody knew that I’d often buy Mexican Lagers after work, or that it was a Mexican Lager yeast that fueled my desire to make beer in the first place. But once they saw how serious I was, they jumped on board. They could see that desire and wanted to be part of it.
I knew the traditional grain used and I had the yeast I wanted, but I needed help getting the lime-already-in-the-bottle flavor that I thought beers in the style lacked (nailed it with the right combination of hops). I also needed help coming up with name and story that conveyed a Mexican attitude that goes beyond relaxing on the beach. Needless to say, we - the Able Ebenezer team - pulled through.
From this experience I’ve realized that nothing is more infectious than desire. People are drawn to its authenticity. So go ahead and show it; chances are you'll inspire those around you and they'll help you take it farther than you ever could on your own.
- Mike
I’ve worked several jobs over the years.
I’ve worked in a restaurant kitchen, done landscaping, been in childcare, worked with at-risk youth, in retail, and now obviously I work in the beer industry. I can say I’ve enjoyed my time at each job I’ve held but that’s mostly because of the people I was fortunate enough to work with. I’ve had to do “professional development” at pretty much all these jobs and for the most part it was always fairly helpful with the work I was doing but I was never really interested in what I was learning.
I simply did it because that was what I was supposed to do.
Even when it came to school I always loved reading and writing when it was subjects I was able to pick because I would be interested and want to learn about them. That’s probably why I love working at Able Ebenezer so much. I find myself reading articles about brewing, watching TED talks, trying to take free online chemistry classes, and most frequently picking Mike’s and Carl’s brains.
It’s a genuine interest I have in beer and brewing, and it’s slowly turning into an obsession.
I remember hearing all the time growing up that I should “find what I’m passionate about,” and I desperately tried. I had interests, but they would usually fizzle out after a short time. I thought I had to take the classes I was told to take even if they didn’t interest me; and do the things you’re supposed to do in life. If your passion was for something out of the norm a lot of people would tell you, you can’t do it or that it isn’t realistic or that it’s not the “smart” thing to do. People don’t really take you too seriously when you tell them you have a passion for beer. And at that point in my life beer wasn’t a passion. It wasn’t even really a thought for me. My passions were my friends and family, and simply sharing good stories and ideas with them. It wasn’t until I got to college that I really began finding what had meaning to me.
I remember going to certain college classes like statistics and archaeology and by the end of those classes I felt I learned very little. Yet a handful of nights staying up late with a dozen friends and some beer I felt I learned more than all my education combined. We didn’t have a syllabus or textbooks; we simply had our own thoughts and ideas and we were able to listen to each other and challenge each other; and yes, share some beers throughout.
One of my favorite quotes is by Mark Twain who said, “I have never let my schooling interfere with my education.” That quote resonates with me because I spent my whole educational career trying to pick one of the subjects I had been presented with in school and make that my passion. But that isn’t how it works. Your passion may not be found in a textbook or a school locker. It’s up to each person to decide what excites them and find a way to make that passion the focus of their work. I truly enjoy what I do and it’s because I’m able to do and learn about the things I genuinely have an interest in. The free beer isn’t a bad perk either.
When I was offered the job at Able Ebenezer Brewing Company I had a big decision to make.
At that point in my life I was on a path I thought I was supposed to be on. It was the path that people told me was “a good idea” and “realistic.” So I had to choose whether I wanted the life you’re supposed to have or if I wanted to take a risk at doing something I truly wanted to do. I remember thinking for a day or two and talking with my friends and family about what to do. I kept coming back to a quote I came across back in college on one of those nights spent sharing stories and ideas with friends over a few beers. The quote is by a man named Randy Komisar. He said, “and then there is the most dangerous risk of all; the risk of spending your life not doing what you want on the bet you’ll be able to buy yourself the freedom to do it later.”
You obviously know which path I chose.
-Jim
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[
""
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[
"mberthia@comcast.net",
"lance.a.simon",
"matthewgray.design",
"grubb.stephanie",
"donna.mullarkey"
] |
2024-07-27T19:18:29
|
Nashua River Rail Trail spans 12.4 from 94 Gilson Rd. (Nashua, NH) to Park St. and Main St. (Ayer, MA). View amenities, descriptions, reviews, photos, itineraries, and directions on TrailLink.
|
https://www.traillink.com/trail/nashua-river-rail-trail/
|
My friend and I, both experienced riders, had a nice time on this trails today until we didn't With leaves on the ground, the shoulders on both sides of the trail are obscured. The paved trail is likely 3-4 inches higher than the shoulder. A few times heading north, we rode behind each other and to the right to create space of people coming towards us. We were several yards shy of parking lot at Gilson St when my friend moved right to make space. Obscured by piled up leaves, she could not appreciate where the the pavement ended and the shoulder dropped off. She corrected back onto the path, but not before her tires slipped on the leaves, and she suddenly lost control of the bike. She fell to the ground. I was behind her. Given the way she fell across the path, I couldn't avoid her, Two of us were now on the ground, bikes, too. I am grateful to the folks who stopped to help and show concern for our well-being. I am so very grateful to the gentleman, Tom, who took me back to my car in Ayer so I could come back and pick up my friend and our bikes, delaying his own cycling.. Thanks to the man who helped my put my friend's bike in my car. My friend is undergoing a medical evaluation to determine the extent of her injuries to her back, flank, and hip. Thankfully she was wearing a helmet when she struck the back of her head on the pavement.
First-timer on this trail, solo trip, I started in Nashua and traveled the full length, I took some time to explore off-road paths as well. Parking was great, a large lot with a porta-potty.
Overall, I really enjoyed this trail. I was there in August 19', I heard all the sounds of late summer in the woods and saw growing corn, ranches, peaceful wetlands, etc.
I don't generally stop for snacks on solos, but noted that there were places at several points along the trail to do so. Including an abutter's yard where they have cold drinks in a machine for $1 and seats to rest in. Thanks to that family/person, very cool of you!
I found that heading North to South was *slightly* easier. I didn't find anything particularly challenging on the paved trail but you could opt to coast a bit more in this direction. The trail is suitable for just about anyone to bike on. You can make it leisurely or push yourself and get a solid workout.
Notables:
- Each of the road crossings are clearly marked, helpful for new riders and/or kids
- A lot of things to look at; farmland, wetland, horses, river/damn
- Well maintained at the time of my visit (didn't experience problems with tree trunks, much of my ride was sitting back on the seat, arms at my side)
Definitely going back in the fall, will be worth a visit once the colors start to change
I offload my bike at the Groton parking lot. I take a right and follow the Ayer route. Not far off the route in Ayer are some great eating places and shopping. I then double back to the Groton site, and there is a brand new restaurant right off the trail with outdoor seating. There is also a bike safety and repair station here. Continuing to Pepperell there is a lake on your left where it is great to pack a snack or a picnic lunch to have right there with a great view and there is some seating available. Once you enter Pepperell, there is a cute diner right off the trail, as well as a great ice cream place. When you continue on, and get close to Nashua, there are some very friendly horses that enjoy carrots on your right, and there is a trail friendly neighbor, also on the right, whom has put a vending machine as well as seating for a nice resting area for your enjoyment on their own property. Although I bring my own water, I always purchase something from the vending machine, just to show my appreciation.
I live near one of the main stopping points for this Rail Trail. It's gorgeous in any and every season. I noticed a lot of people saying there isn't a stopping point from Ayer until you get to Pepperell - don't forget about Groton! If you stop near the bus depot and go up the road, there is a health food place with some GREAT smoothies as well as a Dunkin' Donuts and a convenience store. From Pepperell to Nashua, there aren't any major stops, but there is a vending machine with a few chairs if you bring a couple dollar bills!
Overall, this is a great, family-friendly, small town Rail Trail. It cuts through some of New England's best small towns (in my entirely biased opinion) and both terminal points are worth a little look around (though Ayer might be more accessible, especially with kids!).
Rode on a cloudy Saturday, midday. What's great about this trail: pavement end-to-end is in very good shape overall, with only 7 small local streets to cross (at well-marked intersections and respectful vehicle traffic), so this is perhaps the longest trail in the Eastern part of MA if you want to avoid vehicle traffic; surprisingly not crowded on a Saturday; a couple spots with nice scenery (small pond with uninspiring view of Nashoba Valley vineyard, duckweed choked Nashua river and Pepperell dam and vintage storefronts); tree canopy most of the way to protect from sun and (when we rode) a light rain shower; and pretty flat the entire way, if you like that. What's not so great about this trail: mostly riding through woods and occasional backyards, so not particularly interesting visually; the path is very straight and flat the whole way so, again, not very interesting; and with all the tree cover, I expect this might be a bit of a mess when leaves start falling. The four stars is principally attributable to the length of the trail and its overall condition.
We did this trail with adults and children. Overall, the trail was great, some spots with bumps and holes that are marked but nothing more than any other rail trails in the area.
We did 8 miles round trip leaving Ayer and turning around after ice cream in Pepperell. Mostly flat, straight and shady. We saw the beaver lodge. Things did get a little smelly where the water became stagnant at the dam in Pepperell.
Parking seems plentiful on a Saturday (no commuters in Ayer) and there are other decent sized lots along the way as alternates if the Ayer lot is full.
Unlike other rail trails closer to Boston, there isn't any small convenience store or Trader Joe's once you leave Ayer until you get to Pepperell. So, make sure you have enough water and have used the Porta-Johns. We saw a few men at different parts of the trail relieving themselves behind trees.
I had been planning this ride for a while. Given the rave reviews I was full of anticipation. Beautiful day to ride I was stoked; until I hit my first pot hole and I haven't gone a mile. This is a beautiful scenic trail but currently not road bike friendly. Way too many holes and wripples that will jar your back teeth. An attempt has been made to circle, with white paint, many of these damaging front fork land mines. The wripples have also been highlighted but they are still many surprises. If you ride a road bike take it slow enjoy the scenery and outdoors; mountain bike or regular rider with fatty tires recommended. I spoke with two inline skaters and they had the same complaint bait they knew where the flat stretches were. Hiking would be best. As a rider I rate this one star. I have ridden a lot of local trails Nashua River is by far the worse path maintenance for cycling.
My wife doesn't like to ride on the street, so I thought we would try this rail trail. We got to the Ayer trail head about 11AM on a recent Sunday...only about 3 or 4 spaces left. Not clear if we'd get towed at the Santander Bank. There are other spots to enter, like in Groton or Pepperell.
Fairly even trail, although my wife was tiring on the return. Yes, there are some bumps, but they're well marked.
At about the 10-11 mile mark (northbound) an enterprising person has a Coke machine set up trailside. Unfortunately, there's no signage so you're past it before you realize it's there and legit (I think, we didn't stop).
We'll definitely be back, as it's only 30 mins from our house. Should be really nice (and more crowded) in the fall.
10/29/15 Today I started at the Countryside Dr. Entrance in Nashua , I guess where the trail starts. There was a big sign that said "Nashua Rail Trail" so I know I was there. The trail starts with a very rocky dirt path and various converging paths that head in every direction away from it- that looked the same . There were no markers or directions as to which way the trail went. Two trucks blocking the trail with men filling the "trail" with dirt confirmed that I was still on the trail. After about 20 minutes of this, including huge mud puddles because it had just rained, I came upon a lovely paved road that passed a school, where I saw other bikers. This paved road eventually became "Main St." In Dunstable. That was the end of the "rail trail" for me. I continued on even though it now contained cars hoping a sign would lead me back to it. i finally passed the Dunstable Library, where I was told I was two miles from the trail. Although it was still a beautiful ride, I was so interested in seeing the trail , riding without cars , and I think that there should have been at least little arrows to show a person how to stay on trail. However, the part of the trail that I was on for 20 minutes was just a rocky path through the woods, more suited to hiking. Next time I will start in Pepperel where there is an actual trail by the river.
Does this trail deseerve 5 stars? No, probably more like 3-4, but it certainly deserves more than a one star.
I was here yesterday, August 2. One day after the previous reviewer. There are no weeds across the trail at any point. It was clean and clear just like the other times I have been this year.
Yes, the ride can be bumpy. Alot of it is not frost heaves, but tree roots under the asphalt. While a bit bumpy, they have marked 90% of the bumps and holes with white paint to give you a warning.
This trail winds past some backyards in Ayer, but then opens up to fields, marshes, bogs, a pond with a beaver damn. Most of the time it is a lovely shaded ride, and eventually has you riding along the Nashua River. About 8 miles into the ride, stop and treat yourself to an ice cream or a lime rickey! Can't wait to go back in the fall, bet the colors are pretty!
This is a nice little trail for the area, much less crowded than the Minuteman Trail. Yes, the Cape Rail trail is nice, but unless I am on the Cape, it is not a destination.
If you're looking for a great bike path to spend time on, either by yourself or with the company of others, the Nashua River Rail Trail has it all. From the flat paved pathway to the scenic peek-a-boos that you encounter along the way, this 12.3 mile trail will take you from the trailhead's generous parking lot located at the end of Countryside Road in Nashua, NH to its end at Ayer, Mass. My better half and I made this trip in one hour's time (one way). Bring a few dollars with you so you will be able to stop and get some cold refreshments, ice cream or food along the way in the towns of Pepperell or Ayre. So whether you walk, ride, run or roller blade, the Nashua River Rail Trail is something you should consider.
This trail is very fun. It is about 12 miles long but the mile markers on the path are 1/2 a mile off because there are 2 one mile markers. It is mostly shaded and goes through some marsh/swamp areas where there is lots of wildlife. We saw a fawn on the way to Nashua. There is not much off the trail except in Pepperel where there are a few stores and an ice cream shop. There is also a restaurant. It is pretty easy to bike both ways because it is very flat. There are no road sections and only a few road crossings. In one of the bridges you go under there are some paintings on one side that you should stop to look at. Though it may seem long it really isn't. It took us a little over 6 hours to do the whole trail from Ayer to Nashua and back to Ayer. This is definitely worth doing.
We were able to get out on one of the first weekends with comfortable weather shortly after the snow had melted. The bike path is a real asset to this area, and was once again an enjoyable outing. The most scenic stretch was from Pepperell to Groton. We turned around just below Groton where the salt marshes are.
The southbound stretch from Pepperell to Groton was slightly uphill. It's still a rail bed, so it's not at all hilly, but just be advised when planning. There was about a two gear difference between the two directions.
Roots continue to be an issue. They are marked, but they are a problem in the making. We also wished that there were a few more spots to sit down and take a break. With younger children, we sometimes need to relax for a few minutes.
We stopped for ice cream in Pepperell at the restaurant with a window across the street from the trail. It was awful! It tasted like it had been stored since the fall - and was more ice-like than creamy.
We rode this from N.H. to Ayers and back stopping in Ayers for lunch before our return trip. For a weekday I was surprised at the traffic on the trail. Completely asphalt paved, any rough areas painted, making them easy to avoid. Scenery was awesome the entire route. Most all of the trail is covered by trees making for a cool ride on a sunny day. Being from Kansas and flying into the area I wasn't able to bring my own bicycle and had to rent one. We went to Goodale's Bike Shop in Nashua. I was expecting a rental bicycle to be a piece of crap, but not a Goodale's. They asked me what I usually rode. They set me up with a Cannondale compatible to my bicycle for $35 for 24 hours. I used my Map my ride app and the ride was just over 25 miles with a 135 foot gain. No hills to speak of. Wonderful ride would love to do it again. My next ride is going to be some or all of the 200+ miles of the Katy in Missouri. Happy riding.
This nice paved trail connects Nashua NH to Ayer Ma. It is paved and flat.
Most of the users of this trail seem to know bicycle courtesy and yield to those "passing on the left". It crosses just a few streets and all the drivers are aware of the bicycles and yield appropriately. The trail is well maintained and the bumps and heaves are painted white, which is a nice heads up since most of the trail is almost perfect. The only thing this trail lacks is adequate scenery. It is mostly wooded with some views of the rivers and wet lands, but in my opinion to far and in between.
Stop for an ice cream in Pepperell or ride to Ayer, go down town to the only sub and ice cream shop in town. It is 12 miles in each direction and riding with my wife who is a novice rider, we easily did each direction in one hour with no strain.
One of the best trails I have found in New England.
I often take the children for rides along the NRRT. There are many great starting points along the 12 mile trail, but our favorite is to start at the trailhead in Hollis, NH. From there we ride down about two miles, where some wonderful locals have installed a coke machine and put out chairs and a recycle bin during bike season. The children (and I) find something magically incongruous about finding a coke machine out in what feels like deep woods (though there are private residences abutting the trail at this point behind the trees). From there we continue on past some beautiful views of the Nashua River. There are some neat mile markers left over from the 19th century rail road that ran through here from Worcester to Portsmouth, NH. There are also some side trails, including some well-suited for mountain biking, and many opportunities for geocaching. About five miles down the trail, you'll come to downtown Pepperell and Rail Trail Ice Cream, a frequent stop of ours. (There's also good parking there, if you'd like to start from Pepperell.) Just past downtown Pepperell are some lovely views of the dam and some good stones to sit on for a picnic, if you're so inclined. The trail then winds through the Cronin Reservation area and the J Harry Rich State Forest. Soon after, you pass through Groton, MA and you pass over Rte 119/Main Street on a former railroad bridge. Soon you'll come to the Station Avenue parking area, and if you venture up Station Ave a short way, you'll find pizza and other amenities in downtown Groton. The trail then heads on to Ayer, past some lovely wetlands, sometimes on both sides of the trail. And then you'll reach the terminus at Groton Street in downtown Ayer. Ride over to Main Street and its quaint wooden sidewalks and grab a bite to eat at one of several restaurants.
This is a nicely maintain trail and the paving is great for biking.
My only complaint is that it is a fairly boring ride, almost completely enshrouded in trees. This makes for a cool ride unless it is a hot hot day.
Very little sun and not a lot the see unless you like looking a miles and miles of woods.
On the plus side, there are plenty of places to pick up the trail with easy parking. It is well maintained.
And please anyone riding any trail, if you must ride 2-3 abreast be aware that there are other people on the trail and might be passing you. Don't act like it is a complete shock each and every time a rider comes from behind and alerts you "on your left". This goes for every trail.
We're a family with 2 little ones, ages 2 and 8 months, who love biking in their trailer with dad. We parked in Groton off of court street, there were plenty of parking spaces in the dirt lot, not overly busy for a weekend. Being right in the center of town proved helpful when we realized we forgot our water bottles at home! the trail seems pretty popular for families, lots of groups whizzed right past (with a friendly on-your-left). The path is wide enough for the traffic, we were never concerned. Our kiddos enjoyed watching the trees and river and there are plenty of spots to pull off for lunch or the ever-needed diaper change lol. And on top of it being a really well paved trail, they've even gone to the trouble to spray paint mark all the bumps, holes, and roots along the way so you have some notice before your little guys get jostled. The whole ride was well shaded, so even on a hot sunny day it's doable for kids. Check it out!
This is a wonderful trail for walking and biking. As one who bicycles this trail frequently I have read a lot of fellow bikers making comments about pedestrians not sharing the trail with bikers and not moving over so they could pass. Common courtesy always works best and I think you will find that with the measure of courtesy you measure out to others they will measure back to you. Most people don't know what "On your left" means and others may take offense to it as sounding like you are ordering them to move. I find an "Excuse me please" always works everytime. All people understand that and there is no room to take offense. Try saying "Excuse me please" the next time and you will find that everyone will promptly move for you. I speak from experience. Happy trails!!!
This trail is my regular weekend ride and it provides a nice scenic experience with minimal road crossings. I tend to go very early in the morning to avoid the pedestrian traffic. For the most part early joggers and walkers I encounter are pretty good about following the rules, however, there are the occasional folks who still think it's a road and run or walk on the left side which keeps you guessing until you have to slow down and make sure they are not going to switch sides.
I start at the Nashua trailhead as I live in Southern NH, this provides a nice parking area and gets you the additional mileage north of the Tyngsboro (DCR) lot.
Some mornings after I reach the end in Ayer I will continue on and take West
Main St. to the former Ft. Devens entrance and ride around Rogers Field and loop back via Macpherson/Bishop/Park St.
The only reason I am giving this trail 4 out of 5 stars is that it could use some upkeep/surface repair and at least one more restroom on the Northern section in Nashua or Tyngsboro.
Enjoy.
I agree with (Great Trail's) comment about the people that walk or ride 3 to 4 abreast. No matter how loud you say," on your left ", they seem to be bothered by your presence.
With that off my chest, this trail is a great way to get in a fun 25 mile ride.
My wife and I ride this trail every Sat. and Sunday during spring, summer, and fall.
Parking at the Ayer side fills in quick on the weekend. During the week, it is almost impossible to find a spot. We have found the Ayer lot totally filled during the week however,
only a few people on the trail itself. I would guess to say people that work in downtown Ayer park there for work. It is a bit frustrating when you take a day off to ride. Oh well. You can do what we do and park in the Nashua Lot.
All in all. Great Trail for a Great Ride!!!
Did 15miles on this trail yesterday (Ayer to the ice-cream shop and back!) with my husband and 2 kids (10 and14), it goes through beautiful scenery and the trail is in good condition, any bumps are clearly marked so that you can avoid them if you are on a road bike. nice mix of people on the trail: families, roller bladers, serious and casual cyclists. There is ample parking in Ayer. Only one note of caution, as this was a Sunday the trail was quite busy at times and although most people were very courteous when they overtook my younger daughter and I, there were some people going too fast. One person even overtook us on the right, nearly taking out my daughter. We were riding in single file, well over to the right of the trail. If you want to cycle really fast I'd suggest going somewhere else or choosing a quieter time of day. That being said, it was still a nice safe place to cycle, we are hoping to return soon to do the New Hampshire end of the trail.
To whom it may concern...a huge thanks to the cities of Nashua, Ayer, Groton, Dunstable...for the first time I had the chance to ride the Nashua River Rail Trail ((4x) this week) I was completly blown away by how well the trail is maintained. THANKS A MILLION!!! I feel like I just found a hidden gem 35 minutes from my house...my only regret is not knowing about this trail sooner, as I have lived in NH for 10 years! I will ride this trail "many" times in the near future...I can't wait!
My only small complaint is the lack of "trail etiquette", I ride at about 15mph on average and had to come to complete stop on several occasions because people were walking or biking two or three wide and not paying attention to my very loud verbal signal "ON YOUR LEFT"...remember people, we pass on the left, and once we pass, we move to the far right side of the trail. If you must ride in parallel be aware of riders coming on your left. Other than my one complaint, I give this trail 5-stars...its even better than the Minuteman Trail, and I ride that trail 75x a year and love it.
Thank you,
D. Urlaub
I have been biking and rollerblading the Nashua River Trail for a few years now, from Ayer to Pepperell and back. Over the years I have seen it become more crowded, which is overall great that the trails are getting so much use and becoming popular.
I appreciate that this is a family time, a very safe place for kids to ride their bikes.
As one, who is likely biking twice as fast as your child, and likely faster than most adults, I would appreciate the same courtesies to be shown to me, as you would expect me to show to you and your family.
It is a luxury to ride side by side, please be courteous if someone is trying to pass you. Slowing down, is not allowing space, it just means I catch up to you faster.
Move to the right, does not mean if you were on the left, move to the middle, it means move the right, so someone can safely pass you.
This weekend I got caught up, emotionally, and yelled at someone as I passed them. They were the 4th person/ group of people, who I had to yell "On your left" multiple times, each one with a bit more edge than the time before, before they even acknowledged someone was behind them.
At one time a 6 or 7 year old child, riding with his family, was riding directly at me. I am riding around 15mph - if you see someone coming towards your child, have them move over as soon as you see someone approaching. These parents said nothing to their child- despite me waving my hand and yelling at him to move over multiple times. And yes, I did slow down. I should not have had to. Please be responsible.
I don't want to have to be rude, please don't give me reason to. If there are 4 of you, please stay to the right. If you are talking you will not hear me come up behind you.
Be aware of your surroundings and let each of us enjoy the rail trail at our own pace!
This is a beautiful trail, especially this time of year. I highly recommend it for biking, rollerblading and families.
To eric 87," there" Some good dog owners such as myself walk on the right edge of the trail with my dog to the right of me on the grass. My dog has never gone near a bike. If there are bad dog owners on the trail then they should not be there. Sometimes I wish there was a cop on the trail. There is a huge difference between jerks with agressive dogs and people with well trained house pets. I don't know what you "heard" but whenever I have walked or biked the trail I have had the most trouble with people on bikes thinking they owned the trail. Even if I walk without my dog I have almost been hit by people trying to ride three across. The trail is for everyone and we all need to be mindful of who is there. If a dog runs in front of a bike then the dog owner should be sued for a hefty amount. Good dog owners such as myself have no tolerance for bad ones.
I biked the Nashua R.R. Trail on Monday June 30th. Three trees were across the trail and were being taking care of by a local crews. :)
We parked at the communiter parking lot in Ayer and was lucky to find a space. When we returned from our ride, a police officer was giving out parking tickets ($15.00) to cars that were not in parking spaces. Also the officer told us that people were complaining about cars parking on side streets and the cars were also getting a $15.00 ticket. I asked the officer where to park when the lot was full. He suggested downtown behind some of the business by the RR tracks? I would suggest that people look at a map and find other parking lots along the trail. The rest of the lots only have one or two cars in them and their is plenty of spaces. Their is another parking lot by Dunkin Donuts but that one is usually full also.
Good Luck...
Marilyn Drisko
"In my opinion this is the best rail trail in eastern Massachusetts:
1) The trail is only a few years old so the surface is in excellent condition;
2) Because it is some distance from Boston and relatively little known compared to the Minuteman Rail Trail or Cape Cod Rail Trail it remains uncrowded even on the nicest summer weekends;
3) It runs through a much less developed and more scenic area than the region's other major rail trails.
Some scenic highlights include the large pond and beaver dam at mile 2.0 in Groton; the areas where the trail passes through the Rich State Forest around mile 5.0 to 6.5 in Groton (with unpaved side trails, courtesy of the Groton Conservation Commission); the section that parallels the Nashua River from mile 6.5 to 7.5 in Pepperell; and the crossing of the Unquetynasset Brook in Dunstable at mile 10.0. The trail also passes several horse farms and an orchard.
I personally find the northern end of the trail much more attractive and uncrowded than the southern end. The trail is most densely wooded and shady in Dunstable and Pepperell (better for hot summer days); the vegetation is scrubbier near Ayer and the landscape is dominated in several spots by large arrays of power lines.
There is a slight uphill grade as you travel from the northern end of the trail, at the Dunstable MA/Nashua NH border, to the southern end at Ayer. For this reason, as well as the fact that Ayer offers public restroom facilities and places to get food, I think it's best to start from the trail's northern terminus, so you can stop to recharge at Ayer and then head back northward.
I'm so glad to live near this gem of a trail! It's a real perk for anyone who lives in northern Massachusetts or southern New Hampshire."
"Be advised if you plan to park your car in the large parking lot near the beginning of the Nashua River Rail Trail in Ayer:
With the growing popularity of both the rail trail and the T-station, this lot often gets completely full.
Unfortunately, people are starting to park on the grass, in the walkways and in the handicapped spaces, which is ultimately going to attract the wrong kind of attention to this trail.
On weekdays, many T commuters park in this lot all day, so parking spaces don't open up until around 5:30 PM or later.
Street parking on Rt. 111 is often available (before the bank at the corner), but there is a 2-hour limit (good for most trail users, bad for commuters).
On evenings and weekends, you can often park in the bank parking lot (on Rt. 111, at the corner) as long as the bank isn't open (there are numerous ""for bank customers only"" signs), or on the street.
Alternatively, there is almost always plenty of space in the unpaved parking area next to the trail near Groton center (at Broadmeadow Road)."
"Excellent trail. We ride the Pepperell to Ayer section nearly every weekend. Nice options for extensions into Devens (mirror lake rec. area is great for swimming on hot days) - or even into the Ox Bow National Wildlife refuge via underpass below Rt 2. Take dirt roads through the OB NWR to far side and exit (up long hill) to town of Still River. This is only a short distance from the Fruitlands Shaker Museum in Harvard, a great destination. Continue to Rt. 110 back to traffic circle (rt 2A) in Ayer then back!
The commuter rail station in Ayer provides many other options (and you can take you bike on the train too - except at rush hour).
The Dunstable end isn't far from the Pepperel Airport & jump center. Go straight ahead on the original rail line when the paved trail turns right to the parking lot at the dunstable end. Follow dirt path to Rt 111A, left on 111A, left on 111 (towards pepperell), cross river, airport about a mile (or so) on left. It's very active (continuous parachute activity) on nice spring/summer/fall weekends.
The rail trail itself is becoming more popular which means more CROWDED on nice weekend days. Unfortunately, people operate on the rail trail much the same as they do on the roads around here, too often rude, arogant & danerous.
Be careful & enjoy this great asset to the area!"
"I'm excited about this trail, mostly because it starts and ends a mile away form my house. I saw a deer yesterday right at the Hollis line as I was showing it to someone else. The trail is smooth as glass and has almost no hills the entire way. There are some great mountain biking trails to the right or left at different parts of the trail that tend to reconnect to the trail at later points.
You may be lucky and catch the beaver swimming about in a nearby swamp in the town of Groton. I also saw 2 wild turkeys early one morning. Roux's Market in Ayer offers 25 cent Ice Cream and is a great place to catch a snack. The Bike Shop has two stores right off of the trail in Ayer and Pepperel if you need to pick up some emergency equipment."
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2024-04-11T15:04:39+00:00
|
Go car-free and discover attractions, shops, restaurants, and more. Ride the Commuter Rail and explore MA and Rhode Island by train.
|
en
|
Keolis Commuter Services
|
https://massbytrain.com/
|
Embrace Adventure Everywhere
With many popular attractions, shops, and restaurants within a short distance of Commuter Rail stations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, you can skip the traffic and spend time on what matters. Go car-free and get unlimited weekend rides with the $10 Weekend Pass, which now includes Federal Holidays. Kids 11 and under always ride free! Explore each line and stop on the Commuter Rail and create your own “must-see” itinerary for your adventure.
Need help trip planning? Give us a call at 617-222-3200. © 2024 Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, all rights reserved. Website designed and developed by Sperling Interactive.
The itineraries provided herein are for informational purposes only. Neither Sperling Interactive, Keolis Commuter Services, LLC (Keolis) and or the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) are responsible for transporting a rider to any end destination other than those Commuter Rail Stations identified within the “Schedules” tab highlighted herein. Sperling Interactive, Keolis, and or the MBTA are not responsible for any changes, errors, omissions, or cancellations of any of the itineraries, events, locations, promotions, or services of any kind highlighted herein. Riders should reach out to the providers directly to obtain more information related to the same.
Terms and Conditions | Media
|
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833
|
dbpedia
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3
| 83
|
https://www.lexingtonma.gov/576/Transportation-Services
|
en
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Transportation Services
|
https://www.lexingtonma.gov/images/favicon.ico
|
https://www.lexingtonma.gov/images/favicon.ico
|
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Transportation Services oversees various transit services and ensures accessibility for citizens with disabilities.
|
en
|
/images/favicon.ico
| null |
Walking and Biking Resources
Check out www.LexBikeWalkBus.org for resources, upcoming events, and more!
Buses, Shuttles, and Trolleys
MBTA ("The T") - Bus, subway, rail, and ferry service in the greater Boston area
Lexpress Buses - Local bus system in Lexington, Burlington Mall, Arlington Heights and more!
LRTA Buses - Lowell bus system, connection to Lexpress and MBTA in Burlington
REV Alewife Shuttle with Lexington Center stop
AWF Alewife Shuttle with stops near Takeda
Liberty Ride Trolley Tour - See historic Lexington & Concord
Medical Rides
Free Transportation for Medical Appointments
Services for Seniors & People with Disabilities
Some services have may have age or ability eligibility requirements.
The RIDE - Door-to-door service for people with physical, cognitive, or intellectual disabilities
Lex-Connect Taxi Voucher Program - Discounted taxi rides for Lexington residents
GoGoGrandparent - Ridesharing service with no smartphone needed
Lyft Wheelchair Accessible Vehicle info - How to request a wheelchair accessible Lyft
Uber Wheelchair Accessible Vehicles info - How to request a wheelchair accessible Uber
General Transportation Resources
Student Transportation Options
Free MBTA Travel Training
Parking in Lexington
Logan Airport Transportation
Want to Get Involved?
Lexington Transportation Advisory Committee
MBTA Riders' Transportation Access Group (R-TAG)
Have a question that's not answered here? Give us a call, email us, or stop by our offices - we're happy to help!
|
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833
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dbpedia
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1
| 75
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/bmrrhs/48864370587
|
en
|
Boston & Lowell Railroad No. 20 BILLERICA (4-4-0) c1885
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2024-08-10T14:29:52.886000+00:00
|
Built by Wm. Mason Feb. 22, 1869 as Boston, Lowell & Nashua No. 20. (Cons. No. 304). To B&L No. 20 BILLERICA, c1878. To B&M (pre-1911) No. 320 (1st), Class A, c1887. Cylinders 16x24. Scrapped Concord, N.H. Sep. 1, 1905. Billerica is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts.
Digital image made from photograph in Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society Archives. Cat. No. 1998.12. Gift of Kenneth F. McCall Estate. Copyright Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society, Inc. Learn more about the B&MRRHS at <a href="http://www.bmrrhs.org" rel="noreferrer nofollow">www.bmrrhs.org</a>. Photo 1848
|
en
|
https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico
|
Flickr
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/bmrrhs/48864370587
|
Built by Wm. Mason Feb. 22, 1869 as Boston, Lowell & Nashua No. 20. (Cons. No. 304). To B&L No. 20 BILLERICA, c1878. To B&M (pre-1911) No. 320 (1st), Class A, c1887. Cylinders 16x24. Scrapped Concord, N.H. Sep. 1, 1905. Billerica is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts.
Digital image made from photograph in Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society Archives. Cat. No. 1998.12. Gift of Kenneth F. McCall Estate. Copyright Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society, Inc. Learn more about the B&MRRHS at www.bmrrhs.org. Photo 1848
|
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833
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| 36
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https://lrta.com/routes/
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en
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Routes – Lowell Regional Transit Authority
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https://lrta.com/routes/
| ||||||||
833
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1
| 63
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https://railroad.net/salem-amp-lowell-west-peabody-rail-yard-t174606.html
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en
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Salem & Lowell West Peabody Rail Yard
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2022-08-31T01:33:49+00:00
|
en
|
RAILROAD.NET
|
https://railroad.net/salem-amp-lowell-west-peabody-rail-yard-t174606.html
|
Discussion relating to the pre-1983 B&M and MEC railroads. For current operations, please see the Pan Am Railways Forum.
Moderator: MEC407
|
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833
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 95
|
https://www.railpassengers.org/happening-now/news/blog/driving-governor-dukakis-a-push-for-needed-regional-rail/
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en
|
Washington, DC - A Trip From Mattapan to Boston to Lowell in a 1949 Hudson to Highlight the Need for Unified Massachusetts Rail
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/favicons/apple-touch-icon.png?v=eE5MKaqdA5
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https://www.railpassengers.org/happening-now/news/blog/driving-governor-dukakis-a-push-for-needed-regional-rail/
|
Former Democratic Gov. Michael Dukakis, who along with former Republican Gov. William Weld heads the North South Rail Link Working Group, will drive from Mattapan through Boston to Lowell on Friday in a 1949 Hudson, a vehicle that is as outdated as parts of the public transit system in Greater Boston.
At 11 a.m. Friday, Nov.16, 2018, Gov. Dukakis will arrive in the rusty 1949 Hudson at the MBTA station in Mattapan, MA (where the trolleys running everyday are as old as the Hudson). At 1 p.m., Dukakis will arrive in the Seaport District at District Hall at 75 Northern Ave, Boston, at 3 p.m., he will arrive at the MBTA station in Lowell, MA.
Joining Gov. Dukakis will be former State Representative John Businger, Vice Chair of the North South Rail Link Working Group, to answer questions about the need for regional rail, the North South Rail Link, and the future of transportation and the economy in Greater Boston with – or without – a link between North and South Stations.
Fixing the MBTA after years of neglect, as the Baker Administration is undertaking, is necessary but not sufficient for the future needs of the economy of Greater Boston.
This 1949 Hudson is a rolling metaphor and is as challenged as the Commonwealth’s commuter-rail system, which for decades has been comprised of separate and disconnected transportation systems. North Station serves Boston’s northern suburbs, and South Station serves the City’s southern and western systems. And never the twain shall meet for passengers, except for a long walk, an Uber or cab ride, or two timeconsuming MBTA connections.
Observe that this 1949 Hudson was the model that was made famous in the popular movie “Driving Miss Daisy”. Honk the horn and the lights dim. Accelerate in the rain and the windshield wipers stop. The Hudson’s windup clock loses five minutes every day. It's antiquated, like th current MBTA system. Citizen commuters suffer with larger systemic handicaps every day on an MBTA system that has not kept up with the times.
Building the North South Rail Link is a big undertaking but a necessary part of a functioning regional rail system that residents of the area deserves. Today the MBTA is running two old systems. A single link between them, in the form of a North South Rail Link tunnel beneath the city of Boston, would serve commuters, increase housing options for people who travel to their jobs, serve the environment, and contribute to decongestion of our seriously overburdened highways and streets.
|
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833
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https://www.christinaohlyevans.com/blog-1/category/Architecture
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en
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Architecture — Christina Ohly Evans — Christina Ohly Evans
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https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5fb98ae2fdeafc657920dd76/1609633901850-H2ONX0R5LSJEJPUFZYUT/favicon.ico
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Christina Ohly Evans
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https://www.christinaohlyevans.com/blog-1/category/Architecture
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The architect and designer counts Chanel, Dior, Louis Vuitton, Bulgari, Ermenegildo Zegna and London’s forthcoming Peninsula Hotel among his clients. He also designs private residences
Perfect weekends begin with a solo ride out to my home in Southampton, Long Island, on one of my bikes – a KTM 1290 Super Duke R or my Triumph Speed Triple. It all depends on how sporty I am feeling.
Saturday morning opens with three cups of strong black coffee, before 9am, followed by a trip to Marders nursery to meet with garden designer Charlie Marder. He’s been running this institution since the 1970s and knows so much. They have all sorts of flowering fruit trees and a greenhouse shop too. Then I’ll typically spend two hours in my garden. We have a different flower for each month: forsythia, hydrangea, rhododendron, apple blossom. I’ll also tend to my five beehives – if you have more than 10 acres in Southampton you’re encouraged to keep bees because so many have been affected by mites.
Exercise is an important part of my weekend routine and Kip, my trainer, comes to work out with me for an hour before lunch. I was a gymnast in high school so I like the rings and parallel bars. Lunch is almost always a tuna melt from Sip ’n Soda, a classic 1950s diner, I might have two if I’ve worked out a lot.
Afternoons often involve picking vegetables from our garden for the meal Giangi, our property manager, will grill for dinner. I try to eat clean and we grow our own tomatoes, cucumbers, kale and celery. We’ll buy meat or locally caught tuna from gourmet market Citarella and swordfish from seafood specialist Clamman.
Every weekend includes tennis – at my home or the Bath & Tennis Club, where I like the low-key atmosphere. It’s just six clay courts and perfect for round robins. I always make our house guests play; it’s like Mao’s Long March. But it’s usually followed by a refreshing swim and massages by Kip for whoever wants one.
I don’t like to shop very much, but two exceptions are Tennis East – to get my rackets restrung and buy my tennis whites – and Book Hampton, a truly old‑fashioned bookstore. Late in the day, after the crowds have gone, I might go to Halsey Neck Lane Beach, primarily for my European guests who come to the Hamptons and want to see the ocean.
On Saturday night my wife Jane and I will host dinner for friends, as well as our nieces and nephews who come out from the city. It might be grilled lamb chops and lasagne prepared by Heidi, our chef, paired with wines chosen by my daughter, Isabelle. She is a sommelier and will select a bordeaux – from our wine cellar or from Domaine Franey, a first-class wine shop in East Hampton that specialises in French reds. Afterwards, we like to watch movies in our screening room – preferably happy ones that are an antidote to the rest of the crazy week. I’m a bit of a night owl, so I’m in bed anywhere between 12am and 2am.
Sundays start with the New York Post – I like the difficult 12-box sudoku and time myself. Then we might ride to Montauk with friends. We’ll stop at Gosman’s Dock, the famous fish place on the water with views of the boats in the harbour – I love the tuna tartare cones – before returning to Southampton for more tennis, swimming and apple-picking.
Weekends are for relaxing, so I don’t look at email or social media. The air on Long Island is so oxygenated I sleep well and get re-energised for the coming week. I’ll head back to the city on my bike about 3pm. My wife and daughter go by car and we’ll meet for dinner at Mr Chow; we have a special table as it’s been a family favourite for 25 years – we’ll share their speciality, Beijing duck. Or we’ll go to Sette Mezzo, a simple Upper East Side Italian with a lively atmosphere. I travel from 12 to 15 days a month, so Sunday nights are family time.
The New York-based architect and soon-to-be Yale University School of Architecture dean discusses Japanese aesthetics, good books, and her interior designs for the new 432 Park Avenue.
You championed “the architecture of the everyday.” What does this mean to you?
I championed this 20 years ago when I was commuting regularly up 1-95 to teach at Yale. This philosophy celebrated the beauty and inspiration in everyday life: from the diners we’d pass on the road, to new materials being used for construction. I still believe in unselfconscious design that we can all learn from, but I’m now most interested in designing buildings that are linked to where they are. So much of what gets built today could be anywhere. I’m arguing for architecture that’s specific to place.
You studied at London’s Architectural Association with Rem Koolhaas, Zaha Hadid, and Elia Zenghelis. What impact did this have on your work?
They are all completely fascinating people, but I would have to say that I was the AA that impacted my practice and opened my eyes to a different kind of architecture. There isn’t the same studio culture in the U.K. as in the U.S.—it’s much more about meeting with your critic over there.
How does living in New York inform your preferences for spare spaces and natural materials?
I love New York but because it’s frenetic, dirty, and busy, people want simplicity, clarity, and serenity in their environments. They seek an antidote to the city. In addition to designing minimalist spaces, I tend to gravitate toward natural, clean materials in neutral hues that have integrity to them.
You have said that you have a longitude interest in cities as places where things get made. What cities are particularly interesting and productive today?
Right now we are seeing an explosion in cities where things have traditionally been made or exchanged, and Detroit and Nashville are two prime examples of this. Boutique industries are thriving again—for the creation of musical instruments in Nashville, to the production of everything from belts to chairs to custom bicycles in secondary or tertiary cities. Small-scale production is really thriving again.
Has being a woman in a field dominated by men felt like an impediment? Is the playing field being leveled with time?
For all women architects I know, there is a glass ceiling of a kind. One example: I was recently sitting in business class on an airplane and was asked what I do by the man seated next to me. When I said I was an architect, he immediately asked, “Do you do interiors?” There are lesser expectations for women. In general, there is a lack of diversity in architecture, and women are certainly better represented than many other groups. Architecture is hideously underrepresented of society as a whole.
Your love of boutique hotels has led to an ongoing collaboration with 21c Hotels, a small chain of properties housed in restored historic buildings, in smaller cities. What’s important about these properties?
I came to 21c through an interesting set of circumstances: I had pitched for a project in Louisville that we didn’t get, but one of the principals liked what he heard and asked us to help revitalize that downtown That has led to work on a series of important buildings, from a conversion project in Buffalo that involves an H.H. Richardson building, to an addition to I.M. Pei’s Rockefeller Arts Center at SUNY Fredonia, to a hotel project in a Shreve Lambs & Harmon building in Durham, and an Albert Kahn building in Oklahoma City that were transforming from a Ford plant into a hotel. These are all great buildings that are of a place. We hope to transform them, yet keep them deeply grounded in their sites.
How did being a model influence your design aesthetic? Do you have an appreciation for fashion?
My mother was a lingerie designer and I’ve always had a love of fashion. She was a professor at FIT. Her creative life was an inspiration to me, as was her passion for teaching.
Are you still tied to that world? Narciso Rodriquez is a friend.
Narciso and I had drinks last night, and he gave me a beautiful book on Brazilian modernist architect Lina Bo Bardi. He loves architecture, so we always have that to discuss, as well as art exhibits at the MoMA, Supreme Court decisions, government policies, and politics in general.
Your firm hosts a rotating art program at the studio that showcases work by up-and-coming artists. How is this series curated?
A three-person curatorial committee selects work by older artists, young people, and artwork that runs the gamut from prints for paintings to sculpture and group shows. The common thread is that the art just has to interest us in some way. These exhibitions are good for office morale—very fun for parties, as they add to the studio environment. And they’re a great forum for emerging artists who don’t always have gallery representation.
New York’s Marianna Boesky Gallery, which you designed, is a combination of corrugated metal and concrete, juxtaposed against the High Line. How did the location influence your choice of materials?
The 6,000-square-foot building refers to the industrial, garage like composition of the West Chelsea neighborhood. It is composed of custom concrete blocks and also incorporates glazed white brick and corrugated metal. It was the first building built under the new High Line zoning, and it’s contextual to the surroundings. The interiors of the gallery are austere and muted, all to highlight the art within.
If you were to invite the greats of architecture and design to dinner, whom might you include?
By definition they’d all have to be dead—otherwise I’d just have a dinner party! I’d much rather invite poets, composers, and dancers, as I love talking to people who do things other than what I do. Gertrude Stein and Maria Tallchief would be right at the top of my guest list…
How has your design process evolved from early loft conversions in the 1980s to the collaboration with Rafael Viñoly on 431 Park, currently the tallest building in the western hemisphere?
We are living in cities in very different ways now and the definition of luxury has changed dramatically. Luxury is omnipresent. Much of the work that I do is “whole vision.” We design the building to the furnishings. This project was very different in that way.
Can you elaborate on the exquisite finishes, fabrics, lighting solutions and custom hardware at 432 Park?
Harry Macklowe, the developer, is an old-school modernist and came up to us because he wanted an elegant, understate, spare aesthetic that capitalized on the stunning views in all directions. We took inspiration from the classic apartments of Park Avenue for floor plans and layouts. We looked at the way spaces were traditionally used in terms of general lifestyle and the flow for entertaining in particular. Everything form the herringbone floors, to the baseboards, to the bathrooms with windows that can be seen throughout the half-floor model apartment references the work of historic Park Avenue buildings by the likes of Rosario Candela.
Which artists—and what kind of artwork—would you like to see in these spaces at 432 Park?
The walls here are vast and are designed to take art. In the model apartment there are “Seascape” photographs by Hiroshi Sugimoto, prints by Ellsworth Kelly and Donald Sultan, and the table by Yves Klein. Old Master paintings would work just as well as the light and spaces are so beautiful.
Which building or buildings do you think are the greatest of all time?
It’s hard to narrow it down, but I’m a huge fan of both Eliel and Eero Saarinen, and the First Christian Church in Columbus, Indiana, is among my favorites. The space, light, and materiality all make this sacred building feel not too precious. Louis Kahn’s library at the Phillips Exeter Academy is another great one. The materiality of it has influenced me forever.
What is one place that you’ve traveled to in the past year that really impressed you from a design perspective?
The attention to detail in Japan is incredible. It seems that everything is highly considered, from both a visual and functional perspective. This is true to the architecture, yes, but of every other craft, too. Fabric design, cooking, urban design—they all have a connection to quality and tradition, which is felt even if the idea or expression is new. Naoshima, an art-filled island, is a great example of this.
You famously eschew clutter. What’s an area of your life where you make an exception?
Books. I can’t get rid of them and they line the shelves in both my New York City apartment and at my home in Long Island. From art and architecture tomes, to fiction, to biographies to books about philosophy, I’m an avid collector.
What are the books on your bedside table?
Many at any given time. I’m currently reading the Alexander Hamilton biography by Ron Chernow; Between You & Me: Confessions of a Comma Queen by New Yorker proofreader Mary Norris; and James Salter’s A Sport and a Pastime. Next up will be 1939, a book about the failure of diplomacy to stop World War II. I always have a stack of magazines, too—everything from Vogue and Allure to The Economist and The Nation.
The architect and industrial designer explores the city’s paintings, porticos and botanical gardens and Brera backstreets
“Saturday mornings start at my local newsstand, Reno Giornalaio, at the end of Via Brera. I love the ritual of walking and getting the papers – everything from Corriere della Sera to the FT and The New York Times for my wife [American architect and interior designer, Terry Dwan] – and then settling into one of the local bars, Caffè Fernanda, inside the Pinacoteca di Brera, for coffee and brioche. The sense of community in these places is wonderful, but I also like that there’s no pressure to talk to anyone.
After a long while spent reading, I might go to any number of galleries and museums. I’m an art collector, and I find inspiration at places such as Gallery Massimo di Carlo; it’s a fantastically inspiring space by Piero Portaluppi who also designed the famous Villa Necchi. I’m drawn to the Palazzo Reale, especially during Salone del Mobile, and the Brera Museum, which has one of the best collections of Italian Renaissance paintings and an exemplary Lombard baroque courtyard – its portico has an unrivalled collection of full-size casts of monumental classical sculptures, and real 19th-century marble sculptures.
I’m a member of the advisory committee of the Museo del Design Italiano on the ground floor of the Triennale. The centre has constantly changing architecture exhibitions – our practice has designed installations here – and is a source not only of inspiration but also debate. There’s also a nice design café, where I’ll sit outside and have seabass carpaccio and salad for lunch.
The Triennale has constantly changing architecture exhibitions and a design café | Image: Stefan Giffthaler
People come to Milan for the creative energy, the food and the fashion – and there is no better time to watch this all unfold than at the weekends. I’m not a trendy guy, but I am also not above taking a touristy stroll past La Scala, through the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II and on to the Duomo, before heading to quieter stretches such as Via Mozza and Via della Passione, which have a truly Milanese spirit.
Quadrilatero – or the Golden Triangle – is lovely, too, for window shopping. The thing that most sparks my curiosity is the constant change of storefronts and tenants, a never-ending cycle of activity bringing new brands and installations. I walk through this area at the end of every work day, so sometimes at the weekend I prefer to explore the calmer neighbourhood streets. There is so much to explore near my house in Brera, including one of the city’s most beautiful churches, the neo-gothic Santa Maria del Carmine, with its terracotta façade. And the nearby Botanical Garden is one of my favourite escapes. After a period of neglect, this place, which was created at the behest of Maria Theresa of Austria, has now been restored. Today, passing through an area of monumental buildings, you suddenly enter a peaceful oasis full of nature and history.
The highlight of any day is aperitivo and I always go to the bar at the Bulgari Hotel Milano. They make me a special margarita il solito just the way I like it, with reposado [aged in oak barrels] tequila, and Niko Romito’s finger food is excellent. I might meet a friend here to discuss art and design and I feel it’s an important, enjoyable conclusion to the day, but one drink is always enough.
I’ll meet Terry for dinner at Torre di Pisa, a classic place that was once a favourite with Ettore Sottsass and the Memphis group, as well as fashion designers and journalists. It still feels very ’60s and the simple dishes of spaghetti alla puttanesca and ribollita go well with a glass of Tuscan red. They make a special insalata mista for Terry: I like it when a restaurant feels like your own private kitchen.
Sunday mornings start with a walk in Sempione Park and on to the Castello Sforza – I enjoy the wide-open spaces. For lunch, we might go to L’Arabesque, a design store with a café that serves excellent risottos and grilled fish, or to the Mudec Museum, a contemporary art collection that does a nice Sunday brunch. On the rare Sunday night that we don’t eat at home, we’ll go to Langosteria, which has the best seafood tartares, or maybe to Nobu, near our house. I like the cleanliness and fresh taste of Japanese food, and it can be a nice change at the end of a weekend with a typically Milanese flavour.”
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The Friends of Hemlock Gorge
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2023-08-07T15:51:11+00:00
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Stagecoaches Although stagecoaches were plying short routes about Boston in the early days, they did not become popular in New England until about 1783 when regular runs began over the old post road to New York. The first stages from Boston to New York took about six days to complete the trip. By the 1820s, […]
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https://hemlockgorge.org/the-makers-of-the-mold/13-transportation/
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Stagecoaches
Although stagecoaches were plying short routes about Boston in the early days, they did not become popular in New England until about 1783 when regular runs began over the old post road to New York. The first stages from Boston to New York took about six days to complete the trip. By the 1820s, when several turnpikes were in place between the two cities, the time of the journey had been reduced to 24 hours! One early record indicates that a stage journey from Boston to the Connecticut River usually began at two o’clock in the morning and ended at seven or eight o’clock in the evening. It; required a total of 32 horses over the course of the trip to carry a maximum of 10 passengers and fares ranged from $4.50 to $6.00. The schedule of the mail stage between Boston and New York over the Dorchester Turnpike was shown previously under “Streets, Bridges, and Parks.“
Official tolls set for turnpikes by the Massachusetts General Court in 1805 were: For a coach, phaeton, or other four-wheel spring carriages, drawn by two horses – 25 cents, two-horse wagons – 10 cents; cart or wagon drawn by a pair of oxen – 8 cents; horses, mules, neat cattle, led or driven, each 1 cent; sheep or swine, by the dozen – 3 cents. This same act also forbade collection of tolls from “persons going to or from church or grist mill, on military duty or on journeys within the town where the gate is located.”
Early in the 1800s a stage ran from Upper Falls to Boston through Newton Centre (presumably over the old Sherburne Road). The stage left Upper Falls daily at 9:00 AM and at 3:00 PM started the return trip from Boston. A second stage ran from Upper Falls to West Newton to connect with the railroad after it was opened to that village in 1834 .
As indicated earlier (see “Streets, Bridges & Parks“), the comfortable Concord Coach first appeared in 1829, a creation of Lewis Downing and Stephen Abbott. They did not invent the Stagecoach, which came from England, but merely improved the design. Downing had been operating a wheelwright’s shop in Concord, New Hampshire since 1813 repairing sleds and plows, and making a few chaises and wagons. A dozen years later, when the stage business was coming into full flower, he felt it was time to build a passenger and mail coach. He secured the services of an excellent wagon builder, J. Stephen Abbott of Salem, end their first coach was an instant success. It was the first of about 3,000 that were built by their firm. This type of coach required fewer horses “only two horses were considered enough” instead of four (except that a third might be added in bad weather).
When, for the first time, the Boston- New York run was accomplished within 24 hours “bells were rung and bonfires blazed all along the route.” It was no doubt a Concord Coach that; set this record. When the Charles River Railroad was opened in 1852, the stages from Upper Falls to Boston were deemed unnecessary and coaching became but a fashionable indulgence. In 1884 when the Boston & Albany Railroad took over most of the Charles River Railroad’s right of way and built the two track Circuit Railroad to connect with the main line at Riverside, more frequent rail service was available at Newton Highlands. In order to accommodate travelers using this service, horse-drawn barges made regular trips between the two villages. Newspaper ads in 1888 indicate that Nichol’s Barge was operating 10 trips daily between Upper Falls and Newton Highlands leaving Postoffice Square (Chestnut and Ellis Streets) and proceeding via Chestnut, High, and Elliot Streets to Newton Highlands. For many years transportation for students to Newton High School was available by horse-drawn vehicles, but most everyone walked except in stormy weather.
Railroads
From 1845 on, railroad construction in Massachusetts was so intense that by 1850 almost every town in the state with 2,000 persons or more was served by a railroad. During these same few years 2,200 miles of track were laid in New England, considerably more than in any other section of the country. Massachusetts had one mile of railroad for every seven square miles of’ its area; New York only one for every 28 and Ohio one for every 58 square miles.
The first railroad in the state, and one of the first in the country, was the Granite Railway Company of Quincy which was incorporated March 4, 1826. Its main objective was to transport Quincy granite for the purpose of building the Bunker Hill Monument. It was built by Gridley Bryant.
The enterprise “had the financial and personal support of Thomas Handasyd Perkins, the enlightened merchant prince. Son-in-law of Upper Falls mill owner Simon Elliot, he was the same Thomas Perkins who, with his brother James, had just launched the Elliot Manufacturing Company in Upper Palls in 1823. (See the chapter on “Industry“).
Mr. Perkins was also financially involved in the building of the first passenger railroad in New England, the Boston & Worcester Railroad. It commenced service in 1834, operating between Boston and West Newton with the first train arriving at the latter point on April 16 of that year. Service between these two points consisted of three trips a day with two to eight passengers carried on each trip. The first engine used was the “Meteor” built by George Stephenson of England Almost immediately, however, the Boston & Worcester contracted locally for its locomotives. In 1834 (the first year of its operation) the Mill Dam Foundry had built the “Yankee”, the first locomotive built in New England.
During the next few years, locomotives operating on American rails were manufactured on both sides of the Atlantic. From a count of locomotives at work on American railroads made by the Secretary of the United States Treasury office we learn: “In 1838 the combined roster for all New England lines was 45. Of this number eight were American locomotives built outside New England, twelve had been imported from Great Britain, and the remaining twenty-five had been built in New England shops.” Surprisingly, many of the locomotives built in America, particularly in New England, were constructed in shops involved in the construction and repair of cotton machinery. These shops possessed the equipment and their workers had the necessary training and skills. We find that this was also true locally. When Newton’s second railroad (The Charles River Railroad) began operating in 1852 its owner, Otis Pettee, added a locomotive shop to his cotton machinery manufacturing plant at Upper Falls. In 1866, while the Civil War was still in progress, the employees engaged in manufacturing and repairing locomotives numbered 100.
The first passenger cars on American railroads were Concord Stagecoaches mounted on flat cars, but gradually more suitable conveyances were built. In our chapter on “Industry” there may be noted a statement to the effect that in Upper Falls twin sons of Zilba Bridges joined with sons of a neighbor, Joseph Davenport, to form a business for building railroad cars in Cambridgeport and Fitchburg under the name of Davenport &: Bridges. The statement goes on to say that they made considerable improvements to the existing railroad cars such as building the first eight wheel car, becoming quite famous in the pioneer days of railroading. Further research, however, reveals that the Boston &: Worcester contracted with Davenport & Kimball of Boston, later Davenport & Bridges of Cambridge, and also with Osgood Bradley of Worcester for passenger cars. Both were makers of carriages and both came to be among the leading car building firms in New England
As to Davenport & Bridges building the first eight wheel car, we leave this to your judgment as we quote the following from E. C. Kirkland’s book, Men, Cities and Transportation:
“All cars had meanwhile become ‘long’ cars (1840-50s), enabled to round the short curves of the New England Lines by a mounting upon two swivel trucks of four wheels each. Gridley Bryant, or the railroads which made use of him, successfully proved in an historic patent case that he had invented and used this device for the Granite Railway. John B. Jervis of the Mohawk & Hudson or Ross Minans of the Baltimore & Ohio, however, had first applied it to passenger transportation.”
Men, Cities and Transportation, E. C. Kirkland
Perhaps because the topography of the landscape was more favorable, the route of the Boston & Worcester Railroad took it through the north side of Newton. Despite the railroad’s interest in seeking freight shipments as the main contribution to its income, the manufacturing centers of Newton were by-passed except for Lower Falls, whose first request to have the rails pass through its village was rejected. The matter was reconsidered later, but Lower Falls had to be content with only a branch line. Meanwhile, the heavy shipments of steel and cotton together with their finished products continued to be hauled to and from the nearby Boston wharves by horse and ox-drawn “waggons” over the Worcester Turnpike.
There was no question that the coming of the railroad was to make the turnpike obsolete, especially after the development of sturdier freight and flat cars as well as locomotives powerful enough to handle the heavier loads generated by the expanding industrial revolution of the 1800s. Otis Pettee sorely needed such a facility in the 1830s when he was exporting his heavy cotton machinery to Mexico. Instead, it had to be hauled through snow, mud and dust over the old road. Often without fanfare he would dispatch workmen to fill potholes and level some of the difficult hills between Upper Falls and Boston, expending hundreds of dollars in the process. Occasionally, on request, he would submit a bill to the town for his work. On one such occasion (in 1842) his bill for the cost of labor of men, oxen and horses plus gunpowder used during the previous three years amounted to $701.28. A special committee appointed by the town reported that they had “…viewed the Roads and believed they had been very much Improved and that the Burden of Expenses ought not in Justice to be laid on Mr. Pettee. We would therefore recommend that; the Town pay Mr. Pettee $400 of the Ballance due [he had already received $150 in cash previously] which we think may be done without establishing a President [sic] that will likely to have any Bad effect.”
It is difficult to understand why, if Thomas H. Perkins was one of the financial backers of the Boston & Worcester Railroad in 1834, he did not have influence enough to have its rails laid through Upper Falls. Surely, his own cotton manufacturing plant established there 1823 could have benefited from its service. However, it was not until about, two decades later that southside residents. led by industrialist Otis Pettee, secured rail service for their villages. Pettee’s first request for such service resulted in an offer by the Boston & Worcester to extend a branch line from Riverside via Lower Falls to Newton Upper Falls. However, since this would result in a roundabout trip to Boston of some 15 miles in length, Pettee rejected the offer and turned his attention to constructing his own road from Boston through Newton’s southside and beyond.. The new road began at a ]unction with the Boston & Worcester at Brookline. Organized under the name of the Charles River Branch Railroad, it was to operate only as far as Dover although later an extension called the Charles River Railroad was authorized to carry it as far as Bellingham. Unfortunately, Mr. Pettee died just before the railroad reached Needham.
Not long after his death the railroad was to play an important role in the development of the city of Boston. By the 1850s the open mud flats of Back Bay had become an unsightly as well as malodorous nuisance. Also, the rising cost of real estate around its perimeter, especially its eastern border, inspired speculators to contemplate filling them in and developing the resultant large parcel of land. However, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which controlled 100 acres of the property, devised a plan that would not only accomplish the purpose of filling the flats but make it financially productive as well. As historian Walter Muir Whitehill phrased it; “The Commissioners [for the state] were reduced, as their seafaring ancestors had been, to the technique of parlaying nothing into something by way of exchange.”
By giving a percentage of the valuable reclaimed land to the contractors for their payment and selling the balance to eager developers, “the Commissioners found funds for further work without expense to the Commonwealth.” Actually, a profit of $3,000,000 was realized by the State from transactions involving the sale of its 100 acres. The contractors chosen for the job were Norman Munson, a Vermonter (but later a resident of Shirley, Mass.), and partner George Goss, a Boston contractor. They had never undertaken anything of the magnitude of the Back Bay job but boldly accepted the challenge. In doing so they planned to use two new techniques, the railroad and the steam shovel. Without these they never would have been able to transport efficiently the enormous amount of fill necessary for the job. They were fortunate in that the steam shovel had only recently been invented by William Smith Otis of Philadelphia, and some of the first of these machines were being built by John Souther in his Globe Locomotive Works in South Boston. (See conclusion of Section on “Railroads” for more information on John Souther.
Circumstances made the Charles River Railroad the right railroad the right place at the right time, as they were chosen to be the rail carrier for the huge project. How it was accomplished is best described in Ballou’s pictorial for May 21, 1859:
“The gravel is brought from Needham, near the line in Newton, a quarter of a mile from the Upper Falls Depot, and nine miles distant from Boston. One hundred and forty-five dirt cars, with eighty men, including engineers, brakemen and all, are employed, night and day in loading and transporting the gravel over the road. The trains consist of thirty-five cars each, and make, in the day time, sixteen trips, and in the night nine or ten, or twenty-five in twenty-four hours. Three trains are continually on the road during the day, and one arrives at the Back Bay every forty-five minutes. The excavators for loading the cars work by steam, and perform the work with rapidity and ease. There are two of them, both of which are propelled by engines of twenty-five horsepower.
The gearing of the engines is so arranged, however, as to greatly augment their power. When an empty train arrives at the pit, it is divided, and one half is fed by one excavator, and the other half by the other. A locomotive is attached to each half, and the cars are drawn past the excavators, to be filled. Two shovels-full fill a car, the operation being very much like that of a dredging machine. As the shovel is elevated from the pit, it is turned toward the car, and when directly over it the bottom is opened, and thus the gravel is deposited. The time occupied in loading an entire train of thirty-five cars is about ten minutes. The excavators do the work of two hundred men. The process of loading the cars, though very simple, is curious and interesting. During the year the contractors have been at work, there have been taken out of the hills of Needham about three hundred thousand yards of gravel. Some of the sand-hills which have been made by the machines in excavating, is about twelve acres in extent. The farm from which the sand and gravel are taken belongs to the Charles River Railroad Company. When the contractors commenced operations there was a mortgage on the land. They, the contractors, agreed, on their part, to lift the mortgage, and the Railroad Company agreed without further compensation to give the sand. It is believed that the excavation and filling in are going on at a more rapid rate than has ever been known in history of any similar contract in the country. The contractors make, in the Back Bay, on an average, about twenty-five hundred cubic yards, or forty-five hundred superficial feet per day. This is equal to nearly two house lots. About fourteen acres of land have been made already, At the rate the work is progressing, the hundred acres belonging to the State will be completed in about four years more time.”
In 1859, Munson & and Goss had also signed a contract with the Boston Water Power Company for filling in their lands adjacent to those of the Commonwealth, and it is recorded that the task of filling all of the Back Bay area took more than ten years. It is said that over 200 men were employed in Needham and more than 100 acres of land were leveled. The contractors leased a large building on the river for a machine shop, engine house and other purposes while the river was dammed for water power.
It must be noted that even after his death Otis Pettee “turned a dollar” as his heirs traded off a mortgage secured on land previously purchased by his railroad in Needham. Phineas E. Gay was another contractor who, in 1872, excavated sand and gravel at Upper Falls (on the south side of the present Needham Street), and for two or three years was engaged in the same business of removing it to fill other marshes in Back Bay.
As indicated previously , the Charles River Branch Railroad and the Charles River Railroad had been united by act of 1851 as the Charles River Railroad. In 1886 this road was authorized to build to the Rhode Island line and thence unite with a Rhode Island corporation, the New York & Boston Railroad. The live was extended to Woonsocket and was graded for about five miles on toward Pascoag.
It was planned that the New York & Boston, now chartered under three states, would form a fast through line to New York City as well as connections to the west of Willimantic, Connecticut. It was also to have terminals on both sides of the city of Boston. The line was to extend “from Newton Upper Falls to Cambridge and via the Grand Junction (Railroad) to connections with the northern roads and to the sea at East Boston.” The New York & Boston, however never did use the Grand Junction as a passenger route, and after the railroad became amalgamated into the Boston, Hartford and Erie system in 1865, its line became a secondary one. Its tracks between Brookline and Newton Highlands were sold in 1882 to the Boston & Albany for their Highlands branch.
In 1866 the Boston & Worcester (before becoming the Boston & Albany) had taken over all the property of the Grand Junction Railroad from Cottage Farm Bridge to East Boston along with the docks and warehouse at that point, and thus closed the door to its acquisition by any competitors. The Boston & Albany paid $415,000 for the approximately five miles of track from Brookline to Newton Highlands.
In 1884 the Boston & Albany built a two-track Circuit Railroad to connect with its main line at Riverside. Much of this was done through promotion of James F.C. Hyde, the first mayor of Newton (1874). Mr. Hyde had invested in quite a bit of real estate along this new right-of-way to Riverside, and the introduction of rail service to the area greatly enhanced the sale of his land. Indeed, the result of this new connection with the Circuit Railroad, combined with its improved train service, not only brought the south side of the city into closer contact with the villages on the main line, but also created a real estate boom. Sections soon to be called Eliot and Waban were born, taking over land formerly identified with Newton Upper Falls.
The Boston & Albany, the New York & New England (soon to be called the New York, New Haven & Hartford) continued to operate trains over the B & A lines to Boston. As a result of this rail connection at the Highlands, the rail service through Upper Falls was very prosperous . The freight tonnage was heavy and the passenger traffic brisk, not only to Boston and return (especially of Saturdays) but between the villages as well. This was mainly because of commuters to the factories at Upper Falls and the knitting mills in Needham. The fare between stations was 5¢ for the round trip, Newton Highlands to Boston 25¢, and $16 for a three month 180 ride ticket from Upper Falls to Boston.
A few years later, however, the trains from Upper Falls using the old Cook Street connection with the Boston & Albany were discontinued. Since rail service between Needham and Boston through West Roxbury and other points had been established, the local service was reversed and began running through Needham. Passengers continued, however, to make connections with the B & A at Newton Highlands.
Nevertheless, to answer the argument that many of us remember, the more recent running of the New York, New Haven & Hartford trains over the B & A lines to Boston, we submit this news article from the Town Crier of August 4, 1911:
TO RUN ON B & A TRACKS
Four important new features in railroad operation have been determined upon in consequence of the closed relations lately established between the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the Boston & Albany, under trackage rights lately obtained by the New Haven on the Boston & Albany. Two new loop lines or passenger-train circuits in and out of Boston, are shortly to be operated. Furthermore, improved train service for the New Haven have already gone into effect over two important sections of the Boston & Albany.
The trackage rights thus secured by the New Haven are authorized by the general railroad laws of Massachusetts. They give the New Haven the same right to run its trains over the respective sections of the Boston & Albany tracks that it has on its own lines.
For the new “Needham circuit” of the New Haven, trackage rights over that portion of the Albany’s Newton circuit between Newton Highlands and Boston will be utilized. The trains of what formerly was the Woonsocket division of the New Haven continued to run over this part of the Newton circuit after its sale to the Boston & Albany until the New Haven’s own line between the Dedham Branch and Needham was built to bring them into Boston all the way over New Haven rails. The new relations with the Albany make practicable the organization of the Needham circuit with a frequent and rapid train service which will do much for the development of one of the most attractive suburban regions. On the railroad map of Greater Boston the two circuits, the Newton and Needham, will form a sort; of irregular figure 8, the stretch between Newton Highlands and Boston being common to both circuits.
Town Crier, August 4, 1911
While this type of service continued for some years, the connection with the Boston & Albany was eventually discontinued. When service was reversed and the NY, NH & Hartford ran its trains through Needham to Boston, Newton Upper Falls remained a passenger station. However, passenger service was discontinued in 1927 and the building used only as a freight station. The nearest station became Needham Heights and was, as it is at present, the first passenger station on the line (now operated by Amtrak) . The freight service in Upper Falls, however, continued to prosper, as new industries were located in the area. In 1953 a spur track was extended across Needham Street and over the Charles River to service the many new factories and warehouses on the Needham side of the river.
In later years a number of consolidations affecting the local railroad resulted in these name changes:
Due to the advent of the automobile, passenger service on the Circuit Railroad began to shrink and on May 31, 1958 the last trains ran over the Highland Branch from Boston to Riverside. By legislative action the property was transferred to the Metropolitan Transit Authority (later the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority) which spent eleven million dollars converting it to a high speed trolley service which commenced July 4, 1959. Protests from both Newton and Brookline were to no avail, and the Riverside to Lechmere service is now an integral part of the MBTA system with two and three car service every seven to ten minutes. With good, low-cost parking available patrons of the Riverside Branch from Newton and adjacent communities enjoy one of the better lines of the MBTA system.
Occasionally, there were train wrecks in the area and we include a news item from the Boston Globe of August 30, 1902 concerning one that happened in Upper Falls:
“About 4:05, as a Woonsocket-bound accommodation, which had left Boston at 3:32, was approaching the Upper Falls station, it turned from the rails of the main line and entered upon a 400-foot spur track, leading to the sheds of the Garden City Coal Company. What caused the train to take this latter course is as yet unexplained. The most rigid investigation fails to show that the switch was open; that the signals were not working, or that there had been any tampering with the working gear of either. At the end of the coal company’s spur was a partially filled car, and, from this, Michael Devlin, aged about 40, was shoveling coal into bins along the track.
The speed of the on-coming train could not be checked to prevent a collision. Before Devlin realized the danger of his position the crash had come. At the end of the spur is a huge bumper, and this was swept away. As the coal car struck the open side of the shed, a great amount of lumber was torn off, and the wreckage descended a 20-foot embankment and was piled up on a small footbridge that failed to bear the weight.
Engineer Wm. H. Cook was unable to bring the engine to a stop until it occupied a perpendicular position at the top of the debris. Cook was not injured. Fireman Lawrence Koldenburg of Oak St., Needham jumped when he saw a collision was inevitable, and suffered a broken leg. He was removed to his home.
Beneath the wreck of the car Devlin was found. He had been pinioned between large timbers and terribly crushed. At the hospital this evening it was feared he could not live. The passengers, about 30 in all, were thrown from their seats, but so far as could be learned no one was injured. At the point where the accident occurred a small brook runs along the embankment. Crossing this was a footbridge for the employees of Masten & Wells, who rushed to the aid of the train crew.
Had it not been for the presence of the coal car and the bumper, it is more than probable the entire train would have been hurled into the ditch.”
“It was a tip-cart horse belonging to the highway department, which for slowness of gait never had an equal in this or any other fire department. The first alarm the company responded to was from Box 52, at 4:05 P.M. March 25th. Every schoolboy, and every one else who went faster than a walk, passed the company enroute to the fire. By persistent persuasion, the noble animal succeeded in reaching the spot where the fire had been, but not until it was extinguished.”
Very few industrialists appeared in Newton, particularly after the nineteenth century, outside the industrial villages of Upper Falls, Lower Falls, and North Village (Nonantum). However, we did discover one who certainly could be included in that category who lived in Newton Corner. A notice of his death in the TOWN CRIER of September 15, 1911 contained a record of his achievements in the industrial field:
“John Souther, the oldest iron manufacturer in the United States died Tuesday evening at his home, 43 Fairmont Ave., Newton, aged 95 years. A daughter and son survive him. Mr. Souther was born in Boston, March 1, 1816 and was a pupil of the old Hawes School. When 17 years of age he entered an iron foundry and made the pattern for the fence around Boston Common. He invented the steam shovel and the steam dredger. He founded the Globe locomotive works, retiring from the company in 1881. The machinery built by him has been used on railroads in every state of the union as well as in many foreign countries. During the war of the rebellion the government had the exclusive use of Mr. Souther’s works and the machinery for many war vessels was built by him. When 90 years old. Mr. Souther invented an ice-making machine. He was also the father of the automatic sprinkler.”
TOWN CRIER of September 15, 1911
Some of the achievements charged to Mr. Souther above might be questioned. The statement that he is “the oldest iron manufacturer the U.S.” would require a great deal of research to prove, and it does appear that his invention of the steam shovel is not quite true.
Walter Muir Whitehill, the noted historian, in writing about the filling of Back Bay with gravel says that two techniques were used – the railroad and the steam shovel:
“John Souther (1816-1911), who built engines at the Globe Locomotive Works in South Boston, was just putting a steam shovel, invented by William Smith Otis of Philadelphia, into active production.”
Nevertheless, the other achievements of Mr. Souther certainly qualify him to be included here.
Street Railways
The first record of street railways in Newton concerns the Waltham & Newton Horse Railway which was chartered on July 13, 1866 Previous to this, the only local record of such a company was when the nearby Watertown Horse Railway was incorporated on February 26, 1859.
The Watertown & Newton Horse Railway went into service on August 31, 1868. Several years later, on June 29, 1886, the Newton Street Railway was chartered and an elaborate system of horse-drawn cars was planned that; would link many of the villages of the city together. However, this did not materialize as three years later they had purchased the Waltham & Newton Railway Company and the following year were authorized to use the trolley system. The first electric car was tested in Waltham on July 23, 1890 and on September 21 of that year full electric service from Waltham to West Newton was inaugurated. People were eager to experience the novelty of riding on an electric car and on the first Sunday the road carried 3,353 passengers, on Monday 2,293 and on Tuesday 2,650. On May 13, 1893 service from Waltham to Watertown went into operation; to Newton Corner via Bemis, May 15, 1897; to Park Street subway, via Watertown Square-North Beacon Street, February 28, 1903 and into Crosstown and Waverley service in 1903.
Meanwhile, other companies were forming. The Natick Electric Street Railway was chartered on August 10, 1891 with the name changing to South Middlesex Street Railroad in 1894. Later this was to be succeeded by the Middlesex & Boston Street Railway which was incorporated July 24, 1907. A short time after this they were to absorb the following companies:
The Middlesex & Boston Street Railway also operated the Newtonville & Watertown Street Railway jointly with the Boston Elevated Railway -now the MBTA (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority).
The Newton & Boston Street Railway mentioned above was the one more closely associated with Newton Upper Falls. It had been organized in 1891 with permission to establish other lines in the city if desired. In 1892 an extension of its lines was granted on Walnut and Beacon Streets and although delayed by sewer construction it was carried to Newton Highlands and later, in the same year, to the corner of High and Summer Streets in Newton Upper Falls. A news item of May 5, 1893 records the following:
“The frame for the new waiting room of the electric railroad on High Street was raised this week. Holmes Bros. have the contract for the building.”
Formerly a one-story structure, a second floor has been added in recent times and it is now a dwelling at 86 High Street. The following is an extract from a news item appearing August 26, 1892 under the headline “THE CONNECTING LINK,” with the subheading, “Street Railway Connection between Upper Falls and Newtonville on Monday”:
“It is expected that Newton’s new electric street railway will be opened for the public travel next Monday. The road, when completed, will pass through Newton Centre, Newton Highlands and Newton Upper Falls…. Railroad men say that the new road is one of the best constructed and best equipped in the country outside the great cities…. The new railroad is known as the Newton & Boston Street Railway Company”
The city was alert in accepting only the best product in street car transportation by examining all types available, as we find recorded in Otis Pettee, Jr.’s. diary of June 17, 1890:
“Went to Beverly with city officials to see the practical workings of electric car by storage battery & was much pleased by its success as a motor.”
Otis Pettee, Jr.’s. diary of June 17, 1890
Another entry informs us that the first car arrived in Upper Falls at 6:45 PM, August 27, 1892 and that regular service to the village commenced August 31. One might suggest justifiably that this service to Upper Falls was hurried a bit by the developers of the beautiful Echo Bridge Park which was nearing completion on both sides of the river in Hemlock Gorge surrounding Echo Bridge.
Arriving in the late summer of 1892, the railway was ready for the park’s opening in the spring of 1893. It was ready, also, to carry a record number of 5,000 persons each pleasant Sunday to the beautiful grounds, the amusements and above all, the glorious seven-arched Echo Bridge which was attractive by day but enchanting when floodlit at night. Also, with the splendid concerts by large military bands and the myriad of colorful canoes dotting the river, it is easy to see why three thousands of Newton residents as well as visitors from surrounding towns would be attracted here. (See also chapter on “STREETS, BRIDGES AND PARKS”).
In 1906 the streetcar line was extended to Needham Square and beyond to Needham Junction. In anticipation of this extension, the City of Newton had previously widened Cook’s Bridge (Elliot Street Bridge) for its proposed use by the Newton & Boston Street Railway which paid part of the $1,250 cost. The completion of this final link established direct service between Needham and Watertown, making connections with the Boston Elevated (MBTA) at that point and at Needham, an extension of the Boston Elevated ran at that time from Spring Street in West Roxbury to Needham. The Newton & Boston Street Railway became the Middlesex & Boston Street Railway in 1909 and for many years supplied continuous service to all sections of Newton and surrounding communities. In 1926 trolley car service was discontinued and was replaced by bus service. The Commonwealth Avenue and the Framingham lines were the last to be operated by street cars (1930-31). Dwindling patronage brought the Middlesex & Boston, the principal carrier, under a subsidy granted by the state, and it is at this writing (1998) being operated exclusively by the MBTA.
To complete the record of local street railways, there came into operation in 1893 the Wellesley & Boston Street Railway and in 1896, the Commonwealth Avenue Street Railway. However, these lines were consolidated with the Newton Street .Railway in 1904 and later (1909) taken over by the Middlesex & Boston. In 1901 there was an attempt to consolidate some of these many trolley lines and the Boston Suburban Electric Company was formed for that purpose. Five companies were involved, and in 1912 there were 141 miles of electric lines operating from Lowell on the north to Needham on the south. This company owned Norumbega Park and Lexington Park, and before the day of the automobile a ride in the summer on an open trolley car in the evening or on a weekend to these parks and picnic groves was a pleasant and relaxing:: experience.
These cars had large covered platforms with traverse seats that could be reversed when running in. the opposite direction. Double running boards along the sides were provided for the conductor to walk upon in order to collect fares and to assist passengers boarding and alighting. Although open on the sides, cars were equipped with colorful drop curtains for rainy weather. To ride up front in the open vestibule with the motorman was every boy’s dream (and we suspect that of the older folks as well).
Another very important street railway that bisected the city and village from east to west was the Boston & Worcester Street Railway. Operating on Boylston Street, it was an important means of transportation for Upper Falls residents since it ran through the heart of the village. It was granted a franchise in 1901 to operate on this street on condition that it construct a boulevard 90 feet wide, pay $15,000 damages and provide and maintain street lights. A few years later, in 1903, an electric express service was inaugurated and in 1912 a trolley freight service from Worcester to Boston was established. This was operated until 1928 when it was discontinued.
This company introduced a new type of large multiple-motored car that could travel on the reservations through the woods of Norfolk and Worcester counties at a mile-a-minute speed. This service not only opened these regions for the inhabitants but brought patrons to the amusement centers and lakeside resorts.
On June 10, 1932 the last, car was operated from Park Square to Framingham and the service was replaced by buses over the entire system. This was made necessary by the construction of the state highway (Route 9).
The Bicycle
Today’s model of this vehicle might very well represent the world’s first mode of transportation – after the invention of the wheel, that is. Wasn’t there among the drawings Archimedes left behind one that very closely resembled our two-wheeled bicycle? The concept of this idea lay dormant in the minds of inventors for nearly two centuries until two Frenchmen, one in 1645 and another in 1779, along with a German in the year 1816 came up with inventions which unfortunately never met with a great deal of acceptance by the public. It was Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a blacksmith in Scotland, who finally devised the first workable bicycle. MacMillan’s bike had a steerable front wheel about 30 inches high and a pedal driven rear wheel about 10 inches taller, both rimmed with iron.
In l871 England was producing a similar “practical” model, that is if one could call the high-wheeled type a practical machine. With a sense of humor typical of the British they called their new plaything a “pennyfarthing”, and if one knows that a penny was a large, rather oversize coin whereas the farthing (worth one-quarter its value in comparison was a more diminutive coin, one can guess that the outline of the two placed side by side would resemble their highwheeled contraption
However, in 1866 a French mechanic named Pierre Lallement had left France for the United States, and with the help of’ James Carroll of Ansonia, Connecticut secured the first US patent for a bicycle that same year. The metal wheels gained the nickname “boneshaker” for the bicycle, but that was remedied in 1888 when John Dunlop developed the air filled pneumatic tire. The bicycle received a further transformation not long after its arrival in America. When a great many of its riders grew tired (or fearful) as they had to mount the vehicle from practically a second story window, the two wheels were reduced in size and made more uniform earning the more reasonable sobriquet by being called the “safety” type.
Henry K. Rowe in his TERCENTENARY HISTORY OF NEWTON, 1630-1930, The Murray Printing company, Cambridge, Mass. (published by City of Newton – 1930) contributes the following:
“The invention of the bicycle created a furor over cycling. It was the time of the high wheel, and clubs were formed and races held with keenest relish. The rashness of the rider who “scorched” on the uncertain seat of the big-wheeled steed resembled that of the aviator who disregards the danger of a nose dive, for a small stone in the path might send the rider headlong, but he did not have so far to fall. Newton men vied with one another on the track, and as a group with cyclists of other towns. They joined in the annual ride around the Hub. They ran out of town to dine in the country with zeal equal to the automobile tourist who frequents a roadhouse. In 1882 the Newton Bicycle Club was organized, chiefly through the efforts of Charles L. Clark of the Boston Club, who lived in Newton…The meetings of the Club could not fail to be enjoyed as there was always a collation, and the Club continued its existence long after most of the other bicycle clubs had collapsed.
The Nonantum Cycling Club was equally active in the enjoyment of associated travel. Riding tandem was a much enjoyed as the side wheel car and the motorcycle. A tandem race was held in Newtonville in 1886. Those who were less venturesome and were not yet provided with safety bicycles made use of the tricycle. It was a more lumbering vehicle and required more foot power, but the rider could divert his gaze from the path to enjoy the scenery as he traveled over a country road. On the macadamized streets of the city he was as free as a boy with a velocipede, for neither automobiles nor trolley cars were in the way and there was no restriction to his speed. He might even race with another tricycle. Before the decade was half over annual tricycle races were being run off in the city.”
TERCENTENARY HISTORY OF NEWTON, Henry K. Rowe
The 1890s were the peak period for bicycle activity in America. There was great excitement when a bicycle trip around the world was accomplished by a woman, Annie Londonderry, who began the trip on June 26, 1895 and completed it on September 24, 1895. (See other references to bicycles and their manufacture in the chapter entitled INDUSTRY.)
Automobiles
Today the word “transportation” is synonymous with that of “automobile” which next to eating and breathing became the most essential tool in this business of living in these modern times. Or is this entirely true? An advertisement appearing in 1908 of an earlier manufacturer of cars, The Winton Motor Carriage Co. of Cleveland, Ohio clearly illustrates that man’s love for his motor car prevailed even then. The company borrowed this item from the Saturday Evening Post, entitled A Six Cylinder Courtship:
“I tell you, it makes a fellow’s blood tingle to look at a car like mine, and feel that it belongs to him; a car that will start on the direct drive, a car that will race a railroad train or jog contentedly behind a milk cart, a car that can make a steep hill ashamed of itself; a wild dashing car that eats up the miles; a faithful sweet-running car that purrs like a pussy-cat! To own such a car is to own a kingdom; the driver’s seat is a throne, the steering wheel a sceptre, miles are your minions and distance your slave.”
Following a period of experimentation in Europe the automobile came to America in the late nineteenth century. The construction of the first gasoline fueled automobile in America occurred in 1891 by the Stevens-Duryea Company of Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, Mr. J.F. Duryea was the designer. However, dozens of cars, their names mostly forgotten, closely followed the above into the market place. Three of the more modern makes might be recalled, Ford, Studebaker and Dodge. Fords began to outnumber other makes on our highways when Henry Ford ‘began to make “tin Lizzies” on an assembly line basis in the 1920s. There were so many that when they were eventually abandoned, they produced enough “carcasses” that today’s world would consider them to be an environmental problem . However, during this time, youngsters could scour nearby dumps and retrieve enough miscellaneous parts and bodies to enable themselves to create a skeletonized facsimile of the original car that would run.
The “tin Lizzie” was a tough little machine, and if you abused it; it would fight back. The backlash of its crank could break your arm if you failed to keep your thumb under the handle when you were trying to coax its spunky little engine to life. It has often been said that if the self-starter had not been invented there would have been considerably fewer women drivers. From an advertisement appearing in 1912 we learn that a FORD MODEL T TORPEDO RUNABOUT in 1912 cost $590 which included Top, Windshield, Speedometer, Gas Lamps, Generator, 3 Oil Lamps, Tubular Horn, Kit of Tools.
The 5 passenger Touring Car sold for $690. Along with the early gasoline driven cars there were a sprinkling of those vehicles propelled by electricity which was supplied by storage batteries. Most of these looking like fancy, horse- drawn carriages, were steered by a tiller-like handle and were mostly favored by the older generation.
Two makes of gasoline driven cars were manufactured locally. The Metz and Waltham Motor cars (both rear wheel chain driven) were made as early as 1908 in Waltham. Cars that ran by steam power were perhaps more common in Newton as the Stanley Steamer was manufactured here in the shop of the Stanley Dry Plate Company (later sold to Eastman Kodak). The early Steamers looked fragile but they were rugged and they were fast. It is said that no one had ever driven a Stanley to its limits. (In June 1906 its racing car was the fastest car in the world establishing a world record of 127.66 miles per hour at Ormond, Florida. Its fragile looking body, looking much like an inverted canoe with four wire wheels (see picture), was made by J.R. Robertson of Auburndale, a canoe manufacturer.)
In 1899 the steep grade up Mt. Washington was conquered by a pint sized Stanley Steamer, and another had made the ascent three years before a gasoline driven car had accomplished the feat. The company was in operation under the Stanley Brothers from 1897 until 1917 when it vas reorganized. It went into bankruptcy six years later. (See Chapter REMEMBRANCE – A PRESENT FROM THE PAST)
A personal note might be added here. My father, when a resident of Newton Corner, drove Stanley Steamer cars, possibly for the Stanley brothers, as I understand he knew both men. My mother on occasion went riding with him and she recalled on the earlier models it was wise to take a shovel along. For some reason once in a while a small fire would occur in connection with the making of steam which made it necessary to stop and throw a scoop of roadside sand on the flames to extinguish them. There was no danger involved and I never heard of anything more serious than this occurring in the operation of the vehicle – nothing to compare with Mr. John Gould’s experience with his Stanley in front of the Methodist church in Upper Falls one Sunday morning (See GOULD FAMILY biography).
The White Company of Cleveland, Ohio was also a manufacturer of “steam cars” commencing in the year 1901 and continuing, the writer believes, into the 1920s and it is recalled that they were a fine looking car with about the same appearance as a gasoline driven car of that period.
Flying Machines
Air transportation had a spectacular and dramatic – yes, even controversial, beginning. For example, was Orville and Wilbur Wright’s plane that flew a few feet above the sands at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1903 the first flight of an aeroplane? Or does the graceful little monoplane that was flown by Gustave Alvin Whitehead from Turis Hill, Fairfield, Connecticut on August 14, 1901 deserve that honor? The Bridgeport Sunday Herald of August 18, 1901 reported the craft flew that day at a maximum height of about fifty feet for about a half mile! Subsequent flights immediately afterwards were performed along the shore front at Fairfield Beach.
Yes, air transportation did have such a spectacular, dramatic and controversial beginning that it would be difficult to condense its story enough to be included in this type of journal. Its role in peace; the first flights, initially over land and then, more daring, over the sea. In war; from the almost adventuresome and exhilarating “dog- fights” of World War I to the great armadas of air craft in World War II destroying whole cities, first by conventional explosives and later by the horrifying reality of a single atom bomb. From deadly pilot-less “buzz” bombs and V-2 rockets to winged missiles of death which later became rockets that placed men on the moon. Lighter than air vehicles such as the great peace time dirigibles, hundreds of feet long, similar to the three that rendezvoused over Newton in the 1920s bearing names such as the “Los Angeles”, “Akron” and “Shenandoah” (all of which were lost later by accident) to the observation balloons and aircraft traps over cities in World War I and II.
It was an adventuresome time for aviation. In 1919, a United States Navy aviation crew, one of three traveling in Curtiss flying boats, achieved the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. The plane, designated the NC4 and commanded by Lieutenant Commander A.C. Read, accomplished its epic flight, going by way of the Azores and Lisbon. Reaching Plymouth, England on May 31, 1919, the NC4 had covered 3,925 miles (6,310 kilometers) and required 57 hours of actual flying time. Eight years later, on May 20, 1927, Colonel Charles Lindbergh in his fragile “Spirit of St. Louis” startled the world by flying solo from Long Island, New York to Paris, France.
The first air mail flights and the passenger carrying planes from transcontinental to transoceanic remind us that the first official air mail pilot in the U.S. was from Newton! In September, 1911 the big event at the Harvard-Boston Aviation Meet at Squantum Airfield was a $10,000 inter-city flight competition sponsored by the Boston Globe, The flight rules of the race required the four contestants to fly a circuitous route over the cities of Nashua, Worcester, Providence and back to Squantum. One of the competitors was Earl(e) Ovington of Newton who was piloting a 100 horsepower Bleriot monoplane which he had learned to fly at the Bleriot Aviation School in Pau, France in 1906. He was easily the winner of the race, the only one of the four contestants to complete the 174 mile course.
Prior to his training as a pilot Ovington had worked as an engineering assistant to Thomas A. Edison in New Jersey. After his return from France his reputation as a skilled pilot began to spread throughout the northeastern United States and he began to win a number of prizes at air meets. He was the first pilot to fly over Boston.
At a large meet in Garden City, Long Island, New York an attempt was to be made to fly the first air mail in the United States following the lead of the British two weeks earlier. Postmaster General Frank Hitchcock had attempted in November 1910 to fly a plane on a ship-to-shore flight to demonstrate a method to expedite the delivery of mail , etc. from arriving and departing transoceanic vessels. However, bad weather thwarted one attempt and a broken propeller, another. Now at Garden City another attempt was to be made. Two prominent British flyers were approached to participate but declined politely when they learned that there was no remuneration. “However Earl L. Ovington volunteered to make the flight. Although he flew a Curtis-type pusher biplane at Chicago he preferred his tractor-type monoplane and came to Garden City with an American-made Bleriot Queen… named the Dragonfly and bearing a bold number 13 (see picture). Postmaster Hitchcock was disappointed with his choice as he expected his mail carrier’s plane to be a two-setae with one seat reserved for him…” The Bleriot was only capable of carrying one person…”Not wishing to surrender the distinction of being the first air mail carrier he reported ‘I immediately decided to postpone the flight until a two-setae plane could be procured.’” Eventually Hitchcock relented and he said, “I handed the pouch to Ovington…and permitted him to proceed on that first flight alone. For a time I felt rather deeply disappointed of thus failing in my ambition to become the first (air mail) carrier of record (in the United States). Afterward, when I became better acquainted with Earl Ovington and began to appreciate his fine qualities…I cease to begrudge him the honor he wrested from me.”
Ovington took off on September 23, 1911 with a load of 640 letters and 1,280 postcards in a mail bag tucked between his legs – the first airplane carry of United States mail authorized by postal authorities. Ovington flew to Mineola, about three miles away, where, as agreed, he dropped the bag in a prearranged spot to waiting postal officials. The drop landed on time and on target, but unfortunately the bag broke on impact with the ground, scattering the mail hither and yon. After a scramble, all the letters and cards were retrieved and sent on the way via regular postal channels, all of them bearing the cancellation ‘AEROPLANE STATION No.1 – GARDEN CITY ESTATES, N.Y.” For this feat Ovington was awarded the title “AIR MAIL PILOT No. 1”
The editor of our local TOWN CRIER must have been interested in the “Birdman” (as Ovington soon came to be known) as some of his other exploits often appeared in his paper – such as this one in the October 6, 1911 issue:
“Postmaster General Hitchcock has issued an order authorizing Earl L. Ovington of Newton Highlands, to act as aerial mail carrier, and has directed the postmaster of New York to dispatch letters by the aeroplane route, from New York to Chicago and San Francisco. The route which is officially “Route 607001″ is the longest messenger route ever established. Ovington will carry a specially constructed mail pouch with a number of letters in it, when he endeavors to cross the continent…”
Unfortunately, the engine of Ovington’s new cross-country plane “proved inadequate for its task” and the route was not attempted. Ovington, however inaugurated an era that would continue until 1916, a period when letters were flown experimentally and without expense to the Post Office Department.
In the March 29, 1912 issue of the TOWN CRIER there is an account concerning an illustrated lecture Mr. Ovington gave at a local church of some of his “thrilling experiences”:
“Mr. Ovington gave a clear account of his adventures as an aviator, covering a period of four years. His descriptions of the meets at Squantum and Waltham were especially enjoyed; his audience being familiar with the birdmen and their doings in those events. The views shown on the screen to illustrate the talk were made from snapshots taken by various newspapermen throughout the country and show Mr. Ovington in full flight. They are said to be unequalled. The speaker told of the danger that was attached to flying. He told of his many narrow escapes from death; especially at the Chicago meet, where he fell into Lake Michigan, and at Bridgeport, Conn., where he fell a distance of 600 feet before the monoplane righted itself.
‘At Bridgeport’ said the aeronaut, ‘was the only time that I really thought I was dropping to my death. I vas piloting a Bleriot monoplane and was 2000 feet in the air. In some manner or other my machine tipped over, at least 90 degrees , and started to fall. Fortunately I was able to steer the plane around to its correct position before it had fallen half the distance to the ground.’
The speaker also told of reminiscences and incidents at the Columbus, Ohio meet, at Chicago and Nassau. He told in detail his experiences in the Trio-State race last September which event Mr. Ovington won, receiving the Boston Globe prize of $10,000…
At present he is at work on a hydroplane of his own invention. The machine when completed is expected to fly through the air and also through water. The hydroplanes that are used today are not able to alight on land but the one being constructed by Mr. Ovington will descend, without fear of damage, both to dry land or into the sea. In other words it will be a flying machine and motor boat in one.”
TOWN CRIER, March 29, 1912
Whatever happened to Ovington’s hydroplane or the balance of his birdman career we do not know. We do know that at the same time he was dabbling in aeronautics he was venturing into another field, strangely enough described in a little book of reminiscences published in 1947 by the former editor of the TOWN CRIER, John Temporally of Newton Upper Falls.
About 1910 the rather unusual stucco structure on the corner of Commonwealth Avenue and Irving Street was built by Earl Ovington. He used it as his Vitality laboratory from which he mailed cultures for souring milk to clients. Promotion of sour-milk (semi-buttermilk) as a beverage was founded upon the belief that Bulgarians gained health and a ripe old age because of their imbibing quantities of it.
Mr. Ovington, who learned to fly at the Bleriot School in France in 1906, sold the Vitality laboratory to J.W. Crewel; he in turn sold to Dr. Turner, who moved the business to Maine.”
Mr. Ovington eventually retired to Santa Barbara, California. He flew the mail only once again after 1911, before his death in 1936. He and Frank Hitchcock joined in a 20th anniversary round-trip flight between Los Angeles and Tucson, Arizona with the letters they carried bearing the signatures of both men.
The first air mail flights between Boston and New York were inaugurated in 1926, operating under “Contract CAM (Contract Air Mail) 1 Boston-New York via Hartford awarded to Colonial Air-Transport, Inc., Naugatuck, Connecticut.” The writer remembers these flights, recalling that two pilots lost their lives by accidents occurring during these flights. As children (and grown-ups too) we would signal the pilots in those open cockpit planes at dusk with flashlights and they would often answer with a similar signal.
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https://www.loc.gov/collections/railroad-maps-1828-to-1900/articles-and-essays/history-of-railroads-and-maps/the-beginnings-of-american-railroads-and-mapping/
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The Beginnings of American Railroads and Mapping
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Railways were introduced in England in the seventeenth century as a way to reduce friction in moving heavily loaded wheeled vehicles. The first North American "gravity road," as it was called, was erected in 1764 for military purposes at the Niagara portage in Lewiston, New York. The builder was Capt. John Montressor, a British engineer known to students of historical cartography as a mapmaker.
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The Library of Congress
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Railways were introduced in England in the seventeenth century as a way to reduce friction in moving heavily loaded wheeled vehicles. The first North American "gravity road," as it was called, was erected in 1764 for military purposes at the Niagara portage in Lewiston, New York. The builder was Capt. John Montressor, a British engineer known to students of historical cartography as a mapmaker.
Surveying and mapping activities flourished in the United States as people began moving inland over the inadequately mapped continent. The settlement of the frontier, the development of agriculture, and the exploitation of natural resources generated a demand for new ways to move people and goods from one place to another. Privately owned toll or turnpike roads were followed first by steamships on the navigable rivers and by the construction of canals and then in the 1830s by the introduction of railroads for steam-powered trains.
The earliest survey map in the United States that shows a commercial "tramroad" was drawn in Pennsylvania in October 1809 by John Thomson and was entitled "Draft Exhibiting . . . the Railroad as Contemplated by Thomas Leiper Esq. From His Stone Saw-Mill and Quarries on Crum Creek to His Landing on Ridley Creek." Thomas Leiper was a wealthy Philadelphia tobacconist and friend of Thomas Jefferson, who owned stone quarries near Chester. Using his survey map, Thomson helped Reading Howell, the project engineer and a well-known mapmaker, construct the first practical wooden tracks for a tramroad. Thomson was a notable land surveyor who earlier had worked with the Holland Land Company. He was the father of the famous civil engineer and longtime president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, John Edgar Thomson, who was himself a mapmaker. In 1873 the younger Thomson donated his father's 1809 map to the Delaware County Institute of Science to substantiate the claim that the map and Leiper's railroad were the first such work in North America.
In 1826 a commercial tramroad was surveyed and constructed at Quincy, Massachusetts, by Gridley Bryant, with the machinery for it developed by Solomon Willard. It used horsepower to haul granite needed for building the Bunker Hill Monument from the quarries at Quincy, four miles to the wharf on the Neponset River.
These early uses of railways gave little hint that a revolution in methods of transportation was underway. James Watt's improvements in the steam engine were adapted by John Fitch in 1787 to propel a ship on the Delaware River, and by James Rumsey in the same year on the Potomac River. Fitch, an American inventor and surveyor, had published his "Map of the Northwest" two years earlier to finance the building of a commercial steamboat. With Robert Fulton's Clermont and a boat built by John Stevens, the use of steam power for vessels became firmly established. Railroads and steam propulsion developed separately, and it was not until the one system adopted the technology of the other that railroads began to flourish.
John Stevens is considered to be the father of American railroads. In 1826 Stevens demonstrated the feasibility of steam locomotion on a circular experimental track constructed on his estate in Hoboken, New Jersey, three years before George Stephenson perfected a practical steam locomotive in England. The first railroad charter in North America was granted to Stevens in 1815. Grants to others followed, and work soon began on the first operational railroads.
Surveying, mapping, and construction started on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1830, and fourteen miles of track were opened before the year ended. This roadbed was extended in 1831 to Frederick, Maryland, and, in 1832, to Point of Rocks. Until 1831, when a locomotive of American manufacture was placed in service, the B & O relied upon horsepower.
Soon joining the B & O as operating lines were the Mohawk and Hudson, opened in September 1830, the Saratoga, opened in July 1832, and the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company, whose 136 miles of track, completed to Hamburg, constituted, in 1833, the longest steam railroad in the world. The Columbia Railroad of Pennsylvania, completed in 1834, and the Boston and Providence, completed in June 1835, were other early lines. Surveys for, and construction of, tracks for these and other pioneer railroads not only created demands for special mapping but also induced mapmakers to show the progress of surveys and completed lines on general maps and on maps in "travelers guides".
Planning and construction of railroads in the United States progressed rapidly and haphazardly, without direction or supervision from the states that granted charters to construct them. Before 1840 most surveys were made for short passenger lines which proved to be financially unprofitable. Because steam-powered railroads had stiff competition from canal companies, many partially completed lines were abandoned. It was not until the Boston and Lowell Railroad diverted traffic from the Middlesex Canal that the success of the new mode of transportation was assured. The industrial and commercial depression and the panic of 1837 slowed railroad construction. Interest was revived, however, with completion of the Western Railroad of Massachusetts in 1843. This line conclusively demonstrated the feasibility of transporting agricultural products and other commodities by rail for long distances at low cost.
Early railroad surveys and construction were financed by private investors. Before the 1850 land grant to the Illinois Central Railroad, indirect federal subsidies were provided by the federal government in the form of route surveys made by army engineers. In the 1824 General Survey Bill to establish works of internal improvements, railroads were not specifically mentioned. Part of the appropriation under this act for the succeeding year, however, was used for "Examinations and surveys to ascertain the practicability of uniting the head-waters of the Kanawha with the James river and the Roanoke river, by Canals or Rail-Roads."
In his Congressional History of Railways, Louis H. Haney credits these surveys as being the first to receive federal aid. He /collections/railroad-maps-1828-to-1900/articles-and-essays/history-of-railroads-and-maps/notes/ that such grants to states and corporations for railway surveys became routine before the act was repealed in 1838.
The earliest printed map in the collections of the Library of Congress based on government surveys conducted for a state-owned railroad is "Map of the Country Embracing the Various Routes Surveyed for the Western & Atlantic Rail Road of Georgia, 1837". The surveys were made under the direction of Lt. Col. Stephen H. Long, chief engineer, who ten years earlier had surveyed the routes for the Baltimore and Ohio . Work on the 138-mile Georgia route from Atlanta to Chattanooga started in 1841, and by 1850 the line was open to traffic. Its strategic location made it a key supply route for the Confederacy. It was on this line that the famous "Andrews Raid" of April 1862 occurred when Union soldiers disguised as railroad employees captured the locomotive known as the General.
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Central Massachusetts Railroad
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The Town & the City: Lowell before and after The Civil War
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Originally created to be a digital archive for Lowell documents from 1826 to 1861, this website has grown to cover many periods and events in Lowell's history.
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en
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//d2jv02qf7xgjwx.cloudfront.net/apps/common/favicon/apple-touch-icon.png
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https://libguides.uml.edu/early_lowell/Lowell_trains_1850
|
Map from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
Detail from Diagram of rail roads diverging from Boston: showing the depots and distances 1846
Text below is from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
THE BOSTON AND LOWELL
AND
NASHUA AND LOWELL RAILROADS.
The Boston and Lowell Railroad, 26 miles in length, was opened for passengers in June, 1835. It was one of the earliest, as it has been one of the most successful, enterprises of the kind in this country. The road is thoroughly built, with a double track, and in its construction and management special regard has ever been had to the safety of its passengers. There are but few crossings at grade, and very few accidents have ever happened upon it. The road is well equipped for its extensive business.
Boston and Lowell Railroad station 1852 (BPL).
Leaving Boston, the road crosses Charles River, to ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
East Cambridge, a thriving place, containing 6 churches, a courthouse and jail, and other public buildings. Many branches of industry are carried on here, but the place is noted especially for its manufactures of glass. Leaving this point, the road very soon crosses an arm of Charles River, then the Fitchburg Railroad, and immediately after it passes, at
McLean Asylum
an elevated position on the right, the McLean Asylum for the Insane. The traveller now sees on his left the neat cottages of Somerville, and the church on Spring Hill. On his right, in the distance, are theruins of the Ursuline Convent. In the
Ruins of the Ursuline Convent
neighborhood of the ruins are situated Prospect and Winter Hills, in Somerville, from which may be had beautiful views of the city and harbor of Boston. Malden and North Malden may now be seen in the distance, on the right, and soon after, Medford. At length the road crosses Middlesex Canal and Mystic River, just beyond which is ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Medford, 5 miles from Boston. The village is at a little distance from the depot, and is more accessible from Boston by means of a branch from the Maine Railroad. West Cambridge may be seen from the station, on the west, at only a short distance. Medford contains many fertile and highly cultivated farms; but the town is particularly distinguished for ship-building. In five years preceding April 1, 1837, sixty vessels were built here, whose tonnage amounted to 24,000 tons.
Leaving Medford, the road approaches the margin of Mystic Pond, of which the passenger has but a glimpse; it then passes the little settlement at Baconville, crosses the stream, and soon the traveller finds himself at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
South Woburn, 8 miles from Boston. This thriving little village owes its prosperity to the railroad, and in the summer months it is much resorted to, for a temporary residence, by persons from the city. Various manufactures are carried on here, the stream which passes the place affording sufficient water power for this purpose. A branch railroad, 2 miles in length, extends from South Woburn to Woburn Centre a large, neat, flourishing village. The surface of the town is uneven, and very much diversified with hills, dales, and woods, being thereby rendered exceedingly variegated and pleasant.
Woburn, 10 miles from Boston, is the next stopping-place. This station is 1 1/4 miles from Woburn Centre. Passengers for East Woburn and other places in the vicinity stop here. Immediately above the depot occurs the most extensive excavation on this road. A quick run of 5 miles will now bring us to ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Wilmington, 15 miles from Boston, and 11 from Lowell. This is an agricultural town, the soil, however, being adapted only to some particular crops. Near the depot is a branch, 2 miles in length connecting with the Maine Railroad, but at present little used. Leaving Wilmington, the road passes near the Middlesex Canal, 4 miles, to
Billerica and Tewkesbury [sic], (Richardson’s,) 7 miles from Lowell. The station here accommodates passengers for Tewkesbury and Billerica, — the latter a town of considerable importance, having a pleasant village at its centre, 2 miles distant. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Billerica Mills, 4 miles from Lowell. The prosperity of the little settlement here has been checked by the repeated burning of the mills, situated on Concord River. During the next stage the railroad crosses Concord River, and soon after approaches the deep rock cutting, the most formidable obstacle in the construction of this railroad. Passing that, the traveller immediately finds himself at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Lowell. This place is so well known as hardly to need any description here. In 1821, it was inhabited by only a few families, and was in no way distinguished; in 1826 it was incorporated as a town, and in 1836 it became a city. It now contains a population of 30,000; 15 or 20 churches; 3 banks; several well-kept hotels; and many important public buildings. Its water power is improved by 12 manufacturing corporations, with a capital of more than 12,000,000 dollars, and employing 12,000 hands. Nor is Lowell a manufacturing city merely. With its growth and increase of business, great care has been taken to promote the moral and intellectual character of its population. This city stands among the first in the cities and towns of Massachusetts in the amount appropriated for public instruction, and its schools are universally acknowledged to be of a high order. A city library was established in 1844, which now contains several thousand volumes, and to which all may have access. There are various other institutions, which, by means of libraries, lectures, &c., are adapted to elevate the character of the population. An elegant and spacious mansion has been purchased by the corporations and converted into a hospital to which all persons employed by the corporations may have access when sick or disabled. A public cemetery has been laid out, on the east bank of Concord River, about a mile above its junction with the Merrimac. This place, from its variety of surface, its rich growth of wood, the graceful bend of the river near by, and the quiet which reigns around, is admirably adapted to the solemn purpose to which it has been consecrated. The passenger for the north sees little of Lowell, the depot being at its outskirts. Lowell passengers, however are taken into the heart of the city by a branch railroad.
First Depot in Lowell
At Lowell commences the Nashua and Lowell Railroad, 15 miles in length, extending to Nashua, N.H. It was opened in Oct, 1838. Though a short link in the line of communication between Boston and the north, this road is one of the most productive in the country; 200,000 passengers and 150,000 tons freight are annually carried over it - more than four times the amount of the estimated business of the road at the time of its construction!
Leaving the Lowell station, the passenger quickly passes along and crosses the old canal, which supplies part of the water power of the city, and then a run of two minutes brings him to the Merrimac River, near the margin of which the road passes till he reaches ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Middlesex, the first stopping-place, 2 miles from Lowell. The cars always stop here to take or leave passengers; but the station is comparatively unimportant, and is frequently passed without stopping.
A few rods from the depot is Middlesex Village, in Chelmsford, distinctly seen from the cars. Here is the head of the old Middlesex Canal, the business upon which was the foundation of this settlement. Since the use of the canal has been discontinued, the village has declined. Chelmsford is noted for its granite and limestone. Two miles further is
North Chelmsford. Here is a thriving little settlement, at the mouth of Stony Brook; and from this place extends the Stony Brook Railroad, 13 1/2 miles in length, to Groton, where it connects with the Fitchburg Railroad. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Tyngsborough, 7 miles from Lowell. The track here, for some 80 rods, is laid upon a wall at the very margin of the river.
The Tyngsborough Curve (bmrrhs.org)
A short distance above the depot is a little village, occupying a pleasant site, and containing a church and several neat buildings. A few years since, before the construction of the railroad, this portion of the Merrimac was enlivened by the frequent passage of a steamboat which plied between Lowell and Nashua for the transportation of passengers, and by the numerous boats which conveyed merchandise between Boston and Concord. Now, rafts of lumber are occasionally seen upon its surface, but the boats have disappeared. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Little's, 4 miles below Nashua. This stopping-place accommodates passengers for the lower part of Nashua and Hudson. The next stopping-place, at the junction of the Concord Railroad, is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Map from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
Nashua, 40 miles from Boston. This station is one mile below Nashua Village, the terminus of the Nashua Railroad. Here is also the point of junction of the Nashua and Worcester Railroad.
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dbpedia
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https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/more-mbta-service-changes-coming-in-february-heres-what-to-expect/3252134/
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en
|
More MBTA service changes coming in February — here's what to expect
|
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2024-01-19T10:40:24
|
Service changes are planned for February on the Red, Orange and Green lines, as well as the Fitchburg and Lowell commuter rails, the MBTA announced Friday.
|
en
|
NBC Boston
|
https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/more-mbta-service-changes-coming-in-february-heres-what-to-expect/3252134/
|
Service changes are planned for February on the Red, Orange and Green lines, as well as the Fitchburg and Lowell commuter rails, the MBTA announced Friday.
"The MBTA will continue working to improve service reliability across the system, recognizing the challenges service changes cause for riders," the T said in a release said Friday. "The MBTA encourages riders to use alternative shuttle bus options available."
STAY IN THE KNOW
During these changes, the T will have staff available on-site to offer information and assistance. Riders are asked to visit the T's website for up-to-date service information.
Here are the changes coming to the T next month, as released by the MBTA:
RED LINE
As previously announced, Red Line service will be suspended between Alewife and Harvard stations all day from start to end of service for 10 days from February 5-14. Beginning at approximately 8:45 PM through the end of service every day during the same period from February 5-14, this Red Line service suspension will be extended to Park Street (meaning evening service will be suspended between Alewife and Park Street).
Free and accessible shuttle buses will make all stops between these stations. A page with dedicated information for riders will be available at mbta.com/RedLine.
The Commuter Rail will be fare-free between Porter Square and North Station. Riders should note that regular fares should be purchased beyond Porter Square.
As a result of this service change, there will be longer than normal time between Red Line subway trains where service continues to operate. Riders are encouraged to plan extra time.
This service change is in place as part of the MBTA's Track Improvement Program. Crews will perform track and tie replacement work; infrastructure upgrades; station amenity upgrades like new lighting, painting, tiling, and power washing; and more.
ORANGE LINE
Orange Line service will be suspended between Forest Hills and Ruggles stations all day from start to end of service during the weekend of February 17-18.
Free and accessible shuttle buses will make all stops between Forest Hills and Ruggles.
The Commuter Rail will be fare-free between Forest Hills, Ruggles, Back Bay, and South Station. Riders should note that regular fares should be purchased beyond Forest Hills.
This service change is in place for crews to perform critical signal improvement work.
GREEN LINE
As previously announced, Green Line service on the B branch between Copley and Babcock Street, on the C branch between Copley and Cleveland Circle, and on the D branch between Copley and Brookline Hills will be suspended all day from start to end of service for 18 days from February 20-March 8.
A page with dedicated information for riders will be available at mbta.com/GreenLine.
B Branch: Free and accessible shuttle buses will operate between Babcock Street and Copley stations. Outbound B branch riders will not be charged a fare at Babcock Street (outbound only). There will be free fares at Copley Station with the fare gates open. Riders can also utilize free Route 57 bus service for alternate travel between Kenmore and Babcock Street.
C Branch: Free and accessible shuttle buses will operate between Cleveland Circle and Copley stations. There will be free fares at Copley Station with the fare gates open.
D Branch: Free and accessible shuttle buses will operate between Brookline Hills and Copley stations. Outbound D branch riders will not be charged a fare at Brookline Hills (outbound only). There will be free fares at Copley Station with the fare gates open.
The Commuter Rail will be fare-free between South Station, Back Bay, and Lansdowne stations during this Green Line service change. Riders should note that regular fares should be purchased beyond Lansdowne.
This service change is in place as part of the MBTA's Track Improvement Program. Crews will perform track and tie replacement work; infrastructure upgrades; station amenity upgrades like new lighting, painting, tiling, and power washing; and more.
FITCHBURG COMMUTER RAIL LINE
Fitchburg Commuter Rail Line service will be suspended between Littleton/Route 495 and Alewife stations from start to end of service during the weekend of February 3-4.
A dedicated diversion schedule will be in effect and available on mbta.com soon.
Free and accessible shuttle buses will replace service between Littleton/Route 495 and Alewife. Local shuttle buses will make all stops between Littleton/Route 495 and Alewife. Express shuttle buses will also make stops at Littleton/Route 495 and South Acton and will then operate express to Alewife. There will be no service at Kendal Green with passengers instead encouraged to consider local bus routes at Brandeis/Roberts.
Passengers are expected to purchase a regular subway fare and/or Commuter Rail interzone fare.
This service change allows crews to perform Automatic Train Control (ATC) work. ATC is a federally mandated safety system that sends signals to trains about potentially unsafe conditions, automatically slowing and stopping a train if needed.
LOWELL COMMUTER RAIL LINE
Lowell Commuter Rail Line service will be suspended between Lowell and North Station from start to end of service during the weekend of February 10-11.
Free and accessible shuttle buses will replace service between Lowell and North Station. A dedicated diversion schedule will be in effect and available on mbta.com soon.
This service change allows crews to perform Automatic Train Control (ATC) work. ATC is a federally mandated safety system that sends signals to trains about potentially unsafe conditions, automatically slowing and stopping a train if needed.
The service changes were previously announced in January, according to the T.
More MBTA news
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833
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dbpedia
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0
| 24
|
https://fromthepage.com/mountauburncemetery/mount-auburn-cemetery/article/58909
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en
|
Eastern Railroad
|
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Eastern Railroad - subject overview. A railroad company that connected Boston and Portland, Maine. In 1840 the Eastern Railroad of New Hampshire was leased to the Eastern Railroad of...
|
en
|
/assets/favicon-694316b93124346fbc3b3fb3da08ad33130d9258c96b31d265aef55c481280b7.ico
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Description
A railroad company that connected Boston and Portland, Maine. In 1840 the Eastern Railroad of New Hampshire was leased to the Eastern Railroad of Massachusetts. By 1843, the Eastern entered into an agreement with the Boston & Maine to share the Portland, Saco and Portsmouth Railroad's tracks in Maine, which allowed both railroads to begin providing Boston-to-Portland service. On April 28, 1847, the Eastern and the Boston & Maine co-leased the Portland, Saco & Portsmouth.
See also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Railroad
Related Subjects
The graph displays the other subjects mentioned on the same pages as the subject "Eastern Railroad". If the same subject occurs on a page with "Eastern Railroad" more than once, it appears closer to "Eastern Railroad" on the graph, and is colored in a darker shade. The closer a subject is to the center, the more "related" the subjects are.
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833
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dbpedia
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3
| 71
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https://jbartlett.org/tag/nh-commuter-rail/
|
en
|
THE JOSIAH BARTLETT CENTER FOR PUBLIC POLICY
|
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[
""
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[
"Joshua Elliott-Traficante"
] |
2015-05-04T10:18:49-04:00
|
en
|
THE JOSIAH BARTLETT CENTER FOR PUBLIC POLICY
|
https://jbartlett.org/tag/nh-commuter-rail/
|
Josh Elliott-Traficante
May 2015
Supporters of bringing commuter rail north from Lowell into New Hampshire have been touting the economic development potential of the project. But does rail in and of itself, construction and operation aside, create jobs? While studies of proposed passenger commuter rail lines often predict job creation, studies of lines that have been built and operating have found that these projects do not create jobs by themselves, but they can influence where already planned investments will happen.
The proposed MBTA extension would not be New Hampshire’s only passenger rail connection. The Downeaster, which runs ten trains a day between Boston and Maine, makes stops in Exeter, Durham, and Dover.
Service began in 2001, which provides an excellent case study to gauge the impact of rail here in the state. According to US Census data, after more than ten years of passenger rail service, the number of jobs increased in Dover, remained virtually unchanged in Durham, and fell in Exeter.[1]
The St. Louis Federal Reserve has some words of wisdom for those who view rail as a tool for boosting the economy: “Rather than relying solely on rail to create economic development, city planners and officials should first address a key question: Why is economic development not occurring in a given area in the first place?”[2]
The Experience Studies:
While most proposed rail projects usually include projections of job growth, it is important to remember that these are projections, not actual experience. Rather than rely on these, looking at studies of passenger commuter rail lines that have been in service for a few years is more helpful. These studies have shown that simply having rail service does not create jobs.
The most comprehensive analysis of rail’s impact on job creation was commissioned by the Federal Transit Administration and concluded that “(r)ail transit investments do not stimulate real economic growth; rather they only influence where already-committed growth takes place,”[3] adding that “rail investments cannot overcome the effects of a weak regional economy.”[4] One example the FTA study looked at was the experience of two cities along a commuter rail line in Pennsylvania. One city had substantial growth in both apartment development and commercial real estate, while another city had nearly none. They concluded that the rail line had not influenced outcomes, but the difference was a result of different attitudes towards growth, zoning laws, and land availability.[5]
More recent studies have come to similar conclusions. The experience of the Coaster commuter rail line in San Diego is particularly helpful because it shares many similarities to the proposed Capitol Corridor project. Both are roughly the same length and both connect midsized cities (40,000-100,000) to the largest city in the region. A study of the impacts of the Coaster found that though there were minor gains in value for some types of residential property near the non-Downtown San Diego stations, commercial property values fell nearly 10%.[6] Though an inexact proxy, weak demand for commercial property is not indicative of strong job growth. If the same experience is realized for the Capitol Corridor, Boston could gain jobs at Manchester and Nashua’s expense.
Researchers at the Brookings Institution also found little evidence that rail transit investments have significant impacts on urban form. The only way for rail to have an impact, they found, would be to make private car ownership and usage prohibitively expensive.[7]
Closer to home, a study of the MBTA commuter rail system, the operator proposed for New Hampshire, found that “development patterns are governed by the dominant forces of the day, and even given the large investments, commuter rail is no longer one of those forces.”[8] The director of Harvard’s Rappaport Institute, which conducted the study, summarized the findings stating “(T)he history of commuter rail in Massachusetts suggests that while commuter rail can be helpful, it generally has not revitalized communities or reduced sprawl.”[9]
The St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank conducted research into the economic impacts of light rail, and found that “the general consensus from the academic literature and the findings in this report is that light rail is not a catalyst for economic development, rather light rail can help guide economic development.”[10] In other words, rail does not create growth, but can impact where that growth happens. Though light rail and commuter rail fulfill different transit needs, the underlying argument that proponents use, that rail creates jobs, is the same.
The New Hampshire Experience: The Downeaster
New Hampshire has an excellent test case with the Downeaster, which runs from Boston north to Brunswick, Maine, and makes stops in Exeter, Durham, and Dover. Service to all of these stations began in December 2001. Though the Downeaster is technically not a commuter rail service, it is a functional equivalent by offering multiple departures a day and runs over a fairly short distance.
According to the data from the US Census Bureau, job creation between 2000 and 2012 between each of these towns is mixed. In Exeter, the total number of jobs located in the town dropped about 300. In Durham, the number of jobs was virtually unchanged, while Dover saw just over 1,000 new jobs.
These municipalities do not exist in a vacuum, so it is useful to pair them with similar, non-rail served communities, to act as control. Exeter was paired with Epping and Dover with Rochester. Durham, only seeing minor changes in jobs numbers, was left unpaired.
Epping and Exeter:
From an infrastructure point of view, Epping and Exeter are quite alike; both have access to NH 101, which links the Seacoast with Manchester. Exeter has three exits off the highway, with a fourth just over the line in Stratham. Epping has two exits off 101, with a third just over the line in Brentwood and is roughly equidistant between Interstate 95 and Interstate 93.
Demographically, Exeter is more than twice the size of Epping, although Epping added nearly four times the number of people (935) between the 2000 and 2010 census that Exeter did (298). Despite having similar highway access, and Exeter having a much larger population and a passenger rail station, Epping added 1,442 jobs over the time period, while Exeter lost 328.
Rochester and Dover:
Rochester and Dover are similar communities in in terms of transportation connections. Both are close to, or on the Maine border and have four exits off of the Spaulding Turnpike, which connects to Interstate 95 in Portsmouth.
Population wise they are virtually identical; Rochester has 29,752 residents, while Dover has 29,987. In the last census, Rochester added 1,291 people, while Dover added 3,103, displacing the former as the fifth largest city in the state. Though the two cities are next to each other, the economies are quite different.
Dover’s job base is more service oriented, with a large number of jobs in insurance and finance (Liberty Mutual) and healthcare (Wentworth Douglass Hospital). The latter is particularly significant as one of the few bright spots in jobs market has been in the healthcare sector. Rochester’s economy on the other hand is more manufacturing oriented, a sector which saw 35,000 jobs lost statewide in this time period. The city was not immune to that decline, losing more than 1,700 jobs.
Drawing Conclusions:
An analysis of town by town jobs numbers here in New Hampshire shows that merely having access to passenger rail does not create jobs. After a decade of continuous rail service in Dover added jobs, Durham remained unchanged, while Exeter lost jobs.
Can Dover’s impressive growth be attributed to regular passenger rail service? Not necessarily; both Epping and Concord saw greater growth rates over the time frame, and neither has passenger rail service. With the exception of the redevelopment of the downtown mills, the majority Dover’s growth has been on the peripheries of the city in industrial and business parks.
It does not appear that Rochester’s loss has been Dover’s gain either. Comparing the jobs figures, there is no evidence that Rochester’s lost jobs simply moved to Dover. Rather, larger employment trends explain this shift. Statewide, the number of manufacturing jobs has fallen by more than 35,000, replacing them with roughly the same number of service sector jobs. Dover, with its large service sector, was well positioned to benefit from this trend, while Rochester, with its large manufacturing sector, was harmed by it.
Exeter’s loss of jobs is particularly telling because it turns the entire notion that rail service creates jobs on its head. The argument that rail minimized Exeter’s job losses does not hold much weight since neighboring Epping saw substantial gains.
What does this tell us about commuter rail’s ability to create jobs? From the studies that have been conducted after rail service has started and the experience of the Downeaster here in New Hampshire, simply having commuter rail does not create jobs. Rail, whatever its benefits may or may not be, is not a tool to spur job creation.
Click here to download a PDF version of this report.
[1] United States Census Bureau, ZIP Code Business Patterns Survey
[2] Thomas A. Garrett, St. Louis Federal Reserve, “Light Rail Transit in America” pg 25.
[3] Federal Transit Administration, “An Evaluation of the Relationships Between Transit & Urban Form” Pg. 11.
[4] Ibid 15.
[5] Ibid 16.
[6] Robert Cervero and Michael Duncan, “Land Value Impacts of Rail Transit Services in San Diego County” Pg. 24.
[7] Brookings Institution, Urban and Regional Policy and Its Effects, Vol. 3. Pg 284.
[8] Eric Beaton, “Impact of Commuter Rail in Greater Boston” Pg 46.
[9] David Luberoff, “Commuter Rail Can Take Us Only So Far”, Boston Globe, November 3, 2006.
[10] Garrett, St. Louis Federal Reserve, “Light Rail Transit in America” Pg 25.
February 2015
Josh Elliott-Traficante
This week, the Capitol Corridor Rail and Transit Study’s final report was released. The study, which began in 2013, examined a number of transit options for the corridor, with most of the public and political attention focused on the possibility of extending commuter rail into the state. The final study looked at 7 transit options, three for commuter rail, three for bus and a ‘no build’ option. These options were reduced to 5 with the elimination of two of the bus proposals from further consideration. This piece details the commuter rail options presented in the report.
Q: What is the Capital Corridor Project?
A: It is a proposal to extend commuter rail service north from Lowell, MA to Concord, NH, with intermediate stops in Nashua, Manchester Boston-Regional Airport and downtown Manchester. The line would roughly follow the Merrimack River. Trains would run into North Station in Boston.
Q: What were the rail options looked at by the study?
A: There were three rail options that were explored:
Nashua Minimum: This would be an extension of the MBTA Lowell Commuter Rail line, with service identical to what is found elsewhere on the MBTA system. It would run from Boston north, with a single New Hampshire stop in South Nashua. The service plan would have 20 trains a day.
Manchester Commuter: This would be an extension of the MBTA Lowell Commuter Rail line, with service identical to what is found elsewhere on the MBTA system. It would run from Boston north, making stops in South Nashua, Downtown Nashua, Manchester Airport and Downtown Manchester. The service plan would have 34 trains a day to Nashua, with 16 trains a day continuing on to Manchester.
Intercity 8 (Concord): This would be an Amtrak style train service, similar to the Downeaster. It would run from Boston north, making stops in Downtown Nashua, Manchester Airport, Downtown Manchester, and Concord. As the name suggests, there would be 4 southbound and 4 northbound trains per day, for a total of 8 trains a day.
Q: How much would it cost to build?
A: Costs are highly dependent on the scope of the improvements, such as single or double tracking the line, how far the line would run and frequency of service. The study provided costs in 2014 dollars as well as ‘Year of Expenditure’ dollars. Year of Expenditure dollars, which are estimates of the cost when building actually begins, are used below.[i]
Nashua Minimum: $148.6 million
Manchester Commuter: $303.4 million
Intercity 8 (Concord): $316.9 million
Q: Will Massachusetts pay for the upgrades for the section of track from Lowell to the state line?
A: They could. New Hampshire did sign an agreement with Massachusetts in 2001, with New Hampshire taking responsibly for all capital improvements required for such a service, including those needed in Massachusetts.[ii] However, there are signs that the case may be different today. As part of a larger deal, the MBTA acquired the trackage rights from Pan Am Railroad to run commuter trains as far north as Concord.[iii]
In addition, there is limited space for expansion at the Lowell station, and the lack of a layover yard on the line requires 6 trains a day to run without carrying revenue passengers so as to have trains in the right place for rush hour. Expansion into New Hampshire could relieve pressure on the Lowell station and find space for a layover yard. However, there is still the question where the MBTA can find the money for it.
Q: How much would it cost to run?
A: Operating expenses are the day to day costs, such as salaries for employees and fuel for the locomotives. A number of factors that go into projecting operating expenses, such as the number of trains in service and how many runs a day they are completing.[iv]
Nashua Minimum: $4.1 million
Manchester Commuter: $10.7 million
Intercity 8 (Concord): $7.7 million
Q: Would New Hampshire need to subsidize commuter rail?
A: Yes. Commuter rail service will require annual subsidies to maintain service. The study estimates that passenger fares will cover between 41% and 64% of operating and maintenance costs.
Nashua Minimum: $2.3 million, with fares cover 44% of costs
Manchester Commuter: $3.9 million with fares cover of costs 64%
Intercity 8 (Concord): $4.5 million with fares cover of costs 41%
These percentages, called a ‘Farebox Recovery Ratio’ for the Nashua Minimum and Intercity 8 are reasonable. However, the 64% used by the study for the Manchester Commuter is out of line when compared to existing commuter rail lines.
Assuming a farebox recovery ratio of 64%, would make the Capitol Corridor route the best performing commuter rail line in the nation. For comparison, the Downeaster covers 55%, the MBTA Commuter Rail System as a whole covers 48%. The best performing in the country, MetroNorth, covers 62.4%.[v] Given the experience of the MBTA and the Downeaster, a more reasonable ratio for the route would be in the 45%-50% range.
Subsidies required if Manchester Commuter farebox recovery ratio adjusted to:
45%: $6.0 million per year
50%: $5.4 million per year
Q: But isn’t the Boston Express Bus Service subsidized too?
A: It is, but to a far lesser extent than rail would be. Like most public transportation, this service is subsidized by the Federal government, through CMAQ grants. The Everett Turnpike Route received a subsidy of $119,000 in 2013, with fares covering 95% of costs. Each round trip rider on the route is subsidized to the tune of $226.30 per year. Rail service on the other hand, would require subsidies of $1,730.10 per rider, per year, more than 7.5 times higher than the bus.
Q: Where would New Hampshire get the money to pay for the train?
A: The study offers a rough layout for paying the capital costs, include Federal grants, which would cover roughly half the project. It assumes, as mentioned above, that Massachusetts will pay nearly $96 million, for rolling stock, trackage rights, and improvements on the Massachusetts side of the border. That would leave New Hampshire with a balance of $26 million in capital costs, or $32 million in year of construction dollars.[vi]
That money would likely come from bond proceeds, but after the explosion of state debt from 2007 to 2011 the state’s borrowing capacity is limited. The last capital budget was roughly $125 million, with a backlog of nearly $400 million worth of other projects. Bonding for a rail would mean putting off other projects.
For the ongoing operating subsidies, the report offered a wide range of options, including an additional state wide property tax, increased car registration fees, or contributions from cities that have train stations, likely leading to increased property taxes. It also suggested using money from the federal highway program. However, using those dollars would mean other construction projects already in the 10 year highway plan, would go unfunded.[vii]
Q: Could the state use money from the Gas Tax to pay for both construction and the subsidy?
A: No, Part II, Article 6-a of the NH Constitution[viii] forbids the use of Highway Fund dollars on anything other than highways. In a particularly relevant case, the New Hampshire Supreme Court ruled unanimously in a suit brought by the New Hampshire Motor Transport Association (NHMTA v NHDOT 2004) that the state could not use highway funds to build a commuter rail extension into Nashua.[ix]
Q: How does the Downeaster, which runs from Brunswick ME, through the NH Seacoast into Boston, address these costs?
A: The capital costs of constructing the rail line were financed by the federal government, with the balance made up by a bond issue, backed by the State of Maine. Those bonds were repaid with general fund tax dollars. Funding for the extension of service to Brunswick was paid for entirely by federal Stimulus money.
Federal CMAQ money is used to cover some of the operating losses. Under normal circumstances, CMAQ money is only allowed for the first several years of service, however, through special Congressional approval, Maine is allowed to use funds long after they would have otherwise been phased out. The remainder of the operating loss is covered by a state tax on rental cars. The Downeaster covers roughly 55% of its operating costs through fares.[x]
Q: Won’t bringing rail to New Hampshire ‘pay for itself’ by creating jobs and expanding the tax base?
A: Unfortunately no. The Federal Transit Administration[xi] did an exhaustive study on rail stations’ impact and found that they rarely create new growth. Instead stations typically just redistribute growth that would have taken place elsewhere. Likewise the Brookings Institution[xii] found little evidence that transit impacts urban structures. They found that the only way to make transit have an impact, would be to make using private vehicles prohibitively expensive.
In layman’s terms, a train station plays no role in whether or not an entrepreneur opens a business, but it does play a role where it opens. For example, rather than opening up in Londonderry, a business might opt to open up on Elm Street in Manchester.
Click here to download a pdf version of this report
[i] Appendix 3: Financial Plan, Page 6: http://www.nh.gov/dot/org/aerorailtransit/railandtransit/documents/fr-app-3-financial.pdf
[ii] “Joint Statement of Principles Concerning Proposed New Hampshire Capital Corridor Service” (2001)
[iii] http://www.mbta.com/about_the_mbta/news_events/?id=21232
[iv] Appendix 7: Technical Report, Appendix E, Pg 2: http://www.nh.gov/dot/org/aerorailtransit/railandtransit/documents/fr-app-7-detailed-eval.pdf
[v] Data Table 26, National Transit Database (2013)
[vi] http://www.unionleader.com/article/20130108/NEWS06/130109259
[vii] Appendix 3: Financial Plan, Pages 7-13: http://www.nh.gov/dot/org/aerorailtransit/railandtransit/documents/fr-app-3-financial.pdf
[viii] http://www.nh.gov/constitution/formofgov.html
[ix] http://www.courts.state.nh.us/supreme/opinions/2004/motor050.htm
[x] Data Table 26, National Transit Database (2013).
[xi] Cervero and Seskin, “An Evaluation of the Relationships Between Transit and Urban Form” Pg 3.
[xii] Urban and Regional Policy and Its Effects, Vol. 3, Pg 248.
Link to the full study: http://www.nh.gov/dot/org/aerorailtransit/railandtransit/corridor-rail-transit.htm
Author’s Note [February 2015]: With the Capitol Corridor Study released, this paper is now out of date.
To read the updated version of this piece that incorporates the study’s findings, please click here or copy and paste the following link into your browser:
http://www.jbartlett.org/updated-commuter-rail-in-new-hampshire
February 2013
Josh Elliott-Traficante
This week, the New Hampshire Executive Council is taking up a contract for a study looking at bringing commuter rail to the state.
There is a common misconception that the state has not studied this idea recently; however two lengthy studies have been completed in the past six years. A 43 page study was done in 2007 by the Passenger Rail Taskforce which looked at service to Manchester and another of similar length was done in 2010 by TranSystems for the NH Rail Authority, NHDOT and the Nashua Rail Planning Commission which looked at the entire corridor to Concord. While neither study recommends for or against introducing commuter rail, they provide a wealth of information as to how much the route would cost.
From the studies it is clear that constructing the route in its entirety to Concord would cost roughly $300 million and require subsidies of $11 million a year to operate.
Since there has been discussion of extending rail either just into Nashua, or just as far north as Manchester with service to Nashua, cost estimates for these, calculated from data in the studies, have been included as well.
Q: What is the Capital Corridor Project?
A: It is a proposal to extend commuter rail service north from Lowell, MA to Concord, NH, with intermediate stops in Nashua, Manchester Boston-Regional Airport and downtown Manchester. Trains would run into North Station in Boston.
Q: How Much Would it Cost to Build?
A: Costs are highly dependent on the scope of the improvements, such as single or double tracking the line or how far the line would run. (i.e. just to Nashua or Manchester or all the way up to Concord.) NHDOT in the 2013-2022 Ten Year plan estimates the capital costs the cost at roughly $265 million[1] if the Corridor were completed in its entirety, while the most recent study puts the cost at closer $330 million in 2013 dollars.[2]
Lowell to Nashua: $53-$66 million
Lowell to Manchester with service to Nashua: $159-$200 million
Lowell to Concord with service Nashua and Manchester: $265-$330 million
Q: Won’t Massachusetts Pay for the Upgrades for the Section of Track from Lowell to the State Line?
A: Probably not. According to the Joint Statement of Principles Concerning Proposed New Hampshire Capital Corridor Service[3], signed between Massachusetts and New Hampshire in 2001, the state of New Hampshire is responsible for all capital improvements required, including those needed in Massachusetts. Furthering the point, Governor Deval Patrick’s recently released transportation proposal does not include the extension of commuter rail service north of Lowell, indicating a lack of interest in Boston for expansion on that line.[4]
Q: How Much Would it Cost to Run?
A: Once built, there are two different kinds of costs: operating expenses and ongoing capital expenses. Operating expenses are the day to day costs, such as salaries for employees and fuel for the locomotives. A number of factors that go into projecting operating expenses, such as the number of trains in service and how many runs a day they are completing. TranSystems[5]based their study on 5 round trips per day and the Passenger Rail Taskforce Study[6] with 4 round trips per day.
Lowell to Nashua: $2.7 million per year
Lowell to Manchester with service to Nashua: $8 million per year
Lowell to Concord with service to Nashua and Manchester: $13.25 million per year
In addition to operating expenses, there are also ongoing capital expenses beyond just building the railroad. Track needs to be replaced, locomotives breakdown, coaches need to be refurbished and so forth.
Lowell to Nashua: $600,000 per year
Lowell to Manchester with service to Nashua: $1.8 million per year
Lowell to Concord with service to Nashua and Manchester: $3 million per year
Q: Would the State Need to Subsidize Commuter Rail?
A: Yes. Both the TranSystems[7]study and the Passenger Rail Taskforce Study[8] highlight the need for ongoing subsidies to keep the train from going bankrupt. These two studies estimate that passenger fares will cover between 30% and 50% of operating costs. In addition, there are ongoing capital costs that need to be paid for as well. Taking those into account, estimates of total subsidies needed every year are as follows:
Lowell to Nashua: $1.9 – $2.6 million per year
Lowell to Manchester with service to Nashua: $5.8 – $7.5 million per year
Lowell to Concord with service to Nashua and Manchester: $9.25 – $12.25 million per year
Q: Where Would the State get the Money to Pay for It?
A: The studies are largely silent on the specific sources of funding for either the capital costs or the operating subsidies, aside from relying on Federal money.
For the roughly $300 million in construction costs, the state would likely have to depend on either Federal grants or borrow the money through a bond issue. The New Hampshire Rail Transit Authority does have the authority to both solicit Federal dollars and issue bonds. Last month however, the State Treasurer urged lawmakers to limit capital bonding to under $125 million, making the latter unlikely.[9]
Money from the Federal CMAQ program (Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality) can be used in the initial startup years to help cover the shortfall in operating costs. However, without special Congressional approval, it can only be used for a few years, not indefinitely. After the CMAQ money runs out, the state would have to find a source of money to cover the entirety of the shortfall itself.
Q: Couldn’t the State Use Money from the Gas Tax to Pay for Both Construction and the Subsidy?
A: No. Part II, Article 6-a of the NH Constitution[10]forbids the use of money from the Highway Fund on anything other than highways. In a particularly relevant case, the New Hampshire Supreme Court ruled unanimously in a suit brought by the New Hampshire Motor Transport Association (NHMTA v NHDOT 2004) that the state could not use highway funds to extend commuter rail into Nashua.[11]
Q: How Does the Downeaster, which Runs from Brunswick ME, Through the NH Seacoast into Boston, Address These Costs?
A: The capital costs of constructing the rail line were financed by issuing bonds, backed by the State of Maine, which were repaid with tax dollars. Federal CMAQ money is used to cover some of the operating losses. Under normal circumstances, CMAQ money is only allowed for the first several years of service, however, through special Congressional approval, Maine is allowed to use funds long after they would have otherwise been phased out. The remainder of the operating loss is covered by a state tax on rental cars. The Downeaster covers roughly 53% of its operating costs through fares.[12]
Links to Past Studies:
Passenger Rail Task Force Study: (2007)
http://www.nashuarpc.org/publications/transportation/rail_proposal_draft.pdf
TranSystems: (2010)
http://www.snhpc.org/pdf/NHCCorridorOverview.pdf
Click here for a pdf version of Questions and Answers on Commuter Rail in New Hampshire
[1]http://www.nh.gov/dot/org/projectdevelopment/planning/typ/documents/unfundedlist.pdf
[12] http://www.kjonline.com/news/senate-oks-downeaster-subsidy_2012-03-14.html
A Look at the Costs Involved
Josh Elliott-Traficante
Yesterday’s approval by the Capital Budget Overview Committee to use Turnpike Credits to help fund a transportation study of the Capitol Corridor has revived hopes of commuter rail in New Hampshire. The Corridor project, if completed in its entirety, would see passenger rail service run from Concord through Manchester and Nashua, continuing south into North Station in Boston.
The project in terms of costs can divided roughly into four segments, totaling roughly $270 million from various sources:
1) The Study: $4.4 Million
The study itself, the one moved forward Wednesday, will cost $4.4 million and take roughly a year to complete. Of the money being spent, $1.6 million the funds being used would come from from the state, while the balance would come from federal grants. Usually federal CMAQ grants require a state match but a clause in federal highway legislation allows money raised by tolls to be counted as that state’s match, allowing the state to receive the grants. The toll money, however, is not spent on the project itself and remains in the Turnpike Fund.
2) Capital Costs, Construction: $250 Million
$250 million is a rough estimate of construction costs for the route by the New Hampshire Department of Transportation, as part of the latest 10 Year Highway Plan. This would include building roughly half a dozen stations along the route, building a second line in most areas, upgrading the existing one, rehabbing and upgrading countless rail crossings as well as reconstructing and expanding several bridges, including two across the Merrimack River. No funding source has been identified.
3) Capital Costs, Rolling Stock: $15 Million
What good is a railway without locomotives and passenger coaches? This money would presumably come from the Federal CMAQ program. However, since CMAQ funding is a fixed amount based on the total appropriations the state receives every year, every dollar used for this project, would mean other local public transit projects might go unfunded. Under the current federal highway legislation, $15 million would represent roughly 1½ times the state’s annual CMAQ allocation.
4) Operating Subsidies for 3 years: $5.25 Million
In addition to the capital costs of constructing the railroad and purchasing rolling stock, passenger rail will need subsidies. Every single regularly scheduled passenger route in the US relies on operating subsidies to run and New Hampshire would be no exception. Under NHDOT estimates, $5.25 Million would be needed over the course of the first three years of operation. Funding for this could also be done with federal CMAQ money.
It should be noted that these estimates do not include future capital expenses as well. While these are projections, they do give a sense of the cost of such a project. In comparison, the amount of money spent on just constructing the route ($250 million), spent elsewhere could fund the rest of the I-93 project from Exit 3 all the way up to Manchester, or it would fund all of the state’s pavement preservation and Red List Bridge needs for the next 10 years.
With more pressing transportation needs facing the state, such the maintenance and replacement of our aging infrastructure, one must ask, is passenger rail the best use of our limited resources?
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https://www.britannica.com/technology/railroad/Boston-railroads
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Railroad - Boston, Expansion, Industry
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Railroad - Boston, Expansion, Industry: Three Massachusetts railroads were chartered and under construction in 1830, at first showing a strong affinity for British practice. The Boston and Lowell, Boston and Providence, and Boston and Worcester railroads radiated from the metropolis to towns no more than 70 km (45 miles) away. In 1835, when all were operating, Boston became the world’s first rail hub. As in Europe the pattern of having a metropolitan station for each line was established, though Boston had by the end of the century created a North Union Station and a South Station and an elevated railway to join them by rapid
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Encyclopedia Britannica
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Expansion into the interior
The first phase of American railroad development, from 1828 until about 1850, most commonly involved connecting two relatively large cities that were fairly close neighbours. New York City and New Haven, Connecticut, Richmond, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., or Syracuse, New York, and Rochester, New York, were examples of this phase of eastern railroad development. By 1852 this first phase was followed by six crossings of the Appalachian mountain chain, which were essentially incremental alignments of railroads first proposed to tie neighbouring cities together, and there was a need for a new strategy of routing. What followed was an extension of railroads into the interior of the continent and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
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https://www.masstransitmag.com/rail/infrastructure/article/21243102/mbta-commuter-rail-could-be-electrified-for-between-800-million-and-15-billion-according-to-new-report
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MBTA commuter rail could be electrified for between $800 million and $1.5 billion according to new report
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"Mischa Wanek-Libman"
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2021-10-20T00:00:00
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The report by TransitMatters recommends use of an overhead catenary system and EMUs.
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en
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https://img.masstransitmag.com/files/base/cygnus/mass/image/uploads/1623769549390-favicon.ico
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Mass Transit
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https://www.masstransitmag.com/rail/infrastructure/article/21243102/mbta-commuter-rail-could-be-electrified-for-between-800-million-and-15-billion-according-to-new-report
|
A report published by TransitMatters, a transit advocacy organization for the Boston area, makes the case for electrifying Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority’s (MBTA) commuter rail network, saying the investment could improve trip times, operating expenditures and reduce the transportation mode’s carbon footprint.
Using international best practices as a cost basis, the report estimates electrification of the network could be done with an investment of between $800 million and $1.5 billion.
The report’s authors say, “Electrification is among the most beneficial investments that major suburban railroads can undertake.”
"Electrifying our rail network would be a win for everyone in the region," said Jarred Johnson, TransitMatters executive director. "People from Lowell or Dorchester will get faster rides into Boston and people in Dorchester and Roxbury will have fewer toxic fumes in their neighborhoods. Teamed with better service, electrification will get people out of cars and open up opportunities for housing."
The report recommends an overhead catenary system, as well as the use of electric multiple units (EMUs), both proven solutions that make electrification “off-the-shelf implementation” rather than a “bespoke project.”
“EMUs outperform other trains in every respect: speed, acceleration, energy consumption, passenger comfort, operating costs, reliability, procurement costs and maintenance costs,” the report states. “Combined, these allow electric trains to cover routes more quickly, and allow significantly more service to be provided with the same number of resources.”
Electrification of the commuter rail network was the focus of MBTA’s Rail Vision team, which published a final Rail Vision report in February 2020 following a study to identify cost-effective strategies to improve mobility and economic competitiveness of the commuter rail network.
The Rail Vision report estimated a full transformation with higher frequency service, the purchase of EMUs and electrification of the network would carry preliminary capital costs of approximately $29 billion with annual operations and maintenance costs of $643 million. This cost estimate includes the addition of 964 electric vehicles, improved stations and tracks and added accessibility at all stations.
MBTA’s existing network operates using diesel locomotives and TransitMatters’ report cost estimate does not include the purchase of EMUs, service extensions or infrastructure improvements such as station platform work.
While TransitMatters’ report says electrification is a “straightforward investment,” it recognizes three challenges for Boston’s network:
Adequate construction windows to take advantage of low-cost construction;
Possible community opposition to wires; the report believes engagement within the Boston community will be positive, but advises a robust outreach and engagement effort be planned; and
Integrating electrification with other ongoing projects; for example, track upgrades and high-platform station rebuilds are being done with futureproofing for electrification.
The report taps into international best practices from successful projects in Israel, Denmark, Norway and Britain and recommends that staff hired for any future electrification project should have direct experience with successful projects and must be hired in-house.
“In order to do the hard and necessary work of providing the transit that Metro Boston requires to thrive, our planning processes need to imitate the ones that deliver the best results around the world,” the report concludes.
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dbpedia
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https://buildingsofnewengland.com/tag/train-station/
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en
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Train Station – Buildings of New England
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"Buildings of New England"
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2023-04-30T13:52:04-04:00
|
Posts about Train Station written by Buildings of New England
|
en
|
Buildings of New England
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https://buildingsofnewengland.com/tag/train-station/
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Historic train stations are among some of my favorite types of buildings as they transport you to a different time (no pun intended). The Waterbury Railroad Depot was built in 1875 by the Central Vermont Railroad, connecting Montreal, Quebec with New London, CT and to other lines to Boston and Albany on the way. Waterbury service began in 1849, but this updated station was built later as the railway prospered and expanded. The station suffered from some deferred maintenance for decades in the mid-20th century and its fate (like many such stations) was unknown. Beginning in the late 1990s into the 2000s, Revitalizing Waterbury worked with the Great American Station Foundation, the Vermont Agency of Transportation, and Green Mountain Coffee Roasters Foundation, establishing a capital fundraising campaign meeting the goal of $1,200,000 through donations from the private sector and community members. These funds helped restore the building in phases, beginning when Keurig Green Mountain, Inc. agreed to lease the station from Revitalizing Waterbury, and created a visitor center and cafe (now Black Cap Coffee and Bakery) that has become a first-class attraction and provided an economic boost to the downtown.
Starting in 1848, rail service connecting New Haven and New London, Connecticut commenced to provide transit between two of the state’s economic centers. The New Haven and New London Railroad was completed in 1852 and almost immediately, work commenced on extending the line eastward as the New London and Stonington Railroad. This completed the “Shore Line” route between New York City and Boston through other lines and the span became re-organized and named the Shore Line Railway. One of the many village stops along the route was in Noank, in this 1858 rail depot. The small train station is covered in board-and-batten siding with an overhanging gable roof supported by brackets. In 1976, much of the shoreline track was purchased by Amtrak, which is now known as the Northeast Corridor. The Noank station was cancelled as a stop, and the building was sold from the holdings, it is now office space, seemingly for the Noank Village Boatyard.
Trinity Place Station was the Boston & Albany Railroad’s second depot for trains running outbound from its newly completed South Station. The depot was designed by Alexander Wadsworth “Waddy” Longfellow, Jr., who from Harvard University in 1876, later studying architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and then worked as senior draftsman in Henry Hobson Richardson‘s office upon his return to the United States. A. W. Longfellow was also the nephew of poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. He designed the station of pink granite with a covered platform 375 feet in length. The building long served train commuters leaving the ever-changing Back Bay neighborhood. Consolidated lines led to the station being deemed obsolete, and it was scheduled for demolition. Much of the old line route would be cleared for the right-of-way for the Mass Pike Expansion into Boston. The demolition on Trinity Place was postponed until early 1964 to allow for scenes of the movie, “The Cardinal” to be filmed there.
The coming of the railroad to Wilton, New Hampshire was largely due to the rapid increase in the number of mills and factories built in and around the East Village along the river beginning in the early 19th century. This increase was the impetus to Wilton business leaders of the time to petition the state for a charter to form the Wilton Railroad Company which was granted in 1844. The first official run of a wood-burning steam engine from Nashua City Station to the newly constructed Wilton Station occurred on Dec. 1, 1851. The small, wood-frame station was deemed obsolete, and replaced by 1860 with a more substantial structure. In this time, the town prospered, and the local mills cranked out everything from worsted yarn to wooden boxes and furniture. After thirty years of use, however, this second station began to show its age; the tin roof was rusting and it leaked. In 1888, a derrick on a wrecker train caught the side of the building and heavily damaged it, requiring the demolition of the station. By 1892, it was replaced by this new brick station. Between the World Wars, automobile use dominated the American transportation landscape, shifting demands from rail to road. In the late 40’s, a restaurant opened in part of the building, operating until the early-to-mid 50’s. The station was closed when passenger service finally ended and the building, undergoing “adaptive re-use”, into a medical center. It operated for some time as a scenic, heritage railroad stop from 2003-2006.
TOOT TOOT! Next stop, Willington, Connecticut. Historically, all of central Connecticut was occupied by various Algonquin tribes which for thousands of years inhabited the region, the larger Pequot and Mohegan, and the smaller Nipmuck, Podunk, Shenipset and Skunkamaug all sharing a common-lineage, and language. In 1720, a party of eight men, originally from England, bought 16,000 acres of the region and called it Wellington after the town in England. Willington was incorporated in 1727. Like many early towns, Willington began as a farming community with modest industry until the 19th century, when the American Industrial Revolution saw mills and factories sprouting up all along the river towns in the region. Villages spouted up in town, mostly following their geographic location in relation to the town center (South Willington, West Willington, etc.) and each had their own industry and character. By the 20th century with industry in decline, many of the former mills and villages closed up and residents moved to “greener pastures”. The town is today mostly rural and serves as a suburb to larger towns nearby.
This train depot is located in West Willington just over the town line of Tolland. Due to this, the depot was originally named Tolland Station. Rail service began here in 1850, when the New London, Willimantic and Palmer Railroad Company built a freight and passenger station near this location. The rail line was later absorbed into the larger Central Vermont Railway in 1871. The original depot burned down in 1894, and was replaced that same year by this structure. The line, and this station, were in use for passenger service until 1947, when it closed. The depot has luckily been occupied by businesses ever-since, preserving this building typology in America that we are losing every year.
The first train arrived in Gardiner, Maine in 1851. Rail here introduced a new mode of transportation for passengers and freight, which previously relied on horse or ship up the Kennebec River. When the old station was deemed too small and outdated, the Maine Central Railroad Company decided to hire Portland architect, George Burnham to complete plans for a more fitting station. This building is a mix of styles, the two I would categorize it as are Romanesque Revival and Spanish Revival. The building incorporates a number of influences of the two along with a deep overhanging roof supported by large brackets, heavy rusticated granite blocks at the base, and quoining around the windows and corners. The station was in operation until about 1960 when rail service here halted. Since that time, the building has been adaptively reused as a retail store, today as a recreational cannabis dispensary. So you can get high and look at cool architecture!
All Aboard!! The Kneeland Street Station was built at the southern edge of Downtown Boston in 1847 for the newly established Old Colony Railroad Company. By the early 1840s, the city of Boston had six major rail lines connecting it with other places including Lowell, Maine, Fitchburg, and Salem to the north, Worcester to the west and Providence to the southwest. The southeastern part of Massachusetts had yet to be served by a rail link to Boston. On March 16, 1844 the Old Colony Railroad Corporation was formed to provide a rail connection between Boston and Plymouth. Construction of the line began in South Boston in 1844 and the line opened to Plymouth in 1845. The company needed a more accessible station to the residents and businessmen of Downtown Boston, so they acquired a large parcel of land on Kneeland Street to extend the line. The corporation hired architect Gridley James Fox Bryant, who designed this stunning railroad station constructed of brick with strong stone trimmings. As was common, a large clock was affixed to the building to allow waiting passengers to know how long they would be waiting. From 1845 to 1893, the Old Colony railroad network grew extensively through a series of mergers and acquisitions with other established railroads, serving lines to Providence, Newport, Fall River, New Bedford and down the Cape. The railroad was acquired in 1893 by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, and sought to consolidate the many local stations into a larger building. They soon after began construction on Boston’s South Station, re-routing lines to that new building. They sold off the excess stations, including this one on Kneeland Street, and it was eventually demolished in 1918.
The railroad line through Crawford Notch in the White Mountains of New Hampshire was completed and opened in 1875 by the Portland and Ogdensburg Railroad, and had a transformative effect on the local economy. Soon after completion, tourists arrived in droves during the summer months to take in the area’s scenic beauty and clean air. From this, wealthy investors built large resort hotels, like the Mount Washington Hotel, to satisfy the demand of the affluent visitors. The Portland and Ogdensburg was taken over by the Maine Central Railroad in 1888, and this depot was built in 1891. It was one of the most elaborate stations built by that railroad’s Mountain Division, because of its prominent location in the mountains. The Crawford Depot presently serves as a visitor center and shop operated by the Appalachian Mountain Club. Nearby is the trailhead to Mount Willard, which has some of the best views for a modest hike.
Pennsylvania Station in Manhattan was opened in 1910, and its sheer scale immediately evoked a sense of awe. At the time it was completed, it was the largest building ever built occupying two entire city blocks, and boasted the biggest waiting room in history. Over 500 buildings were demolished for the station to make way for the Charles McKim-designed station, an icon in the Beaux-Arts style. The structure had “nine acres of travertine and granite, 84 Doric columns, a vaulted concourse of extravagant, weighty grandeur, classical splendor modeled after royal Roman baths, rich detail in solid stone, and an architectural quality in precious materials that set the stamp of excellence on a city.” Sadly, being one of the most beloved architectural gems in the city did not constitute its maintenance nor preservation.
In 1961, after numerous plans for redevelopment, air-rights were sold on the building and in 1963, Penn Station was razed. The former grand station was replaced by Madison Square Garden and Pennsylvania Plaza, an office skyscraper, all with a modernized station below. When the building was destroyed, art historian Vincent Scully famously said, “One entered the city like a god. One scuttles in now like a rat.” In 1965, two years after Penn Station’s demolition commenced, the city passed a landmarks preservation act, thereby creating the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. Additionally, Grand Central Station was proposed to be demolished later in the decade, but was saved thanks to preservation efforts.
The Southport railroad stations in Fairfield, Connecticut, are reminders of the important role of railroad passenger service in the historical development of the town which continues to this day. In Southport, there are two stations, an east-bound and west-bound, one on either side of the tracks. The older east-bound station was built in 1884 to replace a depot destroyed by fire. It is typical of the substantial brick stations built at small-town stops throughout the state in the period. The use of brick was likely to prevent fire destroying yet another station. The stations were commonly large enough to accommodate spacious waiting rooms, ticket counters, offices, restrooms, and a baggage area. The brick station was converted to a restaurant, with a modern addition by Roger Ferris + Partners completed by 2017.
The wooden west-bound station was built around 1895 as part of a massive rebuilding of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad’s main line. At this time, the railroad adopted a single design-concept for all the stations, reverting to wood construction, and limited the stylistic details. The Southport station has an interesting design however; with its saltbox-like roofline, bargeboards, and stick detailing. Imagine all the people and stories that passed through these buildings. Parents saying goodbye to children going off to college or war, businessmen and women commuting to and from work, or people like me who took it to Manhattan!
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833
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dbpedia
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3
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https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/355da4dedde84a62b079af2a85a5cf18
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en
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Where to Pilot More Frequent MBTA Commuter Rail Service
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[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Greg Hanafin"
] |
2021-05-04T21:54:58+00:00
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A Suitability Analysis Based on Measures of Access
|
en
|
/static/images/favicon-32x32.png
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ArcGIS StoryMaps
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https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/355da4dedde84a62b079af2a85a5cf18
| |||||
833
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dbpedia
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2
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https://www.amtrak.com/new-york-trips-with-train-travel
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en
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Amtrak
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We are unable to complete your request at this time. Please try again by going to Amtrak.com. If you continue to have problems, call 1-800-USA-RAIL for assistance.
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dbpedia
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https://theraillife.wordpress.com/2014/08/11/boston-subways-wonderland-trams-and-mattapan/
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en
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Boston: Subways, Wonderland, Trams and Mattapan
|
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2014-08-11T00:00:00
|
NOTE: In this blog post, I refer to certain rail vehicles as trams. Some American cities call them streetcars, others call them trolleys. Being from Melbourne Australia, they will always be trams to me. Boston has a comprehensive public transport system operated under the branding of MBTA (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority). MBTA operates buses, ferries, heavy rail (branded…
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en
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The Rail Life - Rail Tourist
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https://theraillife.wordpress.com/2014/08/11/boston-subways-wonderland-trams-and-mattapan/
|
NOTE: In this blog post, I refer to certain rail vehicles as trams. Some American cities call them streetcars, others call them trolleys. Being from Melbourne Australia, they will always be trams to me.
Boston has a comprehensive public transport system operated under the branding of MBTA (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority). MBTA operates buses, ferries, heavy rail (branded Commuter Rail), subway and trams. Single trip fares are available on all modes, but on buses, subways and trams it’s cheaper to use a “Charlie Card“; MBTA’s stored value transit card. Charlie cards are not accepted on ferries or Commuter rail, but passengers may buy tickets using the mTickets mobile phone app.
Along with the stock standard bus network, MBTA operates trolley buses and a BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) Busway. The BRT is shown as subway maps as the Silver line, operating as 4 interlinked routes (SL1, SL2, SL3 & SL4). Due to the tunnels on routes SL1 & SL2, dual mode diesel-electric buses are used; the buses are powered by overhead wires (like a standard trolley bus) on the underground section of the route. For the rest of the route, a diesel generator provides electricity to the electric motors.
Although Boston’s ferries operate under the banner of MBTA, they are operated by private companies. There are inner harbour ferries as well as Commuter Boats operating to Hull (on the Nantasket Penninsula) and Hingham (south of Boston). Ferries also operate to Logan Airport for a premium fare.
Commuter Rail services operate 14 routes throughout Massachusetts and Rhode Island, sharing some tracks and stations with Amtrak services. Trains are painted in a striking livery of purple and silver with yellow stripes. A mixture of single and double deck cars are used, and all trains are powered by diesel locomotives. More information is available here.
Commuter rail and Amtrak services radiate out from 2 stations in the downtown area of Boston; North Station and South Station. There is no heavy rail connection between the 2, passengers wishing to connect must take an Orange and Red subway train, transferring at Downtown Center station. The heavy rail services use North or South station as follows:
North Station
Amtrak Downeaster (to Portland and Brunswick in Maine)
Rockport
Newberyport
Haverhill
Lowell
Fitchburg
South Station
Amtrak Northeast Corridor (to New York City, Philadelphia and Washington DC)
Amtrak Lake Shore Limited (to Chicago)
Greenbush
Plymouth
Kingston (Massachusetts)
Middleborough/Lakeville
Stoughton
Wickford junction and Providence (Rhode Island)
Forge Park
Needham Heights
Worcester
Boston has 3 subway lines; the Red line, the Orange line and the Blue line. All lines operate a combination of subway and above ground operation The Orange line crosses both the Red line (at Downtown Crossing) and the Blue line (at State), however the Blue and Red lines do not cross. The Orange and Red lines operate 600v DC 3rd rail service, but the Blue line is something slightly different.
The outer terminus of the Blue line is called Wonderland, so I thought I’d go for a ride to check it out. The service started off as a normal subway journey, running through slightly smaller subway tunnels than the Red and Orange lines. The train emerged from the tunnels and the train stopped at Airport station (where a free shuttle bus is available to and from Logan airport). When the train stopped in the station, half of the lights went out in the train, and it went silent. Suspecting that there had been a power outage, I was surprised when the lights went back on and the train started gently humming again. We departed without delay or fanfare. What had happened was a standard mode of operation for the blue line. at Airport station, trains change between 3rd rail (with pick-up shoes) and overhead wires (with pantograph) for their power supply. I hadn’t noticed the pantographs when I boarded due to the tight clearances and low roof lines in the tunnels. After this unexpected power switch, the train made a normal journey for the remaining 5 stations to the terminus at Wonderland.
I didn’t know what to expect at Wonderland; a theme park, a housing development, a mega mall… but what I found was much more welcome on this warm autumn day. Across the road from the station was Revere Beach; sandy and calm on the shore of Broad Sound. People were swimming, and a cruise ship was making its way slowly out towards the Atlantic Ocean, there was barely a breath of wind, so I took my shoes off and walked through the warm water at the beach edge.
After soaking up the unexpectedly relaxed atmosphere, I headed back to the station. The rail operations at Wonderland are interesting; trains arrive on the outbound platform, run through a pair of crossovers to one of 2 dead end tracks, then back into the inbound platform. This provides good opportunity to photograph the blue line trains, as all is easily visible standing on either platform.
Boston’s trams are divided up into 2 different types; the Green Line and the Mattapan High Speed line. The Green line radiates out from dowtown Boston, and like San Francisco and Philadelphia, the runs through tunnels in the downtown area.
The Green line actually consists of 4 lines (or branches):
A Branch – Waterton (Closed)
B Branch – Boston College
C Branch – Cleveland Circle
D Branch – Riverside
E Branch – Heath
The Green line uses relatively modern Light Rail vehicles, which are capable of operating in multi unit (I saw up to 3 trams couple together in service). Trams in use on green line services are:
Type 7 LRV (number 3600 – 3699) made by Kinki-Sharyo 1986 – 1988
Type 7 LRV (numbers 3700 – 3719) made by Kinki-Sharyo 1997
Type 8 LRV (numbers 3800 – 3894) made by AnsaldoBreda 1998 – 2007
The Mattapan High Speed Line is something different. After the interesting discovery of the Norristown High Speed Line in Philadelphia, I decided to take a look at this line for myself. The line runs from the south-western terminus of the Red Line (Ashmont) and is shown on subway maps at being a continuation of the line.
After leaving the Red line train, signs directed me out of Ashmont station into a forecourt.The forecourt was on an upper level with tracks laid into the concrete. The tracks led from a ramp up from ground level, up to a stop, did a 180º turn and led to another ramp back down to ground level. Looking down the ramp, I could see the line was ballasted, with a small ground level platform at a stop in the distance.
I waited at the Ashmont stop with a growing crowd, not knowing what to expect. After about 10 minutes, I saw a rail vehicle approaching. It was painted orange and rounded, with a centre headlight, which made it look like an older vehicle. As it approached, I found to my delight that it was a vintage PCC streetcar from 1943!
PCC (Presidents’ Conference Committee) streetcars were widely used across North America from the mid 1930s. They were designed and built as a result of a gathering of Presidents of streetcar operators to try to modernise and standardise rolling stock. They were the next generation of trams in North America, with modern control equipment, better brakes, smoother suspension and better passenger amenities. Most North American cities with streetcars saw them operate at one stage, with some having large fleets (Toronto – 765, Chicago – 683, Pittsburgh – 666, Philadelphia – 568). PCC cars remain in service in a handful of American cities; Boston (Mattapan High Speed Line), San Francisco (Market St Railway), Philadelphia (SEPTA route 15) and Kenosha Wisconsin (Kenosha Streetcar Society).
I boarded, and rode the vintage vehicle along the reserved right of way, first through dense housing and then through leafy parkland along the Neponset river. The old tram performed well, with fast acceleration and braking, riding smoothly on the well maintained track. The journey from Ashmont to Mattapan was enjoyable, but disappointingly short, at just over 8 minutes. At Mattapan, the stop is adjacent to the tram depot, and I spent some time photographing the trams and watching the arrivals run around a very tight reversing loop. I walked the 2.3 miles (3.7 km) back to Ashmont, finding plenty of good photographic locations for this unique line along the pleasant riverside walk, before catching the Red Line subway back to Boston.
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Railroad - Early American, Steam Engines, Expansion
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1999-07-26T00:00:00+00:00
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Railroad - Early American, Steam Engines, Expansion: As in England, the adoption of a railed pavement in North America was originally tied to gravity operation but later was adapted for the locomotive. In the United States the earliest railed pavements were in or adjacent to Boston, where in 1807 (when it was decided to flatten the top of Beacon Hill in order to enlarge the Massachusetts statehouse) a tramway was constructed to carry gravel to the base of the hill to begin filling the Back Bay. The first railway in Canada was constructed by British military engineers in the 1820s at the Citadel at Québec city; it
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/favicon.png
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Encyclopedia Britannica
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https://www.britannica.com/technology/railroad/Early-American-railroads
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As in England, the adoption of a railed pavement in North America was originally tied to gravity operation but later was adapted for the locomotive. In the United States the earliest railed pavements were in or adjacent to Boston, where in 1807 (when it was decided to flatten the top of Beacon Hill in order to enlarge the Massachusetts statehouse) a tramway was constructed to carry gravel to the base of the hill to begin filling the Back Bay. The first railway in Canada was constructed by British military engineers in the 1820s at the Citadel at Québec city; it used a similar cable-operated tramway to ascend the heights of Cape Diamond. But it was in 1825 on the Granite Railroad just south of Boston on the side of Great Blue Hill that several of the characteristic features of American railroading, such as the swiveling truck and the four-wheel truck, were first put into use.
The earliest locomotives used in North America were of British design. In 1829 the Stourbridge Lion was the first to run on a North American railroad. But on the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, where the Stourbridge Lion ran, as on the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, the first in Canada, Stephenson locomotives proved unsuited to the crude track and quickly derailed. The British locomotive had virtually no constructive impact on North American locomotives. The only residual characteristic was the 4-foot 8.5-inch gauge, which was often thought to be a misfortune in being too narrow.
It was the brute strength of American locomotives, their great tolerance of cheap and crude track, their durability, their economy of operation, and their simplicity of maintenance that determined almost from the first years of operation that there would be a distinctively American railroad sharing little with British practice. It seems reasonable to argue that once the British had shown that railroads could be made to work the Americans reinvented them for a very different terrain, economic climate, and demographic level. The creation of the American railroad was a contemporaneous but not a derivative development.
The American railroad came into existence because incomplete geographic knowledge caused the first British colonists to plant early entrepôts in what were later understood to be unfavourable locations. The uplands in central Massachusetts were already being abandoned for agricultural use when the railroad arrived in that region in the mid-1830s. Only when in the 1840s a railroad reached into the agricultural belt in the American Midwest could the port of Boston find a truly great hinterland. And by 1825 the Erie Canal had created a water connection between the Midwest and the port of New York.
Two other colonial ports mirrored the conditions in Boston. In Maryland, the rivers did not serve the colonial port at Baltimore. The Susquehanna just to the north and the Potomac just to the south had falls near their mouths. A port had grown up at Alexandria on the Virginia side of the Potomac; and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania built a canal and later a railroad to keep inland trade from passing southward to Baltimore. In South Carolina the main port, Charleston, was, like Boston, on a short stream offering little access to the interior.
These “mislocated” colonial ports were among the largest American cities, but they were denied the easy access to the interior that seemed essential for growth as the country spread inward. The creation of the railroad offered a solution to the access problem. Competition among the Atlantic ports meant that those with the poorest river connections to the West—Baltimore, Boston, and Charleston—became the earliest and strongest proponents of railroad promotion.
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
The first to take an active role was Baltimore, which in the 1820s had become the second largest American city. On July 4, 1828, Baltimore merchants began the construction of a railroad from the harbour to some point, then undetermined, on the Ohio River. The results of adopting British practice were generally bad, forcing the engineers to design a railroad from scratch. Locomotives designed and built in Baltimore were stronger than those of Robert Stephenson. Leveling rods kept those locomotives on the relatively poor track, and a swiveling leading truck guided them into tight curves. On the Camden and Amboy Railroad, another pioneering line, the engineer John Jervis invented the T- cross-section rail that greatly cheapened and simplified the laying of track when combined with the wooden crosstie also first introduced in the United States. Simplicity and strength became the basic test for railroad components in North America. On cars the individual trucks were given four wheels to allow heavier loads to be carried, and the outside dimensions of cars were enlarged.
In western Maryland the engineers were faced with their steepest grades. These came to be known as the “ruling grade”—that is, the amount of locomotive power required for the transit of a line was determined by its steepest grade. Robert Stephenson had thought 1 percent was the steepest grade a locomotive could surmount. At the top of the climb over the Allegheny Front the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) engineers had to accept a 17-mile grade of about 2.2 percent, which they managed to achieve with the stronger American engines. Adopted later as the ruling grade for the Canadian Pacific and a number of other North American lines, the 2.2 percent figure has become so fixed that it now ranks second only to standard gauge as a characteristic of the North American railroad.
The B&O was finally completed in December 1852 to Wheeling, Virginia (now in West Virginia). But by that time it was only the first of what turned out to be six trans-Appalachian railroads completed in 1851–52.
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https://forums.auran.com/threads/the-abandoned-and-existing-lines-in-my-area-a-bit-of-rr-tycoon-in-the-early-days.168500/
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The abandoned and existing lines in my area a bit of RR Tycoon in the early days!
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2023-09-11T05:39:42+01:00
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The B&M and its predecessor competitors played a game of Railroad Tycoon with the smallest of the lines gaining control of the competition and winning in...
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Trainz
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https://forums.auran.com/threads/the-abandoned-and-existing-lines-in-my-area-a-bit-of-rr-tycoon-in-the-early-days.168500/
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The B&M and its predecessor competitors played a game of Railroad Tycoon with the smallest of the lines gaining control of the competition and winning in the end. Today, the B&M no longer exists sadly due to Guilford and later Pan Am Railways destroying much of the rail infrastructure in the region, and more recently with the PAR merger into CSX there will be fewer and fewer traces of the old blue-dip diesels.
Here's a map of the lines both existing and abandoned in my area where this played out.
Legend:
Solid lines, all colors, are existing and operating today
Dotted are abandoned.
Red = Eastern Railroad
Yellow = Boston and Lowell
Blue = Boston and Maine
The purplish-colored dotted lines near Marblehead are supposed to be red. I decided to refer to those as the original Eastern and instead of B&M.
Other lines shown:
Green = New Haven
Light Blue = Worcester, Nashua, Rochester and Portland
Up until 1906, the Boston and Maine (B&M) competed fiercely for its life with two major competitors on either side. The Boston and Lowell, incorporated in 1832 controlled the shots for the fledgling Andover and Wilmington which was the original segment of the present-day Boston and Maine and incorporated around the same time. The A&W ran from its present-day connection in Wilmington all the way to what is today, North Andover (North Andover separated in 1854, with Andover inc. in 1646) where it connected to other segments that made up the present-day B&M.
This small railroad struggled daily with the B&L which controlled the connection as it made the A&W trains wait for hours on end. In the 1840s, the B&M had enough and built its own line between Wilmington Jct. and Reading. The B&L brought the B&M to court because no one else was supposed to connect to Boston from that area except for the B&L which had a special decree drawn up by the state congress.
The B&L, however, wasn't going to let the B&M grow any more than it did and set out to chop into the line from the west. This was to become the Lawrence and Lowell.
This short connector route lasted until around 1925 and was supposed to run along the Merrimack River and instead was rerouted south through Tewkesbury due to wealthy investors wanting a railroad station. This mostly rural area was a small source of revenue on this line, meaning a very, very small amount of revenue. The other being the state infirmary which received hoppers of coal for the power plant. Never a money-maker, the sole purpose was to drain business away from the B&M by pulling the lucrative freight from Lawrence and sending it via the B&L to Boston.
Today, a mile-long stub is still in service in Lawrence as it connects to the South Lawrence Industrial Park customers. The customers include a Perlite insulation company, a couple of plastics companies and a distributor of some sort.
In the mid-1870s, the B&M built the Lowell Junction connection between its mainline south of Ballardvale to Lowell. This sent the B&L into a tizzy because they again tried to block this move through a legislative move, but the court intervened just as it did when the B&M built its own line through Reading and Wakefield.
The B&L also tried to hit the Eastern Railroad, or perhaps cut the B&M off from the south by building the Peabody and Lowell. This line ran from Tewkesbury Junction to Peabody via North Reading. There wasn't much in the way of business in the middle and the line crossed the B&M at Wilmington Jct. The middle of this line too disappeared in 1922-25 and short stubs remained in operation until Guilford did them in. The former Lawrence and Lowell portion was active up to Tewkesbury center until the mid-1980s, and the Peabody to West Middleton was active until the same period. Today all is gone with portions now of course turned into a rail trail. Still to be found, in the woods is an old diamond where the line crossed the former B&M Wakefield to Newburyport branch. There was a small junction put in during the 1970s so the trains could run to West Middleton to remove the really unsafe crossing over Rt 1.
The Eastern Railroad too went after the smaller B&M. Incorporated in the 1840s, the Eastern ran along the east coast serving the big cities of Lynn, Salem, Newburyport, and Portsmouth as it continued on its journey to Portland. This railroad was built for speed. It's double tracked mainline was nearly flat as it followed the coastline. The trains literally flew on this line making the Eastern a favored passenger route. The company also served many commuters on its Newburyport to Boston and Rockport branch. This southern portion is still in existence today. The northern part came up in three different eras. The first to go in the early 1950s was the portion between Portsmouth and Portland. This was due to a cash-saving move caused by poor management and overspending by Patrick McGuiness who put more money into his pockets than he did the B&M and New Haven which he controlled.
The Portion between Newburyport and Hampton came up after the swing bridge over the Merrimack got stuck, and finally recently the Hampton to Portsmouth came up after Pan Am Railways chased away any remaining customers. Today the northern section, except for the small segment near Seabrook Powerplant, is a rail trail. There are hopes, as in wishful thinking, to restore rail service along this corridor but that won't occur any time soon. The Portsmouth end of the line is served via another branch coming in from the west.
The Eastern attempted two digs at the Boston and Maine. The first being the Essex Railroad. This very poor line was built wholly within Essex County, thus that's where it got its name. I've discussed this line in more detail when I showed pictures of the railroad spikes my brother found in North Andover. This line never had much business to begin with and was bankrupt within its first year or two of existence. The ends of the line, meaning North Andover (Andover at the time as mentioned above), and the southern Peabody and Danvers end were the busiest. The remaining portion served the very small rural town of Middleton and nothing else in between.
The line was abandoned in 1922-25 in the middle as expected between the Steven's Mills and Danvers Center. Both ends remained operational until the 1980s when Guilford ripped them up. The North Andover end went first shortly after the Davis and Furber Mills closed even though there were other businesses on the line that used rail. The Steven's Mills were long gone by then anyway having burned down suspiciously in the late 1960s and the tracks were removed to High Street North Andover. The eastern end between Danvers and Peabody lasted a bit longer, or until vandals burned the trestle across the Danvers River. Guilford was discouraging business on the line anyway and used this as an excuse to cut it completely. Today, this portion is railbanked with future plans, I mean dreams for a connection to Danvers again.
And finally, the other Eastern Railroad branch.
The South Reading Branch built between Peabody and what is today Wakefield Center, was another money loser with the sole purpose to eat into the B&M territory and siphon off business. Like the other lines, there was little business in the middle and after the B&M took control the middle of this line was cut as well. The Peabody portion still sees quite a bit of business today with a medical film and gelatin plant located on the line. The City of Peabody retains ownership of the remaining portion of the line up to the end even though there's little active business there today. Guilford ensured the customers saw poor service and discouraged them from using rail, thus when they were going to pull the tracks, the city purchased the stub. The Wakefield portion lasted until the late 1980s early 1990s. The line ran to an industrial park in Montrose (Lynnfield) and served a gravel pit. Today, this is gone although some of the track is in place still today.
We can still ride on a portion of this line when we drive down I-95/Rt. 128. The interstate near Montrose makes a sharp jog as the highway follows the former ROW as it turns south towards I-93 in Reading.
In the end, the little B&M won the battle. The company grew stronger and more powerful and had the financing behind them from JP Morgan and others. During their peak between 1906 and 1916, they purchased the Eastern Railroad and The Boston and Lowell as well as their other nemesis, the Worcester, Nashua, Rochester, and Portland. This line was a siphon of Central Mass. business to Portland. In 1922, this line was gone and torn up. It was never a money maker due to its cyclic nature of the passenger business and its line had too many hills and sharp curves.
By 1916 the B&M was bankrupt, yet again, thanks this time to JP Morgan taking the cash and pocketing it during the panic of 1916. After reorganizing, in 1922 the railroad set about abandoning these redundant spurs along with many, many others. You can read about these here:
Abandonment Notices — Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society (bmrrhs.org)
It's a dry, but sometimes interesting read as it shows why these lines were removed, along with some others shown on the map. The Lawrence and Lowell for instance, only had $8.36 in passenger revenue the last month before the line was abandoned!
Attachments
Map.jpg
I can see the map fine. That's weird. I'll download it if I can and replace it with a copy located on the Trainz Gallery. This has been an issue since the forum upgrade.
@rwk
And why did the B&M abandon its line from Ossipee, NH to Conway, NH? Three miles north of Silver Lake was used for the Silver Lake tourist railroad a few years ago but it closed, and north of Conway to North Conway and up the ex-MEC is the Conway Scenic.
This portion was abandoned during the early 1970s when the B&M was bankrupt again this time from Patrick McGuiness. McGuiness gained control initially of the New Haven Railroad then very quickly the Boston and Maine during the 1950s. His wife did the weird logo design for both railroads. McGuiness was a scum that set about siphoning off and pocketing the revenue from both railroads. His downfall came in the early 1960s when he sold off the B&M's new Talgo train for scrap and pocketed the cash. He went to jail for this and also for insider trading. In addition to bankrupting the B&M, he did that to the New Haven as well at the same time. Sadly, the New Haven got absorbed into the Penn Central rather reluctantly and got screwed over by that company as well.
Once the damage was done, with declining business and increased costs, the railroad faced the inevitable and cut branches including the White Mountain Branch above Ossipee starting about 1970 or 1972. Up until that time, there were daily trains from Boston to Alton Bay, New Hampshire and trains to Rochester, NH where people could take the ski trains up to Mt. Whittier and Conway and people could take the train to Wolfeboro especially in the summer because of the location on Lake Winnipesaukee. There were also daily freights that ran between Rochester and other towns up to Intervale where the railroad interchanged with the MEC. Sadly, the MEC's Moutain Division met the same fate in the mid-1980s under Guilford ownership where the Conway Scenic runs today.
Today, the line is railbanked by the state of New Hampshire along with the Mountain Division and there have been long discussions off and on about reopening passenger service on the line from Rochester north again to Conway and beyond. New Hampshire being New Hampshire and anti-rail, and anti-spending on anything but highways, there's little chance that line will see any business again. I'm sorry to hear about the Silver Lake.
@Forester1
I agree. It's sad to see the lines gone. Many of the more recent abandonments, such as the Eastern Railroad above Newburyport, would relieve that daily traffic jam on I-95 from Portsmouth to Boston as it moved the commuters from the highway and backroads on to trains again. I remember when trains used the Merrimack River drawbridge. There was passenger service beyond Newburyport to Amesbury, another branch gone now, and up to Portsmouth until the late 1960s. When the bridge went, the passenger service was discontinued on both lines and freight continued from the Portsmouth end down to Amesbury by doing a reverse move to reach that branch. That branch disappeared in the 1980s, thanks to Guilford and is now a rail trail with no chance of being returned to service thanks to a Walmart being built across the ROW in one location.
The Marblehead branch is another line. The traffic in the greater Salem area, including Peabody, Marblehead, and Danvers outright sucks. There are only two backroads into Marblehead. These state roads, Rt. 129 and Rt.114, are horrible and the ride up Rt. 114 from North Andover to Marblehead takes almost an hour due to the congestion for a trip that's about 22 miles if that. Rt. 129 isn't much better as that road heads in from Lynn and the back side of Salem and Peabody, and that road too has the same kind of icky congestion.
Marblehead is a short peninsula and once had three stops on the main branch between Swampscott and Marblehead center. Both of these stations were busy until the line's closure in the early 1960s and there was a lot of outcries back then when that occurred. Today, the line is of course a rail trail and the problem now is NIMBYs. Marblehead is one of the snootiest areas on the Northshore and they definitely would not allow trains to pass through Cliftondale, Clifton and into Marblehead center.
I wonder why Conway Scenic makes no effort to acquire at least the Silver Lake portion, about 3 miles, and an additional mile of track up to Conway Station but there is a big breach through Coleman Concrete in Conway where a dirt road was put over the tracks. I guess they feel that south of Conway is not as scenic as the line to the north through the mountains. But, the part that Silver Lake ran on was scenic with the lakes. There is also some rail gone just south of Silver Lake station in Madison and the road crossing is gone south of the station. The problem with much of NH except for the southern portion which Amtrak serves, is sparse population so Amtrak or any other operator would not make a profit on regular passenger service such as to North Conway but the tourist railroad does well. There's also Lake Winnepesaukee and Hobo Railroad, and the steam trains at Clark's Trading Post in Lincoln, which is also the starting point for the Hobo Railroad. I never actually visited NH, I'm from eastern PA, but I knew all about those tourist railroads for years through books, brochures, and now the internet.
There has been discussion of opening up the White Mountain branch completely again from Rochester NH as is reopening the full former MEC Mountain Division via Rochester and Portland. Removing a dirt road isn't an issue if there's a reason to do so but part of the problem is the state of New Hampshire. NH is a totally anti-rail state. They will put millions into their highways and nothing into the railroads. Recently, the Hobo Railroad had to fight for its life. Up near Laconia, a group of rich NIMBYs, with the help of some big lawyers and a state representative who had ties to the anti-rail and pro trail group, were pushing to lift the rails and put in trails instead. The railroad won and is able to continue operating for now. There is some freight up there still and this may have been the saving grace. Note - for now. The old Winnipesaukee Railroad is now a trail. It was embargoed in the 1980s and for a while, or maybe they still do operate on what's left of it, rail speeders use the ROW.
Much has been lost in New Hampshire while highways are being expanded. The Portsmouth, NH to Salisbury, MA portion of the Eastern Railroad is now a trail. The bridge is out in Newburyport over the Merrimack and there have been thoughts to reopen that line to Portsmouth to alleviate the traffic on I-95. Many other cuts occurred recently but the worst of all is the former Northern Railway. This B&M-owned railroad ran between Concord, NH and White River Jct., VT. The line was operated until the early 1980s and then sat idle. There were serious talks about using this route as a direct Boston to Montreal line but when push came to shove, New Hampshire backed out and the line became a bike and snowmobile trail instead because it meant spending some cash on railroads. Only a couple of stubs are operated in Concord and Laconia, NH today. There are many other lines ripped up - too many to mention.
The other loss is the former Manchester and Lawrence. This line is now buried under Manchester Airport in the north and expanded I-93 has taken parts of the ROW. When I-93 was being expanded, there were supposed to be provisions for commuter rail including rebuilding the M&L, but that never happened. Today, the line is a trail all the way through Methuen, MA and expanded I-93 still has traffic backed up from Exit 4 in New Hampshire all the way to I-495 and beyond during weekday commuter hours, and Nashua gained a multi-lane highway interchange and cross-city highway at the same time with similar traffic problems on I-3 from the junction with I-93 near Manchester all the way through to Bedford MA. With most of the traffic on both of these roads coming from New Hampshire.
That's really unfortunate, because from what I was trying to learn is that some of those lines were and still struggling to turn a profit, sounds eerily similar to what happened in Britain with that so called modernization plan in the late 50's and 60's, but as far as certain railroad management is concerned, they really made a lot of bad decisions and is beyond corrupt no wonder why the railroad tracks had to be taken up in the areas affected, but if the talk of restoring rail service for areas wherever feasible,I say go for it, that and the fact that the new haven did not spare a single steam engine from the scrapper's torch while dieselizing, and some of the paint schemes are either ugly or questionable at best.
Indeed. The rail companies were struggling to keep their heads above water and were ripe for the taking by investors who saw the opportunity to pull them apart like vultures. Patrick McGuiness was one of the more notorious ones but David Fink and his son were right up there as well.
Patrick McGuiness was not kind to either the New Haven or Boston and Maine. His main goal was to maximize the profits for the stockholders and to cash out what he could for himself. In some ways, this sounds like modern management of big businesses. During McGuiness's tenure on both companies, his wife designed the logos and paint schemes. No one was particularly happy with the designs because here in New England, people are pretty conservative about things such as that. Both railroads had stylish logo designs but they weren't over the top until McGuiness took over. During McGuiness's era, he cut the long-distance passenger service on the B&M starting around 1952. One of the first trains to go was the Boston to Troy, NY along with the tracks. The other famous trains went including the Boston to Portland Flying Yankee and he abandoned and leveled the Portland passenger terminal in the process. Local trains too were cut or severely reduced including the Marblehead branch mentioned, trains serving the Lakes region in New Hampshire, the White Mountain branch, and many others. He also deferred maintenance on both the New Haven and the Boston and Maine to a point that derailments were occurring and passenger trains were outright filthy. He also scrapped the Boston and Maine's then new Fairbanks Morse Talgo train, and this is what put him in jail. He sold the equipment and put the profits in his own pocket.
After he left his president's position, both railroads found themselves in dire straits. There were other contributing factors such as business moving to trucks on the then new nearby interstate highways and industry changing from manufacturing to a service-based industry base, but that didn't mean the railroads couldn't have survived. When McGuiness had taken over, both roads were in pretty good shape but when he left, they were trashed. What kept the scrappers from pulling up the rails for both railroads was their commuter service. Both railroads hauled thousands of passengers daily in and out of the big cities such as New York City, Boston, Worcester, and Springfield and the lines formed the backbone for connections to the rest of the country. When the Penn Central came along in 1969, it was the ICC that forced them to purchase the New Haven - a railroad they didn't want. As a result, the New Haven suffered and when Conrail got the Penn Central, they inherited a very broken-down system. The suspicious fire on the Poughkeepsie bridge really was the nail in the coffin for the New Haven and for many other connecting railroads such as the Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh and New England, and the Leigh and Hudson River because this line was an outside connection to the Northeast outside of the crowded New York City metro area, making for a more efficient connection for those roads. Many people think this was a deliberate action by Penn Central to hurt their competition and force the traffic onto their own lines.
The Boston and Maine survived because in the 1960s, the state of Massachusetts formed the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority, albeit on a shoestring and did not join Conrail. The state authority took over the operations of all commuter rail, trolley, subway, and bus service in the greater Boston area and has since expanded its service in conjunction with other regional services in other areas across Massachusetts and down to Providence, RI. At one time, they also ran to Concord, New Hampshire but New Hampshire didn't want to pay their subsidy and that service was canceled.
With the state taking over the passenger rail service, they also took ownership of the rail infrastructure. Most lines within Massachusetts are now state owned but outside of the commuter area in greater Boston, are maintained by the individual railroads that operate the lines while the MBTA maintains those tracks within the commuter area. This took the expensive maintenance out of the B&M's hands and allowed them to focus on operations instead. At the time, the Boston and Maine ran commuter trains out of the northside, meaning North Station and Penn Central, later Conrail ran the southside out of South Station. When Conrail gave up their commuter operations, the B&M inherited that operation as well. At this time, the B&M had the largest fleet of Budd RDC's in the world. Connecticut did a similar thing with their CDOT and they work closely with both MetroNorth and Amtrak to provide commuter service between Springfield and New Haven, via Hartford and in and out of the greater New York City region into Connecticut.
This assistance, however, didn't stop the B&M from heading into bankruptcy where they remained until the early 80s. They had just turned a profit when Guilford saw a low hanging fruit ready to pluck and the cycle started all over again. Hopefully now that CSX has taken over everything that cycle will cease.
The New York central was not any better to go along with what you said, John, the not just those railroads mentioned in your post, because it is from what I can gather, not only did that railroads president at the time the name I'm not going to mention, scrapped all of the Hudson and Niagara engines before they had a chance to be preserved, we got lucky with 2 4-8-2 Mohawks, a 0-6-0 Switcher, and a 4-4-0 American, but, back on track, the infamous merger with the Pennsylvania railroad since both of them were struggling, eventually the those involved got absorbed into Conrail back in the 70's, but as far as the New Haven and Boston and Maine, it's really inexcusable for what happened to both of them , point is that some of those lines could have been another railroad, if they had better management and made better financial choices, they would have possibly been around today, what a messy situation to be in, for those reasons, that's why I prefer the Southern, incompetence especially to the high brass who were in charge at that time had no place in the railroading world.
Yup, the NYC did some massive "modernizing" of their rolling stock and it's sad to see these great locomotives turned into scrap. Yes, both the big railroads were in tough shape at the time. Their empires were huge, but that merger was one that was headed to disaster. The management was totally working against each other instead of working together to run the company. In a way, this is like the merger of Compaq, Dell, and HP in our modern times. The same PC management ended up running Guilford and did to the MEC, D&H, and B&M what they did to the Penn Central.
New England railroads for some reason were always that low hanging fruit even back during the B&M and NH heyday. JP Morgan got ahold of the two companies and while he put a lot of money into them, his purpose was to corner the traffic coming in and out of the Northeast. New England at the time was not only an agricultural region, but also a manufacturing center for many products including shoes, textiles, and other manufactured goods. His control came to an end during the Panic of 1916. He had made some poor investments and rather than file for bankruptcy himself, he caved the B&M and NH by taking the cash out of the railroads to pay his debts. This forced the two railroads into bankruptcy causing them to reorganize in the early 20s and trim many lines. It was then the B&M got rid of the Worcester, Rochester, Nashua, and Portland and completely cut up the Essex Railroad. Neither of these lines were profitable and were the first to go.
The New York Central, in addition to dealing with a large sprawling network with a shrinking traffic base, was saddled with high property taxes. NY State, like New Jersey at the time, really taxed the railroads heavily. There's a video about this on YouTube. The then president of the NYC, Alfred Perlman, said that the railroads were responsible for their own maintenance and paid heavy taxes, their taxes were used to subsidize the highways and airlines that competed against them. This unfortunately is still true today.
Yikes,I'm sure, if one were to look on Google maps to find any traces of where the two railroads were unprofitable lines that were taken up, if anything ,I find it outright pathetic that the so called personal that you mentioned John could be ever allowed to be either president or vice President of the affected companies, I mean look at the catastrophic damage that was done as a result, bottom line, if any of that happened on a railroad that was mine that I built with blood, sweat, tears and the most important thing is money, I'd be steaming mad, waiting to take those people to court.
I would be fuming as well but these deeds occurred long after the founders were gone. The B&M and NH were built in the 1830s and 1840s and these things started in the late 1910s, 50s, and 80s. You are spot on, it's all about money and corporate greed. Guilford for example was formed by the owners of American Filter Corporation which also ran a railroad tie company in Maine. They had the backing of Timothy Mellon who was looking for railroads to buy basically because he liked trains. For him, this was one big tax write-off as the company was run on a shoestring with nothing put into it while the property was sold off underneath the railroads for other purposes. Patrick McGuiness and his hacks went to jail for what they did. The SEC fined them for insider trading and got McGuiness on theft charges.
The problem I see is the railroads got pwn'd in the end. The states took what they could out of the companies in taxes on their infrastructure and property at much higher rates than other companies would've paid. The railroads not only built, and maintained their property, but they also paid the employees to run the operations all the while the states and government was taking their money and using that to subsidize the competition as I said above.
Sadly, this is still going on today. Management got the hair brain idea of running trains on that so-called Precision Scheduling with 3-mile-long freights tying up mainlines because the companies did away with the classification yards. This wasn't for more efficient operations and was more to cut the labor costs because they needed fewer employees to run the railroad. From what I read management wants to cut the crews further to just the engineer with no one else to run a 3-mile-long freight. We saw what can happen with these freights as they tie up roads, and derail.
If you noticed, it's not the railroads that were run by railroad men that do this to the companies. These men worked their way up through the ranks and had pride in the companies they worked for and ran. The people that do that are those that came in like locusts on a cornfield are MBAs and big stock and investment companies who saw the railroads as a way to make a quick buck at the expense of everyone else. A good example of this is the MM&Q disaster in Lac Mégantic, Quebec. The locomotives were so bad that one of them caught fire and the track was so bad on the line that there were broken rails all over. CP Rail discovered the mess with the tracks when they did an inspection of the line during the purchase.
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Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society
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The Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society, Inc. is composed of individuals who share a common interest in the history and operations of the Boston & Maine Railroad.
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Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society
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B&MRRHS ONLINE ARCHIVES
The items linked on this page are representative of the types of materials that can be found at our physical archive at Lowell
PART 1. REFERENCE MATERIALS
Updated February 22, 2023
Abandonments — See ABANDONMENT NOTICES page
Accidents and Weather Events, Notable, compiled by Rick Nowell
Amesbury Branch History by Richard Nichols. Part 1. Part 2. Part 3.
Andover and Wilmington Railroad Map, drawn by Franklin K. Haggerty
Authority For Expenditure Records. Selected, compiled and annotated by Robert P. Fuller. Transcribed by Mark Fecteau
First Series. AFE No. 1 (1910) through 6128 (1923)
Introduction to Second Series
Second Series. AFE No. 2 (1920) through AFE No. 39,765 (1970)
Bellows Falls Creamery, by Brad Blodget
Bill Gove New England Logging Collection. Description of the collection with an inventory compiled by Mal Sockol and Eric DiVirgilio
B&M Bulletin Index through Vol. XXXIII, No. 4 (2023), compiled by Jack Dziadul
B&M Bulletin Index compiled by Dick Lynch. (Through Vol. XXVI, No. 1)
B&MRR Employees Magazine Index compiled by Brad Blodget
B&MRR Employees Magazine Index compiled by Dick Lynch (A - Kl)
B&MRR Employees Magazine Index compiled by Dick Lynch (Kn - Z)
B-15 (2-6-0) Mogul large format drawing list
Boston and Lowell Railroad. A Pioneer Railroad and How It Was Built
Boston and Lowell Railroad (compiled by Brad MacGowan, courtesy of UMass Lowell Library)
Lowell Before the Civil War
Plan of Lowell Village, Boyden, 1835
Boston and Lowell Railroad (Narrative, from Summer Saunterings by the B & L (1885))
Locomotive Race of 1851
Along the Route of the Boston and Lowell
Early Days of Railroading in Lowell
Boston and Maine Industries, Inc. Exchange Offer to Shareholders of Boston and Maine Corporation (11 Feb 1969)
Boston Terminal Photo File Organization, prepared by Dan O’Brien
C Class (4-6-0) Ten-Wheeler large format drawing list
Car Disposition Records, scanned/transcribed by Ken Akerboom
Record of individual car dispositions (Sold, scrapped, transferred to work service, etc.)
Currently only freight (not passenger) cars.
Excel Transcription
Scans of original pages available and derived data here (done!)
Car Record Books, scanned/transcribed by Ken Akerboom
Record of freight, passenger, and, sometimes, “Rail Motor Cars” (i.e. EMC and Budd RDC)
Proof-reading has been done on all index files. Errata from the first versions has been highlighted in yellow.
ALSO NOTE: PDFs are mostly about 18-19 MB!
Car Acquisition Books (1899-1917)
Purchases only
PDF index (updated 17-Oct-2020)
Excel Index (updated 17-Oct-2020)
Scans of original pages available here
Car Books (1923 - 1960)
Include purchases, re-numberings, disposals
Car Books index (Excel) (updated 25-Oct-2020)
Car Books Index (PDF) (updated 25-Oct-2020)
Scans of original pages available here
Centralized Traffic Control on the Boston & Maine. Clipping from Railway Age, Dec. 5, 1931. Gift of Carl Byron
Chaffin Negative Collection Catalogue, prepared by Brad Kippen
Commonwealth of Massachusetts Operating Agreement with Conrail, 1980
Commonwealth of Massachusetts Operating Agreement with MassCentral Railroad, 1980
Contoocook (N.H.) Railroad Bridge. History and Design. Report by National Park Service, 2003
Conway Daily Sun, February 22, 2020 - “Return of the Snow Train: All Aboooard to Attitash!” (Articles on Snow Train history and Conway Scenic’s 2020 Snow Train revival)
A Descriptive Guidebook to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, 1850
Contains information about Boston and Lowell, Nashua & Lowell, Northern, Boston, Concord & Montreal, and Connecticut & Passumpssic Rivers Railroads. Also contains summer travel information.
Corporate History. “Digital Listing of the Corporate History of the Boston and Maine Railroad Issued by the ICC, 1916,” compiled by David D. Ashenden. See also David’s Introduction/Instructions. See Corporate History in the EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT section below for the original document.
Customers on the Portsmouth and Fremont Branches, 1971 - 1982 compiled by Rick Kfoury
Diesel Locomotives. Specifications for GP38-2. Gift of Preston Cook
Diesel Locomotives. Specifications for GP40-2. Gift of Prestion Cook
Drawing Numbers, Assignment of, Mechanical Department, c1928, transcribed from original in Harry Frye Collection
Brandeis and the NH-B&M Merger Battle Revisited by Abrams-1962
Engine House and Turntable Notes
Financial Condition of the …New Haven Railroad and of the Boston and Maine Railroad,” by Louis D,. Brandeis, 1907 Part 1
Financial Condition of the …New Haven Railroad and of the Boston and Maine Railroad,” by Louis D,. Brandeis, 1907 Part 2
Financial Condition of the …New Haven Railroad and of the Boston and Maine Railroad,” by Louis D,. Brandeis, 1907 Part 3
Fitchburg Railroad Documents, Cat. No. 2004.36.14, compiled by Eric DiVirgilio, transcribed by Mark Fecteau
Freight Car Roster, 1915-1955, by Tim Gilbert
Freight Car Summary, by Ken Akerboom
Freight Car Classification book information
NOTE: Actual freight car pages are included in the appropriate series page(s) in the Freight Car Summary, the links here are for index pages and for buggies [AKA “cabooses”] that don’t have an individual car series page.
“1942” book (might be 1943…)
Scans of original pages available here
1955 book
Note the “index” pages are a bit muddled, they may be out of order?
Scans of original pages available here
Frye Collection -- Photo Credit Codes
G-11 (0-6-0) switcher large format drawing list
The Glory of White River Junction, by Edgar T. Mead and transcribed by Rick Kfoury from the Connecticut Valley Reporter (June 23, 1971).
Goodwin, Dana D. and Charles H. Nash Negative Catalog prepared by R. Richard Conard
Group Index Numbers (to locate mechanical drawings) compiled by Mark Fecteau
Hill-MacMillan-Hutchinson Negative Collection Index. 1944, 1945, 1946 Part 1, 1946 Part 2, 1947 Part 1, 1947 Part 2, 1948 Part 1, 1948 Part 2, 1949 Part 1, 1949 Part 2, 1950, 1951 Part 1, 1951 Part 2, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959 - 1963
Historic Railroad Stations of New Hampshire pamphlet
Hoosac Tunnel Accidents, compiled by Charles Cahoon
Hoosac Tunnel Accident Victims, compiled by Charles Cahoon
Hoosac Tunnel Accident Victims by Date, compiled by Charles Cahoon
Hutchinson (Leroy C.) Collection--File Box Contents
Map Folder Index
Station Folder Index
Loco Classification By Types
Miscellaneous
Motive Power--Diesels
Railroad Poems
Summary
Industries, 1955, compiler unknown
ICC Freight Statistics (1917-1963) compiled by Ken Akerboom
Notes on the ICC Freight Commodity Statistics by Ken Akerboom
K Class (2-8-0) Consolidation large format drawing list
Large format scans, Catalog of
Lettering
K10 Font, drawn by Ken Akerboom
K10 Font, Notes by Ken Akerboom
Locomotive Assignments (Notes)
Locomotive Supervision, 1904. Courtesy Google Books
The Locomotives of the Boston & Maine Railroad by Charles E. Fisher, includes predecessor roads (Provided by F. Bradford Kippen III, scanned as a searchable PDF by Rick Kfoury) - Uploaded 1/2020. See also Steam Locomotives below.
Manchester Tower - A brief history of the CTC “MA Tower” in Manchester, NH by Rick Kfoury
Minuteman Steam Addenda
Map: B&MRR at Its Greatest Extent, 1915
Map: Boston & Maine Railroad Central Massachusetts Branch, 1975
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, Deed of Property and Operating Rights to, by B&M Corp., 1976
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. Purchase and Sale Agreement with B&M Corp for Commuter Lines. 1976. Part 1 of 2
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. Purchase and Sale Agreement with B&M Corp for Commuter Lines. 1976. Part 2 of 2
Mass Bay RRE Fantrips. Seventy-Five Years of Rare Mileage, by Rick Conard and John Reading, posted with permission
Mechanical Department Drawings List. This list is very incomplete. See also Large format scans, Catalog of.
Metal File Box Collection Indexes
Fitchburg Railroad Documents, Cat. No. 2004.36.14, compiled by Eric DiVirgilio, transcribed by Mark Fecteau
Cheshire, Fitchburg and Other Roads, Cat. No. 2004.36.15, compiled by Rick Hurst
Boston and Lowell, Fitchburg and Other Documents, Cat. No. 2004.36.21, compiled by Steve Butterworth
Boston and Lowell Railroad Documents, Cat. 2004.36.24, compiled by UMass Lowell intern Matthew Donovan PARTIALLY COMPLETED
Boston, Hoosac Tunnel & Western, Concord, Concord & Montreal, Fitchburg, Pemigewasset Branch, Whitefield & Jefferson RRs, Cat. No. 2004.36.258, compiled by Leo Sullivan
Various Railroads, Cat. No. 2004.36.265, compiled by Rick Hurst
Milk. Bellows Falls Creamery, by Brad Blodget
Milk Supply of Boston, 1898
Modelers Notes Index compiled by Jack Dziadul
Mount Washington Railway. MS list of drawings in tube file, North Chelmsford
Negatives data base, compiled by Rick Conard and Rick Nowell
New Hampshire Division of Historic Resources Survey of the Northern Railroad, 2013
Officers and Divisions, Roster of, compiled by Rick Nowell
Official Guide, April 1913, B&MRR Section, submitted by David Ashenden
Paint and Color Guide, compiled by Rick Nowell. See also, in Mechanical Department below:
Painting and Lettering Coaches, Mech. Dept. Diagram SP-553-9 dated 8-19-1948
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1951 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1953 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1953 Revised (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1954 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1954 Revised (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS2 in “Bluebird”, circa 1957 (Concept by the B&M; never actually carried out)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS2s and RS3s in “Bluebird”, circa 1957 (Concept by the B&M; never actually carried out)
Paint Diagram - Alco S4, Maine Central, 1954 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco S5, 1953 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - EMD E7A 3800, 1945
Passenger Car Roster, c1965, compiled by Laurence I. Beake
Passenger Car Roster, pub. B&M Bull., 1980-94, compiled by Hutchinson & Smith, prepared for web by R.K. Hurst
Passenger Department Chronology, compiled and edited by Richard K. "Rick" Hurst
Periodicals Held in B&MRRHS Archives
Photo Identification. Notes from Harry Frye Collection
Postcards—How ro Date. From John A. Goodwin Collection, created by Lowell Historical Society
Preston S. Johnson Collection, catalog of photographic slides, compiled by Rick Nowell
Railroad Enthusiast March - August 1966 (“Slow Train to Keene”), Dana D. Goodwin Collection, scanned by Rick Kfoury
Railroad Periodicals, 1920
Railway Mail Service RPO Routes in New England, by James B. VanBokkelen
Reorganization. ICC FD26115 (1973), scanned by David Ashenden
Restoration of Mileposts on the Northern Main Line, Edwin R. Hiller, Andover Historical Society
Right of Way and Track Maps - Index
Rochester, N.H., Railroading at,1934 by R.E. Fisher, includes map
Salisbury Branch History. See Amesbury Branch History.
Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps with B&M Trackage
Shelf List — ICC Survey Volumes Held
Shops, Notes About
Signal Chronology [1947-1990], by Daniel E. Horgan (1990), scanned and submitted by Carl R. Byron
Standard Plan Books Edited By Alan LePain, Index
Station Data Base, compiled by Rick Nowell
Station Drawings in B&MRRHS Archives, compiled by David Ashenden
Steam Locomotive Photos, A Guide to Identifying, by Harry A. Frye
Steam Locomotives 1836-1865, Roster of, compiled by Rick Nowell
Summer Saunterings by the Boston and Lowell. Issued by Passenger Dept., Boston and Lowell Railroad, First Edition, 1885. Internet Archive
Track Car 215570 “Birth Papers” - Provided by Jesse Mazzie, who owns and operates this motorcar for the CVRTC
Trains Between Boston and Montreal and Between Boston and Quebec City, 1927, compiled by Rick Nowell
Tube File/Round File/Roll Files at Lowell. Inventory compiled by Rick Conard
Turntable Notes
Valuation Plans. See Right of Way and Track Maps
Vincent H. Bernard Signal Collection. Description of the collection with an inventory compiled by Steve Butterworth, Eric DiVirgilio, and Mal Sockol
Wheelwright Branch Map, 1953, by Alan E. MacMillan
The White-Mountain Village of Bethlehem [N.H.] as a Resort for Health and Pleasure, 1880 Internet Archive
Wooden Bridge Construction, B&M, 1895 by J. Parker Snow
Wooden Dining Car Roster, compiled by Leroy C. Hutchinson and Clyde R. Smith
PART 2. RAILROAD DOCUMENTS ON-LINE
Boston & Maine Railroad
Accounting Department
Contract Bureau
Updated January 2020
Contract Memo 9251-C - Manchester, NH - Repairs to Huse Road bridge over M&L Branch, April 4, 1979.
Contract Memo 10596-A - Manchester, NH - Repairs to I-293 bridges over M&L Branch, Feb. 13, 1979.
Contract Memo 11015-A - Manchester, NH - Widening I-93 bridges over Portsmouth Branch, Jan. 19, 1977.
Contract Memo 12389-A - Manchester, NH - Land tracts near Granite State Packing, Feb. 6, 1976.
Contract Memo 12483 - Manchester, NH - Crossings near Foster Grant, Jan. 15, 1976.
Contract Memo 12570 - Manchester, NH - Petition for private crossing at Foster Grant, Aug. 18, 1978.
Contract Memo 44951-B - Manchester, NH - Concerning use of land at Massabesic Street, Dec. 27, 1978.
Contract Memo 54742-C - Manchester, NH - Genest Bros. Bakery, John Danais Co. Inc. sidings, July 27, 1978.
Contract Memo 56332-A - Manchester, NH - Electric service for switch heaters, June 11, 1975.
Contract Memo 58349 - Manchester, NH - Union Leader utilizing old Central Paper siding, Jan. 7, 1977.
Contract Memo 59352-A - Manchester, NH - Work on crossings through the millyard, July 28, 1976.
Contract Memo 59574 - Manchester, NH - Maintenance at Grenier Industrial Park, Sept. 15, 1975.
Contract Memo 59619 - Manchester, NH - Concerning NH Plastics sidetrack, Jan. 23, 1976.
Contract Memo 59619 - Manchester, NH - South End Grain at West Manchester, Jan. 6, 1976.
Contract Memo 59735 - Manchester, NH - Lease of railroad land near Beech Street, June 30, 1976.
Contract Memo 59735-A - Manchester, NH - Regarding Manchester Paper Supply Co. Inc siding, Aug. 3, 1977.
Contract Memo 59746 - Manchester, NH - Concerning Gulf Oil siding at Byron Street, July 28, 1976.
Contract Memo 59756 - Manchester, NH - Use of railroad land at Candia Road, Aug. 2, 1976.
Contract Memo 59831 - Manchester, NH - Waumbek Mills sewer line installation, Jan. 7, 1977.
Contract Memo 59851 - Manchester, NH - City drainage near South Beech Street, Jan. 25, 1977.
Contract Memo 59947 - Manchester, NH - Regarding Gulf Oil, May 11, 1977.
Contract Memo 59992-A - Manchester, NH - Regarding Manchester Paper Supply Co. Inc siding, Dec. 13, 1977.
Contract Memo 60169 - Manchester, NH - Concerning Hussey Molding Co. sidetrack, March 7, 1978.
Contract Memo 60178 - Manchester, NH - Land usage petition for Granite State Packing, March 22, 1978.
Contract Memo 60209 - Manchester, NH - Concerning American Hoechst Co. sidetrack, May 4, 1978.
Contract Memo 60263 - Manchester, NH - Petition for a grade crossing over Valley St. spur, Aug. 28, 1978.
Contract Memo 60263-A - Manchester, NH - Petition for a grade crossing over Valley St. spur, May 24, 1979.
Contract Memo 60268 - Manchester, NH - City sewer line through Manchester Yard, Aug. 30, 1978.
Contract Memo 60288 - Manchester, NH - State rehab of Mammoth Road crossing, Oct. 11, 1978.
Contract Memo 60328 - Manchester, NH - Federal funds for Portsmouth Branch crossings, Jan. 8, 1979.
Contract Memo 60370-A - Manchester, NH - Concerning NH Plastics track at Manchester Airport, Oct. 12, 1979.
Contract Memo 60439 - Manchester, NH - Use of Ledges Yard tracks 5-7 by Sweetheart Plastics, Aug. 6, 1979.
Employee Magazines and Magazine Articles
Dinosaur Fossils at Holyoke, 1936, 1937
New Icer Speeds Perishables, Jul-Aug 1950
Our Service, April 1917
Post Office on Wheels
Railroad Man Started the Harvard-Yale Regatta
Engineering Department
Updated July 2021
Bridge List, Fitchburg RR, c1890
Characteristic Charts, 1955
Construction of Private Crossing at Sewage Plant, Manchester, NH, Feb. 25, 1974.
Expenses Needed for Northern Mainline Relocation, Manchester, NH, April 29, 1974.
Expenses Related to Bouchard Street Extension, Manchester, NH, Sept. 23, 1974.
Expenses Related to Reconstruction of Queen City Bridge, Manchester, NH, July 24, 1974.
Expenses Related to Widening I-93 Overpasses on Portsmouth Branch, Manchester, NH, Jan. 14, 1977.
Interior and Exterior Work on Manchester and Nashua Yard Offices, June 11, 1979.
Key to Track Map, Chart, and Profile Symbols
Paints for structures, 1921, rev. to 1926
Rejection of Private Grade Crossing at 200 Elm Street, Manchester, NH, April 28, 1977.
Removal of bridge 35.61 on the Marlborough Branch, July 30, 1975
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, January 11, 1974.
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, January 18, 1974.
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, December 30, 1974.
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, January 14, 1975.
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, January 22, 1975.
Snow Removal Costs at Manchester Yard, January 23, 1975.
Track Changes. “Up and Down Reports, 1897-1961 with some later entries, for use with the valuation plans, February 23, 2011,” compiled by Robert P. Fuller
Valuation Sections 1 - 7.8
Valuation Sections 7.8 - 17
Valuation Sections 17 - 32.1
Valuation Sections 32.1 - 38.2
Valuation Sections 38.2 - 59
Turntables, All Divisions, Dec. 1925
Digital restoration, by Scott J. Whitney (December 2019)
Executive Department
Updated July 20, 2023
Annual Reports. See Annual Reports page
By-Laws. Boston and Maine Railroad, August 1, 1949
Canterbury, NH Industrial Development Proposition, October 20, 1972
Correspondence Regarding American Freedom Train in Manchester, November 1, 1974
Correspondence Regarding Proposed Disaster Drill at Manchester, NH, September 25, 1979
Correspondence Regarding Water Cooler in Manchester Yard Office, May 21, 1974
Note Regarding Water Cooler in Manchester Yard Office, May 21, 1974
Road Operated June 30, 1915
Organization Chart c1925-1927
Corporate History
Contents - Page 33
Page 34 - Page 63
Page 64 - Page 89
Page 90 - Page 123
Page 124 - Page 157
Page 158 - Page 176
Addendum
See also Ashenden’s “Digital Listing of the Corporate History of the Boston and Maine Railroad Issued by the ICC, 1916,” in REFERENCE MATERIALS above. This is a sortable listing by railroad, date, event, etc.
Federal Railroad Administration
Updated January 2020
Accident Report No. 4189 - October 2, 1972 Head-On Collision at Belchertown, MA between B&M Work Extra 1125 and CV Extra 4929 South (Provided by Tom Murray, 11/3/2021)
Finance Department
Interstate Commerce Commission
Investigation No. 2378 - September 10, 1939 Collapse of Portsmouth Bridge and Loss of B&M P-2 #3666
Legal Department
Updated January 2020
Bill for Derailment at Associated Grocers, Manchester, NH, Sept. 11, 1974
Claim for Incorrect Flagging Procedure at Manchester, NH, October 20, 1975
Claim of John R. Bangs, Clerk, Manchester Freight Office - January 7, 1974
Misuse of Car PLE 006579 at Manchester, NH, Aug. 27, 1974.
Petition for a Private Crossing on Valley Street, Manchester, NH, April 28, 1978.
Petition for a Private Crossing on Valley Street, Manchester, NH, August 28, 1978.
Unpaid Bill to Manchester Water Works, October 5, 1979.
Marketing and Sales
Updated December 2020
Intermodal Services Routing Announcement, late 1970s
Office of Marketing & Sales Notice - Moving from Elm Street, Manchester, NH to Billerica, MA, 1979. -
Mechanical Department
Barre & Chelsea RR and Montpelier & Wells River RR Equipment Roster, March 1925
Budd Car Diagrams
Diesel Classification
Diesel Out of Service and Mileage Record, 1943-55 courtesy of Carl R. Byron
Engine Houses and Turntables, Dec. 29, 1899
Engine Houses, Fitchburg Division, 1928
Freight Car Classification 1907
How the B&M Uses Budd Rail Diesel Cars, 1958
Locomotive Performance. BC&MRR. 1880s
Mechanical Engineering Department. A Talk by Donald A. McKeown, Dec. 1953.
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1951 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1953 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1953 Revised (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1954 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS in Maroon & Yellow, 1954 Revised (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS2 in “Bluebird”, circa 1957 (Concept by the B&M; never actually carried out)
Paint Diagram - Alco RS2s and RS3s in “Bluebird”, circa 1957 (Concept by the B&M; never actually carried out)
Paint Diagram - Alco S4, Maine Central, 1954 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - Alco S5, 1953 (American Locomotive Co. Draft)
Paint Diagram - EMD E7A 3800, 1945
Painting and Lettering Coaches, Mech. Dept. Diagram SP-553-9
Painting and Lettering Combines, Mech. Dept. Diagram SP-553-10
Painting and Lettering Baggage Cars - 4 Door, Mech. Dept. Diagram SP-553-11
Painting and Lettering Baggage Cars - 6 Door, Mech. Dept. Diagram SP-553-12
Rail Motor Cars, Sept. 1935
Repairs to Locomotive Cranes at Concord, NH Shop, 1947
Steam Locomotive Classification, June 7, 1928. Part 1
Steam Locomotive Classification, June 7, 1928. Part 2
Summary of Equipment, November 1, 1959
Summary of Equipment, January 1, 1962
Summary of Equipment, January 1, 1982
Turntables. All Divisions. Dec. 1925
Work Equipment Roster, partial, 1947
Operating Department
Updated February 22, 2023
Public Relations Department
Updated February 18, 2020
“700 New Freight Cars for B&M” - Lowell Sun, Nov. 27, 1973
“Are the Railroads Returning"?” - New Hampshire Times, Nov. 28, 1973
“Award Winner” - Lowell Sun, May 31, 1977
“B&M Group Fails Bid to Liquidate” - Boston Evening Globe, Aug. 28, 1973
“B&M Makes a Comeback” - Lowell Sun, October 13, 1974
“B&M Passenger Train Makes Last Run in NH” - Manchester Union Leader, July 1, 1967
Related photos
“B&M Plows Ahead Under Dustin” - New Englander, 1977
“B&M President to Speak Before Amherst RR Society”- Springfield Daily News, May 14, 1977
“B&M Railroad Cited by CTI for Hiring of Disadvantaged” - Lowell Sun, 1970s
“B&M Railroad President Claims Trucking Troubles” - NH Sunday News, Jan. 30, 1977
“B&M Railroad Enters New Era” - Eagle-Tribune, November 12, 1977
“B&M Seeks $26-Million Loan” - Greenfield Recorder, August 9, 1977
“B&M Trustees Hedge Rejection of Proposed Railroad Plan” - Concord Monitor, Jan. 17, 1974.
“B&M Trustees Submit Plan, Say Will Revive Road’s Health by ‘75” - Wall Street Journal, Dec. 31, 1971
“B&M Would Buy 600 Employees Out of Jobs” - Boston Herald, July 25, 1973
“Battling Woods Fire” - Lowell Sun, May 28, 1974
“Boston & Maine’s Cherington Eyes Elimination 600 Jobs to Save Road” - Boston Globe, 1972
“Boston & Maine Files Amended Plea to Buy Some Bonds in Default” - Wall Street Journal, Aug. 19, 1977
“Bow Plant has 50-Day Supply” - Concord Monitor, 1977
“Bow: Less Than 50 Days Coal Supply Explained” - Concord Monitor, December 6, 1977
“Caboose Fire” - Eagle-Tribune, December 6, 1978
Circus Train Photo, Greenfield Recorder, 1977
“Dustin ‘Had and Retains’ Complete Confidence of B&M Trustees” - Boston Sunday Globe, July 24, 1977
“Experts’ Solution for Rail Service: Throw B&M Out of County” - Keene Sentinel, May 10, 1973
Part 2
Fairlee, VT derailment and explosion - Various news sources, November 1975
“Fewer Trains Keep Drivers Off Guard” - Nashua Telegraph, May 24, 1979
Flying Yankee photo, Concord Monitor, July 18, 1979
“Freight Car Fire Ignites East Woburn Warehouse” - Woburn Daily News, November 28, 1977
“‘Ghost Train’ Tour Satisfies Riders, Surprises Other Officials” - Daily Sentinel, March 20, 1974
“The Goodwin Line - A Decent Little Railroad in New Hampshire” - Lowell Sun, Dec. 20, 1979
“Harvard Professor May Run Bankrupt B&M Railroad” - Eagle-Tribune, 1972
“Hoboes and Boxcars Leave Concord Behind” - Concord Monitor, 1970s
“Hoosac Tunnel Getting Steel Liner” - Berkshire Eagle, July 21, 1979
“Husband, Wife Die in Railbus-Car Crash” - Manchester Union Leader, Dec. 16, 1980.
“Lincoln Mill to Open” - Manchester Union Leader, November 3, 1978
“Littleton Board Backs B&M Loan Application” - unknown publication, 1970s
“Lunch Break” - Eagle-Tribune, August 10, 1977
“Man Hit by Train, Loses His Left Arm” - Lynn Item, June 15, 1978
“New Chief for a Yankee Railroad” - New York Times, February 29, 1977
“New England Commission Funds Rail Improvements” - Boston Herald, Sept. 28, 1977
“Piggyback Trucks’ Deal Paying Off for NH Firms” - Manchester Union Leader, 1970s
“Problems at the End of the Line” - Concord Monitor, February 19, 1974
“Purchase of B&M Railroad Suggested” - Rutland Daily Herald, Sept. 28, 1972
“Rail Takeover Eyed in New Hampshire” - Boston Sunday Globe, January 20, 1974
“Railroad’s Future in NH May be Decided in Sept.” - Concord Monitor, July 19, 1973
“Railroad Seeks to Close Line” - Concord Monitor, July 20, 1973
“Railroads Chug Out of Woods After 20 Years of Ills for Industry” - Eagle-Tribune, Sept. 9, 1979
“Railroads Wary of 4-Line Merger” - Times-Union, November 26, 1977
“Rail Freight Traffic Increase” - Manchester Union Leader, 1985 (New England Southern)
“Rail Line’s Potential Enthuses Dearness” - Lakes Region Trader, Sept. 22, 1982 (New England Southern)
“Rail Yard to Receive Facelift” - Greenfield Recorder, November 27, 1978
“Raymond's Depot Finally Placed On the Good Ol’ Historical Map” - NH Sunday News, July 29, 1979
“Rhythm of the Rails” - NH Sunday News, April 14, 1985
“Riding the Rails to Acton” - unknown publication, 1970s
“Rolling Stock Moves On” - Greenfield Recorder, March 28, 1978
“Santa Takes to the Rails in Berlin” - unknown publication, December 27, 1977
“Shippers Fear Railcar Crunch” - Boston Sunday Globe, October 22, 1978
“Sometimes It Goes Against the Grain To See Corn Wasted...” - Portsmouth Herald, October 3, 1977
“Stopped to Refuel the Animals” - Lowell Sun, May 24, 1977
“Symbol of Railroading May Fade Into History” - Concord Monitor, 1977
“These ‘Doctors’ Work at Helping Sick Trains” - Advertiser, April 11, 1979 (Billerica Shops)
“They’ve Been Fighting for a Railroad” - New York Times, October 9, 1977
“This Railroad Means Business” - NH Sunday News, October 23, 1977 (Goodwin Railroad)
“Those B&M Cutbacks” - Boston Globe, 1979
“Tie Job Nears End” - Nashua Telegraph, June 30, 1977
“Train-Truck Crash in Merrimack” - Village Crier, December 27, 1978
“Train-Truck Crash Kills 5 in Family” - Manchester Union Leader, May 2, 1979
“Trustee Sees B&M Success” - Boston Herald, January 12, 1974
“Tunnel Work Hits $1M Tag” - Greenfield Recorder, 1979
“Two Receive Safety Awards”, Greenfield Recorder, July 2, 1979
“What Does B&M Have in Mind?” - New Hampshire Sunday News, January 20, 1974
“Whitefield Man Seeks NH Passenger Train Service” - Manchester Union Leader, January 11, 1979
“White River Junction Back on Tracks” - Valley News, October 12, 1981
Standard Plans
Updated July 2021
Semaphore Blades
Wood Signal Blades
Enameled Steel Signal Blades
Traffic Department
Customers (Largest) 1951
Coal Rates to B&M Points. D&H Co. map, 20 Oct 1923. File too large to upload here. See new On-Line Archives page
Freight Traffic Density (Chart), 1956
Handbook to Suburban Homes, Sea-Shore, Lakes, and Mountains 1874
Local Carload Commodity Tariff and Freight Rates, June 15, 1969
Pan Am Railways Map, 2013
Passenger Time Table, Summer 1907, Part 1
Passenger Time Table, Summer 1907, Part 2
Passenger Time Table, September 30, 1917 A- pp 1-32
Passenger Time Table, September 30, 1917 B- pp 33-60
Passenger Time Table, September 30, 1917 C- pp 61-80
Passenger Time Table, September 30, 1917 D- pp 81-96
Passenger Time Table, September 29, 1929 A- pp 3-17
Passenger Time Table, September 29, 1929 B- pp 18-33
Passenger Time Table, September 29, 1929 C- pp 34-50
Railroading on the Boston and Maine (2016 Reprint of 1952 brochure)
Snow Train Brochure from winter of 1938-9
Snow Train Brochure from winter of 1940-41
Snow train menu, 1939
System Map, 1930
Maine Central Railroad
The Maine Central Railroad has had a close relationship with the Boston and Maine Railroad throughout its history. The Eastern Railroad gained control of Maine Central in 1871. B&M leased ERR in 1884 and thereby controlled MEC. When, in 1907, New Haven gained control of the B&M, MEC also came into the New Haven sphere. In 1914 a group of investors purchased a controlling interest in MEC from B&M and independence was re-established. This notwithstanding, from 1933 to 1955 the two railroads entered into an agreement to be operated as separate railroads under a common management and shared many general officers. In the Guilford/PanAm era the two roads have been operated as a single system.
Most of the MEC materials that we present in our On-Line Archives were submitted and scanned by Archives Committee member David Ashenden.
Maine Central Abandonments
Accounting Equipment, 1924 (MECRR Magazine)
Chronology, 1976 (MEC Messenger)
Frankenstein Trestle, Notes on the Name of
Rules Review Book, March 1943, pp 1-17, pp 18-33
Maine Central Railroad. Schedule of Valuation Sections (TIFF Image), June 30, 1916
Parlor, Sleeping, and Dining Car Service, 26 June 1916
Passenger Equipment, Postwar Roster, by Peter Espy. Submitted by Rick Hurst
Pine Tree Flyer. A magazine about the history of railroads in Maine. Six issues were published between 1981 and 1983. Publication was suspended and never resumed.
Vol. 1 No. 1 (1981)
Vol. 1 No. 2 (1982)
Vol. 1 No. 3 (1982)
Vol. 1 No. 4 (1982)
Vol. 2 No. 1 (1982)
Vol. 2 No. 2 (1983)
Stations. Handbook of Officers, Agents, Stations and Sidings, 1917. (Digital Commons)
Maine Central Employees Magazine
We are grateful to Dick Glueck of the New England Steam Corporation for providing many issues of the MEC Employee Magazine for scanning and for giving us permission to make scans available on our website. Additional issues came from Rick Conard in 2022. Many hours of scanning time were contributed by Archives Committee member David Ashenden. His project of scanning and indexing the magazine is ongoing.
Employee Magazine Index
Employee Magazine Catalog
1924
Employee Magazine, January 1924, Part 1
Employee Magazine, January 1924, Part 2
Employee Magazine, February 1924
Employee Magazine, March 1924, Part 1
Employee Magazine, March 1924, Part 2
Employee Magazine, April 1924
MAY WANTED
Employee Magazine, June 1924 COMPLETE ISSUE WANTED
Employee Magazine, July 1924 COMPLETE ISSUE WANTED
Employee Magazine, August 1924, Part 1
Employee Magazine, August 1924, Part 2
Employee Magazine, September 1924, Part 1
Employee Magazine, September 1924, Part 2
Employee Magazine, October 1924, Part 1 COMPLETE ISSUE WANTED
Employee Magazine, October 1924, Part 2
Employee Magazine, November 1924
Employee Magazine, December 1924 COMPLETE ISSUE WANTED
1925
Employee Magazine, January 1925
Employee Magazine, February 1925, Part 1
Employee Magazine, February 1925, Part 2
MARCH WANTED
Employee Magazine, April 1925, Part 1
Employee Magazine, April 1925, Part 2
Employee Magazine, May 1925
Employee Magazine, June 1925
JULY WANTED
Employee Magazine, August 1925
Employee Magazine, September 1925
Employee Magazine, October 1925
Employee Magazine, November 1925
Employee Magazine, December 1925
1926 — January Part 1, January Part 2, February, MARCH WANTED, April, May NEED COMPLETE ISSUE, June, JULY WANTED, August, September, October, November, December
1927 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September Part 1, September Part 2, October, November, December Part 1, December Part 2
1928 — January Part 1, January Part 2, February, March, April Part 1, April Part 2, May, June, July, August, September, November, OCTOBER WANTED, December Part 1, December Part 2, December Part 3
1929 — January, COMPLETE JANUARY WANTED, February, March, COMPLETE MARCH WANTED, April Part 1, April Part 2, May, COMPLETE MAY WANTED, JUNE WANTED, July, August Part 1, August Part 2, August Part 3, SEPTEMBER WANTED, October, November, December
1930 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November DECEMBER WANTED
1944 — November, December ALL OTHER 1944 ISSUES WANTED
1945 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, Undated ALL OTHER 1945 ISSUES WANTED
1946 — April, September ALL OTHER 1946 ISSUES WANTED
1947 — Undated. ALL 1947 ISSUES WANTED
1948 — JANUARY WANTED, FEBRUARY WANTED, MARCH WANTED, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, NOVEMBER WANTED, December
1949 — JANUARY WANTED, FEBRUARY WANTED, MARCH WANTED, April, May, June, JULY WANTED, August, September, October, November, December
1950 — January, FEBRUARY WANTED, March, April, May, June, July, AUGUST WANTED, September, October, November, December
1951 — January, February, March, April, MAY WANTED, June, July, COMPLETE JULY WANTED, AUGUST WANTED, September, October, COMPLETE OCTOBER WANTED, November, December
1952 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, AUGUST WANTED, September, October, NOVEMBER WANTED, December
1953 — January, February, MARCH WANTED, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1954 — JANUARY WANTED, February, March, APRIL WANTED, May, June, July, August, September, October, NOVEMBER WANTED (NOT SURE IF ISSUED), December
1955 — January, February, March, April, COMPLETE APRIL WANTED, May, June, COMPLETE JUNE WANTED, July, August, September, October, November, December
1956 — January, February, March, April, MAY WANTED, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1957 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November-December
1958 — JANUARY-FEBRUARY WANTED, March-April, May-June, July-August, September-October, November-December
1959 — January-February, March-April, May-June, July-August, September-October, November-December
1960 — November
1961 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1962 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1963 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1964 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1965 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1966 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August (missing pp 3-6), September, October, November, December
1967 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October (Complete Issue Needed), November, December
1968 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1969 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1970 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1971 — January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
1972 — February-March, April-May, June-July, August-September, October-November, December ‘72-January ‘73
1973 — February-March, April-May, June-July, August-September, October-November, December ‘73-January ‘74
1974 — February-March, April-May, June-July, August-September, October-November, December ‘74-January ‘75
1975 — February-March
1976 — January, Summer, Fall (With Historical Section)
1977 — Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall
1978 — Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall
1979 — Winter, Spring-Summer, Fall
1980 — Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall
1981 — Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall
1982 — Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall ‘82-Winter’83
Maine Central Railroad Time Tables
Arrival and Departure of Boston and Maine and Maine Central Trains at Portland Union Station, 20 January 1918. (Portland Terminal Company)
Employee Time Table No. 34, Maine Central, Sept. 24, 1922, Eastern Div.
Employee Time Table No. 1, Maine Central, Apr. 30, 1933, System
Employee Time Table No. 2, Maine Central, Jun. 26, 1933, System
Employee Time Table No. 4, Maine Central, Apr. 29, 2934, System
Employee Time Table No. 8, Maine Central, Sept. 29, 1935, System
Employee Time Table No. 8, Maine Central, Supplement No. 2, March 1936
Employee Time Table No. 21, Maine Central, Apr. 27, 1941. Schedules,
Employee Time Table No. 21, Maine Central, Apr. 27, 1941. Rules, part 1
Employee Time Table No. 21, Maine Central, Apr. 27, 1941. Rules, part 2
Employee Time Table No. 22, Portland Terminal Company, Apr. 27, 1930
Official Guide, April 1913, MECRR section
Passenger Time Table, June 23, 1913. Maine Central Part A,
Passenger Time Table, June 23, 1913. Maine Central Part B,
Passenger Time Table, June 1930. Maine Central Part A,
Passenger Time Table, June 1930. Maine Central Part B,
Passenger Time Table, April 28, 1946. Maine Central,
Passenger Time Table, October 30, 1955. Maine Central
Executive Department
Annual Reports FYE 1896 through 1893 with leases, mortgages. Google Books
Predecessor Railroads
Northern Railroad
Annual Report, 1848. Submitted and transcribed by Ed Hiller
On-Line Photo Archive
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http://www.hubhistory.com/episodes/hail-britannia-episode-305/
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Hail Britannia! (episode 305)
|
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2024-07-14T22:00:24+00:00
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This episode explores the impact of the Cunard Line of steamers and its flagship Britannia on Boston in the mid-19th century. Before the Britannia, transatlantic travel relied on fickle winds, making each crossing perilous and unpredictable. The introduction of steamships revolutionized transatlantic travel by offering faster and more reliable journeys. Boston became a central hub … Continue reading Hail Britannia! (episode 305)
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en
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HUB History
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https://www.hubhistory.com/episodes/hail-britannia-episode-305/
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Transcript
Introduction
Jake:
Welcome to Hub History where we go far beyond the Freedom Trail to share our favorite stories from the history of Boston, the hub of the universe. This is episode 305, Hail Britannia. Hi, I’m Jake. This week, I’m talking about the Cunard line which made its American home port in Boston starting with the arrival of its flagship Britannia in 1840.
Jake:
Cunard’s new ocean going steamers made transatlantic voyages faster and more reliable than they’d ever been before. Boston was chosen as the American terminus for the Cunard Line because of its proximity to Britain. And because company founder Samuel Cunard had lived in Boston briefly and I was familiar with the city. But competition with New York for the company’s business was always fierce while the Cunard line was established to carry news between the US and Britain. Its arrival in Boston also had a major impact on the city’s news business because Boston was the first port of call in North America for these Cunard steamers that became the center for the distribution of European news in the United States. This advantage would only last a few years. However, until new technology allowed the news and eventually the Cunard Line as a whole to bypass Boston entirely. But before we talk about the Cunard Line, I just wanna pause and say a big thank you to everyone who supports Hub History on Patreon. Hub History is currently closing in on our eighth podcast anniversary. And personally, I’m proud of what we’ve created as a completely independent production without the support of any company or any history organization.
Jake:
Our success has been thanks in no small part to our sponsors. We’re listeners, just like you. Your support means that I don’t have to stress over how to pay for transcription service, media hosting and all the other expenses that go into making a podcast.
Jake:
Instead, I only have to stress over writing a 10 to 20 page script every couple of weeks recording it and then editing out all the bad parts should be a piece of cake. Right? To everyone who’s already supporting the show. Thank you. And if you’re not yet supporting the show and you’d like to start, it’s easy. Just go to patreon.com/hub History or visit hubor.com and click on the support us link and thanks again to all our new and returning sponsors. Now it’s time for this week’s main topic.
Jake:
In the show notes this week, the header image is a picture of a ship. You should be able to see it in your podcast app depending on what app you use. The version I shared is an 1876 reprint, but the original was published in 1844.
Jake:
It shows an early ocean going steamship pushing back from a pier. The vessel still has the sleek lines of a sailing ship and the three masts of a bark are a full rigged ship, but she also has a large paddle wheel mounted at her side of midships. Behind the paddle wheel are 13 cannon ports making her capable of carrying 26 guns in wartime. A single smokestack sticks up through the decks topped with a dark ring around the top up above the sails are furled but a forest of flags and pennants trail from the masts and the British naval ensign flies at her stern. The ship’s backing slowly out of its berth and turning into a narrow channel in the ice covered water. While horse drawn slaves race across the ice and well dressed men wave and raise their hats and salute, across the harbor is Long wharf with a clo of beel hall poking up from behind the warehouses along the docks and the statehouse dome emerging between steeples and roof lines at the top of Beacon Hill.
The Impact of Cunard Mail Ships
Jake:
The angle means that the fewest from East Boston at the Cunard Wharf. And the caption identifies the side wheeler as the Cunard Royal mail steamship Britannia John Hewitt commander as she appeared leaving her dock at East Boston, February 3rd 1844 bound from Boston to Liverpool, dedicated by the publishers to the merchants of Boston who projected and paid for a canal cut in the ice seven miles long and 100 ft wide, to learn why the Cunard Mail ships were such a big deal in Boston in 1844 and why they needed a seven mile canal cut through the ice. We have to back up a few years to a time when transatlantic mail was a crapshoot at best.
Jake:
If you’ve ever spent time with the Adams Papers of the mass historical society, you know that John and Abigail Adams exchanged a staggering number of letters during the years when they were separated. When John was in Philadelphia for the Continental Congress. The couple would often write multiple letters that mostly duplicated each other in case British troops or spies intercepted one of them, in the years when John was in Europe as a diplomat for our newly independent nation. They continued this habit though they no longer had to worry about enemy troops intercepting their mail. Instead their letters are peppered through with comments that I’m sending this letter with captain. So and so or this letter goes by the ship such and such, they would often send multiple versions of the same letter with different ships. Because even in peacetime transatlantic voyages were unpredictable. In the age of sail, the crossing could take weeks or months, depending on the weather and a ship bound for one port might easily call first in a different city or even a different country if that’s where the winds were blowing this week.
Jake:
By the 18 thirties. The business of carrying mail between Great Britain and her former colonies in North America belonged to the Royal Navy. A series of packet ships are operated by the Navy carrying civilian mail and official diplomatic messages between the nations as official naval vessels. These packets carried no cargo other than mail and no passengers, other than government officials. These ships were more reliable than the private vessels. The Adamses committed their letters to a few decades earlier and that they could be counted on to arrive in the port they’d been dispatched to and were unlikely to become the victims of piracy, but they were still at the mercy of the Atlantic winds and weather. With a note in the MH S description of the engraving of the Britannia, pointing out that, prior to the introduction of steam power sailing vessels plied the Atlantic carrying passengers, freight and mail and completing three or so round trips per year dependent on the vagaries of wind and weather. A single steamship. According to William Fowler, in his book, steam Titans could easily complete a dozen or so round trips in a year. A distinct advantage. The first steamships crossed the Atlantic in the 18 teens though the age of sail was far from over.
Jake:
In fact, even as the Britannia was being cut out of the ice in 1844 Donald Mackay was about to open a shipyard just a few blocks away from the Cunard Wharf in East Boston where he would build the greatest sailing ships the world had ever seen. You can learn more about mckay’s East Boston Clippers in our interview with author Stephen Ya Fuso. Way back in episode 89 sail and steam would coexist until well into the 20th century with steam winning in all weather, reliability and sail winning on range and speed.
Jake:
The North Atlantic was relatively narrow and a steamship could carry all the coal it needed for the crossing while the Clippers dominated the China trade by not needing to carry enough coal for around the world voyage, nor setting up coaling stations across the Pacific as the US and other governments would a few decades later. However, when the British paddle wheel steamer, the Great Western started regular service between Bristol and New York. In 1838 the writing was on the wall for the sailing packets of the Royal Navy. I should just point out that a packet in this context means a ship that sails back and forth between two defined ports on a defined schedule. A company history of the Cunard Line written in 1886 notes, up to the year 1838 the Lords commissioners of the admiralty who at the time were invested with the arrangement of the postal contracts had been content to commit her Majesty’s mails for America to the uncertain mercies of sailing vessels bearing the somewhat unpromising designation of Coffin Briggs. Early in the spring, the wooden paddle wheel steamer Great Western sailed from Bristol for New York, which so impressed the government with the obvious superiority of steamships over sailing vessels as a faster and more reliable means of transit for postal matter that they forthwith issued circulars broadcast, inviting tenders for future conveyance of the American males by steam vessel.
Jake:
The owners of the Great Western submitted a tender or a bid as we call it today for the mail contract. As did the Saint George Steam Packet Company. Both these bids were rejected by the British Admiralty as not being able to start mail service in a reasonable time frame. Luckily, there was another bidder though he technically didn’t submit his proposal until the deadline had long passed. Good thing that he was an old friend of the government official in charge of selecting a contractor. Samuel Cunard was a native of Halifax, Nova Scotia, whose father had been a Pennsylvania loyalist before the revolution. The family had owned a small fleet of ships but they were seized by the patriots, after the British surrender. The Cunard moved to Halifax and eventually came to own enormous tracts of timber which they then leveraged into a shipbuilding business. They built two of the earliest steam ferries in Canada. Then they branched out into running steam mail service between Halifax, Bermuda and Boston, Cunard’s impressive shipworks and experience in operating a steam mail packet convinced the admiralty to accept his bid. He’d have exclusive rights to carry the royal mail for a term of seven years for which he’d be paid £55,000 per year to operate three ships. This was quickly revised to 81,000 pounds yearly to operate four ships and to guarantee that they would leave port on their scheduled departure dates.
Jake:
Boston was chosen as the American terminus of this new mail service. In part because we’re the closest major American port to Britain.
Boosting the Boston Economy
Jake:
And in part because Samuel Cunard was already familiar with our harbor, having lived here as a young man working for a Boston ship broker and later operating a steam packet to Bermuda from Boston.
Jake:
Serving as the American terminus for this groundbreaking mail service would obviously be good for the Boston economy. So Cunard wasn’t shy about asking for favors where today Boston offers enormous tax breaks to companies from Amazon to Wayfair to Reebok to woo them to the city. Cunard demanded something more similar to the giant stadium at WDET Circle that Boston had the good sense not to build in order to woo the 2024 Olympics to the city.
Jake:
The Boston Atlas reported on the request. What Cunard asks of the Bostonians is that they should provide him a wharf without charge at which his vessels may be safely moored while in this city. Such a war, if it is supposed will cost from 40 to $50,000. The committee appointed sometimes since for that purpose or taking measures, we believe to collect the necessary amount. We cannot have a doubt of their speedy success. It is not to be supposed that our merchants will hesitate a moment about securing to themselves the great advantages of a direct semimonthly steam packet communication with England. It was the establishment of regular lines of packets between New York and Liverpool that first led to the great concentration of the foreign trade in that city. We ought to improve the present opportunity of regaining our fair share of that trade. Mister Cunard’s line is to commence its trips on the first of May. Next in point of steamships, we shall then stand upon a par with New York. We shall have four and for some time to come, New York is not likely to have a greater number.
Jake:
Unlike the tax breaks offered to businesses today, the burden of Samuel Cunard’s demand would be borne by private investors. On April 27th, 1839 the Montreal gazette reported on a meeting of prominent Boston businessmen the week before, they read a letter from Cunard asking for war facilities in Boston free of charge, of course and voted on seven resolutions. In response. The 4th and 5th of these were printed in the Gazan.
Jake:
Resolved that it is of the highest importance to the success of this great enterprise that the larger class of steam packets should run entirely through from Liverpool to Boston and vice versa. Stopping sufficient time at Halifax for the reception of fuel and to receive and discharge passengers and freight. That this arrangement alone will inspire confidence in the safe and uninterrupted conveyance of passengers and goods and secure a liberal and ample patronage to the route. Resolved that it is the sense of this meeting that a suitable pier and dock should be provided for a term of years for the reception of the Liverpool steam packets in this port where they may receive and discharge their lading free of expense to their owners. And that such farther facilities be afforded as the importance of the subject may require those farther facilities that the merchants of the city would need to afford included railroads.
Jake:
By the 18 thirties, it was clear to anyone who paid attention that railroads were gonna be one of the primary drivers of the 19th century economy. New York had the mighty Hudson river. And by 1825 the Erie Canal linked its port to the Great Lakes and the vast agricultural and mineral resources of the upper Midwest, Boston didn’t have those natural advantages. But by 1835 it had railroads linking the city with Lowell Providence and Worcester with projects underway that would stretch the rail network to Albany Montreal and eventually a nationwide network. In an editorial published October 5th. 1839 the Springfield Republican was bullish on the prospect of steam packets and rail networks to link Western Mass to the global market. Writing now that the railroad is in operation to Boston, we presume the merchants of Springfield and vicinity will find it in their interest and convenience to go to that market. We see no reason why the importers and jobbers of Boston cannot deal on as good terms as those of New York for domestic goods. Boston is unquestionably the first market in the country and for European dry goods and groceries, we know no reason why it should be inferior. Cunard’s Liverpool and Halifax steam packet line which commences in the spring will place Boston at least on a par with New York in regard to foreign news and commercial transactions.
Jake:
The mode of doing business in Boston, we should think would be more acceptable to merchants in this region. We say to our merchants try the Boston market.
Jake:
Boston’s waterfront had been fully developed for over a century. However, there was simply no space to build a pier and dock and farther facilities like a rail line amongst the existing wharves in downtown Boston, luckily. However, Boston was in the middle of a project that dramatically increased the size of its waterfront across the harbor from Boston’s downtown Wharves. The East Boston company had quietly bought up almost all the land on Noddles Island and Hog Island, which were the site of the battle we talked about back in episode 186.
Jake:
Until the 18 thirties, these islands have been mostly used for grazing. But now the company laid out a street grid filled the low areas between the islands and began selling house lots, industrial tracts and wharf sites. In 1834 a large sugar refinery opened in the new neighborhood. And by 1835 there were 10 wharfs in operation in 1838. The first section of the eastern railroad opened connecting the East Boston waterfront to Salem and extending eventually to Portland Maine. By 1843 the new Atlantic Steam Packet Pier which was later known as the Cunard Wharf was built at the foot of Orleans Street in East Boston, immediately next to the eastern railroads wharf and only about a block and a half from the ferry wharf that connected the new neighborhood with downtown Boston. A series of sidings were built from the eastern railroad. Today’s East Boston Greenway directly under the piers, allowing cargo to be offloaded from the steamers directly under rail cars that could take it anywhere in New England. While the nearby ferry brought workers to the docks and then carried local mail to the downtown post office. A June 1840 article in the Boston Traveler gives us a sense of the grand scale of this new facility provided at no cost. With a 20 year lease.
Jake:
They have built a bridge extending 800 ft from the mainland with a cross wharf 230 ft by 50 to which are connected two piers, 250 ft long by 50 broad forming an extensive dock having 15 ft of water at the lowest tides and furnishing a perfect shelter from all gales. On the outside of the piers, there will be good berths for vessels of heavy draft. On one side of these piers, the company have erected a warehouse 100 by 30 ft perfectly fireproof from without and on the other pier, buildings are to be put up for the deposit of fuel for the steamships.
Jake:
While the merchants of East Boston were building suitable wharf facilities. Shipyards in Scotland were busy constructing four steamers to the specifications laid out by Samuel Cunard and his partners. A corporate history commissioned in 1886 describes the new Cunard fleet. The first four steamships provided by the Cunard company or as it was then formally entitled the British and North American Royal mail steam packet company were the Britannia, Acadia, Caledonia and Colombia. All wooden paddle wheel vessels built respectively on the Clyde in 1840 by R. Duncan J wood, sea wood and R steel and supplied with common side lever engines by Robert Napier. The Britannia which was the pioneer vessel of the fleet measured 207 ft long, 34 ft four inches broad and 22 ft six inches deep with a tonnage burden of 1154 and an indicated horsepower of 740. Her cargo capacity was 225 tons and she was fitted for the accommodation of 100 15 cabin passengers but no steerage, the horse power and passenger and cargo accommodation of the other three ships were identical with those of the Britannia while their dimensions in tonnage only varied very slightly from hers. Their average speed was 8.5 knots per hour on a coal consumption of 38 tons per day.
Jake:
I’ll just interject that. I grew up in a house where my family heated with coal and our entire three bedroom home burned through only about 4 to 6 tons per winter. 38 tons a day is a lot of coal. Another company history, this one from 1931 describes the opulence of the flagship of this new fleet. She carried three masts rigged for and aft with two square cross yards and her four and main masts, she was fitted to carry 115 cabin passengers and 225 tons of cargo, on her upper deck were officers cabins. The galley, a bakery and strange to relate her cow houses on the main deck were two dining saloons and passengers accommodations, suffice it to say here that she was of a magnificence for those days comparable to that of the Aquitania today. And what was more important, she was equal to the task of conquering by regular uninterrupted service. Year after year, the world’s stormiest ocean which had up until then taken its toll of lives for granted.
Jake:
Bradford Hudson phd describes the Britannia of 2015 article on Cunard for the Boston Hospitality Review. The vessel resembled a clipper ship with a wood hull 207 ft in length and three masts for sails, two of which were square rigged. The ship was also equipped with steam engines fueled by coal which powered two enormous paddle wheels amid ships. It had a single funnel or smoke stack which was painted a bright red with a black band at the top to conceal the soot. Finally, the first Cunard ship steamed into Boston Harbor on June 3rd 1840 with the Boston Atlas reporting, American and British flags were hoisted on the city hall and thrown to the breeze from the masts of vessels in the harbor and from numerous elevated points along the wharves. And at East Boston, captain Sturgis gave the steamer a gallant salute from the revenue cutter as she approached the city and the people echoed every peal of the cannon with enthusiastic shouts louder than even the roar of the artillery itself.
Jake:
On the return of the steamer from the Navy yard, she was once more saluted by the cutter Hamilton and the cannon planted on the Cunard Wharf in East Boston now began to pour forth their thunder in grand style, cannon were also fired from the heights above the wharf. And for nearly a half an hour, there was one continued roar of artillery mingled with the shouts of thousands of citizens and the animating sounds of martial music. The harbor presented at one time a dense mass of smoke which had proceeded partly from the cannon and partly from the steam vessels and ferry boats.
Jake:
The Cunard Wharf in East Boston, as well as the wharves on this side of the water was crowded with a dense mass of eager Spectators. A Flagstaff had been erected on each side of the dock which the steamer was to enter, one of which bore the American and the other, the British flag, as the unicorn turned toward the Cunard Wharf, the brass field pieces gave her a deep mouthed and hearty welcome and each discharge of the cannon was again echoed by the people.
The Arrival of the Unicorn
Jake:
You’ll note from that description that it was not the Britannia or another of the new steamers that arrived in Boston that day. But rather the unicorn, this much smaller steamship was destined to be used for mail service along the Saint Lawrence river to Montreal. But first, it was dispatched to Boston to lay the groundwork for the inauguration of scheduled mail service. A few weeks later, the Boston traveler included a detailed description of this smaller ship which was no less opulent than the transatlantic steamers that would follow.
Jake:
I went on board and after the usual interchange of good feeling with the commander, I descended to the saloon and I imagined on my entrance that I was about to be ushered into the audience chamber of the Chinese Mandarin. The saloon is about 40 by 50 ft including four state rooms on each side. The panels of the doors and sides are filled in with splendid specimens of Chinese scenery, games, et cetera, beautifully adorned with gilt frames. The woodwork and furniture is of solid rosewood, highly polished and on each side of the entrance is a sideboard richly set out with a service of silver plate belonging to the ship. The state rooms are very airy and commodious containing from 2 to 4 berths in each with all necessary comforts attached. And editors note that necessary comforts in this context means a bathroom.
Jake:
The ladies cabin is forward of the saloon and contains 10 berths connected with another state room containing four berths. I made inquiry in relation to her machinery and obtained the following information. She has two engines of 360 horsepower with three boilers, 25 ft long, 9 ft four inches deep worked separately so that in case an accident should happen to one of them, she could still be propelled with but little delay, the diameter of her cylinder is 60 inches length of stroke, 5 ft, 10 inches pressure of steam, six pounds to the inch.
Jake:
The greatest number of miles she performed per hour during their recent voyage was 12 and three quarters. And notwithstanding, she encountered continual heavy seas. She was remarkably dry. She has three officers, three engineers and 40 men.
Jake:
There was a Cunard on the unicorn when it arrived in Boston Harbor, but not company founder Samuel. Instead his son, Edward Cunard was on board charged with overseeing the final preparations for the commencement of regular transatlantic mail service. Chief. Among these duties was planning a grand banquet to be held when his father arrived on the company flagship. But first he’d have to make it through his own banquet at Daniel Hall. Dr Hudson’s 2015 article on Cunard for the Boston hospitality review notes, the welcome celebration for unicorn was impressive with thousands of people turning out to view the arrival. A few days later, the mayor hosted a banquet for the ship’s captain and several 100 guests. The latter included Henry Wadsworth Longfellow who opined steamships, the pillars of fire by night and cloud by day, which guide the wanderer over the sea.
Jake:
Meanwhile, the postmaster of Boston started publishing this notice in the local papers on July 20th, notice is hereby given that mails for Liverpool England and for Halifax, Nova Scotia will be dispatched from this office by the royal steam mail packet Britannia on the morning of Saturday, the first day of August. Next letters arriving here by the southern mails of that morning will be included, all letters forwarded from other places. For the above mail must be postpaid to Boston where they will be mailed without any further charge. Signed Nathaniel Green postmaster.
Jake:
An editorial in the Boston Daily Advertiser promoted the party that was planned for the arrival of the Britannia first to the Cunard mail packets expected in Boston. It’s gratifying to see that the complimentary dinner to Mr Cunard has been undertaken without any regard to party considerations. All ranks including some of our most eminent politicians of both sides are ready and glad to join with their brother citizens in preparing for the entertainment. It will be a proud day for the friends of public improvement throughout the land.
Jake:
A few names jumped out at me from the committee, hosting the party attorney David Stoddard Greenow, the third prominent merchant Elias Hasket Derby, Junior, merchant Robert Gould Shaw being the grandfather of the union colonel and Josiah Quincy junior, president of the Boston Common Council and later the mayor of Boston, the Boston Post of July 18th. Also listed the invited guests for the party, the governors of New York and the New England states. The mayors of Albany, Troy Hudson, Salem Lowell and Boston, the presidents of the railroads, the postmaster and the collector of the city, the British and other Consuls and Mister Webster are invited to attend and many other distinguished persons from various parts of the Union are expected to be present.
Jake:
The public was invited to attend as well provided they are willing to purchase a ticket. That is the venue for this massive party was the Maverick Hotel built in 1835 to serve travelers on the eastern railroad and the newly constructed wharves. This hotel was the largest and most opulent structure in what’s now Maverick Square. However, even the hotel wasn’t big enough for the planned party with the same edition of the post describing a new pavilion that was being constructed to accommodate the celebration.
Jake:
Its length is nearly 200 ft and its breadth about 100. The pavilion is immediately in front of the Maverick House and its roof is connected with the hotel in such a manner as to include all the front rooms and Piazzas. The arrangement of the tables is such to afford all who may be seated at them an opportunity to witness the ceremonies of the occasion. On the west side of the pavilion, elevated seats are to be constructed for Mr Cunard, the president and vice presidents of the day and the Committee of Arrangements and a gallery is to be erected on the east side for the musicians, opposite the center seats. The names of Fulton Wotton Cunard are to be inscribed in large letters and in front of the musicians gallery. The name of the steamer unicorn be placed at each end of the pavilion, the names of the Britannia, Caledonia, Arcadia and Colombia, which will constitute the line of steamers between this city, Halifax and Liverpool are to be inscribed. The names of those cities will be placed in conspicuous parts of the Pavilion as well as many appropriate devices and sentiments. The pavilion will be decorated with evergreens, banners and the flags of all nations in the evening is to be brilliantly illuminated by very colored lamps.
Welcoming the Britannia
Jake:
The moment finally arrived on July 19th, 1840 with the Boston post reporting, the British and American Royal mail steam packet Britannia only 14 days from Liverpool arrived at this port on Saturday evening. At nine o’clock, she left Liverpool on the fourth of July at half past two o’clock pm from Liverpool Dock. The Britannia made land in Nova Scotia in 11 days and 16 hours head winds all the way. She went at the rate of 270 miles in 24 hours. She was detained at Halifax only seven hours and accomplished her package from that port to Boston in 36 hours as the Britannia entered our harbor and approached the city. She was saluted from Cunard Wharf, East Boston Point, Long wharf, South Boston and from the cutter Hamilton lying in the stream brilliantly illuminated as was also the Maverick House. The band on board the Columbia struck up God save the Queen on the Britannia’s passing her. She hauled into her berth at Cunard Wharf, East Boston about 10 o’clock where she was received with loud and continued huzzahs amid a splendid display of fireworks.
Jake:
The pleasure of our citizens was very great in welcoming this noble ship to their shores and the immense multitudes which passed over to East Boston and crowded to the wharves evinced a degree of interest we have seldom seen excelled here. The grand feat to be given Mister Cunard tomorrow with East Boston will be a splendid compliment.
The Grand Celebration at East Boston
Jake:
One worthy of the liberal hospitality of Bostonians.
Jake:
The Britannia had cabin space to accommodate 115 passengers. But on this maiden voyage, she carried just 63 passengers to the crew of 89. About 20 disembarked at Halifax with the remainder continuing on to Boston. A Cunard company history from 1931 describes them as American consuls returning on leave, army officers, merchants, traveling on business and families of substance that had escorted their daughters over to attend French schools.
Jake:
The Boston Post also noted that the Britannia had collided with a schooner in the narrows in the outer harbor causing considerable damage to both vessels.
Jake:
The Britannia was expected to be repaired in time to depart Boston on August 1st as scheduled on the evening of July 21st. It seemed like all of Boston descended on the Maverick Hotel in East Boston with the post reporting clear and unusually cool for the season. The day was a delightful one and long before the sun had arrived at its meridian, there was a general gathering of the people.
Jake:
Crowds after crowds poured down to the ferries and as fast as the ferry steamers came into the dock, they were filled with foot passengers eager to be at East Boston at the commencement of the ceremonies, others in carriages and on horseback, crossed over to Chelsea or passing the bridges winded their way over Mount Bellingham to the Maverick House here. Those who had no immediate part to take in the festival assembled for the double purpose of seeing the new steamship and the new pavilion. And while hundreds went to the Cunard Wharf, an equal number to say the least entered or surrounded the hotel, they occupied the halls and staircases. They blocked up passageways and they stood not only in the cupolas, but at one moment, it is said, literally covered the roof winced. The Britannia, the revenue cutter and the United States ships gaily decked out in flags and signals in a word. Nearly the whole harbor city shipping and surrounding country together with countless groups of well dressed persons in the steam ferry boats and upon the land were to be seen at a glance and under circumstances that could not fail to excite the admiration of the Spectators.
Jake:
A parade of about 2000 dignitaries led those Spectators to the Maverick and then invited guests and ticket holders crowded into the pavilion inside. They feasted on meat, fish, pastries and seasonal fruits and vegetables. Then they were served cakes and pies along with pyramids of fresh ice cream, a real treat in the days before artificial refrigeration as the dishes were being cleared away, Josiah Quincy Rose and addressed the crowd saying in part, friends and fellow citizens, the arrival of the first of a regular line of steam packets between Old and New England forms an era in our history.
Jake:
The days of old which we did not expect to see again when a direct communication between the continents was through. Our city are returning like the morning star, New England first arose on this horizon in the meridian splendor of her country’s greatness though undimmed, she has been unobserved. No broad and navigable river connects her with the inexhaustible riches of the West. Cities more favored by nature form the communication between those lands in Europe, New England seemed forever excluded from the full advantages of commercial intercourse by rocks impassable and mountains huge the mountains divide us from the West. But through the mighty chain, one passageway was left wide enough to admit, not too steep to prevent the application of the newly discovered means of locomotion.
Jake:
The opportunity was given the opportunity has been improved. Not many months will elapse before we shall again reassemble in a scene like this to celebrate our immediate union with the mighty West.
Jake:
We have once more a place in that chain. The enlightened foresight of Mr Cunard, a citizen of Nova Scotia, aided by the liberality of the British Crown has established a line of steam packets on a permanent basis, not depending on the success of a mercantile speculation, but guaranteed by the permanent interests of England. A great good has been conferred upon us without our exertions in advancing the interests of his own country. He has conferred incidentally a benefit on ours. The active and enterprising merchants of Boston would tender their admiration and sympathy for his congenial virtues and all sorts and conditions of men among us, of every political faith and every religious creed have assembled together here to bid him a hearty welcome to our native land, in behalf of every individual in this whole assembly. I propose health, prosperity and happiness to Mister Cunard. May he meet the success he deserves and the honors that are his due from both continents which he has brought so nearly together, Samuel Cunard then rose and said a few words, very few by all accounts. Then the British Consul and other dignitaries and finally, the public was invited to propose a toast.
Jake:
Dozens of volunteers rose and drank to the health of Mister Cunard to the lasting peace with Britain to the people of Liverpool and the power of steam. And on and on until Quincy finally had to cut things short with the post reporting, Colonel Quincy who presided in a very happy manner here stated that the volunteers crowded in upon him so fast that it would be impossible to get through them without encroaching upon the night. And at his suggestion, the meeting adjourned to the anticipated opening of the railroad to Albany, by which Boston is to be united to the Great West and the company then broke up. That being a little before eight o’clock, everyone appearing to be entirely satisfied with the entertainment.
Jake:
While Boston celebrated Steve Dors and longshoremen got to work on loading the Britannia along with about 45 passengers, the cows and chickens that provided many of their meals and the cats who kept the rat population on board at bay. The ship was carrying 600 tons of coal to Boston. The most important cargo, however, was the mail. I couldn’t find any information about whether parcels and packages were accepted on that first trip and if so what the postage rates were like, but it’s a bit astonishing that letters who cross the Atlantic at no cost beyond the normal postage to Boston. As Postmaster Green had advertised a few weeks before, letters that were postpaid to Boston would be forwarded at no additional charge. With that announcement, letters flooded in from all over the country to take advantage of the first fast and reliable mail service to Europe by August. The Boston post office was able to receive 12,000 letters from a Cunard steamer sort them and have them ready for forwarding to their recipients in five hours. Pretty impressive. This mail coming from Europe also created a surprising bonus cargo and one that didn’t really take up any space in the hold from day one. Cunard steamers also delivered the European news to Boston and that would prove to be an unanticipated boon for the American news business.
Jake:
Right next to the story about the Britannia arriving in Boston Harbor. The Boston Post carried dozens of stories that were reprinted from the English papers. The European news was only about two weeks old and stories from further a field weren’t that much older. They printed an article about an assassination attempt on Queen Victoria, one of debates in parliament and a notice about a spike in applications for transport to Australia after the collapse of the local economy in Birmingham, crucially, the post could now report on up to date commodity prices in the London market with corn, sugar and cotton, all American exports leading the headlines.
Jake:
News was forwarded from China from late March and from India from late May with a story about American merchants in China preparing for an expected outbreak of war between local forces and British marines, from India came the news that Russian troops had invaded what’s today, Pakistan and Afghanistan. While news of Russia’s attempts to suppress a rebellion in the occupied caucus region came from the European papers in North Africa. France was fighting against insurgents in Algeria while Spain had successfully crushed an insurgency in the Basque region in Prussia where King Frederick Wilhelm the third had died only weeks before on June 7th. The post reported on Frederick Wilhelm the fourth succession of the throne and the internal changes that he made in the cabinet in Grimmer news. It also reported on a near pogrom that it occurred in a small town near Berlin when a Jewish merchant was accused of murdering his gentile employee in order to mix the gentiles blood and a passover cake batter. A classic example of the ancient blood libel against the Jews. The militia had been called out on June 21st to break up a mob that seemed bent on vigilante justice and thanks to the Britannia, that news was received in Boston just four weeks later.
A Changing Fashion Scene
Jake:
Not everything in the news was so serious with one story on an attempt to close the London Zoo on Sundays and another reassuring readers that Prince Albert had not shaved off his mustache. There was even coverage of the latest fashion trends in London and Paris. As a side note, I’ll just apologize in advance for all the pronunciations you’re about to hear.
Jake:
There is but little variation in the make of dresses. The corsages cut in v continue in favor with the sleeves moderately full though tight sleeves are not without their advocates in Paris and a kind of double sleeve has been introduced. Flounces for Demi toilets evening are negligees but by a are often preferred to flounces or bullions. Redding goats are made with crossing bodies and Muslins are often full aller, trimmed with a broad lace and acient of wide riba or taffeta scarf with long fringed ends encircling the waist with naud in front and ends reaching to the feet. Many new Pleines and Cavo have appeared this season in Paris. Some buttoning up close to the throat. The bajo Colts also button to the throat terminating in a very small collar of square or rounded corners which turns over a cravat or velvet riband. The collar is a little open in front and trimmed with lace which descends the habit shirt as a frill being delicately embroidered above the lace.
The Birth of a News Broker
Jake:
Crafty entrepreneurs anticipated that the new mail service would allow individual readers quicker access to European publications with the Boston Post reporting about a month before the Britannia arrived, Messrs Wilmer and Smith have opened an office at Liverpool for the purpose of receiving subscriptions for English newspapers and magazines which they will forward regularly by Mr Cunard steamers, through the medium of their expresses, they are enabled to forward those of the latest possible dates. The sudden influx of European news hadn’t really been anticipated. However, in a May 8th 1840 article about an engraving of the Cunard Lines, Caledonia that had been received in Boston, the Boston Post came the closest to predicting the impact of steam mail service on news gathering. Writing when these packets are once fairly started, Boston will become the depot of the latest European news, as we’ll see another technological development just a few years later, would vastly multiply Boston’s importance in reporting the news from Europe and beyond.
Jake:
The Britannia steamed back out of Boston Harbor on August 1st 1840 right on schedule carrying American mail for Britain and 94 passengers. This inaugurated regular steam service between Boston and Liverpool with the Acadia, Caledonia and Colombia rotating with the Britannia. So one steamer or the other was setting sail from each port every two weeks. The Britannia returned on schedule in October and from the start of regular service, the average time to cross from Liverpool to Boston was set at about 14 days and 10 hours while sailing packets were still taking several weeks and couldn’t be reliably predicted.
Jake:
While the mighty Hudson river and her extension, the Erie canal made New York Harbor, the natural center of trade and shipping. Boston’s exclusive relationship with the Cunard Line and our location at least a full day’s voyage closer to England allowed the city to at least temporarily claw back the glory it had held in the colonial days as America’s most important port. This fact was grudgingly acknowledged in the pages of the New York Herald on August 27th, 1840 the establishment of Cunard’s Line will there can be no doubt be a great benefit to Boston. And there is no boasting in saying so the gratification of Bostonians is just in the proportion that they imagine this enterprise will detract from the importance and business of New York. And the idea that New York is hereafter to be as dependent on Boston for the latest foreign news as Boston is on New York elates them amazingly because of this shift in the city’s relative fortunes. New Yorkers started a whisper campaign stating that Boston was not a suitable destination for the Cunard steamers.
Jake:
They said that its location between Cape Ann and Cape Cod made the risk of a shipwreck too high and indeed the Britannia did run aground on a sand bar off Cape Cod on a subsequent voyage, but it was able to free itself at high tide with no damage. They also said that Boston was too far north and thus too vulnerable to nor’easter that might shut the port in the winter months. The New York Herald ran a version of this story in its financial reporting in November 1840 heading into the Cunard Line’s first winner.
Winter Preparations and Concerns
Jake:
It is stated that Cunard’s line of steamers will during the winter run into Portsmouth, New Hampshire. On account of the difficulty of making Boston Harbor in foul weather, the railroad will take the news to Boston without much delay but the arrangement will make some difference in the prospects of both cities.
Jake:
Portsmouth had a reputation as the only New England port that never iced over in the winter. Though even before climate change, Boston Harbor only froze over, vanishingly rarely. Portsmouth was a backup plan at best as the Boston Post wanted everyone to know just a few days after that article ran in the New York Herald.
Jake:
We have seen it stated in the New York papers recently that the Cunard steamers were about to discontinue their trips to this port for the winter at least and that they would hereafter stop at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. We understand that this is not the case. The ships will continue running to this port as long as it remains open, which will probably be the entire season. A deposit of coal is to be made at Portsmouth. However, to be in readiness, in case any obstruction in our harbor should make it necessary for any of the steamers to stop there. Although there is not much reason to suppose that a resort to it will be necessary as predicted. Boston Harbor stayed open throughout the winter of 1840 to 1841. And by February 1st business was so good that there was talk of increasing service from fortnightly to weekly with the Boston post reporting weekly steamers. The business between this port in England has increased so rapidly and the route from Liverpool to Boston being so much more preferable and expeditious than that to New York. Mr Cunard is determined we understand to establish a weekly line of steamers to ply between the two continents. The new ships will be better calculated for the conveyance of freight than the present ones. And hereafter Boston must become the great importing emporium of the nation.
Peaceful Resolution on the Oregon Question
Jake:
New York is a pleasant village for a country residents.
Jake:
By the summer of 1841 New York’s own steamer fleet led by the Great Western was catching up with the abilities of the Cunard Line. They can make a crossing from Liverpool to New York in 15 days. But Boston was just a physically shorter trip. Cunard’s monopoly on mail and Boston’s ability to publish the latest European news a day or two earlier than New York meant that Boston still held on to its place of importance, that prominence relied on Cunard’s reputation for reliability and that’s what was brought into question when Boston Harbor finally did freeze over. In 1844 the Britannia had arrived in Boston on January 21st as part of Cunard’s now weekly service. It was scheduled to leave again on February 1st.
Battling the Winter Freeze
Jake:
However, while she was being restocked and reloaded for the return journey, a cold snap, the likes of which hadn’t been felt in decades descended on New England. The Fall River monitor reported the severe cold during the present winter is stated to have been more extensive in this country than at any former period within the last century. Not a river bay or harbor in the northern and western states has not been blockaded with ice. Always accepting Portsmouth, New Hampshire, which it is said never was frozen.
Jake:
Even so far south as Virginia, the Norfolk Papers state that navigation is seriously obstructed by ice here. The thermometer has been six degrees below zero at Boston 11 below in New Hampshire at 27 and in Canada 40 below zero.
Jake:
The Springfield Weekly Republican echoed this report and noted that the interruption of mail service didn’t only impact communication with Europe but also affected domestic mail that was usually sent up and down the east coast by ship.
Disruption in Shipping and Communication
Jake:
The cold weather is extended in all directions and all along the coast. The harbors of Boston, Portland, New Haven, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore are closed by ice. Navigation of Long Island Sound has been stopped and the expresses and mails have been transferred to the land route via Springfield. The sudden disruption in shipping drove up prices for flour, beef, grain and poultry and it had New Yorkers sharpening their rhetorical knives in preparation for arguing that the Cunard should come to their harbor if the Britannia should miss her departure date from ours.
Jake:
The Merchants of Boston weren’t going to let anything jeopardize their new commercial prominence. And the 1931 Cunard Company history relates ordinarily such a circumstance would have involved a delay until the passage out should become easier. But the merchants of Boston had written into their credo, the doctrine of the infallibility of the Cunard schedule. The Britannia a quarter of the boast that they flung at New York should not be delayed through any fault of Boston. They appointed a committee including Benjamin Rich Caleb Curtis and Samuel Quincy names still remembered in Boston to determine a way to save the situation.
Jake:
The committee decided that the only solution was to raise money for cutting a canal through the ice. When they made known to the city, the gravity of the crisis, the citizens promptly agreed that even such an unusual act of providence should never be permitted to interfere with their beloved steamships. And a large amount of money was immediately subscribed. A contract was made for cutting a canal from East Boston to India wharf for $1500. And another thence to open sea work commenced immediately on the Britannia’s originally scheduled February 1st departure day. With the next day’s Boston Atlas reporting during the whole of Thursday, our harbor presented a scene of unusual liveliness and gayety. Besides the large number of men employed in cutting out the passage, the surface of the ice was thronged by thousands. Some viewing the operations of the workmen, some amusing themselves in skating, some enjoying the novelty of perambulating on the harbor and others regaling themselves with a sleigh ride on the ice. The appearance of such a vast number of our citizens walking and riding safely over the whole extent of our ample harbor was certainly a very unaccustomed at the same time that it was a very interesting spectacle.
Jake:
The journal of last evening thus describes the manner in which the ice is removed. A channel of about 60 ft in width is first marked out which is then divided into blocks of about 30 ft square. The sections marked are then plowed by which the ice is cut nearly down to the water.
Jake:
The plow used for this purpose is formed to seven different plowshares perfectly flat and very sharp which are arranged in a row nearly similar to what is called a cultivator.
Clearing a Path Through the Ice
Jake:
After plowing the ice is sawed. So as to detach the cakes entirely from each other, after which two grapnels are attached to the cakes and they are hauled under the stationary ice by a gang of about 150 men, some 15 or 20 men standing on the cake in order to sink it sufficiently to make it pass under the blocks of ice on one side only are thus disposed of, thus forming a channel of 30 ft in width. The blocks on the other side are detached after this channel has been finished and will float out to sea with the ebb tide. The ice is from 6 to 8 inches in thickness in the upper harbor.
Jake:
You can learn a lot more about cutting ice in New England in episode 211 about the ice King, Frederick Tudor. I’ll include some illustrations from that episode in the show notes this week so that you can see what an ice plow looked like and how it was used to score and cut large blocks of ice, not needing to pack the ice after cutting for shipping to the tropics or for storing until summer sped up the process. So the Britannia was free of the ice by Saturday, February 3rd, just two days behind schedule, worrying that even a slight delay might convince the company to shift its American port to New York. Boston merchants armed the ship’s captain with the 19th century equivalent of a student’s tardy note with the Liberator reporting. The channel was completely opened on Saturday forenoon and the steamer Britannia whose regular day of departure was Thursday left on Saturday. We understand that the captain took letters from the mayor of Boston and others fully explaining the extraordinary causes of her detention and exonerating the commander from all blame. This delay had allowed more letters to pour into Boston by rail with the Pittsfield Sun reporting that, she had 54 passengers and the largest mail ever carried across the Atlantic containing over 30,000 letters.
Jake:
This record setting cargo was cheered out of the inner harbor and down toward the narrows in Boston Light by hundreds of people who took advantage of the hard freeze to see Boston Harbor as they never had before. The 1931 Cunard Company history describes the scene throngs of cheering people follow her out along the ice. Some in sleighs and some in sailing boats fitted up with long blades of iron like skates by means of which they are urged rapidly along by their sails. Not only before the wind, but even with a side wind tacking and beating to windward as if they were in water, the Britannia released from her bonds reached Liverpool in 15 days so that no alarm had been occasioned by the delay. And when the British Post Office Department offered to defray the expense of the ice channel, the citizens of Boston declined to be reimbursed.
Jake:
Six years after Boston found itself more or less by accident, acting as the news broker for the nation, a new invention would temporarily make her role all the more important while also setting the stage for the city’s downfall in the news business and her eventual loss of the Cunard Line. Altogether. A brief story in the Springfield Daily Republican of June 27th, 1846 notes, the New York Sun announces that the magnetic telegraph line between Boston and New York was completed on Tuesday afternoon. So far as the knowledge of any important news and the transaction of business by messages are concerned, the places connected by the above lines are the same as if in the heart of each other. For information can be carried from one to the other of them. With the instantaneous rapidity of thought, how incomprehensible and wonderful is the idea and yet how simple in its principle and practice is the operation. When explained and understood.
The Role of Telegraph in News Dissemination
Jake:
In his book, The Nation’s News brokers. The formative years from pre telegraph to 1865 Richard Allen Schwartz Los describes how the Cunard steamers and the New Telegraph lines combined to reinforce Boston’s role in the news dissemination business. The New York to Boston Telegraph Line opened on June 27th, 1846 linking New York’s papers with the landing site of Cunard steamers and the all important foreign news reports.
Jake:
The arrival of the Britannia on July 4th caused no change in the paper’s handling of steamer news. Each ran messengers and compiled individualized summaries of foreign news from the steamer’s mail and newspapers as had been the practice for several years. Two weeks later, the Cambria was the next Cunard arrival at Boston. And on July 18th, 1846 all three New York papers studied carried identical brief first a telegraphic summaries of the Cambria news. In fact, one source notes that this was the first common telegraphic dispatch of steamer news and that this dispatch appeared not only in New York City, but also in Boston and Philadelphia.
Jake:
So on the sixth anniversary of the Britannia’s first arrival in Boston, which made Boston the national clearinghouse for Fresh European news. European news from the Cambria would make Boston the home of the first news wire service. The New York Post pointed out that the Cambria reached its East Boston wharf late in the day on July 17th. After the last train for New York, it departed. So in the past, it would have been too late for the European news to appear in New York papers on the 18th.
Jake:
Now though the headline in the New York Herald on the 18th said another link in the lightning line complete flashes from Boston.
Lightning Lines of Communication
Jake:
And the first piece of news before anything from Europe was the news gathering method itself. There was a bright brilliant flash of lightning over the telegraphic line from Boston yesterday afternoon. Indeed, there was a succession of flashes that beautifully lit up nearly every newspaper office in this city. The first flash announced that the steamship Cambria was off Boston. The next informed us that she was safely moored at the wharf and the next that she brought some highly important intelligence. It appears that the Cambria sailed from Liverpool on the fourth while we are celebrating the day in the midst of a shower. Our advices are from Liverpool of the fourth, from London of the third, from Paris of the first and so on.
Jake:
Among the news items delivered via the Cambria by telegraph were stories about the British Parliament’s votes on the Corn Bill and the Irish Coercion Bill as well as the sudden resignation of the Queen’s cabinet. There are updates on the price of cotton and sugar futures as well as an announcement that Pious the ninth had been selected as the new Pope of the Roman Catholic church. One diplomatic node provides a nice bit of symmetry throughout the years. Leading up to the founding of the Cunard Line, the US and Britain seemed to be on the verge of war over our northeastern boundary. The border between Maine and New Brunswick had been left ambiguous by the treaty that ended our revolutionary war and the British occupation of much of Maine during the war of 1812 proved that we had unfinished business. Both nations granted deeds to land in the contested Saint John’s River valley. In the 18 twenties, both sides cut timber in the disputed territory and both nations demanded tax payments from the local residents. Finally, in the 18 thirties, both nations sent troops to the area and it looked like war might soon break out.
Jake:
Some of the very earliest news stories carried by Cunard steamers explained British perspectives on the conflict. And in some small way, the New Cunard Line may have helped to stave off violence by building partnership and understanding between the nations. In the years before the Webster Ashburton treaty set a final boundary in 1842.
Tensions Over the Oregon Country
Jake:
Now, six years after the Cunard Line was founded, Britain and the US seem to be edging close to war again with the conflict this time centered around our northwestern border and the Oregon country, as we discussed back in episode 2, 33 the region had been claimed by Spain, Russia and Britain. Before the Boston based ship Colombia navigated the river that’s now named after it, establishing a US claim on the region.
Jake:
Russia and Spain both eventually relinquished their claims on the area. And in 1818, the US and, and in 1818, the US and Britain agreed to a policy of joint occupancy in the region in the 18 forties. However, American settlers were pouring into the Columbia Valley over the Oregon trail in record numbers leading to tension with the Hudson’s Bay Company Factor headquartered at Fort Vancouver. Some Americans adopted the slogan, 5440 or fight, meaning that they would support a war if it set the border at 54 degrees and 40 minutes north, the limit of Russian territory in today’s Alaska.
Jake:
Among the news wired to New York and the inaugural message in July 1846 was this excerpt from the London Chronicle of June 30th. The Oregon question is settled. The announcement of the peaceful upshot of a tempestuous negotiation has been received with acclamation throughout the states. The more reasonable views of the moderate men have prevailed. The exaggeration of patriotism has subsided. Truth has won for itself. A majority commerce is finding its way to its usual channels and simultaneously with the absence of all fear of any threatened interruption the great organic change that has taken place in the tariff of Great Britain is in a fair way of taking its full development under the favoring conditions of peace with all the world. We say peace with all the world because it has only been from the small cloud in the west that the calamities of war, half of late threatened England. This has now blown over.
Jake:
Sir Robert Peel last night, announced the terms to be as follows, the boundary to be the 49th parallel Great Britain to have free navigation of the Columbia River during the charter of the Hudson’s Bay Company which expires in 1863 and its recharter if one should be granted, the whole of Vancouver’s Island, the right through the strait of Juan de Fuca to be common to both parties. Any British settlements south of 49 degrees are to be purchased at a fair valuation by the United States government at any time where they think it’s desirable to possess them while the British government stipulates to do the same by American property north of 49 degrees if there be any.
Delivering News of Peace
Jake:
So, once again, the Cunard steamers had delivered news of peace between the nations. They served. Unfortunately, even the early development of the news wire service in Boston contained the seeds of its own destruction. Boston had become a news broker with the first voyage of the Britannia since European news arrived here at least a day sooner than New York and it cemented this role with its connection to the vast media empires of New York by telegraph, it only makes sense that the further development of international telegraph lines would mean that the news would soon bypass Boston entirely Cape Race in the far flung corner of Newfoundland was more than a full day closer to Europe than Boston. So once the Canadian Island was connected by wire to New York, Boston’s decade as a news clearing house was over. The Cunard Company history notes. Later in the 18 fifties, the New York Herald made arrangements with the Cunard ships and with the Inman Line for them to throw off a Cape race, a tin watertight canister containing the latest news. This would be picked up by a small boat from shore and the news telegraphed to the paper.
Jake:
The loss of the news business was just one more nail in the coffin for regular Cunard service to Boston. Doctor Bradford Hudson’s article for the Boston hospitality review explains.
Shifting Operations to New York
Jake:
Two related events occurred during 1847. The Great Western Company failed resulting in the sale of the Great Western to a new firm. That same year, the initial term of the contract between the British government and Cunard expired. Cunard perceived an opportunity and arranged for the contract renewal to include the conveyance of mail to New York City. The steamship Hibernia was the first Cunard liner to arrive at New York. In 1847 Cunard was soon operating a second flotilla and weekly service between Liverpool and New York, Edward Cunard who’d been managing all operations in the United States from an office in Boston moved his headquarters to New York. The strategy was immensely successful in 1848 customs duty collections for cargo conveyed aboard Cunard vessels in Boston were about three times those in New York. Only two years later, the proportion had reversed. The focus of Cunard operations in the United States had permanently shifted from Boston to New York. The people of Boston maintained their enthusiasm for Cunard but the company had its own priorities driven by business results.
Jake:
The biweekly service between Liverpool and Boston was suspended on several occasions during the last quarter of the 19th century due to weaker and consistent demand. When Cunard founded his company, there are about 3000 miles of railroad track in the United States. 50 years later, there were more than 150,000 miles of track in active use. As a result, it became increasingly feasible and affordable to quickly move cargo or passengers from coastal ports to distant points inland even destinations near Boston could not be reached effectively from New York by rail transfer.
Jake:
Cunard’s service to Boston was suspended during the first world war as many of the company’s ships were converted to troop carriers.
Service Interruption During Wars
Jake:
Two of the Cunard dedicated to Boston service were sunk by U boats.
Jake:
Service was restored in 1922 and then suspended again for the same reasons during world war two. This time service was not restored when peace returned before long airliners mostly replaced steamships for transatlantic passengers. Cunard shifted its focus to pleasure cruises today. There’s little to be found in the Great Cunard Line that made Boston its first American port and docked East Boston for a century at 126 state street across from the Custom House Tower. The granite building that was once home to Edward. Cunard’s office remains with the inscription Cunard building over the front door across the harbor. You’ll find a Cunard tavern on Orleans Street in East Boston just steps away from the old Cunard Wharf. The restaurant takes some design cues from the neighborhood’s ocean going heritage. If you walk from there down marginal street to Pierce Park, you’ll be blessed with some of the best views of downtown Boston’s waterfront from the tip of the restored pier that juts out into the water. If you can tear your eyes away from the skyline, look to your right. The abandoned decaying pier next door is all that remains of the Grand Cunard Wharf.
Jake:
As I write this wrap up, it’s July 3rd and just today, the globe reported that the trustees of reservations are abandoning a plan to convert the parcel into a climate resilient green space.
The Fate of the Cunard Wharf
Jake:
The initial design called for a five acre park with tide pools, a salt marsh, a pocket beach kayak, rentals and access for fishing in the face of costs that ballooned up to $55 million. The organization was forced to scale back to two acres and then one and now with updated sea level projections, putting the site underwater before long, they’re putting the project on hold indefinitely.
Jake:
To learn more about the Cunard line in Boston. Check out this week’s show notes at hubor.com/three 05. There will be links to all the sources I used this week including Cunard Company Histories from 1886 in 1931. Bradford Hudson’s history of the Cunard for the Boston Hospitality Review, Richard Allen Schwartz Loss’s book, The Nation’s News brokers and dozens of news articles from New York and Massachusetts Papers. I’ll have maps of East Boston from 1879 and 1892 showing exactly where the Cunard Wharf was as well as an 1885 map showing Cunard’s routes to New York and Boston. I’ll include a couple of postcard views of the Cunard Wharf from the early 20th century as well as pictures of some late 19th century Cunard steamers. I’ll link to the original color lithograph of the Britannia being freed from the ice in 1844. That’s rare today because Cunard boosters bought them all up and destroyed them. So people wouldn’t doubt Boston’s suitability for the mail service. Plus, I’ll have the 1876 reproduction image that I talked about in the episode. I’ll also throw in some pictures from our episode on the Ice King. So you can see the equipment that was used to free the Britannia.
Jake:
There are also several stories related to the Cunard Line that didn’t make the cut for this week’s episode. So I’ll have links to those as well to Charles Dickens account of his first voyage to America on the Britannia in 1842, to a complaint by bigots in 1848 that Frederick Douglass was allowed to dine with other passengers on the Cambria, and a rescue at sea affected by the crew of the Cunard’s Batavia steamer in the middle of an Atlantic gale in 1873. While Mark Twain happened to be on board. If you’d like to get in touch with us, you can email podcast at hubor.com. We are Hub history on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram and still most active on Twitter. If you’re on Mastodon, you can find me as at hub history at better dot Boston, but I don’t really post there very much or just go to hubor.com and click on
Stay Connected and Subscribe
Jake:
the contact us link while you’re on the site. Hit the subscribe blank and be sure that you never miss an episode. If you subscribe on Apple podcasts, please consider writing us a brief review. If you do drop me a line now, I’ll send you a hobby sticker as a token of appreciation.
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https://www.bmrrhs.org/410project
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410 Project — Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society
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https://www.bmrrhs.org/410project
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The historic industrial city of Lowell, Massachusetts is home to Boston & Maine Railroad steam locomotive No. 410. Together with its combination coach-baggage car No. 410 is the visual centerpiece of the city and the focus of our Society’s preservation efforts.
The 410 was built by the Manchester Locomotive Works at Manchester, N.H., in June 1911. This locomotive did switching duty at Lowell and other locations on the B&M during her active days on the railroad. A switching locomotive is designed to deliver cars of raw materials from the railroad yard to local industries, to pick up loaded and empty cars, and to make up and break down intercity trains that will be moved to distant destinations by larger, more powerful “road engines.” The 410’s short wheelbase was particularly useful in navigating the tight curves and narrow clearances of the industrial tracks that wound through the streets and alleys of Lowell.
Like all steam-powered engines, No. 410 was rendered obsolete by diesel engines that required far less maintenance. Sold to the H. E. Fletcher Granite Company in Westford, Massachusetts on June 28, 1950, No. 410 worked in a quarry until her flue time expired and she was replaced by another retired B&M steam switcher in April 1952. Later, No. 410 was acquired by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for preservation at the Museum of Transportation in Boston and was moved to the B&M Shops at North Billerica, Massachusetts. This plan was not realized, however, and through the efforts of national, state, and local agencies No. 410 was brought to Lowell on July 17, 1993. The Society has been involved with the restoration since 1992 when a group of our members started working on the engine at North Billerica. By the time it arrived at Lowell, brought by rail and then lifted by crane to the track where she now sits, No. 410 had been scraped, painted, and lettered by NPS and B&MRRHS volunteers. Click here to view the project log!
410 Overview
The railcar, No. 1244, is set up as a combination coach-baggage car, known by railroaders as a “combine,” but was built by the Pullman Company in July 1907 as a 72-passenger coach. It is 60 feet 2 inches in length and has open platforms at both ends. It was built as No. 1244, renumbered to 244 in 1930, and rebuilt as maintenance of way car No. M3031 at Concord, N.H. in September 1946. It was sold to Luria Brothers in 1962, and then led a nomadic life on the St. Johnsbury & Lamoille County Railroad, the Montpelier and Barre Railroad, and the Goodwin Railroad. Following a sojourn at Wolfeboro Falls, N.H., No. 1244 the car came to Lowell. It is owned by the Lowell Historic Preservation Commission. The section of track on which it sits is on land owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and is adjacent to the site of the original Boston and Lowell station at the corner of Merrimack and Dutton streets. The B&MRRHS displays items from its hardware collection in the combine. An attractive exhibit in the combine, “The History of Railroads in Lowell,” was opened to the public in June 1993, made possible with a grant from the Lowell Historic Preservation Commission. The B&MRRHS and the National Park Service share the responsibility for maintaining the car.
Hardware Curator Richard Nichols has compiled an illustrated summary of the combine’s contents.
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https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2022/september_2022.html
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September 2022 featuring America's first subway
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en
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September 2022
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
U.S. Census Bureau History: America's First Subway
On September 1, 1897, the first underground subway in the United States opened in Boston, MA. Known as the "Tremont Street Line," the half-mile long route initially connected three underground stations to the city's existing above-ground street railway system. On opening day, more than 100,000 people paid 5 cents to take the 3- to 4-minute journey underneath Boston's streets. Today, subways in the United States and Puerto Rico carry an estimated 2.8 million workers aged 16 and over to work every day.
Rail transit to commute to and from Boston began as early as 1830 when the Boston and Lowell Railroad was chartered to provide steam rail service between Lowell and Boston, MA. Dozens of railways were soon establishing routes into Boston from outlying cities and towns. In March 1856, the Cambridge Horse Railroad started horse-drawn streetcar service between Harvard Square in Cambridge, MA—adjacent to Harvard University—and Boston's West End neighborhood. Like the steam railways, the number of streetcar companies plying the streets of Boston and its suburbs multiplied quickly. Horse-drawn trolleys, wagons, and the smelly manure they left behind soon jammed Boston's streets. In response, electric streetcars began replacing horse-drawn trolleys in 1889 and rail companies and the state legislature began planning commuter routes above and below the city's streets.
On March 28, 1895, dignitaries including Massachusetts Governor Frederick T. Greenhalge, broke ground for the nation's first underground subway during a ceremony at the Boston Public Garden. Workers utilized two construction techniques learned from building the subways in London, England, and Paris, France. The first method involved boring a "tube-like" tunnel—the origin of the London subway's "Tube" nickname—through the earth without disturbing traffic or buildings on the surface. A second "cut and cover" technique involved digging trenches, constructing steel beam and concrete tunnel walls with arched brick ceilings, and then filling in the excavation to bury the tunnel underground.
As construction progressed on the Tremont Street Subway, workers discovered they were digging through a forgotten part of Boston's Central Burying Ground. During the subway tunnel's excavation, they unearthed more than 900 graves dating back to the 1750s. Progress slowed again when a broken utility pipe filled the excavated "cut and cover" cavity beneath Boylston and Tremont Streets with gas. On March 4, 1897, a spark from a streetcar passing over the construction site ignited a tremendous explosion. The blast destroyed nearby streetcars, shattered windows for blocks around, injured dozens of pedestrians, and killed eight to ten people [depending on accounts] including: Reverend W.A. Start, who was standing on a nearby sidewalk; streetcar conductors Gilford D. Bigelow and Benjamin R. Sargent; public carriage driver Benjamin Downing and his passenger William L. Vinal; private carriage passenger A. M. Bates; William Mayvour, who was a waiter at the nearby Hotel Thorndike; and cab driver Delano Sibley.
Despite these setbacks, workers completed construction of the Tremont Street Subway early and under budget. In the next decade, New York City, NY (1904), and Philadelphia, PA (1907), , followed Boston's example by moving their rapid transit rail systems underground.
Today, the original 1897 Tremont Street Line remains a vital component of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority's subway system. The rapid transit system's "Green Line" carries more than 100,000 commuters through the historic tunnel every day between the Boylston and Government Center stations.
You can learn more about the history of our nation's railroads, rapid transit systems, and commuting patterns using census data and records. For example:
The U.S. Census Bureau first collected detailed statistics on transportation—including steam railroads, steamboat companies, and incorporated express companies—in 1880. With a particular emphasis on railroads, the census incorporated specially-designed questionnaires that asked hundreds of questions to collect data on the railroads' financial and physical characteristics. Data published in the 1883 Report on the Agencies of Transportation in the United States, showed that total railroad track mileage built and completed grew from 39.8 miles in 1830 to 20,198.99 miles in 1855 and reached 87,801.42 miles at the time of the 1880 Census. Total permanent investment for track, equipment, building, land, etc., by railroad companies in the United States was nearly $5.2 billion at the time of the census. Asset and debt data were available for railroads large and small. For example, the giant New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Co., had assets of more than $121.6 million from construction; $19.5 million in equipment; nearly $1.2 million in land; more than $1.7 million in cash; and total liabilities (including stock, loans, dividends, etc.) of $149.4 million. Meanwhile, the tiny North Brookfield Railroad Co., in North Brookfield, MA, had assets of $105,456.79 from constructing its 4.16 mile branch line in 1876, $0 in equipment, $83.38 in cash, and liabilities of $105,615.17.
The 1890 Census expanded coverage of rail transportation by collecting data from cities' rapid-transit facilities, including railways powered by animals, cable, and electricity. The August 23, 1890, Census Bulletin: Transportation—Rapid Transit in Cities reported that the 286 street railroads responding to the census had a total length of 3,150.93 miles. Animals (usually horses) powered more than 74 percent of these railways. In 1890, animal power was used on 2,351.10 miles; electricity on 260.36 miles; cable on 255.87 miles; and steam on 61.79 miles of elevated and 221.81 miles of surface roads. Philadelphia, PA, led the nation for total rail line length with 283.47 miles, followed by Boston, MA, with 200.86 miles, and Chicago, IL, with 181.78 miles.
The Census Bureau conducted its first census of street and electric railways in 1902. Data showed that between 1890 and 1902, the number of street and electric railways grew from 789 to 987. The number of fare passengers grew from 2,023,010,202 in 1890 to 4,774,211,904 in 1902. One of the greatest changes in the 12 years between the 1890 and 1902 railway censuses was the way systems powered their railways. In 1890, animals (usually horses) powered railcars on 4,061.94 line miles while electricity powered 914.25 line miles. By 1902, electricity powered 16,230.62 line miles compared to just 195.21 line miles using animals; 113.93 line miles using cable; and 111.82 line miles using steam. Additional data and historical information about the construction and growth of the nation's street and electric railways are available in the Census Bureau's Street and Electric Railways Part 1 and Part 2.
One drawback of the rapid growth of street and electric railways between 1890 and 1902 was the dangers this traffic posed to pedestrians who were not accustomed to dodging rapidly moving and difficult to stop railcars. In 1902, 1,217 people were killed and 47,429 people were injured in street railway accidents. By comparison, the Federal Railroad Administration reported 239 fatalities in 2021.
Forty years after Boston's Tremont Street subway opened, the Census Bureau conducted the 1937 Census of Street Railways, Trolley-bus, and Motorbus Operations. As automobiles like the Ford Model T became increasingly affordable and the nation's roads improved, the need for street railways declined. In 1917, there were 1,200 in 1922, 706 in 1932. By 1937, the number of railway companies had fallen to 478. Passenger traffic fell from 14.1 billion in 1927 to 9.4 billion, 10 years later. As the number of street railways and passenger traffic decreased, so too did the number of street railway employees. The number of salaried and wage-earning employees decreased by 35.1 percent, from 27,845 in 1927 to 18,068 in 1937.
The 1960 Census was the first to ask respondents about their place of work and how they commuted to their place of employment. These data helped governments better understand commuting patterns to determine road, highway, and transit spending; locate future transit station locations; and target areas for housing or business development, etc. The Census Bureau published its supplementary report Place of Work and Means of Transportation to Work in January 1963. The report showed that about 83 percent of the workers living in the central cities of standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSA) of 100,000 or more at the time of the 1960 Census also worked in these central cities; about 9 percent commuted to the outlying suburban ring, while and 2 percent worked outside the area. Transportation to work data showed that New York City, NY, was the only SMSA where more than half of workers (54.8 percent) used public transportation to go to work. Other SMSAs with large percentages of people using public transportation to travel from home to work included Boston, MA (25.1 percent); Jersey City, NJ (39.6 percent); New Orleans, LA (32 percent); Philadelphia, PA (27.5 percent); and Washington, DC (23.7 percent).
Although data about the number of people using carpools to commute to work had been asked in previous censuses, the 1980 Census collected more detailed data about carpools. That year, more than 19 million people carpooled, including 13.3 million in a 2-person carpool; more than 3.3 million in 3-person carpools; 1.4 million in 4-person carpools; and 1 million commuted in 5-or-more-person carpools.
The 1990 Census was first to inquire about workers' usual time leaving their home to go to work. In 1990, 54.8 percent of all workers 16 years and over (61,194,181) left home for work between 6:30 a.m. and 8:29 a.m. In 2020, American Community Survey estimates reported that 24.1 percent of the nation's 142,512,559 workers 16 years and over who did not work from home departed for work sometime after the "traditional" morning rush between 9:00 a.m. and 11:59 p.m. During the morning hours in 2020, the largest cohort of commuters—14.6 percent—left between 7:00 a.m. and 7:29 a.m.
The 1990 Census was the first to ask about workers' usual time spent traveling to work. Of the 111,664,249 workers 16 years and over who did not work at home in 1990, the majority (19,026,053) had travel times between 15 and 19 minutes to work. Long commutes of 90 minutes or more were usual for 1,763,991 people, while the average travel time for all workers not working at home was 22.4 minutes. Ten years later, the majority of workers not working at home still had commutes of 15 to 19 minutes (19,634,328), but the number of people reporting commutes of more than 90 minutes rose to 3,435,843 and average time to work increased to 25.5 minutes.
In 2000, 75.7 percent of workers 16 years and over drove to work alone; 12.2 percent carpooled; 4.7 percent used public transportation; 2.9 percent walked; and 1.2 percent rode a motorcycle, bicycle, or had another means of transportation to work. More recently, 2020 American Community Survey estimates revealed that nearly 75.4 percent of the nation's 152,193,868 workers 16 year and over drove to work alone; more than 8.8 percent carpooled; about 4.6 percent used public transportation; 2.2 percent walked; and 1.8 percent usually took a taxi, motorcycle, bicycle, or other mode of transportation to work. As the technology has made working from home easier, the number of people 16 years and over reporting they worked from home rose from 3,406,025 in 1990 to 10,940,462 in 2020.
Many villages, towns, and cities in the United States are named for the train stations they grew up around. Along with towns like Railroad, PA, and Railroad, IN, rail-related places include: Lake Station, IN, which was the western terminus of the Michigan Central Railroad; Fairfax Station, VA, so named because it was a stop on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad; Johnson Siding, SD, named for the rail siding that ran through the area along the Rapid City, Black Hills and Western Railroad; Cook Station in Crawford County, MO, named after becoming a stop on the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway; Laury's Station, PA, named for the town's first station agent and postmaster when the Lehigh Valley Railroad opened a train station in the town previously named "Slate Dam"; Yeehaw Junction, FL, named for the Florida East Coast Railway's Yeehaw Station; and Huntington Station, NY, named for the Long Island Railroad station that opened in the community in 1868.
The Census Bureau's report Commuting by Public Transportation in the United States: 2019 featured data collected from the American Community Survey. Data from the survey's question, "How did this person usually get to work LAST WEEK?" showed that 5 percent of workers 16 years and over (7,778,444) used public transportation, including: 3,601,403 taking the bus; 2,935,633 riding the subway or elevated rail; 921,391 boarding long-distance train or commuter rail; and 242,776 commuting by light rail, streetcar, or trolley.
Data from the Census Bureau's County Business Patterns series showed that in 2020 there were 674 urban transit systems (NAICS 4851) in the United States. Urban transit systems include establishments primarily engaged in operating local and suburban passenger transit systems such as light rail, subways, streetcars, and buses. These establishments employed 53,911 employees during the pay period that included March 12, 2020.
This Month in Census History
In a report by Census Bureau director James C. Capt on September 12, 1942, the 1940 Census of Housing found that 15 million American homes had a refrigerator; 9.2 million used ice boxes; and more than 9.3 million homes had no type of refrigerating equipment.
By 1950, more than 33.7 million homes had electric- or gas-powered mechanical refrigerators.
In 2011, the Survey of Income and Program Participation showed that 99.2 percent of American households had mechanical refrigeration.
Subway Systems
Boston, MA, opened the first subway in the United States in September 1897, but within a decade, it was surpassed in length and ridership by the New York City Subway—the largest subway system in the United States.
New York City's first subway—the "Manhattan Main Line"—opened on October 27, 1904, and transported riders between city hall and Harlem's 145th Street. After more than a century of growth, New York's 248-mile-long subway system carries 1.7 billion passengers annually.
Subways in Washington, DC, and Chicago, IL, are the nation's second and third largest systems. In 2019, Washington's 117-mile Metro carried nearly 238 million passengers, while Chicago's 102.8-mile "L" carried more than 218 million.
In Boston, MA, the Tremont Street Tunnel that opened on September 1, 1897, is still used by the region's subway system. In 2019, the 38-mile-long "T" carried more than 152 million passengers.
The newest—and shortest—subway line in the United States can be found in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The 10.7-mile Tren Urbano system opened in 2004 and carried more than 5.2 million passengers in 2019.
Worldwide, Shanghai, China, had the longest and busiest subway system in 2019. More than 10.6 million people ride the 499-mile-long Shanghai Metro every weekday!
Did you know?
Alfred Ely Beach designed his "Beach Pneumatic Transit" in the 1860s and secretly constructed it beneath New York City's congested Broadway Avenue in 1869 using a tunneling device of his own invention. On February 26, 1870, Beach began offering rides along the 300 foot long test track.
Despite positive reviews, city politicians were reluctant to approve an expansion of the subway. Financier John Jacob Astor III argued construction would damage buildings and worsen surface traffic. When New York governor John Adams Dix finally signed a bill chartering Beach's pneumatic railway in 1873, the Panic of 1873 and advances in electric motors ended Beach's air-driven railway dreams.
More than 2 decades later, a growing population and gridlocked streets convinced New Yorkers to invest in underground transit. Approved in 1894, the New York City Subway opened its first underground segment on October 27, 1904. On its first day, it carried more than 150,000 people along its 9.1 mile route.
Today, New York's subway is the largest and busiest subway system in the United States.
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
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Railroad - Early American, Steam Engines, Expansion
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Railroad - Early American, Steam Engines, Expansion: As in England, the adoption of a railed pavement in North America was originally tied to gravity operation but later was adapted for the locomotive. In the United States the earliest railed pavements were in or adjacent to Boston, where in 1807 (when it was decided to flatten the top of Beacon Hill in order to enlarge the Massachusetts statehouse) a tramway was constructed to carry gravel to the base of the hill to begin filling the Back Bay. The first railway in Canada was constructed by British military engineers in the 1820s at the Citadel at Québec city; it
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/favicon.png
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Encyclopedia Britannica
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https://www.britannica.com/technology/railroad/Early-American-railroads
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As in England, the adoption of a railed pavement in North America was originally tied to gravity operation but later was adapted for the locomotive. In the United States the earliest railed pavements were in or adjacent to Boston, where in 1807 (when it was decided to flatten the top of Beacon Hill in order to enlarge the Massachusetts statehouse) a tramway was constructed to carry gravel to the base of the hill to begin filling the Back Bay. The first railway in Canada was constructed by British military engineers in the 1820s at the Citadel at Québec city; it used a similar cable-operated tramway to ascend the heights of Cape Diamond. But it was in 1825 on the Granite Railroad just south of Boston on the side of Great Blue Hill that several of the characteristic features of American railroading, such as the swiveling truck and the four-wheel truck, were first put into use.
The earliest locomotives used in North America were of British design. In 1829 the Stourbridge Lion was the first to run on a North American railroad. But on the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, where the Stourbridge Lion ran, as on the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, the first in Canada, Stephenson locomotives proved unsuited to the crude track and quickly derailed. The British locomotive had virtually no constructive impact on North American locomotives. The only residual characteristic was the 4-foot 8.5-inch gauge, which was often thought to be a misfortune in being too narrow.
It was the brute strength of American locomotives, their great tolerance of cheap and crude track, their durability, their economy of operation, and their simplicity of maintenance that determined almost from the first years of operation that there would be a distinctively American railroad sharing little with British practice. It seems reasonable to argue that once the British had shown that railroads could be made to work the Americans reinvented them for a very different terrain, economic climate, and demographic level. The creation of the American railroad was a contemporaneous but not a derivative development.
The American railroad came into existence because incomplete geographic knowledge caused the first British colonists to plant early entrepôts in what were later understood to be unfavourable locations. The uplands in central Massachusetts were already being abandoned for agricultural use when the railroad arrived in that region in the mid-1830s. Only when in the 1840s a railroad reached into the agricultural belt in the American Midwest could the port of Boston find a truly great hinterland. And by 1825 the Erie Canal had created a water connection between the Midwest and the port of New York.
Two other colonial ports mirrored the conditions in Boston. In Maryland, the rivers did not serve the colonial port at Baltimore. The Susquehanna just to the north and the Potomac just to the south had falls near their mouths. A port had grown up at Alexandria on the Virginia side of the Potomac; and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania built a canal and later a railroad to keep inland trade from passing southward to Baltimore. In South Carolina the main port, Charleston, was, like Boston, on a short stream offering little access to the interior.
These “mislocated” colonial ports were among the largest American cities, but they were denied the easy access to the interior that seemed essential for growth as the country spread inward. The creation of the railroad offered a solution to the access problem. Competition among the Atlantic ports meant that those with the poorest river connections to the West—Baltimore, Boston, and Charleston—became the earliest and strongest proponents of railroad promotion.
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
The first to take an active role was Baltimore, which in the 1820s had become the second largest American city. On July 4, 1828, Baltimore merchants began the construction of a railroad from the harbour to some point, then undetermined, on the Ohio River. The results of adopting British practice were generally bad, forcing the engineers to design a railroad from scratch. Locomotives designed and built in Baltimore were stronger than those of Robert Stephenson. Leveling rods kept those locomotives on the relatively poor track, and a swiveling leading truck guided them into tight curves. On the Camden and Amboy Railroad, another pioneering line, the engineer John Jervis invented the T- cross-section rail that greatly cheapened and simplified the laying of track when combined with the wooden crosstie also first introduced in the United States. Simplicity and strength became the basic test for railroad components in North America. On cars the individual trucks were given four wheels to allow heavier loads to be carried, and the outside dimensions of cars were enlarged.
In western Maryland the engineers were faced with their steepest grades. These came to be known as the “ruling grade”—that is, the amount of locomotive power required for the transit of a line was determined by its steepest grade. Robert Stephenson had thought 1 percent was the steepest grade a locomotive could surmount. At the top of the climb over the Allegheny Front the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) engineers had to accept a 17-mile grade of about 2.2 percent, which they managed to achieve with the stronger American engines. Adopted later as the ruling grade for the Canadian Pacific and a number of other North American lines, the 2.2 percent figure has become so fixed that it now ranks second only to standard gauge as a characteristic of the North American railroad.
The B&O was finally completed in December 1852 to Wheeling, Virginia (now in West Virginia). But by that time it was only the first of what turned out to be six trans-Appalachian railroads completed in 1851–52.
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WINCHESTER HISTORY ONLINE
WELCOME
This site will introduce you to the history of Winchester, Massachusetts. It includes:
A quick summary of key events below,
Overview histories of the broad subject areas listed in the box to the left, including links to an assortment of articles on specific subjects, and
A variety of in-depth articles about specific topics, linked to the themes and also accessible through the subject index.
The majority of the articles included here were previously published as newspaper articles but have been updated and illustrated from the collections of the Winchester Archival Center and Winchester Historical Society. Further new and updated material may be added over time.
The overarching theme of this site is Shaping Winchester’s Future by Understanding its Past. Prepared by Archivist Ellen Knight with funding from the Cummings Foundation, this program is supported in part by grants from the Winchester Cultural Council, a local agency which is supported by the Mass Cultural Council, a state agency, and is hosted by the Town of Winchester.* For questions and comments, contact the Archivist. (Foreign correspondents may need to contact the Archivist via LinkedIn.) [Read more: About the Author and the Project]
WINCHESTER: A SKETCH OF ITS DEVELOPMENT
When the artist Edmund Garrett designed a town seal for Winchester, adopted in 1896, he included two names and two dates for the town. Within a wreath of American lilies and English daisies, he placed the name Waterfield and the date when land grants were recorded, 1638, plus the name Winchester and the date of its incorporation, 1850.
1638 - The area which became the town of Winchester, part of the lands once inhabited by the Massachusett tribes, was colonized by Puritan citizens of Charlestown. The original land grants (along with those of other towns) were recorded in the Book of Possessions of 1638. In that document, which defined areas by terms denoting prominent natural features, the area which is now central Winchester was designated a waterfield, leading to Waterfield being considered the first name for the village (though not officially adopted as such and not surviving beyond the 17th century).
1640 - The first house was built alongside the Aberjona River. It was the home of Edward Converse who also had the first business, a grist mill. Early settlement was concentrated along Cambridge Street (the Cambridge-Woburn road) with some scattered upland farms to the west and along Richardson’s Row (Washington Street). Other areas settled before 1800 were located along the Medford-Woburn road: Symmes Corner (at the intersection of Main, Bacon and Grove Streets) and Black Horse Village (near present day Black Horse Terrace on Main Street). Long before 1700, members of the Converse and Richardson families had built the first mills in town along the Aberjona River, and for a hundred more years the area remained purely rural in nature.
1642 - To govern the scattered farms in this area, Woburn was incorporated, its land including about two-thirds of what is now Winchester, then called South Woburn. The southeast portion of what became Winchester’s territory (including the Brooks House, pictured left) was taken from Charlestown and annexed to Medford in 1754, and the southwest portion (south of Church Street) was annexed to West Cambridge just eight years before Winchester’s incorporation. Thus, when Winchester was incorporated, the land was taken from Woburn, Medford, and West Cambridge (later renamed Arlington).
1775 - Residents, including Hezekiah Wyman, later known as the White Horseman, participated in the War for Independence.
1798 - A survey of real estate this year indicated that some thirty-five houses stood within the bounds of present-day Winchester. The population was only about 200 persons. The village’s most notable building was the Black Horse Tavern (demolished in 1892) on the Medford-Woburn road. A meeting place for citizens, during the Revolution it also served as an important meeting place for soldiers. Due to being a stop on stage coach routes, the name Black Horse Village was used for the community for a time.
1803 - The Middlesex Canal, which opened in 1803, and the Boston and Lowell Railroad which supplanted it in 1835, worked to change the character of the village. The small mills on the Aberjona and isolated farms now had fast and cheap access to the Boston market and beyond, and these ties to the city grew stronger over time. The early gristmills gave way to factories (such as the Bacon Mill pictured left) for manufacturing felt , machinery, watch hands, blinds, piano cases, furniture, leather, and many other items. Blacksmith and iron shops profited from the proximity of the new railroad. Near the center of town, housing for a new commercial and professional class was constructed, reflecting the popularity of Greek Revival and Italianate styles.
1835 - The Boston and Maine railroad opened, providing transportation for freight and for passengers, spurring the growth of a village center and of the population.
1840 - The thriving village began to feel the need to separate from its parent towns (Woburn, Medford, and West Cambridge). The creation of the South Woburn Congregational Society, which provided the first house of worship within the village boundaries, initiated the movement toward independence.
1850 - The Town of Winchester was incorporated. Naturally enough, the public offices of the new town were located near the church and railroad in the area around Mill Pond that rapidly became the town’s commercial, social, and religious center.
The new town was very nearly named Columbus, but instead the town fathers honored a wealthy businessman, Lt. Colonel William P. Winchester, who was expected to return the favor in a tangible fashion. Indeed, Col. Winchester did donate $3,000 to the new town but died suddenly within months of the incorporation of the town bearing his name, never having set foot in the town.
Nineteenth-cent ury growth - The new community grew steadily. Immediately four new schools were built. The area around Converse’s mill pond became a business center. In 1851, the Lyceum Building was constructed to contain a hall large enough for Town Meetings. In 1859, the Winchester Library Association gave its collection of about 1,100 books to the Town to form the nucleus of a public library, first housed in business buildings on Main Street. The first bank, the Winchester Savings Bank, was established in 1871. The large and solid Brown & Stanton Building (pictured left) was built in 1886. An impressive Town Hall was built in 1887. Land which the Town purchased in 1867 for a Common was improved in the 1880s as a public amenity.
Two distinct social groups developed in the new town. In the area near the mills, such as the Canal Street-Salem Street neighborhood and in Baconville (near Grove Street), industrial workers settled near their factories. Simultaneously, Boston businessmen began settling in Winchester, attracted by the railroad which made commuting possible. Wealthy Bostonians who had previously used Winchester as a summer residence now built mansions (such as the George Henry house, right, now the home of the Winchester Community Music School).
Friction between the two groups was played out in stormy town meetings. As the town became increasingly industrialized, "progressive" new citizens now worked to limit industrial growth through election of their candidates to town offices.
1890s - The creation of Mystic Valley Parkway and Manchester Field began a parks movement along the river that stretched into the 1930s. Parks began to replace the tanneries at the town center. (The Waldmyer Tannery, left, made way for Manchester Field.)
From the 1870s on, suburban developments of great charm were built by the town’s businessmen and professionals, and new residents were attracted in large numbers. Mansard, Queen Anne, Colonial Revival and Shingle-Style homes are found throughout the town. By 1900, Winchester’s days as a mill town were clearly passing.
Twentieth-century growth - Through the twentieth century, Winchester developed further as a bedroom community. From the late nineteenth through the twentieth centuries, former farm lands were bought for housing developments. Agriculture in Winchester survived longest on the west side hills, but following World War II most of those were broken up and converted into house lots.
Twentieth-century Winchester witnessed many social and political changes, along with physical ones.
1912 - The first hospital opened in rented quarters on Washington Street.
1915 - To provide control and guidance for the building boom in town, a Planning Board was established and Town Meeting approved a Zoning Bylaw in 1924.
1917 - After five years as a cottage hospital, the first phase of Winchester Hospital was built and immediately faced two challenges, the loss of staff to the armed services during World War I and the Spanish Influenza epidemic.
1920 - The state Legislature allowed Winchester the first woman town clerk in the state. The passage of the 19th Amendment opened the door to women candidates for elected offices. It also swelled the number of residents eligible to vote at Town Meeting beyond the capacity of the hall, thus prompting a change.
1928 - Town Town adopted a representative Town Meeting. Thirty-four women were among those first elected as Town Meeting members. Gradually women joined elected Town boards, though the first woman selectman was not elected until 1975.
1929 - Black Friday plunged the country into the Great Depression. To help people out of work, the Town formed an Unemployment Relief Committee and, with the assistance of the Works Project Administration, undertook various parks and river improvement projects. Despite the hardships, Town Meeting supported two new construction projects which opened in 1931, a new Public Library and new Junior High School.
1930 - The Town, whose roots went back to Puritan Charlestown, joined in the state’s tercentenary celebration of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and welcomed the mayor and mayoress of Winchester, England, as its honored guests.
1932 - The first En Ka Fair was held, to benefit the hospital’s Nurses’ Home. Throughout the town’s history, many clubs and organizations have been active in social, educational, cultural, political, and charitable works.
1940s - Thousands of residents entered the armed services, while townspeople at home served in the Civilian Defense organization and other support or relief groups during World War II. At the end of the war, the town experienced another building boom.
1956 - After discussion and controversy which began in the 19th century over the dangerous grade crossing in the town center, a railroad overpass was completed in 1956. The proliferation of automobiles spawned other challenges which have carried through into the 21st century.
1958 - The vacant Beggs & Cobb tannery burned, to be replaced by a housing development, representative of the direction the town had been taking away from heavy industry.
1960 - John Volpe was elected governor, becoming the town’s second governor in residence, following Samuel W. McCall, governor during WWI. In the same election that took JFK into the White House, Volpe got about 80% of the local vote. This was a significant step for Yankee Winchester which did not elect an Italian to the Board of Selectmen until 1950.
1968 - Town government entered the digital age with the first purchase of a computer for Town Hall.
1972 - A new high school opened. Due to diminishing open land, locating it centrally required sacrificing a field for the school building, channeling a section of the Aberjona River into culverts to create a new field over it, and carving a tunnel under the railroad to connect the school and field.
1975 - Winchester adopted a home rule charter and provided for a town manager. The August Ladies' Home Journal named Winchester among the 15 best suburbs in America, and Boston Magazine ran a profile on the town.
1978 - The Jenks Senior Center opened.
1987 - Town Hall was renovated during a decade which also saw a downtown revitalization program laid out.
1990 - Winchester entered into a Jumelage with St. Germain-en-Laye. At the turn of the century, the native nationalities of its own citizenry began to multiply.
1991 - With a mix of nationalities as well as faiths living in town, the Multi-Cultural Network was founded to help build an inclusive community.
1999 - A multi-million, 20+-year Flood Mitigation Improvement Program was launched with an engineering report recommending a series of projects. After the first two projects were completed in 2002, the program was redesigned, approved by the State, and construction began again.
2000 - Temple Shir Tikvah opened a synagogue on Vine Street, a significant step in a long history of the gradual integration of a diversity of cultures into what was originally a Protestant, Yankee town.
2007 - The T own purchased the Locke Farm, the last remnant of Winchester’s agricultural past. The Wright-Locke Conservancy has established it not only as a thriving small farm with certified organic produce but also as a vital and well loved educational center.
2010 - The Planning Board issued Phase I of its new master plan. A key element, also an active interest of the Board of Selectmen, has been the economic vitality of the downtown. The Planning Board subsequently addressed the need for more housing downtown near public transportation, while preserving the Center’s historic character, through rezoning measures. Town Meeting approved funding for a new Master Plan in 2017.
2017 - A rebuild of the high school was completed. Along with new Ambrose and Vinson-Owen elementary schools and an addition at the McCall Middle School, this project was part of the 2007 School Facilities Master Plan. A new Master Plan was completed in 2017.
2018 - The Select Board voted for its first woman, also first Asian-American, town manager when it named Lisa Wong as town manager . After Wong's departure, Town Engineer Beth Rudolph became the next town manager.
2020 - The town met the challenge of adjusting to pandemic conditions when COVID-19 struck. Town agencies distributed emergency supplies and instituted protective measures. Town departments learned new ways to carry on the business of government despite the temporary closure of town facilities, and the schools adjusted to remote teaching, all with the use of additional technology.
Today - Although there are several light industries within its boundaries, Winchester remains primarily a residential town. Its location, just eight miles northwest of the state capital, enables its inhabitants to take advantage of the cultural opportunities offered by Boston’s museums, concert halls, theaters, and universities. Many residents commute by train, bus, or car to work in the commercial and industrial centers or at one of the many educational institutions of Greater Boston.
The town i s a prosperous one. The changing history of Winchester’s population is reflected in its surviving architecture. The houses of farmers, workers, and industrialists remain, as do many of the homes built around the town center for businessmen and professionals in the mid-19th century. Street after street of suburban homes built in the years following the Civil War survive intact as a testament to Winchester’s final evolution to a diverse, residential suburb.
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Sieh dir auf Facebook Beiträge, Fotos und vieles mehr an.
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https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2021/07/23/mbta-restroom-guide/
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Gotta Go? Here’s a Graded Guide to the MBTA’s Restrooms
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2021-07-23T00:00:00
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Sometimes nature calls, but you're on the train. Here's what you need to know about using the restroom on the MBTA.
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Boston Magazine
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https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2021/07/23/mbta-restroom-guide/
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Some of them are nice. Some of them...are not.
While on an MBTA Red Line trip recently, I faced a not infrequent commuter dilemma: Nature was urgently calling, and there I was with no Starbucks handy to race off to. Deciding to take a little bit of a risk, I asked an MBTA transit ambassador if there was a restroom in the station, which happened to be Ashmont. Lucky me—there was, and he pointed me to it. Predictably, the facility was hardly glam, but it did the trick.
At the same time, it made me wonder what other T stops could come through in a pinch. So off I went, clipboard in hand, zealously doing my research.
What I learned was, at once, illuminating and disconcerting. First off, you should not expect to have easy access to a restroom at every station. While virtually all of the 63 T subway and underground trolley stations have restrooms, only 22 of them are available to the public, according to MBTA representative Joe Pesaturo. The rest are set aside for use by T employees only.
You can always try your luck by asking a T ambassador to give you access to an employee restroom—they’re generally required to do so under MBTA policy. They may turn you down, though, either because they don’t have a key or if the toilet is located near equipment. Or, in my experience, because they just don’t want to.
With those caveats in mind, here’s the results of my spot check of T restrooms at 13 stations (five were public and eight were employee-only) along with letter grades to guide you when nature calls. I based my assessment on the degree of cleanliness of the facilities and whether they were properly stocked with the essentials, like toilet paper, paper towels, and hand soap.
Worst of the Worst (Grade F)
Forest Hills Station: The restroom at this station was without doubt the most stomach-churning one I came upon. It was dirty and stank to high heaven, the urinal did not flush, and there were no paper towels, no toilet paper, and no hand soap. And get this—the door was propped wide open with a cone, thus allowing people to actually look in and see you doing your business at the urinal. When I went back a week later to check to see if the cone was still in place, it was—I guess it’s de rigueur there.
Harvard Square Station: Nearly as unappealing was the restroom at the Red Line’s Harvard Square Station. It had the same cleanliness issues as the one at Forest Hills sans the open door, but it also had some uber-raunchy graffiti—let’s just say it was a lot more potent than “For a good time call…”
Could Be a lot Better (Grades C to D)
Some T restrooms will get the job done, but they’re still kind of unpleasant, which is what I found at these five stations.
Ashmont, Chinatown, Mass Ave, JFK/UMass, and Wonderland Stations: To varying degrees, I found the toilets at these locations to be dingy, smelly, and grimy, and often had no hand soap, no toilet paper, no paper towels, and/or overflowing wastebaskets.
The Revere Beach Station has an employee-only restroom. When I asked the ambassador working there if I could use it, she declined and directed me instead to go to the next stop, Wonderland, for the public toilet there.
Getting Better (Grade B)
Government Center and Kenmore Stations: I found the restrooms at both locations to be quite serviceable. But I had to depend on the kindness of strangers here. You see, the toilets at these two stations are designated for employees only, but the ambassadors let me in. The ambassador at Kenmore was particularly nice, considering that it was a Red Sox game day and he was quite busy.
Top-notch (Grade A)
Even Jerry Seinfeld’s best bud and toilet connoisseur extraordinaire, George Costanza, would like these facilities.
Airport Station: When I asked an employee there if there was a restroom in the station, he politely said, “Come with me, sir” and walked me over to it. It was quite clean, smelled nice, had the requisite toilet paper, hand soap, and paper towels, and even some hand-sanitizer—a nice touch, I would say. But you’ll never spot it without a little help—the door was marked “Authorized Personnel Only/Police Take Notice.”
Back Bay Station: The restroom here was very clean as well, smelled nice, and the necessary materials were all on hand. A novel thing here, at least for me, was that the soap, water, and electric drier are all incorporated into the sink right next to each other. Way cool!
Dishonorable Mention (Grade F)
Park Street and Downtown Crossing Stations: A failing grade also goes to these two stations, not because they were dirty, but because I was refused entrance to the locked employee toilets there, and there were no public options. To me, that seems inexcusable, given that the two locations are large downtown stations situated in the heart of what we like to think of as a world-class city.
When I asked the ambassador at Downtown Crossing if I could use the employee restroom there—it’s located directly across from the CharlieCard Store—she said no and instead told me to go to the nearby Roche Bros. supermarket and use their facility.
I also got the brush off at Park Street, where a T inspector sitting in the booth sternly refused to let me use the toilet there. Likewise, a transit cop who happened to be in the station at the time also refused to open it up for me.
When I reached out to Pesaturo about my overall findings, he responded by explaining the cleaning process followed by the agency.
“Cleaning and maintenance responsibilities are handled by the MBTA’s cleaning contractors,” he says. “The bathrooms are cleaned and resupplied regularly. The frequency of cleaning varies from location to location, depending on passenger volume and the level of use. As part of the cleaning contracts, the MBTA audits the cleaning quality of 1.3 million square feet of cleanable area, including bathrooms, and the T monitors compliance with cleaning thresholds.”
A Few Tips
Don’t expect to find much T directional signage that says: “Attention Passengers: This way to the toilet.” Your best bet is to ask one of the T ambassadors, most of whom I found to be quite cordial, or to try someone on the T’s cleaning staff, who were also quite helpful.
If you’re willing to take your chances, here are your public T restroom options:
Red Line: Alewife, Ashmont, Braintree, Central, Davis, Harvard, JFK/UMass, Kendall/MIT, North Quincy, Porter, Quincy Center, and Wollaston
Orange Line: Assembly, Back Bay, Forest Hills, Malden, Oak Grove, Sullivan, and Wellington
Blue Line: Wonderland
Green Line: No public toilets
South Station and North Station (commuter rail terminal)
You can also find facilities at the Courthouse, World Trade Center, and Nubian Silver Line bus stations.
One last tip: If you happen to be out and about in the vicinity of the Back Bay, Harvard, or Alewife stations and need to go, the public restrooms there are located outside the fare gates, so you don’t have to pay a fare to get in.
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Waterbury Thoughts: Train Line History
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[
"Raechel Guest",
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One of the key assets that helps draw people to Waterbury is the train line connecting us to Bridgeport and New York City. Speaking as someo...
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http://waterburythoughts.blogspot.com/favicon.ico
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http://waterburythoughts.blogspot.com/2018/02/train-line-history.html
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http://scua.library.umass.edu/category/new-england/page/9/
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New England – Page 9 – Special Collections & University Archives
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http://scua.library.umass.edu/images/favicon.ico
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http://scua.library.umass.edu/images/favicon.ico
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Special Collections & University Archives | University Libraries | UMass Amherst: Archives, manuscripts, photographs, and books documenting the history and experience of social change
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http://scua.library.umass.edu/images/favicon.ico
| null |
The Boston and Albany Railroad was formed between 1867 and 1870 from the merger of three existing lines, the Boston and Worcester (chartered 1831), the Western (1833), and the Castleton and West Stockbridge (1834). The corporation was a primary east-west transit through the Commonwealth, with branches connecting towns including Athol, Ware, North Adams, and Hudson, N.Y.
The nineteen atlases comprising this collection include detailed plans documenting the location and ownership of rights of way, land-takings, and other land transfers to or from the railroad company. Dating from the early years of operation for the corporation to just after the turn of the century, the atlases include maps of predecessor lines (Boston and Worcester Railroad Corporation and Western Rail-Road), as well as the Grand Junction Railway Company (Charlestown, Somerville, Everett, and Chelsea), the Ware River Railroad, and the Chester and Becket Railroad.
Temporarily stored offsite; contact SCUA to request materials from this collection.
In the fall 1987, a working group was formed in Boston to help coordinate planning for HIV-related services, prevention, and education. The Boston AIDS Consortium began operations the following January with the goal of ensuring effective services for people affected by HIV/AIDS and enabling them to live healthy and productive lives. In its eighteen year existence, the Consortium worked with over seventy public and private agencies and two hundred individuals.
The Records of the Boston AIDS Consortium provide valuable insight into community-based mobilization in response to the AIDS epidemic.
Founded in 1973, the Boston Jazz Society grew from a small group of enthusiasts listening to music in living rooms to a thriving organization that “kept Jazz alive” in New England. As Jazz’s popularity began to fade in the late 1960s, local Jazz societies formed to provide support to artists and give them the means and venues to continue to perform on the road. The Boston Jazz Society was originally inspired by one of the earliest, the Left Bank Jazz Society of Baltimore. Like the Left Bank, BJS produced concerts in clubs, theaters, and hotels but expanded their efforts to include exhibits, television and radio shows, and a Jazz education program for grade school students. The longest running BJS activities, however, were the annual Jazz Barbecues and starting in 1975, the BJS Scholarships. The scholarship program raised funds for young Jazz musicians to attend the New England Conservatory of Music’s Jazz Department and the Berklee School Of Music and began the musical careers of many important musicians, composers, and teachers. BJS was also deeply connected to the local music scene, celebrating Roxbury, Mass. natives Alan Dawson and Roy Haynes, whose brother Vincent was a long-time board member, among many others. After 42 years of promoting Jazz music in Boston, the Boston Jazz Society, Inc. dissolved in 2015.
The Boston Jazz Society Records extensively document BJS’s meetings, events, business dealings, and scholarship administration through meeting minutes, posters, correspondence, photographs, recordings, videos, and BJS’s own propaganda and publications. The majority of the BJS records came from the collection of founding member and longtime president Aureldon Edward Henderson and also represents his involvement in promoting Jazz in the Boston area.
Gift of Aureldon Edward Henderson, July 2014, Aug. 2015
Although Quakers first worshipped in Boston in 1661, they were late in the game in organizing a formal meeting. A preparative meeting operated in the city for just over a hundred years (1707-1808) under the auspices of the Salem Monthly Meeting, and a second attempt at building a community began in 1870 with authorization of an indulged meeting in Roxbury. Set off formally as the Boston Monthly Meeting Friend in 1883, this meeting continued until 1944, when it merged with an independent meeting in neighboring Cambridge to create the current Friends Meeting at Cambridge.
The records in this collection offer thorough documentation of the Boston Monthly Meeting of Friends from its establishment as an indulged meeting in 1870 through to its merger in 1944 and change of name to the Friends Meeting at Cambridge. In addition to the meeting minutes, the collection includes substantial records of the monthly’s Friends Guild and Women’s Foreign Missionary Society.
Gift of New England Yearly Meeting of Friends, April 2017
Joining a men’s group soon after his arrival in the Pioneer Valley in 1979, and finding the support and community there important personally, and professionally for his graduate work in anti-oppression education, Steven Botkin began his now decades long work in anti-sexist activism. While doing his doctoral work at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, in 1982, Botkin co-founded the Men’s Resource Connection (MRC) to promote healthy ideas of masculinity and male leadership by challenging harmful stereotypes involving violence, sexism, and oppression and to create a local network devoted to this work. He completed his Ed.D. in 1988 (dissertation entitled Male Gender Consciousness: A Study of Undergraduate College Men) and continued to guide the MRC into a successful non-profit community-based organization, whose programs became a model for men’s organizing in communities around the world. In 2004, Botkin founded Men’s Resources International (MRI) to support the development of masculinity awareness and men’s engagement as allies within a global network. MRI eventually merged with MRC to form MERGE for Equality, Inc. Botkin additionally co-founded the Springfield based Men of Color Health Awareness (MOCHA), and the North American MenEngage Network, and has served as a leader, trainer, educator, and consultant for local, national, and global men’s groups and organizations, including in Africa, Asia, and Europe, and for groups such as the YMCA, Planned Parenthood Federation, Save the Children, the International Rescue Committee, and the Women’s Peacemakers Program.
The Steven Botkin Papers document Botkin’s long career in global men’s organizations and networks and their work in policy, education, empowerment, and organizing around the intersections of masculinity, gender, violence, sexism, oppression, power, politics, and society. Materials related to the men’s movement include significant records from the various groups Botkin co-founded and assisted, including organizational histories, program records and reports, meeting agendas, resource pamphlets, posters, networking and training curricula handbooks and handouts, a full run of the MRC magazine Voice Male, and video tapes and recordings. Botkin’s collection compliments and enriches the materials in the Men’s Resource Center Records.
For years, Mitzi Bowman and her husband Pete were stalwarts of the progressive community in Connecticut, and tireless activists in the movements for social justice, peace, and the environment. Shortly after their marriage in 1966, the Bowman’s settled in Newtown and then in Milford, Conn., where Pete worked as an engineer and where Mitzi had trouble finding employment due to her outspoken ways. In close collaboration, the couple became ardent opponents of the war in Vietnam as well as opponents of nuclear weaponry. The focus of their activism took a new direction in 1976, when they learned of plans to ship spent nuclear fuel rods near their home. Founding their first antinuclear organization, STOP (Stop the Transport of Pollution), they forced the shipments to be rerouted, and they soon devoted themselves to shutting down nuclear power in Connecticut completely, including the Millstone and Connecticut Yankee facilities, the latter of which was decommissioned in 1996. The Bowmans were active in a wide array of other groups, including the New Haven Green Party, the Connecticut Coalition Against Millstone, the People’s Action for Clean Energy (PACE), and they were founding members of Fight the (Utility Rate) Hike, the Progressive Action Roundtable, and Don’t Waste Connecticut. Two years after Pete died on Feb. 14, 2006 at the age of 78, Mitzi relocated to Vermont, carrying on her activism.
The Bowman Papers center on Mitzi and Pete Bowman’s antinuclear activism, dating from their first forays with STOP in the mid-1970s through the growth of opposition to Vermont Yankee in the approach to 2010. The collection offers a valuable glimpse into the early history of grassroots opposition to nuclear energy and the Bowmans’ approach to organizing and their connections with other antinuclear activists and to the peace and environmental movements are reflected in an extensive series of notes, press releases, newsclippings, talks, ephemera, and correspondence. The collections also includes extensive subject files on radiation, nuclear energy, peace, and related topics.
Gift of Mitzi Bowman, Dec. 2012
A free-lance garden and landscape writer, Georgene A. Bramlage has published widely on garden and food-related topics and has been a member of the Garden Writers Association since 1980. She is the wife of William A. Bramlage, a member of the faculty in Plant and Soil Sciences at UMass Amherst. Long-time residents of Leverett, Mass., the Bramlages relocated to Roanoke, Va., in 2009.
An avid local historian, Bramlage collected pamphlets and ephemeral publications relating to the history of her town. This small collection includes a few items relating to the town’s bicentennial in 1974, newspaper clippings, genealogical information, and articles on its residents, and items relating to civic affairs in town. Several cookbooks donated by Bramlage were transferred to the McIntosh Cookbook Collection.
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https://libguides.uml.edu/early_lowell/Lowell_trains_1850
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The Town & the City: Lowell before and after The Civil War
|
https://libguides.uml.edu/ld.php?screenshot=ecaehd.png&size=facebook&cb=1723300220
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https://libguides.uml.edu/ld.php?screenshot=ecaehd.png&size=facebook&cb=1723300220
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Originally created to be a digital archive for Lowell documents from 1826 to 1861, this website has grown to cover many periods and events in Lowell's history.
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//d2jv02qf7xgjwx.cloudfront.net/apps/common/favicon/apple-touch-icon.png
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https://libguides.uml.edu/early_lowell/Lowell_trains_1850
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Map from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
Detail from Diagram of rail roads diverging from Boston: showing the depots and distances 1846
Text below is from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
THE BOSTON AND LOWELL
AND
NASHUA AND LOWELL RAILROADS.
The Boston and Lowell Railroad, 26 miles in length, was opened for passengers in June, 1835. It was one of the earliest, as it has been one of the most successful, enterprises of the kind in this country. The road is thoroughly built, with a double track, and in its construction and management special regard has ever been had to the safety of its passengers. There are but few crossings at grade, and very few accidents have ever happened upon it. The road is well equipped for its extensive business.
Boston and Lowell Railroad station 1852 (BPL).
Leaving Boston, the road crosses Charles River, to ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
East Cambridge, a thriving place, containing 6 churches, a courthouse and jail, and other public buildings. Many branches of industry are carried on here, but the place is noted especially for its manufactures of glass. Leaving this point, the road very soon crosses an arm of Charles River, then the Fitchburg Railroad, and immediately after it passes, at
McLean Asylum
an elevated position on the right, the McLean Asylum for the Insane. The traveller now sees on his left the neat cottages of Somerville, and the church on Spring Hill. On his right, in the distance, are theruins of the Ursuline Convent. In the
Ruins of the Ursuline Convent
neighborhood of the ruins are situated Prospect and Winter Hills, in Somerville, from which may be had beautiful views of the city and harbor of Boston. Malden and North Malden may now be seen in the distance, on the right, and soon after, Medford. At length the road crosses Middlesex Canal and Mystic River, just beyond which is ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Medford, 5 miles from Boston. The village is at a little distance from the depot, and is more accessible from Boston by means of a branch from the Maine Railroad. West Cambridge may be seen from the station, on the west, at only a short distance. Medford contains many fertile and highly cultivated farms; but the town is particularly distinguished for ship-building. In five years preceding April 1, 1837, sixty vessels were built here, whose tonnage amounted to 24,000 tons.
Leaving Medford, the road approaches the margin of Mystic Pond, of which the passenger has but a glimpse; it then passes the little settlement at Baconville, crosses the stream, and soon the traveller finds himself at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
South Woburn, 8 miles from Boston. This thriving little village owes its prosperity to the railroad, and in the summer months it is much resorted to, for a temporary residence, by persons from the city. Various manufactures are carried on here, the stream which passes the place affording sufficient water power for this purpose. A branch railroad, 2 miles in length, extends from South Woburn to Woburn Centre a large, neat, flourishing village. The surface of the town is uneven, and very much diversified with hills, dales, and woods, being thereby rendered exceedingly variegated and pleasant.
Woburn, 10 miles from Boston, is the next stopping-place. This station is 1 1/4 miles from Woburn Centre. Passengers for East Woburn and other places in the vicinity stop here. Immediately above the depot occurs the most extensive excavation on this road. A quick run of 5 miles will now bring us to ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Wilmington, 15 miles from Boston, and 11 from Lowell. This is an agricultural town, the soil, however, being adapted only to some particular crops. Near the depot is a branch, 2 miles in length connecting with the Maine Railroad, but at present little used. Leaving Wilmington, the road passes near the Middlesex Canal, 4 miles, to
Billerica and Tewkesbury [sic], (Richardson’s,) 7 miles from Lowell. The station here accommodates passengers for Tewkesbury and Billerica, — the latter a town of considerable importance, having a pleasant village at its centre, 2 miles distant. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Billerica Mills, 4 miles from Lowell. The prosperity of the little settlement here has been checked by the repeated burning of the mills, situated on Concord River. During the next stage the railroad crosses Concord River, and soon after approaches the deep rock cutting, the most formidable obstacle in the construction of this railroad. Passing that, the traveller immediately finds himself at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Lowell. This place is so well known as hardly to need any description here. In 1821, it was inhabited by only a few families, and was in no way distinguished; in 1826 it was incorporated as a town, and in 1836 it became a city. It now contains a population of 30,000; 15 or 20 churches; 3 banks; several well-kept hotels; and many important public buildings. Its water power is improved by 12 manufacturing corporations, with a capital of more than 12,000,000 dollars, and employing 12,000 hands. Nor is Lowell a manufacturing city merely. With its growth and increase of business, great care has been taken to promote the moral and intellectual character of its population. This city stands among the first in the cities and towns of Massachusetts in the amount appropriated for public instruction, and its schools are universally acknowledged to be of a high order. A city library was established in 1844, which now contains several thousand volumes, and to which all may have access. There are various other institutions, which, by means of libraries, lectures, &c., are adapted to elevate the character of the population. An elegant and spacious mansion has been purchased by the corporations and converted into a hospital to which all persons employed by the corporations may have access when sick or disabled. A public cemetery has been laid out, on the east bank of Concord River, about a mile above its junction with the Merrimac. This place, from its variety of surface, its rich growth of wood, the graceful bend of the river near by, and the quiet which reigns around, is admirably adapted to the solemn purpose to which it has been consecrated. The passenger for the north sees little of Lowell, the depot being at its outskirts. Lowell passengers, however are taken into the heart of the city by a branch railroad.
First Depot in Lowell
At Lowell commences the Nashua and Lowell Railroad, 15 miles in length, extending to Nashua, N.H. It was opened in Oct, 1838. Though a short link in the line of communication between Boston and the north, this road is one of the most productive in the country; 200,000 passengers and 150,000 tons freight are annually carried over it - more than four times the amount of the estimated business of the road at the time of its construction!
Leaving the Lowell station, the passenger quickly passes along and crosses the old canal, which supplies part of the water power of the city, and then a run of two minutes brings him to the Merrimac River, near the margin of which the road passes till he reaches ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Middlesex, the first stopping-place, 2 miles from Lowell. The cars always stop here to take or leave passengers; but the station is comparatively unimportant, and is frequently passed without stopping.
A few rods from the depot is Middlesex Village, in Chelmsford, distinctly seen from the cars. Here is the head of the old Middlesex Canal, the business upon which was the foundation of this settlement. Since the use of the canal has been discontinued, the village has declined. Chelmsford is noted for its granite and limestone. Two miles further is
North Chelmsford. Here is a thriving little settlement, at the mouth of Stony Brook; and from this place extends the Stony Brook Railroad, 13 1/2 miles in length, to Groton, where it connects with the Fitchburg Railroad. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Tyngsborough, 7 miles from Lowell. The track here, for some 80 rods, is laid upon a wall at the very margin of the river.
The Tyngsborough Curve (bmrrhs.org)
A short distance above the depot is a little village, occupying a pleasant site, and containing a church and several neat buildings. A few years since, before the construction of the railroad, this portion of the Merrimac was enlivened by the frequent passage of a steamboat which plied between Lowell and Nashua for the transportation of passengers, and by the numerous boats which conveyed merchandise between Boston and Concord. Now, rafts of lumber are occasionally seen upon its surface, but the boats have disappeared. The next station is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Little's, 4 miles below Nashua. This stopping-place accommodates passengers for the lower part of Nashua and Hudson. The next stopping-place, at the junction of the Concord Railroad, is at ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Map from A Descriptive Guide-Book to the Railway Route Between Boston and Burlington, via Lowell and Concord, Boston: Pathfinder Railway Guide Office, 1850.
Nashua, 40 miles from Boston. This station is one mile below Nashua Village, the terminus of the Nashua Railroad. Here is also the point of junction of the Nashua and Worcester Railroad.
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https://jenikirbyhistory.getarchive.net/topics/rail%2Btransport%2Bmaps%2Bof%2Bnew%2Bhampshire
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33 Rail transport maps of new hampshire Images: PICRYL
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Download Images of - Free for commercial use, no attribution required. From: 1946 Boston and Maine Railroad system map, to 1900 Boston and Maine Railroad map - Public domain map. Find images dated from 1838 to 2005.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
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PICRYL - Public Domain Media Search Engine
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https://jenikirbyhistory.getarchive.net/topics/rail%2Btransport%2Bmaps%2Bof%2Bnew%2Bhampshire
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1946 Boston and Maine Railroad system map
1946 system map of the Boston and Maine Railroad, from the September 29, 1946 timetable
Boston and Maine Railroad 1956 system map
System map of the Boston and Maine Railroad from a 1956 timetable
1838 Southern New England railroad map
1838 map of southern New England showing existing railroad lines as well as those under construction, chartered but not yet under construction, and proposed but not yet chartered.
Map of the Boston, Concord, Montreal and White Mountains Railroad and ...
Zoom into http://maps.bpl.org/id/16692 at http://maps.bpl.org. Author: Rand, Avery & Co. Publisher: Rand, Avery & Co. Date: 1882 Location: New England Dimensions: 60 x 28 cm. Scale: [ca. 1:1,200,000] Call Num ... More
1854 Rail Road Map of the New England States
1854 map of New England railroads (stylized on the map as "Rail Roads")
1867 New Haven, Middletown and Boston Railroad map
1867 map of New England railroads, highlighting the New Haven, Middletown & Boston Railroad (red) and its connections (blue).
1898 Boston and Maine Railroad - Public domain old map
1898 map of the Boston and Maine Railroad. Norsk nynorsk: Kart over jernbanenettet til Boston & Maine i 1898.
Map of the country copied from Hale's map of N. E. with railroad route...
Zoom into http://maps.bpl.org/id/16640 at http://maps.bpl.org. Publisher: Sharp, William Comely Date: 1845 Location: Massachusetts, New England, New Hampshire, Vermont Dimensions: 33 x 62 cm. Scale: [ca. 1:500 ... More
Map showing the proposed line of the Manchester Rail Road as petitione...
Zoom into http://maps.bpl.org/id/18171 at http://maps.bpl.org. Author: Nott, Samuel Publisher: Sharp, Peirce & Co. Date: 1847 Location: New Hampshire Dimensions: 65 x 47 cm. Scale: [ca. 1:170,000] Call Number ... More
Map showing the proposed rail roads from Boston to Burlington, from Ha...
Zoom into http://maps.bpl.org/id/16638 at http://maps.bpl.org. Author: J.H. Bufford & Co. Publisher: J.H. Bufford & Co. Date: 1844 Location: New England Dimensions: 61 x 51 cm. Scale: [ca. 1:500,000] Call Num ... More
Rail road map of New England and eastern New York (10839204275)
Zoom into http://maps.bpl.org/id/16648 at http://maps.bpl.org. Author: Goldthwait, J. H. Publisher: Clark, Austin & Company Date: 1849 Location: New England, New York (State) Dimensions: 58 x 47 cm. Scale: [ca ... More
1929 Boston and Maine Railroad northern through service map
Map of Boston and Maine Railroad through service to Montreal and Quebec City, from September 29, 1929 timetable
1915 Boston and Maine Railroad and connecting lines map
A 1915 map of the Boston and Maine Railroad showing leased and controlled lines
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833
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dbpedia
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en
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File:Boston and Lowell Railroad 1887.png
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2005-07-01T00:00:00
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en
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/static/apple-touch/commons.png
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This work has been released into the public domain by its author, SPUI. This applies worldwide.
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833
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0
| 91
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https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/chevalier-society-manners-and-politics-in-the-united-states
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en
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Society, Manners and Politics in the United States
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Observations by a French economist of his trip to the United States. Like Tocqueville, Chevalier was sent by the French government in 1834 to inspect American institutions - Tocqueville was sent to inspect American prisons, Chevalier to inspect American pubic works. He reflects upon the banking industry, the railroads, regional differences, factories, internal communications, class structure, and democracy.
|
https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/chevalier-society-manners-and-politics-in-the-united-states
|
Michel Chevalier (author)
Observations by a French economist of his trip to the United States. Like Tocqueville, Chevalier was sent by the French government in 1834 to inspect American institutions - Tocqueville was sent to inspect American prisons, Chevalier to inspect American pubic works. He reflects upon the banking industry, the railroads, regional differences, factories, internal communications, class structure, and democracy.
|
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833
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dbpedia
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2
| 67
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https://archives.lib.state.ma.us/bitstreams/d8546d18-9cae-4463-a623-e728f83ddcd4/download
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en
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DSpace
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assets/atmire/images/favicon.png
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833
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dbpedia
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0
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https://thewestendmuseum.org/history/era/west-boston/the-middlesex-canal-massachusetts-first-big-dig/
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en
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The Middlesex Canal: Massachusetts’ First Big Dig – The West End Museum
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[
"Bob Potenza"
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2023-01-13T15:00:08-05:00
|
Two hundred years before construction began on the Ted Williams tunnel, businessmen in post-revolution Boston sought to improve upon dirt and gravel paths used to bring inland goods to the growing port city. The result not only helped New England become an economic driver in the early 19th century, but acted as a blueprint for future engineering endeavors in the young United States of America.
|
en
|
The West End Museum – Boston's Neighborhood Museum
|
https://thewestendmuseum.org/history/era/west-boston/the-middlesex-canal-massachusetts-first-big-dig/
|
While the Middlesex Canal officially ended on the Charlestown side of the Charles River, city planners incorporated the success of the waterway during the Mill Pond’s transformation into the Bulfinch Triangle. The canal carved into the city landscape along Canal Street allowed boats to deliver goods into the city center. The area also became “the city’s gas station,” as hay from northern farms fed the horses which transported people and goods through Boston’s winding streets. Eventually, the open intersection of Merrimack, Charlestown, and Canal Streets adopted the name Haymarket Square based on the canal’s inland purpose.
The canal was a definitive engineering achievement of its day. William Weston introduced new surveying instruments into the American engineering profession which were later studied by builders of the Erie Canal completed in 1825. Loammi Baldwin imported volcanic ash from St. Eustatius in the Dutch West Indies in order to create a watertight cement for the lock system, revolutionizing the commercial cement industry. Finally, a floating towpath system featuring an underwater drawbridge system allowed the canal to traverse ponds and other bodies of water along the route. As in England, another engineering achievement – the steam locomotive – ultimately resulted in the Middlesex Canal’s demise. A team of surveyors led by Loammi Baldwin’s son proposed a route for the Boston and Lowell railroad closely following the canal’s path, and the railway opened for business in 1835. Over the next two decades, rail cars carrying 300-ton loads rendered the 30-ton barges on the canal obsolete – a passenger train could make the trip in only 70 minutes. The last toll on the canal was collected in 1850 after nearly half a century of service.
|
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833
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https://trolleymuseum.org/national-streetcar-museum-lowell/
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en
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National Streetcar Museum at Lowell
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2017-03-28T12:52:41+00:00
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National Streetcar Museum at Lowell, MA is a Satellite operation of Seashore Trolley Museum which serves as a shuttle to various Lowe National Park sites
|
en
|
/wp-content/themes/seashoretrolley/img/favicon.ico
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Seashore Trolley Museum
|
https://trolleymuseum.org/national-streetcar-museum-lowell/
|
The National Streetcar Museum at Lowell is OPEN on Saturdays & Sundays from 11AM-4PM, year-round.
Located at 25 Shattuck Street, join us at the National Streetcar Museum at Lowell and learn more about the streetcar, more commonly known as the trolley. If you or your group loves railroads, history, transit, and Lowell, this museum is for you! Children will love our interactive exhibits and displays, especially our hands-on activities. Our knowledgeable volunteers will answer any questions you have, and give you a guided tour of our displays if you would like. The average museum visit by families is 45-60 minutes.
After stopping in at Lowell National Historical Park’s Visitor Center, visit us across the street at the Mack Building and browse our exhibit about the influence of street railways on the development of our cities.
Admission is $3 ; Seniors and youth ages 3-12 are $2, and children under three are free. Admission for Seashore Trolley Museum members is also free! At the museum we accept cash and check; we’re such a small operation that accepting credit cards would mean our admission prices would significantly increase, due to the expense of accepting credit cards. Instead, we’re providing an Eventbrite site for those who would prefer to pay admission by credit card for your convenience.
Metered, on-street parking is available in front of the museum. Parking is free in the National Park Service Visitor Center Lot every day. Additionally, there is no charge for on-street parking meters in Lowell on Sundays.
Before or after you visit, hop on one of the National Park Services’ trolleys for a free trolley ride, with a stop near the museum. More information including trolley schedules can be found on the NPS website.
For questions, please email [email protected]. The National Streetcar Museum at Lowell is a satellite museum of the Seashore Trolley Museum, located in Kennebunkport, ME, in cooperation with the Lowell National Historical Park and the City of Lowell.
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