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Aviation	Aviation includes the activities surrounding mechanical flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft include fixed-wing and rotary-wing types, morphable wings, wing-less lifting bodies, as well as lighter-than-air aircraft such as hot air balloons and airships. Aviation began in the 18th century with the development of the hot air balloon, an apparatus capable of atmospheric displacement through buoyancy. Clément Ader built the "Ader Éole" in France and made an uncontrolled, powered hop in 1890. This was the first powered aircraft, although it did not achieve controlled flight. Some of the most significant advancements in aviation technology came with the controlled gliding flying of Otto Lilienthal in 1896. A major leap followed with the construction of the Wright Flyer, the first powered airplane by the Wright brothers in the early 1900s. Since that time, aviation has been technologically revolutionized by the introduction of the jet engine which enabled aviation to become a major form of transport throughout the world. == Etymology == The word aviation was coined by the French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863. He originally derived the term from the verb avier (an unsuccessful neologism for "to fly"), itself derived from the Latin word avis ("bird") and the suffix -ation. == History == === Early beginnings === There are early legends of human flight such as the stories of Icarus in Greek myth, Jamshid and Shah Kay Kāvus in Persian myth, and the flying automaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC). Later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human flights appear, such as the winged flights of Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887, recorded in the 17th century), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century, recorded in the 12th century), and the hot-air Passarola of Bartholomeu Lourenço de Gusmão (1685–1724). === Lighter than air === The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21, 1783, of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. The usefulness of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required. Jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances. The best-known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin. It flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles, was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on May 6, 1937. That year the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed that the coating used in the material covering the frame was highly flammable and allowed static electricity to build up in the airship. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. There had been previous airship accidents that were more fatal, for instance, a British R38 on 23 August 1921, but the Hindenburg was the first to be captured on newsreel. === Heavier than air === In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Otto Lilienthal was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders, therefore making the idea of "heavier than air" a reality. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favorably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical. Lilienthal's work led him to develop the concept of the modern wing. His flight attempts in Berlin in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and the "Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat" is considered to be the first airplane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal in Berlin the first air plane production company in the world. Lilienthal is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion (Henri Giffard, 1852), rigid frames (David Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability (Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901) There are many competing claims for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight. The first recorded powered flight was carried out by Clément Ader on October 9, 1890, in his bat-winged, fully self-propelled fixed-wing aircraft, the Ader Éole. It was reportedly the first manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance (50 m (160 ft)) but insignificant altitude from level ground. Seven years later, on October 14, 1897, Ader's Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry. The report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906, Ader claimed to have made a successful flight on October 14, 1897, achieving an "uninterrupted flight" of around 300 metres (980 feet). Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited. The Wright brothers made the first successful powered, controlled and sustained airplane flight on December 17, 1903, a feat made possible by their invention of three-axis control and in-house development of an engine with a sufficient power-to-weight ratio. Only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14, 1908. During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made in the field of aviation, including the first transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh's solo transatlantic flight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford Smith's transpacific flight the following year. One of the most successful designs of this period was the Douglas DC-3, which became the first airliner to be profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. During World War II one of the first jet engines was developed by Hans von Ohain, and accomplished the world's first jet-powered flight in 1939. The war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. After World War II, especially in North America, there was a boom in general aviation, both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market. By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the de Havilland Comet, though the first widely used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was much more economical than other aircraft at that time. At the same time, turboprop propulsion started to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather conditions. Since the 1960s composite material airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have become available, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for more than two decades. However, the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and control. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Positioning System, satellite communications, and increasingly small and powerful computers and LED displays, have dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic vision, even at night or in low visibility. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded aircraft to make a spaceflight, opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's atmosphere. Meanwhile, the need to decarbonize the aviation industry to face the climate crisis has increased research into aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol, electricity, hydrogen, and even solar energy, with flying prototypes becoming more common. == Operations of aircraft == === Civil aviation === Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled air transport. ==== Air transport ==== There are seven major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order): Airbus, based in Europe Antonov, based in Ukraine Boeing, based in the United States Bombardier, based in Canada Comac, based in China Embraer, based in Brazil United Aircraft Corporation, based in Russia, with its subsidiaries Ilyushin, Tupolev, Yakovlev and Sukhoi Boeing, Airbus, Ilyushin and Tupolev concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners, while Bombardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional airliners. Large networks of specialized parts suppliers from around the world support these manufacturers, who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own plants. The Chinese ACAC consortium has also recently entered the civil transport market with its Comac ARJ21 regional jet. Until the 1970s, most major airlines were flag carriers, sponsored by their governments and heavily protected from competition. Since then, open skies agreements have resulted in increased competition and choice for consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, and crises such as the September 11 attacks and the SARS pandemic have driven many older airlines to government-bailouts, bankruptcy or mergers. At the same time, low-cost carriers such as Ryanair, Southwest and WestJet have flourished. ==== General aviation ==== General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private and commercial. General aviation may include business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight training, ballooning, paragliding, parachuting, gliding, hang gliding, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting. Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under different regulations depending on whether it is private or commercial and on the type of equipment involved. Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private aviation and flight training. The most important recent developments for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA fleet) have been the introduction of advanced avionics (including GPS) that were formerly found only in large airliners, and the introduction of composite materials to make small aircraft lighter and faster. Ultralight and homebuilt aircraft have also become increasingly popular for recreational use, since in most countries that allow private aviation, they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated than certified aircraft. === Military aviation === Simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the 18th century. Over the years, military aircraft have been built to meet ever increasing capability requirements. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply their government's arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and the speed of production. ==== Types of military aviation ==== Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft. (e.g. F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, F-15, MiG-29, Su-27, and F-22). Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets. (e.g. Panavia Tornado, A-10, Il-2, J-22 Orao, AH-64 and Su-25). Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories and oil fields. (e.g. B-2, Tu-95, Mirage IV, and B-52). Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel. (e.g. C-17 Globemaster III, C-130 Hercules and Mil Mi-26). Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy forces. (e.g. RC-135, E-8, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R). Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-wing aircraft, though many also carry payloads (e.g. MQ-9, RQ-4, and MQ-1C Gray Eagle). Cargo aircraft are in development. Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives. === Air safety === Aviation safety means the state of an aviation system or organization in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in direct support of the operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable level. It encompasses the theory, practice, investigation, and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education, and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. === Aviation MRO === A maintenance, repair, and overhaul organization (MRO) is a firm that ensures airworthiness or air transport. According to a 2024 article, "maintenance (M) involves inspecting, cleaning, oiling, and changing aircraft parts after a certain number of flight hours. Repair (R) is restoring the original function of parts and components. Overhaul (O) refers to extensive maintenance, the complete refurbishment of the aircraft, and upgrades in avionics, which can take several weeks to complete." Airlines are legally obligated to certify airworthiness, meaning that a civil aviation authority must approve an aircraft suitable for safe flight operations. MRO firms are responsible for this process, thoroughly checking and documenting all components' repairs while tracking mechanical, propulsion, and electronic parts. Aviation regulators oversee maintenance practices in the country of aircraft registration, manufacture, or current location. All aircraft maintenance activities must adhere to international regulations that mandate standards. == Aviation accidents and incidents == An aviation accident is defined by the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible. An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in which the plane is destroyed, is called a hull loss accident. The first fatal aviation accident occurred in a Wright Model A aircraft at Fort Myer, Virginia, US, on September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot, Orville Wright, and death of the passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge. The worst aviation accident in history was the Tenerife airport disaster on March 27, 1977, when 583 people died when two Boeing 747 jumbo jets, operated by Pan Am and KLM collided on a runway in Los Rodeos airport, now known as Tenerife North. An aviation incident is defined as an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations. == Air traffic control == Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain separation – that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as the United States) they may use radar to see aircraft positions. Becoming an air traffic controller in the United States typically requires an associate or bachelor's degree from the Air Traffic Collegiate Training Initiative. The FAA also requires extensive training, along with medical examinations and background checks. Some controllers are required to work weekend, night, and holiday shifts. There are generally four different types of ATC: Center controllers, who control aircraft en route between airports Control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other services), which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10–15 km horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport. Oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between continents, generally without radar service. Terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50–80 km) around busy airports ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), when they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under visual flight rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC. In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload. ATC do not control all flights. The majority of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) flights in North America are not required to contact ATC (unless they are passing through a busy terminal area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern Canada and low altitude in northern Scotland, air traffic control services are not available even for IFR flights at lower altitudes. == Environmental impact == Like all activities involving combustion, operating powered aircraft (from airliners to hot air balloons) releases soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to aviation: for instance, Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit aerosols and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus cloud formation – cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation. Clouds can have both a cooling and warming effect. They reflect some of the sun's rays back into space, but also block some of the heat radiated by Earth's surface. On average, both thin natural cirrus clouds and contrails have a net warming effect. Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations. Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded mogas, and turbine engines and diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are appearing on some newer light aircraft. Another environmental impact of aviation is noise pollution, mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing. Sonic booms were a problem with supersonic aircraft such as the Concorde. == Innovation and development == Air transportation is a mode of travel and commerce, involving the movement of people, goods, and animals through the atmosphere using aircraft such as airplanes and helicopters. It is a major mode for the overall transportation system, because of its speed and the ability to cover long distances quickly, connecting remote regions and major economic hubs. It plays a significant role in global trade and passenger mobility, influencing economic development and international relations. However, its share of CO2 emissions is significant, accounting for 2% of global CO2 emissions in 2023, having grown faster between 2000 and 2019 than rail, road or shipping. Even under the High Ambition scenario, where total emissions are reduced significantly, aviation emissions will still be a major concern. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has highlighted the need for ambitious policies in order to achieve significant reductions in aviation emissions, projecting that CO2 emissions from aviation could be cut by up to 50% by 2050 with the right measures in place. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) also emphasizes the potential of accelerating the transition to sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) and implementing efficiency technologies for both commercial and cargo aircraft to achieve significant emission reductions. These commitments reflect a concerted effort by global organizations to address the climate impact of the aviation sector. Two significant megatrends are observed in terms of air transport innovation, sustainability and digitalization. A report published by WIPO in 2025 show a steady increase of patents publication in air transportation, the majority of which being related to communication and security, followed by sustainable propulsion. Sustainable Propulsion technologies such as efficient aircraft turbines (to improve fuel efficiency, reduce emissions and lower noise levels), sustainable aviation fuels (reduction in CO2 emissions compared to traditional jet fuel), battery-based electric and/or hybrid aircraft (for short-haul and regional flights) and hydrogen-powered aircraft (for long-haul flights and heavy-duty applications) are being developed to reduce emissions and improve environmental sustainability. Automation and Circularity technologies are promoting efficient material use, smart production and robotics, and enhanced recycling practices. Communication and Security technologies are revolutionizing air transportation by improving operational efficiency, safety and customer experience. They include navigation technologies such as advanced air traffic management (ATM) systems, device-to-device technology, cloud computing, low-latency internet, and cybersecurity. McKinsey's analysis points out that the rise in digital technologies has made aviation systems more vulnerable to cyberattacks, emphasizing the need for robust cybersecurity measures. Advanced Human– Machine Interfaces, such as extended reality technologies, speech recognition technology, facial recognition technology, touch displays and data gloves, and head-up displays, are making interactions more intuitive, secure, and responsive, thereby improving operational efficiency and user experience. The air transportation sector is undergoing a surge in patenting activity, with annual Air transport-related patent families increasing from under 1,100 in 2000 to over 12,800 in 2023 – a growth of 11%. China, the South Korea, and Japan stand out for their high patent volumes and significant growth rates, although they exhibit a relatively low Relative Specialization Index, reflecting a broad approach to innovation at the country-level across various sectors. In contrast, France, the United States and Canada demonstrate a high degree of specialization in Air transportation technologies reflecting a concentrated focus on advancing specific innovations in aviation. Leading aviation companies such as RTX, General Electric, Safran, Boeing, Rolls-Royce Holdings, and Honeywell International dominate the patent filings. The Aero Engine Corporation of China leads in recent growth with a compound annual growth rate of 81.1%. Generally Chinese patent owners exhibit strong recent growth in air transport patent, in contrast to the other top patentees. Mitsubushi Electric in Japan emerges as the only non-Chinese entity among the fastest-growing patent owners, highlighting its strategic emphasis on Air transportation research and innovation. The diverse landscape underscores the dynamic interplay of high-volume patenting and strategic specialization across different regions, driven by both established aviation multinationals and emerging players. == See also == Aeronautics Environmental impact of aviation Index of aviation articles Timeline of aviation == Notes == == Bibliography == Berliner, Don (1996). Aviation: Reaching for the Sky. The Oliver Press, Inc. ISBN 1-881508-33-1. Cassard, Jean-Christophe (2008). Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne (in French). Morlaix: Skol Vreizh. ISBN 978-2-915623-45-1. De Angelis, Gina (2001). The Hindenburg. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-5272-9. This article incorporates text by Wirths, Oliver; Tóth,Zsófia; Diaz Ruiz, Carlos available under the CC BY 4.0 license. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. Text taken from WIPO Technology Trends: Future of Transportation, WIPO. == External links == Flying travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Aviation at Wikimedia Commons Learning materials related to Aviation at Wikiversity The dictionary definition of aviation at Wiktionary Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms
2025 in aviation	The following aviation-related events occurred in the year 2025. == Events == === January === 28 January Boom Technology's XB-1 demonstrator successfully went supersonic, achieving a speed of Mach 1.1. An Airbus A321 operating as Air Busan Flight 391 caught fire shortly before takeoff from Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea. All 176 people on board evacuated safely, with only 7 suffering minor injuries. 29 January A Beechcraft 1900 operated by Light Air Services crashed shortly after takeoff from Unity oilfield in South Sudan, killing 20 of the 21 people on board. A Bombardier CRJ700 operating as American Airlines Flight 5342 collided with a United States Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter as the CRJ700 was attempting to land at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport. Both aircraft crashed into the Potomac River in the collision. All 64 people on board the CRJ700 and 3 on the helicopter were killed. 31 January A Learjet 55 operating as Med Jets Flight 056 crashed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, causing an explosion, setting multiple houses on fire. All six people on board the aircraft and one person on the ground were killed in the crash. At least 23 other people on the ground were injured, one of whom later succumbed to their injuries. === February === 3 February ITA Airways begins the process of integration into the Lufthansa group and leaves the SkyTeam alliance. 6 February A Cessna 208B Grand Caravan operating as Bering Air Flight 445 from Unalakleet to Nome, Alaska, disappeared off radar 10 minutes before its scheduled arrival at Nome. The wreckage of the aircraft was found 34 miles from Nome, and all 10 people onboard the aircraft died. 10–14 February The Aero India Airshow took place at Bengaluru, India. 17 February A Bombardier CRJ900 operating as Delta Connection Flight 4819 crashed and overturned on landing at Toronto Pearson International Airport. All 80 occupants on board survived the accident, with 21 injured. 25 February An Antonov An-26 operated by the Sudanese Air Force crashes into a residential area of Omdurman, Sudan, killing all 17 occupants. An estimated 29 people on the ground were also killed and at least 10 injured, and several homes were severely damaged. === March === 6 March Two General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon jets operated by the Republic of Korea Air Force accidentally dropped eight Mark 82 bombs on a village in Pocheon, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea, injuring 29 civilians and 14 soldiers. 17 March A British Aerospace Jetstream, operated by Lanhsa Airlines as Flight 018, crashed into the sea at Juan Manuel Gálvez International Airport, killing 13 of the 18 people on board. Honduran musician Aurelio Martínez is among the dead. 20 March An electrical substation near Heathrow International Airport caught fire and led to the closure of the airport. The duration lasted around one day and disrupted global travel.: 25–28 March The Australian International Airshow was originally scheduled to be held from 25 March to 30 March at Avalon Airport in Geelong, Australia. An accident on 28 March led to the cancellation of the rest of that day's events. The airshow continued as scheduled without any further incidences. 28 March Mandalay International Airport and Nay Pyi Taw International Airport are heavily damaged by a violent earthquake in Myanmar. At Mandalay International Airport, ceilings collapsed and the basement was damaged, while at the Nay Pyi Taw International Airport, a runway and two aircraft were damaged and an air traffic control tower collapse killed all six staff. Thailand, which was also affected by the earthquake, issued a nationwide no-fly order for all airports. === April === 10 April A Bell 206 helicopter experienced an in-flight breakup and crashed into the Hudson River during a New York City sightseeing flight. The pilot and a family of five passengers were killed. 17 April A Cessna 208 operated by Tropic Air was hijacked during a domestic flight in Belize. Two passengers and a pilot were stabbed by the hijacker, who was shot dead by one of the injured passengers. 24 April Aerobatic pilot Rob Holland was killed when his MX Aircraft MXS crashed on approach into Langley Air Force Base in Virginia, USA. 28 April Hundreds of flights were delayed and cancelled after a power outage across the Iberian Peninsula, with Lisbon, Porto, Faro in Portugal, and Barcelona and Madrid-Barajas in Spain, being some of the few major airports affected. Faro and Porto airport would both later switch to generator power. === May === 14 May Qatar Airways signs a $96-billion order for 150 Boeing 787 Dreamliner and 30 Boeing 777X aircraft, with options for a further 50 aircraft. This is reportedly Boeing's largest-ever wide-body order. 15 May Global Airlines, a British startup airline, conducted its inaugural flight from Glasgow to New York. The airline plans to operate an all-A380 fleet. 17 May Two Robinson R44 civilian helicopters collided mid-air and crashed into the ground in a forested area while en route from Tallinn to Piikajärvi Airfield near Eura, Satakunta, Finland. All five occupants of both helicopters, including Estonian businessmen Oleg Sõnajalg and Priit Jaagant, were killed. 22 May A Cessna Citation II crashes in a residential area of San Diego, California. All six people on board are killed. === June === 30 June Oman Air, the flag carrier of Oman, will join the Oneworld alliance. === July === 18–20 July The Royal International Air Tattoo is scheduled to be held at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire, United Kingdom 21–27 July The EAA AirVenture Oshkosh is scheduled to be held at Wittman Regional Airport and Pioneer Airport in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. === August === 30 August – 1 September The Canadian International Air Show is scheduled to be held at Toronto, Canada, at the Canadian National Exhibition. === September === 26–28 September The Oregon International Air Show is scheduled to be held at McMinnville, Oregon. == Deadliest accident == The deadliest aviation accident of 2025 so far is the mid-air collision on 29 January between a Bombardier CRJ700 operating as American Airlines Flight 5342 and a Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter above the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., near Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport. All 64 people on board the Bombardier CRJ700 and 3 on board the helicopter were killed. The deadliest military accident so far is that of an Antonov An-26 that crashed after takeoff in Sudan on 25 February, killing all 17 on board and an estimated 29 on the ground. == References ==
Timeline of aviation	This is a timeline of aviation history, and a list of more detailed aviation timelines. The texts in the diagram are clickable links to articles. == Timeline == Timeline of aviation before the 18th century Timeline of aviation – 18th century Timeline of aviation – 19th century Timeline of aviation – 20th century === By decade === 1900s: 1900 – 1901 – 1902 – 1903 – 1904 – 1905 – 1906 – 1907 – 1908 – 1909 1910s: 1910 – 1911 – 1912 – 1913 – 1914 – 1915 – 1916 – 1917 – 1918 – 1919 1920s: 1920 – 1921 – 1922 – 1923 – 1924 – 1925 – 1926 – 1927 – 1928 – 1929 1930s: 1930 – 1931 – 1932 – 1933 – 1934 – 1935 – 1936 – 1937 – 1938 – 1939 1940s: 1940 – 1941 – 1942 – 1943 – 1944 – 1945 – 1946 – 1947 – 1948 – 1949 1950s: 1950 – 1951 – 1952 – 1953 – 1954 – 1955 – 1956 – 1957 – 1958 – 1959 1960s: 1960 – 1961 – 1962 – 1963 – 1964 – 1965 – 1966 – 1967 – 1968 – 1969 1970s: 1970 – 1971 – 1972 – 1973 – 1974 – 1975 – 1976 – 1977 – 1978 – 1979 1980s: 1980 – 1981 – 1982 – 1983 – 1984 – 1985 – 1986 – 1987 – 1988 – 1989 1990s: 1990 – 1991 – 1992 – 1993 – 1994 – 1995 – 1996 – 1997 – 1998 – 1999 2000s: 2000 – 2001 – 2002 – 2003 – 2004 – 2005 – 2006 – 2007 – 2008 – 2009 2010s: 2010 – 2011 – 2012 – 2013 – 2014 – 2015 – 2016 – 2017 – 2018 – 2019 2020s: 2020 – 2021 - 2022 - 2023 - 2024 - 2025 == See also == Aircraft records Aviation accidents and incidents Aviation archaeology Early flying machines History of aviation List of firsts in aviation Timeline of spaceflight Timeline of transportation technology
Aviation safety	Aviation safety is the study and practice of managing risks in aviation. This includes preventing aviation accidents and incidents through research, educating air travel personnel, passengers and the general public, as well as the design of aircraft and aviation infrastructure. The aviation industry is subject to significant regulations and oversight. Aviation security is focused on protecting air travelers, aircraft and infrastructure from intentional harm or disruption, rather than unintentional mishaps. == Statistics == === Evolution === Aviation is safer today than it has ever been. Modern commercial aviation boasts an accident rate of approximately 1 fatal accident per 16 million flights, far lower than historic numbers. On December 14, 1903, the Wright Brothers conducted a test flight of their powered airplane from the slope of Big Kill Devil Hill in North Carolina. Upon takeoff, the airplane lifted about 15 feet off the ground, stalled, and crashed into the sand. Only three days later, on December 17, 1903, Wilbur's brother, Orville Wright flew the airplane for the world's first powered, sustained, and controlled heavier-than-air flight in history. Although the failed test flight on December 14 would be mostly forgotten in aviation, it remains one of the earliest recorded aviation accidents in history. In the early years of air travel, accidents were exceedingly common. 1929 was named the year of "The Great Crash" due to the frequency of aircraft accidents that occurred during the year, with 24 fatal accidents officially reported. In 1928 and 1929, the overall accident rate was about 1 in every million miles (1.6 million kilometers) flown. In today's industry, that accident rate would translate to about 7,000 fatal accidents each year. For the ten-year period 2002 to 2011, 0.6 fatal accidents happened per one million flights globally, 0.4 per million hours flown, 22.0 fatalities per one million flights or 12.7 per million hours flown. From 310 million passengers in 1970, air transport had grown to 3,696 million in 2016, led by 823 million in the United States, then 488 million in China. In 2016, 19 fatal accidents involved civil airliners with more than 14 passengers. These accidents resulted in 325 fatalities, the second safest year ever after 2015 with 16 accidents and 2013 with 265 fatalities. For planes heavier than 5.7 metric tones, there were 34.9 million departures and 75 accidents worldwide with 7 of these fatal for 182 fatalities, the lowest since 2013 : 5.21 fatalities per million departures. In 2017, there were 10 fatal airliner accidents, resulting in 44 occupant fatalities and 35 persons on the ground: the safest year ever for commercial aviation, both by the number of fatal accidents as well as in fatalities. By 2019, fatal accidents per million flights decreased 12 fold since 1970, from 6.35 to 0.51, and fatalities per trillion revenue passenger kilometre (RPK) decreased 81 fold from 3,218 to 40. === Typology === Runway safety represents 36% of accidents, ground safety 18% and loss of control in-flight 16%. Loss of control inflight represents 35% of the fatal accidents, Controlled flight into terrain 21%, runway excursions 17%, system or component failure: 6%, Touchdown off the runway: 5%, Abnormal Runway Contact: 4% and fire: 2%. Safety has improved from better aircraft design process, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. === Transport comparisons === There are three main ways in which the risk of fatality in a certain mode of travel can be measured: (1) deaths per billion typical journeys taken, (2) deaths per billion hours traveled, and (3) deaths per billion kilometers traveled. The following table displays these statistics for the United Kingdom (1990–2000), and has been appended. (Note that aviation safety does not include travelling to the airport.) The first two statistics are computed for typical travels by their respective forms of transport, so they cannot be used directly to compare risks related to different forms of transport in a particular travel "from A to B". For example, these statistics suggest that a typical flight from Los Angeles to New York would carry a larger risk factor than a typical car travel from home to office. However, car travel from Los Angeles to New York would not be typical; that journey would be as long as several dozen typical car travels, and thus the associated risk would be larger as well. Because the journey would take a much longer time, the overall risk associated with making this journey by car would be higher than making the same journey by air, even if each individual hour of car travel is less risky than each hour of flight. For risks associated with long-range intercity travel, the most suitable statistic is the third one: deaths per billion kilometers. Still, this statistic can lose credence in situations where the availability of an air option makes an otherwise inconvenient journey possible. Aviation industry insurers base their calculations on the deaths per journey statistic while the aviation industry itself generally uses the deaths per kilometre statistic in press releases. Since 1997, the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown, and thus is one of the safest modes of transportation when measured by distance traveled. The Economist notes that air travel is safer by distance travelled, but trains are as safe as planes. It also notes that cars are four times more hazardous for deaths per time travelled, and cars and trains are respectively three times and six times safer than planes by number of journeys taken. Because the above figures are focused on providing a perspective to the realm of everyday transportation, air travel is taken to include only standard civil passenger aviation, as offered commercially to the general public. Military and special-purpose aircraft are excluded. === United States === Between 1990 and 2015, there were 1874 commuter and air taxi accidents in the U.S. of which 454 (24%) were fatal, resulting in 1,296 deaths, including 674 accidents (36%) and 279 fatalities (22%) in Alaska alone. The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commercial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles. For driving, the rate was 150 per 10 billion vehicle-miles for 2000: 750 times higher per mile than for flying in a commercial airplane. There were no fatalities on large scheduled commercial airlines in the United States for over nine years, between the Colgan Air Flight 3407 crash in February 2009, and a catastrophic engine failure on Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 in April 2018. === Security === Another aspect of safety is protection from intentional harm or property damage, also known as security. The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added about 1 death per billion person-miles. Two months later, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in New York City, killing 265 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per billion person-miles), is safe compared to some other forms of transport when measured by distance traveled. == Developments == === Before WWII === The first aircraft electrical or electronic device avionics system was Lawrence Sperry's autopilot, demonstrated in June 1914. The Transcontinental Airway System chain of beacons was built by the Commerce Department in 1923 to guide airmail flights. Gyrocopters were developed by Juan de la Cierva to avoid stall and spin accidents, and for that invented cyclic and collective controls used by helicopters. The first flight of a gyrocopter was on 17 January 1923. During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the United States of America to regulate civil aviation, notably the Air Commerce Act of 1926, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids; under the Aeronautics Branch of the United States Department of Commerce (US DoC). A network of aerial lighthouses was established in the United Kingdom and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s. Use of the lighthouses has declined with the advent of radio navigation aids such as non-directional beacon (NDB), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), and distance measuring equipment (DME). The last operational aerial lighthouse in the United Kingdom is on top of the cupola over the RAF College main hall at RAF Cranwell. One of the first aids for air navigation to be introduced in the United States in the late 1920s was airfield lighting, to assist pilots in making landings in poor weather or after dark. The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument rating and made his first 'blind' flight in September 1929. The March 1931 wooden wing failure of a Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 carrying Knute Rockne, coach of the University of Notre Dame's football team, reinforced all-metal airframes and led to a more formal accident investigation system. On 4 September 1933, a Douglas DC-1 test flight was conducted with one of the two engines shut down during the takeoff run, climbed to 8,000 feet (2,438 metres), and completed its flight, proving twin aircraft engine safety. With greater range than lights and weather immunity, radio navigation aids were first used in the 1930s, like the Australian Aeradio stations guiding transport flights, with a light beacon and a modified Lorenz beam transmitter (the German blind-landing equipment preceding the modern instrument landing system - ILS). ILS was first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1938, and a form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949. === Post-WWII === Hard runways were built worldwide for World War II to avoid waves and floating hazards plaguing seaplanes. Developed by the U.S. and introduced during World War II, LORAN replaced the sailors' less reliable compass and celestial navigation over water and survived until it was replaced by the Global Positioning System. Following the development of radar in World War II, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems then as the airport surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control in the 1950s. A number of ground-based weather radar systems can detect areas of severe turbulence. A modern Honeywell Intuvue weather system visualizes weather patterns up to 300 miles (480 km) away. Distance measuring equipment (DME) in 1948 and VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) stations became the main route navigation means during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the non-directional beacon (NDB): the ground-based VOR stations were often co-located with DME transmitters and the pilots could establish their bearing and distance to the station. === Jetliners === To highlight the jetliner evolution, Airbus split them in four generations: from 1952, early jets (Comet, Caravelle, BAC-111, Trident, B707, DC-8...) have dials and gauges cockpits and early auto-flight systems ; from 1964, new designs (A300, F28, BAe 146, B727, original B737 and B747, L-1011, DC-9, DC-10...) have more elaborate autopilot and autothrottle systems ; From 1980, glass cockpit & FMS designs (A310/A300-600, F100, B737 Classic & NG/MAX, B757/B767, B747-400/-8, Bombardier CRJ, Embraer ERJ, MD-11, MD-80/MD-90...) have improved navigation performance and Terrain Avoidance Systems, to reduce CFIT accidents;  From 1988, Fly-By-Wire (in the A220, A320 family, A330/A340, A350, A380, B777, B787 and Embraer E-Jets) enabled flight envelope protection to reduce LOC in flight accidents. The fatal accident rate fell from 3.0 per million flights for the first generation to 0.9 for the next, 0.3 for the third and 0.1 for the last. With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), satellite navigation has become accurate enough for altitude as well as positioning use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, because the GPS constellation is a single point of failure, on-board Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. In 2017, Rockwell Collins reported it had become more costly to certify than to develop a system, from 75% engineering and 25% certification in past years. It calls for a global harmonization between certifying authorities to avoid redundant engineering and certification tests rather than recognizing the others approval and validation. Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 after its battery problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system. == Hazards == === Unapproved parts === Parts manufactured without an aviation authority's approval are described as "unapproved". Unapproved parts include inferior counterfeits, those used beyond their time limits, those that were previously approved but not properly returned to service, those with fraudulent labels, production overruns that were not sold with the agency's permission, and those that are untraceable. Unapproved faulty parts have caused hundreds of incidents and crashes, some fatal, including about 24 crashes between 2010 and 2016. === Foreign object debris === Foreign object debris (FOD) includes items left in the aircraft structure during manufacture/repairs, debris on the runway and solids encountered in flight (e.g. hail and dust). Such items can damage engines and other parts of the aircraft. In 2000, Air France Flight 4590 crashed after hitting a part that had fallen from a departing Continental Airlines DC-10. === Misleading information and lack of information === A pilot misinformed by a printed document (manual, map, etc.), reacting to a faulty instrument or indicator (in the cockpit or on the ground), or following inaccurate instructions or information from flight or ground control can lose situational awareness, or make errors, and accidents or near misses may result. The crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 was a result of receiving and interpreting incorrect coordinates, which caused the pilots to inadvertently fly into a mountain. === Lightning === Boeing studies showed that airliners are struck by lightning twice per year on average; aircraft withstand typical lightning strikes without damage. The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999. It has since been suggested that positive lightning might have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At that time, aircraft were not designed to withstand such strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985 standard in force in the US at the time of the glider crash, Advisory Circular AC 20-53A, was replaced by Advisory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006. However, it is unclear whether adequate protection against positive lightning was incorporated. The effects of typical lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. Modern airliners like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner with exteriors and wings made from carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer have been tested and shown to receive no damage from lightning strikes during testing. === Ice and snow === Ice and snow can be major factors in airline accidents. In 2005, Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid off the end of a runway after landing in heavy snow conditions, killing one child on the ground. Even a small amount of icing or coarse frost can greatly impair the ability of a wing to develop adequate lift, which is why regulations prohibit ice, snow or even frost on the wings or tail, prior to takeoff. Air Florida Flight 90 crashed on takeoff in 1982, as a result of ice/snow on its wings. An accumulation of ice during flight can be catastrophic, as evidenced by the loss of control and subsequent crashes of American Eagle Flight 4184 in 1994, and Comair Flight 3272 in 1997. Both aircraft were turboprop airliners, with straight wings, which tend to be more susceptible to inflight ice accumulation, than are swept-wing jet airliners. Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de-iced before takeoff whenever the weather involves icing conditions. Modern airliners are designed to prevent ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by either routing heated air from jet engines through the leading edges of the wing, and inlets, or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "boots" that expand to break off any accumulated ice. Airline flight plans require airline dispatch offices to monitor the progress of weather along the routes of their flights, helping the pilots to avoid the worst of inflight icing conditions. Aircraft can also be equipped with an ice detector in order to warn pilots to leave unexpected ice accumulation areas, before the situation becomes critical. Pitot tubes in modern airplanes and helicopters have been provided with the function of "Pitot Heating" to prevent accidents like Air France Flight 447 caused by the pitot tube freezing and giving false readings. === Wind shear or microburst === A wind shear is a change in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. A microburst is a localized column of sinking air that drops down in a thunderstorm. Both of these are potential weather threats that may cause an aviation accident. Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three-dimensional wind velocity just above ground level. Initially, this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed, which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear. As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low-power, low-speed descent. This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact. Between 1964 and 1985, wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries. === Engine failure === An engine may fail to function because of fuel starvation (e.g. British Airways Flight 38), fuel exhaustion (e.g. Air Canada Flight 143), foreign object damage (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549), mechanical failure due to metal fatigue (e.g. Kegworth air disaster, El Al Flight 1862, China Airlines Flight 358), mechanical failure due to improper maintenance (e.g. American Airlines Flight 191), mechanical failure caused by an original manufacturing defect in the engine (e.g. Qantas Flight 32, United Airlines Flight 232, Delta Air Lines Flight 1288), and pilot error (e.g. Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701). In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usually results in a precautionary landing being performed, for example, landing at a diversion airport instead of continuing to the intended destination. Failure of a second engine (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or damage to other aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure (e.g. United Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency landing is not possible, result in the aircraft crashing. === Structural failure of the aircraft === Examples of failure of aircraft structures caused by metal fatigue include the de Havilland Comet accidents (1950s) and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (1988). Improper repair procedures can also cause structural failures include Japan Air Lines Flight 123 (1985) and China Airlines Flight 611 (2002). Now that the subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and nondestructive testing procedures are in place. Composite materials consist of layers of fibers embedded in a resin matrix. In some cases, especially when subjected to cyclic stress, the layers of the material separate from each other (delaminate) and lose strength. As the failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based) have to be used to detect such a material failure. In the 1940s several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamination of plywood in their construction. === Stalling === Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is dangerous and can result in a crash if the pilot fails to make a timely correction. Devices to warn the pilot when the aircraft's speed is decreasing close to the stall speed include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), stick shakers, and voice warnings. Most stalls are a result of the pilot allowing the airspeed to be too slow for the particular weight and configuration at the time. Stall speed is higher when ice or frost has attached to the wings and/or tail stabilizer. The more severe the icing, the higher the stall speed, not only because smooth airflow over the wings becomes increasingly more difficult, but also because of the added weight of the accumulated ice. Crashes caused by a full stall of the airfoils include: British European Airways Flight 548 (1972) United Airlines Flight 553 (1972) Aeroflot Flight 7425 (1985) Arrow Air Flight 1285 (1985) Northwest Airlines Flight 255 (1987) The Paul Wellstone crash (2002) Colgan Air Flight 3407 (2009) Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 crash (2009) Air France Flight 447 (2009) === Fire === Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure flammability of materials and toxicity of smoke. When the tests fail, it is on a prototype in an engineering laboratory rather than in an aircraft. Fire and its toxic smoke have been the cause of accidents. An electrical fire on Air Canada Flight 797 in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. In 1985, a fire on the runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating and subsequently lethal toxic gas and smoke in the British Airtours Flight 28M accident which raised serious concerns relating to survivability – something that had not been studied in such detail. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the aircraft impaired passengers' ability to evacuate, with areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close to the exits. Much research into evacuation and cabin and seating layouts was carried out at Cranfield Institute to try to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The use of smoke hoods or misting systems were also examined although both were rejected. South African Airways Flight 295 was lost in the Indian Ocean in 1987 after an in-flight fire in the cargo hold could not be suppressed by the crew. The cargo holds of most airliners are now equipped with automated halon fire extinguishing systems to combat a fire that might occur in the baggage holds. In May 1996, ValuJet Flight 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes after takeoff because of a fire in the forward cargo hold. All 110 people on board were killed. At one time, fire fighting foam paths were laid down before an emergency landing, but the practice was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of firefighting capability due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987. One possible cause of fires in airplanes is wiring problems that involve intermittent faults, such as wires with breached insulation touching each other, having water dripping on them, or short circuits. Notable was Swissair Flight 111 in 1998 due to an arc in the wiring of IFE which ignited flammable MPET insulation. These are difficult to detect once the aircraft is on the ground. However, there are methods, such as spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry, that can feasibly test live wires on aircraft during flight. === Bird strike === Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. Fatal accidents have been caused by both engine failure following bird ingestion and bird strikes breaking cockpit windshields. Jet engines have to be designed to withstand the ingestion of birds of a specified weight and number and to not lose more than a specified amount of thrust. The weight and numbers of birds that can be ingested without hazarding the safe flight of the aircraft are related to the engine intake area. The hazards of ingesting birds beyond the "designed-for" limit were shown on US Airways Flight 1549 when the aircraft struck Canada geese. The outcome of an ingestion event and whether it causes an accident, be it on a small fast plane, such as military jet fighters, or a large transport, depends on the number and weight of birds and where they strike the fan blade span or the nose cone. Core damage usually results with impacts near the blade root or on the nose cone. The highest risk of a bird strike occurs during takeoff and landing in the vicinity of airports, and during low-level flying, for example by military aircraft, crop dusters and helicopters. Some airports use active countermeasures, including a person with a shotgun, playing recorded sounds of predators through loudspeakers, or employing falconers. Poisonous grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive countermeasures involve sensible land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (e.g. landfills). Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (to approximately 12 inches or 30 centimetres) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot see one another. === Human factors === Human factors, including pilot error, are another potential set of factors, and currently the factor most commonly found in aviation accidents. Much progress in applying human factors analysis to improving aviation safety was made around the time of World War II by such pioneers as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, there has been progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's checklist in 1937. CRM, or crew resource management, is a technique that makes use of the experience and knowledge of the complete flight crew to avoid dependence on just one crew member, and to improve pilot decision making. Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the collision of aircraft. This can take place in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The barriers to effective communication have internal and external factors. The ability of the flight crew to maintain situational awareness is a critical human factor in air safety. Human factors training is available to general aviation pilots and called single pilot resource management training. Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments caused the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 in 1972. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), and error during take-off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example causing the crash of Prinair Flight 191 on landing, also in 1972. ==== Pilot fatigue ==== The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines fatigue as "A physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or workload." The phenomenon places great risk on the crew and passengers of an airplane because it significantly increases the chance of pilot error. Fatigue is particularly prevalent among pilots because of "unpredictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian disruption, and insufficient sleep". These factors can occur together to produce a combination of sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm effects, and 'time-on task' fatigue. Regulators attempt to mitigate fatigue by limiting the number of hours pilots are allowed to fly over varying periods of time. Experts in aviation fatigue often find that these methods fall short of their goals. ==== Piloting while intoxicated ==== Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being intoxicated on the job. In 1990, three Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced to jail for flying while drunk. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test after a flight. In July 2002, both pilots of America West Airlines Flight 556 were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly because they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots were fired and the FAA revoked their pilot licenses. At least one fatal airliner accident involving drunk pilots occurred when Aero Flight 311 crashed at Kvevlax, Finland, killing all 25 on board in 1961. Another example is the crash Aeroflot Flight 821, in which the captain's intoxication contributed to the accident, killing all 88 on board. ==== Pilot suicide and murder ==== There have been rare instances of suicide by pilots. Although most air crew are screened for psychological fitness, a very few authorized pilots have flown acts of suicide and even mass murder. In 1982, Japan Airlines Flight 350 crashed while on approach to the Tokyo Haneda Airport, killing 24 of the 174 on board. The official investigation found the mentally ill captain had attempted suicide by placing the inboard engines into reverse thrust, while the aircraft was close to the runway. The first officer did not have enough time to countermand before the aircraft stalled and crashed. In 1997, SilkAir Flight 185 suddenly went into a high dive from its cruising altitude. The speed of the dive was so high that the aircraft began to break apart before it finally crashed near Palembang, Sumatra. After three years of investigation, the Indonesian authorities declared that the cause of the accident could not be determined. However, the US NTSB concluded that deliberate suicide by the captain was the only reasonable explanation. In 1999 in the case of EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the first officer deliberately crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station. Crew involvement is one of the speculative theories in the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014. On 24 March 2015, Germanwings Flight 9525 (an Airbus A320-200) crashed 100 kilometres (62 miles) north-west of Nice, in the French Alps, after a constant descent that began one minute after the last routine contact with air traffic control, and shortly after the aircraft had reached its assigned cruise altitude. All 144 passengers and six crew members were killed. The crash was intentionally caused by the co-pilot, Andreas Lubitz. Having been declared 'unfit to work' without telling his employer, Lubitz reported for duty, and during the flight locked the captain out of the flight-deck. In response to the incident and the circumstances of Lubitz's involvement, aviation authorities in Canada, New Zealand, Germany, and Australia implemented new regulations that require two authorised personnel to be present in the cockpit at all times. Three days after the incident, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two crew members, including at least one pilot, are in the cockpit at all times of the flight. Several airlines announced they had already adopted similar policies voluntarily. ==== Deliberate aircrew inaction ==== Inaction, omission, failure to act as required, willful disregard of safety procedures, disdain for rules, and unjustifiable risk-taking by pilots have also led to accidents and incidents. Although Smartwings QS-1125 flight of 22 August 2019 successfully made an emergency landing at destination, the captain was censured for failing to follow mandatory procedures, including for not landing at the nearest possible diversion airport after an engine failure. ==== Human factors of third parties ==== Unsafe human factors are not limited to pilot errors. Third party factors include ground crew mishaps, ground vehicle to aircraft collisions and engineering maintenance related problems. For example, failure to properly close a cargo door on Turkish Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 caused the loss of the aircraft. (However, design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the accident.) In the case of Japan Air Lines Flight 123 in 1985, improper repair of previous damage led to explosive decompression of the cabin, which in turn destroyed the vertical stabilizer and damaged all four hydraulic systems which powered all the flight controls. ==== Controlled flight into terrain ==== Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) is a class of accidents in which an aircraft is flown under control into terrain or man-made structures. CFIT accidents typically result from pilot error or of navigational system error. Failure to protect ILS critical areas can also cause CFIT accidents. In December 1995, American Airlines Flight 965 tracked off course while approaching Cali, Colombia, and hit a mountainside despite a terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) terrain warning in the cockpit and desperate pilot attempt to gain altitude after the warning. Crew position awareness and monitoring of navigational systems are essential to the prevention of CFIT accidents. As of February 2008, over 40,000 aircraft had enhanced TAWS installed, and they had flown over 800 million hours without a CFIT accident. Another anti-CFIT tool is the Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) system which monitors the altitudes transmitted by aircraft transponders and compares that with the system's defined minimum safe altitudes for a given area. When the system determines the aircraft is lower, or might soon be lower, than the minimum safe altitude, the air traffic controller receives an acoustic and visual warning and then alerts the pilot that the aircraft is too low. ==== Electromagnetic interference ==== The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it might interfere with aircraft operation, such as causing compass deviations. Use of some types of personal electronic devices is prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000 feet (3,000 m), taking off, or landing. Use of a mobile phone is prohibited on most flights because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells. Wireless devices such as cellphones feature an airplane mode. === Ground damage === Various ground support equipment operate in close proximity to the fuselage and wings to service the aircraft and occasionally cause accidental damage in the form of scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. However, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) play such a critical role in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured, and possibly tested to ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances. An example problem was the depressurization incident on Alaska Airlines Flight 536 in 2005. During ground services, a baggage handler hit the side of the aircraft with a tug towing a train of baggage carts. This damaged the metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (7,900 m) the damaged section of the skin gave way under the difference in pressure between the inside of the aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized explosively necessitating a rapid descent to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Post-landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12-inch (30 cm) hole on the right side of the airplane. === Volcanic ash === Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes can damage propellers, engines and cockpit windows. In 1982, British Airways Flight 9 flew through an ash cloud and temporarily lost power from all four engines. The plane was badly damaged, with all the leading edges being scratched. The front windscreens had been so badly "sand" blasted by the ash that they could not be used to land the aircraft. Prior to 2010 the general approach taken by airspace regulators was that if the ash concentration rose above zero, then the airspace was considered unsafe and was consequently closed. Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers enable liaison between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the aviation industry. === Runway safety === Types of runway safety incidents include: Runway excursion – an incident involving only a single aircraft making an inappropriate exit from the runway. Runway overrun – a specific type of excursion where the aircraft does not stop before the end of the runway (e.g., Air France Flight 358). Runway incursion – incorrect presence of a vehicle, person, or another aircraft on the runway (e.g., Tenerife airport disaster). Runway confusion – crew misidentification of the runway for landing or take-off (e.g., Comair Flight 5191, Singapore Airlines Flight 6). The last two types can be prevented with airport surveillance and broadcast systems, a Runway Awareness and Advisory System, and landing navigation systems (e.g. transponder landing system, microwave landing system, instrument landing system). === Terrorism === Aircrew are normally trained to handle hijack situations. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, stricter airport and airline security measures are in place to prevent terrorism, such as security checkpoints and locking the cockpit doors during flight. In the United States, the Federal Flight Deck Officer program is run by the Federal Air Marshal Service, with the aim of training active and licensed airline pilots to carry weapons and defend their aircraft against criminal activity and terrorism. Upon completion of government training, selected pilots enter a covert law enforcement and counter-terrorism service. Their jurisdiction is normally limited to a flight deck or a cabin of a commercial airliner or a cargo aircraft they operate while on duty. === Military action === Passenger planes have rarely been attacked in both peacetime and war. Examples: In 1955, Bulgaria shot down El Al Flight 402. In 1973, Israel shot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114. In 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007. In 1988, the United States shot down Iran Air Flight 655. In 2001, the Ukrainian Air Force accidentally shot down Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 during an exercise. In 2014, Russia shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17. In 2020, Iran shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752. == Accident survivability == Earlier tragedies investigations and improved engineering has allowed many safety improvements that have allowed an increasing safer aviation. === Airport design === Airport design and location can have a large impact on aviation safety, especially since some airports such as Chicago Midway International Airport were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a runway safety area, usually extending 150 metres (500 ft) to each side and 300 metres (1,000 ft) beyond the end of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles. Many older airports do not meet this standard. One method of substituting for the 300 metres (1,000 ft) at the end of a runway for airports in congested areas is to install an engineered materials arrestor system (EMAS). These systems are usually made of lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the energy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. As of 2008, they have stopped three aircraft at JFK Airport. === Emergency airplane evacuations === According to a 2000 report by the National Transportation Safety Board, emergency aircraft evacuations happen about once every 11 days in the U.S. While some situations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on fire, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers can be the use of the evacuation slide. In a Time article on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evacuation tests in 2006, thirty-three of the 873 evacuating volunteers got hurt. While the evacuation was considered a success, one volunteer suffered a broken leg, while the remaining 32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In her article, Ripley provided tips on how to make it down the airplane slide without injury. Another improvement to airplane evacuations is the requirement by the Federal Aviation Administration for planes to demonstrate an evacuation time of 90 seconds with half the emergency exits blocked for each type of airplane in their fleet. According to studies, 90 seconds is the time needed to evacuate before the plane starts burning, before there can be a very large fire or explosions, or before fumes fill the cabin. === Aircraft materials and design === Changes such as using new materials for seat fabric and insulation has given between 40 and 60 additional seconds to people on board to evacuate before the cabin gets filled with fire and potential deadly fumes. Other improvements through the years include the use of properly rated seatbelts, impact resistant seat frames, and airplane wings and engines designed to shear off to absorb impact forces. === Radar and wind shear detection systems === As the result of the accidents due to wind shear and other weather disturbances, most notably the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on-board wind shear detection systems by 1993. Since 1995, the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years, due to the mandated on-board detection as well as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground (NEXRAD). The installation of high-resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions. == Accidents and incidents == List of airship accidents Lists of aviation accidents and incidents Aviation accidents and incidents List of airliner shootdown incidents Flight recorder, includes flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder === National investigation organizations === Australian Transport Safety Bureau Flugunfalluntersuchungsstelle im BMVIT Archived 2008-09-21 at the Wayback Machine (Austria) Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos (Brazil) Transportation Safety Board of Canada Air Accidents Investigation Institute (Czech Republic) Danish Aircraft Accident Investigation Board Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (France) Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung (Germany) Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (India) KNKT - Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi (Indonesia) International Civil Aviation Organization Air Accident Investigation Unit (Ireland) Agenzia Nazionale per la Sicurezza del Volo (Italy) Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission (Japan) Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand Transport Accident Investigation Commission (New Zealand) Onderzoeksraad voor Veiligheid (The Netherlands) Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines South African Civil Aviation Authority (South Africa) Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil (Spain) Swedish Accident Investigation Board Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (Switzerland) Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK) National Transportation Safety Board (USA) European Co-ordination Center for Aircraft Incident Reporting Systems (ECCAIRS) == Air safety investigators == Air safety investigators are trained and authorized to investigate aviation accidents and incidents: to research, analyse, and report their conclusions. They may be specialized in flight operations, training, aircraft structures, air traffic control, flight recorders or human factors. They are employed by government organizations responsible for aviation safety, manufacturers or unions, though only government organizations have statutory powers to investigate. == Safety improvement initiatives == The safety improvement initiatives are aviation safety partnerships between regulators, manufacturers, operators, professional unions, research organisations, and international aviation organisations to further enhance safety. Some major safety initiatives worldwide are: Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) in the US. The Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) was founded in 1998 with a goal to reduce the commercial aviation fatality rate in the United States by 80 percent by 2007. European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) . The European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) is an aviation safety partnership between EASA, other regulators and the industry. The initiative objective is to further enhance safety for citizens in Europe and worldwide through safety analysis, implementation of cost effective action plans, and coordination with other safety initiatives worldwide. After the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, in June 2014, the International Air Transport Association said it was working on implementing new measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. A special panel was considering a range of options including the production of equipment especially designed to ensure real-time tracking. Since pilot error accounts for between one-third and 60% of aviation accidents, advances in automation and technology could replace some or all of the duties of the aircraft pilots. Automation since the 1980s has already eliminated the need for flight engineers. In complex situations with severely degraded systems, the problem-solving and judgement capability of humans is challenging to achieve with automated systems, for example the catastrophic engine failures experienced by United Airlines Flight 232 and Qantas Flight 32. However, with more accurate software modeling of aeronautic factors, test planes have been successfully flown in these conditions. While the accident rate is very low, to ensure they do not rise with the air transport growth, experts recommend creating a robust culture of collecting information from employees without blame. == Regulators == Directorate- General of Civil Aviation, India. Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom) Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government (Australia) European Aviation Safety Agency Federal Aviation Administration (United States) Federal Aviation Regulations Irish Aviation Authority Transport Canada Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia) == See also == == Notes == == References == == External links == Aviation safety network database 10 Plane Crashes That Changed Aviation Safety Behaviours – a guide for pilots (comprehensive human factors information) NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) Latest Aviation Safety Occurrences at the Aviation Safety Network Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Health, 2003
Dassault Aviation	Dassault Aviation SA (French pronunciation: [da.so]) is a French manufacturer of military aircraft and business jets. It was founded in 1929 by Marcel Bloch as Société des Avions Marcel Bloch (Marcel Bloch Aircraft Company). After World War II, Marcel Bloch changed his name to Marcel Dassault, and the name of the company was changed to Avions Marcel Dassault on 20 January 1947. In 1971 Dassault acquired Breguet, forming Avions Marcel Dassault-Breguet Aviation (AMD-BA). In 1990 the company was renamed Dassault Aviation, and is a subsidiary of Dassault Group. Dassault Aviation has been headed by Éric Trappier since 9 January 2013. == History == The Société des Avions Marcel Bloch was founded by Marcel Bloch in 1929. In 1935 Bloch and Henry Potez entered into an agreement to buy Société Aérienne Bordelaise (SAB), subsequently renamed Société Aéronautique du Sud-Ouest. In 1936 the arms industry in France was nationalised as the Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Sud Ouest (SNCASO). Marcel Bloch was asked to act as delegated administrator of the Minister for Air. During the occupation of France by Nazi Germany the country's aviation industry was virtually disbanded. Marcel Bloch was imprisoned by the Vichy government in October 1940. In 1944 Bloch was deported to the Buchenwald concentration camp by the German occupiers where he remained until it was liberated on 11 April 1945. On 10 November 1945, at an extraordinary general meeting of the Société Anonyme des Avions Marcel Bloch the company voted to change its form to a limited liability entity, Société des Avions Marcel Bloch, which was to be a holding company. On 20 January 1947 Société des Avions Marcel Bloch became Société des Avions Marcel Dassault to reflect the name adopted by its owner. In 1954, Dassault established an electronics division (by 1962 named Electronique Marcel Dassault), the first action of which was to begin the development of airborne radars, soon followed by seeker heads for air-to-air missiles, navigation, and bombing aids. From the 1950s to late 1970s exports become a major part of Dassault's business, major successes were the Dassault Mirage series and the Mystere-Falcon. In 1965 and 1966, the French government stressed to its various defense suppliers the need to specialize to maintain viable companies. Dassault was to specialise in combat and business aircraft, Nord Aviation in ballistic missiles and Sud Aviation civil and military transport aircraft and helicopters. (Nord Aviation and Sud Aviation would merge in 1970 to form Aérospatiale which would itself later merge with 2 other firms and become EADS (now Airbus)). On 27 June 1967, Dassault (at the urging of the French government) acquired 66% of Breguet Aviation. Under the merger deal Société des Avions Marcel Dassault was dissolved on 14 December 1971, with its assets vested in Breguet, to be renamed Avions Marcel Dassault-Breguet Aviation (AMD-BA). Dassault Systèmes was established in 1981 to develop and market Dassault's CAD program, CATIA. Dassault Systèmes was to become a market leader in this field. In 1979 the French government took a 20% share in Dassault and established the Societé de Gestion de Participations Aéronautiques (SOGEPA) to manage this and an indirect 25% share in Aerospatiale (the government also held a direct 75% share in that company). In 1998 the French government transferred its shares in Dassault Aviation (45.76%) to Aerospatiale. On 10 July 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with other European companies to form EADS (presently Airbus). In 2000 Serge Dassault resigned as chairman and was succeeded by Charles Edelstenne. Serge Dassault was appointed honorary chairman. The American company Atlantic Aviation based in Wilmington, Delaware, was acquired in October 2000. Airbus sold some of its ownership back to Dassault in 2014, and further reduced its share to 27% in 2015 then to 10% in 2016. In April 2024, it was announced that Serbia would sign a deal with Dassault worth £3 billion. This was the largest weapons deal in Serbian history. == Subsidiaries == Sogitec, a wholly owned subsidiary of Dassault, makes advanced avionics simulation, 3D imaging, military flight simulators, and document imaging systems. == Products == === Military === Breguet family See main article: Dassault Breguet MD 315 Flamant, 1947 MD 450 Ouragan, 1951 Mystère, 1951 MD 452 Mystère I, II, III (a one-off MD-452 nightfighter), 1951 MD 454 Mystère IV, 1952 Super Mystère, 1955 MMD 550 Mystère-Delta, 1955 prototype Étendard, 1956 Étendard II, 1956 Étendard IV, 1958 Super Étendard, 1974 Mirage series: Mirage III, 1956 Mirage IV (strategic bomber), 1959 Mirage IIIV, (1965–1966) Mirage 5, 1967 Mirage F1, 1966 Mirage F2, 1966 (Prototype) Mirage G, 1967 Mirage G-4/G-8, 1971 Mirage 2000, 1978 Mirage 2000N/2000D 1986 Mirage 4000, 1979 (Prototype) Mirage 50, 1979 Mirage III NG, 1982 Cavalier MD 610 – VSTOL concept, 1959 MD 410 Spirale, 1960 Balzac V, 1962 VSTOL Atlantique (ATL 1, originally a Breguet product), 1965 Milan, 1968 MD 320 Hirondelle, 1968 (light military utility aircraft, only 1 prototype was built) Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet (Joint venture with Dornier) 1973 SEPECAT Jaguar (50/50 joint venture with BAC) begun within Breguet, 1973 Falcon Guardian 1, 1977 Falcon Guardian 2, 1981 Atlantique 2 (ATL 2), 1982 Rafale, 1986 AVE-D, (experimental, first flight 2000) nEUROn, (experimental, first flight 2012) New Generation Fighter, (Rafale replacement) === Civilian === Breguet family See main article: Dassault Breguet Falcon family Falcon 10 (Falcon 100 Upgraded Version) Falcon 20 (Falcon 200 upgraded version) Falcon 30 (Mystère 30) (30-seat airliner prototype) Falcon 40 (Mystère 40) (40-seat airliner proposal) Falcon 50 Falcon 900 Falcon 2000 Falcon 6X Falcon 7X (originally Falcon FNX) Falcon 8X Falcon 10X (in development) Mercure – The only commercial airliner that ever flew made directly by Dassault Aviation. Designed to compete with Boeing 737. Only 12 units ever built. Communauté – Only 1 prototype was built. == Facilities and offices == === Production === St. Cloud – c. 1938 former engine and fighter plant now heavy-duty simulation systems, and technical branch headquarters Argenteuil - c. 1952 Biarritz – acquired Breguet plant 1971 Merignac - c. 1947 Talence - operating from 1939 to 1947 Lorraine – c. 1951 as rented facility before moved to Argenteuil Nagpur – a Joint Venture with Reliance Aerostructure Limited operating as Dassault Reliance Aerospace Limited (DRAL), at MIHAN at Nagpur airport, Maharashtra, India. The facility supplies parts for Dassault Falcon family and Dassault Rafale. === Service Facilities === United States, France, China, Brazil Noida : Dassault Aviation is setting up a Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India under a subsidiary of Dassault Aviation Maintenance Repair Overhaul India (DAMROI) for Dassault Mirage 2000 and Dassault Rafale fleet of the Indian Air Force as well as that of the Indonesian Air Force. SEPECAT Jaguar can also be provided service if required though the fleet is nearing the end of its service. === Sales Offices === China, Greece, Malaysia, Oman, Russia, Taiwan === DAS Network === Paraguay and United States == See also == Dassault Group Dassault Falcon Dassault Rafale Mirage 2000 nEUROn == References == Dassault Aviation History, 1916 to this day. Accessed 5 January 2006. == External links == Official website
Aviation engineering	Aviation engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with airspace development, airport design, aircraft navigation technologies, and aerodrome planning. It also involves the formulation of public policy, regulations, aviation laws pertaining to airspace, airlines, airports, aerodromes and the conduct of air services agreements through treaty. This branch of engineering is distinct from aerospace engineering which deals with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. == Airspace development == The global airspace is divided into territorial airspace which then belongs to a country. Generally, airspace has to be engineered to benefit both military and civil users. Planning and designing airspace is important so as not to affect military operations and in order to designate air routes for commercial airlines to navigate freely without intervention by military authorities. For instance, not all of China can be used for commercial aeronautical navigation. Certain airspaces are designated as military-use only. Navigating outside commercial airspaces in the country may lead to the risk of the astrayed aircraft. In prior years, airspace has been limited to military and airmail services. The advancement in aerospace engineering brought to fore aircraft designs that lead to the development of commercial airliners. Governments around the world concluded air rights for their respective airlines and their corresponding aircraft. The government saw the economic potential of airspace as a state enterprise. This rise in the development of commercial aviation led to the study of the complexities of aircraft (plane) management, airport design and construction, international air services agreements (treaties). In recent years, the global airline industry has demanded that China should reform its aviation policies. == Airport design == Recent designs of airports have been engineered to align with global environmental standards. Advancement in civil engineering and architecture make an interplay of the two disciplines. == Career == Governments around the world hire aviation engineers for all sorts of reasons. In the United States, federal, state and local agencies all commonly employ aviation engineers for agencies such as the Department of Transportation. The Federal Aviation Administration, which is in charge of controlling aircraft navigation throughout the whole nation, maintaining navigation, licensing and certification for aviation engineers. FAA employs many aviation engineers to work on research and development problems, noise pollution and hypersonic aircraft among other things. Engineers are heavily involved in improving aviation technologies to support the advancement of military and commercial aviation. Aviation engineers are often employed in aerospace machine shops specializing in the technological advancement of aircraft parts and equipment. These shops produce aircraft components such as electrical connectors, oxygen generation systems, landing gear assemblies, and other pieces that require special attention. Aviation engineers do more than work on planes. Aviation engineers also play a large role in airport design. They provide guidance for the construction and daily running of the airports, as well as help in the operation and maintenance. == References ==
Naval aviation	Naval aviation / Aeronaval is the application of military air power by navies, whether from warships that embark aircraft, or land bases. It often involves navalised aircraft, specifically designed for naval use. Seaborne aviation encompasses similar activities not restricted to navies, including marines and coast guards, such as in U.S. naval aviators. Naval aviation units are typically projected to a position nearer the target by way of an aircraft carrier. Carrier-based aircraft must be sturdy enough to withstand the demands of carrier operations. They must be able to launch in a short distance and be sturdy and flexible enough to come to a sudden stop on a pitching flight deck; they typically have robust folding mechanisms that allow higher numbers of them to be stored in below-decks hangars and small spaces on flight decks. These aircraft are designed for many purposes, including air-to-air combat, surface attack, submarine attack, search and rescue, matériel transport, weather observation, reconnaissance and wide area command and control duties. Naval helicopters can be used for many of the same missions as fixed-wing aircraft while operating from aircraft carriers, helicopter carriers, destroyers and frigates. == History == === Establishment === Early experiments on the use of kites for naval reconnaissance took place in 1903 at Woolwich Common for the Admiralty. Samuel Franklin Cody demonstrated the capabilities of his 8-foot-long black kite and it was proposed for use as either a mechanism to hold up wires for wireless communications or as a manned reconnaissance device that would give the viewer the advantage of considerable height. In 1908 Prime Minister H. H. Asquith approved the formation of an "Aerial Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence" to investigate the potential for naval aviation. In 1909 this body accepted the proposal of Captain Reginald Bacon made to the First Sea Lord Sir John Fisher that rigid airships should be constructed for the Royal Navy to be used for reconnaissance. This resulted in the construction of Mayfly in 1909, the first air component of the navy to become operational, and the genesis of modern naval aviation. The first pilots for the Royal Navy were transferred from the Royal Aero Club in June 1910 along with two aircraft with which to train new pilots, and an airfield at Eastchurch became the Naval Flying School, the first such facility in the world. Two hundred applications were received, and four were accepted: Lieutenant C R Samson, Lieutenant A M Longmore, Lieutenant A Gregory and Captain E L Gerrard, RMLI. The French also established a naval aviation capability in 1910 with the establishment of the Service Aeronautique and the first flight training schools. U.S. naval aviation began with pioneer aviator Glenn Curtiss who contracted with the United States Navy to demonstrate that airplanes could take off from and land aboard ships at sea. One of his pilots, Eugene Ely, took off from the cruiser USS Birmingham anchored off the Virginia coast in November 1910. Two months later Ely landed aboard another cruiser, USS Pennsylvania, in San Francisco Bay, proving the concept of shipboard operations. However, the platforms erected on those vessels were temporary measures. The U.S. Navy and Glenn Curtiss experienced two firsts during January 1911. On 27 January, Curtiss flew the first seaplane from the water at San Diego Bay and the next day U.S. Navy Lt. Theodore G. Ellyson, a student at the nearby Curtiss School, took off in a Curtiss "grass cutter" plane to become the first naval aviator. $25,000 was appropriated for the Bureau of Navigation (United States Navy) to purchase three airplanes and in the spring of 1911 four additional officers were trained as pilots by the Wright brothers and Curtiss. A camp with a primitive landing field was established on the Severn River at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis, Maryland. The vision of the aerial fleet was for scouting. Each aircraft would have a pilot and observer. The observer would use the wireless radio technology to report on enemy ships. Some thoughts were given to deliver counterattacks on hostile aircraft using "explosives or other means". Using airplanes to bomb ships was seen as largely impractical at the time. CAPT Washington Irving Chambers felt it was much easier to defend against airplanes than mines or torpedoes. The wireless radio was cumbersome (greater than 50 pounds), but the technology was improving. Experiments were underway for the first ICS (pilot to observer comms) using headsets, as well as connecting the observer to the radio. The navy tested both telephones and voice tubes for ICS. As of August 1911, Italy was the only other navy known to be adapting hydroplanes for naval use. The group expanded with the addition of six aviators in 1912 and five in 1913, from both the Navy and Marine Corps, and conducted maneuvers with the Fleet from the battleship USS Mississippi, designated as the Navy's aviation ship. Meanwhile, Captain Henry C. Mustin successfully tested the concept of the catapult launch in August 1912, and in 1915 made the first catapult launching from a ship underway. The first permanent naval air station was established at Pensacola, Florida, in January 1914 with Mustin as its commanding officer. On April 24 of that year, and for a period of approximately 45 days afterward, five floatplanes and flying boats flown by ten aviators operated from Mississippi and the cruiser Birmingham off Veracruz and Tampico, Mexico, respectively, conducting reconnaissance for troops ashore in the wake of the Tampico Affair. In January 1912, the British battleship HMS Africa took part in aircraft experiments at Sheerness. She was fitted for flying off aircraft with a 100-foot (30 m) downward-sloping runway which was installed on her foredeck, running over her forward 12-inch (305 mm) gun turret from her forebridge to her bow and equipped with rails to guide the aircraft. The Gnome-engined Short Improved S.27 "S.38", pusher seaplane piloted by Lieutenant Charles Samson become the first British aircraft to take-off from a ship while at anchor in the River Medway, on 10 January 1912. Africa then transferred her flight equipment to her sister ship Hibernia. In May 1912, with Commander Samson again flying the "S.38", the first ever instance of an aircraft to take off from a ship which was under way occurred. Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots (19.4 km/h; 12.1 mph) at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, England. Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London. Based on these experiments, the Royal Navy concluded that aircraft were useful aboard ship for spotting and other purposes, but that interference with the firing of guns caused by the runway built over the foredeck and the danger and impracticality of recovering seaplanes that alighted in the water in anything but calm weather more than offset the desirability of having airplanes aboard. In 1912, the nascent naval air detachment in the United Kingdom was amalgamated to form the Royal Flying Corps and in 1913 a seaplane base on the Isle of Grain, an airship base at Kingsnorth and eight new airfields were approved for construction. The first aircraft participation in naval manoeuvres took place in 1913 with the cruiser Hermes converted into a seaplane carrier. In 1914, naval aviation was split again, and became the Royal Naval Air Service. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, and would become a major part of fleet operations by 1917. Other early operators of seaplanes were Germany, within its Marine-Fliegerabteilung naval aviation units within the Kaiserliche Marine, and Russia. In May 1913 Germany established a naval zeppelin detachment in Berlin-Johannisthal and an airplane squadron in Putzig (Puck, Poland). The Japanese established the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, modelled on the RNAS, in 1913. On 24 January 1913 came the first wartime naval aviation interservice cooperation mission. Greek pilots on a seaplane observed and drew a diagram of the positions of the Turkish fleet against which they dropped four bombs. This event was widely commented upon in the press, both Greek and international. === World War I === At the outbreak of war the Royal Naval Air Service had 93 aircraft, six airships, two balloons and 727 personnel, making it larger than the Royal Flying Corps. The main roles of the RNAS were fleet reconnaissance, patrolling coasts for enemy ships and submarines, attacking enemy coastal territory and defending Britain from enemy air-raids, along with deployment along the Western Front. In 1914 the first aerial torpedo was dropped in trials performed in a Short "Folder" by Lieutenant (later Air Chief Marshal Sir) Arthur Longmore, and in August 1915, a Short Type 184 piloted by Flight Commander Charles Edmonds from HMS Ben-my-Chree sank a Turkish supply ship in the Sea of Marmara with a 14-inch-diameter (360 mm), 810-pound (370 kg) torpedo. The first strike from a seaplane carrier against a land target as well as a sea target took place in September 1914 when the Imperial Japanese Navy carrier Wakamiya conducted ship-launched air raids from Kiaochow Bay during the Battle of Tsingtao in China. The four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German-held land targets (communication centers and command centers) and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September until 6 November 1914, when the Germans surrendered. One Japanese plane was credited being shot down by the German aviator Gunther Plüschow in an Etrich Taube, using his pistol. On the Western front the first naval air raid occurred on 25 December 1914 when twelve seaplanes from HMS Engadine, Riviera and Empress (cross-channel steamers converted into seaplane carriers) attacked the Zeppelin base at Cuxhaven. The raid was not a complete success, owing to sub-optimal weather conditions, including fog and low cloud, but the raid was able to conclusively demonstrate the feasibility of air-to-land strikes from a naval platform. Two German airships were destroyed at the Tøndern base on July 19, 1918, by seven Sopwith Camels launched from the carrier HMS Furious. In August 1914 Germany operated 20 planes and one Zeppelin, another 15 planes were confiscated. They operated from bases in Germany and Flanders (Belgium). On 19 August 1918 several British torpedo boats were sunk by 10 German planes near Heligoland. These are considered as the first naval units solely destroyed by airplanes. During the war the German "Marineflieger" claimed the destruction of 270 enemy planes, 6 balloons, 2 airships, 1 Russian destroyer, 4 merchant ships, 3 submarines, 4 torpedo boats and 12 vehicles, for the loss of 170 German sea and land planes as well as 9 vehicles. Notable Marineflieger aces were Gotthard Sachsenberg (31 victories), Alexander Zenzes (18 victories), Friedrich Christiansen (13 victories, 1 airship and 1 submarine), Karl Meyer (8 victories), Karl Scharon (8 victories), and Hans Goerth (7 victories). === Development of the aircraft carrier === The need for a more mobile strike capacity led to the development of the aircraft carrier - the backbone of modern naval aviation. HMS Ark Royal was the first purpose-built seaplane carrier and was also arguably the first modern aircraft carrier. She was originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the building stocks to be a hybrid airplane/seaplane carrier with a launch platform and the capacity to hold up to four wheeled aircraft. Launched on 5 September 1914, she served in the Dardanelles campaign and throughout World War I. During World War I the Royal Navy also used HMS Furious to experiment with the use of wheeled aircraft on ships. This ship was reconstructed three times between 1915 and 1925: first, while still under construction, it was modified to receive a flight deck on the fore-deck; in 1917 it was reconstructed with separate flight decks fore and aft of the superstructure; then finally, after the war, it was heavily reconstructed with a three-quarter length main flight deck, and a lower-level take-off only flight deck on the fore-deck. On 2 August 1917, Squadron Commander E.H. Dunning, Royal Navy, landed his Sopwith Pup aircraft on Furious in Scapa Flow, Orkney, becoming the first person to land a plane on a moving ship. He was killed five days later during another landing on Furious. HMS Argus was converted from an ocean liner and became the first example of what is now the standard pattern of aircraft carrier, with a full-length flight deck that allowed wheeled aircraft to take off and land. After commissioning, the ship was heavily involved for several years in the development of the optimum design for other aircraft carriers. Argus also evaluated various types of arresting gear, general procedures needed to operate a number of aircraft in concert, and fleet tactics. The Tondern raid, a British bombing raid against the Imperial German Navy's airship base at Tønder, Denmark was the first attack in history made by aircraft flying from a carrier flight deck, with seven Sopwith Camels launched from HMS Furious. For the loss of one man, the British destroyed two German zeppelins, L.54 and L.60 and a captive balloon. === Interwar period === Genuine aircraft carriers did not emerge beyond Britain until the early 1920s. The Japanese Hōshō (1921) was the world's first purpose-built aircraft carrier, although the initial plans and laying down for HMS Hermes (1924) had begun earlier. Both Hōshō and Hermes initially boasted the two most distinctive features of a modern aircraft carrier: a full-length flight deck and a starboard-side control tower island. Both continued to be adjusted in the light of further experimentation and experience, however: Hōshō even opted to remove its island entirely in favor of a less obstructed flight deck and improved pilot visibility. Instead, Japanese carriers opted to control their flight operations from a platform extending from the side of the flight deck. In the United States, Admiral William Benson attempted to entirely dissolve the USN's Naval Aeronautics program in 1919. Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt and others succeeded in maintaining it, but the service continued to support battleship-based doctrines. To counter Billy Mitchell's campaign to establish a separate Department of Aeronautics, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered a rigged test against USS Indiana in 1920 which reached the conclusion that "the entire experiment pointed to the improbability of a modern battleship being either destroyed or completely put out of action by aerial bombs." Investigation by the New-York Tribune that discovered the rigging led to Congressional resolutions compelling more honest studies. The sinking of SMS Ostfriesland involved violating the Navy's rules of engagement but completely vindicated Mitchell to the public. Some men, such as Captain (soon Rear Admiral) William A. Moffett, saw the publicity stunt as a means to increase funding and support for the Navy's aircraft carrier projects. Moffett was sure that he had to move decisively in order to avoid having his fleet air arm fall into the hands of a proposed combined Land/Sea Air Force which took care of all the United States's airpower needs. (That very fate had befallen the two air services of the United Kingdom in 1918: the Royal Flying Corps had been combined with the Royal Naval Air Service to become the Royal Air Force, a condition which would remain until 1937.) Moffett supervised the development of naval air tactics throughout the '20s. The first aircraft carrier entered the U.S. fleet with the conversion of the collier USS Jupiter and its recommissioning as USS Langley in 1922. Many British naval vessels carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and spotting: two to four on battleships or battlecruisers and one on cruisers. The aircraft, a Fairey Seafox or later a Supermarine Walrus, were catapult-launched, and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. Several submarine aircraft carriers were built by Japan, each carrying one floatplane, which did not prove effective in war. The French Navy built one large submarine, Surcouf, which also carried one floatplane, and was also not effective in war. === World War II === World War II saw the emergence of naval aviation as the decisive element in the war at sea. The principal users were Japan, United States (both with Pacific interests to protect) and Britain. Germany, the Soviet Union, France and Italy had a lesser involvement. Soviet Naval Aviation was mostly organised as land-based coastal defense force (apart from some scout floatplanes it consisted almost exclusively of land-based types also used by its air arms). During the course of the war, seaborne aircraft were used in fleet actions at sea (Midway, Bismarck), strikes against naval units in port (Taranto, Pearl Harbor), support of ground forces (Okinawa, Allied invasion of Italy) and anti-submarine warfare (the Battle of the Atlantic). Carrier-based aircraft were specialised as dive bombers, torpedo bombers, and fighters. Surface-based aircraft such as the PBY Catalina helped finding submarines and surface fleets. In World War II the aircraft carrier replaced the battleship as the most powerful naval offensive weapons system as battles between fleets were increasingly fought out of gun range by aircraft. The Japanese Yamato, the heaviest battleship ever built, was first turned back by light escort carrier aircraft and later sunk lacking its own air cover. During the Doolittle Raid of 1942, 16 Army medium bombers were launched from the carrier Hornet on one-way missions to bomb Japan. All were lost to fuel exhaustion after bombing their targets and the experiment was not repeated. Smaller carriers were built in large numbers to escort slow cargo convoys or supplement fast carriers. Aircraft for observation or light raids were also carried by battleships and cruisers, while blimps were used to search for attack submarines. Experience showed that there was a need for widespread use of aircraft which could not be met quickly enough by building new fleet aircraft carriers. This was particularly true in the North Atlantic, where convoys were highly vulnerable to U-boat attack. The British authorities used unorthodox, temporary, but effective means of giving air protection such as CAM ships and merchant aircraft carriers, merchant ships modified to carry a small number of aircraft. The solution to the problem were large numbers of mass-produced merchant hulls converted into escort aircraft carriers (also known as "jeep carriers"). These basic vessels, unsuited to fleet action by their capacity, speed and vulnerability, nevertheless provided air cover where it was needed. The Royal Navy had observed the impact of naval aviation and, obliged to prioritise their use of resources, abandoned battleships as the mainstay of the fleet. HMS Vanguard was therefore the last British battleship and her sisters were cancelled. The United States had already instigated a large construction programme (which was also cut short) but these large ships were mainly used as anti-aircraft batteries or for shore bombardment. Other actions involving naval aviation included: Battle of the Atlantic, aircraft carried by low-cost escort carriers were used for antisubmarine patrol, defense, and attack. At the start of the Pacific War in 1941, Japanese carrier-based aircraft sank many US warships during the attack on Pearl Harbor and land-based aircraft sank two large British warships. Engagements between Japanese and American naval fleets were then conducted largely or entirely by aircraft - examples include the battles of Coral Sea, Midway, Bismarck Sea and Philippine Sea. Battle of Leyte Gulf, with the first appearance of kamikazes, perhaps the largest naval battle in history. Japan's last carriers and pilots are deliberately sacrificed, a battleship is sunk by aircraft. Operation Ten-Go demonstrated U.S. air supremacy in the Pacific theater by this stage in the war and the vulnerability of surface ships without air cover to aerial attack. === Post-war developments === Jet aircraft were used on aircraft carriers after the War. The first jet landing on a carrier was made by Lt Cdr Eric 'Winkle' Brown who landed on HMS Ocean in the specially modified de Havilland Vampire (registration LZ551/G) on 3 December 1945. Following the introduction of angled flight decks, jets were regularly operating from carriers by the mid-1950s. An important development of the early 1950s was the British invention of the angled flight deck by Capt D.R.F. Campbell RN in conjunction with Lewis Boddington of the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough. The runway was canted at an angle of a few degrees from the longitudinal axis of the ship. If an aircraft missed the arrestor cables (referred to as a "bolter"), the pilot only needed to increase engine power to maximum to get airborne again, and would not hit the parked aircraft because the angled deck pointed out over the sea. The angled flight deck was first tested on HMS Triumph, by painting angled deck markings onto the centerline flight deck for touch and go landings. The modern steam-powered catapult, powered by steam from a ship's boilers or reactors, was invented by Commander C.C. Mitchell of the Royal Naval Reserve. It was widely adopted following trials on HMS Perseus between 1950 and 1952 which showed it to be more powerful and reliable than the hydraulic catapults which had been introduced in the 1940s. The first Optical Landing System, the Mirror Landing Aid was invented by Lieutenant Commander H. C. N. Goodhart RN. The first trials of a mirror landing sight were conducted on HMS Illustrious in 1952. The US Navy built the first aircraft carrier to be powered by nuclear reactors. USS Enterprise was powered by eight nuclear reactors and was the second surface warship (after USS Long Beach) to be powered in this way. The post-war years also saw the development of the helicopter, with a variety of useful roles and mission capability aboard aircraft carriers and other naval ships. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United Kingdom and the United States converted some older carriers into Commando Carriers or Landing Platform Helicopters (LPH); seagoing helicopter airfields like HMS Bulwark. To mitigate the expensive connotations of the term "aircraft carrier", the Invincible-class carriers were originally designated as "through deck cruisers" and were initially to operate as helicopter-only craft escort carriers. The arrival of the Sea Harrier VTOL/STOVL fast jet meant that the Invincible-class could carry fixed-wing aircraft, despite their short flight decks. The British also introduced the ski-jump ramp as an alternative to contemporary catapult systems. As the Royal Navy retired or sold the last of its World War II-era carriers, they were replaced with smaller ships designed to operate helicopters and the V/STOVL Sea Harrier jet. The ski-jump gave the Harriers an enhanced STOVL capability, allowing them to take off with heavier payloads. In 2013, the US Navy completed the first successful catapult launch and arrested landing of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aboard an aircraft carrier. After a decade of research and planning, the US Navy has been testing the integration of UAVs with carrier-based forces since 2013, using the experimental Northrop Grumman X-47B, and is working to procure a fleet of carrier-based UAVs, referred to as the Unmanned Carrier Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike (UCLASS) system. == Roles == Naval aviation forces primarily perform naval roles at sea. However, they are also used for other tasks which vary between states. Common roles for such forces include: === Fleet air defense === Carrier-based naval aviation provides a country's seagoing forces with air cover over areas that may not be reachable by land-based aircraft, giving them a considerable advantage over navies composed primarily of surface combatants. === Strategic projection === Naval aviation also provides countries with the opportunity to deploy military aircraft over land and sea, without the need for air bases on land. === Mine countermeasures === Aircraft may be used to conduct naval mine clearance, the aircraft tows a sled through the water but is itself at a significant distance from the water, hopefully putting itself out of harm's way. Aircraft include the MH-53E and AW101. === Anti-surface warfare === Aircraft operated by navies are also used in the anti-surface warfare (ASUW or ASuW) role, to attack enemy ships and other, surface combatants. This is generally conducted using air-launched anti-ship missiles. === Amphibious warfare === Naval aviation is also used as part of amphibious warfare. Aircraft based on naval ships provide support to marines and other forces performing amphibious landings. Ship-based aircraft may also be used to support amphibious forces as they move inland. === Maritime patrol === Naval aircraft are used for various maritime patrol missions, such as reconnaissance, search and rescue, and maritime law enforcement. === Vertical replenishment === Vertical replenishment (VERTREP) is a method of supplying naval vessels at sea, by helicopter. This means moving cargo and supplies from supply ships to the flight decks of other naval vessels using naval helicopters. === Anti-submarine warfare === During the Cold War, the navies of NATO faced a significant threat from Soviet submarine forces, specifically Soviet Navy SSN and SSGN assets. This resulted in the development and deployment of light aircraft carriers with major anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities by European NATO navies. One of the most effective weapons against submarines is the ASW helicopter, several of which could be based on these light ships. These carriers are typically around 20,000 tons displacement and carry a mix of ASW helicopters and fixed wing aircraft. Land-based maritime patrol aircraft are also useful in this role, since they can operate independently of aircraft carriers. === Disaster relief === Naval aircraft are used to airlift supplies, insert specialized personnel (e.g. medical staff, relief workers), and evacuate persons in distress in the aftermath of natural disasters. Naval aircraft are vital in cases where traditional infrastructure to provide relief are destroyed or overtaxed in the wake of a disaster, such as when a region's airport is destroyed or overcrowded and the region cannot be effectively accessed by road or helicopter. The capability of ships to provide clean, fresh water which can be transported by helicopter to affected areas is also valuable. Naval aircraft played an important part in providing relief in the wake of the 2010 Haiti earthquake and Typhoon Haiyan. == List of naval aviation units == === Current === Argentine Naval Aviation (Argentine Navy) Fleet Air Arm (RAN) (Royal Australian Navy) Bangladesh Naval Aviation (Bangladesh Navy) Brazilian Naval Aviation (Brazilian Navy) People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force (Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy) Republic of China Naval Aviation Command (Republic of China Navy) Chilean Navy Aviation (Chilean Navy) Colombian Naval Aviation (Colombian Navy) Department of Aviation (United States Marine Corps) Flotilla de Aeronaves (FLOAN) (Spanish Navy) French Naval Aviation (French Navy) Marineflieger (German Navy) Navy Aviation Command (Hellenic Navy) Indian Naval Air Arm (Indian Navy) Indonesian Naval Aviation Center (Indonesian Navy) Islamic Republic of Iran Navy Aviation (Islamic Republic of Iran Navy) Italian Naval Aviation (Italian Navy) Fleet Air Force (Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force) Air Wing Six (Republic of Korea Navy) Royal Malaysian Navy Aviation (Royal Malaysian Navy) Mexican Naval Aviation (Mexican Navy) * Aviacion Naval Espanola (Spanish Navy) Pakistan Naval Air Arm (Pakistan Navy) Peruvian Naval Aviation (Peruvian Navy) Polish Naval Aviation (Polish Navy) Portuguese Naval Aviation (Portuguese Navy) Russian Naval Aviation (Russian Navy) Royal Thai Naval Air Division (Royal Thai Navy) Turkish Naval Aviation (Turkish Navy) Ukrainian Naval Aviation (Ukrainian Navy) Fleet Air Arm (United Kingdom Royal Navy) United States Naval Air Forces (United States Navy) Naval Air Force, Vietnam People's Navy (Vietnam People's Navy) === Former === K.u.K. Seefliegerkorps (Austro-Hungarian Navy) Naval Air Service (Greece) (Greece Navy) Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (Imperial Japanese Navy) Netherlands Naval Aviation Service (Royal Netherlands Navy) Royal Naval Air Service (UK Royal Navy) Soviet Naval Aviation (Soviet Navy) == See also == Aerial warfare Army aviation List of naval air forces Military aviation Modern United States Navy carrier air operations Naval air squadron == References == == Further reading == Grosnick, Roy A. United States Naval Aviation 1910 - 1995 (4th ed. 1997) partly online. Full text (775 pages) public domain edition is also available online Archived 2014-12-16 at the Wayback Machine. Ireland, Bernard. The History of Aircraft Carriers: An authoritative guide to 100 years of aircraft carrier development (2008) Polmar, Norman. Aircraft carriers;: A graphic history of carrier aviation and its influence on world events (1969) Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events (2nd ed. 2 vol 2006) Polmar, Norman, ed. Historic Naval Aircraft: The Best of "Naval History" Magazine (2004) Smith, Douglas, V. One Hundred Years of U.S. Navy Air Power (2010) Trimble, William F. Hero of the Air: Glenn Curtiss and the Birth of Naval Aviation (2010) === World War II === King, Dan, ed. The Last Zero Fighter: Firsthand Accounts from WWII Japanese Naval Pilots (2012) excerpt and text search Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway (2005) excerpt and text search Reynolds, Clark G., The fast carriers: the forging of an air navy (3rd ed. 1992) Reynolds, Clark G. On the Warpath in the Pacific: Admiral Jocko Clark and the Fast Carriers (2005) excerpt and text search Symonds, Craig L. The Battle of Midway (2011) excerpt and text search Tillman, Barrett. Enterprise: America's Fightingest Ship and the Men Who Helped Win World War II (2012) excerpt and text search == External links == Media related to Naval aviation at Wikimedia Commons United States Naval Aviation 1910-1995 Archived 2014-12-16 at the Wayback Machine - A comprehensive history from the U.S. Naval Historical Center
Federal Aviation Administration	The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is a U.S. federal government agency within the U.S. Department of Transportation that regulates civil aviation in the United States and surrounding international waters.: 12, 16 Its powers include air traffic control, certification of personnel and aircraft, setting standards for airports, and protection of U.S. assets during the launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles. Powers over neighboring international waters were delegated to the FAA by authority of the International Civil Aviation Organization. The FAA was created in August 1958 (1958-08) as the Federal Aviation Agency, replacing the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA). In 1967, the FAA became part of the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation and was renamed the Federal Aviation Administration. == Major functions == The FAA's roles include: Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation Regulating air navigation facilities' geometric and flight inspection standards Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates Regulating civil aviation to promote transportation safety in the United States, especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil and military aircraft Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other environmental effects of civil aviation == Organizations == The FAA operates five "lines of business". Their functions are: Air Traffic Organization (ATO): provides air navigation service within the National Airspace System. In ATO, employees operate air traffic control facilities comprising Airport Traffic Control Towers (ATCT), Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities (TRACONs), and Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC). Aviation Safety (AVS): responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Airports (ARP): plans and develops the national airport system; oversees standards for airport safety, inspection, design, construction, and operation. The office awards $3.5 billion annually in grants for airport planning and development. Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST): ensures protection of U.S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles. Security and Hazardous Materials Safety (ASH): responsible for risk reduction of terrorism and other crimes and for investigations, materials safety, infrastructure protection, and personnel security. == Regions and Aeronautical Center operations == The FAA is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and also operates the William J. Hughes Technical Center near Atlantic City, New Jersey, for support and research, and the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, for training. The FAA has nine regional administrative offices: Alaskan Region – Anchorage, Alaska Northwest Mountain – Seattle, Washington Western Pacific – Los Angeles, California Southwest – Fort Worth, Texas Central – Kansas City, Missouri Great Lakes – Chicago, Illinois Southern – Atlanta, Georgia Eastern – New York, New York New England – Boston, Massachusetts == History == === Background === The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the U.S. federal government's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight. In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the U.S. Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways, a task initiated by the Post Office Department. The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications—before the founding of the Federal Communications Commission in 1934, which handles most such matters today—and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving the CAA the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940: the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. The CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency. On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at development of the nation's civil airports. === Formation === The approaching era of jet travel (and a series of midair collisions—most notably the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision) prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. This legislation passed the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act also transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the FAA, and gave it sole responsibility for a joint civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower. The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which was created in response to the Soviet Union (USSR) launch of the first manmade satellite. NASA assumed NACA's aeronautical research role. === 1960s reorganization === In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. The Federal Aviation Agency's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies (e.g., Federal Highway Administration, Federal Railroad Administration, the Coast Guard, and the Saint Lawrence Seaway Commission) within DOT. The FAA administrator no longer reported directly to the president, but instead to the Secretary of Transportation. New programs and budget requests would have to be approved by DOT, which would then include these requests in the overall budget and submit it to the president. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the Civil Aeronautics Board's (CAB) role of investigating and determining the causes of transportation accidents and making recommendations to the secretary of transportation. CAB was merged into DOT with its responsibilities limited to the regulation of commercial airline routes and fares. The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying. === 1970s and deregulation === By the mid-1970s, the agency had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment. In 1979, Congress authorized the FAA to work with major commercial airports to define noise pollution contours and investigate the feasibility of noise mitigation by residential retrofit programs. Throughout the 1980s, these charters were implemented. In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters. The agency was responsible for the decision to ground flights after the September 11 attacks. === 21st century === In December 2000, an organization within the FAA called the Air Traffic Organization, (ATO) was set up by presidential executive order. This became the air navigation service provider for the airspace of the United States and for the New York (Atlantic) and Oakland (Pacific) oceanic areas. It is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation. The FAA issues a number of awards to holders of its certificates. Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as an aviation mechanic (the AMT Awards), a flight instructor (Gold Seal certification), a 50-year aviator (Wright Brothers Master Pilot Award), a 50-year mechanic (Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Award) or as a proficient pilot. The latter, the FAA "WINGS Program", provides a lifetime series of grouped proficiency activities at three levels (Basic, Advanced, and Master) for pilots who have undergone several hours of ground and flight training since their last WINGS award, or "Phase". The FAA encourages volunteerism in the promotion of aviation safety. The FAA Safety Team, or FAASTeam, works with Volunteers at several levels and promotes safety education and outreach nationwide. On March 18, 2008, the FAA ordered its inspectors to reconfirm that airlines are complying with federal rules after revelations that Southwest Airlines flew dozens of aircraft without certain mandatory inspections. The FAA exercises surprise Red Team drills on national airports annually. On October 31, 2013, after outcry from media outlets, including heavy criticism from Nick Bilton of The New York Times, the FAA announced it will allow airlines to expand the passengers use of portable electronic devices during all phases of flight, but mobile phone calls would still be prohibited (and use of cellular networks during any point when aircraft doors are closed remains prohibited to-date). Implementation initially varied among airlines. The FAA expected many carriers to show that their planes allow passengers to safely use their devices in airplane mode, gate-to-gate, by the end of 2013. Devices must be held or put in the seat-back pocket during the actual takeoff and landing. Mobile phones must be in airplane mode or with mobile service disabled, with no signal bars displayed, and cannot be used for voice communications due to Federal Communications Commission regulations that prohibit any airborne calls using mobile phones. From a technological standpoint, cellular service would not work in-flight because of the rapid speed of the airborne aircraft: mobile phones cannot switch fast enough between cellular towers at an aircraft's high speed. However, the ban is due to potential radio interference with aircraft avionics. If an air carrier provides Wi-Fi service during flight, passengers may use it. Short-range Bluetooth accessories, like wireless keyboards, can also be used. In July 2014, in the wake of the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, the FAA suspended flights by U.S. airlines to Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict for 24 hours. The ban was extended for a further 24 hours but was lifted about six hours later. The FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 gives the FAA one year to establish minimum pitch, width and length for airplane seats, to ensure they are safe for passengers. As of 2018, the FAA plans to replace the "FAA Telecommunications Infrastructure" (FTI) program with the "FAA Enterprise Network Services" (FENS) program. The first FAA licensed orbital human space flight took place on November 15, 2020, carried out by SpaceX on behalf of NASA. === History of FAA Administrators === The administrator is appointed for a five-year term. On March 19, 2019, President Donald Trump announced he would nominate Stephen Dickson, a former executive and pilot at Delta Air Lines, to be the next FAA Administrator. On July 24, 2019, the Senate confirmed Dickson by a vote of 52–40. He was sworn in as Administrator by Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao on August 12, 2019. On February 16, 2022, Dickson announced his resignation as FAA Administrator, effective March 31, 2022. In September 2023, President Joe Biden announced that he would be nominating Mike Whitaker to lead the FAA. Whitaker previously served as deputy administrator of the FAA under President Barack Obama. == Criticism == === Conflicting roles === The FAA has been cited as an example of regulatory capture, "in which the airline industry openly dictates to its regulators its governing rules, arranging for not only beneficial regulation, but placing key people to head these regulators." Retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Gutheinz, who used to be a Special Agent with the Office of Inspector General for the Department of Transportation and with FAA Security, is one of the most outspoken critics of FAA. Rather than commend the agency for proposing a $10.2 million fine against Southwest Airlines for its failure to conduct mandatory inspections in 2008, he was quoted as saying the following in an Associated Press story: "Penalties against airlines that violate FAA directives should be stiffer. At $25,000 per violation, Gutheinz said, airlines can justify rolling the dice and taking the chance on getting caught. He also said the FAA is often too quick to bend to pressure from airlines and pilots." Other experts have been critical of the constraints and expectations under which the FAA is expected to operate. The dual role of encouraging aerospace travel and regulating aerospace travel are contradictory. For example, to levy a heavy penalty upon an airline for violating an FAA regulation which would impact their ability to continue operating would not be considered encouraging aerospace travel. On July 22, 2008, in the aftermath of the Southwest Airlines inspection scandal, a bill was unanimously approved in the House to tighten regulations concerning airplane maintenance procedures, including the establishment of a whistleblower office and a two-year "cooling off" period that FAA inspectors or supervisors of inspectors must wait before they can work for those they regulated. The bill also required rotation of principal maintenance inspectors and stipulated that the word "customer" properly applies to the flying public, not those entities regulated by the FAA. The bill died in a Senate committee that year. In September 2009, the FAA administrator issued a directive mandating that the agency use the term "customers" to refer to only the flying public. === Lax regulatory oversight === In 2007, two FAA whistleblowers, inspectors Charalambe "Bobby" Boutris and Douglas E. Peters, alleged that Boutris said he attempted to ground Southwest after finding cracks in the fuselage of an aircraft, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008. Jim Oberstar, former chairman of the committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing 117 aircraft to be operated commercially although not in compliance with FAA safety rules. Oberstar said there was a "culture of coziness" between senior FAA officials and the airlines and "a systematic breakdown" in the FAA's culture that resulted in "malfeasance, bordering on corruption". In 2008 the FAA proposed to fine Southwest $10.2 million for failing to inspect older planes for cracks, and in 2009 Southwest and the FAA agreed that Southwest would pay a $7.5 million penalty and would adopt new safety procedures, with the fine doubling if Southwest failed to follow through. === Changes to air traffic controller application process === In 2014, the FAA modified its approach to air traffic control hiring. It launched more "off the street bids", allowing anyone with either a four-year degree or five years of full-time work experience to apply, rather than the closed college program or Veterans Recruitment Appointment bids, something that had last been done in 2008. Thousands were hired, including veterans, Collegiate Training Initiative graduates, and people who are true "off the street" hires. The move was made to open the job up to more people who might make good controllers but did not go to a college that offered a CTI program. Before the change, candidates who had completed coursework at participating colleges and universities could be "fast-tracked" for consideration. However, the CTI program had no guarantee of a job offer, nor was the goal of the program to teach people to work actual traffic. The goal of the program was to prepare people for the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, OK. Having a CTI certificate allowed a prospective controller to skip the Air Traffic Basics part of the academy, about a 30- to 45-day course, and go right into Initial Qualification Training (IQT). All prospective controllers, CTI or not, have had to pass the FAA Academy in order to be hired as a controller. Failure at the academy means FAA employment is terminated. In January 2015 they launched another pipeline, a "prior experience" bid, where anyone with an FAA Control Tower Operator certificate (CTO) and 52 weeks of experience could apply. This was a revolving bid, every month the applicants on this bid were sorted out, and eligible applicants were hired and sent directly to facilities, bypassing the FAA academy entirely. In the process of promoting diversity, the FAA revised its hiring process. The FAA later issued a report that the "bio-data" was not a reliable test for future performance. However, the "Bio-Q" was not the determining factor for hiring, it was merely a screening tool to determine who would take a revised Air Traffic Standardized Aptitude Test (ATSAT). Due to cost and time, it was not practical to give all 30,000 some applicants the revised ATSAT, which has since been validated. In 2015 Fox News levied criticism that the FAA discriminated against qualified candidates. In December 2015, a reverse discrimination lawsuit was filed against the FAA seeking class-action status for the thousands of men and women who spent up to $40,000 getting trained under FAA rules before they were abruptly changed. The prospects of the lawsuit are unknown, as the FAA is a self-governing entity and therefore can alter and experiment with its hiring practices, and there was never any guarantee of a job in the CTI program. === Close Calls === In August 2023 The New York Times published an investigative report that showed overworked air traffic controllers at understaffed facilities making errors that resulted in 46 near collisions in the air and on the ground in the month of July alone. === Next Generation Air Transportation System === A May 2017 letter from staff of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure to members of the same committee sent before a meeting to discuss air traffic control privatization noted a 35-year legacy of failed air traffic control modernization management, including NextGen. The letter said the FAA initially described NextGen as fundamentally transforming how air traffic would be managed. In 2015, however, the National Research Council noted that NextGen, as currently executed, was not broadly transformational and that it is a set of programs to implement a suite of incremental changes to the National Airspace System (NAS). More precise Performance Based Navigation can reduce fuel burn, emissions, and noise exposure for a majority of communities, but the concentration of flight tracks also can increase noise exposure for people who live directly under those flight paths. A feature of the NextGen program is GPS-based waypoints, which result in consolidated flight paths for planes. The result of this change is that many localities experience huge increases in air traffic over previously quiet areas. Complaints have risen with the added traffic and multiple municipalities have filed suit. === Staffing cuts === In 2025, despite the ongoing overhaul of the U.S. ATC system—spanning past administrations and on into the Trump presidency—DOGE elimination of numerous FAA management positions has not only demoralized staff, but by eliminating deep expertise at a very critical juncture also threatens to degrade the ability of the agency to expedite modernization efforts. In the resulting leadership vacuum, “ …the FAA is losing not only its chief air traffic official, Tim Arel, but also its associate administrator for commercial space, his deputy, the director of the audit and evaluation office, the assistant administrator for civil rights and the assistant administrator for finance and management …” in addition to: multiple leadership positions in programs within the Air Traffic Organization, including mission support and safety, technical operations, and technical training. === Boeing 737 MAX controversy === As a result of the March 10, 2019 Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crash and the Lion Air Flight 610 crash five months earlier, most airlines and countries began grounding the Boeing 737 MAX 8 (and in many cases all MAX variants) due to safety concerns, but the FAA declined to ground MAX 8 aircraft operating in the U.S. On March 12, the FAA said that its ongoing review showed "no systemic performance issues and provides no basis to order grounding the aircraft." Some U.S. Senators called for the FAA to ground the aircraft until an investigation into the cause of the Ethiopian Airlines crash was complete. U.S. Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao said that "If the FAA identifies an issue that affects safety, the department will take immediate and appropriate action." The FAA resisted grounding the aircraft until March 13, 2019, when it received evidence of similarities in the two accidents. By then, 51 other regulators had already grounded the plane, and by March 18, 2019, all 387 aircraft in service were grounded. Three major U.S. airlines--Southwest, United, and American Airlines—were affected by this decision. Further investigations also revealed that the FAA and Boeing had colluded on recertification test flights, attempted to cover up important information and that the FAA had retaliated against whistleblowers. == Regulatory process == === Designated Engineering Representative === A Designated Engineering Representative (DER) is an engineer who is appointed under 14 CFR section 183.29 to act on behalf of a company or as an independent consultant (IC). The DER system enables the FAA to delegate certain involvement in airworthiness exams, tests, and inspections to qualified technical people outside of the FAA. Qualifications and policies for appointment of Designated Airworthiness Representatives are established in FAA Order 8100.8, Designee Management Handbook. Working procedures for DERs are prescribed in FAA Order 8110.37, Designated Engineering Representative (DER) Handbook. Company DERs act on behalf of their employer and may only approve, or recommend that the FAA approves, technical data produced by their employer. Consultant DERs are appointed to act as independent DERs and may approve, or recommend that the FAA approves, technical data produced by any person or organization. Neither type of DER is an employee of either the FAA or the United States government. While a DER represents the FAA when acting under the authority of a DER appointment; a DER has no federal protection for work done or the decisions made as a DER. Neither does the FAA provide any indemnification for a DER from general tort law. "The FAA cannot shelter or protect DERs from the consequences of their findings." === Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR) === A DAR is an individual appointed in accordance with 14 CFR 183.33 who may perform examination, inspection, and testing services necessary to the issuance of certificates. There are two types of DARs: manufacturing, and maintenance. Manufacturing DARs must possess aeronautical knowledge, experience, and meet the qualification requirements of FAA Order 8100.8. Maintenance DARs must hold: a mechanic's certificate with an airframe and powerplant rating, under 14 CFR part 65 Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crewmembers, or a repairman certificate and be employed at a repair station certificated under 14 CFR part 145, or an air carrier operating certificate holder with an FAA-approved continuous airworthiness program, and must meet the qualification requirements of Order 8100.8, Chapter 14. Specialized Experience – Amateur-Built and Light-Sport Aircraft DARs Both Manufacturing DARs and Maintenance DARs may be authorized to perform airworthiness certification of light-sport aircraft. DAR qualification criteria and selection procedures for amateur-built and light-sport aircraft airworthiness functions are provided in Order 8100.8. === Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (CANIC) === A Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (commonly abbreviated as CANIC) is a notification from the FAA to civil airworthiness authorities of foreign countries of pending significant safety actions. The FAA Airworthiness Directives Manual, states the following: 8. Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (CANIC). a. A CANIC is used to notify civil airworthiness authorities of other countries of pending significant safety actions. A significant safety action can be defined as, but not limited to, the following: (1) Urgent safety situations; (2) The pending issuance of an Emergency AD; (3) A safety action that affects many people, operators; (4) A Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR); (5) Other high interest event (e.g., a special certification review). ==== Notable CANICs ==== The FAA issued a CANIC to state the continued airworthiness of the Boeing 737 MAX, following the crash of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302. Another CANIC notified the ungrounding of the MAX, ending a 20-month grounding. === Proposed regulatory reforms === ==== FAA reauthorization and air traffic control reform ==== U.S. law requires that the FAA's budget and mandate be reauthorized on a regular basis. On July 18, 2016, President Obama signed a second short-term extension of the FAA authorization, replacing a previous extension that was due to expire that day. The 2016 extension (set to expire itself in September 2017) left out a provision pushed by Republican House leadership, including House Transportation and Infrastructure (T&I) Committee Chairman Bill Shuster (R-PA). The provision would have moved authority over air traffic control from the FAA to a non-profit corporation, as many other nations, such as Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom, have done. Shuster's bill, the Aviation Innovation, Reform, and Reauthorization (AIRR) Act, expired in the House at the end of the 114th Congress. The House T&I Committee began the new reauthorization process for the FAA in February 2017. It is expected that the committee will again urge Congress to consider and adopt air traffic control reform as part of the reauthorization package. Shuster has additional support from President Trump, who, in a meeting with aviation industry executives in early 2017 said the U.S. air control system is "....totally out of whack." == See also == Acquisition Management System Airport Improvement Program Aviation Safety Knowledge Management Environment Federal Aviation Regulations Civil aviation authority (generic term) Office of Dispute Resolution for Acquisition SAFO, Safety Alert for Operators United States government role in civil aviation Weather Information Exchange Model == References == == External links == Official website Records of the Federal Aviation Administration in the National Archives (Record Group 237) Archived January 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Federal Aviation Administration in the Federal Register Works by or about Federal Aviation Administration at the Internet Archive Works by Federal Aviation Administration at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) FAA HIMS Program Overview – An independent educational resource explaining the FAA’s Human Intervention Motivation Study (HIMS) Program structure and certification process.
Archer Aviation	Archer Aviation Inc. is a publicly traded company headquartered in San Jose, California, which is developing eVTOL aircraft. Its eVTOL aircraft is designed to allow airline operators to transport people in and around cities in an air taxi service and are claimed to have a range of up to 100 miles (160 km) at speeds of up to 150 miles per hour (240 km/h). United Airlines is its first major corporate partner, having ordered two hundred Archer electric aircraft. == Aircraft and air taxi service == Maker, Archer's full size demonstrator aircraft, was unveiled on June 10, 2021, at an event in Los Angeles, California. Maker was a fully electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft with 12 electric propellers: six tilt-props (each with five blades) for forward and VTOL flight and six aft propellers that are stationary (each propeller with two blades) for VTOL-only flight. The aircraft is powered by six independent battery packs. In November 2021, Archer moved Maker from its headquarters to its flight test facility to start initial test flights. Maker also received its airworthiness certificate to start flight test operations from the FAA in December 2021. Archer completed its first flight in December 2021. Archer's aerial ridesharing service, also referred to as Urban Air Mobility (UAM), has been pushed back one year to 2025 and is planned to begin operations in Miami, Florida and Los Angeles, California. Archer is working with Urban Movement Labs and the Los Angeles Department of Transportation to help build the necessary infrastructure and service routes. It is also working with the City of Miami on similar plans. === Midnight === Midnight is Archer’s planned production aircraft. The aircraft was unveiled on November 17, 2022 at an event in Palo Alto, California. Archer’s Midnight is a piloted, four-passenger aircraft designed to perform rapid back-to-back flights with minimal charge time between flights. Midnight has 12 propellers: six tilt props in the front of the wing for forward and VTOL flight and six aft propellers that are stationary for VTOL flight only. Midnight is designed to travel at up to 150 mph (240 km/h) with a maximum range of 100 miles (161 km). The aircraft is powered by six independent battery packs. On June 12, 2024, Midnight completed its first transition flight. Archer flew over 400 test flights in 2024. == History == Archer was founded on October 16, 2018, by Adam Goldstein and Brett Adcock to develop electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft. The company was originally started by Goldstein and Adcock and privately funded. Later, Marc Lore, a Walmart executive, also supported its launch. In 2022, Adcock departed from both the leadership team and the board. Goldstein is currently the sole CEO and Chairman of the Board of Directors of the company. Initially, Archer worked on developing aircraft with the Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering at the University of Florida; Goldstein and Adcock are both alumni. Archer now operates a research lab on the University of Florida's campus in Gainesville, Florida, which was funded by Goldstein and Adcock . In August 2022, United Airlines paid Archer a $10 million deposit for 100 electric flying taxis. On November 10, 2022, Archer and United Airlines announced plans for the first electric air taxi route in the US, with an initial route between Newark Liberty International Airport and the Downtown Manhattan Heliport. Archer became an IPO (ACHR)on September 20, 2021. On November 17, 2022, Archer unveiled details of its production vehicle dubbed "Midnight". The aircraft is a piloted, four-passenger air taxi the company said will enter flight testing by the second quarter of 2023 and service by 2025. It is designed to carry passengers on short trips of around 20 miles (32 km) between airports and downtown city centers. In November 2022, Archer unveiled its Midnight production aircraft, an electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft that can carry four passengers and a pilot. It is designed to be optimized for back-to-back 20-mile trips, with a payload of over 1,000 pounds. Midnight is the evolution of Archer's previous aircraft, Maker, and is expected to be certified by the FAA in late 2024. Archer announced its Maker prototype had achieved full transition from vertical to horizontal flight on November 29, 2022. This milestone was said to be an important validation step for the flight control systems and aircraft architecture that is also applicable to its Midnight production aircraft. In January 2023, Archer announced a partnership in which Stellantis, a multinational automobile manufacturer, would provide up to $150 million in equity capital to support Archer's growth and to collaborate on the development and production of Archer's eVTOL aircraft for urban air mobility. The purpose of the partnership solidifies Stellantis as Archer's exclusive contract manufacturer for mass production of its eVTOL aircraft. In March 2023, Archer and United Airlines announced plans for an electric air taxi route between O'Hare International Airport and Vertiport Chicago on the city's near west side. On June 5, 2024 Archer received its Part 135 Air Carrier and Operator Certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In July 2024, Archer and Southwest Airlines established an agreement to develop operational concepts for air taxi networks. On Feb, 2025 Archer Aviation has received its Part 141 certification from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), enabling the company to establish its pilot training academy. == See also == eVTOL Vertical Aerospace Joby Aviation Lilium Urban Air Mobility Volocopter GmbH == References == == External links == Official website Business data for Archer Aviation:
Astral Aviation	Astral Aviation is a cargo airline based in Nairobi, Kenya. It was established in November 2000 and started operations in January 2001. It operates scheduled and non-scheduled/ad-hoc cargo charters, as well as humanitarian-aid flights, to regional destinations in Africa, Asia and to Liège in Belgium as its only European destination, as of 2023. Its main base is Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Nairobi. It has one subsidiary operating in India since October 2022, Pradhaan Air Express, which leased an Airbus A320P2F cargo aircraft, thus making it the world's first airline to have such an aircraft in its fleet. == History == Founded in November 2000, Astral Aviation acquired its Air Operators Certificate (AoC) and Air Service License (ASL) from the Kenya Civil Aviation Authority in January 2001, thus it started operations in the same year in the same month. It was designated as a cargo airline by the Ministry of Roads, Transport and Public Works in November 2006. == Services == The airline operates through and non-stop to 25 regular destinations and 5 charter destinations used for charter operations like food, electronics and medical transport, etc. as well as humanitarian support. It has one subsidiary operating in India based in New Delhi, Pradhaan Air Express, since October 2022. Two more subsidiaries are planned to be launched, taking the number to three subsidiaries by 2025. Its second subsidiary will be Suid Cargo Airlines based in Johannesburg, which will operate to more than 20 destinations in Southern and Eastern Africa, is expected to be launched by September 2023. Its third subsidiary will be an airline to be launched in 2025, based in Europe. == Destinations == Astral shows the following scheduled and charter destinations in their 2023 online timetable. == Fleet == === Current fleet === As of April 2024, the Astral Aviation fleet consists of the following aircraft: === Former fleet === The airline previously operated the following aircraft (as of July 2023): 1 Boeing 727-200F 2 Boeing 737-400F 2 Boeing 747-400F, leased from Atlas Air 1 Fokker 27-500F, leased from AeroSpace Consortium 1 Fokker 27F 1 McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30CF == Awards == The airline has won the "Africa All-Cargo Carrier of the Year" six consecutive times in 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019 and 2023, and the "Best All-Cargo Airline in Africa" in February 2023, by STAT Times International Award for Excellence in Air Cargo during Air Cargo Africa 2023 event held at Johannesburg, South Africa, from 21 to 23 February 2023. == See also == List of airlines of Kenya 2023 Sudan conflict List of conflicts in Somalia Yemeni Civil War (2014–present) COVID-19 vaccine United Nations Humanitarian Air Service == References == == External links == Media related to Astral Aviation at Wikimedia Commons Official website
General aviation	General aviation (GA) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations except for commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services for other purposes. However, for statistical purposes, ICAO uses a definition of general aviation which includes aerial work. General aviation thus represents the "private transport" and recreational components of aviation, most of which is accomplished with light aircraft. == Definition == The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines civil aviation aircraft operations in three categories: General Aviation (GA), Aerial Work (AW) and Commercial Air Transport (CAT). Aerial work operations are separated from general aviation by ICAO by this definition. Aerial work is when an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, and aerial advertisement. However, for statistical purposes ICAO includes aerial work within general aviation, and has proposed officially extending the definition of general aviation to include aerial work, to reflect common usage. The proposed ICAO classification includes instructional flying as part of general aviation (non-aerial-work). The International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations (IAOPA) refers to the category as general aviation/aerial work (GA/AW) to avoid ambiguity. Their definition of general aviation includes: Corporate aviation: company own-use flight operations Fractional ownership operations: aircraft operated by a specialized company on behalf of two or more co-owners Business aviation (or travel): self-flown for business purposes Personal/private travel: travel for personal reasons/personal transport Air tourism: self-flown incoming/outgoing tourism Recreational flying: powered/powerless leisure flying activities Air sports: aerobatics, air races, competitions, rallies, etc. General aviation thus includes both commercial and non-commercial activities. IAOPA's definition of aerial work includes, but is not limited to: Agricultural flights, including crop dusting Banner towing Aerial firefighting Medical evacuation Pilot training Search and rescue Sight seeing flights Skydiving flights Organ transplant transport flights Commercial air transport includes: Scheduled air services Non-scheduled air transport Air cargo services Air taxi operations However, in some countries, air taxi is regarded as being part of GA/AW. Private flights are made in a wide variety of aircraft: light and ultra-light aircraft, sport aircraft, homebuilt aircraft, business aircraft (like private jets), gliders and helicopters. Flights can be carried out under both visual flight and instrument flight rules, and can use controlled airspace with permission. The majority of the world's air traffic falls into the category of general aviation, and most of the world's airports serve GA exclusively. Flying clubs are considered a part of general aviation. == Geography == === Europe === In 2003, the European Aviation Safety Agency was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities. ==== United Kingdom ==== Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the United Kingdom, 96 percent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown. There are 28,000 private pilot licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities. GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety. === North America === General aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports in the U.S. and over 1,000 in Canada). In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U.S. According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States' GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing. == Regulation == Most countries have a civil aviation authority that oversees all civil aviation, including general aviation, adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). == Safety == Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. According to the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, general aviation in the United States (excluding charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in 2005, compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours. More experienced GA pilots appear generally safer, although the relationship between flight hours, accident frequency, and accident rates are complex and often difficult to assess. A small number of commercial aviation accidents in the United States have involved collisions with general aviation flights, notably TWA Flight 553, Piedmont Airlines Flight 22, Allegheny Airlines Flight 853, PSA Flight 182 and Aeroméxico Flight 498. == See also == Commercial aviation Environmental impact of aviation General Aviation Revitalization Act of 1994 List of current production certified light aircraft List of very light jets OpenAirplane (defunct web-based service) One Six Right (2005 documentary) Private aviation Small Airplane Revitalization Act of 2013 Associations Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association Canadian Owners and Pilots Association Experimental Aircraft Association General Aviation Manufacturers Association National Business Aviation Association == References == == External links == International Aircraft Owners and Pilots Associations European General Aviation Safety Team (EGAST)
Flight	Flight or flying is the motion of an object through an atmosphere, or through the vacuum of space, without contacting any planetary surface. This can be achieved by generating aerodynamic lift associated with gliding or propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy, or by ballistic movement. Many things can fly, from animal aviators such as birds, bats and insects, to natural gliders/parachuters such as patagial animals, anemochorous seeds and ballistospores, to human inventions like aircraft (airplanes, helicopters, airships, balloons, etc.) and rockets which may propel spacecraft and spaceplanes. The engineering aspects of flight are the purview of aerospace engineering which is subdivided into aeronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through the atmosphere, and astronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through space, and ballistics, the study of the flight of projectiles. == Types of flight == === Buoyant flight === Humans have managed to construct lighter-than-air vehicles that raise off the ground and fly, due to their buoyancy in the air. An aerostat is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyancy to give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons, airships, and moored balloons. An aerostat's main structural component is its envelope, a lightweight skin that encloses a volume of lifting gas to provide buoyancy, to which other components are attached. Aerostats are so named because they use "aerostatic" lift, a buoyant force that does not require lateral movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a lifting force. By contrast, aerodynes primarily use aerodynamic lift, which requires the lateral movement of at least some part of the aircraft through the surrounding air mass. === Aerodynamic flight === ==== Unpowered flight versus powered flight ==== Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for example, the flying squirrel. This is termed gliding. Some other things can exploit rising air to climb such as raptors (when gliding) and man-made sailplane gliders. This is termed soaring. However most other birds and all powered aircraft need a source of propulsion to climb. This is termed powered flight. ==== Animal flight ==== The only groups of living things that use powered flight are birds, insects, and bats, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct pterosaurs, an order of reptiles contemporaneous with the dinosaurs, were also very successful flying animals, and there were apparently some flying dinosaurs. Each of these groups' wings evolved independently, with insects the first animal group to evolve flight. The wings of the flying vertebrate groups are all based on the forelimbs, but differ significantly in structure; insect wings are hypothesized to be highly modified versions of structures that form gills in most other groups of arthropods. Bats are the only mammals capable of sustaining level flight (see bat flight). However, there are several gliding mammals which are able to glide from tree to tree using fleshy membranes between their limbs; some can travel hundreds of meters in this way with very little loss in height. Flying frogs use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, and there are flying lizards which fold out their mobile ribs into a pair of flat gliding surfaces. "Flying" snakes also use mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground. Flying fish can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters. It is thought that this ability was chosen by natural selection because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. The longest recorded flight of a flying fish was 45 seconds. Most birds can fly, with some exceptions. The largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound flightless birds, as were the now-extinct dodos and the Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight. Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage. Among living animals that fly, the wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 meters (11 feet); the great bustard has the greatest weight, topping at 21 kilograms (46 pounds). Most species of insects can fly as adults. Insect flight makes use of either of two basic aerodynamic models: creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects, and using clap and fling, found in very small insects such as thrips. Many species of spiders, spider mites and lepidoptera use a technique called ballooning to ride air currents such as thermals, by exposing their gossamer threads which gets lifted by wind and atmospheric electric fields. ==== Mechanical ==== Mechanical flight is the use of a machine to fly. These machines include aircraft such as airplanes, gliders, helicopters, autogyros, airships, balloons, ornithopters as well as spacecraft. Gliders are capable of unpowered flight. Another form of mechanical flight is para-sailing, where a parachute-like object is pulled by a boat. In an airplane, lift is created by the wings; the shape of the wings of the airplane are designed specially for the type of flight desired. There are different types of wings: tempered, semi-tempered, sweptback, rectangular and elliptical. An aircraft wing is sometimes called an airfoil, which is a device that creates lift when air flows across it. ===== Supersonic ===== Supersonic flight is flight faster than the speed of sound. Supersonic flight is associated with the formation of shock waves that form a sonic boom that can be heard from the ground, and is frequently startling. The creation of this shockwave requires a significant amount of energy; because of this, supersonic flight is generally less efficient than subsonic flight at about 85% of the speed of sound. ===== Hypersonic ===== Hypersonic flight is very high speed flight where the heat generated by the compression of the air due to the motion through the air causes chemical changes to the air. Hypersonic flight is achieved primarily by reentering spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle and Soyuz. === Ballistic === ==== Atmospheric ==== Some things generate little or no lift and move only or mostly under the action of momentum, gravity, air drag and in some cases thrust. This is termed ballistic flight. Examples include balls, arrows, bullets, fireworks etc. ==== Spaceflight ==== Essentially an extreme form of ballistic flight, spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space. Examples include ballistic missiles, orbital spaceflight, etc. Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites. A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. ==== Solid-state propulsion ==== In 2018, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) managed to fly an aeroplane with no moving parts, powered by an "ionic wind" also known as electroaerodynamic thrust. == History == Many human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears, the boomerang in Australia, the hot air Kongming lantern, and kites. === Aviation === George Cayley studied flight scientifically in the first half of the 19th century, and in the second half of the 19th century Otto Lilienthal made over 200 gliding flights and was also one of the first to understand flight scientifically. His work was replicated and extended by the Wright brothers who made gliding flights and finally the first controlled and extended, manned powered flights. === Spaceflight === Spaceflight, particularly human spaceflight became a reality in the 20th century following theoretical and practical breakthroughs by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Robert H. Goddard. The first orbital spaceflight was in 1957, and Yuri Gagarin was carried aboard the first crewed orbital spaceflight in 1961. == Physics == There are different approaches to flight. If an object has a lower density than air, then it is buoyant and is able to float in the air without expending energy. A heavier than air craft, known as an aerodyne, includes flighted animals and insects, fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft. Because the craft is heavier than air, it must generate lift to overcome its weight. The wind resistance caused by the craft moving through the air is called drag and is overcome by propulsive thrust except in the case of gliding. Some vehicles also use thrust in the place of lift; for example rockets and Harrier jump jets. === Forces === Forces relevant to flight are Propulsive thrust (except in gliders) Lift, created by the reaction to an airflow Drag, created by aerodynamic friction Weight, created by gravity Buoyancy, for lighter than air flight These forces must be balanced for stable flight to occur. ==== Thrust ==== A fixed-wing aircraft generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the spinning blades of a propeller, or a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet engine, or by ejecting hot gases from a rocket engine. The forward thrust is proportional to the mass of the airstream multiplied by the difference in velocity of the airstream. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, and vector sum of this thrust fore and aft to control forward speed. ==== Lift ==== In the context of an air flow relative to a flying body, the lift force is the component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the flow direction. Aerodynamic lift results when the wing causes the surrounding air to be deflected - the air then causes a force on the wing in the opposite direction, in accordance with Newton's third law of motion. Lift is commonly associated with the wing of an aircraft, although lift is also generated by rotors on rotorcraft (which are effectively rotating wings, performing the same function without requiring that the aircraft move forward through the air). While common meanings of the word "lift" suggest that lift opposes gravity, aerodynamic lift can be in any direction. When an aircraft is cruising for example, lift does oppose gravity, but lift occurs at an angle when climbing, descending or banking. On high-speed cars, the lift force is directed downwards (called "down-force") to keep the car stable on the road. ==== Drag ==== For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement. Therefore, drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it must be overcome by thrust. The process which creates lift also causes some drag. ==== Lift-to-drag ratio ==== Aerodynamic lift is created by the motion of an aerodynamic object (wing) through the air, which due to its shape and angle deflects the air. For sustained straight and level flight, lift must be equal and opposite to weight. In general, long narrow wings are able deflect a large amount of air at a slow speed, whereas smaller wings need a higher forward speed to deflect an equivalent amount of air and thus generate an equivalent amount of lift. Large cargo aircraft tend to use longer wings with higher angles of attack, whereas supersonic aircraft tend to have short wings and rely heavily on high forward speed to generate lift. However, this lift (deflection) process inevitably causes a retarding force called drag. Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag is an indication of the aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. The lift to drag ratio is the L/D ratio, pronounced "L over D ratio." An airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small amount of drag. The lift/drag ratio is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient, CL/CD. The lift coefficient Cl is equal to the lift L divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the wing area A). [Cl = L / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] The lift coefficient is also affected by the compressibility of the air, which is much greater at higher speeds, so velocity V is not a linear function. Compressibility is also affected by the shape of the aircraft surfaces. The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the drag D divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the reference area A). [Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] Lift-to-drag ratios for practical aircraft vary from about 4:1 for vehicles and birds with relatively short wings, up to 60:1 or more for vehicles with very long wings, such as gliders. A greater angle of attack relative to the forward movement also increases the extent of deflection, and thus generates extra lift. However a greater angle of attack also generates extra drag. Lift/drag ratio also determines the glide ratio and gliding range. Since the glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the aerodynamics forces acting on the aircraft, aircraft weight will not affect it. The only effect weight has is to vary the time that the aircraft will glide for – a heavier aircraft gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the same touchdown point in a shorter time. ==== Buoyancy ==== Air pressure acting up against an object in air is greater than the pressure above pushing down. The buoyancy, in both cases, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced - Archimedes' principle holds for air just as it does for water. A cubic meter of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and room temperature has a mass of about 1.2 kilograms, so its weight is about 12 newtons. Therefore, any 1-cubic-meter object in air is buoyed up with a force of 12 newtons. If the mass of the 1-cubic-meter object is greater than 1.2 kilograms (so that its weight is greater than 12 newtons), it falls to the ground when released. If an object of this size has a mass less than 1.2 kilograms, it rises in the air. Any object that has a mass that is less than the mass of an equal volume of air will rise in air - in other words, any object less dense than air will rise. ==== Thrust to weight ratio ==== Thrust-to-weight ratio is, as its name suggests, the ratio of instantaneous thrust to weight (where weight means weight at the Earth's standard acceleration g 0 {\displaystyle g_{0}} ). It is a dimensionless parameter characteristic of rockets and other jet engines and of vehicles propelled by such engines (typically space launch vehicles and jet aircraft). If the thrust-to-weight ratio is greater than the local gravity strength (expressed in gs), then flight can occur without any forward motion or any aerodynamic lift being required. If the thrust-to-weight ratio times the lift-to-drag ratio is greater than local gravity then takeoff using aerodynamic lift is possible. === Flight dynamics === Flight dynamics is the science of air and space vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle's center of mass, known as pitch, roll and yaw (See Tait-Bryan rotations for an explanation). The control of these dimensions can involve a horizontal stabilizer (i.e. "a tail"), ailerons and other movable aerodynamic devices which control angular stability i.e. flight attitude (which in turn affects altitude, heading). Wings are often angled slightly upwards- they have "positive dihedral angle" which gives inherent roll stabilization. === Energy efficiency === To create thrust so as to be able to gain height, and to push through the air to overcome the drag associated with lift all takes energy. Different objects and creatures capable of flight vary in the efficiency of their muscles, motors and how well this translates into forward thrust. Propulsive efficiency determines how much energy vehicles generate from a unit of fuel. === Range === The range that powered flight articles can achieve is ultimately limited by their drag, as well as how much energy they can store on board and how efficiently they can turn that energy into propulsion. For powered aircraft the useful energy is determined by their fuel fraction- what percentage of the takeoff weight is fuel, as well as the specific energy of the fuel used. === Power-to-weight ratio === All animals and devices capable of sustained flight need relatively high power-to-weight ratios to be able to generate enough lift and/or thrust to achieve take off. == Takeoff and landing == Vehicles that can fly can have different ways to takeoff and land. Conventional aircraft accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for takeoff, and reverse the process for landing. Some aircraft can take off at low speed; this is called a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and Harrier jump jets can take off and land vertically. Rockets also usually take off and land vertically, but some designs can land horizontally. == Guidance, navigation and control == === Navigation === Navigation is the systems necessary to calculate current position (e.g. compass, GPS, LORAN, star tracker, inertial measurement unit, and altimeter). In aircraft, successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the ground. The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under the visual flight rules (VFR) or the instrument flight rules (IFR). In the latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using dead reckoning combined with visual observations (known as pilotage), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids. === Guidance === A guidance system is a device or group of devices used in the navigation of a ship, aircraft, missile, rocket, satellite, or other moving object. Typically, guidance is responsible for the calculation of the vector (i.e., direction, velocity) toward an objective. === Control === A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. ==== Traffic ==== In the case of aircraft, air traffic is controlled by air traffic control systems. Collision avoidance is the process of controlling spacecraft to try to prevent collisions. == Flight safety == Air safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. == See also == Aerodynamics Levitation Transvection (flying) Backward flying == References == Notes Bibliography == External links == Flight travel guide from Wikivoyage Pettigrew, James Bell (1911). "Flight and Flying" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). pp. 502–519. History and photographs of early aeroplanes etc. 'Birds in Flight and Aeroplanes' by Evolutionary Biologist and trained Engineer John Maynard-Smith Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
Flight International	Flight International, formerly Flight, is a monthly magazine focused on aerospace. Published in the United Kingdom and founded in 1909 as "A Journal devoted to the Interests, Practice, and Progress of Aerial Locomotion and Transport", it is the world's oldest continuously published aviation news magazine. Flight International is published by DVV Media Group. Competitors include Jane's Information Group and Aviation Week. Former editors of, and contributors include H. F. King, Bill Gunston, John W. R. Taylor and David Learmount. == History == The founder and first editor of Flight was Stanley Spooner. He was also the creator and editor of The Automotor Journal, originally titled The Automotor Journal and Horseless Vehicle. From around 1900 the journal had a separate section relating to aviation and aeronautical matters. The 5 April 1908 issue of The Automotor Journal included a diagram of patent drawings of a plane made by the Wright brothers. Stanley kept in contact with them via his friend Griffith Brewer. Eventually, Spooner decided that a journal focused solely on matters relating to flying should be published—and so, Flight magazine was established as an offshoot of The Automotor Journal. Claiming to be the first aeronautical weekly in the world, Flight first appeared on 2 January 1909 as the official journal of the Aero Club of the United Kingdom (later the Royal Aero Club). In April 1934, Flight was acquired by Iliffe & Sons, who were proprietors and printers of technical magazines, one of which included Autocar. On 4 January 1962, the magazine was renamed Flight International. In October 1968, Aeroplane: The International Air Transport Journal—commonly known as Aeroplane—merged with its sister publication, Flight International. In August 2019, Flight International and its associated divisions (except analytics and consulting divisions, which were retained by RELX as Cirium) were sold to DVV Media Group. In September 2020, Flight International switched from a weekly to monthly publication. == See also == Aviation Week & Space Technology, a similar aerospace sector industry magazine FlightGlobal == Notes == == References == Robertson, Bruce (1982). Aviation Enthusiasts' Data Book. Cambridge, England: Patrick Stephens Limited. ISBN 0-85059-500-2. == External links == DVV Media International Flight archives Flightglobal.com Aerospace illustrations ("cutaways") on Flight International's website (snapshot of site from December 2012) Archived Flight International magazines on the Internet Archive
In flight	In baseball, the rules state that a batted ball is considered in flight when it has not yet touched any object other than a fielder or his equipment. Such a ball can be caught by a fielder to put the batter out. Once a batted ball touches the ground, a fence or wall, a foul pole, a base, the pitcher's rubber, an umpire, or a baserunner, it is no longer in flight. A batted ball that passes entirely out of the playing field ceases to be in flight when that occurs; if it was between the foul poles at that moment, then it is a home run which entitles the batter (and any other runners on base) to score. A special rule exists in covered baseball facilities (retractable or fixed roofed), where a batted ball striking the roof, roof supporting structure, or objects suspended from the roof (e.g., speakers) while in fair territory is still considered to be in flight. Rules for batted balls striking any of those objects in foul territory differ between ballparks, with most considering such a ball to still be in flight, and some considering it to be a foul ball and dead from the time it strikes. == Fly out == If a batted ball (other than a foul tip, with less than 2 strikes) is caught in flight, the batter is out—called a fly out—and all runners must tag up, meaning that they are out if a fielder with possession of the ball touches their starting base (time-of-pitch base) before they do. A batted ball cannot be ruled foul or fair while in flight; a batted ball that is past first or third base will be called foul or fair based on where it ceases to be in flight, or where it is first touched by a fielder, whichever occurs first. A fly out on a ball in foul territory is also called a foul out. A foul tip, which by definition is always caught in flight, is a strike by special rule, and not an out, unless caught as a 3rd strike. == Home run == If a batted ball passes out of the playing field in flight and is fair, it is an automatic home run, entitling the batter and all runners to score without liability to be put out. However, if the fence or other barrier is less than 250 feet from home plate, a ball hit past that fence in flight and fair shall be ruled an automatic double. In the United States, such short fences are very rare even in the lowest-level amateur ballfields. Fields with short fences can be commonplace in some countries where baseball is less popular; often, soccer fields have to be used, resulting in a very short left or right field. The shortest fair fences in Major League Baseball are both in Boston's Fenway Park; the shortest fence that is nearly perpendicular to the foul line is the Green Monster. The left foul pole, renamed "Fisk's Pole" in honor of Carlton Fisk's famous home run in the 1975 World Series, stands 310 feet away from home plate. The right field foul pole, known as Pesky's Pole, is 302 feet down the right field line, although the wall there is nearly parallel to the foul line as it curves back to the distant right field wall at 380 feet. From 1958 through 1961, the Los Angeles Dodgers played home games in Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, a stadium built for track and field; without the ability to move any of the permanent stadium structure, the Dodgers configured the field to result in a 251-foot left field foul line distance. == See also == Bouncing ball Caught out (cricket) == References ==
Starship flight test 9	Starship flight test 9 was the ninth flight test of a SpaceX Starship launch vehicle. Ship 35 and Booster 14-2 flew on this test flight. This flight launched on May 27, 2025, at 23:36 UTC (6:36 pm CDT, local time at the launch site). The Ship attempted to achieve the objectives originally planned for Flights 7 and 8, which both failed. This mission's booster, the first Super Heavy to re-fly, underwent experiments in-flight to have its capabilities assessed under off-nominal flight conditions, and was expected to splash down instead of being caught. Ship 35 reached its planned velocity, the first V2 ship to do so. However, it experienced several failures, including a propellant leak and loss of attitude control preventing the Ship from achieving most of its in-space objectives, leading SpaceX to terminate the flight by passivating the vehicle. The booster disintegrated over the designated splashdown area in the Gulf of Mexico just after landing burn ignition, the booster completed its objective of flying under a more aggressive angle of attack than usual and enabling SpaceX to gather data related to aerodynamic control of the vehicle during descent. == Background == === Vehicle testing ahead of launch === ==== Ship 35 ==== Ship 35 was assembled in Mega Bay 2, with the configuration of its heat shield hinting at catch hardware. Ship 35 then underwent 3 rounds of cryo testing at Massey's Test Site on March 11 and 12 and was rolled back to the production site on March 13. It was rolled out to Massey's for static fire on April 29. A static fire attempt on April 29 was scrubbed for an unknown reason during propellant loading. The test was completed on April 30, simulating an "in-space burn" using a single engine. Following a scrubbed attempt earlier in the day, it underwent a second, long duration static fire on May 1. However, according to NASASpaceflight, this static fire did not follow the trend seen previously during Ship 34's static fire, with Ship 35 experiencing an abnormal shutdown around the T+36 second mark. SpaceX has yet to confirm the issue seen during this static fire publicly. Ship 35 was then rolled back to Mega Bay 2 on May 2 for inspection and returned to Massey's on May 10. A static fire attempt on May 11 was scrubbed right after the deluge system activated, subsequently Ship 35 successfully completed a 6 engine long duration static fire (64 seconds), the longest ship static fire seen to date, on May 12. It rolled back to Mega Bay 2 on May 13. Ship 35 then rolled back to Masseys on May 21, and attempted to conduct testing on May 22, with the first attempt being scrubbed and a subsequent attempt being conducted later the same day. It was then rolled back to Mega Bay 2 on May 23, and had its 8 Starlink simulator satellites installed on May 24. Ship 35 was then rolled to OLP-A on May 25, and was stacked a few hours later. ==== Booster 14 ==== B14 was rolled back to Mega Bay 1 for refurbishment on January 18, following its use on Flight 7. It rolled to Orbital Launch Pad A (OLP-A) on April 1, where it conducted a static fire test on April 3. Following this test, SpaceX confirmed B14's assignment, as well as stating that 29 of its 33 engines had previously flown. Booster 14 returned to the production site on April 8. Its Hot Staging Ring (HSR) was moved to Mega Bay 1 on April 16 and installed on April 17. B14 subsequently rolled from Mega Bay 1 to OLP-A on May 12. B14 was then destacked from OLP-A on May 16, and rolled back to Mega Bay 1 on May 17. It was then rolled to OLP-A on May 24, and stacked onto the OLM on May 25. === Impact of Flights 7 and 8 === After Flight 6, Elon Musk stated that Flight 8 could be the first 'catch' of the Ship should Flight 7's landing be successful. Due to the failure of S33 to complete its ascent burn, this was delayed to a later mission, along with the likely required insertion burn into low Earth orbit. Before Flight 8, Flight 9 was expected to feature the first ship catch attempt, with U.S. Federal Communications Commission permits for Flight 9 stating the potential for a catch. However, Flight 8 also failed during the ascent burn, delaying the ship catch to a future mission. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) determined that the failure of Flight 8 did not impact public safety on May 22. Besides conducting Ship and Booster static fire tests at Starbase, SpaceX extensively tested individual Raptor 2 engines for longer durations at their McGregor facility to address and mitigate the issues found in Flight 8, among other tests. ==== Return to flight ==== On May 15, the FAA confirmed they had approved license modifications for Flight 9, with SpaceX having submitted their mishap report for Flight 8 on May 13. The FAA then confirmed on May 22 that they had reviewed the mishap report submitted by SpaceX and authorised Starship to return to flight by issuing a Return to Flight Determination. The mishap report for Flight 8 remains open. == Mission profile == The mission profile for flight test 9 was similar to the one planned for the previous flight, targeting a splashdown in the Indian Ocean along with the deployment of eight intentionally destructible Starlink "simulators" which were also expected to reenter over the Indian Ocean. However, unlike past flight tests, the booster did not attempt a catch, instead splashing down in the Gulf of Mexico after multiple experiments during descent, including deliberately not igniting one of the center engines for the landing burn. === Flight timeline === === Mission summary === The Starship vehicle successfully ascended with all 33 Raptor 2 engines on Super Heavy firing nominally from liftoff to stage separation. 29 of those engines were flight proven, and one engine, designated number 314, provided propulsion in flight for the third time. This mission was the first to feature a system to allow the Booster to separate from the Ship in a fully controlled direction; this was done for the booster to fly as efficiently as possible, as to not lose more fuel than necessary. This was achieved by closing some of the vents on the Booster's protective hot staging ring, and the Ship's engine exhaust then pushed the Booster away in the planned direction. After stage separation, Booster 14-2 was commanded to descend to the Gulf of Mexico at a steeper angle of attack than its previous flight. Since this was the first time SpaceX reused a Super Heavy booster, the company wished to gather data on Booster performance in suboptimal conditions to aid the development of the next generation of Super Heavy boosters. B14 was able to withstand these extreme conditions throughout its descent into the atmosphere until starting its landing burn. It re-lit all 13 center engines, but one engine shut down almost immediately afterward, followed by loss of telemetry at T+6:20. Footage in the webcast showed a fireball erupting shortly before telemetry loss. Ship 35 performed a full-duration ascent burn to orbital velocity with all of its six engines, the step the previous two Ships failed to achieve. However, the planned deployment of Starlink test articles was aborted due to the malfunction of the Ship's payload bay door. During the coast phase, it also started to experience problems with attitude control, preventing it from reentering the Earth's atmosphere in a controlled manner. This prevented SpaceX from performing a planned engine relight test. Ship 35 continued streaming onboard views through Starlink, which showed the vehicle tumbling through plasma streams and parts of the vehicle being subjected to thermal damage, until shortly before loss of telemetry at T+46 minutes. After the flight ended, SpaceX CEO Elon Musk additionally reported propellant tank leaks and sudden pressure loss in Ship 35, which was responded by the Ship's flight computers by initiating an automated safing process, in order to safely dispose of the vehicle after it detected it was unrecoverable. === Aftermath === On May 30, 2025, the FAA announced that it was requiring SpaceX to conduct a mishap investigation for the Flight 9 mission. The FAA stated that the mishap investigation was only required for Ship 35 due to it not re-entering as planned, despite no debris landing outside of the pre-determined hazard areas. The mishap report does not include B14's explosion above the Gulf of Mexico as its failure was covered by one of the FAA's approved test induced damage exceptions. == References ==
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370	Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (MH370/MAS370) was an international passenger flight operated by Malaysia Airlines that disappeared from radar on 8 March 2014, while flying from Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia to its planned destination, Beijing Capital International Airport in China. The cause of its disappearance has not been determined. It is widely regarded as the greatest mystery in aviation history, and remains the single deadliest case of aircraft disappearance. The crew of the Boeing 777-200ER, registered as 9M-MRO, last communicated with air traffic control (ATC) around 38 minutes after takeoff when the flight was over the South China Sea. The aircraft was lost from ATC's secondary surveillance radar screens minutes later but was tracked by the Malaysian military's primary radar system for another hour, deviating westward from its planned flight path, crossing the Malay Peninsula and Andaman Sea. It left radar range 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) northwest of Penang Island in northwestern Peninsular Malaysia. With all 227 passengers and 12 crew aboard presumed dead, the disappearance of Flight 370 was the deadliest incident involving a Boeing 777, the deadliest of 2014, and the deadliest in Malaysia Airlines' history until it was surpassed in all three regards by Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, which was shot down by Russian-backed forces while flying over Ukraine four months later on 17 July 2014. The search for the missing aircraft became the most expensive search in the history of aviation. It focused initially on the South China Sea and Andaman Sea, before a novel analysis of the aircraft's automated communications with an Inmarsat satellite indicated that the plane had travelled far southward over the southern Indian Ocean. The lack of official information in the days immediately after the disappearance prompted fierce criticism from the Chinese public, particularly from relatives of the passengers, as most people on board Flight 370 were of Chinese origin. Several pieces of debris washed ashore in the western Indian Ocean during 2015 and 2016; many of these were confirmed to have originated from Flight 370. After a three-year search across 120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi) of ocean failed to locate the aircraft, the Joint Agency Coordination Centre heading the operation suspended its activities in January 2017. A second search launched in January 2018 by private contractor Ocean Infinity also ended without success after six months. Relying mostly on the analysis of data from the Inmarsat satellite with which the aircraft last communicated, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) initially proposed that a hypoxia event was the most likely cause given the available evidence, although no consensus has been reached among investigators concerning this theory. At various stages of the investigation, possible hijacking scenarios were considered, including crew involvement, and suspicion of the airplane's cargo manifest; many disappearance theories regarding the flight have also been reported by the media. The Malaysian Ministry of Transport's final report from July 2018 was inconclusive. It highlighted Malaysian ATC's fruitless attempts to communicate with the aircraft shortly after its disappearance. In the absence of a definitive cause of disappearance, air transport industry safety recommendations and regulations citing Flight 370 have been implemented to prevent a repetition of the circumstances associated with the loss. These include increased battery life on underwater locator beacons, lengthening of recording times on flight data recorders and cockpit voice recorders, and new standards for aircraft position reporting over open ocean. Malaysia had supported 58% of the total cost of the underwater search, Australia 32%, and China 10%. == Timeline == Flight 370 last made voice contact with ATC at 01:19 MYT, 8 March (17:19 UTC, 7 March) when it was over the South China Sea, less than an hour after takeoff. It disappeared from ATC radar screens at 01:22 MYT, but was still tracked on military radar as it turned sharply away from its original northeastern course to head west and cross the Malay Peninsula, continuing that course until leaving the range of the military radar at 02:22 while over the Andaman Sea, 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) northwest of Penang Island, in northwestern Malaysia. The multinational search effort for the aircraft, which was to become the most expensive aviation search in history, began in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea, where the aircraft's signal was last detected on secondary surveillance radar, and was soon extended to the Strait of Malacca and Andaman Sea. Analysis of satellite communications between the aircraft and Inmarsat's satellite communications network concluded that the flight continued until at least 08:19 (nearly an hour after Malaysia Airlines publicly announced the plane's loss) and flew south into the southern Indian Ocean, although the precise location cannot be determined. Australia assumed charge of the search on 17 March, when the search effort began to emphasise the southern Indian Ocean. On 24 March, the Malaysian government noted that the final location determined by the satellite communication was far from any possible landing sites, and concluded, "Flight MH370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean." From October 2016 to January 2017, a comprehensive survey of 120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi) of sea floor about 1,800 km (1,100 mi; 970 nmi) southwest of Perth, Western Australia, yielded no evidence of the aircraft. Several pieces of marine debris found on the coast of Africa and on Indian Ocean islands off the coast of Africa—the first of which was discovered on 29 July 2015 on Réunion—have been confirmed as pieces of Flight 370. The bulk of the aircraft has not been located, prompting many theories about its disappearance. In January 2018, a search by private US marine exploration company Ocean Infinity began in the search zone around 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 (CSIRO crash area), the most likely crash site according to the drift study published in 2017. In a previous search attempt, Malaysia had established a Joint Investigation Team (JIT) to investigate the incident, working with foreign aviation authorities and experts. Malaysia released a final report concerning Flight 370 on 17 October 2017. Neither the crew nor the aircraft's communication systems relayed a distress signal, indications of bad weather, or technical problems before the aircraft vanished. Two Iranian passengers travelling on stolen passports were investigated, but eliminated as suspects. Malaysian police identified the captain as the prime suspect if human intervention was the cause of the disappearance, after clearing all others on the flight of suspicion over possible motives. Power was lost to the aircraft's satellite data unit (SDU) at some point between 01:07 and 02:03; the SDU logged onto Inmarsat's satellite communication network at 02:25, which was three minutes after the aircraft had left the range of radar. Based on analysis of the satellite communications, the aircraft was postulated to have turned south after passing north of Sumatra and then to have flown for six hours with little deviation in its track, ending when its fuel was exhausted. With the loss of all 239 lives on board, Flight 370 is the second-deadliest incident involving a Boeing 777 and the second-deadliest incident of Malaysia Airlines' history, second to Flight 17 in both categories. Malaysia Airlines was struggling financially, a problem that was exacerbated by a decrease of ticket sales after the disappearance of Flight 370 and the downing of Flight 17; the airline was renationalised by the end of 2014. The Malaysian government received significant criticism, especially from China, for failing to disclose information promptly during the early weeks of the search. Flight 370's disappearance brought to public attention the limits of aircraft tracking and flight recorders, including the limited battery life of underwater locator beacons (an issue that had been raised about four years earlier following the loss of Air France Flight 447, but had never been resolved). In response to Flight 370's disappearance, the International Civil Aviation Organization adopted new standards for aircraft position reporting over open ocean, extended recording time for cockpit voice recorders, and, starting from 2020, new aircraft designs have been required to have a means of recovering the flight recorders, or the information they contain, before they sink into the water. == Background == === Aircraft === Flight 370 was operated with a Boeing 777-2H6ER, serial number 28420, registered as 9M-MRO. The aircraft was delivered new to Malaysia Airlines on 31 May 2002.: 39 The aircraft was powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent 892 engines and configured to carry 282 passengers in total capacity.: 39 It had accumulated 53,471.6 hours and 7,526 cycles (takeoffs and landings) in service: 22 and had not previously been involved in any major incidents, though a minor incident while taxiing at Shanghai Pudong International Airport in August 2012 resulted in a broken wing tip. Its last maintenance "A check" was carried out on 23 February 2014. The aircraft was in compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives for the airframe and engines. A replenishment of the crew member oxygen system was performed on 7 March 2014, a routine maintenance task; an examination of this procedure found nothing unusual.: 27 Ten years after MH370's disappearance, however, leaked documents have shown that MH370 was given supplemental fuel and crew member oxygen supplies just before takeoff. The Boeing 777 was introduced in 1994 and has an excellent safety record. Since its first commercial flight in June 1995, the type has suffered only seven other hull losses: the crash of British Airways Flight 38 in 2008; a cockpit fire in a parked EgyptAir Flight 667 at Cairo International Airport in 2011; the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 214 in 2013, in which three people died; Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, which was shot down over Ukraine, killing all 298 people aboard in July 2014; Emirates Flight 521, which crashed and burned out while landing at Dubai International Airport in August 2016 killing one person; and in November 2017, the seventh Boeing 777 hull loss occurred when a Singapore Airlines 777-200ER was written off after catching fire and burning out at Singapore Changi Airport. === Passengers and crew === The aircraft was carrying 12 Malaysian crew members and 227 passengers from 14 different nations. On the day of the disappearance, Malaysia Airlines released the names and nationalities of the passengers and crew, based on the flight manifest. The passenger list was later modified to include two Iranian passengers travelling on stolen Austrian and Italian passports. === Crew === All 12 crew members—two pilots and 10 cabin crew—were Malaysian citizens. The pilot in command was 52-year-old Captain Zaharie Ahmad Shah from Penang. He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 1981, and after training and receiving his commercial pilot's license, he became a second officer with the airline in 1983. He was promoted to captain of the Boeing 737-400 in 1991, captain of the Airbus A330-300 in 1996, and captain of the Boeing 777-200 in 1998. He had been a type-rating instructor and a type-rating examiner since 2007. Zaharie had a total of 18,365 hours of flying experience.: 13 The co-pilot was 26-year-old First Officer Fariq Abdul Hamid. He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 2007; after becoming a second officer of the Boeing 737-400, he was promoted to first officer of the Boeing 737-400 in 2010 and then transitioned to the Airbus A330-300 in 2012. In November 2013, he began training as first officer of the Boeing 777-200 aircraft. Flight 370 was his final training flight, and he was scheduled to be examined on his next flight. Fariq had accumulated 2,763 hours of flying experience.: 14 === Passengers === Of the 227 passengers, 153 were Chinese citizens, including a group of 19 artists with six family members and four staff returning from a calligraphy exhibition of their work in Kuala Lumpur; 38 passengers were Malaysian. The remaining passengers were from 12 different countries. Twenty passengers, 12 of whom were from Malaysia and eight from China, were employees of Freescale Semiconductor. Through a 2007 agreement with Malaysia Airlines, Tzu Chi (an international Buddhist organisation) immediately sent specially trained teams to Beijing and Malaysia to give emotional assistance to passengers' families. The airline also sent its own team of caregivers and volunteers and agreed to bear the expense of bringing family members of the passengers to Kuala Lumpur and providing them with accommodation, medical care, and counselling. Altogether, 115 family members of the Chinese passengers flew to Kuala Lumpur. Some other family members chose to remain in China, fearing they would feel too isolated in Malaysia. == Flight and disappearance == Flight 370 was a scheduled flight in the early morning of Saturday, 8 March 2014, from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to Beijing, China. It was one of two daily flights operated by Malaysia Airlines from its hub at Kuala Lumpur International Airport to Beijing Capital International Airport—scheduled to depart at 00:35 local time (MYT; UTC+08:00) and arrive at 06:30 local time (CST; UTC+08:00). On board were two pilots, 10 cabin crew, 227 passengers, and 14,296 kg (31,517 lb) of cargo.: 1, 12, 30 The planned flight duration was 5 hours and 34 minutes, which would consume an estimated 37,200 kg (82,000 lb) of jet fuel. The aircraft carried 49,100 kilograms (108,200 lb) of fuel, including reserves, allowing an endurance of 7 hours and 31 minutes. The extra fuel was enough to divert to alternate airports—Jinan Yaoqiang International Airport and Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport—which would require 4,800 kg (10,600 lb) or 10,700 kg (23,600 lb), respectively, to reach from Beijing.: 1, 30 === Departure === At 00:42 MYT, Flight 370 took off from runway 32R,: 1 and was cleared by air traffic control (ATC) to climb to flight level 180—approximately 18,000 feet (5,500 m)—on a direct path to navigational waypoint IGARI (located at 6°56′12″N 103°35′6″E). Voice analysis has determined that the first officer communicated with ATC while the flight was on the ground and that the Captain communicated with ATC after departure.: 21 Shortly after departure, the flight was transferred from the airport's ATC to Lumpur Radar on frequency 132.6 MHz. ATC over peninsular Malaysia and adjacent waters is provided by the Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre (ACC); Lumpur Radar is the name of the frequency used for en route air traffic. At 00:46, Lumpur Radar cleared Flight 370 to flight level 350—approximately 35,000 ft (10,700 m). At 01:01, Flight 370's crew reported to Lumpur Radar that they had reached flight level 350, which they confirmed again at 01:08.: 1–2 === Communication lost === The aircraft's final transmission before its disappearance from radar was an automated position report, sent using the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) protocol at 01:06 MYT.: 2 : 36 Among the data provided in this message was the total fuel remaining: 43,800 kg (96,600 lb).: 9 The last verbal signal to air traffic control occurred at 01:19:30, when Captain Zaharie acknowledged a transition from Lumpur Radar to Ho Chi Minh ACC:: 2, 21 Lumpur Radar: "Malaysian three seven zero, contact Ho Chi Minh one two zero decimal nine. Good night." Flight 370: "Good night. Malaysian three seven zero." The crew was expected to signal ATC in Ho Chi Minh City as the aircraft passed into Vietnamese airspace, just north of the point where contact was lost. The captain of another aircraft attempted to contact the crew of Flight 370 shortly after 01:30, using the international air distress frequency, to relay Vietnamese air traffic control's request for the crew to contact them; the captain said he was able to establish communication, but heard only "mumbling" and static. Calls made to Flight 370's cockpit at 02:39 and 07:13 were unanswered, but acknowledged by the aircraft's satellite data unit.: 18 : 40 === Radar === At 01:20:31 MYT, Flight 370 was observed on radar at the Kuala Lumpur ACC as it passed the navigational waypoint IGARI (6°56′12″N 103°35′6″E) in the Gulf of Thailand; five seconds later, the Mode-S symbol disappeared from radar screens.: 2 At 01:21:13, Flight 370 disappeared from the radar screen at Kuala Lumpur ACC and was lost at about the same time on radar at Ho Chi Minh ACC, which reported that the aircraft was at the nearby waypoint BITOD.: 2 Air traffic control uses secondary radar, which relies on a signal emitted by a transponder on each aircraft; therefore, the ADS-B transponder was no longer functioning on Flight 370 after 01:21. The final transponder data indicated that the aircraft was flying at its assigned cruise altitude of flight level 350 and was travelling at 471 knots (872 km/h; 542 mph) true airspeed. There were few clouds around this point, and no rain or lightning nearby.: 33–36 Later analysis estimated that Flight 370 had 41,500 kg (91,500 lb) of fuel when it disappeared from secondary radar.: 30 At the time that the transponder stopped functioning, the Malaysian military's primary radar showed Flight 370 turning right, but then beginning a left turn to a southwesterly direction.: 3 From 01:30:35 until 01:35, military radar showed Flight 370 at 35,700 ft (10,900 m) on a 231° magnetic heading, with a ground speed of 496 knots (919 km/h; 571 mph). Flight 370 continued across the Malay Peninsula, fluctuating between 31,000 and 33,000 ft (9,400 and 10,100 m) in altitude.: 3 A civilian primary radar at Sultan Ismail Petra Airport with a 60 nmi (110 km; 69 mi) range made four detections of an unidentified aircraft between 01:30:37 and 01:52:35; the tracks of the unidentified aircraft are "consistent with those of the military data".: 3–4 At 01:52, Flight 370 was detected passing just south of the island of Penang. From there, the aircraft flew across the Strait of Malacca, passing close to the waypoint VAMPI, and Pulau Perak at 02:03, after which it flew along air route N571 to waypoints MEKAR, NILAM, and possibly IGOGU.: 3, 38 The last known radar detection, from a point near the limits of Malaysian military radar, was at 02:22, 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) after passing waypoint MEKAR: 3, 7 (which is 237 nmi (439 km; 273 mi) from Penang) and 247.3 nmi (458.0 km; 284.6 mi) northwest of Penang airport at an altitude of 29,500 ft (9,000 m). Countries were reluctant to release information collected from military radar because of sensitivity about revealing their capabilities. Indonesia has an early-warning radar system, but its ATC radar did not register any aircraft with the transponder code used by Flight 370, despite the aircraft possibly having flown near, or over, the northern tip of Sumatra.: 4 Indonesian military radar tracked Flight 370 earlier when en route to waypoint IGARI before the transponder is thought to have been turned off, but did not provide information on whether it was detected afterwards.: 4 Thailand and Vietnam also detected Flight 370 on radar before the transponder stopped working. The radar position symbols for the transponder code used by Flight 370 vanished after the transponder is thought to have been turned off.: 4–5 Vietnam's deputy minister of transport Pham Quy Tieu stated that Vietnam had noticed MH370 turning back toward the west and that its operators had twice informed Malaysian authorities the same day on 8 March. Thai military radar detected an aircraft that might have been Flight 370, but it is not known at what time the last radar contact was made, and the signal did not include identifying data. Also, the flight was not detected by Australia's conventional system or its long-range JORN over-the-horizon radar system, which has an official range of 3,000 km (1,900 mi); the latter was not in operation on the night of the disappearance. === Satellite communication resumes === Sometime after the final ACARS transmission at 01:06, the satellite communication system aboard the aircraft went offline (possibly due to a power interruption), and remained offline during the plane's initial deviation from its scheduled flight path. However, for an unknown reason, at 02:25 MYT, the aircraft's satellite communication system booted back up and sent a "log-on request" message—the first message since the ACARS transmission at 01:06—which was relayed by satellite to a ground station, both operated by satellite telecommunications company Inmarsat. After logging on to the network, the satellite data unit aboard the aircraft responded to hourly status requests from Inmarsat for the next 6 hours and two ground-to-aircraft telephone calls, at 02:39 and 07:13, both unanswered by the cockpit.: 18 The final status request and aircraft acknowledgement occurred at 08:10, about 1 hour and 40 minutes after the flight was scheduled to arrive in Beijing. The aircraft sent a log-on request at 08:19:29, which was followed, after a response from the ground station, by a "log-on acknowledgement" message at 08:19:37. The log-on acknowledgement is the last piece of data received from Flight 370. The aircraft did not respond to a status request from Inmarsat at 09:15. The general consensus among investigators is that Flight 370 crashed somewhere in the southern Indian Ocean sometime between 08:19 and 09:15 on 8 March due to fuel exhaustion, although the exact time and location of the crash remain uncertain. === Response by air traffic control === At 01:38 MYT, Ho Chi Minh Area Control Centre (ACC) contacted Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre to query the whereabouts of Flight 370 and informed Kuala Lumpur that ACC had not established verbal communication with Flight 370, which was last detected by radar at waypoint BITOD. The two centres exchanged four more calls during the next 20 minutes with no new information. At 02:03, Kuala Lumpur ACC relayed to Ho Chi Minh ACC information received from Malaysia Airlines' operations centre that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. Ho Chi Minh ACC contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC twice in the following eight minutes asking for confirmation that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. At 02:15, the watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC queried Malaysia Airlines' operations centre, which said that it could exchange signals with Flight 370 and that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC to ask whether the planned flight path for Flight 370 passed through Cambodian airspace. Ho Chi Minh ACC responded that Flight 370 was not supposed to enter Cambodian airspace and that they had already contacted Phnom Penh ACC (which controls Cambodian airspace), which had no communication with Flight 370. Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Malaysia Airlines' operations centre at 02:34, inquiring about the communication status with Flight 370, and were informed that Flight 370 was in a normal condition based on a signal download and that it was located at 14°54′N 109°15′E. Later, another Malaysia Airlines aircraft (Flight 386 bound for Shanghai) attempted, at the request of Ho Chi Minh ACC, to contact Flight 370 on the Lumpur Radar frequency – the frequency on which Flight 370 last made contact with Malaysian air traffic control – and on emergency frequencies. The attempt was unsuccessful. At 03:30, Malaysia Airlines' operations centre informed Kuala Lumpur ACC that the locations it had provided earlier were "based on flight projection and not reliable for aircraft positioning." Over the next hour, Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC asking whether they had signaled Chinese air traffic control. At 05:09, Singapore ACC was queried for information about Flight 370. At 05:20, an undisclosed official contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC requesting information about Flight 370; he opined that, based on known information, "MH370 never left Malaysian airspace." The watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC activated the Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) at 05:30, more than four hours after communication was lost with Flight 370. The ARCC is a command post at an Area Control Centre that coordinates search-and-rescue activities when an aircraft is lost. === Presumed loss === Malaysia Airlines issued a media statement at 07:24 MYT on 8 March, one hour after the scheduled arrival time of the flight at Beijing, stating that communication with the flight had been lost by Malaysian ATC at 02:40 and that the government had initiated search-and-rescue operations. Unbeknownst to investigators or Malaysia Airlines at the time, Flight 370 was still airborne at the time of this initial media statement, and search-and-rescue operations were commenced while the plane was still in flight over the Indian Ocean (albeit the search-and-rescue operations initially focused on the South China Sea, not the Indian Ocean where Flight 370 presumably crashed). The time when contact was lost was later corrected to 01:21. Neither the crew nor the aircraft's communication systems relayed a distress signal, indications of bad weather, or technical problems before the aircraft vanished from radar screens. On 24 March, Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak appeared before media at 22:00 local time to give a statement regarding Flight 370, during which he announced that he had been briefed by the Air Accidents Investigation Branch that it and Inmarsat (the satellite data provider) had concluded that the airliner's last position before it disappeared was in the southern Indian Ocean. As no places exist where it could have landed, the aircraft must therefore have crashed into the sea. Just before Najib spoke at 22:00 MYT, an emergency meeting was called in Beijing for relatives of Flight 370 passengers. Malaysia Airlines announced that Flight 370 was assumed lost with no survivors. It notified most of the families in person or via telephone, and some received an SMS (in English and Chinese) informing them that the aircraft likely had crashed with no survivors. On 29 January 2015, the director general of the Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia, Azharuddin Abdul Rahman, announced that the status of Flight 370 would be changed to an "accident", in accordance with the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, and that all passengers and crew are presumed to have lost their lives. If the official assumption is confirmed, Flight 370 was, at the time of its disappearance, the deadliest aviation incident in the history of Malaysian Airlines, surpassing the 1977 hijacking and crash of Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 that killed all 100 passengers and crew aboard, and the deadliest involving a Boeing 777, surpassing Asiana Airlines Flight 214 (three fatalities). In both of those categories, Flight 370 was surpassed 131 days later by Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, another Boeing 777-200ER, which was shot down on 17 July 2014, killing all 298 people aboard. === Reported sightings === The news media reported several sightings of an aircraft fitting the description of the missing Boeing 777. For example, on 19 March 2014, CNN reported that witnesses including fishermen, an oil rig worker, and people on the Kudahuvadhoo island in the Maldives saw the missing airliner. A fisherman claimed to have seen an unusually low-flying aircraft off the coast of Kota Bharu, while an oil-rig worker 186 miles (299 km) southeast of Vung Tau claimed he saw a "burning object" in the sky that morning, a claim credible enough for the Vietnamese authorities to send a search-and-rescue mission, and Indonesian fishermen reported witnessing an aircraft crash near the Malacca Straits. Three months later, the Phuket Gazette reported that a British woman sailing in the Indian Ocean claimed to have seen an aircraft on fire. == Search == A search-and-rescue effort was launched in southeast Asia soon after the disappearance of Flight 370. Following the initial analysis of communications between the aircraft and a satellite, the surface search was moved to the southern Indian Ocean one week after the aircraft's disappearance. Between 18 March and 28 April, 19 vessels and 345 sorties by military aircraft searched over 4,600,000 km2 (1,800,000 sq mi). The final phase of the search was a bathymetric survey and sonar search of the sea floor, about 1,800 kilometres (970 nmi; 1,100 mi) southwest of Perth, Western Australia. With effect from 30 March 2014, the search was coordinated by the Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC), an Australian government agency that was established specifically to manage the effort to locate and recover Flight 370, and which primarily involved the Malaysian, Chinese, and Australian governments. On 17 January 2017, the official search for Flight 370—which had proven to be the most expensive search operation in aviation history—was suspended after yielding no evidence of the aircraft other than some marine debris on the coast of Africa. The final ATSB report, published on 17 October 2017, stated that the underwater search for the aircraft, as of 30 June 2017, had cost a total of US$155 million (~$190 million in 2023). The underwater search accounted for 86% of this amount, bathymetry 10%, and programme management 4%. Malaysia had supported 58% of the total cost, Australia 32%, and China 10%. The report also concluded that the location where the aircraft went down had been narrowed to an area of 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) by using satellite images and debris drift analysis. In January 2018, the private American marine-exploration company Ocean Infinity resumed the search for MH370 in the narrowed 25,000 km2 area, using the Norwegian ship Seabed Constructor. The search area was significantly extended during the course of the search, and by the end of May 2018, the vessel had searched a total area of more than 112,000 km2 (43,000 sq mi) using eight autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). The contract with the Malaysian government ended soon afterward, and the search was concluded without success on 9 June 2018. === Southeast Asia === The Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) was activated at 05:30 MYT—four hours after communication was lost with the aircraft—to coordinate search and rescue efforts. Search efforts began in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea. On the second day of the search, Malaysian officials said that radar recordings indicated that Flight 370 may have turned around before vanishing from radar screens; the search zone was expanded to include part of the Strait of Malacca. On 12 March, the chief of the Royal Malaysian Air Force announced that an unidentified aircraft—believed to be Flight 370—had travelled across the Malay peninsula and was last sighted on military radar 370 km (200 nmi; 230 mi) northwest of the island of Penang; search efforts were subsequently increased in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. Records of signals sent between the aircraft and a communications satellite over the Indian Ocean revealed that the plane had continued flying for almost six hours after its final sighting on Malaysian military radar. Initial analysis of these communications determined that Flight 370 was along one of two arcs—equidistant from the satellite—when its last signal was sent. On 15 March, the same day upon which the analysis was disclosed publicly, authorities announced that they would abandon search efforts in the South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, and Strait of Malacca in order to focus their efforts on the two corridors. The northern arc—from northern Thailand to Kazakhstan—was soon discounted, for the aircraft would have had to pass through heavily militarised airspace, and those countries claimed that their military radar would have detected an unidentified aircraft entering their airspace. === Southern Indian Ocean === The emphasis of the search was shifted to the southern Indian Ocean west of Australia and within Australia's aeronautical and maritime Search and Rescue regions that extend to 75°E longitude. Accordingly, on 17 March, Australia agreed to manage the search in the southern locus from Sumatra to the southern Indian Ocean. ==== Initial search ==== From 18 to 27 March 2014, the search effort focused on a 315,000 km2 (122,000 sq mi) area about 2,600 km (1,400 nmi; 1,600 mi) southwest of Perth. The search area, which Australian prime minister Tony Abbott called "as close to nowhere as it's possible to be", is renowned for its strong winds, inhospitable climate, hostile seas, and deep ocean floors. Satellite imagery of the region was analysed; several objects of interest and two possible debris fields were identified on images made between 16 and 26 March. None of these possible objects were found by aircraft or ships. Revised estimates of the radar track and the aircraft's remaining fuel led to a move of the search 1,100 km (590 nmi; 680 mi) northeast of the previous area on 28 March, which was followed by another shift on 4 April. Between 2 and 17 April, an effort was made to detect the underwater locator beacons (ULBs, informally known as "pingers") attached to the aircraft's flight recorders, because the beacons' batteries were expected to expire around 7 April. Australian naval cutter ADV Ocean Shield, equipped with a towed pinger locator (TPL), joined China's Haixun 01, equipped with a hand-held hydrophone, and the Royal Navy's HMS Echo, equipped with a hull-mounted hydrophone, in the search.: 11–12 : 36 Operators considered the effort to have little chance of success given the vast search area and the fact that a TPL can only search up to 130 km2 (50 sq mi) per day. Between 4 and 8 April, several acoustic detections were made that were close to the frequency and rhythm of the sound emitted by the flight recorders' ULBs; analysis of the acoustic detections determined that, although unlikely, the detections could have come from a damaged ULB.: 13 A sonar search of the seafloor near the detections was carried out between 14 April and 28 May but yielded no sign of Flight 370.: 14 In a March 2015 report, it was revealed that the battery of the ULB attached to Flight 370's flight data recorder may have expired in December 2012 and thus may not have been as capable of sending signals as would an unexpired battery. ==== Underwater search ==== In late June 2014, details of the next phase of the search were announced; officials have called this phase the "underwater search" despite the previous seafloor sonar survey. Continued refinement of the analysis of Flight 370's satellite communications identified a "wide area search" along the "7th arc" where Flight 370 was located when it last communicated with the satellite. The priority search area was in the southern extent of the wide area search. Some of the equipment used for the underwater search is most effective when towed 200 m (650 ft) above the seafloor at the end of a 9.7 km (6 mi) cable. Available bathymetric data for this region was of poor resolution, thus necessitating a bathymetric survey of the search area before the underwater phase began. Commencing in May, the survey charted around 208,000 km2 (80,000 sq mi) of seafloor until 17 December 2014, when it was suspended so that the ship conducting the survey could be mobilised in the underwater search. The governments of Malaysia, China, and Australia made a joint commitment to thoroughly search 120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi) of seafloor. This phase of the search, which began on 6 October 2014, used three vessels equipped with towed deep-water vehicles that use side-scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounders, and video cameras to locate and identify aircraft debris. A fourth vessel participated in the search between January and May 2015, using an AUV to search areas that could not be effectively searched using equipment on the other vessels. Following the discovery of the flaperon on Réunion, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) reviewed its drift calculations for debris from the aircraft and, according to the JACC, was satisfied that the search area was still the most likely crash site. Reverse drift modelling of the debris, to determine its origin after 16 months, also supported the underwater search area, although this method is very imprecise over long periods. On 17 January 2017, the three countries jointly announced the suspension of the search for Flight 370. === 2018 search === On 17 October 2017, Dutch-based Fugro and American company Ocean Infinity offered to resume the search for the aircraft. In January 2018, Ocean Infinity announced that it was planning to resume the search in the narrowed 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) area. The search attempt was approved by the Malaysian government, provided that payment would be made only if the wreckage were found. Ocean Infinity chartered the Norwegian ship Seabed Constructor to perform the search. In late January, it was reported that the AIS tracking system had detected the vessel reaching the search zone on 21 January. The vessel then started moving to 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 (CSIRO crash area), the most likely crash site according to the drift study by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The planned search area of "site 1", where the search began, was 33,012 km2 (12,746 sq mi), while the extended search area covered a further 48,500 km2 (18,700 sq mi). In April, a report by Ocean Infinity revealed that "site 4", farther northeast along the 7th arc, had been added to the search plan. By the end of May 2018, the vessel had searched a total area of over 112,000 km2 (43,000 sq mi), using eight AUVs; all areas of "site 1" (including areas beyond that originally planned for "site 1"), "site 2", and "site 3" had been searched. The final phase of the search was conducted in "site 4" in May 2018, "before the weather limits Ocean Infinity's ability to continue working this year." Malaysia's new transport minister Loke Siew Fook announced on 23 May 2018 that the search for MH370 would conclude at the end of the month. Ocean Infinity confirmed on 31 May that its contract with the Malaysian government had ended, and it was reported on 9 June 2018 that the Ocean Infinity search had come to an end. Ocean-floor mapping data collected during the search have been donated to the Nippon Foundation–GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, to be incorporated into the global map of the ocean floor. In March 2019, in the wake of the fifth anniversary of the disappearance, the Malaysian government stated that it was willing to look at any "credible leads or specific proposals" regarding a new search. Ocean Infinity stated that it was ready to resume the search on the same no-find, no-fee basis, believing that it would benefit from the experience that it had gained from its search for the wreck of Argentinian submarine ARA San Juan and bulk carrier ship Stellar Daisy. Ocean Infinity believed that the most probable location was still somewhere along the 7th arc around the area identified previously and upon which its 2018 search was based. In March 2022, Ocean Infinity committed to resuming its search in 2023 or 2024 pending approval by the Malaysian government. In 2023 Ocean Infinity was reviewing data from their previous 2018 search to ensure nothing was missed. CEO Oliver Plunkett hoped to resume the search in mid-2023 using Ocean Infinity's new Armada vessel. The transportation minister of Malaysia, Wee Ka Siong, requested credible new evidence from Ocean Infinity in order to resume the search, which Plunkett was allegedly in possession of. Claims of yet-to-be-identified new evidence has incited victims' families to further push for another search. In March 2024, days before the tenth anniversary of the disappearance, Malaysia said it would consult with Australia about collaborating on another expedition by the Ocean Infinity team. === 2025 search === On 2 May 2024, Ocean Infinity sent Malaysian Minister of Transport Anthony Loke a proposal for a new MH370 underwater search. On 20 December 2024, the Malaysian Government announced that it would resume the search for MH370 and that it would be carried out by Ocean Infinity to cover a 15,000 square km area in the southern Indian Ocean. It was expected to cost $70m (£56m) but, as with the 2018 search, this search would be on a "no find, no fee" basis. On 25 February 2025, Minister of Transport Loke confirmed that Ocean Infinity had resumed the search. Subsequently, however, on 3 April 2025, Loke announced that Ocean Infinity had suspended its search, giving the reason that it is "not the season", although adding "they will resume the search at the end of this year". == Marine debris == By October 2017, twenty pieces of debris believed to be from 9M-MRO had been recovered from beaches in the western Indian Ocean; 18 of the items were "identified as being very likely or almost certain to originate from MH370", while the other two were "assessed as probably from the accident aircraft.": 106 On 16 August 2017, the ATSB released two reports: the analysis of satellite imagery collected on 23 March 2014, two weeks after MH370 disappeared, classifying 12 objects in the ocean as "probably man-made"; and a drift study of the recovered objects by the CSIRO, identifying the crash area "with unprecedented precision and certainty" at 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 (CSIRO crash area), northeast of the main 120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi) underwater search zone. === Flaperon === The first item of debris to be positively identified as originating from Flight 370 was the right flaperon (a trailing edge control surface). It was discovered in late July 2015 on a beach in Saint-André, Réunion, an island in the western Indian Ocean, about 4,000 km (2,200 nmi; 2,500 mi) west of the underwater search area. The item was transported from Réunion (an overseas department of France) to Toulouse, where it was examined by France's civil aviation accident investigation agency, the Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA), and a French defence ministry laboratory. Malaysia sent its own investigators to both Réunion and Toulouse. On 3 September 2015, French officials announced that serial numbers found on internal components of the flaperon linked it "with certainty" to Flight 370. These serial numbers were retrieved using a borescope. After the discovery, French police conducted a search of the waters around Réunion for additional debris, and found a damaged suitcase that was initially linked to Flight 370, but officials have since doubted this connection. The location of the discovery was consistent with models of debris dispersal 16 months after an origin in the search area then in progress off the west coast of Australia. A Chinese water bottle and an Indonesian cleaning product were also found in the same area. In August 2015, France carried out an aerial search for possible marine debris around the island, covering an area of 120 by 40 km (75 by 25 mi) along the east coast of Réunion. Foot patrols were also planned to search for debris along the beaches. Malaysia asked authorities in neighbouring states to be on the alert for marine debris that might have come from an aircraft. On 14 August, it was announced that no debris that could be traced to Flight 370 had been found at sea off Réunion, but that some items had been found on land. Air and sea searches for debris ended on 17 August. The flaperon was covered in Lepas anatifera barnacles, which grow in certain patterns and only while underwater. Researchers have analysed the barnacles on the flaperon in an attempt to deduce its path to Réunion. === Parts from the right stabiliser and right wing === In late February 2016, an object bearing a stencilled label of "NO STEP" was found off the coast of Mozambique; early photographic analysis suggested that it could have come from the aircraft's horizontal stabiliser or from the leading edges of the wings. The part was found by Blaine Gibson on a sandbank in the Bazaruto Archipelago off the coast of Vilanculos in southern Mozambique, around 2,000 km (1,200 mi) southwest of where the flaperon had been found the previous July. The fragment was sent to Australia, where experts identified it as almost certainly a horizontal stabiliser panel from 9M-MRO. In December 2015, Liam Lotter had found a grey piece of debris on a beach in southern Mozambique, but only after reading in March 2016 about Gibson's find—some 300 km (190 mi) from his own—did his family alert authorities. The piece was flown to Australia for analysis. It carried a stencilled code 676EB, which identified it as part of a Boeing 777 flap track fairing, and the style of lettering matched that of stencils used by Malaysia Airlines, making it almost certain that the part came from 9M-MRO. The locations where the objects were found are consistent with the drift model performed by CSIRO, further corroborating that the parts could have come from Flight 370. === Other debris === On 7 March 2016, more debris, possibly from the aircraft, was found on the island of Réunion. Ab Aziz Kaprawi, Malaysia's deputy transport minister, said that "an unidentified grey item with a blue border" might be linked to Flight 370. Both Malaysian and Australian authorities, coordinating the search in the South Indian Ocean, sent teams to verify whether the debris was from the missing aircraft. On 21 March 2016, South African archaeologist Neels Kruger found a grey piece of debris on a beach near Mossel Bay, South Africa, that had an unmistakable partial logo of Rolls-Royce, the manufacturer of the missing aircraft's engines. The Malaysian ministry of transport acknowledged that the piece could be that of an engine cowling. An additional piece of possible debris, suggested to have come from the interior of the aircraft, was found on the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius, in late March. On 11 May 2016, Australian authorities determined that the two pieces of debris were "almost certainly" from Flight 370. === Flap and further search === On 24 June 2016, Australian transport minister Darren Chester said that a piece of aircraft debris had been found on Pemba Island, off the coast of Tanzania. It was handed over to the authorities so that experts from Malaysia could determine its origin. On 20 July, the Australian government released photographs of the piece, which was believed to be an outboard flap from one of the aircraft's wings. Malaysia's transport ministry confirmed on 15 September that the debris was indeed from the missing aircraft. On 21 November 2016, families of the victims announced that they would carry out a search for debris in December on the island of Madagascar. On 30 November 2018, five pieces of debris recovered between December 2016 and August 2018 on the Malagasy coast, and believed by victims' relatives to be from MH370, were handed to Malaysian transport minister Anthony Loke. Texas A&M University mathematics professor Goong Chen has argued that the plane may have entered the sea vertically; any other angle of entry would make the aircraft splinter into many pieces, which would have been found already. == Investigation == === International participation === Malaysia quickly assembled a Joint Investigation Team (JIT), consisting of specialists from Malaysia, China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France,: 1 which was led in accordance with ICAO standards by "an independent investigator in charge". The team consisted of an airworthiness group, an operations group, and a medical and human factors group. The airworthiness group were tasked with examining issues relating to maintenance records, structures, and systems of the aircraft; the operations group were to review the flight recorders, operations, and meteorology; and the medical and human factors group would investigate psychological, pathological, and survival factors. Malaysia also announced, on 6 April 2014, that it had set up three ministerial committees: a Next of Kin Committee, a committee to organise the formation of the JIT, and a committee responsible for the Malaysian assets deployed in the search effort. The criminal investigation was led by the Royal Malaysia Police,: 9 assisted by Interpol and other relevant international law enforcement authorities. On 17 March, Australia took control of co-ordinating the search, rescue, and recovery operations. For the next six weeks, the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) and ATSB worked to determine the search area, correlating information with the JIT and other government and academic sources, while the Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) coordinated the search efforts. Following the fourth phase of the search, the ATSB took responsibility for defining the search area. In May, a search strategy working group was established by the ATSB to determine the most likely position of the aircraft at the 00:19 UTC (08:19 MYT) satellite transmission. The working group included aircraft and satellite experts from: Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK), Boeing (US), Defence Science and Technology Group (Australia), Department of Civil Aviation (Malaysia), Inmarsat (UK), National Transportation Safety Board (US), and Thales (France).: 1 As of October 2018, France was the only country that was continuing the investigation (by means of its Air Transport Gendarmerie), with the intention of verifying all of the technical data transmitted, particularly those provided by Inmarsat. In 2024, researchers at Cardiff University in the United Kingdom conducted a study on underwater hydrophone signals generated by airplane crashes in the ocean. The researchers claimed that these signals could be key to detecting the final resting place of MH370, potentially bringing the UK back into the search efforts. === Interim and final reports === Two interim reports were issued in 8 March 2015, and March 2016. They contained factual information about the plane but no analysis. The final report from the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, published on 3 October 2017, was 440 pages and called for planes to be equipped with more precise flight tracking technology. The final report from the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, was 1,500 pages, released on 30 July 2018. It confirmed that the plane was manually turned around, taking it off its normal flight path just after 01:00 MYT, "either by the pilot or a third party" and that the plane was missing for twenty minutes before anyone was alerted. Following these accounts of air traffic control failings, the Chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia, Azharuddin Abdul Rahman, resigned on 31 July 2018. === Analysis of satellite communication === The communications between Flight 370 and the satellite communication network operated by Inmarsat, which were relayed by the Inmarsat-3 F1 satellite, provide the only significant clues to the location of Flight 370 after disappearing from Malaysian military radar at 02:22 MYT. These communications have also been used to infer possible in-flight events. The investigative team was challenged with reconstructing the flight path of Flight 370 from a limited set of transmissions with no explicit information about the aircraft's location, heading, or speed.: 16–17 ==== Technical background ==== Aeronautical satellite communication (SATCOM) systems are used to transmit messages sent from the aircraft cockpit, as well as automated data signals from onboard equipment, using the ACARS communications protocol. SATCOM may also be used for the transmission of FANS and ATN messages, and for providing voice, fax and data links using other protocols. The aircraft uses a satellite data unit (SDU) to send and receive signals over the satellite communications network; this operates independently from the other onboard systems that communicate via SATCOM, mostly using the ACARS protocol. Signals from the SDU are transmitted to a communications satellite, which amplifies the signal and changes its frequency before relaying it to a ground station, where the signal is processed and, if applicable, routed to its intended destination (e.g. Malaysia Airlines' operations centre); signals are sent from the ground to the aircraft in reverse order. When the SDU is first powered on, it attempts to connect with the Inmarsat network by transmitting a log-on request, which is acknowledged by the ground station.: 17 This is partly to determine whether the SDU belongs to an active service subscriber, and also to identify which satellite should be used for transmitting messages to the SDU. After connecting, if no further contact has been received from the data terminal (the SDU) for one hour, the ground station transmits a "log-on interrogation" message, commonly referred to as a "ping";: 18 if the terminal is active, it will respond to the ping automatically. The entire process of interrogating the terminal is referred to as a "handshake". ==== SDU communications ==== Although the ACARS data link on Flight 370 stopped functioning between 01:07 and 02:03 MYT (most likely around the same time the plane lost contact by secondary radar),: 36 the SDU remained operative. After last contact by primary radar west of Malaysia, the following events were recorded in the log of Inmarsat's ground station at Perth, Western Australia (all times are MYT/UTC+8):: 18 02:25:27 – First handshake ("log-on request" initiated by aircraft) 02:39:52 – Ground to aircraft telephone call, acknowledged by SDU, unanswered 03:41:00 – Second handshake (initiated by ground station) 04:41:02 – Third handshake (initiated by ground station) 05:41:24 – Fourth handshake (initiated by ground station) 06:41:19 – Fifth handshake (initiated by ground station) 07:13:58 – Ground to aircraft telephone call, acknowledged by SDU, unanswered 08:10:58 – Sixth handshake (initiated by ground station) 08:19:29 – Seventh handshake (initiated by aircraft); widely reported as a "partial handshake'", consisting of the following two transmissions: 08:19:29.416 – "log-on request" message transmitted by aircraft (seventh "partial" handshake) 08:19:37.443 – "log-on acknowledge" message transmitted by aircraft (last transmission received from Flight 370) The aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09:15. ==== Inferences ==== A few inferences can be made from the satellite communications. The first is that the aircraft remained operational until at least 08:19 MYT—seven hours after final contact was made with air traffic control over the South China Sea. The varying burst frequency offset (BFO) values indicate the aircraft was moving at speed. The aircraft's SDU needs location and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite, so it can also be inferred that the aircraft's navigation system was operational.: 4 Since the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09:15, it can be concluded that at some point between 08:19 and 09:15, the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station. The log-on message sent from the aircraft at 08:19:29 was "log-on request"; there are only a few reasons the SDU would transmit this request, such as a power interruption, software failure, loss of critical systems providing input to the SDU, or a loss of the link due to the aircraft's attitude.: 22 Investigators consider the most likely reason to be that it was sent during power-up after an electrical outage. The log-on request sent earlier in the flight at 02:25 also reveals that the satellite communication system was offline from some point after the final ACARS transmission at 01:06 until 02:25, possibly due to a power interruption. However, it is not known why the satellite system booted back up at 02:25 after being offline for some time. At 08:19, the aircraft had been airborne for 7 hours and 38 minutes; the typical Kuala Lumpur-Beijing flight is 51⁄2 hours, so fuel exhaustion was likely.: 33 In the event of fuel exhaustion and engine flame-out, which would eliminate power to the SDU, the aircraft's ram air turbine (RAT) would deploy, providing power to some instruments and flight controls, including the SDU.: 33 Approximately 90 seconds after the 02:25 handshake—also a log-on request—communications from the aircraft's in-flight entertainment system were recorded in the ground station log. Similar messages would be expected following the 08:19 handshake, but none were received, supporting the fuel-exhaustion scenario.: 22 ==== Analysis ==== Two parameters associated with these transmissions that were recorded in a log at the ground station were key to the investigation: Burst time offset (BTO) – the time difference between when a signal is sent from the ground station and when the response is received. This measure is proportional to twice the distance from the ground station via the satellite to the aircraft and includes the time that the SDU takes between receiving and responding to the message and time between reception and processing at the ground station. This measure was analysed to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft at the time each of the seven handshakes occurred, and thereby defining seven circles on the Earth's surface the points on whose circumference are equidistant from the satellite at the calculated distance. Those circles were then reduced to arcs by eliminating those parts of each circle that lay outside the aircraft's range.: 18 : 4–6 Burst frequency offset (BFO) – the difference between the expected and received frequency of transmissions. The difference is caused by: Doppler shifts as the signals travelled from the aircraft to the satellite to the ground station; the frequency translations made in the satellite and at the ground station; a small, constant error (bias) in the SDU that results from drift and ageing; and compensation applied by the SDU to counter the Doppler shift on the uplink. This measure was analysed to determine the aircraft's speed and heading, but multiple combinations of speed and heading can be valid solutions.: 18 : 9–11 By combining the distance between the aircraft and satellite, speed, and heading with aircraft performance constraints (e.g. fuel consumption, possible speeds and altitudes), investigators generated candidate paths that were analysed separately by two methods. The first assumed the aircraft was flying on one of the three autopilot modes (two are further affected by whether the navigation system used magnetic north or true north as a reference), calculated the BTO and BFO values along these routes, and compared them with the values recorded from Flight 370. The second method generated paths which had the aircraft's speed and heading adjusted at the time of each handshake to minimise the difference between the calculated BFO of the path and the values recorded from Flight 370.: 18, 25–28 : 10–11 A probability distribution for each method at the BTO arc of the sixth handshake of the two methods was created and then compared; 80% of the highest probability paths for both analyses combined intersect the BTO arc of the sixth handshake between 32.5°S and 38.1°S, which can be extrapolated to 33.5°S and 38.3°S along the BTO arc of the seventh handshake.: 12 === Analysis of hydrophone data === In May 2024, researchers at Cardiff University raised questions about the official location and the time of the impact, in Scientific Reports. Dr Usama Kadri stated that hydrophone data relating to MH370's crash identified "only a single, relatively weak signal" within the time frame and location of the official search, unlike the "clear pressure signals" shown in previous accidents' data with such impact. He also noted that, "it is implausible to imagine that a significant crash of an aircraft on the ocean surface would fail to generate a discernible pressure signature," suggesting that controlled explosion experiments could "almost pinpoint" the aircraft's location, or possibly raise the need to reassess the time frame or location currently established. == Speculated causes of disappearance == === Murder-suicide by pilot === Malaysian police investigated the homes of the pilots and examined the financial records of all 12 crew members. According to the preliminary report released by Malaysia in March 2015, there was "no evidence of recent or imminent significant financial transactions carried out" by any pilot or crew member. Additionally, analysis of the pilots' behaviour on CCTV revealed "no significant behavioural changes.": 20, 21 Despite this, US officials consider it likely that someone in the cockpit of Flight 370 reprogrammed the aircraft's autopilot to head south over the Indian Ocean. Media reports have claimed that Malaysian police identified Captain Zaharie as the prime suspect, should human intervention be proven as the cause of the disappearance. In 2020, former Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott stated in a Sky News documentary: "My very clear understanding, from the very top levels of the Malaysian government, is that from very, very early on, they thought it was murder-suicide by the pilot." In 2023, retired engineers and pilots Jean-Luc Marchand and Patrick Blelly gave several conferences on the pilot suicide theory, supporting this argument with extensive analysis and a detailed report published online. ==== Pilot's flight simulator ==== In 2016, New York magazine wrote that a confidential document from the Malaysian police investigation showed an FBI analysis of the flight simulator's computer hard drive found a route on Captain Zaharie's home flight simulator that closely matched the projected flight over the Indian Ocean and that this evidence had been withheld from the publicly released investigative report. New York wrote as follows: New York has obtained a confidential document from the Malaysian police investigation into the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 that shows that the plane's captain, Zaharie Ahmad Shah, conducted a simulated flight deep into the remote southern Indian Ocean less than a month before the plane vanished under uncannily similar circumstances. The revelation, which Malaysia withheld from a lengthy public report on the investigation, is the strongest evidence yet that Zaharie made off with the plane in a premeditated act of mass murder-suicide. [...] The newly unveiled documents [...] suggest Malaysian officials have suppressed at least one key piece of incriminating information. This is not entirely surprising: There is a history in aircraft investigations of national safety boards refusing to believe that their pilots could have intentionally crashed an aircraft full of passengers. The FBI's findings about the flight simulation were confirmed by the ATSB. News of the simulation was also confirmed by the Malaysian government, but reported as "nothing sinister". ==== Power interruption ==== The SATCOM link functioned normally from pre-flight (beginning at 00:00 MYT) until it responded to a ground-to-air ACARS message with an acknowledge message at 01:07. At some time between 01:07 and 02:03, power was lost to the Satellite Data Unit (SDU). The final report stated "it is likely that the loss of communication prior to the diversion is due to the systems being manually turned off or power interrupted to them." Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak said it was clear that the radar transponders and the flight data transmission system were turned off deliberately by someone trying to hide the plane's position and heading. At 02:25, the aircraft's SDU rebooted itself and sent a log-on request.: 22 : 36–39 === Passenger involvement === United States and Malaysian officials reviewed the backgrounds of every passenger named on the manifest. One passenger, who worked as a flight engineer for a Swiss jet charter company, was briefly under suspicion as a potential hijacker because he was thought to have the relevant "aviation skills". Two men were found to have boarded Flight 370 with stolen passports, which raised suspicion in the immediate aftermath of its disappearance. The passports, one Austrian and one Italian, had been reported stolen in Thailand within the preceding two years. The two passengers were later identified as Iranian men, one aged 19 and the other 29, who had entered Malaysia on 28 February using valid Iranian passports. They were believed to be asylum seekers, and the Secretary General of Interpol later stated that the organisation was "inclined to conclude that it was not a terrorist incident". On 18 March, the Chinese government announced that it had checked all of the Chinese citizens on the aircraft and had ruled out the possibility that any were involved in "destruction or terror attacks". === Cargo === Flight 370 was carrying 10,806 kg (23,823 lb) of cargo, of which four unit load devices (standardized cargo containers) of mangosteens (a tropical fruit) (total 4,566 kg (10,066 lb)) and 221 kg (487 lb) of lithium-ion batteries were of interest, according to Malaysian investigators.: 103, 107–109 According to the head of Malaysian police, Khalid Abu Bakar, the people who handled the mangosteens and the Chinese importers were questioned to rule out sabotage. The lithium-ion batteries were contained in a 2,453 kg (5,408 lb) consignment being shipped from Motorola Solutions facilities in Bayan Lepas, Malaysia, to Tianjin, China. They were packaged in accordance with IATA guidelines, but did not go through any additional inspections at Kuala Lumpur International Airport before being loaded onto Flight 370;: 104 Lithium-ion batteries can cause intense fires if they overheat and ignite, which has occurred on other flights, and has led to strict regulations on transport aircraft. === Unresponsive crew or hypoxia === An analysis by the ATSB comparing the evidence available for Flight 370 with three categories of accidents—an in-flight upset (e.g., stall), a glide event (e.g., engine failure, fuel exhaustion), and an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event—concluded that an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event "best fit the available evidence" for the five-hour period of the flight as it travelled south over the Indian Ocean without communication or significant deviations in its track,: 34 likely on autopilot. No consensus exists among investigators on the unresponsive crew or hypoxia theory. If no control inputs were made following flameout and the disengagement of autopilot, the aircraft would likely have entered a spiral dive: 33 and entered the ocean within 20 nmi (37 km; 23 mi) of the flameout and disengagement of autopilot.: 35 The analysis of the flaperon showed that the landing flaps were not extended, supporting the spiral dive at high speed theory. In May 2018, the ATSB again asserted that the flight was not in control when it crashed, its spokesperson adding that "We have quite a bit of data to tell us that the aircraft, if it was being controlled at the end, it wasn't very successfully being controlled". == Aftermath == === Criticism of Malaysian authorities' management of information === Public communication from Malaysian officials regarding the loss of Flight 370 was initially beset with confusion. The Malaysian government and the airline released imprecise, incomplete, and occasionally inaccurate information, with civilian officials sometimes contradicting military leaders. Malaysian officials were criticised for such persistent release of contradictory information, most notably regarding the last location and time of contact with the aircraft. Malaysia's acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin Hussein, who was also the country's Defence Minister (until May 2018), denied the existence of problems between the participating countries, but academics explained that because of regional conflicts, there were genuine trust issues involved in co-operation and sharing intelligence, and that these were hampering the search. International relations experts suggested that entrenched rivalries over sovereignty, security, intelligence, and national interests made meaningful multilateral co-operation very difficult. A Chinese academic made the observation that the parties were searching independently, and it was therefore not a multilateral search effort. The Guardian newspaper noted the Vietnamese permission given for Chinese aircraft to overfly its airspace as a positive sign of co-operation. Vietnam temporarily scaled back its search operations after the country's Deputy Transport Minister cited a lack of communication from Malaysian officials despite requests for more information. China, through the official Xinhua News Agency, urged the Malaysian government to take charge and conduct the operation with greater transparency, a point echoed by the Chinese Foreign Ministry days later. Malaysia had initially declined to release raw data from its military radar, deeming the information "too sensitive", but later acceded. Defence experts suggested that giving others access to radar information could be sensitive on a military level, for example: "The rate at which they can take the picture can also reveal how good the radar system is." One suggested that some countries could already have had radar data on the aircraft, but were reluctant to share any information that could potentially reveal their defence capabilities and compromise their own security. Similarly, submarines patrolling the South China Sea might have information in the event of a water impact, and sharing such information could reveal their locations and listening capabilities. Criticism was also levelled at the delay of the search efforts. On 11 March 2014, three days after the aircraft disappeared, British satellite company Inmarsat (or its partner, SITA) had provided officials with data suggesting that the aircraft was nowhere near the areas in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea being searched at the time, and that it may have diverted its course through a southern or northern corridor. This information was not acknowledged publicly until it was released by the Malaysian Prime Minister in a press conference on 15 March. Explaining why information about satellite signals had not been made available earlier, Malaysia Airlines stated that the raw satellite signals needed to be verified and analysed "so that their significance could be properly understood" before it could publicly confirm their existence. Acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin claimed that Malaysian and US investigators had immediately discussed the Inmarsat data upon receipt on 12 March, and that they had agreed to send the data to the US for further processing on two separate occasions. Data analysis was completed on 14 March, by which time the AAIB had independently arrived at the same conclusion. In June 2014, relatives of passengers on Flight 370 began a crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo to raise US$100,000 (~$132,823 in 2024)—with an ultimate goal of raising US$5 million—as a reward to encourage anyone with knowledge of the location of Flight 370, or the cause of its disappearance, to reveal what they knew. The campaign, which ended on 8 August 2014, raised US$100,516 from 1,007 contributors. === Malaysia Airlines === A month after the disappearance, Malaysia Airlines' chief executive Ahmad Jauhari Yahya acknowledged that ticket sales had declined but failed to provide specific details. This may have partially resulted from the suspension of the airline's advertising campaigns following the disappearance. Ahmad stated in an interview with The Wall Street Journal that the airline's "primary focus...is that we do take care of the families in terms of their emotional needs and also their financial needs. It is important that we provide answers for them. It is important that the world has answers, as well." In further remarks, Ahmad said he was not sure when the airline could start repairing its image, but that the airline was adequately insured to cover the financial loss stemming from Flight 370's disappearance. In China, where the majority of passengers were from, bookings on Malaysia Airlines were down 60% in March. Malaysia Airlines retired the MH370 flight number and replaced it with MH318 (Flight 318) beginning 14 March 2014. This follows a common practice among airlines to redesignate flights after notorious accidents. As of October 2023, Malaysia Airlines still operates the Kuala Lumpur - Beijing route as MH318, however the airline now flies into Beijing Daxing rather than Beijing Capital. Malaysia Airlines was given US$110 million (~$139 million in 2023) from insurers in March 2014 to cover initial payments to passengers' families and the search effort. In May, remarks from lead reinsurer of the flight, Allianz, indicated the insured market loss on Flight 370, including the search, was about US$350 million. In 2017, Malaysia Airlines announced that they are the first airline to sign up for a new service that would track its airplanes anywhere in the world using orbiting satellites. ==== Financial troubles ==== At the time of Flight 370's disappearance, Malaysia Airlines was struggling to cut costs to compete with a wave of new, low-cost carriers in the region. In the previous three years, Malaysia Airlines had booked losses of: RM1.17 billion (US$356 million) in 2013, RM433 million in 2012, and RM2.5 billion in 2011. Malaysia Airlines lost RM443.4 million (US$137.4 million) in the first quarter of 2014 (January–March). The second quarter—the first full quarter in the aftermath of Flight 370's disappearance—saw a loss of RM307.04 million (US$97.6 million), representing a 75% increase over losses from the second quarter of 2013. Industry analysts expected Malaysia Airlines to lose further market share and face a challenging environment to stand out from competitors while addressing its financial plight. The company's stock, down as much as 20% following the disappearance of Flight 370, had fallen 80% over the previous five years, in contrast to a rise in the Malaysian stock market of about 80% over the same period. Many analysts and the media suggested that Malaysia Airlines would need to rebrand and repair its image and require government assistance to return to profitability. The loss of Flight 17 in July greatly exacerbated Malaysia Airline's financial problems. The combined effect on consumer confidence of the loss of Flight 370 and Flight 17, and the airline's poor financial performance, led Khazanah Nasional—the majority shareholder (69.37%) and a Malaysian state-run investment arm—to announce on 8 August its plan to purchase the remainder of the airline, thereby renationalising it. Malaysia Airlines renationalised on 1 September 2015. ==== Compensation for passengers' next of kin ==== Lack of evidence in determining the cause of Flight 370's disappearance, as well as the absence of any physical confirmation that the airplane crashed, raises many issues regarding responsibility for the accident and the payments made by insurance agencies. Under the Montreal Convention, it is the carrier's responsibility to prove lack of fault in an accident and each passenger's next of kin are automatically entitled, regardless of fault, to a payment of approximately US$175,000 from the airline's insurance company—amounting to a total of almost US$40 million for the 227 passengers on board. Malaysia Airlines was also vulnerable to civil action from passengers' families. Compensation awarded during civil cases (or settlements reached out of court) was likely to vary widely among passengers, based on the country where the proceedings were to take place. An American court could be expected to award upwards of US$8–10 million, while Chinese courts would be likely to award a small fraction of that amount. Despite the announcement that the flight ended in the southern Indian Ocean, it was not until 29 January 2015 that the Malaysian government officially declared Flight 370 an accident with no survivors, a move that would allow compensation claims to be made. The first civil case relating to the disappearance was filed in October 2014—even before Flight 370 had been declared an accident—on behalf of two Malaysian boys whose father was a passenger; they were claiming for negligence in failing to contact the aircraft soon after it was lost and for breach of contract for failing to bring the passenger to his destination. Additional civil proceedings against Malaysia Airlines were filed in China and Malaysia. Soon after the disappearance of Flight 370, Malaysia Airlines offered ex gratia condolence payments to families of the passengers. In China, the families were offered ¥31,000 (approx. US$5,000) "comfort money", but some rejected the offer. It was also reported that Malaysian relatives received only $2,000. In June 2014, Malaysia's deputy Foreign Minister Hamzah Zainuddin said that families of seven passengers received $50,000 advance compensation from Malaysia Airlines, but that full payout would come after the aircraft was found, or officially declared lost (which later occurred in January 2015). === Malaysia === ==== Before 2016 ==== Many air force experts raised questions and the Malaysian opposition levelled criticisms about the state of Malaysia's air force and radar capabilities. Many criticised the failure of the Royal Malaysian Air Force to identify and respond to an unidentified aircraft (later determined to be Flight 370) flying through Malaysian airspace. The Malaysian military became aware of the unidentified aircraft only after reviewing radar recordings several hours after the flight's disappearance. The failure to recognise and react to the unidentified aircraft was a security breach, and was also a missed opportunity to intercept Flight 370 and prevent the time-consuming and expensive search operation. The Malaysian Prime Minister, Najib Razak, responded to criticism of his government in an opinion piece published in The Wall Street Journal in which he acknowledged mistakes had been made, and said time would show that Malaysia had done its best, had helped co-ordinate the search, and would continue to provide support. Najib went on to emphasise the need for the aviation industry to "not only learn the lessons of MH370 but implement them," saying in closing that "the world learned from Air France Flight 447 but didn't act. The same mistake must not be made again." Opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim criticised the Malaysian government regarding its response to Flight 370's disappearance and the military's response when Flight 370 turned back over the Malay Peninsula; he called for an international committee to take charge of the investigation "to save the image of the country and to save the country." Malaysian authorities have accused Anwar—who was jailed on contentious charges the day before Flight 370 disappeared—of politicising the crisis. Flight 370's captain was a supporter of Anwar, and the two men were acquainted. Questioned about why Malaysia did not scramble fighter jets to intercept the aircraft as it tracked back across the Malay Peninsula, acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin noted that it was deemed a commercial aircraft and was not hostile, remarking: "If you're not going to shoot it down, what's the point of sending [a fighter jet] up?" According to former air force pilot major Ahmad Zaidi of RMAF Butterworth, no pilot stays on the base during the night, so the aircraft could not have been intercepted. The response to the crisis and lack of transparency in the response brought attention to the state of media in Malaysia. After decades of tight media control, during which government officials were accustomed to passing over issues without scrutiny or accountability, Malaysia was suddenly thrust into the spotlight of the global media and unable to adjust to demands for transparency. ==== March 2020 ==== On 8 March 2020, six years after the disappearance, two memorial events were held to mark the anniversary. Families of MH370 passengers called for a new search for the flight in a bid to seek closure. Malaysia's former Transport Minister Anthony Loke had attended one of the events, expressing regret at being unable to table the compensation documents at the Cabinet level as per his original intent. The families hoped that the new Transport Minister Wee Ka Siong could expedite the compensation matters. Malaysia's transport ministry secretary-general, Datuk Isham Ishak, stated that he had already submitted a request to meet the Prime Minister (Muhyiddin Yassin) the following week of 15 to 22 March so that he could present the paper on compensation for the families of MH370 victims, and that the ministry would also continue to seek support from the new government to resume the search for the missing aircraft. === China === Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister Xie Hangsheng reacted skeptically to the conclusion by the Malaysian government that the aircraft had gone down with no survivors, demanding on 24 March 2014 "all the relevant information and evidence about the satellite data analysis", and said that the Malaysian government must "finish all the work including search and rescue." The following day, Chinese president Xi Jinping sent a special envoy to Kuala Lumpur to consult with the Malaysian government over the missing aircraft. ==== Relatives of passengers ==== In the days following the disappearance of Flight 370, relatives of those on board became increasingly frustrated at the lack of news. On 25 March 2014, around two hundred family members of the Chinese passengers protested outside the Malaysian embassy in Beijing. Relatives who had arrived in Kuala Lumpur after the announcement continued with their protest, accusing Malaysia of hiding the truth and harbouring a murderer. They also wanted an apology from the Malaysian government for its poor initial handling of the disaster and its "premature" conclusion of total loss, drawn without any physical evidence. An op-ed in state media outlet China Daily said that Malaysia was not wholly to be blamed for its poor handling of such a "bizarre" and "unprecedented crisis," and appealed to the Chinese relatives not to allow emotions to prevail over evidence and rationality. The Chinese ambassador to Malaysia defended the Malaysian government's response, stating that the "radical and irresponsible opinions [of the relatives] do not represent the views of Chinese people and the Chinese government". The ambassador also strongly criticised Western media for having "published false news, stoked conflict and even spread rumours" to the detriment of relatives and of Sino–Malaysian relations. On the other hand, a US Department of Defense official criticised China for what he perceived as providing apparently false leads that detracted from the search effort and wasted time and resources. In July 2019, Beijing-based family members of some MH370 victims received notice from Malaysia Airlines that from July 2019 onwards, MAS would discontinue the "Meet the Families" discussion sessions in Beijing, China. This came after around 50 sessions had taken place. ==== Boycotts ==== Some Chinese citizens boycotted all things Malaysian, including holidays and singers, in protest of Malaysia's handling of the Flight 370 investigation. Bookings on Malaysia Airlines from China, where the majority of passengers were from, were down 60% in March. In late March, several major Chinese ticketing agencies—eLong, LY.com, Qunar, and Mango—discontinued the sale of airline tickets to Malaysia and several large Chinese travel agencies reported a 50% drop in tourists compared to the same period the year before. China was the third-largest source of visitors to Malaysia prior to Flight 370's disappearance, accounting for 1.79 million tourists in 2013. One market analyst predicted a 20–40% drop in Chinese tourists to Malaysia, resulting in a loss of 4–8 billion yuan (RM2.1–4.2 billion; US$0.65–1.3 billion). The boycotts were largely led or supported by celebrities. Film star Chen Kun posted a message to Weibo—where he had 70 million followers—stating that he would be boycotting Malaysia until its government told the truth. The post was shared over 70,000 times and drew over 30,000 comments. More than 337,000 people retweeted a tweet from TV host Meng Fei which said that he would join the boycott. China and Malaysia had previously nominated 2014 to be the "Malaysia–China Friendship Year" to celebrate 40 years of diplomatic relations between the two countries. === Air transport industry === The fact that a modern aircraft could disappear in a digitally connected world was met with surprise and disbelief by the public. While changes in the aviation industry often take years to be implemented, airlines and air transport authorities responded swiftly to take action on several measures to reduce the likelihood of a similar incident. ==== Aircraft tracking ==== The International Air Transport Association (IATA)—an industry trade organisation representing more than 240 airlines (accounting for 84% of global air traffic)—and the ICAO began working on implementing new measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. The IATA created a task force (which included several outside stakeholders) to define a minimal set of requirements that any tracking system must meet, allowing airlines to decide the best solution to track their aircraft. The IATA's task force planned to come up with several short-, medium-, and long-term solutions to ensure that information is provided in a timely manner to support search, rescue, and recovery activities in the wake of an aircraft accident. The task force was expected to provide a report to the ICAO on 30 September 2014, but announced on that date that the report would be delayed, citing the need for further clarification on some issues. In December 2014, the IATA task force recommended that, within 12 months, airlines track commercial aircraft in no longer than 15-minute intervals. The IATA itself did not support the deadline, which it believed could not be met by all airlines, but the proposed standard had the support of the ICAO. Although the ICAO can set standards, it has no legal authority, and such standards must be adopted by member states. In 2016, the ICAO adopted a standard that, by November 2018, all aircraft over open ocean report their position every 15 minutes. In March, the ICAO approved an amendment to the Chicago Convention requiring new aircraft manufactured after 1 January 2021 to have autonomous tracking devices which could send location information at least once per minute in distress circumstances. In May 2014, Inmarsat said that it would offer its tracking service for free to all aircraft equipped with an Inmarsat satellite connection (which includes the vast majority of commercial airliners). Inmarsat also changed the time period for handshakes with its terminals from one hour to 15 minutes.: 2 ==== Transponders ==== After the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, calls were made for transponders to become automated rather than manually operated; no changes were made because aviation experts preferred flexible control, in case of malfunctions or electrical emergencies. In the aftermath of Flight 370's disappearance, the air transport industry was still resistant to the installation of automated transponders, which would likely entail significant costs. Pilots also criticised changes of this kind, insisting on the need to cut power to equipment in the event of a fire. Nonetheless, new types of tamper-proof circuit breakers were being considered. ==== Flight recorders ==== The intensive and urgent search for the flight recorders in early April 2014, due to the 30-day battery life of the underwater locator beacons (ULBs) (or "pingers") attached to them, drew attention to their inherent limitations. The maximum distance from the ULBs at which the signal can be detected is normally 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), or 4,500 m (14,800 ft) under favourable conditions.: 11 Even if the flight recorders are located, the cockpit voice recorder memory has the capacity to store only two hours of data, continuously recording over the oldest data. This storage capacity complies with regulations, which take account of the fact that it is usually only the data recordings from the last section of a flight that are needed to determine the cause of an accident. However, the events that led to Flight 370 diverting from its course, before disappearing, took place more than two hours before the flight ended. Given these shortcomings, and the importance of the data stored on flight recorders, Flight 370 has brought to attention new technologies that enable data streaming to the ground. A call to increase the battery life of ULBs was made following the unsuccessful initial search in 2009 for the flight recorders on Air France Flight 447, which were not located until 2011. A formal recommendation that the ULB design be upgraded to offer a longer battery life, or to make the recorders ejectable, had been included in the final report of the board of inquiry into the loss of South African Airways Flight 295 over the Indian Ocean in 1987, but it was not until 2014 that the ICAO made such a recommendation, with implementation required by 2018. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) issued new regulations that require the transmitting time of ULBs fitted to aircraft flight recorders to be increased from 30 to 90 days, to be implemented by 1 January 2020. The agency has also proposed that a new underwater locator beacon with a greater range of transmission should be fitted to aircraft that fly over oceans. In June 2015, Dukane, a manufacturer of underwater locator beacons, began selling beacons with a 90-day battery life. In March 2016, the ICAO adopted several amendments to the Chicago Convention in order to address issues raised by the disappearance of Flight 370. These affected aircraft manufactured after 2020, requiring cockpit voice recorders to record at least 25 hours of data, to ensure that all phases of a flight are recorded. Aircraft designs approved after 2020 must incorporate a means of recovering the flight recorders, or the information contained on them, before the recorders sink below the water. This provision is performance-based so that it can be accomplished by different techniques, such as streaming flight recorder data from a stricken aircraft, or using flight recorders that eject from the aircraft and float on the surface of the water. The new regulations do not require modifications to be made to existing aircraft. ==== Safety recommendations ==== In January 2015, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board cited Flight 370 and Air France Flight 447 when it issued eight safety recommendations related to locating aircraft wreckage in remote or underwater locations, and repeated recommendations for a crash-protected cockpit image recorder and tamper-resistant flight recorders and transponders. == In popular culture == The disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 has been described as "one of the biggest mysteries in modern aviation history". Several documentaries have been produced about the flight. The Smithsonian Channel aired a one-hour documentary on 6 April 2014, titled Malaysia 370: The Plane That Vanished, and the Discovery Channel broadcast a one-hour documentary about Flight 370 on 16 April 2014, titled Flight 370: The Missing Links. On 17 June 2014, an episode of the television documentary series Horizon, titled "Where Is Flight MH370?" was broadcast on BBC Two. The programme documents how the aircraft disappeared, what experts believe to have happened to it, and how the search has unfolded. It also examines new technologies, such as flight recorder streaming and automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B), which may help prevent similar disappearances in the future. The programme concludes by noting that Ocean Shield had spent two months searching 850 km2 (330 sq mi) of ocean, but that it had searched far to the north of the Inmarsat "hotspot" on the final arc, at approximately 28 degrees south, where the aircraft was most likely to have crashed. On 8 October 2014, a modified version of the Horizon programme was broadcast in the U.S. by PBS as an episode of NOVA, titled "Why Planes Vanish". The aviation disaster documentary television series Mayday (also known as Air Crash Investigation and Air Emergency) produced an episode on the disaster, titled "What Happened to Malaysian 370?". The episode aired in the UK on 8 March 2015, the first anniversary of Flight 370's disappearance. In August 2018, the television series Drain the Oceans, which airs on the National Geographic channel, highlighted the disaster, the methods used in the search, and the potential discoveries. Panoply made a podcast story loosely based on the disappearance of MH370, called "Passenger List". Kelly Marie Tran played the lead character. Jeff Rake, creator of the NBC show Manifest, said that after he had pitched his idea for the show without any success, the MH370 disappearance led to the TV network's sudden interest. The first work of fiction about the incident was MH370: A Novella, by New Zealand author Scott Maka. In 2022, a three-part documentary series, titled MH370: The Lost Flight, was released. On the ninth anniversary of the flight's disappearance, 8 March 2023, a three-part docuseries, MH370: The Plane That Disappeared premiered on Netflix. In 2023, American comedian Jocelyn Chia was investigated by Malaysian police for breaching Malaysian laws relating to incitement and offensive online content, after making a joke about the flight at Comedy Cellar in New York City. Acryl Sani Abdullah Sani, chief of the Malaysian police, said an application would be filed to Interpol to find Chia's "full identity" and "latest location". A video of her stand-up performance was removed from TikTok for violating the platform's hate speech guidelines. The Singaporean ambassador to Malaysia stated that Chia (who grew up in Singapore) did not speak for Singaporeans. Vivian Balakrishnan, Singaporean Foreign Minister, called Chia's joke "horrendous statements". Chia stood by the joke, stating that it was being "taken out of context" and had been performed over 100 times without complaints before. == See also == List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft List of aviation accidents and incidents in the 21st century List of missing aircraft List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea List of unrecovered flight recorders List of unsolved deaths == Explanatory notes == == References == == Further reading == Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network ATSB investigation of Flight 370 Archived 26 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine – webpage of Australian Transport Safety Bureau's investigation (Investigation number: AE-2014-054; Investigation title: "Assistance to Malaysian Ministry of Transport in support of missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 on 7 March 2014 UTC") ICAO statement on the first anniversary of the Flight 370 disappearance The data behind the search for MH370 – Interactive analysis of phase 1 sea-floor mapping data from Geoscience Australia Missing flight MH370 – a visual guide to the parts and debris found so far (January 2017) – detailed information about debris Summary of possible MH370 debris recovered (April 2017) "A Timeline of MH370 Physical Evidence". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 8 March 2019. MH 370 Preliminary Report – Preliminary report issued by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, dated 9 April 2014 and released to the public on 1 May 2014. Factual Information: Safety Investigation for MH370 – Interim report released by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport on 8 March 2015 (586 pages). MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas Archived 18 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2014) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 26 June 2014, and the most comprehensive report on Flight 370 publicly released at that time. The report focuses on defining the search area for the fifth phase, but in doing so provides a comprehensive overview/examination of satellite data, the failed searches, and possible "end-of-flight scenarios". MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas Archived 29 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2015) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 3 December 2015, covering the Bayesian analysis made by Australia's Defence Science and Technology Group and other developments since mid-2014 in defining the search area. MH370 – Search and debris examination update Archived 23 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2016) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 2 November 2016, comprising further analysis of satellite data, additional End of Flight simulations, analysis of flight debris (wing flap), and enhanced debris drift modelling. MH370 First Principles Review and CSIRO reports Archived 21 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 20 December 2016, documenting the proceedings and outcomes of the First Principles Review meeting held in Canberra between 2–4 November 2016. The review identified a previously unsearched area of 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) as having the highest probability of containing the aircraft wreckage. The search for MH370 and ocean surface drift – Part III Archived 16 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Report by CSIRO to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 16 August 2017. From the results of drift studies, CSIRO mentions that it is possible to identify a most-likely location of the aircraft, with unprecedented precision and certainty, at 35.6°S 92.8°E, northeast of the main 120,000-km2 underwater search zone. Summary of imagery analyses for non-natural objects Archived 18 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Report by Geoscience Australia, released on 16 August 2017, comprising analysis of imagery from the PLEIADES 1A satellite, of floating objects identified in the southern Indian Ocean. The Operational Search for MH370 (Final) Archived 10 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine – Final report issued by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB), released on 3 October 2017, documenting where and how the search for MH370 was conducted, the results obtained, and analysis for where future underwater searches could be undertaken. It concludes that the reasons for the loss of MH370 cannot be established with certainty until the aircraft is located. Safety Investigation Report by The Malaysian ICAO Annex 13 Safety Investigation Team for MH370 Archived 9 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine with appendices Archived 19 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Final report issued by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, dated 2 July 2018 and released to the public on 30 July 2018. == External links == Official website – maintained by the Malaysian government Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) Australian Maritime Safety Authority MH370 Search – Media kit Australian Transport Safety Bureau Archived 8 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine Malaysia Airlines Archived 29 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Malaysian Ministry of Transport US Department of Defense
Pan Am Flight 103	Pan Am Flight 103 (PA103/PAA103) was a regularly scheduled Pan Am transatlantic flight from Frankfurt to Detroit via a stopover in London and another in New York City. Shortly after 19:00 on 21 December 1988, the Boeing 747 "Clipper Maid of the Seas" was destroyed by a bomb while flying over the Scottish town of Lockerbie, killing all 243 passengers and 16 crew aboard. Large sections of the aircraft crashed in a residential street in Lockerbie, killing 11 residents. With a total of 270 fatalities, the event, which became known as the Lockerbie bombing, is the deadliest terrorist attack in the history of the United Kingdom. Following a three-year joint investigation by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary and the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), arrest warrants were issued for two Libyan nationals in 1991. After protracted negotiations and United Nations sanctions, in 1999, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi handed over the two men for trial at Camp Zeist, the Netherlands. In 2001, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, a Libyan intelligence officer, was found guilty of 270 counts of murder in connection with the bombing, and was sentenced to life imprisonment. His co-accused, Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, was acquitted. In 2009, Megrahi was released by the Scottish Government on compassionate grounds after being diagnosed with prostate cancer. He died in 2012 as the only person to be convicted for the attack. In 2003, Gaddafi accepted Libya's responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing, and paid more than US$1 billion in compensation to the families of the victims. Although Gaddafi maintained that he had never personally given the order for the attack, acceptance of Megrahi's status as a government employee was used to connect responsibility by Libya with a series of requirements laid out by a UN resolution for sanctions against Libya to be lifted. In 2011, during the First Libyan Civil War, former Minister of Justice Mustafa Abdul Jalil said that Gaddafi personally ordered the bombing. As all the accomplices required for such a complex operation were never identified, or convicted, many conspiracy theories have swirled, such as East German Stasi agents having a possible role in the attack. Some relatives of the dead, including Lockerbie campaigner Jim Swire, believe the bomb was planted at Heathrow Airport, possibly by a sleeper cell belonging to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command, which had been operating in West Germany in the months before the Pan Am bombing, and not sent via feeder flights from Malta, as suggested by the US and UK governments. In 2020, US authorities indicted the Tunisian resident and Libyan national Abu Agila Masud, who was 37 years old at the time of the incident, for participating in the bombing. He was taken into custody in 2022, pleading not guilty in 2023. A federal trial is set for 2025. Pan Am 103 was the second Boeing 747 which was lost to a mid-air bombing, after Air India 182 in June 1985. == Aircraft == The aircraft operating Pan Am Flight 103 was a Boeing 747-121, MSN 19646, registered as N739PA and named Clipper Maid of the Seas. Before 1979, it had been named Clipper Morning Light. It was the 15th 747 built and had first flown on 25 January 1970. It was delivered to Pan Am on 15 February, one month after the first 747 entered service with Pan Am. In 1978, as Clipper Morning Light, it had appeared in "Conquering the Atlantic", the fourth episode of the BBC Television documentary series Diamonds in the Sky, presented by Julian Pettifer. == Flight == Pan Am 103 originated as a feeder flight at Frankfurt Airport, West Germany, using a Boeing 727 and the flight number PA103-A. Both Pan Am and Trans World Airlines routinely changed the type of aircraft operating different legs of a flight. PA103 was bookable as either a single Frankfurt–New York or a Frankfurt–Detroit itinerary, though a scheduled change of aircraft took place in London's Heathrow Airport. After the bombing, the flight number was changed, in accordance with standard practice among airlines after disasters. The Frankfurt–London–New York–Detroit route was being served by Pan Am Flight 3 until the company's demise in 1991. == Explosion and impact timeline == === Departure === On its arrival at Heathrow Terminal 3 on the day of the disaster, the passengers and their luggage (as well as an unaccompanied suitcase which was part of the interline luggage on the feeder flight) were transferred directly to Clipper Maid of the Seas, a Boeing 747-100 with the registration N739PA whose previous flight had originated from Los Angeles and arrived via San Francisco as flight PA 124, landing at 12 noon and parking at Gate K-14. The plane, which operated the flight's transatlantic leg, pushed back from the terminal at 18:04 and took off from runway 27R at 18:25, bound for New York JFK Airport and then Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport. Contrary to many popular accounts of the disaster (though repeated, with reference, below), the flight, which had a scheduled gate departure time of 18:00, left Heathrow airport on time. === Loss of contact === At 18:58, the aircraft established two-way radio contact with Shanwick Oceanic Area Control in Prestwick, Scotland, on 123.95 MHz. The transmission was made by Captain MacQuarrie. He transmitted, "Good evening, Scottish. Clipper 103. We are level at 310." The controller responded, "103, you are identified." Clipper Maid of the Seas approached the corner of the Solway Firth at 19:01, and crossed the coast at 19:02 UTC. On scope, the aircraft showed transponder code, or "squawk", 0357 and flight level 310. At this point, the Clipper Maid of the Seas was flying at 31,000 feet (9,400 metres) on a heading of 316° magnetic, and at a speed of 313 kn (580 km/h; 360 mph) calibrated airspeed. Subsequent analysis of the radar returns by RSRE concluded that the aircraft was tracking 321° (grid) and traveling at a ground speed of 803 km/h (499 mph; 434 kn). At 19:02:44 Alan Topp, the airways controller at Scottish Air Traffic Control Centre (ATC), transmitted its oceanic route clearance on behalf of Shanwick. The aircraft did not acknowledge this message. Clipper Maid of the Seas's "squawk" then flickered off at 55.0866670, -3.3291669, just slightly northeast of the town of Kettleholm. Air traffic control tried to make contact with the flight, with no response. A loud noise was recorded on the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) at 19:02:50. Five radar echoes fanning out appeared, instead of one. Comparison of the CVR to the radar returns showed that, eight seconds after the explosion, the wreckage had a 1-nautical-mile (1.9 km) spread. A British Airways pilot, flying the London–Glasgow shuttle near Carlisle, called Scottish ATC to report that he could see a huge fire on the ground. === Disintegration of aircraft === The explosion punched a 50 cm (20 in) hole on the left side of the fuselage. Investigators from the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) concluded that no emergency procedures had been started in the cockpit. The CVR, located in the tail section of the aircraft, was found in a field (55.1244439, -3.3400000) by police searchers within 24 hours. No distress call was recorded; a 180-millisecond hissing noise could be heard as the explosion destroyed the aircraft's communications center. The explosion in the aircraft hold was magnified by the uncontrolled decompression of the fuselage – a large difference in pressure between the aircraft's interior and exterior. The aircraft's elevator- and rudder-control cables had been disrupted and the fuselage pitched downwards and to the left. Investigators from the Air Accidents Investigation Branch of the British Department for Transport concluded that the nose of the aircraft was blown off and separated from the main fuselage within three seconds of the explosion. The nose cone was briefly held on by a band of metal, but facing aft, like the lid of a can. It then sheared off, up, and backwards to starboard, striking off the number-three engine and landing some distance outside the town, on a hill in Tundergarth (55.1146939, -3.2964999). === Fuselage impact === The fuselage continued moving forward and down until it reached 19,000 ft (5,800 m), when its dive became nearly vertical.: 44 Due to the extreme flutter, the vertical stabilizer disintegrated, which in turn produced large yawing movements. As the forward fuselage continued to disintegrate, the flying debris tore off both of the horizontal stabilizers, while the rear fuselage, the remaining three engines, and the fin torque box separated. The rear fuselage, parts of the baggage hold, and three landing gear units landed at Rosebank Crescent (55.1183929, -3.3495579).: 44 The fuselage consisting of the main wing box structure landed in Sherwood Crescent (55.1154462, -3.3584459), destroying three homes and creating a large impact crater. The 200,000 lb (91,000 kg) of jet fuel ignited by the impact started fires, which destroyed several additional houses.: 4 Investigators determined that both wings had landed in the Sherwood Crescent crater, saying, "the total absence of debris from the wing primary structure found remote from the crater confirmed the initial impression that the complete wing box structure had been present at the main impact.": 16 The British Geological Survey 23 kilometres (14 mi) away at Eskdalemuir registered a seismic event at 19:03:36 measuring 1.6 on the moment magnitude scale, which was attributed to the impact. According to the report, the rest of the wreckage composed of "the complete fuselage forward of approximately station 480 to station 380 and incorporating the flight deck and nose landing gear was found as one piece in a field approximately 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) east of Lockerbie.": 16 This field (55.1146939, -3.2964999), located opposite Tundergarth Church, is where the wreckage most easily identified with images of the incident in the media fell, having fallen "almost flat on its left side, but with a slight nose-down attitude.": 16 == Victims == All 243 passengers and 16 crew members were killed, as were 11 residents of Lockerbie on the ground. Of the 270 total fatalities, 190 were American citizens and 43 were British citizens. Nineteen other nationalities were represented, with four or fewer passengers per country. === Crew === Flight 103 was under the command of Captain James B. MacQuarrie (55), a Pan Am pilot since 1964 with almost 11,000 flight hours, of which more than 4,000 had been accrued in 747 aircraft. He previously served three years in the U.S. Navy and five years in the Massachusetts Air National Guard, where he held the rank of major. First Officer Raymond R. Wagner (52), a pilot with Pan Am since 1966 with almost 5,500 hours in the 747 and a total of nearly 12,000 hours, had previously served eight years in the New Jersey National Guard. Flight Engineer Jerry D. Avritt (46), who joined Pan Am in 1980 after 13 years with National Airlines, had more than 8,000 hours of flying time, with nearly 500 hours in the 747. The cockpit crew was based at John F. Kennedy International Airport. Six of the 13 cabin crew members became naturalized U.S. citizens while working for Pan Am. The cabin crew was based at Heathrow and lived in the London area or commuted from around Europe. All were originally hired by Pan Am and seniority ranged from 9 months to 28 years. The cabin crew consisted of Senior Purser Gerry Murphy (51) with 25 years' service at Pan Am, Purser Milutin Velimirovich (35) with 10 years' service, Siv Engstrom (51) with 28 years' service, Nicole Avoyne-Clemens (44) with 20 years' service, Elke Kuhne (43) with 18 years' service Noëlle Berti-Campbell (40) with 18 years' service, Maria Larracoechea (39) with 17 years' service, Irja Skabo (38) with 16 years' service, Paul Garrett (41) with 15 years' service, Lilibeth Macalolooy (27) with 3 years' service, Jocelyn Reina (26) with 1 year's service, Myra Royal (30) with 9 months' service, and Stacie Franklin (20) with 9 months' service. The captain, first officer, flight engineer, a flight attendant and several first-class passengers were found still strapped to their seats inside the nose section when it crashed in Tundergarth. A flight attendant was found alive by a local woman, but died before help could be summoned. Some passengers may also have remained alive briefly after impact; a pathologist's report concluded that at least two of these passengers might have survived if they had received medical attention in time. === Passengers === ==== Syracuse University students ==== Thirty-five of the passengers were students from Syracuse University, who participated in the university's Division of International Programs Abroad (abbreviated as "DIPA Program" and renamed to "Syracuse University Abroad" in 2006, while also known as "Syracuse Abroad" and "Study Abroad Program") and were returning home for Christmas following a semester in Syracuse's London and European campuses. Ten of these students were from other universities and colleges (including but not limited to Colgate University and University of Colorado) having collaborative relationships with Syracuse. Several of the students were due to connect to Pan Am Express Flight 4919 to Syracuse Hancock International Airport at JFK Airport later that evening. Many of their bodies were found at Rosebank Crescent, 1⁄2 mi (0.8 km) from Sherwood Crescent. The rear fuselage of the plane, where many of them sat, destroyed one of the houses of Rosebank Crescent, 71 Park Place, the home of Lockerbie resident Ella Ramsden, who survived. The bodies of two of these students were never recovered. ==== Notable passengers ==== Prominent among the passenger victims was the 50-year-old UN Commissioner for Namibia (then South West Africa), Bernt Carlsson, who would have attended the signing ceremony of the New York Accords at the UN headquarters the following day. James Fuller, CEO of Volkswagen of America, was returning home together with marketing director Lou Marengo from a meeting with Volkswagen executives in Germany. Also aboard were Irish Olympic sailor Peter Dix, rock musician Paul Jeffreys and his wife, Rachel Jeffreys (née Jones), Dr. Irving Sigal, a molecular biologist, and Jonathan White, 33, an American accountant and son of David White, American actor who played Larry Tate on Bewitched. ==== US government officials ==== Aboard the flight were Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) Special Agents Daniel Emmett O'Connor and Ronald Albert Lariviere. Matthew Gannon, the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) deputy station chief in Beirut, Lebanon, was sitting in seat 14J, which was located in the business class (branded as "Clipper Class") cabin. A group of US intelligence specialists was on board the flight. Their presence gave rise to speculations and conspiracy theories that one or more of them had been targeted. === Lockerbie residents === Eleven Lockerbie residents on Sherwood Crescent were killed when the wing section hit the house at 13 Sherwood Crescent at more than 800 km/h (500 mph) and exploded, creating a crater 47 m (154 ft) long and with a volume of 560 m3 (20,000 cu ft; 730 cu yd). The property was completely destroyed and its two occupants were killed. Their bodies were never found. Several other houses and their foundations were destroyed, and 21 others were damaged beyond repair. A family of four was killed when their house at 15 Sherwood Crescent exploded. A couple and their daughter were killed by the explosion in their house at 16 Sherwood Crescent. Their son witnessed a fireball engulfing his home from a neighbor's garage, where he had been repairing his sister's bicycle. The other Lockerbie residents who died were two widows aged 82 and 81, who also both lived in Sherwood Crescent; they were the two oldest victims of the disaster. Patrick Keegans, Lockerbie's Catholic priest, was preparing to visit friends around 7:00 that evening with his mother, having recently been appointed a parish priest of the town. Keegans' house at 1 Sherwood Crescent was the only one on the street that was not either destroyed by the impact or gutted by fire. According to a BBC article on the fire published in 2018, Keegans had gone upstairs to make sure that he had hidden his mother's Christmas present, and recalls, "Immediately after that, there was an enormous explosion". Following this, "the shaking stopped and to his surprise he was uninjured". Keegans' mother was also unharmed, having been shielded from debris by a refrigerator-freezer. Many of the passengers' relatives, most of them from the US, arrived there within days to identify the dead. Volunteers from Lockerbie set up and staffed canteens which stayed open 24 hours a day and offered relatives, soldiers, police officers, and social workers free sandwiches, hot meals, beverages, and counseling. The people of the town washed, dried, and ironed every piece of clothing that was found once the police had determined they were of no forensic value, so that as many items as possible could be returned to the relatives. The BBC's Scotland correspondent, Andrew Cassell, reported on the 10th anniversary of the bombing that the townspeople had "opened their homes and hearts" to the relatives, bearing their own losses "stoically and with enormous dignity", and that the bonds forged then continue to this day. == Prior alerts == Two alerts were released shortly before the bombing. === Helsinki warning === On 5 December 1988 (16 days prior to the attack), the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a security bulletin saying that, on that day, a man with an Arabic accent had telephoned the US Embassy in Helsinki, Finland, and told them that a Pan Am flight from Frankfurt to the United States would be blown up within the next two weeks by someone associated with the Palestinian militant Abu Nidal Organization; he said a Finnish woman would carry the bomb on board as an unwitting courier. The anonymous warning was taken seriously by the US government and the State Department cabled the bulletin to dozens of embassies. The FAA sent it to all US carriers, including Pan Am, which had charged each of the passengers a $5 security surcharge, promising a "program that will screen passengers, employees, airport facilities, baggage, and aircraft with unrelenting thoroughness"; the security team in Frankfurt found the warning under a pile of papers on a desk the day after the bombing. One of the Frankfurt security screeners, whose job was to spot explosive devices under X-ray, told ABC News that she had first learned what Semtex (a plastic explosive) was during her ABC interview 11 months after the bombing. On 13 December, the warning was posted on bulletin boards in the US Embassy in Moscow and eventually distributed to the entire American community there, including journalists and businessmen. === PLO's warning === Just days before the bombing, security forces in European countries, including the UK, were put on alert after a warning from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) that extremists might launch terrorist attacks to undermine the then-ongoing dialogue between the United States and the PLO. == Claims of responsibility == On the day of the bombing, the French Directorate-General for External Security was informed by their British counterpart MI6 that the UK suspected the Libyans to be behind the bombing. According to a CIA analysis dated 22 December 1988, several groups were quick to claim responsibility in telephone calls in the United States and Europe: A male caller claimed that a group called the "Guardians of the Islamic Revolution" had destroyed the plane in retaliation for Iran Air Flight 655 being shot down by US forces in the Persian Gulf the previous July. A caller claiming to represent the Islamic Jihad Organization told ABC News in New York that the group had planted the bomb to commemorate Christmas. Another caller claimed the plane had been downed by Mossad, the Israeli intelligence service. The list's author noted, "We consider the claims from the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution as the most credible one received so far," but the analysis concluded, "We cannot assign responsibility for this tragedy to any terrorist group at this time. We anticipate that, as often happens, many groups will seek to claim credit." In 2003, under pressure from international sanctions, Muammar Gaddafi took responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing, as leader of his government, and paid compensation to the victims' families, while maintaining that he personally had not ordered the attack. On 22 February 2011, during the Libyan Civil War, former Minister of Justice Mustafa Abdul Jalil stated in an interview with the Swedish newspaper Expressen that Gaddafi had personally ordered the bombing. Jalil claimed to possess "documents that prove [his allegations] and [that he is] ready to hand them over to the international criminal court." == Investigation == The original prime suspect in the bombing was the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC), a Syria-based group led by Ahmed Jibril. A flood of warnings immediately preceding the disaster had included one that read: 'team of Palestinians not associated with PLO intends to attack US targets in Europe. Time frame is present. Targets specified are Pan Am Airlines and US military bases.' Five weeks before this warning, Jibril's right-hand man, Haffez Dalkamoni, had been arrested in Frankfurt with a known bomb-maker, Marwen Khreesat. "Later US intelligence officials confirmed that members of the group had been monitoring Pan Am's facilities at Frankfurt airport. On Dalkamoni's account bombs made by Khreesat were at large somewhere." A deep-cover CIA agent was told by up to 15 high-level Syrian officials that the PFLP-GC was involved and that officials interacted with Jibril "on a constant basis". In 2014, an Iranian ex-spy asserted that Iran ordered the attack. The Iranian foreign ministry swiftly denied any involvement. === Civil investigation === ==== Crash site ==== The initial investigation into the crash site by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary involved many helicopter surveys, satellite imaging, and a search of the area by police and soldiers. The wreckage of the crash was scattered over 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi), and AAIB investigators were confronted by a massive jigsaw puzzle in trying to piece the plane back together. In total, 4 million pieces of wreckage were collected and registered on computer files. More than 10,000 pieces of debris were retrieved, tagged, and entered into a computer tracking system. The perpetrators had apparently intended the plane to crash into the sea, destroying any traceable evidence, but its explosion over land left a trail of evidence. The fuselage of the aircraft was reconstructed by air accident investigators, revealing a 20-inch (510 mm) hole consistent with an explosion in the forward cargo hold. Examination of the baggage containers revealed that the container nearest the hole had blackening, pitting, and severe damage, indicating a "high-energy event" had taken place inside it. A series of test explosions was carried out to confirm the precise location and quantity of explosive used. Fragments of a Samsonite suitcase believed to have contained the bomb were recovered, together with parts and pieces of circuit board identified as components of a Toshiba 'Bombeat' RT-SF16, radio cassette player, similar to that used to conceal a Semtex bomb seized by West German police from the Palestinian militant group PFLP-GC two months earlier. Items of baby clothing, which were subsequently proven to have been made in Malta, were thought to have come from the same suitcase. ==== Witnesses ==== The clothes were traced to a Maltese merchant, Tony Gauci, who became a key prosecution witness, testifying that he sold the clothes to a man of Libyan appearance. Gauci was interviewed 23 times, giving contradictory evidence about who had bought the clothes, that person's age and appearance, and the date of purchase, but later identified Abdelbaset al-Megrahi. As Megrahi had only been in Malta on 7 December, that date was assumed to be the purchase date. However, this date is in doubt, as Gauci had testified that Malta's Christmas lights had not been on when the clothes had been purchased; the lights were later found to have been switched on on 6 December. Scottish police had also failed to inform the defense that another witness had testified seeing Libyan men making a similar purchase on a different day. An official report, providing information not made available to the defense during the original trial, stated that on 19 April 1999, four days before identifying al-Megrahi for the first time, Gauci had seen a picture of al-Megrahi in a magazine that connected him to the bombing, a fact that could have distorted his judgement. Gauci was shown the same magazine during his testimony at al-Megrahi's trial and asked if he had identified the photograph in April 1999 as being the person who purchased the clothing; he was then asked if that person was in the court. Gauci then identified al-Megrahi for the court, stating "He is the man on this side. He resembles him a lot". A circuit board fragment, allegedly found embedded in a piece of charred material, was identified as part of an electronic timer similar to one found on a Libyan intelligence agent who had been arrested 10 months previously for carrying materials for a Semtex bomb. The timer was allegedly traced through its Swiss manufacturer, Mebo, to the Libyan military, and Mebo employee Ulrich Lumpert identified the fragment at al-Megrahi's trial. Mebo's owner, Edwin Bollier, testified at the trial that the Scottish police had originally shown him a fragment of a brown eight-ply circuit board from a prototype timer which had never been supplied to Libya. Yet the sample he was asked to identify at the trial was a green nine-ply circuit board that Mebo had indeed supplied to Libya. Bollier wanted to pursue this discrepancy, but was told by trial judge Lord Sutherland that he could not do so. Bollier claimed that in 1991 he had declined an offer of US$4 million from the FBI (equivalent to US$8 million in 2023 dollars) in exchange for his support of the main line of inquiry. === Criminal inquiry === Known as the Lockerbie bombing and the Lockerbie air disaster in the UK, it was described by Scotland's Lord Advocate as the UK's largest criminal inquiry led by the smallest police force in Britain, Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary. After a three-year joint investigation by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary and the US FBI, during which 15,000 witness statements were taken, indictments for murder were issued on 13 November 1991 against Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, a Libyan intelligence officer and the head of security for Libyan Arab Airlines (LAA), and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, the LAA station manager in Luqa Airport, Malta. UN sanctions against Libya and protracted negotiations with Libyan leader Colonel Muammar Gaddafi secured the handover of the accused on 5 April 1999 to Scottish police at Camp Zeist, the Netherlands, which was selected as a neutral venue for their trial. Both of the accused chose not to give evidence in court. On 31 January 2001, Megrahi was convicted of murder by a panel of three Scottish judges, and sentenced to life imprisonment, but Fhimah was acquitted. Megrahi's appeal against his conviction was refused on 14 March 2002, and his application to the European Court of Human Rights was declared inadmissible in July 2003. On 23 September 2003, Megrahi applied to the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission (SCCRC) for his conviction to be reviewed, and on 28 June 2007, the SCCRC announced its decision to refer the case to the High Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh after it found he "may have suffered a miscarriage of justice". Megrahi served more than 10 years of his sentence (beginning 5 April 1999), first in Barlinnie prison, Glasgow, and later in Greenock prison, Renfrewshire, throughout which time he maintained that he was innocent of the charges against him. He was released from prison on compassionate grounds on 20 August 2009. In October 2015, Scottish prosecutors announced that they wanted to interview two Libyan nationals, whom they had identified as new suspects, over the bombing. On 21 December 2020, the 32nd anniversary of the disaster, the United States attorney general announced that Abu Agela Mas'ud Kheir Al-Marimi, a Libyan national in custody in Libya, had been charged with terrorism-related crimes in connection with the bombing, accusing him of involvement in constructing the bomb. On 11 December 2022, the United States advised they had Abu Agila Mohammad Mas'ud Kheir Al-Marimi in custody. ==== Aftermath ==== Following the bombing, as information emerged that warnings had been received, many people, both relatives of the victims as well as the general public, were outraged at the FAA and airlines for not disclosing information. Frustrated with a lack of accountability from government officials and agencies, the families of the victims created a lobbyist/support group known as "Victims of Pan Am Flight 103". This group, with the support of United States Senator Alfonse D'Amato of New York, in hearings before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, offered the group's prepared statement for inclusion in the record of the hearings. == Trial, appeals, and release == On 3 May 2000, the trial of Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah began. Megrahi was found guilty of 270 counts of murder on 31 January 2001, and was sentenced to life imprisonment in Scotland; his co-defendant, Fhimah, was found not guilty. The Lockerbie judgment stated: From the evidence which we have discussed so far, we are satisfied that it has been proved that the primary suitcase containing the explosive device was dispatched from Malta, passed through Frankfurt, and was loaded onto PA103 at Heathrow. It is, as we have said, clear that with one exception, the clothing in the primary suitcase was the clothing purchased in Mr Gauci's shop on 7 December 1988. The purchaser was, on Mr Gauci's evidence, a Libyan. The trigger for the explosion was an MST-13 timer of the single solder mask variety. A substantial quantity of such timers had been supplied to Libya. We cannot say that it is impossible that the clothing might have been taken from Malta, united somewhere with a timer from some source other than Libya and introduced into the airline baggage system at Frankfurt or Heathrow. When, however, the evidence regarding the clothing, the purchaser, and the timer is taken with the evidence that an unaccompanied bag was taken from KM180 to PA103A, the inference that that was the primary suitcase becomes, in our view, irresistible. As we have also said, the absence of an explanation as to how the suitcase was taken into the system at Luqa is a major difficulty for the Crown case, but after taking full account of that difficulty, we remain of the view that the primary suitcase began its journey at Luqa. The clear inference which we draw from this evidence is that the conception, planning and execution of the plot which led to the planting of the explosive device was of Libyan origin. While no doubt organisations such as the PFLP-GC and the PPSF were also engaged in terrorist activities during the same period, we are satisfied that there was no evidence from which we could infer that they were involved in this particular act of terrorism, and the evidence relating to their activities does not create a reasonable doubt in our minds about the Libyan origin of this crime. === Appeal === The defense team had 14 days in which to appeal against Megrahi's conviction, and an additional six weeks to submit the full grounds of the appeal. These were considered by a judge sitting in private who decided to grant Megrahi leave to appeal. The only basis for an appeal under Scots law is that a "miscarriage of justice" had occurred, which is not defined in statute, so the appeal court must determine the meaning of these words in each case. Because three judges and one alternate judge had presided over the trial, five judges were required to preside over the Court of Criminal Appeal: Lord Cullen, Lord Justice-General, Lord Kirkwood, Lord Osborne, Lord Macfadyen, and Lord Nimmo Smith. In what was described as a milestone in Scottish legal history, Lord Cullen granted the BBC permission in January 2002 to televise the appeal, and to broadcast it on the Internet in English with a simultaneous Arabic translation. William Taylor QC, leading the defense, said at the appeal's opening on 23 January 2002 that the three trial judges sitting without a jury had failed to see the relevance of "significant" evidence and had accepted unreliable facts. He argued that the verdict was not one that a reasonable jury in an ordinary trial could have reached if it were given proper directions by the judge. The grounds of the appeal rested on two areas of evidence where the defense claimed the original court was mistaken: the evidence of Maltese shopkeeper, Tony Gauci, which the judges accepted as sufficient to prove that the "primary suitcase" started its journey in Malta; and, disputing the prosecution's case, fresh evidence would be adduced to show that the bomb's journey actually started at Heathrow. That evidence, which was not heard at the trial, showed that at some time in the two hours before 00:35 on 21 December 1988, a padlock had been forced on a secure door giving access air side in Terminal 3 of Heathrow airport, near to the area referred to at the trial as the "baggage build-up area". Taylor claimed that the PA 103 bomb could have been planted then. On 14 March 2002, Lord Cullen took less than three minutes to deliver the decision of the High Court of Judiciary. The five judges rejected the appeal, ruling unanimously that "none of the grounds of appeal was well-founded", adding "this brings proceedings to an end". The following day, a helicopter took Megrahi from Camp Zeist to continue his life sentence in Barlinnie Prison, Glasgow. === SCCRC review === Megrahi's lawyers applied to the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission (SCCRC) on 23 September 2003 to have his case referred back to the Court of Criminal Appeal for a fresh appeal against conviction. The application to the SCCRC followed the publication of two reports in February 2001 and March 2002 by Hans Köchler, who had been an international observer at Camp Zeist, appointed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Köchler described the decisions of the trial and appeal courts as a "spectacular miscarriage of justice". Köchler also issued a series of statements in 2003, 2005, and 2007 calling for an independent international inquiry into the case and accusing the West of "double standards in criminal justice" in relation to the Lockerbie trial on the one hand and the HIV trial in Libya on the other. On 28 June 2007, the SCCRC announced its decision to refer Megrahi's case to the High Court for a second appeal against conviction. The SCCRC's decision was based on facts set out in an 800-page report that determined that "a miscarriage of justice may have occurred". Köchler criticized the SCCRC for exonerating police, prosecutors and forensic staff from blame in respect of Megrahi's alleged wrongful conviction. He told The Herald of 29 June 2007: "No officials to be blamed, simply a Maltese shopkeeper." Köchler also highlighted the role of intelligence services in the trial and stated that proper judicial proceedings could not be conducted under conditions in which extrajudicial forces are allowed to intervene. === Second appeal === A procedural hearing at the Appeal Court took place on 11 October 2007 when prosecution lawyers and Megrahi's defense counsel, Maggie Scott QC, discussed a number of legal issues with a panel of three judges. One of the issues concerned a number of documents that were shown before the trial to the prosecution, but were not disclosed to the defense. The documents are understood to relate to the Mebo MST-13 timer that allegedly detonated the PA103 bomb. Maggie Scott also asked for documents relating to an alleged payment of $2 million made to Maltese merchant, Tony Gauci, for his testimony at the trial, which led to the conviction of Megrahi. On 15 October 2008, five Scottish judges decided unanimously to reject a submission by the Crown Office, which sought to limit the scope of Megrahi's second appeal to the specific grounds of appeal that were identified by the SCCRC in June 2007. In January 2009, it was reported that, although Megrahi's second appeal against conviction was scheduled to begin in April 2009, the hearing could last as long as 12 months because of the complexity of the case and volume of material to be examined. The second appeal began on 28 April 2009, lasted for one month and was adjourned in May 2009. On 7 July 2009, the court reassembled for a procedural hearing and was told that because of the illness of one of the judges, Lord Wheatley, who was recovering from heart surgery, the final two substantive appeal sessions would run from 2 November to 11 December 2009, and 12 January to 26 February 2010. Megrahi's lawyer Maggie Scott expressed dismay at the delays: "There is a very serious danger that my client will die before the case is determined." === Compassionate release and controversy === On 25 July 2009, Megrahi applied to be released from jail on compassionate grounds. Three weeks later, on 12 August 2009, Megrahi applied to have his second appeal dropped and was granted compassionate release for his terminal prostate cancer. On 20 August 2009, Megrahi was released from prison and traveled by chartered jet to Libya. His survival beyond the approximate "three-month" prognosis generated some controversy. It is believed that, following his release, Al-Megrahi was prescribed abiraterone and prednisone, a combination that extends median survival by an average of 14.8 months. After hospital treatment ended, he returned to his family home. Following his release, Megrahi published evidence on the Internet that was gathered for the abandoned second appeal which he claimed would clear his name. Allegations have been made that the UK government and BP sought Al-Megrahi's release as part of a trade deal with Libya. In 2008, the UK government "decided to 'do all it could' to help the Libyans get Al-Megrahi home ... and explained the legal procedure for compassionate release to the Libyans." Megrahi was released on license, so was obliged to remain in regular contact with East Renfrewshire Council. On 26 August 2011, it was announced that the whereabouts of Al-Megrahi were unknown due to the social upheaval in Libya and that he had not been in contact for some time. On 29 August, it was reported that he had been located and both the Scottish government and the council issued a statement confirming that they had been in contact with his family and that his license had not been breached. MP Andrew Mitchell said Al-Megrahi was comatose and near death. CNN reporter Nic Robertson said he was "just a shell of the man he once was" and was surviving on oxygen and an intravenous drip. In an interview on BBC Radio 5 Live, former US ambassador to the United Nations John Bolton called for Al-Megrahi to be extradited. To me it will be a signal of how serious the rebel government is for good relations with the United States and the West if they hand over Megrahi for trial. Mohammed al-Alagi, justice minister for the new leadership in Tripoli, said "the council would not allow any Libyan to be deported to face trial in another country ... Abdelbaset al-Megrahi has already been judged once, and will not be judged again." Megrahi died of prostate cancer in Libya on 20 May 2012. Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond said that people should use the occasion to remember the Lockerbie victims. == 2020 indictment == In 2020, US authorities indicted Libyan national Abu Agila Mohammad Mas'ud Kheir Al-Marimi for participating in the bombing. In December 2022, the United States government obtained custody of 71-year-old Mas'ud. According to The New York Times, Mas'ud was born in Tunisia in 1951, before he became a citizen of Libya as a child after he moved to Tripoli, Libya. Beginning at the age of 22 in 1973, he began working with bombs for the Libyan intelligence service for the next 38 years. Shortly after finishing his longtime run at the job, Mas'ud was arrested and imprisoned in Misurata, Libya before being moved to Al-Hadba prison in Tripoli, which happened shortly after the fall of Gaddafi in 2011. After the United States government obtained custody of Mas'ud, heads of the Defense and Foreign Affairs Committees of the Libyan Parliament, Talal al-Mihoub and Youssef al-Aqouri, demanded an urgent investigation into the extradition of Mas'ud, calling it a blatant violation of national sovereignty and an infringement of the rights of the Libyan citizen. They stressed that the case file had been completely closed politically and legally, according to the text of the agreement signed between the United States and Libya in 2003. == Alleged motives == === Libya === Until 2002, Libya had never formally admitted to carrying out the 1988 Lockerbie bombing. On 16 August 2003, Libya formally admitted responsibility for Pan Am Flight 103 in a letter presented to the president of the United Nations Security Council. Felicity Barringer of The New York Times said that the letter had "general language that lacked any expression of remorse" for the people killed in the bombing. The letter stated that it "accepted responsibility for the actions of its officials". The motive that is generally attributed to Libya can be traced back to a series of military confrontations with the US Navy that took place in the 1980s in the Gulf of Sidra, the whole of which Libya claimed as its territorial waters. First, there was the Gulf of Sidra incident (1981) when two Libyan fighter aircraft were shot down by two US Navy F-14 Tomcat fighters. Then, two Libyan radio ships were sunk in the Gulf of Sidra. Later, on 23 March 1986, a Libyan Navy patrol boat was sunk in the Gulf of Sidra, followed by the sinking of another Libyan vessel on 25 March 1986. The Libyan leader, Muammar Gaddafi, was accused by the US government of retaliating for these sinkings by ordering the April 1986 bombing of La Belle, a West Berlin nightclub frequented by US military personnel, killing three people and injuring 230. The US National Security Agency's (NSA) alleged interception of an incriminatory message from Libya to its embassy in East Berlin provided US President Ronald Reagan with the justification for Operation El Dorado Canyon on 15 April 1986, with US Navy and US Marine Corps warplanes launching from three aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Sidra and US Air Force warplanes launching from two British bases—the first US military strikes from Britain since World War II—against Tripoli and Benghazi in Libya. The Libyan government claimed the air strikes killed Hana Gaddafi, a daughter Gaddafi claimed he had adopted (her reported age has varied between 15 months and seven years). To avenge his daughter's supposed death (although Hana or Hanna's actual fate remains disputed), Gaddafi is said to have sponsored the September 1986 hijacking of Pan Am Flight 73 in Karachi, Pakistan. In turn, the US encouraged the Chadian National Armed Forces (FANT) and it also aided them by supplying them with satellite intelligence during the Battle of Maaten al-Sarra. The attack resulted in a devastating defeat for Gaddafi's forces, following which he had to accede to a ceasefire ending the Chadian-Libyan conflict and his dreams of African dominance. Gaddafi blamed the defeat on French and US "aggression against Libya". The result was Gaddafi's lingering animosity against the two countries which led to Libyan support for the bombings of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772. === Demands for independent inquiry === Prior to the abandonment of Megrahi's second appeal against conviction and while new evidence could be still tested in court, there had been few calls for an independent inquiry into the Lockerbie bombing. Demands for such an inquiry emerged later, and became more insistent. On 2 September 2009, former MEP Michael McGowan demanded that the UK government call for an urgent, independent inquiry led by the UN to find out the truth about Pan Am flight 103. "We owe it to the families of the victims of Lockerbie and the international community to identify those responsible," McGowan said. Two online petitions were started: one calling for a UK public inquiry into the Lockerbie bombing; the other a UN inquiry into the murder of UN Commissioner for Namibia, Bernt Carlsson, in the 1988 Lockerbie bombing. In September 2009, a third petition which was addressed to the President of the United Nations General Assembly demanded that the UN should "institute a full public inquiry" into the Lockerbie disaster. On 3 October 2009, Malta was asked to table a UN resolution supporting the petition, which was signed by 20 people including the families of the Lockerbie victims, authors, journalists, professors, politicians and parliamentarians, as well as Archbishop Desmond Tutu. The signatories considered that a UN inquiry could help remove "many of the deep misgivings which persist in lingering over this tragedy" and could also eliminate Malta from this terrorist act. Malta was brought into the case because the prosecution argued that the two accused Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, had placed the bomb on an Air Malta aircraft before it was transferred at Frankfurt airport to a feeder flight destined for London's Heathrow airport, from which Pan Am Flight 103 departed. The Maltese government responded saying that the demand for a UN inquiry was "an interesting development that would be deeply considered, although there were complex issues surrounding the event." On 24 August 2009, Lockerbie campaigner Dr Jim Swire wrote to Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, calling for a full inquiry, including the question of suppression of the Heathrow evidence. This was backed up by a delegation of Lockerbie relatives, led by Pamela Dix, who went to 10 Downing Street on 24 October 2009 and handed over a letter addressed to Gordon Brown calling for a meeting with the Prime Minister to discuss the need for a public inquiry and the main issues that it should address. An op-ed article by Pamela Dix, subtitled "The families of those killed in the bombing have not given up hope of an inquiry to help us learn the lessons of this tragedy", was published in The Guardian on 26 October 2009. On 1 November 2009, it was reported that Gordon Brown had ruled out a public inquiry into Lockerbie, saying in response to Dr Swire's letter: "I understand your desire to understand the events surrounding the bombing of Pan Am flight 103 but I do not think it would be appropriate for the UK government to open an inquiry of this sort." UK ministers explained that it was for the Scottish Government to decide if it wanted to hold its own, more limited, inquiry into the terrorist attack. The Scottish Government had already rejected an independent inquiry, saying it lacks the constitutional power to examine the international dimensions of the case. Concluding his extensive reply dated 27 October 2009 to the Prime Minister, Dr Swire said: You have now received a much more comprehensive letter requesting a full inquiry from our group 'UK Families-Flight 103'. I am one of the signatories. I hope that the contents of this letter underline some of the reasons as to why I cannot possibly accept that any inquiry should be limited to Scotland, and I apologise if my previous personal letter of 24 August misled you over the main focus that the inquiry will need to address. That focus lies in London and at the door of the then inhabitant of Number 10 Downing Street. I look forward to hearing your comments both to our group's letter and to the contents of this one. === Claims of Gaddafi involvement === On 23 February 2011, amidst the Libyan Civil War, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, former Libyan Justice Minister (and later member and Chairman of the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council), alleged that he had evidence that Libyan leader, Muammar Gaddafi, had personally ordered Abdelbaset al-Megrahi to bomb Pan Am Flight 103. In a July 2021 interview, Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam said that his father "had stopped riding his horse after the humiliation of the American bombing of Tripoli in 1986 and resumed riding it after the Lockerbie bombing." === Alternative theories === Based on a 1995 investigation by journalists Paul Foot and John Ashton, alternative explanations of the plot to commit the Lockerbie bombing were listed by The Guardian's Patrick Barkham in 1999. Following the Lockerbie verdict in 2001 and the appeal in 2002, attempts have been made to re-open the case amid allegations that Libya was framed. One theory suggests the bomb on the plane was detonated by radio. Another theory suggests that the CIA prevented the suitcase containing the bomb from being searched. Iran's involvement is also alleged, either in association with a Palestine militant group, or in loading the bomb while the plane was at Heathrow. This theory argues that the bombing was in direct response to the accidental shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655, which greatly angered the Arab world, who regarded the U.S. response as devoid of regret or admissions of responsibility. In retaliation, it is alleged that Iran ordered a Palestinian terrorist organization to blow up the plane. While there were media reports that Abu Nidal claimed responsibility for the attack, these were quickly disproven by officials. In an internal document, the US Defense Intelligence Agency claimed that Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur (Ayatollah Mohtashemi), a member of the Iranian government, paid US$10 million for the bombing: Ayatollah Mohtashemi ... was the one who paid [$10 million] to bomb Pan Am Flight 103 in retaliation for the US shoot-down of the Iranian Airbus. Other theories implicate Libya and apartheid South Africa. French investigative journalist Pierre Péan accused Thomas Thurman, a Federal Bureau of Investigation explosives expert, of fabricating false evidence against Libya in both the Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772 sabotages. Relations between Iranian and Palestinian groups were bad at the time; in addition, Hezbollah and the Iranian government loudly opposed attacks on unarmed civilians; however, the connections between Iran, Palestine, and the Lockerbie bombing "went cold", and no charges or official accusations were filed. === PCAST statement === On 29 September 1989, President Bush appointed Ann McLaughlin Korologos, former Secretary of Labor, to chair the President's Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism (PCAST) to review and report on aviation security policy in the light of the sabotage of flight PA103. Oliver Revell, the FBI's Executive Assistant Director, was assigned to advise and assist PCAST in their task. Before they submitted their report, the PCAST members met a group of British PA103 relatives at the US embassy in London on 12 February 1990. One of the British relatives, Martin Cadman, alleges that a member of President Bush's staff told him: "Your government and ours know exactly what happened but they are never going to tell." The statement first came to public attention in the 1994 documentary film The Maltese Double Cross – Lockerbie and was published in both The Guardian of 12 November 1994, and a special report from Private Eye magazine entitled Lockerbie, the flight from justice May/June 2001. == Compensation == === From Libya === On 29 May 2002, Libya offered up to US$2.7 billion to settle claims by the families of the 270 killed in the Lockerbie bombing, representing US$10 million per family. The Libyan offer was that 40% of the money would be released when United Nations sanctions, suspended in 1999, were canceled; another 40% when US trade sanctions were lifted; and the final 20% when the US State Department removed Libya from its list of states sponsoring terrorism. Jim Kreindler of the New York law firm Kreindler & Kreindler, which orchestrated the settlement, said: "These are uncharted waters. It is the first time that any of the states designated as sponsors of terrorism have offered compensation to families of terror victims." The US State Department maintained that it was not directly involved. "Some families want cash, others say it is blood money", said a State Department official. Compensation for the families of the PA103 victims was among the steps set by the UN for lifting its sanctions against Libya. Other requirements included a formal denunciation of terrorism—which Libya said it had already made—and "accepting responsibility for the actions of its officials". On 15 August 2003, Libya's UN ambassador, Ahmed Own, submitted a letter to the UN Security Council formally accepting "responsibility for the actions of its officials" in relation to the Lockerbie bombing. The Libyan government then proceeded to pay compensation to each family of US$8 million (from which legal fees of about US$2.5 million were deducted) and, as a result, the UN canceled the sanctions that had been suspended four years earlier, and US trade sanctions were lifted. A further US$2 million would have gone to each family had the US State Department removed Libya from its list of states regarded as supporting international terrorism, but as this did not happen by the deadline set by Libya, the Libyan Central Bank withdrew the remaining US$540 million in April 2005 from the escrow account in Switzerland through which the earlier US$2.16 billion compensation for the victims' families had been paid. The United States announced resumption of full diplomatic relations with Libya after deciding to remove it from its list of countries that support terrorism on 15 May 2006. On 24 February 2004, Libyan Prime Minister Shukri Ghanem stated in a BBC Radio 4 interview that his country had paid the compensation as the "price for peace" and to secure the lifting of sanctions. Asked if Libya did not accept guilt, he said, "I agree with that." He also said there was no evidence to link Libya with the April 1984 shooting of police officer Yvonne Fletcher outside the Libyan Embassy in London. Gaddafi later retracted Ghanem's comments, under pressure from Washington and London. A civil action against Libya continued until 18 February 2005 on behalf of Pan Am and its insurers, which went bankrupt partly as a result of the attack. The airline was seeking $4.5 billion for the loss of the aircraft and the effect on the airline's business. In the wake of the SCCRC's June 2007 decision, there have been suggestions that, if Megrahi's second appeal had been successful and his conviction had been overturned, Libya could have sought to recover the $2.16 billion compensation paid to the relatives. Interviewed by French newspaper Le Figaro on 7 December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi said that the seven Libyans convicted for the Pan Am Flight 103 and the UTA Flight 772 bombings "are innocent". When asked if Libya would therefore seek reimbursement of the compensation paid to the families of the victims (US$33 billion in total), Saif Gaddafi replied: "I don't know". Following discussions in London in May 2008, US and Libyan officials agreed to start negotiations to resolve all outstanding bilateral compensation claims, including those relating to UTA Flight 772, the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing and Pan Am Flight 103. On 14 August 2008, a US-Libya compensation deal was signed in Tripoli by US Assistant Secretary of State David Welch and Libya's Foreign Ministry head of America affairs, Ahmed al-Fatroui. The agreement covers 26 lawsuits filed by American citizens against Libya, and three by Libyan citizens in respect of the US bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986 which killed at least 40 people and injured 220. In October 2008 Libya paid $1.5 billion into a fund which will be used to compensate relatives of these groups: Lockerbie bombing victims with the remaining 20% of the sum agreed in 2003; American victims of the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing; American victims of the 1989 UTA Flight 772 bombing; and, Libyan victims of the 1986 US bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi. As a result, President Bush signed Executive Order 13477 restoring the Libyan government's immunity from terror-related lawsuits and dismissing all of the pending compensation cases in the US, the White House said. US State Department spokesman, Sean McCormack, called the move a "laudable milestone ... clearing the way for a continued and expanding US-Libyan partnership." In an interview shown in BBC Two's The Conspiracy Files: Lockerbie on 31 August 2008, Saif Gaddafi said that Libya had admitted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing simply to get trade sanctions removed. He went on to describe the families of the Lockerbie victims as very greedy: "They were asking for more money and more money and more money". Several of the victims families refused to accept compensation due to their belief that Libya was not responsible. ==== February 2011 ==== In an interview with Swedish newspaper Expressen on 23 February 2011, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, former Justice Secretary of Libya, claimed to have evidence that Gaddafi personally ordered Al-Megrahi to carry out the bombing. Quotes: "[Jalil] told Expressen Khadafy [sic] gave the order to Abdel Baset al-Megrahi, the only man convicted in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, which killed all 259 people on board and 11 on the ground on 21 December 1988. 'To hide it, he (Khadafy) did everything in his power to get al-Megrahi back from Scotland,' Abdel-Jalil was quoted as saying." Al Jalil's commentary to the Expressen came during widespread political unrest and protests in Libya calling for the removal of Ghaddafi from power. The protests were part of a massive wave of unprecedented uprisings across the Arab world in: Tunisia, Morocco, Bahrain and Egypt, where Egyptian protesters effectively forced the removal of long-term ruler, Hosni Mubarak, from office. Jalil's comments came on a day when Ghaddafi's defiance and refusal to leave his command prompted his brutal attacks on Libyan protesters. Abdel-Jalil stepped down as minister of justice in protest over the violence against anti-government demonstrations. ==== Contingency fees for lawyers ==== On 5 December 2003, Jim Kreindler revealed that his Park Avenue law firm would receive an initial contingency fee of around US$1 million from each of the 128 American families Kreindler represents. The firm's fees could exceed US$300 million eventually. Kreindler argued that the fees were justified, since "Over the past seven years we have had a dedicated team working tirelessly on this and we deserve the contingency fee we have worked so hard for, and I think we have provided the relatives with value for money." Another top legal firm in the US, Speiser Krause, which represented 60 relatives, of whom half were UK families, concluded contingency deals securing them fees of between 28 and 35% of individual settlements. Frank Granito of Speiser Krause noted that "the rewards in the US are more substantial than anywhere else in the world but nobody has questioned the fee whilst the work has been going on, it is only now as we approach a resolution when the criticism comes your way." In March 2009, it was announced that US lobbying firm, Quinn Gillespie & Associates, received fees of $2 million for the work it did from 2006 through 2008 helping the PA103 relatives obtain payment by Libya of the final $2 million compensation (out of a total of $10 million) that was due to each family. === From Pan Am === In 1992, a US federal court found Pan Am guilty of willful misconduct due to relaxed security screening caused by failure to implement baggage reconciliation, a new security program mandated by the FAA prior to the incident, which requires unaccompanied luggage to be searched by hand and to ensure passengers board flights onto which they have checked baggage; Pan Am relied more on the less-effective method of X-ray screening. Two of Pan Am's subsidiaries, Alert Management Inc., which handled Pan Am's security at foreign airports, and Pan American World Services, were also found guilty. == Memorials and tributes == There are several private and public memorials to the PA103 victims. Dark Elegy is the work of sculptor Suse Lowenstein of Long Island, whose son Alexander, then 21, was a passenger on the flight. The work consists of 43 nude statues of the wives and mothers who lost a husband or a child. Inside each sculpture there is a personal memento of the victim. === United States === On 3 November 1995, then-U.S. President Bill Clinton dedicated a Memorial Cairn to the victims at Arlington National Cemetery, and there are similar memorials at Syracuse University; Dryfesdale Cemetery, near Lockerbie; and in Sherwood Crescent, Lockerbie. Syracuse University holds a memorial week every year called "Remembrance Week" to commemorate its 35 lost students. Every 21 December, a service is held in the university's chapel at 14:03 (19:03 UTC), marking the moment the bomb on board the aircraft was detonated. The university also awards university tuition fees to two students from Lockerbie Academy each year, in the form of its Lockerbie scholarship. In addition, the university annually awards 35 scholarships to seniors to honor each of the 35 students killed. The "Remembrance Scholarships" are among the highest honors a Syracuse undergraduate can receive. SUNY Oswego also gives out scholarships in memorial of Colleen Brunner to a student who is studying abroad. A memorial plaque and garden in memory of its two students lost in the bombing is set in the University of Rochester's Eastman Quadrangle. At Cornell University funds from the Libyan payment were used to establish a memorial professorship in honor of student Kenneth J. Bissett. ==== The Women of Lockerbie ==== The Women of Lockerbie (2003) is a play written by Deborah Brevoort which depicts a woman from New Jersey roaming the hills of Lockerbie, Scotland. This mother tragically lost her son in the bombing of the Pan Am Flight 103. While in Lockerbie, 7 years after the flight, she meets the women who witnessed and were affected by the crash itself while she attempts to find closure. This play has received the Silver Medal from the Onassis International Playwriting Competition and the Kennedy Center Fund for New American Plays award. === Lockerbie === The main UK memorial is at Dryfesdale Cemetery about one mile (1.5 kilometres) west of Lockerbie. There is a semicircular stone wall in the garden of remembrance with the names and nationalities of all the victims along with individual funeral stones and memorials. Inside the chapel at Dryfesdale there is a book of remembrance. There are memorials in Lockerbie and Moffat Roman Catholic churches, where plaques list the names of all 270 victims. In Lockerbie Town Hall Council Chambers, there is a stained-glass window depicting flags of the 21 countries whose citizens lost their lives in the disaster. There is also a book of remembrance at Lockerbie public library and another at Tundergarth Church. In Sherwood Crescent there is a garden of remembrance to the seven Lockerbie residents killed when the aircraft's main wreckage fell there, destroying their homes. === Carfin Grotto chapel === A chapel at Carfin Grotto was dedicated in June 1989 to the victims of the bombing. Daily Mass is now celebrated in this glass chapel, now named Our Lady, Maid of the Seas after the ill-fated aircraft. == Wreckage of the aircraft == The Air Accidents Investigation Branch reassembled a large part of the fuselage to aid with the investigation; this has been retained as evidence and stored in a hangar at Farnborough Airport since the bombing. In 2008, the remaining wreckage of the aircraft was being stored at a scrapyard near Tattershall, Lincolnshire, pending the conclusion of the American victims' civil case and further legal proceedings. The remains include the nose section of the Boeing 747, which was cut into several pieces to assist in removal from Tundergarth Hill. It was announced in April 2013 that part of the wreckage was transferred to a secure location in Dumfries, Scotland, and that it remains evidence in the ongoing criminal investigation. A section of the aircraft's wreckage, including parts of the fuselage, was announced as being transported to the US in December 2024, as evidence in a new trial against Abu Agila Masud. The trial is set to begin in May 2025. == In popular culture == The Emmerdale plane crash, a storyline in Emmerdale in 1993, received complaints due to its similarity to the event. The events of Flight 103 were featured in "Lockerbie Disaster", a Season 7 (2009) episode of the Canadian television series Mayday (called Air Emergency and Air Disasters in the US and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world). It is also featured in a documentary film The Maltese Double Cross – Lockerbie. A four-part documentary television series 'Lockerbie' was produced by Mindhouse Productions in association with Sky Studios1 and directed by John Dower. The book The Boy Who Fell Out of the Sky by Ken Dornstein was published about his brother who died in the crash. The 2025 British drama miniseries Lockerbie: A Search for Truth based on the 2021 book The Lockerbie Bombing: A Father's Search for Justice by Jim Swire and Peter Biddulph follows the aftermath of the events onboard flight 103. The bombing is also the subject of the 2025 BBC series The Bombing of Pan Am 103. == See also == Air India Flight 182 – Another 747-200 which was bombed by Babbar Khalsa killing all 329 occupants on board. Philippine Airlines Flight 434 – Another 747-200 Combi which was bombed by Ramzi Yousef as a test for the Bojinka plot. One passenger died from this "test" and several others were injured. Alas Chiricanas Flight 00901 Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 1103 – Allegedly shot down by order of Muammar Gaddafi in order to show the negative effects of the sanctions which were imposed on Libya after the bombing of Flight 103 Itavia Flight 870 – A McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15 which was either bombed up or was accidentally shot down by the French Air Force while trying to down a MiG jet operated by the Libyan Air Force. All 81 occupants died. Metrojet Flight 9268 – An Airbus A321 which was bombed by the Islamic State – Sinai Province killing all 224 occupants on board. Libya and state-sponsored terrorism List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft Timeline of airliner bombing attacks Cubana de Aviación Flight 455 United Air Lines Trip 23 – The first confirmed case of an aircraft bombing. All 7 occupants died. Flight 103 (disambiguation) – A list of other flights with the same or similar number == References == == Further reading == == External links == Pan Am 103 Lockerbie Air Disaster Archives at Syracuse University Air Accident Investigation Branch: Aircraft Accident Report 2/1990 – Report on the accident to Boeing 747-121, N739PA, at Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire, Scotland on 21 December 1988." 2/1990 Aircraft Accident Report 2/1990, Appendices A–G BBC-online interview with Jaswant Basuta "Byte Out Of History: Solving a complex case of international terrorism" Federal Bureau of Investigation Defense Intelligence Agency Redacted Pan Am Report (response to a FOIA, 11 MB PDF) (Archive) "It Happened in... Lockerbie – 20 August 09 – Part 1". Al Jazeera. 20 August 2009. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. International observer mission of the president of the International Progress Organization, Dr. Hans Koechler, at the Scottish Court in the Netherlands ("Lockerbie Court") Victims of Pan Am Flight 103, Inc. "Probe identifies Iranian and Palestinian suspects over Lockerbie bomb". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
Longest flights	Over time, commercial airlines have established a number of scheduled ultra long-haul non-stop flights. These exceptionally long routes reduce the travel time between distant city pairs as well as the number of stops needed for passengers' travels, thereby increasing passenger convenience. For an airline, choosing to operate long flights can also build brand image as well as loyalty among a set of flyers. Therefore, competition among airlines to establish the longest flight occurs. == Definition == === Measurement method === The length of a flight can be defined in different ways. The most common standard flight length measurement is by great-circle distance, a formula that calculates the shortest distance across the curvature of the earth for two airports' ARPs. It is the only measurement that is constant on a given city-pair route and unaffected by operational variances. For this reason it is the standard for communicating commercial aviation flight length and is used by governing agencies like ICAO, flight schedule providers, and airlines themselves. ==== Alternative definitions ==== For the sake of disambiguation, other terms used in reference to alternative definitions of "longest flights" (and also incur operational variance) include: Flight time – (the total time of a flight's operation) which varies based on multiple operational variables including: headings flown (see ground distance below), equipment capabilities, or even air traffic congestion (e.g., NAT-OTS and airport holding patterns). A subvariant of this is "Flight endurance" which is used in referring to a specific operated flight, usually recorded with observers, specialized equipment, or other such formal arrangements that are not commonly found in commercial flights. Flight scheduled time is another commonly reported figure that refers to the duration of a flight, published by a flight's operator. This is an unrelated/unreliable figure that incorporates further additional variables by airlines to reflect their operations and manage customer expectations that allow for variation in boarding procedures, anticipated time of day ground congestion, and even time allocated for remote stand operations). Ground distance traveled – Measuring of the actual ground distance covered by a flight (using routing that is not entirely on a great-circle route and therefore greater). Flights commonly fly non-great-circle routes for operational reasons such as: favorable winds/meteorological conditions, regulatory/political restrictions, safety/equipment constraints (such as ASHTAMs and ETOPS limitations), or even cost savings (optimization of overflight payments). === Flight types === There are numerous different types of flights globally operated by different aircraft for different industries and purposes. The term "longest flight" is most commonly used in reference to flights that are commercial, passenger, and scheduled, such that the flight details are published and tickets are available for purchase. While the term "longest flight" is most commonly used in reference to non-stop flights, direct flights with stops (same flight number used for the full journey) might also be compared on some occasions. == Current longest route == === By great-circle distance === Since November 9, 2020, the longest active scheduled passenger flight by great-circle distance is Singapore Airlines Flights 23 and 24 using an Airbus A350-900ULR between Singapore and New York–JFK at 15,349 kilometres (9,537 mi; 8,288 nmi). The longest ever scheduled passenger flight was Air Tahiti Nui's flight TN64 using a Boeing 787-9, flying non-stop from Faaʻa International Airport in Papeete, Tahiti to Paris–CDG, a distance of 15,715 kilometres (9,765 mi; 8,485 nmi) in a scheduled duration of 16 hours, 20 minutes. This route was operated from March to April 2020. This route was previously operated with a refueling stop at Los Angeles International Airport, where all passengers would disembark the aircraft and pass through United States Customs & Border Protection before re-boarding and continuing to Paris. However, to comply with COVID-19 pandemic restrictions banning European travelers from entering the United States, the airline opted not to stop at Los Angeles during its flights in March–April 2020. The route was also made possible by the aircraft's reduced passenger load of about 150 passengers, which eliminated the need to refuel. This route also set a record for the world's longest domestic passenger flight, as it flew between French territories. === By ground distance traveled === Routings may avoid great-circle routes, despite their shorter ground distance, for a variety of reasons, for example to avoid headwinds and/or use tailwinds to save time and fuel. Since November 9, 2020, the two longest flights (measured by ground distance traveled) are Singapore Airlines' flights SQ23 (second longest) and SQ24 (longest) between Singapore-Changi and New York–JFK in the U.S. Both of these flights have a geometrically optimal great-circle route near the North Pole of approximately 15,350 km (9,540 mi; 8,290 nmi). However, SQ24 to New York is typically flown a ground distance of around 17,250 km (10,720 mi; 9,310 nmi) over the Pacific Ocean where jet streams can assist; while SQ23 back to Singapore sometimes opts, instead of the westward polar route, to fly a ground distance of 16,500 km (10,300 mi; 8,900 nmi) eastward, across the Atlantic Ocean, when favorable jet streams winds are available to save both flying time and fuel. Similarly, the two Air India flights from New Delhi to San Francisco, AI173 and AI183, fly an eastward ground distance of about 15,110 km (9,390 mi; 8,160 nmi) over the Pacific Ocean instead of a shorter westward great-circle route of about 12,403 km (7,707 mi; 6,697 nmi) over the Atlantic Ocean, to avoid prevailing westerly headwinds and save almost two hours of flying time. Both these flights can travel with some variation in ground distance, with a report of 15,300 km (9,500 mi; 8,300 nmi) for the first such flight in 2016, and it is not unheard of for particular flights to cover more than 16,000 km (9,900 mi; 8,600 nmi). Cathay Pacific flights from Hong Kong to New York–JFK will also sometimes fly 15,000 km (9,300 mi; 8,100 nmi) ground routes, instead of a 12,984 km (8,068 mi; 7,011 nmi) great-circle route, for the same reason. After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in early 2022, aircraft registered in or operated by multiple countries, including the European Union member states, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Switzerland, were banned from using Russian airspace. As a result, a number of flights from Japan to Europe now fly using a polar route over Alaska and northern Canada. For example, Swiss International Air Lines flight LX161 from Tokyo–Narita to Zurich often flies this route, sometimes covering a ground distance of 13,400 km (8,326 mi; 7,235 nmi) or longer, compared to a great-circle distance of 9,618 km (5,976 mi; 5,193 nmi). == History == Since the first scheduled commercial passenger flight in 1914 that covered 34 kilometres (21 mi; 18 nmi), records for the longest flight (by great-circle distance) were rapidly set and continue to be set today. === 1920s and 1930s === The longest non-stop commercial flights of the 1930s were operated by flying boats, which were the predominant aircraft type of the time for long-range flight, in part because they did not require large airports capable of receiving large aircraft. May 23, 1926 (1926-05-23): Following the end of WWI, there was a boom in the development of longer non-stop commercial flights such as Brussels-Paris (March 1919), London-Paris (August 1919), and Amsterdam-London (May 1920). A notably long passenger flight for the time came with Western Air Express' launch of its scheduled non-stop flight between Salt Lake City (Woodward Field) and Las Vegas (Anderson Field). This non-stop flight covered a great circle distance of 585 km (364 mi; 316 nmi) in approximately 5 hours using a Douglas M-2. August 21, 1934 (1934-08-21): A new record of longest commercial non-stop flight is flown by Pan American Airways using their brand new Sikorsky S-42 Flying Boat between Recife and Sao Luiz, Brazil covering a distance of 1,200 kilometres (746 mi; 648 nmi) in a scheduled time of 5 hours 30 minutes, the longest leg of their Miami-Rio De Janeiro route. October 21, 1936 (1936-10-21): The first scheduled commercial transpacific flight was operated by Pan American Airways on a Martin M-130 Flying Boat with 7 paying passengers on board. Flying from San Francisco to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, non-stop, a distance of 3,871 kilometres (2,405 mi; 2,090 nmi) in 19 hours, 36 minutes. June 28, 1939 (1939-06-28): The first scheduled commercial transatlantic flight was operated by Pan American Airways on a Boeing B-314 Clipper with 22 paying passengers on board. Flying from Port Washington, New York to Horta, Azores non-stop, a distance of 3,827 kilometres (2,378 mi; 2,066 nmi) in 15 hours, 55 minutes. === 1940s and 1950s === September 9, 1940 (1940-09-09): Pan Am set another record for the longest non-stop commercial flight by changing their eastbound trans-atlantic route between Bermuda and Lisbon to no longer have a scheduled stop in Horta, Azores. Using their Boeing B-314 Clipper, to cover the great circle distance of approximately 5,018 kilometres (3,118 mi; 2,710 nmi) from Darrell Island, Bermuda to Cabo Ruivo Airport, Lisbon, Portugal in a scheduled time of 19 hours and 5 minutes. June 29, 1943 (1943-06-29) – July 17, 1945 (1945-07-17): Qantas operated "The Double Sunrise", a weekly 5,652-kilometre (3,512 mi; 3,052 nmi) flight between Perth, Australia and Koggala in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) with average flight times of around 28 hours, using a Consolidated PBY Catalina. The flight from Ceylon to Australia on Aug 30, 1943 remains the record holder for longest time airborne (for a commercial passenger flight) at 32 hours, 9 minutes. January 26, 1949 (1949-01-26) – July 20, 1949 (1949-07-20): Having their operating certificates revoked and/or airfields closed to them in India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Burma in response to the Dutch's launching of a second Politionele acties (Operation Kraai); KLM created an alternative route for its direct flight KL830 between Amsterdam and Batavia. Using the longest range commercial airplane at the time: the new Lockheed L-749 Constellation with added additional fuel tanks and reduced cargo. It became the new longest non-stop commercial flight with its longest leg of 5,527 km (3,434 mi; 2,984 nmi) from Port Louis, Mauritius to Batavia, Dutch East Indies (now Jakarta, Indonesia) in a scheduled time of 15 hours, 15 minutes. November 18, 1952 (1952-11-18): Utilizing the recently better understood phenomenon of the Polar jet stream, Pan Am launched non-stop passenger service from Tokyo-Haneda to Honolulu aboard a Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, covering a great-circle distance of 6,202 kilometres (3,854 mi; 3,349 nmi) in 11 hours 30 minutes. It would go on to be flown in as short as 9 hours 48 minutes. September 29, 1957 (1957-09-29): A Trans World Airlines Lockheed L-1649A Starliner, the ultimate piston-engine airliner in terms of range and endurance, flew the inaugural 8,780 kilometres (5,456 mi; 4,741 nmi) Los Angeles to London–Heathrow polar route in 18 hours and 32 minutes. October 2, 1957 (1957-10-02): Trans World Airlines' L-1649A, set the record for the longest-duration, non-stop passenger flight aboard a piston-powered airliner on the inaugural London–Heathrow to San Francisco Flight 801 where the aircraft, having encountered strong headwinds, stayed aloft for 23 hours and 19 minutes covering 8,638 kilometres (5,367 mi; 4,664 nmi). October 3, 1957 (1957-10-03): Trans World Airlines broke their own longest flight record with the launch of TW850's non-stop flight from San Francisco to Paris–Orly covering 9,001 kilometres (5,593 mi; 4,860 nmi) in a scheduled flight time of 19 hours, 45 minutes. === 1960s and 1970s === June 15, 1961 (1961-06-15): El Al used its new Boeing 707-458s to start the non-stop route from New York Idlewild Airport to Tel Aviv, covering 9,137 kilometres (5,677 mi; 4,934 nmi), with an average time of 9 hours, 33 minutes. This route was previously tested in December 1957 with a Bristol Britannia. January 7, 1963 (1963-01-07): As a result of Cold War tensions and loss of landing permissions on the route's previous intermediary stops, Aeroflot used their Tupolev Tu-114D, the largest commercial passenger plane ever built as of 1963, to change their eastbound route from Havana to Moscow into a non-stop one. Covering 9,594 kilometres (5,961 mi; 5,180 nmi), in 16 hours, 25 minutes. August 6, 1967 (1967-08-06): Aerolíneas Argentinas established its non-stop Boeing 707-320B service on a 10,062 kilometres (6,252 mi; 5,433 nmi) route between Madrid and Buenos Aires, with a flight time of 13 hours. The arrival of the more fuel-efficient turbofans made easier the possibility of longer flights. April 26, 1976 (1976-04-26): Using the newly launched Boeing 747SP, Pan American World Airways set a new record with its 10,899 kilometres (6,772 mi; 5,885 nmi) New York–JFK to Tokyo-Haneda route. December 12, 1976 (1976-12-12): Pan Am set another record with its 747SPs when it launched the first non-stop service between North America and Australia on its new route of Sydney–San Francisco, covering 11,937 kilometres (7,417 mi; 6,445 nmi) in a scheduled 13 hours 15 minutes. === 1980s and 1990s === November 4, 1982 (1982-11-04): Pan Am set a further record using a 747SP to launch its new non-stop route connecting Sydney to Los Angeles, covering 12,051 kilometres (7,488 mi; 6,507 nmi). November 3, 1991 (1991-11-03): South African Airways sets a new record, using a Boeing 747-400 to connect New York–JFK to Johannesburg non-stop (eastbound): a distance of 12,824 kilometres (7,968 mi; 6,924 nmi). === 2000s === February 1, 2000 (2000-02-01): South African Airways set another record, connecting Atlanta to Johannesburg non-stop (eastbound) with a 747-400: a distance of 13,581 kilometres (8,439 mi; 7,333 nmi) March 1, 2001 (2001-03-01): With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, commercial overflights over Russia were now possible, allowing new circumpolar routes to come into use for airlines. Continental Airlines launched a 12,980-kilometre (8,065 mi; 7,009 nmi) non-stop service from Newark to Hong Kong flying Boeing 777-200ER aircraft. This set a new distance record for a round trip route, flown non-stop in both directions. The duration of the non-stop flight exceeded 16 hours. April 1, 2001 (2001-04-01): Within a month, United Airlines started its own New York–JFK to Hong Kong service with Boeing 747-400 aircraft, adding 10 kilometers to the distance for a distance of 12,990 kilometres (8,072 mi; 7,014 nmi). February 3, 2004 (2004-02-03): Singapore Airlines set a new record using the Airbus A340-500 on a great circle distance of 14,113 kilometres (8,769 mi; 7,620 nmi) from Los Angeles to Singapore in a scheduled time of 18 hours 20 minutes carrying 181 passengers. June 8, 2004 (2004-06-08): Singapore Airlines used its A340-500 aircraft to beat its own record; launching Flight SQ 21 on a 15,344 kilometres (9,534 mi; 8,285 nmi) great-circle route from Newark to Singapore, passing within 130 kilometres (81 mi; 70 nmi) of the North Pole and taking a little under 18 hours. The return flight SQ 22, then flew a record ground distance of 16,600 kilometres (10,315 mi; 8,963 nmi) back to Newark. Despite the greater distance, SQ 22 averaged a slightly shorter 17 hours, 45 minutes because of prevailing high-altitude winds. === 2010s and 2020s === In the late 2000s/early 2010s, rising fuel prices coupled with the 2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession caused the cancellation of many ultra long-haul, non-stop flights. This included the services provided by Singapore Airlines from Singapore to both Newark and Los Angeles that were ended in late 2013. But, as fuel prices have since decreased and more fuel-efficient aircraft have come into service, many ultra long-haul routes were reinstated or newly scheduled. October 18, 2018 (2018-10-18): Singapore Airlines relaunched Flight SQ 21/22 between Singapore and Newark using an Airbus A350-900ULR. March 15, 2020 (2020-03-15): During the COVID-19 pandemic, which prevented transit in the US through Los Angeles International Airport, Air Tahiti Nui scheduled and operated, in March and April 2020, Flight TN64 as a non-stop flight between Papeete and Paris–CDG, using a Boeing 787-9 and covering 15,715 km (9,765 mi; 8,485 nmi) in a scheduled time of 16 hours 20 minutes, setting a new record for the world's longest scheduled passenger flight. November 9, 2020 (2020-11-09): Singapore Airlines launched the longest currently active scheduled passenger flight of SQ 23/24 between Singapore and New York–JFK at 15,349 kilometres (9,537 mi; 8,288 nmi) operated by an Airbus A350-900. On January 16, 2021, this route was changed to operate using an A350-900ULR. == Other record flights (non-scheduled) == === Promotional and delivery flights === A number of promotional or delivery flights have extended the record of longest non-stop flights by a commercial aircraft: March 23, 1976 (1976-03-23): South African Airways' delivery flight of their first Boeing 747SP set a new record for nonstop flight by commercial aircraft. Flying 16,560 kilometres (10,290 mi; 8,942 nmi), covering a great circle distance of 16,429 kilometres (10,209 mi; 8,871 nmi), from Paine Field (near Seattle) to Cape Town, South Africa in 17 hours and 22 minutes. August 16, 1989 (1989-08-16): The first Qantas Boeing 747-400, VH-OJA, the City of Canberra, set a non-stop distance record for a commercial aircraft by flying 17,039 kilometres (10,588 mi; 9,200 nmi), covering a great circle distance of 17,016 kilometres (10,573 mi; 9,188 nmi) between London and Sydney in 20 hours, 9 minutes. The purpose was to publicize the airline's "Longreach" services with the 747-400. June 16, 1993 (1993-06-16): An Airbus A340-200, F-WWBA, dubbed The World Ranger, set two new records as it flew an around the world route. First flying 19,089 kilometres (11,861 mi; 10,307 nmi) from Paris-Le Bourget Airport to Auckland, New Zealand in 21 hours and 32 minutes. After a 5 hour layover, the flight continued east-bound on a slightly longer route back to Paris-Le Bourget flying 19,246 kilometres (11,959 mi; 10,392 nmi), covering a great circle distance of 18,541 kilometres (11,521 mi; 10,011 nmi) in 21 hours and 46 minutes. This was the first non-stop flight between Europe and New Zealand. March 31, 1997 (1997-03-31): A Boeing 777-200ER, "The Super Ranger", flew 20,045 kilometres (12,455 mi; 10,823 nmi) eastward from Seattle's Boeing Field to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, prior to refueling and completing its around the world flight back to Seattle. November 9, 2005 (2005-11-09): A Boeing 777-200LR demonstrator aircraft "Baby Blue 2" flew a great circle distance of 21,602 kilometres (13,423 mi; 11,664 nmi), eastward from Hong Kong to London–Heathrow in 22 hours, 42 minutes as opposed to a normal westward routing for that sector, which is much shorter at 9,648 kilometres (5,995 mi; 5,210 nmi). Eight pilots and twenty-seven passengers were on board. === Non-scheduled commercial flights === March 25, 2006 (2006-03-25): British Airways used a Boeing 777-200ER to fly the longest commercial non-stop flight with paying passengers, when chartered by UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and his entourage of staff and journalists to fly from meetings in Brussels, traveling non-stop to ensure their attendance at the closing ceremonies of the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The flight, covering 17,157 kilometres (10,661 mi; 9,264 nmi) and lasting 18 hours, 45 minutes, included a BA staff of 20 to facilitate cockpit and cabin crew rotation during the flight. March 28, 2021 (2021-03-28): A Comlux Boeing 787-8, registered P4-787, set a new record for the longest commercial non-stop flight with paying passengers. It flew a non-scheduled (chartered), non-stop flight between the nearly antipodal points of Seoul–Incheon and Buenos Aires. The flight departed at 12:47 local time on March 28 and arrived on the same day at 21:26 local time, having covered a total of 19,483 kilometres (12,106 mi; 10,520 nmi) in 20 hours 19 minutes. October 7, 2021 (2021-10-07): A Qantas Boeing 787-9, registered VH-ZNH, flew 15,020 km (9,333 mi; 8,110 nmi) from Buenos Aires to Darwin. This was part of a series of repatriation flights that had taken place due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Similarly, repatriation flights from Adelaide to New Delhi, 9,569 km (5,946 mi; 5,167 nmi), had also taken place due to the pandemic, making it one of the longest non-stop flights from Australia to India in the past. The latter, Australia to India flights, were also flown with Boeing 787-9 aircraft, operated by Air India with registration VT-ANY. == Airliners == The longest-range Airbus jetliner in service is the Airbus A350-900ULR, which is capable of flying 18,000 kilometres (11,000 mi; 9,700 nmi). The A380 is capable of flying 15,200 kilometres (9,400 mi; 8,200 nmi) with 544 passengers. The standard A350-900 can fly 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi; 8,100 nmi) with 325 passengers. Airbus is currently developing a variant of the A350-1000 for Qantas which will have the same range as the Airbus A350-900ULR at a distance of 18,000 kilometres (11,000 mi; 9,700 nmi). The longest-range Boeing airliner in service is the 777-200LR, which can cover 17,395 kilometres (10,809 mi; 9,393 nmi) with 301 passengers. Boeing also considered developing a 777-200LR derivative for Qantas. It would feature three additional auxiliary fuel tanks (six total), a lighter interior derived from the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, as well as lower density seating. This aircraft would have the ability to fly between Sydney and London with a range of just over 18,500 kilometres (11,510 mi; 10,000 nmi). The announced Boeing 777-8 will be capable of flying 16,170 kilometres (10,050 mi; 8,730 nmi) with 350 to 375 passengers. The Boeing 787-9 can fly 14,140 kilometres (8,790 mi; 7,630 nmi) with 290 passengers. Many long-haul, non-stop routes that used to be uneconomical to operate are being made viable by the Airbus A330neo, the Airbus A350 XWB, and the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. == Longest passenger flights == === Non-stop flights (top 30, by great-circle distance) === The following table lists the world's longest non-stop scheduled passenger routes by great-circle distance. The actual distance flown, however, can be longer than the great-circle distance for a variety of reasons, such as avoiding severe weather, taking advantage of favorable winds aloft, detouring around closed airspace, and diverting around conflict zones. For the purposes of this table, multiple flights operated by the same airline between the same airports are counted as one flight, while different airlines operating between the same airports are counted separately. Also, each airport pair is counted separately, even though some cities have multiple airports supporting long-range flights (e.g. Heathrow and Gatwick airports serving London, and Haneda and Narita serving Tokyo). === Direct flights with stops (12k+ km, by city pair great-circle distance) === A direct flight between an origin and final destination has an intermediate stop, with all segments having the same flight number and using the same aircraft. In the following table, the "Origin – Destination" column lists the great-circle distance between the origin and final destination, excluding the stop. The "All Sectors" column lists the total great-circle distance from the origin to the stop to the final destination. === Discontinued non-stop flights (top 30, by great-circle distance) === == Longest passenger flights (by aircraft type) == The sections below gives two separate views. The first one lists all the commercial passenger aircraft types and their currently scheduled and operating longest non-stop flight. The second section lists the longest non-stop flight ever regularly scheduled and operated by that commercial passenger aircraft type. === Current === The table below lists the current longest (by great-circle distance) non-stop flights operated by different types of aircraft. === Records === The table below lists the longest (by great-circle distance) regularly scheduled non-stop revenue flights ever operated by different types of aircraft. The table does not include special promotional or delivery flights, such as shown above. == Future routes == === Scheduled services === New and soon to be launched non-stop flights with distances exceeding 12,952 kilometres (8,048 mi; 6,994 nmi), placing them on the top 30 list, have been announced: === Envisioned services (by distance) === According to a report published in September 2015, Miami International Airport (Florida) was in talks with EVA Air and China Airlines of Taiwan to launch before 2018 a non-stop 13,922 km (8,651 mi; 7,517 nmi) flight to Taipei. In June 2016, a chartered China Airlines Boeing 777-300ER carrying Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen flew non-stop from Taipei to Miami before continuing to Panama. The airport director spoke with President Tsai about the opportunity for scheduled service between Miami and Taipei. The airport has been actively pursuing a non-stop flight to East Asia since 2015. There are no non-stop passenger flights between Florida, the third-most populous state in the U.S., and East Asia. In May 2017, the region's aviation department director predicted such a flight would happen within the next 24 months. In November 2020, Starlux Airlines applied for rights to operate this Taipei – Miami route along with 14 others. In 2023, Starlux announced they intend to launch one new US destination per year to connect to the "Western, Midwest, and Eastern" US. On August 25, 2017, Qantas announced "Project Sunrise" aiming to launch new ultra-long-haul non-stop "Kangaroo Routes" from Australia to major destinations including London, New York, and Paris. On October 20, 2019, Qantas demonstrated the New York-JFK to Sydney flight using a Boeing 787-9. The flight took 19 hours, 15 minutes and the 49 people on the plane were staff and selected guests. In order to make the flight possible, the weight had to be precisely trimmed by limiting the number of passengers and cargo weight. One month later, departing on November 14, 2019, and landing on November 15, Qantas demonstrated another "Project Sunrise" route using a 787-9 to fly from London–Heathrow to Sydney Airport non-stop with 52 passengers on board. The flight lasted 19 hours, 19 minutes and traveled a distance of 17,750 kilometres (11,029 mi; 9,584 nmi). In December 2019, Qantas announced they had selected an Airbus A350-1000 (with some potential modifications) for Project Sunrise if the flights proceed. The Airbus A350-1000 entered into service in February 2018 with a range of 16,100 kilometres (10,004 mi; 8,693 nmi) and is capable of flying non-stop both Sydney – London and Sydney – New York City. In November 2019, El Al announced it was exploring a new non-stop Tel Aviv – Melbourne route with 3 initial scheduled roundtrip "test" flights, covering a great-circle distance of 13,736 km (8,535 mi; 7,417 nmi). While tickets went on sale in December 2019, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic's impact on international flights, only the first of the three flights was operated on April 2, 2020. It covered an actual flight distance of 14,760 km (9,171 mi; 7,970 nmi). The flight distance was 1000 km longer than the great-circle distance for the route due to flights to and from Israel were not allowed to traverse Saudi Arabian or Omani airspace. In July 2022, Saudi Arabia opened its airspace to all Israeli carriers for the first time and in February 2023 Oman opened its airspace to all "qualified commercial carriers" thus bringing the operation of this route along the great-circle routing closer to viability. In March 2023, El Al signed a LOI and announced they are (re)launching this route "by June 2024" with thrice weekly services using their Boeing 787 fleet. In May 2021, Vietnam Airlines received Vietnam government approval to use its A350-900 and 787-9 aircraft on multiple non-stop North American routes including the long routes of Ho Chi Minh City to New York–JFK, a great-circle distance of 14,307 km (8,890 mi; 7,725 nmi) and Ho Chi Minh City to Dallas-Fort Worth, a great-circle distance of 14,557 km (9,045 mi; 7,860 nmi). In November 2021, Vietnam Airlines launched the first of such transpacific flights flying between Ho Chi Minh City and San Francisco. In September 2023, in its updated marketing materials, Turkish Airlines announced their future routes they are working to develop. Amongst the ones newly added was an Istanbul-Santiago route that if operated non-stop will cover a great circle distance of 13,094 km (8,136 mi; 7,070 nmi). This route was mentioned again by the Turkish Airlines chairman in March 2024 of envisioned launching in 2026 once their A350-1000 aircraft started to be delivered. An indirect version of the service with a stopover in São Paulo began in late 2024, with the airline's first plane landing at Santiago's Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport on December 18. In October 2024, Air India received approval from India's DGCA for flights to be operated from New Delhi to Dallas Fort Worth. The approved flight of AI 109 would cover a great circle distance of 13,173 km (8,185 mi; 7,113 nmi) if/when it is scheduled for sale and operation. Turkish Airlines operates direct flights from Istanbul to Melbourne via Singapore and to Sydney via Kuala Lumpur. In December 2024, it was reported that Turkish Airlines would start non-stop flights from Istanbul to Melbourne, a great-circle distance of 14,634 km (9,093 mi; 7,902 nmi), and from Istanbul to Sydney, a great-circle distance of 14,968 km (9,301 mi; 8,082 nmi), in 2026, upon delivery of Airbus A350-1000 jets. In January 2025, the airline's Chairman announced their intention to start direct flights from Istanbul to Auckland via Singapore in 2025. In April 2025, it was reported that non-stop flights from Istanbul to Auckland, a great-circle distance of 17,069 km (10,606 mi; 9,217 nmi), were also considered. If this happens, Istanbul-Auckland route will mark the longest non-stop flight, according to common knowledge as of mid-2025. === Services that never began === In August 2015, Emirates announced that non-stop flights between Dubai and Panama City, Panama would begin on 1 February 2016, covering 13,821 km (8,588 mi; 7,463 nmi) in 17 hours, 35 minutes westbound. In January 2016, the start was postponed to 31 March 2016. In early March 2016, Emirates postponed the route until the end of 2016 or early 2017 or "as soon as conditions allow." Emirates latest public update on this route was in April 2018 where Emirates' CCO stated "We are still looking at Panama. We had some conversations recently with a delegation from Panama". In 2015, it would have been the world's longest non-stop flight. In July 2019, Qantas announced and began selling tickets for new non-stop flights between Brisbane and Chicago-O'Hare that would begin operation in April 2020 covering 14,325 km (8,901 mi; 7,735 nmi) in 16 hours, 20 minutes eastbound using a Boeing 787-9 aircraft. (Flight number QF 85 and 86 in reference to the Chicago Bears 1986 Super Bowl Championship team). However, in March 2020, because of the COVID-19 pandemic Qantas announced it was delaying the route's launch to September 2020. In July 2020, as part of Australia's pandemic response, almost all international flights were canceled until March 2021, including this new route. In January 2021, Qantas reopened its international flights for booking for 2021 and this new route was no longer included in their schedules for the foreseeable future/the rest of 2021. It would have been the world's fourth longest non-stop flight. In early 2023, the topic was surfaced again by Qantas, but still no firm plans announced for the envisioning of launching this route. In October 2019, American Airlines announced flights from Los Angeles to Christchurch to commence in October 2020. Flights were expected to take over 13 hours, being flown 3 times weekly. The flight would have come in on average around 11,080 km (6,880 mi; 5,980 nmi). However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the route has never been flown, and United Airlines has instead started flights from San Francisco to Christchurch, opening the door for American to join as direct competition. In February 2020, American Airlines announced flight AA180/181 between Seattle–Tacoma and Bengaluru, covering a great-circle distance of 13,000 km (8,078 mi; 7,019 nmi). Though originally planned for October 2020, the launch was delayed repeatedly amid the COVID-19 pandemic and as of 2024 has not launched. == See also == Aircraft records Flight length ETOPS Flight distance record Flight endurance record World's longest domestic flight Westray to Papa Westray flight, the shortest commercial flight in the world == Notes == == References == == Further reading ==
List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches (2010–2019)	From June 2010, to the end of 2019, Falcon 9 was launched 77 times, with 75 full mission successes, one partial failure and one total loss of the spacecraft. In addition, one rocket and its payload were destroyed on the launch pad during the fueling process before a static fire test was set to occur. Falcon Heavy was launched three times, all successful. The first Falcon 9 version, Falcon 9 v1.0, was launched five times from June 2010, to March 2013, its successor Falcon 9 v1.1 15 times from September 2013, to January 2016, and the Falcon 9 Full Thrust (through Block 4) 36 times from December 2015, to June 2018. The latest Full Thrust variant, Block 5, was introduced in May 2018, and launched 21 times before the end of 2019. == Statistics == == Launches == === 2010 to 2013 === === 2014 === With six launches, SpaceX became the second most prolific American company in terms of 2014 launches, behind Atlas V launch vehicle. === 2015 === With seven launches in 2015, Falcon 9 was the second most launched American rocket behind Atlas V. === 2016 === With eight successful launches for 2016, SpaceX equalled Atlas V for most American rocket launches for the year. === 2017 === With 18 launches throughout 2017, SpaceX had the most prolific yearly launch manifest of all rocket families. Five launches in 2017, used pre-flown boosters. === 2018 === In November 2017, Gwynne Shotwell expected to increase launch cadence in 2018, by about 50% compared to 2017, leveling out at a rate of about 30 to 40 per year, not including launches for the planned SpaceX satellite constellation Starlink. The actual launch rate increased by 17% from 18 in 2017, to 21 in 2018, giving SpaceX the second most launches for the year for a rocket family, behind China's Long March. Falcon Heavy made its first flight. 2018 was the first year when more flights were flown using reused boosters (13) than new boosters (ten). === 2019 === Shotwell stated in May 2019, that SpaceX might conduct up to 21 launches in 2019, not counting Starlink missions. However, with a slump in worldwide commercial launch contracts in 2019, SpaceX ended up launching only 13 times throughout 2019 (eleven without Starlink), significantly fewer than in 2017, and 2018, and third most launches of vehicle class behind China's Long March and Russia's Soyuz launch vehicles. In 2019, SpaceX continued the trend of operating more flights with reused boosters (ten) than new boosters (seven). == Notable launches == === First flight of Falcon 9 === On 4 June 2010, the first Falcon 9 launch successfully placed a test payload into the intended orbit. Starting at the moment of liftoff, the booster experienced roll. The roll stopped before the craft reached the top of the tower, but the second stage began to roll near the end of its burn, tumbling out of control during the passivation process and creating a gaseous halo of vented propellant that could be seen from all of Eastern Australia, raising UFO concerns. === COTS demonstration flights === Second launch of Falcon 9 was COTS Demo Flight 1, which placed an operational Dragon capsule in a roughly 300 km (190 mi) orbit on 8 December 2010, The capsule re-entered the atmosphere after two orbits, allowing testing for the pressure vessel integrity, attitude control using the Draco thrusters, telemetry, guidance, navigation, control systems, and the PICA-X heat shield, and intended to test the parachutes at speed. The capsule was recovered off the coast of Mexico and then placed on display at SpaceX headquarters. The remaining objectives of the NASA COTS qualification program were combined into a single Dragon C2+ mission, on the condition that all milestones would be validated in space before berthing Dragon to the ISS. The Dragon capsule was propelled to orbit on 22 May, and for the next days tested its positioning system, solar panels, grapple fixture, proximity navigation sensors, and its rendezvous capabilities at safe distances. After a final hold position at 9 m (30 ft) away from the Harmony docking port on 25 May, it was grabbed with the station's robotic arm (Canadarm2), and eventually, the hatch was opened on 26 May. It was released on 31 May and successfully completed all the return procedures, and the recovered Dragon C2+ capsule is now on display at Kennedy Space Center. Falcon 9 and Dragon thus became the first fully commercially developed launcher to deliver a payload to the International Space Station, paving the way for SpaceX and NASA to sign the first Commercial Resupply Services agreement for 12 cargo deliveries. === CRS-1 === First operational cargo resupply mission to ISS, the fourth flight of Falcon 9, was launched on 7 October 2012. At 76 seconds after liftoff, engine 1 of the first stage suffered a loss of pressure which caused an automatic shutdown of that engine, but the remaining eight first-stage engines continued to burn and the Dragon capsule reached orbit successfully and thus demonstrated the rocket's "engine out" capability in flight. Due to ISS visiting vehicle safety rules, at NASA's request, the secondary payload Orbcomm-2 was released into a lower-than-intended orbit. The mission continued to rendezvous and berth the Dragon capsule with the ISS where the ISS crew unloaded its payload and reloaded the spacecraft with cargo for return to Earth. Despite the incident, Orbcomm said they gathered useful test data from the mission and planned to send more satellites via SpaceX, which happened in July 2014, and December 2015. === Maiden flight of v1.1 === Following unsuccessful attempts at recovering the first stage with parachutes, SpaceX upgraded to much larger first stage booster and with greater thrust, termed Falcon 9 v1.1 (also termed Block 2). SpaceX performed its first, demonstration flight of this version on 29 September 2013, with CASSIOPE as a primary payload. This had a payload mass that is very small relative to the rocket's capability, and was launched at a discounted rate, approximately 20% of the normal published price. After the second stage separation, SpaceX conducted a novel high-altitude, high-velocity flight test, wherein the booster attempted to reenter the lower atmosphere in a controlled manner and decelerate to a simulated over-water landing. === Loss of CRS-7 mission === On 28 June 2015, Falcon 9 Flight 19 carried a Dragon capsule on the seventh Commercial Resupply Services mission to the ISS. The second stage disintegrated due to an internal helium tank failure while the first stage was still burning normally. This was the first (and only as of March 2024) primary mission loss during flight for any Falcon 9 rocket. In addition to ISS consumables and experiments, this mission carried the first International Docking Adapter (IDA-1), whose loss delayed preparedness of the station's US Orbital Segment (USOS) for future crewed missions. Performance was nominal until T+140 seconds into launch when a cloud of white vapor appeared, followed by rapid loss of second-stage LOX tank pressure. The booster continued on its trajectory until complete vehicle breakup at T+150 seconds. The Dragon capsule was ejected from the disintegrating rocket and continued transmitting data until impact with the ocean. SpaceX officials stated that the capsule could have been recovered if the parachutes had deployed; however, the Dragon software did not include any provisions for parachute deployment in this situation. Subsequent investigations traced the cause of the accident to the failure of a strut that secured a helium bottle inside the second-stage LOX tank. With the helium pressurization system integrity breached, excess helium quickly flooded the tank, eventually causing it to burst from overpressure. NASA's independent accident investigation into the loss of SpaceX CRS-7 found that the failure of the strut which led to the breakup of the Falcon-9 represented a design error. Specifically, that industrial grade stainless steel had been used in a critical load path under cryogenic conditions and flight conditions, without additional part screening, and without regard to manufacturer recommendations. === Full-thrust version and first booster landings === After pausing launches for months, SpaceX launched on 22 December 2015, the highly anticipated return-to-flight mission after the loss of CRS-7. This launch inaugurated a new Falcon 9 Full Thrust version (also initially termed Block 3) of its flagship rocket featuring increased performance, notably thanks to subcooling of the propellants. After launching a constellation of 11 Orbcomm-OG2 second-generation satellites, the first stage performed a controlled-descent and landing test for the eighth time, SpaceX attempted to land the booster on land for the first time. It managed to return the first stage successfully to the Landing Zone 1 at Cape Canaveral, marking the first successful recovery of a rocket first stage that launched a payload to orbit. After recovery, the first stage booster performed further ground tests and then was put on permanent display outside SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California. On 8 April 2016, SpaceX delivered its commercial resupply mission to the International Space Station marking the return-to-flight of the Dragon capsule, after the loss of CRS-7. After separation, the first-stage booster slowed itself with a boostback maneuver, re-entered the atmosphere, executed an automated controlled descent and landed vertically onto the drone ship Of Course I Still Love You, marking the first successful landing of a rocket on a ship at sea. This was the fourth attempt to land on a drone ship, as part of the company's experimental controlled-descent and landing tests. === Loss of AMOS-6 on the launch pad === On 1 September 2016, the 29th Falcon 9 rocket exploded on the launchpad while propellant was being loaded for a routine pre-launch static fire test. The payload, Israeli satellite AMOS-6, partly commissioned by Facebook, was destroyed with the launcher. On 2 January 2017, SpaceX released an official statement indicating that the cause of the failure was a buckled liner in several of the COPV tanks, causing perforations that allowed liquid and/or solid oxygen to accumulate underneath the COPVs carbon strands, which were subsequently ignited possibly due to friction of breaking strands. === Inaugural reuse of the first stage === On 30 March 2017, Flight 32 launched the SES-10 satellite with the first-stage booster B1021, which had been previously used for the CRS-8 mission a year earlier. The stage was successfully recovered a second time and was retired and put on display at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. === Zuma launch controversy === Zuma was a classified United States government satellite and was developed and built by Northrop Grumman at an estimated cost of US$3.5 billion. Its launch, originally planned for mid-November 2017, was postponed to 8 January 2018, as fairing tests for another SpaceX customer were assessed. Following a successful Falcon 9 launch, the first-stage booster landed at LZ-1. Unconfirmed reports suggested that the Zuma spacecraft was lost, with claims that either the payload failed following orbital release, or that the customer-provided adapter failed to release the satellite from the upper stage, while other claims argued that Zuma was in orbit and operating covertly. SpaceX's COO Gwynne Shotwell stated that their Falcon 9 "did everything correctly" and that "Information published that is contrary to this statement is categorically false". A preliminary report indicated that the payload adapter, modified by Northrop Grumman after purchasing it from a subcontractor, failed to separate the satellite from the second stage under the zero gravity conditions. Due to the classified nature of the mission, no further official information is expected. === Falcon Heavy test flight === The maiden launch of the Falcon Heavy occurred on 6 February 2018, marking the launch of the most powerful rocket since the Saturn V, with a theoretical payload capacity to low Earth orbit more than double the Delta IV Heavy. Both side boosters landed nearly simultaneously after a ten-minute flight. The central core failed to land on a floating platform at sea. The rocket carried a car and a mannequin to an eccentric heliocentric orbit that reaches further than the aphelion of Mars. === Maiden flight Crew Dragon and first crewed flight === On 2 March 2019, SpaceX launched its first orbital flight of Dragon 2 (Crew Dragon). It was an uncrewed mission to the International Space Station. The Dragon contained a mannequin named Ripley which was equipped with multiple sensors to gather data about how a human would feel during the flight. Along with the mannequin was 300 pounds of cargo of food and other supplies. Also on board was Earth plush toy referred to as a 'super high tech zero-g indicator'. The toy became a hit with astronaut Anne McClain who showed the plushy on the ISS each day and also deciding to keep it on board to experience the crewed SpX-DM2. The Dragon spent six days in space including five docked to the International Space Station. During the time, various systems were tested to make sure the vehicle was ready for US astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken to fly in it in 2020. The Dragon undocked and performed a re-entry burn before splashing down on 8 March 2019, at 08:45 EST, 320 km (200 mi) off the coast of Florida. SpaceX held a successful launch of the first commercial orbital human space flight on 30 May 2020, crewed with NASA astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken. Both astronauts focused on conducting tests on the Crew Dragon capsule. Crew Dragon successfully returned to Earth, splashing down in the Gulf of Mexico on 2 August 2020. === Booster reflight records === SpaceX has developed a program to reuse the first-stage booster, setting multiple booster reflight records: B1021 became, on 30 March 2017, the first booster to be successfully recovered a second time, on Flight 32 launching the SES-10 satellite. After that, it was retired and put on display at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. On 3 December 2018, Spaceflight SSO-A launched on B1046. It was the first commercial mission to use a booster flying for the third time. B1048 was the first booster to be recovered four times on 11 November 2019. == See also == List of Falcon 1 launches List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters List of SpaceX Dragon 2 missions List of Starlink flights List of Starship launches == Notes == == References ==
Flight Risk (film)	Flight Risk is a 2025 American action thriller film directed by Mel Gibson, and starring Mark Wahlberg, Michelle Dockery, and Topher Grace. Its plot follows a pilot (Wahlberg) transporting a Deputy U.S. Marshal (Dockery) and a fugitive (Grace) across the Alaskan wilderness, where the identities and intentions of those onboard come into question. Flight Risk was released in the United States by Lionsgate on January 24, 2025. The film received negative reviews from critics and has grossed $44.6 million worldwide. == Plot == U.S. Marshal Madolyn Harris arrests Winston, an accountant, while he is hiding in Alaska after turning informant against his former employer, the Moretti crime family. Madolyn charters a small airplane to take them to Anchorage so they can transfer to New York City, where she intends for Winston to testify against mobster Moretti. They are piloted by Daryl Booth, a Texan living in Alaska, who explains that the aircraft's radio and GPS is regularly out of order. While shackled in the middle of the plane, Winston spots Daryl's pilot license under the seat in front of him, noticing that the photograph is a different person from "Daryl." He tries to warn Madolyn, who has a headset on and cannot hear him. After a brief conversation with Madolyn, "Daryl" mentions how she will go to Seattle after reaching Anchorage. He should not have known this, thus he reveals himself to be a hitman using Daryl's identity with orders to kill Winston. Madolyn manages to subdue him with a taser, and takes over piloting the plane. Using her satellite phone, Madolyn explains the situation to her direct superior, Caroline Van Sant. Caroline tells her that Winston must be kept alive if Moretti is to be brought to justice. Winston had skimmed $1 million from the Moretti crime family during his time working for them. Caroline tells Madolyn that the real Daryl Booth had been tortured to death by "Daryl," and that she will arrange for another pilot to call her to help navigate them to safety. Madolyn begins to grow suspicious of Caroline when "Daryl" knows information about her past that he should not have known--information that could only have come from the Marshals. Thus, Madolyn begins to suspect that Van Sant is the leak to the mob. Madolyn then gets in touch with FBI Director Coleridge to explain her suspicions. However, Coleridge gives himself away as being on Moretti's payroll when he mentions his beach house, since Winston recognizes that a past request for payment came from a URL in that city. This puts Van Sant's life in danger, since Coleridge needs her to take the fall for any suspicions, lest he becomes a suspect. "Daryl" wakes up, shackled to the overhead rack, and taunts Winston, promising to make him suffer, as well as to kill his mother, whose address he knows. He also reveals that Madolyn had been put on desk duty for several years after her neglect had caused the death of a witness in her custody during her last field mission; Madolyn permitted the witness to take a shower unsupervised, albeit handcuffed, when their motel room was firebombed by a cartel hitman, and Madolyn fled while forgetting the witness could not escape. Hassan, a pilot on the ground in Anchorage, calls Madolyn and teaches her how to steer the plane; he also calms her and says they will go drinking and dancing when she lands safely. "Daryl" manages to free himself from his handcuffs and attacks the pair. He stabs Winston twice and begins to strangle Madolyn with the seatbelt. She is about to pass out when Winston removes the knife from his chest and cuts the belt, allowing Madolyn to shoot "Daryl" with a flare gun, incapacitating him at the back of the plane. When Coleridge calls Madolyn and tells her that Caroline has been killed in a car accident, she vows to bring him down alongside Moretti. A US Navy F/A-18 Hornet meets the plane to escort it to the airport. With Winston now in dire need of medical attention, Hassan guides Madolyn into landing the plane as quickly as possible, which burns through their remaining fuel supply. On the approach, "Daryl" regains consciousness, almost degloves his hand in order to extract it from the handcuffs, and attacks again. But he is shot by Madolyn and thrown off the plane, where he is run over by an ambulance, as Madolyn manages a successful crash landing. Winston is rushed into an ambulance by the ground crew as Madolyn is greeted by Hassan. Madolyn notices that a suspicious-looking paramedic has entered the ambulance, and she quickly makes her way to the ambulance, finding that the fake paramedic is using a plastic bag to smother Winston. Madolyn shoots the paramedic before he can kill Winston. Madolyn picks up the paramedic's phone, revealing him as a hitman acting under orders from Coleridge, who is on the other end of the line. She tells Coleridge that he is finished. Then Madolyn shares a caring moment with Winston, who smiles wanly. == Cast == Michelle Dockery as Madolyn Harris, a Deputy U.S. Marshal. Mark Wahlberg as the Pilot "Daryl Booth", a hitman disguised as a Texan pilot. Topher Grace as Winston, a mob accountant-turned-informant. Leah Remini (voice) as Caroline Van Sant, a U.S. Marshal and Madolyn's superior officer. Paul Ben-Victor (voice) as Director Coleridge, the agent in charge of the operation. Maaz Ali (voice) as Hasan, a pilot who guides the plane from the ground. Monib Abhat appears on-screen as Hasan == Production == In December 2020, Jared Rosenberg's screenplay Flight Risk was voted onto the year's "Black List" of the most-liked unproduced screenplays in Hollywood. In May 2023, it was reported that Mel Gibson would direct and Mark Wahlberg would star. In January 2024, Topher Grace and Michelle Dockery joined the cast. The film is a co-production between Icon Productions and Davis Entertainment Company. It was produced in association with Media Capital Technologies (a film financing company), Hammerstone Studios and Blue Rider Pictures. Gibson directed and produced the film along with Bruce Davey, John Davis, and John Fox. Principal photography began in Las Vegas in June 2023. Filming occurred for two days in Mesquite, Nevada in July 2023. Filming also took place in Alaska. SAG-AFTRA granted the filmmakers approval to allow filming during the 2023 SAG-AFTRA strike. Filming concluded in August 2023. Wahlberg partially shaved his head each day while filming for the role of a balding pilot instead of wearing a bald cap. == Release == Flight Risk was released in the United States by Lionsgate on January 24, 2025. It was originally set to be theatrically released on October 18, 2024. Lionsgate spent around $20 million on promoting the film, which did not mention Gibson by name. Social media analytics firm RelishMix reported that online marketing led to 79 million interactions across social media platforms, 40% behind the average for action-thrillers, with online users expressing "negative leaning chatter" given the film's January release. Variety noted that Lionsgate held the film's review embargo until Thursday preview screenings in anticipation of negative critical reviews but that the studio was "likely in an alright enough position" because it "typically covers financial risks by selling off foreign rights to its films before release." == Reception == === Box office === Flight Risk grossed $29.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $14.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $44.6 million. In the United States and Canada, Flight Risk was released alongside Presence and Brave the Dark and was projected to gross $9–11 million from 3,161 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.4 million on its first day, including an estimated $950,000 from Thursday night previews. It debuted to $11.6 million, topping the box office. It was the second number-one opening of 2025 for Lionsgate after Den of Thieves 2: Pantera. Exit polling indicated that 32% of attendees saw the film for Wahlberg and 16% for Gibson. Women accounted for 46% of the audience during its opening, with those over 25 comprising 45% and premium large format screens contributing 27%. In its second weekend, the film made $5.4 million, placing fifth. It dropped out of the box office top ten in its fourth weekend, and ended its theatrical run after 63 days (seven weeks). === Critical response === On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 30% of 121 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 4.7/10. The website's consensus reads: "While there's a place for high-octane dumb fun, Flight Risk dives straight into unpleasant camp without a parachute." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 38 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable" reviews. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale, while those polled by PostTrak gave it a 70% positive score. Clint Worthington of RogerEbert.com gave the film one and a half out of four stars and wrote, "Flight Risk, with its bonkers casting (Mark Wahlberg as a crazy balding charter pilot assassin) and ridiculous poster tagline ("Y'all need a pilot?"), occasionally teases out the kind of sleazy fun action-movie enthusiasts might reclaim in a few years' time. But as it sits in this passenger's estimation, Flight Risk is a supremely bumpy ride that doesn't quite justify its logline." In a mixed review, Wendy Ide of The Guardian praised Wahlberg's performance, calling it "enormous" and "pulpy fun", though she found the movie "diminished in terms of scope and ambition" compared to Gibson's other directorial efforts. In his review, critic Mark Kermode called it "one of the worst films I've ever seen". == References == == External links == Official website Flight Risk at IMDb
Flight paramedic	A flight paramedic is a paramedic who provides care to sick and injured patients in an aeromedical environment. Typically a flight paramedic works with a registered nurse, physician, respiratory therapist, or another paramedic. Flight paramedics must have an advanced medical knowledge along with years of clinical experience. Flight paramedics in the United States usually hold certifications such as the FP-C or the CCP-C, while in countries like the United Kingdom, they are typically required to hold a postgraduate certificate in critical care as a minimum, with many holding a master's degree in advanced practice or aeromedical critical care. == Education/training == === United States === Within the US, the minimum requirements for flight paramedics generally include: Licensed as a paramedic by a state Emergency Medical Services (EMS) board 3-5 years as the lead paramedic in a volume EMS ground service Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support, Pediatric Advanced Life Support, Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support or ITLS Additional requirements may include: Neonatal Resuscitation Program Certifications such as the FP-C or CCP-C (usually required within 2 years of commencing employment in the United States) Critical care classes such as the CCEMTP by UMBC. Postgraduate certificate or master's degree (United Kingdom/British Commonwealth) == Roles and responsibilities == Roles and responsibilities vary by organisation and country. Typical responsibilities include: Perform as a member of an aeromedical evacuation team Plan and prepare for aeromedical evacuation missions Provide in-flight critical care to patients Care for patients with both medical and traumatic issues Possess advanced understanding of mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic support, vasoactive medications and intensive care Possess specialized clinical skills combined with knowledge, theory, education and expertise in hospital and pre-hospital environments Perform advanced medical procedures without supervision of a doctor such as rapid sequence intubation, ventilator management, finger thoracostomy/chest tube insertion, central line placement, intra-aortic balloon pump management, pericardiocentesis, administration of general anesthetics and paralytics for intubation, and initiating, maintaining, and titrating numerous medications not found on a typical ambulance. == See also == Aircrew (Flight crew) Air medical services - Use of aircraft to transport medical patients. Certified Flight Paramedic - Certification for flight paramedics. Combat medic - A soldier who provides medical care. Medic - A practitioner of medicine. Museum of Aerospace Medicine Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia Enlisted Medics (U.S. Air Force) == References == == External links == International Association of Flight Paramedics
Flight (disambiguation)	Flight is the process by which an object moves without direct support from a surface. Flight may also refer to: == Arts, entertainment, and media == === Films === Flight (1929 film), an American adventure film Flight (2009 film), a South Korean drama film Flight (2012 film), an American film directed by Robert Zemeckis and starring Denzel Washington Flight (2021 film), an Indian action thriller film The Flight (film), a 1970 Soviet film === Literature === "Flight" (Lessing story), a 1957 short story by Doris Lessing Flight (novel), a 2007 novel by Sherman Alexie Flight (play), a 1927 by Mikhail Bulgakov "Flight" (Steinbeck story), a 1938 short story by John Steinbeck Flights (novel), a 2007 novel by Olga Tokarczuk === Music === ==== Albums and EPs ==== Flight (Building 429 album) (2002) Flight (Cesium 137 album) (2008) Flight (Thorgeir Stubø album) (1988) Flight, an album by Windsor Airlift (2010) The Flight [Lux], an EP by Edge of Dawn (2005) ==== Songs ==== "Flight" (song), a 2014 song by Lifehouse "Flight", a song by A Certain Ratio from The Graveyard and the Ballroom "Flight", a song by Joe Morris from Singularity "Flight", a song by Neurosis from Souls at Zero ==== Other uses in music ==== Flight (opera), an opera by Jonathan Dove (1998) Flights (band), a British rock band The Flight (band), a duo that produces music for film, television and video games === Television === Flight (TV series), a 1958 syndicated anthology series hosted by George Kenney "Flight" (Grey's Anatomy), a 2012 episode of Grey's Anatomy "Flight" (Prison Break), a 2006 episode of Prison Break === Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media === Flight (comics) (2005) Flight (magazine), a magazine founded in 1909 Flight (sculpture), an artwork at the Lynden Sculpture Garden Microsoft Flight, a video game/simulation The Flight, a Marvel Comics superhero team of 1992 == Military == Flight (military unit) Flight sergeant, a senior non-commissioned rank in the Royal Air Force and several other air forces == Sports == Flight (cricket), a sports term In flight, a condition in baseball before a batted ball has touched anything other than a fielder or their gear == Other uses == Flight (advertising) Flight (horse), an Australian racehorse Fletching or flight, part of an arrow Flight of stairs Air travel A flight number designating an airline service Attachment used to move material in a flight conveyor A beer flight, used to sample many different beers == See also == Fight-or-flight response Flighting (disambiguation) Fly (disambiguation) Take Flight (disambiguation)
Boeing	The Boeing Company, or simply Boeing (), is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services. Boeing is among the largest global aerospace manufacturers; it is the fourth-largest defense contractor in the world based on 2022 revenue and is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value. Boeing was founded by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, on July 15, 1916. The present corporation is the result of the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas on August 1, 1997. As of 2023, the Boeing Company's corporate headquarters is located in the Crystal City neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia. The company is organized into three primary divisions: Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA), Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS), and Boeing Global Services (BGS). In 2021, Boeing recorded $62.3 billion in sales. Boeing is ranked 54th on the Fortune 500 list (2020), and ranked 121st on the Fortune Global 500 list (2020). == History == === Origins === The Boeing Company started in 1916, when American lumber industrialist William E. Boeing founded Pacific Aero Products Company in Seattle, Washington. Shortly before doing so, he and Conrad Westervelt created the "B&W" seaplane. In 1917, the organization was renamed Boeing Airplane Company, with William Boeing forming Boeing Airplane & Transport Corporation in 1928. In 1929, the company was renamed United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, followed by the acquisition of several aircraft makers such as Avion, Chance Vought, Sikorsky Aviation, Stearman Aircraft, Pratt & Whitney, and Hamilton Metalplane. In 1931, the group merged its four smaller airlines into United Airlines. In 1934, aircraft manufacturing was required to be separate from air transportation. Therefore, Boeing Airplane Company became one of three major groups to arise from the dissolution of United Aircraft and Transport; the other two entities were United Aircraft (later United Technologies) and United Airlines. In 1960, the company bought Vertol Aircraft Corporation, which at the time, was the biggest independent manufacturer of helicopters. During the 1960s and 1970s, the company diversified into industries such as outer space travel, marine craft, agriculture, energy production and transit systems. === Sea Launch === In 1995, Boeing partnered with Russian, Ukrainian, and Anglo-Norwegian organizations to create Sea Launch, a company providing commercial launch services sending satellites to geostationary orbit from floating platforms. In 2000, Boeing acquired the satellite segment of Hughes Electronics. === Merger with McDonnell Douglas === In December 1996, Boeing announced its intention to merge with McDonnell Douglas, which, following regulatory approval, was completed on August 4, 1997. The delay was caused by objections from the European Commission, which ultimately placed three conditions on the merger: exclusivity agreements with three US airlines would be terminated, separate accounts would be maintained for the McDonnell-Douglas civil aircraft business, and some defense patents were to be made available to competitors. In 2020, Quartz reported that after the merger there was a "clash of corporate cultures, where Boeing's engineers and McDonnell Douglas's bean-counters went head-to-head", which the latter won, and that this may have contributed to the events leading up to the 737 MAX crash crisis. === Corporate headquarters moves === Boeing's corporate headquarters moved from Seattle to Chicago in 2001. In 2018, the company opened its first factory in Europe at Sheffield, UK, reinforced by a research partnership with the University of Sheffield. In May 2020, the company cut over 12,000 jobs due to the drop in air travel during the COVID-19 pandemic with plans for a total 10% cut of its workforce or approximately 16,000 positions. In July 2020, Boeing reported a loss of $2.4 billion as a result of the pandemic and the Boeing 737 MAX groundings, and that it was in response planning to make more job and production cuts. On August 18, 2020, CEO Dave Calhoun announced further job cuts; on October 28, 2020, nearly 30,000 employees were laid off, as the airplane manufacturer was increasingly losing money due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2022, Boeing announced plans to transfer its global headquarters from Chicago to Arlington, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C. The company said that this decision was made in part to concentrate on its defense work with "proximity to our customers and stakeholders". After the January 2024 Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 and other incidents, one shareholder proposed relocating the corporate headquarters back to the Seattle area in hopes of getting engineering and quality control teams on-site access to key decision-makers. Boeing's board soundly dismissed the attempt. In February 2023, Boeing announced plans for laying off approximately 2,000 of its workers from finances and human resources. In May 2023, Boeing acquired autonomous eVTOL air taxi startup Wisk Aero. In June 2024, Boeing agreed to re-acquire Spirit AeroSystems, its longtime supplier of airplane parts, which had been established in 2005 when Boeing spun-off its Wichita division to an investment firm. The deal was initially discussed in March of the same year before being closed on June 30 at $4.7 billion. === Labor strike === On September 12, 2024, a vote was held among Boeing machinist workers who are also members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers (IAM) labor union, with 94.6% of participating members rejected a contract offer that the union's bargaining committee had endorsed, with 96% voting to strike. At 12:01 am on September 13, Boeing workers went on strike for the first time since 2008. On October 12, 2024, the company announced plans to cut 17,000 jobs, about 10% of its global workforce, "to align with our financial reality". It would also delay the first deliveries of its 777X airliner by a year and recorded $5 billion in losses in the third quarter of the year. On October 28, Boeing initiated a significant share sale, valued at nearly $19 billion, to address cash-flow issues and avoid a potential downgrade to junk status. On November 1, 2024, the IAM endorsed an improved contract offer which would see a 38% pay rise over four years, a $12,000 ratification bonus, and the reinstatement of an annual bonus scheme. On November 5, 2024, Boeing workers accepted the pay deal, ending a seven-week-long walk out. == Divisions == The company's three divisions are: Commercial Airplanes; Defense, Space & Security; and Global Services. Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA) builds commercial aircraft including the 737, 767, 777, and 787 along with freighter and business jet variants of most. The division employs nearly 35,000 people, many working at the company's manufacturing facilities in Everett and Renton, Washington (outside of Seattle), and South Carolina. Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS) builds military airplanes, rotorcraft, and missiles, as well as space systems for both commercial and military customers, including satellites, spacecraft, and rockets. Boeing Global Services (BGS) provides aftermarket support, such as maintenance and upgrades, to customers who purchase equipment from BCA, BDS, or other manufacturers. == Safety defects and airplane crashes == === Boeing 737 MAX crashes and groundings === In 2018 and 2019, two Boeing 737 MAX narrow-body passenger airplanes crashed, leaving 346 people dead and no survivors. In response, aviation regulators and airlines around the world grounded all 737 MAX airliners. A total of 387 aircraft were grounded. Boeing's reputation, business, and financial rating suffered after the groundings, as Boeing's strategy, governance, and focus on profits and cost efficiency were questioned. In 2022, Netflix released an exposé, Downfall: The Case Against Boeing, claiming Boeing's corporate merger with McDonnell Douglas led to the crashes through a disintegration of workplace morale. In June 2020, the Federal Aviation Administration found several 737 MAX defects that Boeing deferred to fix, in violation of regulations. In September 2020, the U.S. House of Representatives concluded its own investigation and cited numerous instances where Boeing dismissed employee concerns with a 737 MAX flight stabilizing feature (MCAS) that caused the two fatal accidents, prioritized deadline and budget constraints over safety, and lacked transparency in disclosing essential information to the FAA. It further found that the assumption that simulator training would not be necessary had "diminished safety, minimized the value of pilot training, and inhibited technical design improvements". On January 7, 2021, Boeing settled to pay over $2.5 billion after being charged with fraud over the company's hiding of information from the safety regulators: a criminal monetary penalty of $243.6 million, $1.77 billion of damages to airline customers, and a $500 million crash-victim beneficiaries fund. In September 2022, Boeing was ordered to pay a further $200 million over charges of misleading investors about safety issues related to these crashes. In March 2023, Boeing disputed in court filings that the victims of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 (2019 crash) experienced any pain and suffering in the final six minutes as the plane was nosediving into the ground, arguing that an impact at the "speed of sound" would have died too quickly to be painful. Boeing's claim was described as "preposterous" by HuffPost: Passengers aboard the plane, the plaintiffs argued in court, "undeniably suffered horrific emotional distress, pain and suffering, and physical impact/injury while they endured extreme G-forces, braced for impact, knew the airplane was malfunctioning, and ultimately plummeted nose-down to the ground at terrifying speed". While the investigations into the crashes of the 737 MAX were proceeding, the Boeing 777X, the company's largest capacity twin jet and the largest ever built, made its maiden flight on January 25, 2020, but also experienced problems. Following an incident during flight testing in 2021, the estimated first delivery of the aircraft was delayed until 2024. After further technical problems were discovered in the aircraft in 2022, the release was delayed again until 2025, six years after the original date. === Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 === On January 5, 2024, on Alaska Airlines Flight 1282, a door plug blowout occurred on a 737 MAX 9 jetliner after the plane had reached just over 16,000 feet, leaving a door-sized hole in the fuselage and the aircraft made an emergency landing at Portland International Airport successfully with several people onboard injured, although all had subsequently been "medically cleared". The FAA mandated immediate inspections of all 737 MAX 9s fitted with door plugs, thereby grounding 171 aircraft. United Airlines found loose bolts on jets grounded by the FAA, raising questions about possible systemic problems with the Boeing 737 MAX 9. The FAA announced on January 12 that it was expanding its scrutiny of Boeing, with a production audit of the 737 MAX 9. On February 6, the National Transportation Safety Board released a preliminary report indicating that four bolts used to secure the panel had been removed, and appeared not to have been replaced, at Boeing's factory in Renton, Washington. In March 2024, the Justice Department opened a criminal investigation into the Alaska Airlines blowout. In March 2024, CEO Dave Calhoun and board chairman Larry Kellner both announced they would be stepping down from their positions. == Environmental record == In 2006, the UCLA Center for Environmental Risk Reduction released a study showing that Boeing's Santa Susana Field Laboratory, a site that was a former Rocketdyne test and development site in the Simi Hills of eastern Ventura County in Southern California, had been contaminated by Rocketdyne with toxic and radioactive waste. Boeing agreed to a cleanup agreement with the EPA in 2017. Clean-up studies and lawsuits are in progress. On July 19, 2022, Boeing announced a renewed partnership with Mitsubishi to produce carbon-neutral and sustainable solutions. === Jet biofuels === The airline industry is responsible for about 11% of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Aviation's share of the greenhouse gas emissions was poised to grow, as air travel increases and ground vehicles use more alternative fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80%. The solution blends algae fuels with existing jet fuel. Boeing executives said the company was collaborating with Brazilian biofuels maker Tecbio, Aquaflow Bionomic of New Zealand, and other fuel developers around the world. As of 2007, Boeing had tested six fuels from these companies, and expected to test 20 fuels "by the time we're done evaluating them". Boeing also joined other aviation-related members in the Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) in June 2008. Air New Zealand and Boeing are researching the jatropha plant to see if it is a sustainable alternative to conventional fuel. A two-hour test flight using a 50–50 mixture of the new biofuel with Jet A-1 in a Rolls-Royce RB-211 engine of a 747–400 was completed on December 30, 2008. The engine was then removed to be studied to identify any differences between the Jatropha blend and regular Jet A1. No effects on performances were found. == Political contributions, federal contracts, advocacy and criticism == In 2007 and 2008, the company benefited from over US$10 billion of long-term loan guarantees, helping finance the purchase of their commercial aircraft in countries including Brazil, Canada, Ireland, and the United Arab Emirates, from the Export-Import Bank of the United States, some 65% of the total loan guarantees the bank made in the period. In 2008 and 2009, Boeing was second on the list of Top 100 US Federal Contractors, with contracts totaling US$22 billion and US$23 billion respectively. Between 1995 and early 2021, the company agreed to pay US$4.3 billion to settle 84 instances of misconduct, including US$615 million in 2006 in relation to illegal hiring of government officials and improper use of proprietary information. Boeing's spent US$16.9 million on lobbying expenditures in 2009. In the 2008 presidential election, Barack Obama "was by far the biggest recipient of campaign contributions from Boeing employees and executives, hauling in US$197,000 – five times as much as John McCain, and more than the top eight Republicans combined". Boeing has a corporate citizenship program centered on charitable contributions in five areas: education, health, human services, environment, the arts, culture, and civic engagement. In February 2012, Boeing Global Corporate Citizenship partnered with the Insight Labs to develop a new model for foundations to more effectively lead the sectors they serve. The company is a member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C.–based coalition of more than 400 major companies and NGOs that advocate a larger International Affairs Budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad. A series of U.S. diplomatic cables show how U.S. diplomats and senior politicians intervene on behalf of Boeing to help boost the company's sales. Boeing secured the highest-ever tax breaks at the state level in 2013. In March 2025, Boeing was awarded a contract to build the U.S. Air Force's most sophisticated fighter, known as Next Generation Air Dominance, in a contract worth more than $20 billion. === Criticism === In December 2011, the non-partisan organization Public Campaign criticized Boeing for spending US$52.29 million on lobbying and not paying taxes from 2008 to 2010, instead getting US$178 million in tax rebates, despite making a profit of US$9.7 billion, laying off 14,862 workers since 2008, and increasing executive pay by 31% to US$41.9 million in 2010 for its top five executives. Boeing has been accused of unethical practices (in violation of the Procurement Integrity Act) while attempting to submit a revised bid to NASA for their lunar landing project. ==== War profiteering ==== The firm has been criticized for supplying and profiting from wars, including the war in Yemen where its missiles were found to be used for indiscriminate attacks, killing many civilians. In 2017 Boeing signed a deal with Saudi Arabia which included Saudi Arabia buying military aircraft and guided missile systems. Research has estimated Boeing made between $50 billion to $100 billion in revenue via Israeli weapons contracts from 2009 through 2022, in the years leading up to the Israel-Gaza war. In 2023, it was reported that Boeing sent 1,000 small diameter "smart" bombs for the first week of Israeli air attacks on Gaza, which were shipped from a US Air Force base by Israeli Air Force. During the Israel-Gaza war (2023-present), Boeing's stock prices soared due to additional Israeli weapons contracts, while mass demonstrations sought to interrupt defense supplier summits and block shipments of weapons for the Israel Defense Forces at Boeing facilities in St. Charles, Missouri, Tukwila, Washington, and Gresham, Oregon, due to the mass violations of International humanitarian law committed by Israel. Students at Florida State University, University of Washington, Saint Louis University, University of Missouri–St. Louis, and Washington University in St. Louis called for their institutions to break partnerships with Boeing. In 2024, students on hunger strike at Brown University named Boeing among the list of corporations to divest from. Five protestors, in opposition to Boeing sales to Israel, were arrested on felony charges after blocking entrances to a Boeing facility in Heath, Ohio. The student union at Washington University in St. Louis passed a resolution calling on the university to divest from Boeing. == Financials == The key trends of Boeing are (as at the financial year ending December 31): Between 2010 and 2018, Boeing increased its operating cash flow from $3 to $15.3 billion, sustaining its share price, by negotiating advance payments from customers and delaying payments to its suppliers. This strategy is sustainable only as long as orders are good and delivery rates are increasing. From 2013 to 2019, Boeing spent over $60 billion on dividends and stock buybacks, twice as much as the development costs of the 787. In 2020, Boeing's second quarter revenue was $11.8 billion as a result of the pandemic slump. Due to higher sales in other divisions and an influx in deliveries of commercial jetliners in 2021, second quarter revenue increased by 44%, reaching nearly $17 billion. Revenues decreased 15 percent to $16.9 billion in the second quarter of 2024, compared to the same time period in 2023. The company's operating loss amounted to $1.39 billion and its net loss to $1.43 billion, while plane deliveries fell to 92 (from 136 in 2023). In 2024, Boeing delivered just 348 aircraft to its customers, its lowest output since the COVID-19 pandemic. Boeing ended the year with a backlog of 5,595 unfilled orders. == Employment numbers == The company's employment totals are listed below. Approximately 1.5% of Boeing employees are in the Technical Fellowship program, a program through which Boeing's top engineers and scientists set technical direction for the company. The average salary at Boeing was $76,784 in 2011, as reported by former employees. == Corporate governance == In 2022, Rory Kennedy made a documentary film, Downfall: The Case Against Boeing, streamed by Netflix. She said about the 21st-century history of Boeing "There were many decades when Boeing did extraordinary things by focusing on excellence and safety and ingenuity. Those three virtues were seen as the key to profit. It could work, and beautifully. And then they were taken over by a group that decided Wall Street was the end-all, be-all." On May 5, 2022, Boeing announced that it would be moving its headquarters from Chicago to Arlington, Virginia in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Additionally, it plans to add a research and technology center in Northern Virginia. In July 2024, it announced a new CEO, Kelly Ortberg. On August 8, 2024, he met with FAA Administrator Michael Whitaker to discuss the company's future direction. Ortberg has communicated his commitment to reinforcing Boeing's position as an industry leader and has outlined his vision for the company's continued success. === Board === As of 2022, Boeing is headed by a President who also serves as the chief executive officer. The roles of chair of the board and CEO were separated in October 2019. === Past leadership === == See also == Boeing Everett Factory – main production facility for commercial widebody aircraft Competition between Airbus and Boeing Downfall: The Case Against Boeing – Netflix film on the long history of safety shortcuts, corporate mismanagement and coverups of the 737 MAX Future of Flight Aviation Center & Boeing Tour – Corporate public museum United Aircraft Corporation United States Air Force Plant 42 == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Cloud, Dana L. (2011). We Are the Union: Democratic Unionism and Dissent at Boeing. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252036378. OCLC 816419078. Greider, William (1998). One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism. London: Penguin Press. ISBN 9780140266986. OCLC 470412225. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Myers, Polly Reed (2015). Capitalist Family Values: Gender, Work, and Corporate Culture at Boeing. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803278691. OCLC 931949091. Sell, Terry M. (2015). Wings of Power: Boeing and the Politics of Growth in the Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295996257. OCLC 1313788352. == External links == Official website "Annual Reports Collection". University of Washington. 1948–1984. The Joystick (Boeing Aircraft Club) – The Museum of Flight Digital Collections Boeing on OpenSecrets, a website that tracks and publishes data on campaign finance and lobbying
Boeing 737	The Boeing 737 is an American narrow-body aircraft produced by Boeing at its Renton factory in Washington. Developed to supplement the Boeing 727 on short and thin routes, the twinjet retained the 707 fuselage width and six abreast seating but with two underwing Pratt & Whitney JT8D low-bypass turbofan engines. Envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967 and entered service in February 1968 with Lufthansa. The lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968, and evolved through four generations, offering several variants for 85 to 215 passengers. The First Generation 737-100/200 variants were powered by Pratt & Whitney JT8D low-bypass turbofan engines and offered seating for 85 to 130 passengers. Launched in 1980 and introduced in 1984, the Second Generation 737 Classic -300/400/500 variants were upgraded with more fuel-efficient CFM56-3 high-bypass turbofans and offered 110 to 168 seats. Introduced in 1997, the Third Generation 737 Next Generation (NG) -600/700/800/900 variants have updated CFM56-7 high-bypass turbofans, a larger wing and an upgraded glass cockpit, and seat 108 to 215 passengers. The latest, and Fourth Generation, the 737 MAX -7/8/9/10 variants, powered by improved CFM LEAP-1B high-bypass turbofans and accommodating 138 to 204 people, entered service in 2017. Boeing Business Jet versions have been produced since the 737NG, as well as military models. As of April 2025, 16,813 Boeing 737s have been ordered and 12,060 delivered. It was the highest-selling commercial aircraft until being surpassed by the competing Airbus A320 family in October 2019, but maintains the record in total deliveries. Initially, its main competitor was the McDonnell Douglas DC-9, followed by its MD-80/MD-90 derivatives. In 2013, the global 737 fleet had completed more than 184 million flights over 264 million block hours since its entry into service. The 737 MAX, designed to compete with the A320neo, was grounded worldwide between March 2019 and November 2020 following two fatal crashes. == Development == === Initial design === Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs, and saw a need for a new aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11, 1964, based on research that indicated a market for a fifty to sixty passenger airliner flying routes of 50 to 1,000 miles (100 to 1,600 km). The initial concept featured podded engines on the aft fuselage, a T-tail as with the 727, and five-abreast seating. Engineer Joe Sutter relocated the engines to the wings which lightened the structure and simplified the accommodation of six-abreast seating in the fuselage. The engine nacelles were mounted directly to the underside of the wings, without pylons, allowing the landing gear to be shortened, thus lowering the fuselage to improve baggage and passenger access. Relocating the engines from the aft fuselage also allowed the horizontal stabilizer to be attached to the aft fuselage instead of as a T-tail. Many designs for the engine attachment strut were tested in the wind tunnel and the optimal shape for high speed was found to be one which was relatively thick, filling the narrow channels formed between the wing and the top of the nacelle, particularly on the outboard side. At the time, Boeing was far behind its competitors; the SE 210 Caravelle had been in service since 1955, and the BAC One-Eleven (BAC-111), Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727, particularly the fuselage, which differs in length only. This 148-inch (3.76 m) wide fuselage cross-section permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rivals' five-abreast. The 727's fuselage was derived from the 707. The proposed wing airfoil sections were based on those of the 707 and 727, but somewhat thicker; altering these sections near the nacelles achieved a substantial drag reduction at high Mach numbers. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, delivering 14,500 pounds-force (64 kN) of thrust. The concept design was presented in October 1964 at the Air Transport Association maintenance and engineering conference by chief project engineer Jack Steiner, where its elaborate high-lift devices raised concerns about maintenance costs and dispatch reliability. === Major design developments === The original 737 continued to be developed into thirteen passenger, cargo, corporate and military variants. These were later divided into what has become known as the four generations of the Boeing 737 family: The first generation "Original" series: the 737-100 and -200, also the military T-43 and CT-43, launched February 1965. The second generation "Classic" series: 737-300, -400 and -500, launched in 1979. The third generation "Next Generation" series: 737-600, -700, -800 and -900, also the military C-40 and P-8, launched late 1993. The fourth generation 737 MAX series: 737-7, -8, -9 and -10, launched August 2011. === Launch === The launch decision for the $150 million (~$1.11 billion in 2023) development was made by the board on February 1, 1965. The sales pitch was big-jet comfort on short-haul routes. Lufthansa became the launch customer on February 19, 1965, with an order for 21 aircraft, worth $67 million (~$494 million in 2023) after the airline had been assured by Boeing that the 737 project would not be canceled. Consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter had resulted in the seating capacity being increased to 100. On April 5, 1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s. United wanted a slightly larger capacity than the 737-100, so the fuselage was stretched 36 inches (91 cm) ahead of, and 40 inches (102 cm) behind the wing. The longer version was designated the 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants simultaneously. === Introduction === The first -100 was rolled out on January 17, 1967, and took its maiden flight on April 9, 1967, piloted by Brien Wygle and Lew Wallick. After several test flights the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued Type Certificate A16WE certifying the 737-100 for commercial flight on December 15, 1967. It was the first aircraft to have, as part of its initial certification, approval for Category II approaches, which refers to a precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height between 98 and 197 feet (30 and 60 m). Lufthansa received its first aircraft on December 28, 1967, and on February 10, 1968, became the first non-American airline to launch a new Boeing aircraft. Lufthansa was the only significant customer to purchase the 737-100 and only 30 aircraft were produced. The -200 was rolled out on June 29, 1967, and had its maiden flight on August 8, 1967. It was then certified by the FAA on December 21, 1967. The inaugural flight for United Airlines took place on April 28, 1968, from Chicago to Grand Rapids, Michigan. The lengthened -200 was widely preferred over the -100 by airlines. The improved version, the 737-200 Advanced, was introduced into service by All Nippon Airways on May 20, 1971. The 737 original model with its variants, known later as the Boeing 737 Original, initially competed with SE 210 Caravelle and BAC-111 due to their earlier entry into service and later primarily with the McDonnell Douglas DC-9, then its MD-80 derivatives as the three European short-haul single aisles slowly withdrew from the competition. Sales were low in the early 1970s and, after a peak of 114 deliveries in 1969, only 22 737s were shipped in 1972 with 19 in backlog. The US Air Force saved the program by ordering T-43s, which were modified Boeing 737-200s. African airline orders kept the production running until the 1978 US Airline Deregulation Act, which improved demand for six-abreast narrow-body aircraft. Demand further increased after being re-engined with the CFM56. The 737 went on to become the highest-selling commercial aircraft in terms of orders until surpassed by the competing Airbus A320 family in October 2019, but maintains the record in total deliveries. The fuselage is manufactured in Wichita, Kansas, by Boeing spin-off company Spirit AeroSystems, before being moved by rail to Renton. The Renton factory has three assembly lines for the 737 MAX; a fourth is planned to open at the Everett factory in 2024. == Generations and variants == === 737 Original (first generation) === The Boeing 737 Original is the name given to the -100 and -200 series of the Boeing 737 family. These are sometimes referred to by the nickname 737 Jurassic. ==== 737-100 ==== The initial model was the 737-100, the smallest variant of the 737 aircraft family, which was launched in February 1965 and entered service with Lufthansa in February 1968. In 1968, its unit cost was US$3,600,000 (equivalent to $32,600,000 in 2024). A total of just 30 737-100s were produced: 22 for Lufthansa, 5 for Malaysia–Singapore Airlines (MSA) and 2 for Avianca with the final aircraft delivered to MSA on October 31, 1969. This variant was largely overshadowed by its bigger 737-200 sibling, which entered service two months later. The original engine nacelles incorporated thrust reversers taken from the 727 outboard nacelles. They proved to be relatively ineffective and tended to lift the aircraft up off the runway when deployed. This reduced the downforce on the main wheels thereby reducing the effectiveness of the wheel brakes. In 1968, an improvement to the thrust reversal system was introduced. A 48-inch tailpipe extension was added and new target-style thrust reversers were incorporated. The thrust reverser doors were set 35 degrees away from the vertical to allow the exhaust to be deflected inboard and over the wings and outboard and under the wings. The improvement became standard on all aircraft after March 1969, and a retrofit was provided for active aircraft. Longer nacelle/wing fairings were introduced, and the airflow over the flaps and slats was improved. The production line also introduced an improvement to the flap system, allowing increased use during takeoff and landing. All these changes gave the aircraft a boost to payload and range, and improved short-field performance. Both the first and last 737-100s became the last 737-100s in service. The first aircraft used by Boeing as prototype under registration N73700 was later ordered by and delivered to NASA on July 26, 1973, which then operated it under registration N515NA and retired after 30 years on September 27, 2003. The last 737-100 built and also the last operating was originally sold to MSA, transferred to Air Florida, before being used as a VIP aircraft by the Mexican Air Force for 23 years under registration TP-03. TP-03 would be broken up in 2006. The first 737-100, NASA 515, is on static display in the Museum of Flight in Seattle and is the last surviving example of the type. ==== 737-200 ==== The 737-200 was a 737-100 with an extended fuselage, launched by an order from United Airlines in 1965 and entered service with the launch customer in April 1968. Its unit cost was US$4.0M (1968) ($36.2M today). The -200's unit cost was US$5.2M (1972) ($39.1M today). The 737-200 Advanced is an improved version of the -200, introduced into service by All Nippon Airways on May 20, 1971. After aircraft #135, the 737-200 Advanced has improved aerodynamics, automatic wheel brakes, more powerful engines, more fuel capacity, and hence a 15% increase in payload and range over the original -200s and respectively -100s. The 737-200 Advanced became the production standard in June 1971. Boeing also provided the 737-200C (Combi), which allowed for conversion between passenger and cargo use and the 737-200QC (Quick Change), which facilitated a rapid conversion between roles. The 1,114th and last delivery of a -200 series aircraft was in August 1988 to Xiamen Airlines. Nineteen 737-200s, designated T-43, were used to train aircraft navigators for the U.S. Air Force. Some were modified into CT-43s, which are used to transport passengers, and one was modified as the NT-43A Radar Test Bed. The first was delivered on July 31, 1973, and the last on July 19, 1974. The Indonesian Air Force ordered three modified 737-200s, designated Boeing 737-2X9 Surveiller. They were used as Maritime reconnaissance (MPA)/transport aircraft, fitted with SLAMMAR (Side-looking Multi-mission Airborne Radar). The aircraft were delivered between May 1982 and October 1983.After 40 years, in March 2008, the final 737-200 aircraft in the U.S. flying scheduled passenger service were phased out, with the last flights of Aloha Airlines. As of 2018, the variant still saw regular service through North American charter operators such as Sierra Pacific Airlines. The short-field capabilities of the 737-200 led Boeing to offer the "Unpaved Strip Kit" (see the Air North example, right). This option reduced foreign object damage when operated on remote, unimproved or unpaved runways, that competing jetliners could not use safely. The kit included a gravel deflector on the nose gear and a vortex dissipator extending from the front of the engine. Alaska Airlines used the gravel kit for some of its combi aircraft rural operations in Alaska until retiring its -200 fleet in 2007. Air Inuit, Nolinor Aviation and Buffalo Airways still use the gravel kit in Northern Canada. Canadian North also operated a gravel-kitted 737-200 Combi, but this was due to be retired in early 2023. As of September 2023, a relatively high number of 737-200s remain in service compared to other early jet airliners, with fifty examples actively flying for thirty carriers. During the 737 MAX groundings, older 737s, including the 200 and Classic series, were in demand for leasing. C-GNLK, one of Nolinor's 737-200s, is the oldest jet airliner in commercial service as of 2024, having entered service 50 years prior in 1974. === 737 Classic (second generation) === The Boeing 737 Classic is the name given to the 737-300/400/500 series after the introduction of the -600/700/800/900 series of the Boeing 737 family. Produced from 1984 to 2000, a total of 1,988 Classic series were delivered. Close to the next major upgrade of single aisle aircraft at Airbus and Boeing, the price of jet fuel reached a peak in 2008, when airlines devoted 40% of the retail price of an air ticket to pay for fuel, versus 15% in 2000. Consequently, in that year carriers retired Boeing 737 Classic aircraft to reduce fuel consumption; replacements consisted of more efficient 737 Next Generation or A320 family aircraft. On June 4, 2008, United Airlines announced it would retire all 94 of its Classic 737 aircraft (64 737-300 and 30 737-500 aircraft), replacing them with A320 family jets taken from its Ted subsidiary, which has been shut down. This intensified the competition between the two giant aircraft manufacturers, which has since become a duopoly competition. An optional upgrade with winglets became available for the Classic and NG series. The 737-300 and 737-500 can be retrofitted with Aviation Partners Boeing winglets, and the 737-300 retrofitted with winglets is designated the -300SP (Special Performance). WestJet was to launch the 737-600 with winglets, but dropped them in 2006. ==== 737-300 ==== Development began in 1979 for the 737's first major revision, which was originally introduced as the 'new generation' of the 737. Boeing wanted to increase capacity and range, incorporating improvements to upgrade the aircraft to modern specifications, while also retaining commonality with previous 737 variants. In 1980, preliminary aircraft specifications of the variant, dubbed 737-300, were released at the Farnborough Airshow. This first major upgrade series was later renamed 737 Classic. It competed primarily with the MD-80, its later derivative the MD-90, and the newcomer Airbus A320 family. Boeing engineer Mark Gregoire led a design team, which cooperated with CFM International to select, modify and deploy a new engine and nacelle that would make the 737-300 into a viable aircraft. They chose the CFM56-3B-1 high-bypass turbofan engine to power the aircraft, which yielded significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise, but also posed an engineering challenge, given the low ground clearance of the 737 and the larger diameter of the engine over the original Pratt & Whitney engines. Gregoire's team and CFM solved the problem by reducing the size of the fan (which made the engine slightly less efficient than it had been forecast to be), placing the engine ahead of the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the sides of the engine pod, giving the engine a distinctive non-circular "hamster pouch" air intake. Earlier customers for the CFM56 included the U.S. Air Force with its program to re-engine KC-135 tankers. The passenger capacity of the aircraft was increased to 149 by extending the fuselage around the wing by 9 feet 5 inches (2.87 m). The wing incorporated several changes for improved aerodynamics. The wingtip was extended 9 inches (23 cm), and the wingspan by 1 foot 9 inches (53 cm). The leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps were adjusted. The tailfin was redesigned, the flight deck was improved with the optional EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrumentation System), and the passenger cabin incorporated improvements similar to those developed on the Boeing 757. The prototype -300, the 1,001st 737 built, first flew on February 24, 1984, with pilot Jim McRoberts. It and two production aircraft flew a nine-month-long certification program. The 737-300 retrofitted with Aviation Partners' winglets was designated the -300SP (Special Performance). The 737-300 was replaced by the 737-700 of the Next Generation series. ==== 737-400 ==== The 737-400 was launched in 1985 to fill the gap between the 737-300 and the 757-200. In June 1986, Boeing announced the development of the 737-400, which stretched the fuselage a further 10 feet (3.0 m), increasing the capacity to 188 passengers, and requiring a tail bumper to prevent tailstrikes during take-off and a strengthened wing spar. The -400s first flight was on February 19, 1988, and, after a seven-month/500-hour flight-testing run, entered service with Piedmont Airlines that October. The last two -400s, i.e. the last 737 Classics series, were delivered to CSA Czech Airlines on February 28, 2000. The 737-400 was replaced by the 737-800 of the Next Generation series. The 737-400SF was a 737-400 converted to freighter, though it was not a model delivered by Boeing and hence the nickname Special Freighter (SF). Alaska Airlines was the first to convert one of their 400s from regular service to an aircraft with the ability to handle 10 pallets. The airline had also converted five more into fixed combi aircraft for half passenger and freight. These 737-400 Combi aircraft were retired in 2017 and replaced by the 737-700F of the Next Generation series. ==== 737-500 ==== The 737-500 was offered as a modern and direct replacement of the 737-200. It was launched in 1987 by Southwest Airlines, with an order for 20 aircraft, and it flew for the first time on June 30, 1989. A single prototype flew 375 hours for the certification process, and on February 28, 1990, Southwest Airlines received the first delivery. The -500 incorporated the improvements of the 737 Classic series, allowing longer routes with fewer passengers to be more economical than with the 737-300. The fuselage length of the 737-500 is 1 foot 7 inches (48 cm) longer than the 737-200, accommodating up to 140 passengers. Both glass and older-style mechanical cockpits arrangements were available. Using the CFM56-3 engine also gave a 25 percent increase in fuel efficiency over the older 737-200s P&W engines. The 737-500 has faced accelerated retirement due to its smaller size, after 21 years in service compared to 24 years for the -300. While a few 737-300s were slated for freighter conversion, no demand at all existed for a -500 freighter conversion. The 737-500 was replaced by the 737-600 of the Next Generation series, though the -600 was not as successful in total orders as the -500. === 737 NG (third generation) === The Boeing 737 Next Generation, abbreviated as 737 Next Gen or 737NG, is the name given to the -600, -700, -800 and -900 variants. It has been produced since 1996 and introduced in 1997, with a total order of 7,097 aircraft, of which 7,031 have been delivered as of May 2019. The primary goal was to re-engine the 737 with the high bypass ratio CFM56-7. By the early 1990s, as the MD-80 slowly withdrew from the competition following the introduction of the MD-90, it had become clear that the new A320 family was a serious threat to Boeing's market share. Airbus won previously loyal 737 customers, such as Lufthansa and United Airlines. In November 1993, to stay in the single aisle competition, Boeing's board of directors authorized the Next Generation program to mainly upgrade the 737 Classic series. In late 1993, after engineering trade studies and discussions with major customers, Boeing proceeded to launch a second derivative of the Boeing 737, the 737 Next Generation (NG) -600/700/800/900 series. It featured a redesigned wing with a wider wingspan and larger area, greater fuel capacity, longer range and higher MTOWs. It was equipped with CFM56-7 high pressure ratio engines, a glass cockpit, and upgraded interior configurations. The four main models of the series can accommodate seating for 108 to 215 passengers. It was further developed into additional versions such as the corporate Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) and military P-8 Poseidon aircraft. Following the merger between Boeing with McDonnell Douglas in 1997, the primary competitor for the 737NG series remained only the A320 family. ==== 737-600 ==== The 737-600 was the smallest of the Next-Generation models, replacing the 737-500. It had no winglets and was similar in size to the Airbus A318. Launch customer Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) placed its order in March 1995 and took the first delivery in September 1998. A total of 69 aircraft were produced, with the last one delivered to WestJet in 2006. ==== 737-700 ==== The 737-700, the first variant of the Next-Generation, was launched in November 1993 with an order of 63 aircraft. The -700 seats 126 passengers in a two-class or 149 passengers in a one-class layout. Launch customer Southwest Airlines took the first delivery in December 1997. The 737-700 replaced the 737-300 and competes with the Airbus A319. The 737-700C is a convertible version where the seats can be removed to carry cargo instead. There is a large door on the left side of the aircraft. The United States Navy was the launch customer for the 737-700C under the military designation C-40 Clipper. The 737-700ER (Extended Range) was launched on January 31, 2006, and featured the fuselage of the 737-700 and the wings and landing gear of the 737-800. A 737-700ER can typically accommodate 126 passengers in two classes with a range similar to the Airbus A319LR. ==== 737-800 ==== The 737-800 was a stretched version of the 737-700 launched on September 5, 1994, and first flew on July 31, 1997. The -800 seats 162 passengers in a two-class or 189 passengers in a high-density, one-class layout. Launch customer Hapag-Lloyd Flug (now TUIfly) received the first one in April 1998. The 737-800 replaced directly the -400 and aging 727-200 of US airlines. It filled also the gap left by Boeing's decision to discontinue the MD-80 and MD-90 aircraft, following Boeing's merger with McDonnell Douglas. The 737-800 is the most widely used narrowbody aircraft and competes primarily with the Airbus A320. ==== 737-900 ==== The 737-900 was launched in November 1997 and took its first flight on August 3, 2000. It is longer than the -800, but retains the MTOW, fuel capacity, and exit configuration of the -800, essentially trading range for capacity. The exit configuration limits its seat capacity to approximately 177 in a two class and 189 in a high-density, one class layout. Launch customer Alaska Airlines received the first delivery in May 2001. The 737-900ER (Extended Range), the newest and largest variant of the 737NG generation, was launched in July 2005, first flew in September 2006, and first delivered to launch customer Lion Air in April 2007. An additional pair of exit doors and a flat rear pressure bulkhead increased its seating capacity to 180 passengers in a two-class and up to 220 passengers in a one-class configuration. The -900ER partly closed the gap left by the discontinuation of the Boeing 757-200, and directly competes with the Airbus A321. === 737 MAX (fourth generation) === The Boeing 737 MAX is the name given to the main models 737 MAX 7/8/9/10 series and the higher-density MAX 200 variant of the Boeing 737 family. It is offered in four main variants, typically offering 138 to 230 seats and a range of 3,215 to 3,825 nautical miles [nmi] (5,954 to 7,084 km; 3,700 to 4,402 mi). The 737 MAX 7, MAX 8 (including the denser, 200-seat MAX 200), and MAX 9 replace the 737-700, -800, and -900 respectively. The further stretched 737 MAX 10 has also been added to the series. The aim was to re-engine the 737NG family using CFM LEAP-1B engines having very high bypass ratio, to compete with the Airbus A320neo family. On July 20, 2011, Boeing announced plans for a third major upgrade and respectively fourth generation of 737 series to be powered by the CFM LEAP-1B engine, with American Airlines intending to order 100 of these aircraft. On August 30, 2011, Boeing confirmed the launch of the 737 new engine variant, to be called the Boeing 737 MAX. It was based on earlier 737 designs with more efficient LEAP-1B power plants, aerodynamic improvements (most notably split-tip winglets), and airframe modifications. It competes with the Airbus A320neo family that was launched in December 2010 and reached 1,029 orders by June 2011, breaking Boeing's monopoly with American Airlines, which had an order for 130 A320neos that July. The 737 MAX had its first flight on January 29, 2016, and gained FAA certification on March 8, 2017. The first delivery was a MAX 8 on May 6, 2017, to Lion Air's subsidiary Malindo Air, which put it into service on May 22, 2017. As of January 2019, the series has received 5,011 firm orders. In March 2019, civil aviation authorities around the world grounded the 737 MAX following two hull loss crashes which caused 346 deaths. On December 16, 2019, Boeing announced that it would suspend production of the 737 MAX from January 2020, which was resumed in May 2020. In the midyear 2020, the FAA and Boeing conducted a series of recertification test flights. On November 18, 2020, the FAA cleared the MAX to return to service. Before the aircraft can fly again, repairs must be implemented and airlines' training programs must be approved. Passenger flights in the U.S. are expected to resume before the end of the year. Worldwide, the first airline to resume passenger service was Brazilian low-cost Gol, on December 9, 2020. ==== 737 MAX 7 ==== The 737 MAX 7, a shortened variant of the MAX 8, was originally based on the 737-700, flying 1,000 nautical miles (1,900 km; 1,200 mi) farther and accommodating two more seat rows at 18% lower fuel costs per seat. The redesign uses the 737-8 wing and landing gear; a pair of over-wing exits rather than the single-door configuration; a 46-inch-longer (1,200 mm) aft fuselage and a 30-inch-longer (760 mm) longer forward fuselage; structural re-gauging and strengthening; and systems and interior modifications to accommodate the longer length. Entry into service with launch operator Southwest Airlines was originally expected in January 2019, but certification delays have pushed this back, with Boeing CEO David Calhoun saying certification was possible in the first half of 2025. The 737 MAX 7 replaced the 737-700 and was predicted to carry 12 more passengers and fly 400 nautical miles (740 km; 460 mi) farther than the competing Airbus A319neo with 7% lower operating costs per seat. ==== 737 MAX 8 ==== The 737 MAX 8, the first variant of the 737 MAX, has a longer fuselage than the MAX 7. On July 23, 2013, Boeing completed the firm configuration for the 737 MAX 8. Its first commercial flight was operated by Malindo Air on May 22, 2017. The MAX 8 replaced the 737-800 and competed with the A320neo. The 737 MAX 200, a high-density version of the 737 MAX 8, was launched in September 2014 and named for seating for up to 200 passengers in a single-class layout with slimline seats requiring an extra pair of exit doors. The MAX 200 would be 20% more cost-efficient per seat, including 5% lower operating costs than the MAX 8 and would be the most efficient narrow-body on the market when entering service. In mid-November 2018, the first MAX 200 of the 135 ordered by Ryanair rolled out, in a 197-seat configuration. It was first flown from Renton on January 13, 2019, and was due to enter service in April 2019. ==== 737 MAX 9 ==== The 737 MAX 9, the stretched variant of the MAX 8, was launched with an order of 201 aircraft in February 2012. It made its roll-out on March 7, 2017, and first flight on April 13, 2017; It was certified by February 2018. The launch customer, Lion Air Group, took the first MAX 9 on March 21, 2018, before entering service with Thai Lion Air. The 737 MAX 9 replaced the 737-900 and competes with the Airbus A321neo. ==== 737 MAX 10 ==== The 737 MAX 10 was proposed as a stretched MAX 9 in mid-2016, enabling seating for 230 in a single class or 189 in two-class layout, compared to 193 in two-class seating for the A321neo. The modest 66-inch (1.7 m) stretch of fuselage enables the MAX 10 to retain the existing wing and CFM Leap 1B engine from the MAX 9 with a trailing-link main landing gear as the only major change. The MAX 10 was launched on June 19, 2017, with 240 orders and commitments from more than ten customers. The variant configuration with a predicted 5% lower trip cost and seat cost compared to the A321neo was firmed up by February 2018, and by mid-2018, the critical design review was completed. The MAX 10 has a similar capacity to the A321XLR, but shorter range and much poorer field performance in smaller airports. It was unveiled in Boeing's Renton factory on November 22, 2019, and first flew on June 18, 2021. The MAX 10 is still awaiting certification, with Boeing CEO David Calhoun saying in July 2024 that the MAX 10 could be certified in the first half of 2025. In the late 2010s, Boeing worked on a medium-range Boeing New Midsize Airplane (NMA) with two variants seating 225 or 275 passengers and targeting the same market segment as the 737 MAX 10 and the Airbus A321neo. A Future Small Airplane (FSA) was also touted during this period. The NMA project was set aside in January 2020, as Boeing focused on returning the 737 MAX to service and announced that it would be taking a new approach to future projects. == Design == The 737 continued to evolve into many variants but still remains recognizable as the 737. These are divided into four generations but all are based on the same basic design. === Airframe === The fuselage cross section and nose are derived from that of the Boeing 707 and Boeing 727. Early 737 cockpits also inherited the "eyebrow windows" positioned above the main glareshield, which were a feature of the original 707 and 727 to allow for better crew visibility. Contrary to popular belief, these windows were not intended for celestial navigation (only the military T-43A had a sextant port for star navigation, which the civilian models lacked.) With modern avionics, the windows became redundant, and many pilots placed newspapers or other objects in them to block out sun glare. They were eliminated from the 737 cockpit design in 2004, although they are still installed on customer request. The eyebrow windows were sometimes removed and plugged, usually during maintenance overhauls, and can be distinguished by the metal plug which differs from the smooth metal in later aircraft that were not originally fitted with the windows. The 737 was designed to sit relatively low to the ground to accommodate the design of smaller airports in the late 1960s which often lacked jetbridges or motorized belt loaders. The low fuselage allowed passengers to easily board from a mobile stairway or airstairs (which are still available as an option on the 737 MAX) and for luggage to be hand-lifted into the cargo holds. However, the design has proved to be an issue as the 737 has been modernized with larger and more fuel efficient engines. The 737's main landing gear, under the wings at mid-cabin, rotates into wheel wells in the aircraft's belly. The legs are covered by partial doors, and "brush-like" seals aerodynamically smooth (or "fair") the wheels in the wells. The sides of the tires are exposed to the air in flight. "Hub caps" complete the aerodynamic profile of the wheels. It is forbidden to operate without the caps, because they are linked to the ground speed sensor that interfaces with the anti-skid brake system. The dark circles of the tires are clearly visible when a 737 takes off, or is at low altitude. From July 2008, the steel landing gear brakes on new NGs were replaced by Messier-Bugatti carbon brakes, achieving weight savings to 550–700 pounds (250–320 kg) depending on whether standard or high-capacity brakes were equipped. On a 737-800 this gives a 0.5% improvement in fuel efficiency. 737s are not equipped with fuel dump systems. The original design was too small to require this, and adding a fuel dump system to the later, larger variants would have incurred a large weight penalty. Boeing instead demonstrated an "equivalent level of safety". Depending on the nature of the emergency, 737s either circle to burn off fuel or land overweight. If the latter is the case, the aircraft must be inspected by maintenance personnel for damage before being returned to service. === Engines === Engines on the 737 Classic series (-300, -400, -500) and Next-Generation series (-600, -700, -800, -900) do not have circular inlets like most aircraft but rather a planform on the lower side, which has been dictated largely by the need to accommodate ever larger engine diameters. The 737 Classic series featured CFM56 high bypass turbofan engines, which were 25% more efficient and also reduced noise significantly over JT8D low bypass engines used on the 737 Original series (-100 and -200), but also posed an engineering challenge given the low ground clearance of the Boeing 737 family. Boeing and engine supplier CFM International (CFMI) solved the problem by placing the engine ahead of (rather than below) the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the sides (rather than the bottom) of the engine pod, giving the 737 Classic and later generations a distinctive non-circular air intake. The improved, higher pressure ratio CFM56-7 turbofan engine on the 737 Next Generation is 7% more fuel-efficient than the previous CFM56-3 on the 737 Classic with the same bypass ratio. The newest 737 variants, the 737 MAX series, feature LEAP-1B engines from CFMI with a 69 inches (1.76 m) fan diameter. These engines were expected to be 10-12% more efficient than the CFM56-7B engines on the 737 Next Generation series. === Flight systems === The 737 uses a hydro-mechanical flight control system, similar to the Boeing 707 and typical of the period in which the 737 was originally designed. Pilot commands are transmitted to hydraulic boosters attached to the control surfaces via steel cables that run through the fuselage and wings, rather than by the electrical fly-by-wire systems found in more recent designs like the Airbus A320 or Boeing 777. The primary flight controls have mechanical backups. In the event of total hydraulic system failure or double engine failure, they will automatically revert to control via servo tab. In this mode, termed manual reversion, the servo tabs aerodynamically control the elevators and ailerons; these servo tabs are in turn controlled by cables running to the control yoke. The pilot's muscle forces alone control the tabs. The 737 Next Generation series introduced a six-screen LCD glass cockpit with modern avionics but designed to retain crew commonality with previous 737 generations. The 737 MAX introduced a 4 15.1 inch landscape LCD screen cockpit manufactured by Rockwell Collins derived from the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Except for the spoilers, which are fly-by-wire controlled, and all the analog instruments, which became digital, everything else is similar to the cockpits of the previous 737 generations to maintain commonality. === Aerodynamics === The Original -100 and -200 series were built without wingtip devices, but these were later introduced to improve fuel efficiency. The 737 has evolved four winglet types: the 737-200 Mini-winglet, 737 Classic/NG Blended Winglet, 737 Split Scimitar Winglet, and 737 MAX Advanced Technology Winglet. The 737-200 Mini-winglets are part of the Quiet Wing Corp modification kit that received certification in 2005. Blended winglets were standard on the 737 NG since 2000 and are available for retrofit on 737 Classic models. These winglets stand approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) tall and are installed at the wing tips. They improve fuel efficiency by up to 5% through lift-induced drag reduction achieved by moderating wingtip vortices. Split Scimitar winglets became available in 2014 for the 737-800, 737-900ER, BBJ2 and BBJ3, and in 2015 for the 737-700, 737-900 and BBJ1. Split Scimitar winglets were developed by Aviation Partners, the same Seattle-based corporation that developed the blended winglets; the Split Scimitar winglets produce up to a 5.5% fuel savings per aircraft compared to 3.3% savings for the blended winglets. Southwest Airlines flew their first flight of a 737-800 with Split Scimitar winglets on April 14, 2014. The next generation 737, 737 MAX, will feature an Advanced Technology (AT) Winglet that is produced by Boeing. The Boeing AT Winglet resembles a cross between the Blended Winglet and the Split Scimitar Winglet. An optional Enhanced Short Runway Package was developed for use on short runways. === Interior === The first generation Original series 737 cabin was replaced for the second generation Classic series with a design based on the Boeing 757 cabin. The Classic cabin was then redesigned once more for the third, Next Generation, 737 with a design based on the Boeing 777 cabin. Boeing later offered the redesigned Sky Interior on the NG. The principal features of the Sky Interior include sculpted sidewalls, redesigned window housings, increased headroom and LED mood lighting, larger pivot-bins based on the 777 and 787 designs and generally more luggage space, and claims to have improved cabin noise levels by 2–4 dB. The first 737 equipped Boeing Sky Interior was delivered to Flydubai in late 2010. Continental Airlines, Alaska Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, and TUIFly have also received Sky Interior-equipped 737s. == Other variants == === 737 AEW&C === The Boeing 737 AEW&C is a 737-700IGW roughly similar to the 737-700ER. This is an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) version of the 737NG. Australia is the first customer (as Project Wedgetail), followed by Turkey and South Korea. === T-43/CT-43A === The T-43 was a 737-200 modified for use by the United States Air Force for training navigators, now known as USAF combat systems officers. Informally referred to as the Gator (an abbreviation of "navigator") and "Flying Classroom", nineteen of these aircraft were delivered to the Air Training Command at Mather AFB, California during 1973 and 1974. Two additional aircraft were delivered to the Colorado Air National Guard at Buckley ANGB (later Buckley AFB) and Peterson AFB, Colorado, in direct support of cadet air navigation training at the nearby U.S. Air Force Academy. Two T-43s were later converted to CT-43As, similar to the CT-40A Clipper below, in the early 1990s and transferred to Air Mobility Command and United States Air Forces in Europe, respectively, as executive transports. A third aircraft was also transferred to Air Force Materiel Command for use as a radar test bed aircraft and was redesignated as an NT-43A. The T-43 was retired by the Air Education and Training Command in 2010 after 37 years of service. === C-40 Clipper === The Boeing C-40 Clipper is a military version of the 737-700C NG. It is used by both the United States Navy and the United States Air Force, and has been ordered by the United States Marine Corps. Technically, only the Navy C-40A variant is named "Clipper", whereas the USAF C-40B/C variants are officially unnamed. === P-8 Poseidon === The P-8 Poseidon developed for the United States Navy by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, based on the Next Generation 737-800ERX. The P-8 can be operated in the anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-surface warfare (ASUW), and shipping interdiction roles. It is armed with torpedoes, Harpoon anti-ship missiles and other weapons, and is able to drop and monitor sonobuoys, as well as operate in conjunction with other assets such as the Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). === VC-96 === The VC-96 designation was applied to two 737-2N3s operated by the Brazilian Air Force's Special Transport Group (GTE). === Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) === In the late 1980s, Boeing marketed the 77-33 jet, a business jet version of the 737-300. The name was short-lived. After the introduction of the Next Generation series, Boeing introduced the Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) series. The BBJ1 was similar in dimensions to the 737-700 but had additional features, including stronger wings and landing gear from the 737-800, and had increased range over the other 737 models through the use of extra fuel tanks. The first BBJ rolled out on August 11, 1998, and flew for the first time on September 4. On October 11, 1999, Boeing launched the BBJ2. Based on the 737-800, it is 19 feet 2 inches (5.84 m) longer than the BBJ1, with 25% more cabin space and twice the baggage space, but has slightly reduced range. It is also fitted with auxiliary belly fuel tanks and winglets. The first BBJ2 was delivered on February 28, 2001. Boeing's BBJ3 is based on the 737-900ER. The BBJ3 has 1,120 square feet (104 m2) of floor space, 35% more interior space, and 89% more luggage space than the BBJ2. It has an auxiliary fuel system, giving it a range of up to 4,725 nautical miles (8,751 km; 5,437 mi), and a Head-up display. Boeing completed the first example in August 2008. This aircraft's cabin is pressurized to a simulated 6,500-foot (2,000 m) altitude. === Boeing Converted Freighter program === The Boeing Converted Freighter program (BCF), or the 737-800BCF program, was launched by Boeing in 2016. It converts old 737-800 passenger jets to dedicated freighters. The first 737-800BCF was delivered in 2018 to GECAS, which is leased to West Atlantic. Boeing has signed an agreement with Chinese YTO Cargo Airlines to provide the airline with 737-800BCFs pending a planned program launch. === Experimental === Four 737 aircraft have been used in Boeing test programs. In 2012, a new 737-800 bound for American Airlines became the first ecoDemonstrator airframe in a program that continues annually into the 2020s. In conjunction with many industry partners, the program aims to reduce the environmental impact of aviation. In 2012 it tested the winglets which would eventually be used in the 737 MAX series. Testing also included a variable area exhaust nozzle, regenerative hydrogen fuel cells for electrical power, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). In 2018, one of the 737 MAX 7 prototypes participated in Boeing's Quiet Technology Demonstrator 3 (QTD3) program, in which a NASA engine inlet designed to reduce engine noise was tested over an acoustic array at Moses Lake, Washington. A 737 MAX 9 was used as the 2021 ecoDemonstrator. A new airframe in a special Alaska Airlines livery flew an extensive test program, a major part of which was the use of SAF in blends of up to 50% including a flight from Seattle to Glasgow, Scotland, to attend the United Nations COP26 Climate Change Conference. Other test areas included halon-free fire extinguisher (ground testing only), a low-profile anti-collision light, and text-based air traffic control communications. At the end of the testing the aircraft was returned to standard configuration, and was delivered to Alaska Airlines in 2022. During October 2023 a 737 MAX 10 destined for United Airlines flew a series of test flights to compare the emissions of SAF, including the contrails, with those of conventional fuel. The emissions were measured by NASA's Douglas DC-8 Airborne Science Lab which flew close behind the 737, which wore a special livery as part of a series of special tests named ecoDemonstrator Explorer. == Competition == The Boeing 737 Classic, Next Generation and MAX series have faced significant competition from the Airbus A320 family first introduced in 1988. The relatively recent Airbus A220 family now also competes against the smaller capacity end of the 737 variants. The A320 was developed to compete also with the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 and 95 series; the 95 later becoming the Boeing 717. Since July 2017, Airbus had a 59.4% market share of the re-engined single aisle market, while Boeing had 40.6%; Boeing had doubts on over-ordered A320neos by new operators and expected to narrow the gap with replacements not already ordered. However, in July 2017, Airbus had still 1,350 more A320neo orders than Boeing had for the 737 MAX. Boeing delivered 8,918 of the 737 family between March 1988 and December 2018, while Airbus delivered 8,605 A320 family aircraft over a similar period since first delivery in early 1988. == Operators == The five largest operators of the Boeing 737 are Southwest Airlines (815), Ryanair (566), United Airlines (496), American Airlines (363), and Delta Air Lines (240) as of June 2024. === Usage === ==== Civilian ==== In 2006, over 4,500 Boeing 737s were operated by more than 500 airlines, flying to 1,200 destinations in 190 countries and on average 1,250 aircraft were airborne, with two either departing or landing every five seconds. The 737 was the most commonly flown aircraft in 2008, 2009, and 2010. In 2013, over 5,580 Boeing 737s were operated by more than 342 airlines in 111 countries, which represented more than 25% of the worldwide fleet of large jet airliners. The 737 had carried over 16.8 billion passengers (twice of 7.1 billion world population in that time) over 119 billion miles (192 billion km) with more than 184 million flights or 264 million hours in the air. In 2016, there were 6,512 Boeing 737 airliners in service (5,567 737NGs plus 945 737-200s and 737 Classics), more than the 6,510 Airbus A320 family. while in 2017, there were 6,858 737s in service (5,968 737NGs plus 890 737-200s and classics), fewer than the 6,965 A320 family. By 2018, over 7,500 Boeing 737s were in service and on average 2,800 aircraft were airborne, with two either departing or landing every three seconds, carrying around three million passengers daily. At the time, the global 737 fleet had carried over 22 billion passengers since its introduction. As of June 2021, there were 9,315 Boeing 737s in service, slightly fewer than the 9,353 of the A320 family, as more 737s were already out of service. ==== Military ==== Many countries operate the 737 passenger, BBJ, and cargo variants in government or military applications. Users with 737s include: === Orders and deliveries === ==== Orders ==== The 737 had the highest, cumulative orders for any airliner until surpassed by the A320 family in October 2019. In that year, 737 orders dropped by 90%, as 737 MAX orders dried up after the March grounding. The 737 MAX backlog fell by 182, mainly due to the Jet Airways bankruptcy, a drop in Boeing's airliner backlog was a first in at least the past 30 years. As of April 2025, 16,813 units of the Boeing 737 family had been ordered, with 4,753 orders were pending, or 4,287 when including "additional criteria for recognizing contracted backlog with customers beyond the existence of a firm contract" (ASC 606 Adjustment). ==== Deliveries ==== Boeing delivered the 5,000th 737 to Southwest Airlines on February 13, 2006, the 6,000th 737 to Norwegian Air Shuttle in April 2009, the 7,000th 737 to Flydubai on December 16, 2011, the 8,000th 737 to United Airlines on April 16, 2014, and the 9,000th 737 to China United Airlines in April 2016. The 10,000th 737 was ordered in July 2012, rolled out on March 13, 2018, and was to be delivered to Southwest Airlines; the backlog at the time stood at over 4,600 aircraft. As of April 2025, 12,060 units of the Boeing 737 family had been delivered, while 12,014 of the competing A320 family had been delivered. Therefore, the 737 is the most delivered jetliner. === Model summary === == Accidents and incidents == As of November 2023, the Boeing 737 family has been involved in 529 aviation accidents and incidents, including 215 hull loss accidents out of 234 hull-losses, resulting in a total of 5,779 fatalities. A Boeing analysis of commercial jet airplane accidents between 1959 and 2013 found that the hull loss rate for the Original series was 1.75 per million departures, for the Classic series 0.54, and the Next Generation series 0.27. As of 2023, the analysis showed that the hull loss rate for the Original series was 1.78 (0.87 fatal hull loss rate), for the Classic series 0.81 (0.26 fatal hull loss rate), for the Next Generation series 0.18 (0.04 fatal hull loss rate), and for the MAX series 1.48 (1.48 fatal hull loss rate) per million departures. During the 1990s, a series of rudder issues on series -200 and -300 aircraft resulted in multiple incidents. In two total loss accidents, United Airlines Flight 585 (a -200 series) and USAir Flight 427, (a -300), the pilots lost control of the aircraft following a sudden and unexpected deflection of the rudder, killing everyone aboard, a total of 157 people. Similar rudder issues led to a temporary loss of control on at least five other 737 flights before the problem was ultimately identified. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the accidents and incidents were the result of a design flaw that could result in an uncommanded movement of the aircraft's rudder.: 13 : ix As a result of the NTSB's findings, the Federal Aviation Administration ordered that the rudder servo valves be replaced on all 737s and mandated new training protocols for pilots to handle an unexpected movement of control surfaces. Following the crashes of two 737 MAX 8 aircraft, Lion Air Flight 610 in October 2018 and Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 in March 2019, which caused 346 deaths, civil aviation authorities around the world grounded the 737 MAX series. On December 16, 2019, Boeing announced that it would suspend production of the 737 MAX from January 2020. Production of the MAX series resumed on May 27, 2020. == Aircraft on display == Owing to the 737's long production history and popularity, many older 737s have found use in museums after reaching the end of useful service. 19437/1: 737-130 registered N515NA on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. It was the first 737 built and is painted in NASA markings. 19047/14: 737-222 registered N9009U preserved by Southern Illinois University Carbondale at Southern Illinois Airport. 20213/160: 737-201 registered N213US forward fuselage on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington, in USAir livery. 20561/292: 737-281 registered LV-WTX on static display at the National Museum of Aeronautics in Morón, Buenos Aires. 20562/293: 737-281 registered CC-CSK fuselage preserved at Motel Bahía in Concón, Chile. 21262/470: 737-2H4 registered C-GWJT on static display at the British Columbia Institute of Technology Aerospace Technology Campus in Richmond, British Columbia. It is used for ground instructional training. The aircraft was donated by WestJet and bears its livery. 21340/499: 737-2H4 registered N29SW on static display at the Kansas Aviation Museum in Wichita, Kansas. It was formerly operated by Ryan International Airlines and prior to that Southwest Airlines. 21712/557: 737-275 registered C-GIPW preserved in operational condition at Alberta Flying Heritage Museum in Villeneuve, Alberta. Painted in Pacific Western Airlines livery. 22578/767: 737-290C registered N740AS on static display at the Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum in Anchorage, Alaska. It was formerly operated by Alaska Airlines. 22826/878: 737-2H4 registered YV1361 preserved at a hotel in Santiago, Chile. It was formerly operated by Avior Airlines. 23059/980: 737-2Z6 registered 22–222 on static display at the Royal Thai Air Force Museum in Bangkok. 22940/1037: 737-3H4 registered N300SW on static display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum in Dallas, Texas. It was the first such aircraft delivered to Southwest Airlines in November 1984. 23257/1124: 737-301 registered PK-AWU on static display at ITE College Central in Singapore. 23472/1194: 737-219 registered ZS-SMD on static display at the South African Airways Museum in Germiston, Gauteng. 23660/1294: 737-377 registered G-CELS (nickname Elsie) on static display at Norwich International Aviation Academy, as an aircraft maintenance trainer. It is painted in the silver & red Jet2.com color scheme, without the logo branding. 27286/2528: 737-3Q8 registered N759BA on static display at the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. It is painted in China Southern Airlines markings, and was previously operated by the airline as B-2921. == Specifications (Boeing 737-200 with JT8D-15A) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 102 passengers in two classes or 115 in one class, and 875 cu ft (24.8 m3) of cargo Length: 100 ft 2 in (30.53 m) Wingspan: 93 ft 0 in (28.35 m) Width: 12 ft 4 in (3.76 m) (fuselage) Height: 36 ft 10 in (11.23 m) Wing area: 979.9 sq ft (91.04 m2) Empty weight: 65,300 lb (29,620 kg) Max takeoff weight: 128,100 lb (58,105 kg) Fuel capacity: 5,970 US gal (22,600 L) Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney JT8D-15A turbofan engine, 15,500 lbf (69 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: Mach 0.84 Cruise speed: 400 mph (650 km/h, 350 kn) Range: 3,000 mi (4,800 km, 2,600 nmi) Service ceiling: 37,000 ft (11,000 m) Takeoff distance: 6,099 ft (1,859 m) == See also == Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == 737 page on Boeing.com The 737 Story on FlightInternational.com "737-200" (PDF). Boeing. 2007.
Boeing 747	The Boeing 747 is a long-range wide-body airliner designed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes in the United States between 1968 and 2023. After the introduction of the 707 in October 1958, Pan Am wanted a jet 2+1⁄2 times its size, to reduce its seat cost by 30%. In 1965, Joe Sutter left the 737 development program to design the 747. In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft, and in late 1966, Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop the JT9D engine, a high-bypass turbofan. On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the custom-built Everett Plant, the world's largest building by volume. The 747's first flight took place on February 9, 1969, and the 747 was certified in December of that year. It entered service with Pan Am on January 22, 1970. The 747 was the first airplane called a "Jumbo Jet" as the first wide-body airliner. The 747 is a four-engined jet aircraft, initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engines, then General Electric CF6 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines for the original variants. With a ten-abreast economy seating, it typically accommodates 366 passengers in three travel classes. It has a pronounced 37.5° wing sweep, allowing a Mach 0.85 (490 kn; 900 km/h) cruise speed, and its heavy weight is supported by four main landing gear legs, each with a four-wheel bogie. The partial double-deck aircraft was designed with a raised cockpit so it could be converted to a freighter airplane by installing a front cargo door, as it was initially thought that it would eventually be superseded by supersonic transports. Boeing introduced the -200 in 1971, with uprated engines for a heavier maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 833,000 pounds (378 t) from the initial 735,000 pounds (333 t), increasing the maximum range from 4,620 to 6,560 nautical miles [nmi] (8,560 to 12,150 km; 5,320 to 7,550 mi). It was shortened for the longer-range 747SP in 1976, and the 747-300 followed in 1983 with a stretched upper deck for up to 400 seats in three classes. The heavier 747-400 with improved RB211 and CF6 engines or the new PW4000 engine (the JT9D successor), and a two-crew glass cockpit, was introduced in 1989 and is the most common variant. After several studies, the stretched 747-8 was launched on November 14, 2005, using the General Electric GEnx engine first developed for the 787 Dreamliner (the inspiration for the -8 in the name), and was first delivered in October 2011. The 747 is the basis for several government and military variants, such as the VC-25 (Air Force One), E-4 Emergency Airborne Command Post, Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, and some experimental test aircraft such as the YAL-1 and SOFIA airborne observatory. Initial competition came from the smaller trijet widebodies: the Lockheed L-1011 (introduced in 1972), McDonnell Douglas DC-10 (1971) and later MD-11 (1990). Airbus competed with later variants with the heaviest versions of the A340 until surpassing the 747 in size with the A380, delivered between 2007 and 2021. Freighter variants of the 747 remain popular with cargo airlines. The final 747 was delivered to Atlas Air in January 2023 after a 54-year production run, with 1,574 aircraft built. As of December 2023, 64 Boeing 747s (4.1%) have been lost in accidents and incidents, in which a total of 3,746 people have died. == Development == === Background === In 1963, the United States Air Force began a series of study projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft. Although the C-141 Starlifter was being introduced, officials believed that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially to carry cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft. These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of 180,000 pounds (81.6 t) and a speed of Mach 0.75 (430 kn; 800 km/h), and an unrefueled range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) with a payload of 115,000 pounds (52.2 t). The payload bay had to be 17 feet (5.18 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m) high and 100 feet (30 m) long with access through doors at the front and rear. The desire to keep the number of engines to four required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy. In May 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta; engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney. Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines. The airframe proposals shared several features. As the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. All of the companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit above the cargo area; Douglas had a small "pod" just forward and above the wing, Lockheed used a long "spine" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing. In 1965, Lockheed's aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, which was the largest military aircraft in the world at the time. Boeing carried the nose door and raised cockpit concepts over to the design of the 747. === Airliner proposal === The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s. The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, had revolutionized long-distance travel. In this growing jet age, Juan Trippe, president of Pan American Airways (Pan Am), one of Boeing's most important airline customers, asked for a new jet airliner 2+1⁄2 times size of the 707, with a 30% lower cost per unit of passenger-distance and the capability to offer mass air travel on international routes. Trippe also thought that airport congestion could be addressed by a larger new aircraft. In 1965, Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeing's 737 development team to manage the design studies for the new airliner, already assigned the model number 747. Sutter began a design study with Pan Am and other airlines to better understand their requirements. At the time, many thought that long-range subsonic airliners would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft. Boeing responded by designing the 747 so it could be adapted easily to carry freight and remain in production even if sales of the passenger version declined. In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft for US$525 million (equivalent to $3.8 billion in 2023 dollars). During the ceremonial 747 contract-signing banquet in Seattle on Boeing's 50th Anniversary, Juan Trippe predicted that the 747 would be "…a great weapon for peace, competing with intercontinental missiles for mankind's destiny". As launch customer, and because of its early involvement before placing a formal order, Pan Am was able to influence the design and development of the 747 to an extent unmatched by a single airline before or since. === Design effort === Ultimately, the high-winged CX-HLS Boeing design was not used for the 747, although technologies developed for their bid had an influence. The original design included a full-length double-deck fuselage with eight-across seating and two aisles on the lower deck and seven-across seating and two aisles on the upper deck. However, concern over evacuation routes and limited cargo-carrying capability caused this idea to be scrapped in early 1966 in favor of a wider single deck design. The cockpit was therefore placed on a shortened upper deck so that a freight-loading door could be included in the nose cone; this design feature produced the 747's distinctive "hump". In early models, what to do with the small space in the pod behind the cockpit was not clear, and this was initially specified as a "lounge" area with no permanent seating. (A different configuration that had been considered to keep the flight deck out of the way for freight loading had the pilots below the passengers, and was dubbed the "anteater".) One of the principal technologies that enabled an aircraft as large as the 747 to be drawn up was the high-bypass turbofan engine. This engine technology was thought to be capable of delivering double the power of the earlier turbojets while consuming one-third less fuel. General Electric had pioneered the concept but was committed to developing the engine for the C-5 Galaxy and did not enter the commercial market until later. Pratt & Whitney was also working on the same principle and, by late 1966, Boeing, Pan Am and Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop a new engine, designated the JT9D to power the 747. The project was designed with a new methodology called fault tree analysis, which allowed the effects of a failure of a single part to be studied to determine its impact on other systems. To address concerns about safety and flyability, the 747's design included structural redundancy, redundant hydraulic systems, quadruple main landing gear and dual control surfaces. Additionally, some of the most advanced high-lift devices used in the industry were included in the new design, to allow it to operate from existing airports. These included Krueger flaps running almost the entire length of the wing's leading edge, as well as complex three-part slotted flaps along the trailing edge of the wing. The wing's complex three-part flaps increase wing area by 21% and lift by 90% when fully deployed compared to their non-deployed configuration. Boeing agreed to deliver the first 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969. The delivery date left 28 months to design the aircraft, which was two-thirds of the normal time. The schedule was so fast-paced that the people who worked on it were given the nickname "The Incredibles". Developing the aircraft was such a technical and financial challenge that management was said to have "bet the company" when it started the project. Due to its massive size, Boeing subcontracted the assembly of subcomponents to other manufacturers, most notably Northrop and Grumman (later merged into Northrop Grumman in 1994) for fuselage parts and trailing edge flaps respectively, Fairchild for tailplane ailerons, and Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV) for the empennage. === Production plant === As Boeing did not have a plant large enough to assemble the giant airliner, they chose to build a new plant. The company considered locations in about 50 cities, and eventually decided to build the new plant some 30 miles (50 km) north of Seattle on a site adjoining a military base at Paine Field near Everett, Washington. It bought the 780-acre (320 ha) site in June 1966. Developing the 747 had been a major challenge, and building its assembly plant was also a huge undertaking. Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper, then head of the company's turbine division, to oversee construction of the Everett factory and to start production of the 747. To level the site, more than four million cubic yards (three million cubic meters) of earth had to be moved. Time was so short that the 747's full-scale mock-up was built before the factory roof above it was finished. The plant is the largest building by volume ever built, and has been substantially expanded several times to permit construction of other models of Boeing wide-body commercial jets. === Flight testing === Before the first 747 was fully assembled, testing began on many components and systems. One important test involved the evacuation of 560 volunteers from a cabin mock-up via the aircraft's emergency chutes. The first full-scale evacuation took two and a half minutes instead of the maximum of 90 seconds mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and several volunteers were injured. Subsequent test evacuations achieved the 90-second goal but caused more injuries. Most problematic was evacuation from the aircraft's upper deck; instead of using a conventional slide, volunteer passengers escaped by using a harness attached to a reel. Tests also involved taxiing such a large aircraft. Boeing built an unusual training device known as "Waddell's Wagon" (named for a 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) that consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck. While the first 747s were still being built, the device allowed pilots to practice taxi maneuvers from a high upper-deck position. In 1968, the program cost was US$1 billion (equivalent to $6.7 billion in 2023 dollars). On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the Everett assembly building before the world's press and representatives of the 26 airlines that had ordered the airliner. Over the following months, preparations were made for the first flight, which took place on February 9, 1969, with test pilots Jack Waddell and Brien Wygle at the controls and Jess Wallick at the flight engineer's station. Despite a minor problem with one of the flaps, the flight confirmed that the 747 handled extremely well. The 747 was found to be largely immune to "Dutch roll", a phenomenon that had been a major hazard to the early swept-wing jets. === Issues, delays and certification === During later stages of the flight test program, flutter testing showed that the wings suffered oscillation under certain conditions. This difficulty was partly solved by reducing the stiffness of some wing components. However, a particularly severe high-speed flutter problem was solved only by inserting depleted uranium counterweights as ballast in the outboard engine nacelles of the early 747s. This measure caused some concern when these aircraft crashed, for example El Al Flight 1862 at Amsterdam in 1992 with 622 pounds (282 kg) of uranium in the tailplane (horizontal stabilizer); detailed investigations showed, however, that the best estimate of the exposure to depleted uranium was ".. several orders of magnitude less than the workers' limit for chronic exposure." The flight test program was hampered by problems with the 747's JT9D engines. Difficulties included engine stalls caused by rapid throttle movements and distortion of the turbine casings after a short period of service. The problems delayed 747 deliveries for several months; up to 20 aircraft at the Everett plant were stranded while awaiting engine installation. The program was further delayed when one of the five test aircraft suffered serious damage during a landing attempt at Renton Municipal Airport, the site of Boeing's Renton factory. The incident happened on December 13, 1969, when a test aircraft was flown to Renton to have test equipment removed and a cabin installed. Pilot Ralph C. Cokely undershot the airport's short runway and the 747's right, outer landing gear was torn off and two engine nacelles were damaged. However, these difficulties did not prevent Boeing from taking a test aircraft to the 28th Paris Air Show in mid-1969, where it was displayed to the public for the first time. Finally, in December 1969, the 747 received its FAA airworthiness certificate, clearing it for introduction into service. The huge cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had to borrow heavily from a banking syndicate. During the final months before delivery of the first aircraft, the company had to repeatedly request additional funding to complete the project. Had this been refused, Boeing's survival would have been threatened. The firm's debt exceeded $2 billion, with the $1.2 billion owed to the banks setting a record for all companies. Allen later said, "It was really too large a project for us." Ultimately, the gamble succeeded, and Boeing held a monopoly in very large passenger aircraft production for many years. === Entry into service === On January 15, 1970, First Lady Pat Nixon christened Pan Am's first 747 at Dulles International Airport in the presence of Pan Am chairman Najeeb Halaby. Instead of champagne, red, white, and blue water was sprayed on the aircraft. The 747 entered service on January 22, 1970, on Pan Am's New York–London route; the flight had been planned for the evening of January 21, but engine overheating made the original aircraft (Clipper Young America, registration N735PA) unusable. Finding a substitute delayed the flight by more than six hours to the following day when Clipper Victor (registration N736PA) was used. The 747 enjoyed a fairly smooth introduction into service, overcoming concerns that some airports would not be able to accommodate an aircraft that large. Although technical problems occurred, they were relatively minor and quickly solved. === Improved 747 versions === After the initial 747-100, Boeing developed the -100B, a higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) variant, and the -100SR (Short Range), with higher passenger capacity. Increased maximum takeoff weight allows aircraft to carry more fuel and have longer range. The -200 model followed in 1971, featuring more powerful engines and a higher MTOW. Passenger, freighter and combination passenger-freighter versions of the -200 were produced. The shortened 747SP (special performance) with a longer range was also developed, and entered service in 1976. The 747 line was further developed with the launch of the 747-300 on June 11, 1980, followed by interest from Swissair a month later and the go-ahead for the project.: 86 The 300 series resulted from Boeing studies to increase the seating capacity of the 747, during which modifications such as fuselage plugs and extending the upper deck over the entire length of the fuselage were rejected. The first 747-300, completed in 1983, included a stretched upper deck, increased cruise speed, and increased seating capacity. The -300 variant was previously designated 747SUD for stretched upper deck, then 747-200 SUD, followed by 747EUD, before the 747-300 designation was used. Passenger, short range and combination freighter-passenger versions of the 300 series were produced. In 1985, development of the longer range 747-400 began. The variant had a new glass cockpit, which allowed for a cockpit crew of two instead of three, new engines, lighter construction materials, and a redesigned interior. Development costs soared, and production delays occurred as new technologies were incorporated at the request of airlines. Insufficient workforce experience and reliance on overtime contributed to early production problems on the 747-400. The -400 entered service in 1989. In 1991, a record-breaking 1,087 passengers were flown in a 747 during a covert operation to airlift Ethiopian Jews to Israel. Generally, the 747-400 held between 416 and 524 passengers. The 747 remained the heaviest commercial aircraft in regular service until the debut of the Antonov An-124 Ruslan in 1982; variants of the 747-400 surpassed the An-124's weight in 2000. The Antonov An-225 Mriya cargo transport, which debuted in 1988, remains the world's largest aircraft by several measures (including the most accepted measures of maximum takeoff weight and length); one aircraft has been completed and was in service until 2022. The Scaled Composites Stratolaunch is currently the largest aircraft by wingspan. === Further developments === After the arrival of the 747-400, several stretching schemes for the 747 were proposed. Boeing announced the larger 747-500X and -600X preliminary designs in 1996. The new variants would have cost more than US$5 billion to develop, and interest was not sufficient to launch the program. In 2000, Boeing offered the more modest 747X and 747X stretch derivatives as alternatives to the Airbus A38X. However, the 747X family was unable to attract enough interest to enter production. A year later, Boeing switched from the 747X studies to pursue the Sonic Cruiser, and after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold, the 787 Dreamliner. Some of the ideas developed for the 747X were used on the 747-400ER, a longer range variant of the 747-400. After several variants were proposed but later abandoned, some industry observers became skeptical of new aircraft proposals from Boeing. However, in early 2004, Boeing announced tentative plans for the 747 Advanced that were eventually adopted. Similar in nature to the 747-X, the stretched 747 Advanced used technology from the 787 to modernize the design and its systems. The 747 remained the largest passenger airliner in service until the Airbus A380 began airline service in 2007. On November 14, 2005, Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the Boeing 747-8. The last 747-400s were completed in 2009. As of 2011, most orders of the 747-8 were for the freighter variant. On February 8, 2010, the 747-8 Freighter made its maiden flight. The first delivery of the 747-8 went to Cargolux in 2011. The first 747-8 Intercontinental passenger variant was delivered to Lufthansa on May 5, 2012. The 1,500th Boeing 747 was delivered in June 2014 to Lufthansa. In January 2016, Boeing stated it was reducing 747-8 production to six per year beginning in September 2016, incurring a $569 million post-tax charge against its fourth-quarter 2015 profits. At the end of 2015, the company had 20 orders outstanding. On January 29, 2016, Boeing announced that it had begun the preliminary work on the modifications to a commercial 747-8 for the next Air Force One presidential aircraft, then expected to be operational by 2020. On July 12, 2016, Boeing announced that it had finalized an order from Volga-Dnepr Group for 20 747-8 freighters, valued at $7.58 billion (~$9.44 billion in 2023) at list prices. Four aircraft were delivered beginning in 2012. Volga-Dnepr Group is the parent of three major Russian air-freight carriers – Volga-Dnepr Airlines, AirBridgeCargo Airlines and Atran Airlines. The new 747-8 freighters would replace AirBridgeCargo's current 747-400 aircraft and expand the airline's fleet and will be acquired through a mix of direct purchases and leasing over the next six years, Boeing said. === End of production === On July 27, 2016, in its quarterly report to the Securities and Exchange Commission, Boeing discussed the potential termination of 747 production due to insufficient demand and market for the aircraft. With a firm order backlog of 21 aircraft and a production rate of six per year, program accounting had been reduced to 1,555 aircraft. In October 2016, UPS Airlines ordered 14 -8Fs to add capacity, along with 14 options, which it took in February 2018 to increase the total to 28 -8Fs on order. The backlog then stood at 25 aircraft, though several of these were orders from airlines that no longer intended to take delivery. On July 2, 2020, it was reported that Boeing planned to end 747 production in 2022 upon delivery of the remaining jets on order to UPS and the Volga-Dnepr Group due to low demand. On July 29, 2020, Boeing confirmed that the final 747 would be delivered in 2022 as a result of "current market dynamics and outlook" stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, according to CEO David Calhoun. The last aircraft, a 747-8F for Atlas Air registered N863GT, rolled off the production line on December 6, 2022, and was delivered on January 31, 2023. Boeing hosted an event at the Everett factory for thousands of workers as well as industry executives to commemorate the delivery. == Design == The Boeing 747 is a large, wide-body (two-aisle) airliner with four wing-mounted engines. Its wings have a high sweep angle of 37.5° for a fast, efficient cruise speed of Mach 0.84 to 0.88, depending on the variant. The sweep also reduces the wingspan, allowing the 747 to use existing hangars. Its seating capacity is over 366 with a 3–4–3 seat arrangement (a cross section of three seats, an aisle, four seats, another aisle, and three seats) in economy class and a 2–3–2 layout in first class on the main deck. The upper deck has a 3–3 seat arrangement in economy class and a 2–2 layout in first class. Raised above the main deck, the cockpit creates a hump. This raised cockpit allows front loading of cargo on freight variants. The upper deck behind the cockpit provides space for a lounge and/or extra seating. The "stretched upper deck" became available as an alternative on the 747-100B variant and later as standard beginning on the 747-300. The upper deck was stretched more on the 747-8. The 747 cockpit roof section also has an escape hatch from which crew can exit during the events of an emergency if they cannot do so through the cabin. The 747's maximum takeoff weight ranges from 735,000 pounds (333 t) for the -100 to 970,000 pounds (440 t) for the -8. Its range has increased from 5,300 nautical miles (9,800 km; 6,100 mi) on the -100 to 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) on the -8I. The 747 has redundant structures along with four redundant hydraulic systems and four main landing gears each with four wheels; these provide a good spread of support on the ground and safety in case of tire blow-outs. The main gear are redundant so that landing can be performed on two opposing landing gears if the others are not functioning properly. The 747 also has split control surfaces and was designed with sophisticated triple-slotted flaps that minimize landing speeds and allow the 747 to use standard-length runways. For transportation of spare engines, the 747 can accommodate a non-functioning fifth-pod engine under the aircraft's port wing between the inner functioning engine and the fuselage. The fifth engine mount point was also used by Virgin Orbit's LauncherOne program to carry an orbital-class rocket to cruise altitude where it was deployed. == Operational history == After the aircraft's introduction with Pan Am in 1970, other airlines that had bought the 747 to stay competitive began to put their own 747s into service. Boeing estimated that half of the early 747 sales were to airlines desiring the aircraft's long range rather than its payload capacity. While the 747 had the lowest potential operating cost per seat, this could only be achieved when the aircraft was fully loaded; costs per seat increased rapidly as occupancy declined. A moderately loaded 747, one with only 70 percent of its seats occupied, used more than 95 percent of the fuel needed by a fully occupied 747. Nonetheless, many flag-carriers purchased the 747 due to its prestige "even if it made no sense economically" to operate. During the 1970s and 1980s, over 30 regularly scheduled 747s could often be seen at John F. Kennedy International Airport. The recession of 1969–1970, despite having been characterized as relatively mild, greatly affected Boeing. For the year and a half after September 1970, it only sold two 747s in the world, both to Irish flag carrier Aer Lingus. No 747s were sold to any American carrier for almost three years. When economic problems in the US and other countries after the 1973 oil crisis led to reduced passenger traffic, several airlines found they did not have enough passengers to fly the 747 economically, and they replaced them with the smaller and recently introduced McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar trijet wide bodies (and later the 767 and Airbus A300/A310 twinjets). Having tried replacing coach seats on its 747s with piano bars in an attempt to attract more customers, American Airlines eventually relegated its 747s to cargo service and in 1983 exchanged them with Pan Am for smaller aircraft; Delta Air Lines also removed its 747s from service after several years. Later, Delta acquired 747s again in 2008 as part of its merger with Northwest Airlines, although it retired the Boeing 747-400 fleet in December 2017. International flights bypassing traditional hub airports and landing at smaller cities became more common throughout the 1980s, thus eroding the 747's original market. Many international carriers continued to use the 747 on Pacific routes. In Japan, 747s on domestic routes were configured to carry nearly the maximum passenger capacity. == Variants == The 747-100 with a range of 4,620 nautical miles (8,556 km), was the original variant launched in 1966. The 747-200 soon followed, with its launch in 1968 and the shorter 747SP launched in 1973. The 747-300 was launched in 1980 and was followed by the 747-400 in 1985. Ultimately, the 747-8 was announced in 2005. Several versions of each variant have been produced, and many of the early variants were in production simultaneously. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) classifies variants using a shortened code formed by combining the model number and the variant designator (e.g. "B741" for all -100 models). === 747-100 === The first 747-100s were built with six upper deck windows (three per side) to accommodate upstairs lounge areas. Later, as airlines began to use the upper deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered an upper deck with ten windows on either side as an option. Some early -100s were retrofitted with the new configuration. The -100 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A engines. No freighter version of this model was developed, but many 747-100s were converted into freighters as 747-100(SF). The first 747-100(SF) was delivered to Flying Tiger Line in 1974. A total of 168 747-100s were built; 167 were delivered to customers, while Boeing kept the prototype, City of Everett. In 1972, its unit cost was US$24M (180.4M today). ==== 747SR ==== Responding to requests from Japanese airlines for a high-capacity aircraft to serve domestic routes between major cities, Boeing developed the 747SR as a short-range version of the 747-100 with lower fuel capacity and greater payload capability. With increased economy class seating, up to 498 passengers could be carried in early versions and up to 550 in later models. Intended for shorter routes and thus more turn arounds, the 747SR had an economic design life objective of 52,000 flights during 20 years of operation, compared to 24,600 flights in 20 years for the standard 747. The initial 747SR model, the -100SR, had a strengthened body structure and landing gear to accommodate the added stress accumulated from a greater number of takeoffs and landings. Extra structural support was built into the wings, fuselage, and the landing gear along with a 20% reduction in fuel capacity. The initial order for the -100SR – four aircraft for Japan Air Lines (JAL, later Japan Airlines) – was announced on October 30, 1972; rollout occurred on August 3, 1973, and the first flight took place on August 31, 1973. The type was certified by the FAA on September 26, 1973, with the first delivery on the same day. The -100SR entered service with JAL, the type's sole customer, on October 7, 1973, and typically operated flights within Japan. Seven -100SRs were built between 1973 and 1975, each with a 520,000-pound (240 t) MTOW and Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A engines derated to 43,000 pounds-force (190 kN) of thrust. Following the -100SR, Boeing produced the -100BSR, a 747SR variant with increased takeoff weight capability. Debuting in 1978, the -100BSR also incorporated structural modifications for a high cycle-to-flying hour ratio; a related standard -100B model debuted in 1979. The -100BSR first flew on November 3, 1978, with first delivery to All Nippon Airways (ANA) on December 21, 1978. A total of 20 -100BSRs were produced for ANA and JAL. The -100BSR had a 600,000 pounds (270 t) MTOW and was powered by the same JT9D-7A or General Electric CF6-45 engines used on the -100SR. ANA operated this variant on domestic Japanese routes with 455 or 456 seats until retiring its last aircraft in March 2006. In 1986, two -100BSR SUD models, featuring the stretched upper deck (SUD) of the -300, were produced for JAL. The type's maiden flight occurred on February 26, 1986, with FAA certification and first delivery on March 24, 1986. JAL operated the -100BSR SUD with 563 seats on domestic routes until their retirement in the third quarter of 2006. While only two -100BSR SUDs were produced, in theory, standard -100Bs can be modified to the SUD certification. Overall, 29 Boeing 747SRs were built. ==== 747-100B ==== The 747-100B model was developed from the -100SR, using its stronger airframe and landing gear design. The type had an increased fuel capacity of 48,070 US gal (182,000 L), allowing for a 5,000-nautical-mile (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) range with a typical 452-passenger payload, and an increased MTOW of 750,000 lb (340 t) was offered. The first -100B order, one aircraft for Iran Air, was announced on June 1, 1978. This version first flew on June 20, 1979, received FAA certification on August 1, 1979, and was delivered the next day. Nine -100Bs were built, one for Iran Air and eight for Saudi Arabian Airlines. Unlike the original -100, the -100B was offered with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A, CF6-50, or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines. However, only RB211-524 (Saudia) and JT9D-7A (Iran Air) engines were ordered. The last 747-100B, EP-IAM was retired by Iran Air in 2014, the last commercial operator of the 747-100 and -100B. === 747SP === The development of the 747SP stemmed from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air, who were looking for a high-capacity airliner with enough range to cover Pan Am's New York–Middle Eastern routes and Iran Air's planned Tehran–New York route. The Tehran–New York route, when launched, was the longest non-stop commercial flight in the world. The 747SP is 48 feet 4 inches (14.73 m) shorter than the 747-100. Fuselage sections were eliminated fore and aft of the wing, and the center section of the fuselage was redesigned to fit mating fuselage sections. The SP's flaps used a simplified single-slotted configuration. The 747SP, compared to earlier variants, had a tapering of the aft upper fuselage into the empennage, a double-hinged rudder, and longer vertical and horizontal stabilizers. Power was provided by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7(A/F/J/FW) or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines. The 747SP was granted a type certificate on February 4, 1976, and entered service with launch customers Pan Am and Iran Air that same year. The aircraft was chosen by airlines wishing to serve major airports with short runways. A total of 45 747SPs were built, with the 44th 747SP delivered on August 30, 1982. In 1987, Boeing re-opened the 747SP production line after five years to build one last 747SP for an order by the United Arab Emirates government. In addition to airline use, one 747SP was modified for the NASA/German Aerospace Center SOFIA experiment. Iran Air, the last civil operator of the type, retired its final 747-SP (EP-IAC) in June 2016. === 747-200 === While the 747-100 powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A engines offered enough payload and range for medium-haul operations, it was marginal for long-haul route sectors. The demand for longer range aircraft with increased payload quickly led to the improved -200, which featured more powerful engines, increased MTOW, and greater range than the -100. A few early -200s retained the three-window configuration of the -100 on the upper deck, but most were built with a ten-window configuration on each side. The 747-200 was produced in passenger (-200B), freighter (-200F), convertible (-200C), and combi (-200M) versions. The 747-200B was the basic passenger version, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines; it entered service in February 1971. In its first three years of production, the -200 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7 engines (initially the only engine available). Range with a full passenger load started at over 5,000 nmi (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) and increased to 6,000 nmi (11,000 km; 6,900 mi) with later engines. Most -200Bs had an internally stretched upper deck, allowing for up to 16 passenger seats. The freighter model, the 747-200F, had a hinged nose cargo door and could be fitted with an optional side cargo door, and had a capacity of 105 tons (95.3 tonnes) and an MTOW of up to 833,000 pounds (378 t). It entered service in 1972 with Lufthansa. The convertible version, the 747-200C, could be converted between a passenger and a freighter or used in mixed configurations, and featured removable seats and a nose cargo door. The -200C could also be outfitted with an optional side cargo door on the main deck. The combi aircraft model, the 747-200M (originally designated 747-200BC), could carry freight in the rear section of the main deck via a side cargo door. A removable partition on the main deck separated the cargo area at the rear from the passengers at the front. The -200M could carry up to 238 passengers in a three-class configuration with cargo carried on the main deck. The model was also known as the 747-200 Combi. As on the -100, a stretched upper deck (SUD) modification was later offered. A total of ten 747-200s operated by KLM were converted. Union de Transports Aériens (UTA) also had two aircraft converted. After launching the -200 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7 engines, on August 1, 1972, Boeing announced that it had reached an agreement with General Electric to certify the 747 with CF6-50 series engines to increase the aircraft's market potential. Rolls-Royce followed 747 engine production with a launch order from British Airways for four aircraft. The option of RB211-524B engines was announced on June 17, 1975. The -200 was the first 747 to provide a choice of powerplant from the three major engine manufacturers. In 1976, its unit cost was US$39M (215.5M today). A total of 393 of the 747-200 versions had been built when production ended in 1991. Of these, 225 were -200B, 73 were -200F, 13 were -200C, 78 were -200M, and 4 were military. Iran Air retired the last passenger 747-200 in May 2016, 36 years after it was delivered. As of July 2019, five 747-200s remain in service as freighters. === 747-300 === The 747-300 features a 23-foot-4-inch-longer (7.11 m) upper deck than the -200. The stretched upper deck (SUD) has two emergency exit doors and is the most visible difference between the -300 and previous models. After being made standard on the 747-300, the SUD was offered as a retrofit, and as an option to earlier variants still in-production. An example for a retrofit were two UTA -200 Combis being converted in 1986, and an example for the option were two brand-new JAL -100 aircraft (designated -100BSR SUD), the first of which was delivered on March 24, 1986.: 68, 92 The 747-300 introduced a new straight stairway to the upper deck, instead of a spiral staircase on earlier variants, which creates room above and below for more seats. Minor aerodynamic changes allowed the -300's cruise speed to reach Mach 0.85 compared with Mach 0.84 on the -200 and -100 models, while retaining the same takeoff weight. The -300 could be equipped with the same Pratt & Whitney and Rolls-Royce powerplants as on the -200, as well as updated General Electric CF6-80C2B1 engines. Swissair placed the first order for the 747-300 on June 11, 1980. The variant revived the 747-300 designation, which had been previously used on a design study that did not reach production. The 747-300 first flew on October 5, 1982, and the type's first delivery went to Swissair on March 23, 1983. In 1982, its unit cost was US$83M (270.4M today). Besides the passenger model, two other versions (-300M, -300SR) were produced. The 747-300M features cargo capacity on the rear portion of the main deck, similar to the -200M, but with the stretched upper deck it can carry more passengers. The 747-300SR, a short range, high-capacity domestic model, was produced for Japanese markets with a maximum seating for 584. No production freighter version of the 747-300 was built, but Boeing began modifications of used passenger -300 models into freighters in 2000. A total of 81 747-300 series aircraft were delivered, 56 for passenger use, 21 -300M and 4 -300SR versions. In 1985, just two years after the -300 entered service, the type was superseded by the announcement of the more advanced 747-400. The last 747-300 was delivered in September 1990 to Sabena. While some -300 customers continued operating the type, several large carriers replaced their 747-300s with 747-400s. Air France, Air India, Japan Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Qantas were some of the last major carriers to operate the 747-300. On December 29, 2008, Qantas flew its last scheduled 747-300 service, operating from Melbourne to Los Angeles via Auckland. In July 2015, Pakistan International Airlines retired their final 747-300 after 30 years of service. Mahan Air was the last passenger operator of the Boeing 747-300. In 2022, their last 747-300M was leased by Emtrasur Cargo. The 747-300M was later seized by the US Department of Justice in 2024. As of 2024, TransAVIAExport, a Belarusian cargo airline operates one Boeing 747-300F. As of 2024, a former Saudia 747-300 is used for VVIP transport, operated by the Saudi Arabian Government. === 747-400 === The 747-400 is an improved model with increased range. It has wingtip extensions of 6 ft (1.8 m) and winglets of 6 ft (1.8 m), which improve the type's fuel efficiency by four percent compared to previous 747 versions. The 747-400 introduced a new glass cockpit designed for a flight crew of two instead of three, with a reduction in the number of dials, gauges and knobs from 971 to 365 through the use of electronics. The type also features tail fuel tanks, revised engines, and a new interior. The longer range has been used by some airlines to bypass traditional fuel stops, such as Anchorage. A 747-400 loaded with 126,000 pounds (57,000 kg) of fuel flying 3,500 miles (3,000 nmi; 5,600 km) consumes an average of 5 US gallons per mile (12 L/km). Powerplants include the Pratt & Whitney PW4062, General Electric CF6-80C2, and Rolls-Royce RB211-524. As a result of the Boeing 767 development overlapping with the 747-400's development, both aircraft can use the same three powerplants and are even interchangeable between the two aircraft models. The -400 was offered in passenger (-400), freighter (-400F), combi (-400M), domestic (-400D), extended range passenger (-400ER), and extended range freighter (-400ERF) versions. Passenger versions retain the same upper deck as the -300, while the freighter version does not have an extended upper deck. The 747-400D was designed for short-range operations with maximum seating for 624. So winglets were not included though they can be retrofitted. Cruising speed is up to Mach 0.855 on different versions of the 747-400. The passenger version first entered service in February 1989 with launch customer Northwest Airlines on the Minneapolis to Phoenix route. The combi version entered service in September 1989 with KLM, while the freighter version entered service in November 1993 with Cargolux. The 747-400ERF entered service with Air France in October 2002, while the 747-400ER entered service with Qantas, its sole customer, in November 2002. In January 2004, Boeing and Cathay Pacific launched the Boeing 747-400 Special Freighter program, later referred to as the Boeing Converted Freighter (BCF), to modify passenger 747-400s for cargo use. The first 747-400BCF was redelivered in December 2005. In March 2007, Boeing announced that it had no plans to produce further passenger versions of the -400. However, orders for 36 -400F and -400ERF freighters were already in place at the time of the announcement. The last passenger version of the 747-400 was delivered in April 2005 to China Airlines. Some of the last built 747-400s were delivered with Dreamliner livery along with the modern Signature interior from the Boeing 777. A total of 694 of the 747-400 series aircraft were delivered. At various times, the largest 747-400 operator has included Singapore Airlines, Japan Airlines, and British Airways. As of July 2019, 331 Boeing 747-400s were in service; there were only 10 Boeing 747-400s in passenger service as of September 2021. ==== 747 LCF Dreamlifter ==== The 747-400 Dreamlifter (originally called the 747 Large Cargo Freighter or LCF) is a Boeing-designed modification of existing 747-400s into a larger outsize cargo freighter configuration to ferry 787 Dreamliner sub-assemblies. Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation of Taiwan was contracted to complete modifications of 747-400s into Dreamlifters in Taoyuan. The aircraft flew for the first time on September 9, 2006, in a test flight. Modification of four aircraft was completed by February 2010. The Dreamlifters have been placed into service transporting sub-assemblies for the 787 program to the Boeing plant in Everett, Washington, for final assembly. The aircraft is certified to carry only essential crew with no passengers. === 747-8 === Boeing announced a new 747 variant, the 747-8, on November 14, 2005. Referred to as the 747 Advanced prior to its launch, Boeing selected the designation 747-8 to show the connection with the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, as the aircraft would use technology and the General Electric GEnx engines from the 787 to modernize the design and its systems. The variant is designed to be quieter, more economical, and more environmentally friendly. The 747-8's fuselage is lengthened from 232 feet (71 m) to 251 feet (77 m), marking the first stretch variant of the aircraft. The 747-8 Freighter, or 747-8F, has 16% more payload capacity than its predecessor, allowing it to carry seven more standard air cargo containers, with a maximum payload capacity of 154 short tons (140 t) of cargo. As on previous 747 freighters, the 747-8F features a flip up nose-door, a side-door on the main deck, and a side-door on the lower deck ("belly") to aid loading and unloading. The 747-8F made its maiden flight on February 8, 2010. The variant received its amended type certificate jointly from the FAA and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) on August 19, 2011. The -8F was first delivered to Cargolux on October 12, 2011. The passenger version, named 747-8 Intercontinental or 747-8I, is designed to carry up to 467 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly more than 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at Mach 0.855. As a derivative of the already common 747-400, the 747-8I has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts. The type's first test flight occurred on March 20, 2011. The 747-8 has surpassed the Airbus A340-600 as the world's longest airliner, a record it would hold until the 777X, which first flew in 2020. The first -8I was delivered in May 2012 to Lufthansa. The 747-8 received 155 total orders, including 106 for the -8F and 47 for the -8I as of June 2021. The final 747-8F was delivered to Atlas Air on January 31, 2023, marking the end of the production of the Boeing 747 series. The final aircraft was registered as N863GT. === Government, military, and other variants === VC-25 – This aircraft is the U.S. Air Force very important person (VIP) version of the 747-200B. The U.S. Air Force operates two of them in VIP configuration as the VC-25A. Tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are popularly known as Air Force One, which is technically the air-traffic call sign for any United States Air Force aircraft carrying the U.S. president. Partially completed aircraft from Everett, Washington, were flown to Wichita, Kansas, for final outfitting by Boeing Military Airplane Company. Two new aircraft, based around the 747-8, are being procured which will be designated as VC-25B. E-4B – This is an airborne command post designed for use in nuclear war. Three E-4As, based on the 747-200B, with a fourth aircraft, with more powerful engines and upgraded systems delivered in 1979 as an E-4B, with the three E-4As upgraded to this standard. Formerly known as the National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as "Kneecap"), this type is now referred to as the National Airborne Operations Center (NAOC). Survivable Airborne Operations Center - In April 2024, Sierra Nevada Corporation was awarded a contract to develop and build the Survivable Airborne Operations Center aircraft to replace the Boeing E-4 NAOC. Five 747-8Is were purchased from Korean Air for conversion, with the contract calling for nine in total. YAL-1 – This was the experimental Airborne Laser, a planned component of the U.S. National Missile Defense. Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) – Two 747s were modified to carry the Space Shuttle orbiter. The first was a 747-100 (N905NA), and the other was a 747-100SR (N911NA). The first SCA carried the prototype Enterprise during the Approach and Landing Tests in the late 1970s. The two SCA later carried all five operational Space Shuttle orbiters. C-33 – This aircraft was a proposed U.S. military version of the 747-400F intended to augment the C-17 fleet. The plan was canceled in favor of additional C-17s. KC-25/33 – A proposed 747-200F was also adapted as an aerial refueling tanker and was bid against the DC-10-30 during the 1970s Advanced Cargo Transport Aircraft (ACTA) program that produced the KC-10 Extender. Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran bought four 747-100 aircraft with air-refueling boom conversions to support its fleet of F-4 Phantoms. There is a report of the Iranians using a 747 Tanker in H-3 airstrike during Iran–Iraq War. It is unknown whether these aircraft remain usable as tankers. Since then there have been proposals to use a 747-400 for that role. 747F Airlifter – Proposed US military transport version of the 747-200F intended as an alternative to further purchases of the C-5 Galaxy. This 747 would have had a special nose jack to lower the sill height for the nose door. System tested in 1980 on a Flying Tiger Line 747-200F. 747 CMCA – This "Cruise Missile Carrier Aircraft" variant was considered by the U.S. Air Force during the development of the B-1 Lancer strategic bomber. It would have been equipped with 50 to 100 AGM-86 ALCM cruise missiles on rotary launchers. This plan was abandoned in favor of more conventional strategic bombers. MC-747 – Two separate studies from the 1970s and 2005, the first by Boeing and the second by ATK and BAE Systems, to horizontally store up to four Peacekeeper ICBMs or seven Minutemen above bomb bay-like doors in the first study, and to vertically store twelve Minutemen or 32 JDAM-equipped conventional missiles for launch from in situ tubes in the second. 747 AAC – A Boeing study under contract from the USAF for an "airborne aircraft carrier" for up to 10 Boeing Model 985-121 "microfighters" with the ability to launch, retrieve, re-arm, and refuel. Boeing believed that the scheme would be able to deliver a flexible and fast carrier platform with global reach, particularly where other bases were not available. Modified versions of the 747-200 and Lockheed C-5A were considered as the base aircraft. The concept, which included a complementary 747 AWACS version with two reconnaissance "microfighters", was considered technically feasible in 1973. Evergreen 747 Supertanker – A Boeing 747-200 modified as an aerial application platform for fire fighting using 20,000 US gallons (76,000 L) of firefighting chemicals. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) – A former Pan Am Boeing 747SP modified to carry a large infrared-sensitive telescope, in a joint venture of NASA and DLR. High altitudes are needed for infrared astronomy, to rise above infrared-absorbing water vapor in the atmosphere. A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including Bahrain, Brunei, India, Iran, Japan, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. Several Boeing 747-8s have been ordered by Boeing Business Jet for conversion to VIP transports for several unidentified customers. === Proposed variants === Boeing studied a number of 747 variants that did not advance beyond the concept stage. ==== 747 trijet ==== During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Boeing studied the development of a shorter 747 with three engines, to compete with the smaller Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and McDonnell Douglas DC-10. The center engine would have been fitted in the tail with an S-duct intake similar to the L-1011's. Overall, the 747 trijet would have had more payload, range, and passenger capacity than either of the two other aircraft. However, engineering studies showed that a major redesign of the 747 wing would be necessary. Maintaining the same 747 handling characteristics would be important to minimize pilot retraining. Boeing decided instead to pursue a shortened four-engine 747, resulting in the 747SP. ==== 747-500 ==== In January 1986, Boeing outlined preliminary studies to build a larger, ultra-long haul version named the 747-500, which would enter service in the mid- to late-1990s. The aircraft derivative would use engines evolved from unducted fan (UDF) (propfan) technology by General Electric, but the engines would have shrouds, sport a bypass ratio of 15–20, and have a propfan diameter of 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 m). The aircraft would be stretched (including the upper deck section) to a capacity of 500 seats, have a new wing to reduce drag, cruise at a faster speed to reduce flight times, and have a range of at least 8,700 nmi; 16,000 km, which would allow airlines to fly nonstop between London, UK and Sydney, Australia. ==== 747 ASB ==== Boeing announced the 747 ASB (Advanced Short Body) in 1986 as a response to the Airbus A340 and the McDonnell Douglas MD-11. This aircraft design would have combined the advanced technology used on the 747-400 with the foreshortened 747SP fuselage. The aircraft was to carry 295 passengers over a range of 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi). However, airlines were not interested in the project and it was canceled later that year. ==== 747-500X, -600X, and -700X ==== Boeing announced the 747-500X and -600X at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow. The proposed models would have combined the 747's fuselage with a new wing spanning 251 feet (77 m) derived from the 777. Other changes included adding more powerful engines and increasing the number of tires from two to four on the nose landing gear and from 16 to 20 on the main landing gear. The 747-500X concept featured a fuselage length increased by 18 feet (5.5 m) to 250 feet (76 m), and the aircraft was to carry 462 passengers over a range up to 8,700 nautical miles (16,100 km; 10,000 mi), with a gross weight of over 1.0 Mlb (450 tonnes). The 747-600X concept featured a greater stretch to 279 feet (85 m) with seating for 548 passengers, a range of up to 7,700 nmi (14,300 km; 8,900 mi), and a gross weight of 1.2 Mlb (540 tonnes). A third study concept, the 747-700X, would have combined the wing of the 747-600X with a widened fuselage, allowing it to carry 650 passengers over the same range as a 747-400. The cost of the changes from previous 747 models, in particular the new wing for the 747-500X and -600X, was estimated to be more than US$5 billion. Boeing was not able to attract enough interest to launch the aircraft. ==== 747X and 747X Stretch ==== As Airbus progressed with its A3XX study, Boeing offered a 747 derivative as an alternative in 2000; a more modest proposal than the previous -500X and -600X with the 747's overall wing design and a new segment at the root, increasing the span to 229 ft (69.8 m). Power would have been supplied by either the Engine Alliance GP7172 or the Rolls-Royce Trent 600, which were also proposed for the 767-400ERX. A new flight deck based on the 777's would be used. The 747X aircraft was to carry 430 passengers over ranges of up to 8,700 nmi (16,100 km; 10,000 mi). The 747X Stretch would be extended to 263 ft (80.2 m) long, allowing it to carry 500 passengers over ranges of up to 7,800 nmi (14,400 km; 9,000 mi). Both would feature an interior based on the 777. Freighter versions of the 747X and 747X Stretch were also studied. Like its predecessor, the 747X family was unable to garner enough interest to justify production, and it was shelved along with the 767-400ERX in March 2001, when Boeing announced the Sonic Cruiser concept. Though the 747X design was less costly than the 747-500X and -600X, it was criticized for not offering a sufficient advance from the existing 747-400. The 747X did not make it beyond the drawing board, but the 747-400X being developed concurrently moved into production to become the 747-400ER. ==== 747-400XQLR ==== After the end of the 747X program, Boeing continued to study improvements that could be made to the 747. The 747-400XQLR (Quiet Long Range) was meant to have an increased range of 7,980 nmi (14,780 km; 9,180 mi), with improvements to boost efficiency and reduce noise. Improvements studied included raked wingtips similar to those used on the 767-400ER and a sawtooth engine nacelle for noise reduction. Although the 747-400XQLR did not move to production, many of its features were used for the 747 Advanced, which was launched as the 747-8 in 2005. == Operators == In 1979, Qantas became the first airline in the world to operate an all Boeing 747 fleet, with seventeen aircraft. As of July 2019, there were 462 Boeing 747s in airline service, with Atlas Air and British Airways being the largest operators with 33 747-400s each. The last US passenger Boeing 747 was retired from Delta Air Lines in December 2017. The model flew for almost every American major carrier since its 1970 introduction. Delta flew three of its last four aircraft on a farewell tour, from Seattle to Atlanta on December 19 then to Los Angeles and Minneapolis/St Paul on December 20. As the IATA forecast an increase in air freight from 4% to 5% in 2018 fueled by booming trade for time-sensitive goods, from smartphones to fresh flowers, demand for freighters is strong while passenger 747s are phased out. Of the 1,544 produced, 890 are retired; as of 2018, a small subset of those which were intended to be parted-out got $3 million D-checks before flying again. Young -400s were sold for 320 million yuan ($50 million) and Boeing stopped converting freighters, which used to cost nearly $30 million. This comeback helped the airframer financing arm Boeing Capital to shrink its exposure to the 747-8 from $1.07 billion in 2017 to $481 million in 2018. In July 2020, British Airways announced that it was retiring its 747 fleet. The final British Airways 747 flights departed London Heathrow on October 8, 2020. === Orders and deliveries === Boeing 747 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year): Orders Deliveries — as of February 2023 === Model summary === Orders and deliveries through to the end of February 2023. == Accidents and incidents == As of November 2023, the 747 has been involved in 173 aviation accidents and incidents, including 64 hull losses (52 in-flight accidents), causing 3,746 fatalities. There have been several hijackings of Boeing 747s, such as Pan Am Flight 73, a 747-100 hijacked by four terrorists, resulting in 20 deaths. The 747 also fell victim to several mid-air bombings, two of which resulted in major fatalities and hull losses, Air India Flight 182 in 1985, and Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988. The deadliest aviation accident, the Tenerife airport disaster, resulted from pilot error and communications failure, while the Japan Air Lines Flight 123 and China Airlines Flight 611 crashes stemmed from improper aircraft repair due to a tail-strike. Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down by a Soviet Su-15TM interceptor in 1983 after it had violated Soviet airspace for over 12 minutes, causing US President Ronald Reagan to authorize the then-strictly-military global positioning system (GPS) for civilian use. South African Airways Flight 295, a 747-200M Combi, which crashed on 28 November 1987 due to an inflight fire, led to the mandate of adding fire-suppression systems on board Combi variants. A handful of crashes have been attributed to 747 design flaws, mainly older 747 classic (100/200/300/SP) variants. United Airlines Flight 811, which suffered an explosive decompression mid-flight on February 24, 1989, led the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to issue a recommendation that the Boeing 747-100 and 747-200 cargo doors similar to those on the Flight 811 aircraft be modified to those featured on the Boeing 747-400. TWA Flight 800, a 747-100 that exploded in mid-air on July 17, 1996 due to sparking from the old and cracked electrical wires inside the fuel tank, where voltage levels exceeded the maximum limit, causing ignition of the fuel vapors inside the tank. This finding led the FAA to adopt a rule in July 2008 requiring installation of an inerting system in the center fuel tank of most large aircraft, after years of research into solutions. At the time, the new safety system was expected to cost US$100,000 to $450,000 per aircraft and weigh approximately 200 pounds (91 kg). Two 747-200F freighters - China Airlines Flight 358 in December 1991 and El Al Flight 1862 in October 1992, crashed after the fuse pins for an engine (no. 3) broke off shortly after take-off due to metal fatigue, and instead of simply dropping away from the wing, the engine knocked off the adjacent engine and damaged the wing. Following these crashes, Boeing issued a directive to examine and replace all fuse pins found to be cracked. The lack of adequate warning systems combined with flight crew error led to a preventable crash of Lufthansa Flight 540 in November 1974, which was the first fatal crash of a 747, while an instrument malfunction leading to crew disorientation caused the crash of Air India Flight 855 on New Years Day in 1978. Other incidents did not result in any hull losses, but the planes suffered certain damages and were put back into service after repair. On July 30, 1971, Pan Am Flight 845 struck approach lighting system structures while taking off from San Francisco for Tokyo, Japan; the plane dumped fuel and landed back. The cause was pilot error with improper calculations, and the plane was repaired and returned to service. On June 24, 1982, British Airways Flight 9, a Boeing 747-200, registration G-BDXH, flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of Mount Galunggung, suffering an all engine flameout; the crew restarted the engines and successfully landed at Jakarta. The volcanic ash caused windscreens to be sandblasted along with engine damage and paint rip-off; the plane was repaired with engines replaced and returned to service. On December 11, 1994, on board Philippine Airlines Flight 434 from Manila to Tokyo via Cebu, a bomb exploded under a seat, killing one passenger; the plane landed safely at Okinawa despite damage to the plane's controls. The bomber, Ramzi Yousef, was caught on 7 February 1995 in Islamabad, Pakistan, and the plane was repaired, but converted for cargo use. == Preserved aircraft == === Aircraft on display === As increasing numbers of "classic" 747-100 and 747-200 series aircraft have been retired, some have been used for other uses such as museum displays. Some older 747-300s and 747-400s were later added to museum collections. 20235/001 – 747-121 registration N7470 City of Everett, the first 747 and prototype, is at the Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington. 19651/025 – 747-121 registration N747GE at the Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona, US. 19778/027 – 747-151 registration N601US nose at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. 19661/070 – 747-121(SF) registration N681UP preserved at a plaza on Jungong Road, Shanghai, China. 19896/072 – 747-132(SF) registration N481EV at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, US. 20107/086 – 747-123 registration N905NA, a NASA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, US. 20269/150 – 747-136 registration G-AWNG nose at Hiller Aviation Museum, San Carlos, California. 20239/160 – 747-244B registration ZS-SAN nicknamed Lebombo, at the South African Airways Museum Society, Rand Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa. 20541/200 – 747-128 registration F-BPVJ at Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris, France. 20770/213 – 747-2B5B registration HL7463 at Jeongseok Aviation Center, Jeju, South Korea. 20713/219 - 747-212B(SF) registration N482EV at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, US. 20825/223 - 747-200 registration SX-OAB at the site of Ellinikon International Airport, Athens, Greece. After over 20 years sitting at the closed airport, it was moved to a permanent location within the boundaries of the airport and put on display as part of the ongoing regeneration work. 21134/288 – 747SP-44 registration ZS-SPC at the South African Airways Museum Society, Rand Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa. 21549/336 – 747-206B registration PH-BUK at the Aviodrome, Lelystad, Netherlands. 21588/342 – 747-230B(M) registration D-ABYM preserved at Technik Museum Speyer, Germany. 21650/354 – 747-2R7F/SCD registration G-MKGA preserved at Cotswold Airport, UK as an event space. 22145/410 – 747-238B registration VH-EBQ at the Qantas Founders Outback Museum, Longreach, Queensland, Australia. 21942/471 – 747-212B registration N642NW nose at the Museum of Aeronautical Science in Narita, Japan, near Narita International Airport. 22455/515 – 747-256BM registration EC-DLD Lope de Vega nose at the National Museum of Science and Technology, A Coruña, Spain. 23719/696 – 747-451 registration N661US at the Delta Flight Museum, Atlanta, Georgia, US. This particular plane was the first 747-400 in service, as well as the prototype. 24354/731 – 747-438 registration VH-OJA at Shellharbour Airport, Albion Park Rail, New South Wales, Australia. 21441/306 - SOFIA - 747SP-21 registration N747NA at Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona, US. Former Pan Am and United Airlines 747SP bought by NASA and converted into a flying telescope, for astronomy purposes. Named Clipper Lindbergh. === Other uses === Upon its retirement from service, the 747 which was number two in the production line was dismantled and shipped to Hopyeong, Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea where it was re-assembled, repainted in a livery similar to that of Air Force One and converted into a restaurant. Originally flown commercially by Pan Am as N747PA, Clipper Juan T. Trippe, and repaired for service following a tailstrike, it stayed with the airline until its bankruptcy. The restaurant closed by 2009, and the aircraft was scrapped in 2010. A former British Airways 747-200B, G-BDXJ, is parked at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey, England and has been used as a movie set for productions such as the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale. The airplane also appears frequently in the television series Top Gear, which is filmed at Dunsfold. The Jumbo Stay hostel, using a converted 747-200 formerly operated by Singapore Airlines and registered as 9V-SQE, opened at Arlanda Airport, Stockholm in January 2009. It closed in March 2025 after the owner declared bankruptcy. A former Pakistan International Airlines 747-300 was converted into a restaurant by Pakistan's Airports Security Force in 2017. It is located at Jinnah International Airport, Karachi. The wings of a 747 have been repurposed as roofs of a house in Malibu, California. In 2023, a Boeing 747-412, retired from Lion Air, was turned into a steak restaurant in Bekasi, Indonesia. The aircraft had been sitting since 2018 but the construction of the restaurant was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Two used 747-400s were cannibalized to build the Scaled Composites Stratolaunch aircraft. == Specifications == == Cultural impact == Following its debut, the 747 rapidly achieved iconic status. The aircraft entered the cultural lexicon as the original Jumbo Jet, a term coined by the aviation media to describe its size, and was also nicknamed Queen of the Skies. Test pilot David P. Davies described it as "a most impressive aeroplane with a number of exceptionally fine qualities",: 249 and praised its flight control system as "truly outstanding" because of its redundancy.: 256 Appearing in over 300 film productions, the 747 is one of the most widely depicted civilian aircraft and is considered by many as one of the most iconic in film history. It has appeared in film productions such as the disaster films Airport 1975 and Airport '77, as well as Air Force One, Die Hard 2, and Executive Decision. == See also == Related development Boeing 747 LCF Boeing 747-8 Boeing 747-400 Boeing 747SP Boeing E-4 Boeing VC-25 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft Related lists List of aircraft List of jet airliners List of megaprojects == References == === Notes === === Bibliography === == Further reading == == External links == "747-8". Boeing. "747-100 cutaway". FlightGlobal. Debut of Boeing 747. British Movietone News. October 1, 1968. "Photos: Boeing 747-100 Assembly Line In 1969". Aviation Week & Space Technology. April 28, 1969. "Aircraft Owner's & Operator's Guide: 747-200/-300" (PDF). Aircraft commerce. June 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2011. "Boeing 747 Aircraft Profile". FlightGlobal. June 3, 2007. Negroni, Christine (July 2014). "747: The World's Airliner". Air & Space Magazine. "This Luxury Boeing 747-8 for the Super-Rich is a Palace in the Sky". popular mechanics. February 24, 2015. "How Boeing and Pan Am created an airliner legend". flightglobal. April 15, 2016. "Boeing 747: Evolution of a Jumbo, As Featured On Aviation Week's Covers". Aviation Week. August 2016. "Boeing's Jumbo jet celebrates golden jubilee". FlightGlobal. February 8, 2019. Guy Norris (February 8, 2019). "Boeing's Queen of the Skies Marks 50th Anniversary Of First Flight". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Guy Norris. "Evolution of a Widebody: 50 Years of the Boeing 747". Aviation Week & Space Technology. "The 747 Takes Off: The Dawn of the Jumbo Jet Age". Digital Exhibit. Northwestern University Transportation Library. January 2020. Jens Flottau (January 26, 2023). "How Boeing's 747 Revolutionized Air Travel". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
Boeing 777	The Boeing 777, commonly referred to as the Triple Seven, is an American long-range wide-body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The 777 is the world's largest twinjet and the most-built wide-body airliner. The jetliner was designed to bridge the gap between Boeing's other wide body airplanes, the twin-engined 767 and quad-engined 747, and to replace aging DC-10 and L-1011 trijets. Developed in consultation with eight major airlines, the 777 program was launched in October 1990, with an order from United Airlines. The prototype aircraft rolled out in April 1994, and first flew in June of that year. The 777 entered service with the launch operator United Airlines in June 1995. Longer-range variants were launched in 2000, and first delivered in 2004. The Triple Seven can accommodate a ten–abreast seating layout and has a typical 3-class capacity of 301 to 368 passengers, with a range of 5,240 to 8,555 nautical miles [nmi] (9,700 to 15,840 km; 6,030 to 9,840 mi). The jetliner is recognizable for its large-diameter turbofan engines, raked wingtips, six wheels on each main landing gear, fully circular fuselage cross-section, and a blade-shaped tail cone. The 777 became the first Boeing airliner to use fly-by-wire controls and to apply a carbon composite structure in the tailplanes. The original 777 with a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 545,000–660,000 lb (247–299 t) was produced in two fuselage lengths: the initial 777-200 was followed by the extended-range -200ER in 1997; and the 33.25 ft (10.13 m) longer 777-300 in 1998. These have since been known as 777 Classics and were powered by 77,200–98,000 lbf (343–436 kN) General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engines. The extended-range 777-300ER, with a MTOW of 700,000–775,000 lb (318–352 t), entered service in 2004, the longer-range 777-200LR in 2006, and the 777F freighter in 2009. These second-generation 777 variants have extended raked wingtips and are powered exclusively by 110,000–115,300 lbf (489–513 kN) GE90 engines. In November 2013, Boeing announced the development of the third generation 777X (variants include the 777-8, 777-9, and 777-8F), featuring composite wings with folding wingtips and General Electric GE9X engines, and slated for first deliveries in 2026. As of 2018, Emirates was the largest operator with a fleet of 163 aircraft. As of April 2025, more than 60 customers have placed orders for 2,352 777s across all variants, of which 1,752 have been delivered. This makes the 777 the best-selling wide-body airliner, while its best-selling variant is the 777-300ER with 833 delivered. The airliner initially competed with the Airbus A340 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11; since 2015, it has mainly competed with the Airbus A350. First-generation 777-200 variants are to be supplanted by Boeing's 787 Dreamliner. As of May 2024, the 777 has been involved in 31 aviation accidents and incidents, including five hull loss accidents out of eight total hull losses with 542 fatalities including 3 ground casualties. == Development == === Background === In the early 1970s, the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar became the first generation of wide-body passenger airliners to enter service. In 1978, Boeing unveiled three new models: the twin-engine or twinjet Boeing 7N7 (later named Boeing 757) to replace its 727, the twinjet Boeing 7X7 (later named 767) to challenge the Airbus A300, and a trijet "777" concept to compete with the DC-10 and L-1011. The mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s' extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports. Under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. The trijet "777" was later dropped, following marketing studies that favored the 757 and 767 variants. Boeing was left with a size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were expected to be retired in the next decade, prompting manufacturers to develop replacement designs. McDonnell Douglas was working on the MD-11, a stretched successor of the DC-10, while Airbus was developing its A330 and A340 series. In 1986, Boeing unveiled proposals for an enlarged 767, tentatively named 767-X, to target the replacement market for first-generation wide-bodies such as the DC-10, and to complement existing 767 and 747 models in the company lineup. The initial proposal featured a longer fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767, along with winglets. Later plans expanded the fuselage cross-section but retained the existing 767 flight deck, nose, and other elements. However, airline customers were uninterested in the 767-X proposals, and instead wanted an even wider fuselage cross-section, fully flexible interior configurations, short- to intercontinental-range capability, and an operating cost lower than that of any 767 stretch. Airline planners' requirements for larger aircraft had become increasingly specific, adding to the heightened competition among aircraft manufacturers. By 1988, Boeing realized that the only answer was a clean-sheet design, which became the twinjet 777. The company opted for the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits. On December 8, 1989, Boeing began issuing offers to airlines for the 777. === Design effort === Alan Mulally served as the Boeing 777 program's director of engineering, and then was promoted in September 1992 to lead it as vice-president and general manager. The design phase of the all-new twinjet was different from Boeing's previous jetliners; eight major airlines (All Nippon Airways, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Lines, Japan Airlines, Qantas, and United Airlines) played a role in the 777 development. This was a departure from industry practice, where manufacturers typically designed aircraft with minimal customer input. The eight airlines that contributed to the design process became known within Boeing as the "Working Together" group. At the group's first meeting in January 1990, a 23-page questionnaire was distributed to the airlines, asking what each wanted in the design. By March 1990, the group had decided upon a baseline configuration: a cabin cross-section close to the 747's, capacity up to 325 passengers, flexible interiors, a glass cockpit, fly-by-wire controls, and 10 percent better seat-mile costs than the Airbus A330 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11. The development phase of the 777 coincided with United Airlines replacement program for its aging DC-10s. On October 14, 1990, United became the launch customer with an order for 34 Pratt & Whitney-powered 777s valued at US$11 billion (~$22.7 billion in 2023) and options for 34 more. The airline required that the new aircraft be capable of flying three different routes: Chicago to Hawaii, Chicago to Europe, and non-stop from Denver, a hot and high airport, to Hawaii. ETOPS certification was also a priority for United, given the overwater portion of United's Hawaii routes. In late 1991, Boeing selected its Everett factory in Washington, home of 747 (and, later, 787) production, as the 777's final assembly line (FAL). In January 1993, a team of United developers joined other airline teams and Boeing designers at the Everett factory. The 240 design teams, with up to 40 members each, addressed almost 1,500 design issues with individual aircraft components. The fuselage diameter was increased to suit Cathay Pacific, the baseline model grew longer for All Nippon Airways, and British Airways' input led to added built-in testing and interior flexibility, along with higher operating weight options. The 777 was the first commercial aircraft to be developed using an entirely computer-aided design (CAD) process. Each design drawing was created on a three-dimensional CAD software system known as CATIA, sourced from Dassault Systèmes and IBM. This allowed engineers to virtually assemble the 777 aircraft on a computer system to check for interference and verify that the thousands of parts fit properly before the actual assembly process—thus reducing costly rework. Boeing developed its high-performance visualization system, FlyThru, later called IVT (Integrated Visualization Tool) to support large-scale collaborative engineering design reviews, production illustrations, and other uses of the CAD data outside of engineering. Boeing was initially not convinced of CATIA's abilities and built a physical mock-up of the nose section to verify its results. The test was so successful that additional mock-ups were canceled. The 777 was completed with such precision that it was the first Boeing jetliner that did not require the details to be worked out on an expensive physical aircraft mock-up. This helped the design program to limit costs to a reported $5 billion. === Testing and certification === Major assembly of the first aircraft began on January 4, 1993. On April 9, 1994, the first 777, number WA001, was rolled out in a series of 15 ceremonies held during the day to accommodate the 100,000 invited guests. The first flight took place on June 12, 1994, under the command of chief test pilot John E. Cashman. This marked the start of an 11-month flight test program that was more extensive than testing for any previous Boeing model. Nine aircraft fitted with General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce engines were flight tested at locations ranging from the desert airfield at Edwards Air Force Base in California to frigid conditions in Alaska, mainly Fairbanks International Airport. To satisfy ETOPS requirements, eight 180-minute single-engine test flights were performed. The first aircraft built was used by Boeing's nondestructive testing campaign from 1994 to 1996, and provided data for the -200ER and -300 programs. At the successful conclusion of flight testing, the 777 was awarded simultaneous airworthiness certification by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) on April 19, 1995. === Entry into service === Boeing delivered the first 777 to United Airlines on May 15, 1995. The FAA awarded 180-minute ETOPS clearance ("ETOPS-180") for the Pratt & Whitney PW4084-engined aircraft on May 30, 1995, making it the first airliner to carry an ETOPS-180 rating at its entry into service. The first commercial flight took place on June 7, 1995, from London Heathrow Airport to Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C. Longer ETOPS clearance of 207 minutes was approved in October 1996. On November 12, 1995, Boeing delivered the first model with General Electric GE90-77B engines to British Airways, which entered service five days later. Initial service was affected by gearbox bearing wear issues, which caused British Airways to temporarily withdraw its 777 fleet from transatlantic service in 1997, returning to full service later that year. General Electric subsequently announced engine upgrades. The first Rolls-Royce Trent 877-powered aircraft was delivered to Thai Airways International on March 31, 1996, completing the introduction of the three power plants initially developed for the airliner. Each engine-aircraft combination had secured ETOPS-180 certification from its entry into service. By June 1997, orders for the 777 numbered 323 from 25 airlines, including launch customers that had ordered additional aircraft. Operations performance data established the consistent capabilities of the twinjet over long-haul transoceanic routes, leading to additional sales. By 1998, the 777 fleet had approached 900,000 flight hours. Boeing states that the 777 fleet has a dispatch reliability (rate of departure from the gate with no more than 15 minutes delay due to technical issues) above 99 percent. === Improvement and stretching: -200ER/-300 === After the baseline model, the 777-200, Boeing developed an increased gross weight variant with greater range and payload capability. Initially named 777-200IGW, the 777-200ER first flew on October 7, 1996, received FAA and JAA certification on January 17, 1997, and entered service with British Airways on February 9, 1997. Offering greater long-haul performance, the variant became the most widely ordered version of the aircraft through the early 2000s. On April 2, 1997, a Malaysia Airlines -200ER named "Super Ranger" broke the great circle "distance without landing" record for an airliner by flying eastward from Boeing Field, Seattle to Kuala Lumpur, a distance of 10,823 nautical miles (20,044 km; 12,455 mi), in 21 hours and 23 minutes. Following the introduction of the -200ER, Boeing turned its attention to a stretched version of the baseline model. On October 16, 1997, the 777-300 made its first flight. At 242.4 ft (73.9 m) in length, the -300 became the longest airliner yet produced (until the A340-600), and had a 20 percent greater overall capacity than the standard length model. The -300 was awarded type certification simultaneously from the FAA and JAA on May 4, 1998, and entered service with launch customer Cathay Pacific on May 27, 1998. The first generation of Boeing 777 models, the -200, -200ER, and -300 have since been known collectively as the Boeing 777 Classics. These three early 777 variants had three engine options ranging from 77,200 to 98,000 lbf (343 to 436 kN): General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800. === Production === The production process included substantial international content, an unprecedented level of global subcontracting for a Boeing jetliner, later exceeded by the 787. International contributors included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries (fuselage panels), Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd. (center wing section), Hawker de Havilland (elevators), and Aerospace Technologies of Australia (rudder). An agreement between Boeing and the Japan Aircraft Development Corporation, representing Japanese aerospace contractors, made the latter risk-sharing partners for 20 percent of the entire development program. To accommodate production of its new airliner, Boeing doubled the size of the Everett factory at the cost of nearly US$1.5 billion (~$2.86 billion in 2023) to provide space for two new assembly lines. New production methods were developed, including a turn machine that could rotate fuselage subassemblies 180 degrees, giving workers access to upper body sections. By the start of production in 1993, the program had amassed 118 firm orders, with options for 95 more from 10 airlines. Total investment in the program was estimated at over $4 billion from Boeing, with an additional $2 billion from suppliers. Initially second to the 747 as Boeing's most profitable jetliner, the 777 became the company's most lucrative model in the 2000s. An analyst established the 777 program, assuming Boeing has fully recouped the plane's development costs, may account for $400 million of the company's pretax earnings in 2000, $50 million more than the 747. By 2004, the airliner accounted for the bulk of wide-body revenues for Boeing Commercial Airplanes. In 2007, orders for second-generation 777 models approached 350 aircraft, and in November of that year, Boeing announced that all production slots were sold out to 2012. The program backlog of 356 orders was valued at $95 billion at list prices in 2008. In 2010, Boeing announced plans to increase production from 5 aircraft per month to 7 aircraft per month by mid-2011, and 8.3 per month by early 2013. In November 2011, assembly of the 1,000th 777, a -300ER, began when it took 49 days to fully assemble one of these variants. The aircraft in question was built for Emirates airline, and rolled out of the production facility in March 2012. By the mid-2010s, the 777 had become prevalent on the longest flights internationally and had become the most widely used airliner for transpacific routes, with variants of the type operating over half of all scheduled flights and with the majority of transpacific carriers. By April 2014, with cumulative sales surpassing those of the 747, the 777 became the best-selling wide-body airliner; at existing production rates, the aircraft was on track to become the most-delivered wide-body airliner by mid-2016. By February 2015, the backlog of undelivered 777s totaled 278 aircraft, equivalent to nearly three years at the then production rate of 8.3 aircraft per month, causing Boeing to ponder the 2018–2020 time frame. In January 2016, Boeing confirmed plans to reduce the production rate of the 777 family from 8.3 per month to 7 per month in 2017 to help close the production gap between the 777 and 777X due to a lack of new orders. In August 2017, Boeing was scheduled to drop 777 production again to five per month. In 2018, assembling test 777-9 aircraft was expected to lower output to an effective rate of 5.5 per month. In March 2018, as previously predicted, the 777 overtook the 747 as the world's most produced wide body aircraft. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, demand for new jets fell in 2020 and Boeing further reduced monthly 777 production from five to two aircraft. === Second generation (777-X): -300ER/-200LR/F === From the program's start, Boeing had considered building ultra-long-range variants. Early plans centered on a 777-100X proposal, a shortened variant of the -200 with reduced weight and increased range, similar to the 747SP. However, the -100X would have carried fewer passengers than the -200 while having similar operating costs, leading to a higher cost per seat. By the late 1990s, design plans shifted to longer-range versions of existing models. In March 1997, the Boeing board approved the 777-200X/300X specifications: 298 passengers in three classes over 8,600 nmi (15,900 km; 9,900 mi) for the 200X and 6,600 nmi (12,200 km; 7,600 mi) with 355 passengers in a tri-class layout for the 300X, with design freeze planned in May 1998, 200X certification in August 2000, and introduction in September and in January 2001 for the 300X. The 4.5 ft (1.37 m) wider wing was to be strengthened and the fuel capacity enlarged, and it was to be powered by simple derivatives with similar fans. GE was proposing a 102,000 lbf (454 kN) GE90-102B, while P&W offered its 98,000 lbf (436 kN) PW4098 and R-R was proposing a 98,000 lbf (437 kN) Trent 8100. Rolls-Royce was also studying a Trent 8102 over 100,000 lbf (445 kN). Boeing was also studying a semi-levered, articulated main gear to help the take-off rotation of the proposed -300X, with its higher 715,600 lb (324,600 kg) maximum take-off weight (MTOW). By January 1999, its MTOW grew to 750,700 lb (340,500 kg), and thrust requirements increased to 110,000–114,000 lbf (490–510 kN). A more powerful engine in the thrust class of 100,000 lbf (440 kN) was required, leading to talks between Boeing and engine manufacturers. General Electric offered to develop the GE90-115B engine, while Rolls-Royce proposed developing the Trent 8104 engine. In 1999, Boeing announced an agreement with General Electric, beating out rival proposals. Under the deal with General Electric, Boeing agreed to only offer GE90 engines on new 777 versions. On February 29, 2000, Boeing launched its next-generation twinjet program, initially called 777-X, and began issuing offers to airlines. Development was slowed by an industry downturn during the early 2000s. The first model to emerge from the program, the 777-300ER, was launched with an order for ten aircraft from Air France, along with additional commitments. On February 24, 2003, the -300ER made its first flight, and the FAA and EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency, successor to the JAA) certified the model on March 16, 2004. The first delivery to Air France took place on April 29, 2004. The -300ER, which combined the -300's added capacity with the -200ER's range, became the top-selling 777 variant in the late 2000s, benefitting as airlines replaced comparable four-engine models with twinjets for their lower operating costs. The second long-range model, the 777-200LR, rolled out on February 15, 2005, and completed its first flight on March 8, 2005. The -200LR was certified by both the FAA and EASA on February 2, 2006, and the first delivery to Pakistan International Airlines occurred on February 26, 2006. On November 10, 2005, the first -200LR set a record for the longest non-stop flight of a passenger airliner by flying 11,664 nautical miles (21,602 km; 13,423 mi) eastward from Hong Kong to London. Lasting 22 hours and 42 minutes, the flight surpassed the -200LR's standard design range and was logged in the Guinness World Records. The production freighter model, the 777F, rolled out on May 23, 2008. The maiden flight of the 777F, which used the structural design and engine specifications of the -200LR along with fuel tanks derived from the -300ER, occurred on July 14, 2008. FAA and EASA type certification for the freighter was received on February 6, 2009, and the first delivery to launch customer Air France took place on February 19, 2009. By the late 2000s, the 777 was facing increased potential competition from Airbus' planned A350 XWB and internally from proposed 787 series, both airliners that offer fuel efficiency improvements. As a consequence, the 777-300ER received engine and aerodynamics improvement packages for reduced drag and weight. In 2010, the variant further received a 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) maximum zero-fuel weight increase, equivalent to a higher payload of 20–25 passengers; its GE90-115B1 engines received a 1–2.5 percent thrust enhancement for increased takeoff weights at higher-altitude airports. Through these improvements, the 777 remains the largest twin-engine jetliner in the world. In 2011, the 787 Dreamliner entered service, the completed first stage a.k.a. the Yellowstone-2 (Y2) of a replacement aircraft initiative called the Boeing Yellowstone Project, which would replace large variants of the 767 (300/300ER/400) but also small variants of the 777 (-200/200ER/200LR). The larger variants of the 777 (-300/300ER) as well as the 747 could eventually be replaced by a new generation aircraft, the Yellowstone-3 (Y3), which would draw upon technologies from the 787 Dreamliner (Y2). More changes were targeted for late 2012, including possible extension of the wingspan, along with other major changes, including a composite wing, a new generation engine, and different fuselage lengths. Emirates was reportedly working closely with Boeing on the project, in conjunction with being a potential launch customer for the new 777 generation. Among customers for the aircraft during this period, China Airlines ordered ten 777-300ER aircraft to replace 747-400s on long-haul transpacific routes (with the first of those aircraft entering service in 2015), noting that the 777-300ER's per seat cost is about 20% lower than the 747's costs (varying due to fuel prices). === Improvement packages === In tandem with the development of the third generation Boeing 777X, Boeing worked with General Electric to offer a 2% improvement in fuel efficiency to in-production 777-300ER aircraft. General Electric improved the fan module and the high-pressure compressor stage-1 blisk in the GE-90-115 turbofan, as well as reduced clearances between the tips of the turbine blades and the shroud during cruise. These improvements, of which the latter is the most important and was derived from work to develop the 787, were stated by GE to lower fuel burn by 0.5%. Boeing's wing modifications were intended to deliver the remainder. Boeing stated that every 1% improvement in the 777-300ER's fuel burn translates into being able to fly the aircraft another 75 nmi (139 km; 86 mi) on the same load of fuel, or add ten passengers or 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) of cargo to a "load limited" flight. In March 2015, additional details of the "improvement package" were unveiled. The 777-300ER was to shed 1,800 lb (820 kg) by replacing the fuselage crown with tie rods and composite integration panels, similar to those used on the 787. The new flight control software would eliminate the need for the tail skid by keeping the tail off the runway surface regardless of the extent to which pilots command the elevators. Boeing was also redesigning the inboard flap fairings to reduce drag by reducing pressure on the underside of the wing. The outboard raked wingtip was to have a divergent trailing edge, described as a "poor man's airfoil" by Boeing; this was originally developed for the McDonnell Douglas MD-12 project. Another change involved elevator trim bias. These changes were to increase fuel efficiency and allow airlines to add 14 additional seats to the airplane, increasing per seat fuel efficiency by 5%. Mindful of the long time required to bring the 777X to the market, Boeing continued to develop improvement packages which improve fuel efficiency, as well as lower prices for the existing product. In January 2015, United Airlines ordered ten 777-300ERs, normally selling for around $150 million per aircraft, were purchased for $130 million each, a discount to bridge the production gap to the 777X. In 2019, the list price for the -200ER was $306.6 million, the -200LR: $346.9 million, the -300ER: $375.5 million and 777F: $352.3 million. The -200ER is the only Classic variant listed. === Third generation (777X): -8/-8F/-9 === In November 2013, with orders and commitments totaling 259 aircraft from Lufthansa, Emirates, Qatar Airways, and Etihad Airways, Boeing formally launched the 777X program, the third generation of the 777, with two models: the 777-8 and 777-9. The 777-9 is a further stretched variant with a capacity of over 400 passengers and a range of over 8,200 nmi (15,200 km; 9,400 mi), whereas the 777-8 is slated to seat approximately 350 passengers and have a range of over 9,300 nmi (17,200 km; 10,700 mi). Both models are to be equipped with new generation GE9X engines and feature new composite wings with folding wingtips. The first member of the 777X family was projected to enter service in 2020 at the time of the program announcement. The roll-out of the prototype 777X, a 777-9 model, occurred on March 13, 2019. The 777-9 first flew on January 25, 2020, with deliveries initially forecast for 2022 or 2023 and later delayed to 2025. == Design == Boeing introduced a number of advanced technologies with the 777 design, including fully digital fly-by-wire controls, fully software-configurable avionics, Honeywell LCD glass cockpit flight displays, and the first use of a fiber optic avionics network on a commercial airliner. Boeing made use of work done on the cancelled Boeing 7J7 regional jet, which utilized similar versions of the chosen technologies. In 2003, Boeing began offering the option of cockpit electronic flight bag computer displays. In 2013, Boeing announced that the upgraded 777X models would incorporate airframe, systems, and interior technologies from the 787. === Fly-by-wire === In designing the 777 as its first fly-by-wire commercial aircraft, Boeing decided to retain conventional control yokes rather than change to sidestick controllers as used in many fly-by-wire fighter aircraft and in many Airbus airliners. Along with traditional yoke and rudder controls, the cockpit features a simplified layout that retains similarities to previous Boeing models. The fly-by-wire system also incorporates flight envelope protection, a system that guides pilot inputs within a computer-calculated framework of operating parameters, acting to prevent stalls, overspeeds, and excessively stressful maneuvers. This system can be overridden by the pilot if deemed necessary. The fly-by-wire system is supplemented by mechanical backup. === Airframe and systems === The airframe incorporates the use of composite materials, accounting for nine percent of the original structural weight, while the third-generation models, the 777-8 and 777-9, feature more composite parts. Composite components include the cabin floor and rudder, with the 777 being the first Boeing airliner to use composite materials for both the horizontal and vertical stabilizers (empennage). The main fuselage cross-section is fully circular, and tapers rearward into a blade-shaped tail cone with a port-facing auxiliary power unit. The wings on the 777 feature a supercritical airfoil design that is swept back at 31.6 degrees and optimized for cruising at Mach 0.83 (revised after flight tests up to Mach 0.84). The wings are designed with increased thickness and a longer span than previous airliners, resulting in greater payload and range, improved takeoff performance, and a higher cruising altitude. The wings also serve as fuel storage, with longer-range models able to carry up to 47,890 US gallons (181,300 L) of fuel. This capacity allows the 777-200LR to operate ultra-long-distance, trans-polar routes such as Toronto to Hong Kong. In 2013, a new wing made of composite materials was introduced for the upgraded 777X, with a wider span and design features based on the 787's wings. Folding wingtips, 21 feet (6.40 m) long, were offered when the 777 was first launched, to appeal to airlines who might use gates made to accommodate smaller aircraft, but no airline purchased this option. Folding wingtips reemerged as a design feature at the announcement of the upgraded 777X in 2013. Smaller folding wingtips of 11 feet (3.35 m) in length will allow 777X models to use the same airport gates and taxiways as earlier 777s. These smaller folding wingtips are less complex than those proposed for earlier 777s, and internally only affect the wiring needed for wingtip lights. The aircraft features the largest landing gear and the biggest tires ever used in a commercial jetliner. The six-wheel bogies are designed to spread the load of the aircraft over a wide area without requiring an additional centerline gear. This helps reduce weight and simplifies the aircraft's braking and hydraulic systems. Each tire of a 777-300ER six-wheel main landing gear can carry a load of 59,490 lb (26,980 kg), which is heavier than other wide-bodies such as the 747-400. The aircraft has triple redundant hydraulic systems with only one system required for landing. A ram air turbine—a small retractable device which can provide emergency power—is also fitted in the wing root fairing. === Interior === The original 777 interior, also known as the Boeing Signature Interior, features curved panels, larger overhead bins, and indirect lighting. Seating options range from four to six–abreast in first class up to ten–abreast in economy. The 777's windows were the largest of any current commercial airliner until the 787, and measure 15 by 10 inches (380 by 250 mm) for all models outside the 777-8 and -9. The cabin also features "Flexibility Zones", which entails deliberate placement of water, electrical, pneumatic, and other connection points throughout the interior space, allowing airlines to move seats, galleys, and lavatories quickly and more easily when adjusting cabin arrangements. Several aircraft have also been fitted with VIP interiors for non-airline use. Boeing designed a hydraulically damped toilet seat cover hinge that closes slowly. In February 2003, Boeing introduced overhead crew rests as an option on the 777. Located above the main cabin and connected via staircases, the forward flight crew rest contains two seats and two bunks, while the aft cabin crew rest features multiple bunks. The Signature Interior has since been adapted for other Boeing wide-body and narrow-body aircraft, including 737NG, 747-400, 757-300, and newer 767 models, including all 767-400ER models. The 747-8 and 767-400ER have also adopted the larger, more rounded windows of the original 777. In July 2011, Flight International reported that Boeing was considering replacing the Signature Interior on the 777 with a new interior similar to that on the 787, as part of a move towards a "common cabin experience" across all Boeing platforms. With the launch of the 777X in 2013, Boeing confirmed that the aircraft would be receiving a new interior featuring 787 cabin elements and larger windows. Further details released in 2014 included re-sculpted cabin sidewalls for greater interior room, noise-damping technology, and higher cabin humidity. Air France has a 777-300ER sub-fleet with 472 seats each, more than any other international 777, to achieve a cost per available seat kilometer (CASK) around €.05, similar to Level's 314-seat Airbus A330-200, its benchmark for low-cost, long-haul. Competing on similar French overseas departments destinations, Air Caraïbes has 389 seats on the A350-900 and 429 on the -1000. French Bee's is even more dense with its 411 seats A350-900, due to 10-abreast economy seating, reaching a €.04 CASK according to Air France, and lower again with its 480 seats on the -1000. === Engines === The initial 777 models (consisting of the 777-200, 777-200ER, 777-300) were launched with propulsion options from three manufacturers, GE Aviation, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce, giving the airlines their choice of engines from competing firms. Each manufacturer agreed to develop an engine in the 77,200–98,000 lbf (343–436 kN) of thrust class for the world's largest twinjet, resulting in the General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engines. The Trent 800 is the lightest of the three powerplants as it weighs 13,400 lb (6.078 t) dry, while the GE90 is 17,400 lb (7.89 t), and the PW4000 is 16,260 lb (7.38 t). Initial 777 engine options For Boeing's second-generation 777 variants (777-300ER, 777-200LR, and 777F) greater thrust was needed to meet the aircraft requirements, and GE was selected as the exclusive engine manufacturer. The higher-thrust variants, GE90-110B1 and -115B, have a different architecture from that of the earlier GE90 versions. GE incorporated an advanced larger diameter fan made from composite materials which enhanced thrust at low flight speeds. However, GE also needed to increase core power to improve net thrust at high flight speeds. Consequently, GE elected to increase core capacity, which they achieved by removing one stage from the rear of the HP compressor and adding an additional stage to the LP compressor, which more than compensated for the reduction in HP compressor pressure ratio, resulting in a net increase in core mass flow. The higher-thrust GE90 variants are the first production engines to feature swept rotor blades. The nacelle has a maximum diameter of 166 in (4,200 mm). Each of the 22 fan blades on the GE90-115B have a length of 4 feet (1.2 meters) and a mass of less than 50 pounds (23 kilograms). == Variants == Boeing uses two characteristics – fuselage length and range – to define its 777 models. Passengers and cargo capacity varies by fuselage length: the 777-300 has a stretched fuselage compared to the base 777-200. Three range categories were defined: the A-market would cover domestic and regional operations, the B-market would cover routes from Europe to the US West coast and the C-market the longest transpacific routes. The A-market would be covered by a 4,200 nmi (7,800 km; 4,800 mi) range, 516,000 lb (234 t) MTOW aircraft for 353 to 374 passengers powered by 71,000 lbf (316 kN) engines, followed by a 6,600 nmi (12,200 km; 7,600 mi) B-market range for 286 passengers in three-class, with 82,000 lbf (365 kN) unit thrust and 580,000 lb (263 t) of MTOW, an A340 competitor, basis of an A-market 409 to 434 passengers stretch, and eventually a 7,600 nmi (14,000 km; 8,700 mi) C-market with 90,000 lbf (400 kN) engines. When referring to different variants, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) code collapses the 777 model designator and the -200 or -300 variant designator to "772" or "773". The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aircraft type designator system adds a preceding manufacturer letter, in this case "B" for Boeing, hence "B772" or "B773". Designations may append a range identifier like "B77W" for the 777-300ER by the ICAO, "77W" for the IATA, though the -200ER is a company marketing designation and not certificated as such. Other notations include "773ER" and "773B" for the -300ER. === 777-200 === The initial 777-200 made its maiden flight on June 12, 1994, and was first delivered to United Airlines on May 15, 1995. With a 545,000 lb (247 t) MTOW and 77,000 lbf (340 kN) engines, it has a range of 5,240 nautical miles (9,700 km; 6,030 mi) with 305 passenger seats in a three-class configuration. The -200 was primarily aimed at US domestic airlines, although several Asian carriers and British Airways have also operated the type. Nine different -200 customers have taken delivery of 88 aircraft, with 55 in airline service as of 2018. The competing Airbus aircraft was the A330-300. In March 2016, United Airlines shifted operations with all 19 of its -200s to exclusively domestic US routes, including flights to and from Hawaii, and added more economy class seats by shifting to a ten-abreast configuration (a pattern that matched American Airlines' reconfiguration of the type). As of 2019, Boeing no longer markets the -200, as indicated by its removal from the manufacturer's price listings for 777 variants. ==== 777-200ER ==== The B-market 777-200ER ("ER" for Extended Range), originally known as the 777-200IGW (increased gross weight), has additional fuel capacity and an increased MTOW enabling transoceanic routes. With a 658,000 lb (298 t) MTOW and 93,700 lbf (417 kN) engines, it has a 7,065 nmi (13,084 km; 8,130 mi) range with 301 passenger seats in a three-class configuration. It was delivered first to British Airways on February 6, 1997. Thirty-three customers received 422 deliveries, with no unfilled orders as of 2019. As of 2018, 338 examples of the -200ER are in airline service. It competed with the A340-300. Boeing proposed the 787-10 to replace it. The value of a new -200ER rose from US$110 million at service entry to US$130 million in 2007; a 2007 model 777 was selling for US$30 million ten years later, while the oldest ones had a value around US$5–6 million, depending on the remaining engine time. The engine can be delivered de-rated with reduced engine thrust for shorter routes to lower the MTOW, reduce purchase price and landing fees (as 777-200 specifications) but can be re-rated to full standard. Singapore Airlines ordered over half of its -200ERs de-rated. ==== 777-200LR Worldliner ==== The 777-200LR Worldliner ("LR" for Long Range), the C-market model, entered service in 2006 as one of the longest-range commercial airliners. Boeing named it Worldliner as it can connect almost any two airports in the world, although it is still subject to ETOPS restrictions. It holds the world record for the longest nonstop flight by a commercial airliner. It has a maximum design range of 8,555 nautical miles (15,844 km; 9,845 mi) as of 2017. The -200LR was intended for ultra long-haul routes such as Los Angeles to Singapore. Developed alongside the -300ER, the -200LR features an increased MTOW and three optional auxiliary fuel tanks in the rear cargo hold. Other new features include extended raked wingtips, redesigned main landing gear, and additional structural strengthening. As with the -300ER and 777F, the -200LR is equipped with wingtip extensions of 12.8 ft (3.90 m). The -200LR is powered by GE90-110B1 or GE90-115B turbofans. The first -200LR was delivered to Pakistan International Airlines on February 26, 2006. Twelve different -200LR customers took delivery of 61 aircraft. Airlines operated 50 of the -200LR variant as of 2018. Emirates is the largest operator of the LR variant with 10 aircraft. The closest competing aircraft from Airbus are the discontinued A340-500HGW and the current A350-900ULR. === 777 Freighter === The 777 Freighter (777F) is an all-cargo version of the twinjet, and shares features with the -200LR; these include its airframe, engines, and fuel capacity. The 777F is unofficially referred to as 777-200LRF by some cargo airlines. With a maximum payload of 228,700 lb (103,700 kg) (similar to the 243,000 lb (110,000 kg) of the Boeing 747-200F), it has a maximum range of 9,750 nmi (18,057 km; 11,220 mi)) or 4,970 nmi (9,200 km; 5,720 mi)) at its max structural payload. The 777F also features a new supernumerary area, which includes four business-class seats forward of the rigid cargo barrier, full main deck access, bunks, and a galley. As the aircraft promises improved operating economics compared to older freighters, airlines have viewed the 777F as a replacement for freighters such as the Boeing 747-200F, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and McDonnell Douglas MD-11F. The first 777F was delivered to Air France on February 19, 2009. As of April 2021, 247 freighters have been ordered by 25 different customers with 45 unfilled orders. Operators had 202 of the 777F in service as of 2018. === 777-300 === Launched at the Paris Air Show on June 26, 1995, its major assembly started in March 1997 and its body was joined on July 21, it was rolled-out on September 8 and made its first flight on October 16. The 777-300 was designed to be stretched by 20%: 60 extra seats to 368 in a three-class configuration, 75 more to 451 in two classes, or up to 550 in all-economy like the 747SR. The 33 ft (10.1 m) stretch is done with 17 ft (5.3 m) in ten frames forward and 16 ft (4.8 m) in nine frames aft for a 242 ft (73.8 m) length, 11 ft (3.4 m) longer than the 747-400. It uses the -200ER 45,200 US gal (171,200 L) fuel capacity and 84,000–98,000 lbf (374–436 kN) engines with a 580,000 to 661,000 lb (263.3 to 299.6 t) MTOW. It has ground maneuvering cameras for taxiing and a tailskid to rotate, while the proposed 716,000 lb (324.6 t) MTOW -300X would have needed a semi-levered main gear. Its overwing fuselage section 44 was strengthened, with its skin thickness going from the -200's 0.25 to 0.45 in (6.3 to 11.4 mm), and received a new evacuation door pair. Its operating empty weight with Rolls-Royce engines in typical tri-class layout is 343,300 lb (155.72 t) compared to 307,300 lb (139.38 t) for a similarly configured -200. Boeing wanted to deliver 170 -300s by 2006 and to produce 28 per year by 2002, to replace early Boeing 747s, burning one-third less fuel with 40% lower maintenance costs. With a 660,000 lb (299 t) MTOW and 90,000 lbf (400 kN) engines, it has a range of 6,005 nautical miles (11,121 km; 6,910 mi) with 368 passengers in three-class. Eight different customers have taken delivery of 60 aircraft of the variant, of which 18 were powered by the PW4000 and 42 by the RR Trent 800 (none were ordered with the GE90, which was never certified on this variant), with 48 in airline service as of 2018. The last -300 was delivered in 2006 while the longer-range -300ER started deliveries in 2004. ==== 777-300ER ==== The 777-300ER ("ER" for Extended Range) is the B-market version of the -300. Its higher MTOW and increased fuel capacity permits a maximum range of 7,370 nautical miles (13,650 km; 8,480 mi) with 392 passengers in a two-class seating arrangement. The 777-300ER features extended raked wingtips, a strengthened fuselage and wings and a modified main landing gear. Its wings have an aspect ratio of 9.0. It is powered by the GE90-115B turbofan, the world's most powerful jet engine with a maximum thrust of 115,300 lbf (513 kN). Following flight testing, aerodynamic refinements have reduced fuel burn by an additional 1.4%. At Mach 0.839 (495 kn; 916 km/h), FL300, -59 °C and at a 513,400 lb (232.9 t) weight, it burns 17,300 lb (7.8 t) of fuel per hour. Its operating empty weight is 371,600 lb (168.6 t). The projected operational empty weight is 371,610 lb (168,560 kg) in airline configuration, at a weight of 477,010 lb (216,370 kg) and FL350, total fuel flow is 15,000 lb/h (6,790 kg/h) at Mach 0.84 (495 kn; 917 km/h), rising to 19,600 lb/h (8,890 kg/h) at Mach 0.87 (513 kn; 950 km/h). Since its launch, the -300ER has been a primary driver of the airplane's sales past the rival A330/340 series. Its direct competitors have included the Airbus A340-600 and the A350-1000. Using two engines produces a typical operating cost advantage of around 8–9% for the -300ER over the A340-600. Several airlines have acquired the -300ER as a 747-400 replacement amid rising fuel prices given its 20% fuel burn advantage. The -300ER has an operating cost of $44 per seat hour, compared to an Airbus A380's roughly $50 per seat hour and $90 per seat hour for a Boeing 747-400 as of 2015. The first 777-300ER was delivered to Air France on April 29, 2004. The -300ER is the best-selling 777 variant, with Emirates being the largest operator with 123 777-300ER in service, having surpassed the -200ER in orders in 2010 and deliveries in 2013. As of 2018, 784 300ERs were in service, A total of 831 were built with the last delivered to Aeroflot in 2021. Boeing ended 777-300ER production in 2024, and switched to the new 777X. === 777X === The third-generation of the 777, launched as the 777X, is to feature new GE9X engines and new composite wings with folding wingtips. It was launched in November 2013 with two variants: the 777-8 and the 777-9. The 777-8 provides seating for 395 passengers and has a range of 8,745 nmi (16,196 km; 10,064 mi), while the 777-9 has seating for 426 passengers and a range of over 7,285 nmi (13,492 km; 8,383 mi). A longer 777-10X, 777X Freighter, and 777X BBJ variants have also been proposed. === Government and corporate === Versions of the 777 have been acquired by government and private customers. The main purpose has been for VIP transport, including as an air transport for heads of state, although the aircraft has also been proposed for other military applications. 777 Business Jet (777 VIP) – the Boeing Business Jet version of the 777 that is sold to corporate customers. Boeing has received orders for 777 VIP aircraft based on the 777-200LR and 777-300ER passenger models. The aircraft are fitted with private jet cabins by third party contractors, and completion may take three years. KC-777 – this was a proposed tanker version of the 777. In September 2006, Boeing announced that it would produce the KC-777 if the United States Air Force (USAF) required a larger tanker than the KC-767, able to transport more cargo or personnel. In April 2007, Boeing offered its 767-based KC-767 Advanced Tanker instead of the KC-777 to replace the smaller Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker under the USAF's KC-X program. Boeing officials have described the KC-777 as suitable for the related KC-Z program to replace the wide-body McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender. In 2014, the Japanese government chose to procure two 777-300ERs to serve as the official air transport for the Emperor of Japan and Prime Minister of Japan. The aircraft, operated by the Japan Air Self-Defense Force under the callsign Japanese Air Force One, entered service in 2019 and replaced two 747-400s - the 777-300ER was specifically selected by the Ministry of Defense owing to its similar capabilities to the preceding 747 pair. Besides VIP transport, the 777s are also intended for use in emergency relief missions. 777s are serving or have served as official government transports for nations including Gabon (VIP-configured 777-200ER), Turkmenistan (VIP-configured 777-200LR) and the United Arab Emirates (VIP-configured 777-200ER and 777-300ER operated by Abu Dhabi Amiri Flight). Prior to returning to power as Prime Minister of Lebanon, Rafic Hariri acquired a 777-200ER as an official transport. The Indian government purchased two Air India 777-300ERs and converted them for VVIP transport operated by the Indian Air Force under the callsign Air India One; they entered service in 2021 replacing the Air India-owned 747s. In 2014, the USAF examined the possibility of adopting modified 777-300ERs or 777-9Xs to replace the Boeing 747-200 aircraft used as Air Force One. Although the USAF had preferred a four-engine aircraft, this was mainly due to precedent (existing aircraft were purchased when the 767 was just beginning to prove itself with ETOPS; decades later, the 777 and other twin jets established a comparable level of performance to quad-jet aircraft). Ultimately, the Air Force decided against the 777, and selected the Boeing 747-8 to become the next presidential aircraft. === Aftermarket freighter conversions === In the 2000s, Boeing began studying the conversion of 777-200ER and -200 passenger airliners into freighters, under the name 777 BCF (Boeing Converted Freighter). The company has been in discussion with several airline customers, including FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, and GE Capital Aviation Services, to provide launch orders for a 777 BCF program. ==== 777-300ER Special Freighter (SF) ==== In July 2018, Boeing was studying a 777-300ER freighter conversion, targeted for the volumetric market instead of the density market served by the production 777F. After having considered a -200ER P2F program, Boeing was hoping to conclude its study by the Fall as the 777X replacing aging -300ERs from 2020 will generate feedstock. New-build 777-300ERs may maintain the delivery rate at five per month, to bridge the production gap until the 777X is delivered. Within the 811 777-300ERs delivered and 33 to be delivered by October 2019, GE Capital Aviation Services (GECAS) anticipates up to 150-175 orders through 2030, the four to five month conversion costing around $35 million. In October 2019, Boeing and Israeli Aerospace Industries (IAI) launched the 777-300ERSF passenger to freighter conversion program with GECAS ordering 15 aircraft and 15 options, the first aftermarket 777 freighter conversion program. In June 2020, IAI received the first 777-300ER to be converted, from GECAS. In October 2020, GECAS announced the launch operator from 2023: Michigan-based Kalitta Air, already operating 24 747-400Fs, nine 767-300ERFs and three 777Fs. IAI should receive the first aircraft in December 2020 while certification and service entry was scheduled for late 2022. By March 2023, IAI had completed the first flight of a 777-300ER Special Freighter, converted for AerCap, as it had a backlog over 60 orders. The 777-300ER Special Freighter has a maximum payload of 224,000 lb (101.6 t), a range of 4,500 nmi (8,300 km; 5,200 mi) and shares the door aperture and aft position of the 777F. It has a cargo volume capacity of 28,900 cu ft (819 m3), 5,800 cu ft (164 m3) greater than the 777F (or 25% more) and can hold 47 standard 96 x 125 in pallet (P6P) positions, 10 more positions than a 777F or eight more than a 747-400F. With windows plugged, passenger doors deactivated, fuselage and floor reinforced, and a main-deck cargo door installed, the 777-300ERSF has 15% more volume than a 747-400BCF. === Experimental === Boeing has used 777 aircraft in two research and development programs. The first program, the Quiet Technology Demonstrator (QTD) was run in collaboration with Rolls-Royce and General Electric to develop and validate engine intake and exhaust modifications, including the chevrons subsequently used in the 737 MAX, 747-8 and 787 series. The tests were flown in 2001 and 2005. A further program, the ecoDemonstrator series, is intended to test and develop technologies and techniques to reduce aviation's environmental impact. The program started in 2011, with the first ecoDemonstrator aircraft flying in 2012. Various airframes have been used since to test a wide variety of technologies in collaboration with a range of industrial partners. 777s have been used on three occasions as of 2024. The first of these, a 777F in 2018, performed the world's first commercial airliner flights using 100% sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). In 2022-4, the testbed is a 777-200ER. == Operators == Boeing customers that have received the most 777s are Emirates, Singapore Airlines, United Airlines, ILFC, and American Airlines. Emirates is the largest airline operator as of 2018, and is the only customer to have operated all 777 variants produced, including the -200, -200ER, -200LR, -300, -300ER, and 777F. The 1,000th 777 off the production line, a -300ER set to be Emirates' 102nd 777, was unveiled at a factory ceremony in March 2012. A total of 1,416 aircraft (all variants) were in airline service as of 2018, with Emirates (163), United Airlines (91), Air France (70), Cathay Pacific (69), American Airlines (67), Qatar Airways (67), British Airways (58), Korean Air (53), All Nippon Airways (50), Singapore Airlines (46), and other operators with fewer aircraft of the type. In 2017, 777 Classics are reaching the end of their mainline service: with a -200 age ranging from three to 22 years, 43 Classic 777s or 7.5% of the fleet have been retired. Values of 777-200ERs have declined by 45% since January 2014, faster than Airbus A330s and Boeing 767s with 30%, due to the lack of a major secondary market but only a few budget, air charters and ACMI operators. In 2015, Richard H. Anderson, then Delta Air Lines' chairman and chief executive, said he had been offered 777-200s for less than US$10 million. To keep them cost-efficient, operators densify their 777s for about US$10 million each, like Scoot with 402 seats in its dual-class -200s, or Cathay Pacific which switched the 3–3–3 economy layout of 777-300s to 3–4–3 to seat 396 on regional services. === Orders and deliveries === The 777 surpassed 2,000 orders by the end of 2018. Orders and deliveries through April 2025 Orders through April 30, 2025 and deliveries Boeing 777 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year): Orders Deliveries through April 30, 2025 == Accidents and incidents == As of May 2024, the 777 had been involved in 31 aviation accidents and incidents, including a total of eight hull losses (five in-flight accidents), resulting in 542 fatalities (including three fatalities due to ground casualties), along with three hijackings. The first fatality involving the twinjet occurred in a fire while an aircraft was being refueled at Denver International Airport in the United States on September 5, 2001, during which a ground worker sustained fatal burns. The aircraft, operated by British Airways, sustained fire damage to the lower wing panels and engine housing; it was later repaired and returned to service. The first hull loss occurred on January 17, 2008, when a 777-200ER with Rolls-Royce Trent 895 engines, flying from Beijing to London as British Airways Flight 38, crash-landed approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) short of Heathrow Airport's runway 27L and slid onto the runway's threshold. There were 47 injuries and no fatalities. The impact severely damaged the landing gear, wing roots and engines. The accident was attributed to ice crystals suspended in the aircraft's fuel clogging the fuel-oil heat exchanger (FOHE). Two other minor momentary losses of thrust with Trent 895 engines occurred later in 2008. Investigators found these were also caused by ice in the fuel clogging the FOHE. As a result, the heat exchanger was redesigned. The second hull loss occurred on July 29, 2011, when a 777-200ER scheduled to operate as EgyptAir Flight 667 suffered a cockpit fire while parked at the gate at Cairo International Airport before its departure. The aircraft was evacuated with no injuries, and airport fire teams extinguished the fire. The aircraft sustained structural, heat and smoke damage, and was written off. Investigators focused on a possible short circuit between an electrical cable and a supply hose in the cockpit crew oxygen system. The third hull loss occurred on July 6, 2013, when a 777-200ER, operating as Asiana Airlines Flight 214, crashed while landing at San Francisco International Airport after touching down short of the runway. The 307 surviving passengers and crew on board evacuated before fire destroyed the aircraft. Two passengers, who had not been wearing their seatbelts, were ejected from the aircraft during the crash and were killed. A third passenger died six days later as a result of injuries sustained during the crash. These were the first fatalities in a crash involving a 777 since its entry into service in 1995. The official accident investigation concluded in June 2014 that the pilots committed 20 to 30 minor to significant errors in their final approach. Deficiencies in Asiana Airlines' pilot training and in Boeing's documentation of complex flight control systems were also cited as contributory factors. The fourth hull loss occurred on March 8, 2014, when a 777-200ER carrying 227 passengers and 12 crew, en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing as Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, was reported missing. Air Traffic Control's last reported coordinates for the aircraft were over the South China Sea. After the search for the aircraft began, Malaysia's prime minister, Najib Razak, announced on March 24, 2014, that after analysis of new satellite data it was now to be assumed "beyond reasonable doubt" that the aircraft had crashed in the Indian Ocean and there were no survivors. The cause remains unknown, but the Malaysian Government in January 2015, declared it an accident. US officials believe the most likely explanation to be that someone in the cockpit of Flight 370 re-programmed the aircraft's autopilot to travel south across the Indian Ocean. On July 29, 2015, an item later identified as a flaperon from the still missing aircraft was found on the island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean, consistent with having drifted from the main search area. The fifth hull loss occurred on July 17, 2014, when a 777-200ER, bound for Kuala Lumpur from Amsterdam as Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17), was shot down by an anti-aircraft missile while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 298 people (283 passengers and 15 crew) on board were killed, making this the deadliest crash involving the Boeing 777. The incident was linked to the ongoing War in Donbas. On the basis of the Dutch Safety Board and the Joint Investigation Team official conclusions of May 2018, the governments of the Netherlands and Australia hold Russia responsible for the deployment of the Buk missile system used in shooting down the airliner from territory held by pro-Russian separatists. The sixth hull loss occurred on August 3, 2016, when a 777-300 crashed while landing and caught fire at Dubai Airport at the end of its flight as Emirates Flight 521. The preliminary investigation indicated that the aircraft was attempting a landing during active wind shear conditions. The pilots initiated a go-around procedure shortly after the wheels touched-down onto the runway; however, the aircraft settled back onto the ground, apparently due to late throttle application. As the undercarriage was in the process of being retracted, the aircraft landed on its rear underbody and engine nacelles, resulting in the separation of one engine, loss of control and subsequent crash. There were no passenger casualties of the 300 people on board, but one airport fireman was killed fighting the fire. The aircraft's fuselage and right wing were irreparably damaged by the fire. The seventh hull loss occurred on November 29, 2017, when a Singapore Airlines 777-200ER experienced a fire while being towed at Singapore Changi Airport. An aircraft technician was the only occupant on board and evacuated safely. The aircraft sustained heat damage and was written off. Another fire occurred on July 22, 2020 to an Ethiopian Airlines 777F while at the cargo area of Shanghai Pudong International Airport. The aircraft sustained heat damage and was written off as the eighth hull loss. Media reports on legal proceedings attribute the fire to the ignition of chlorine dioxide disinfection tablets at high temperatures in a humid environment on ground. On February 20, 2021, a 777-200 operating as United Airlines Flight 328 suffered a failure of its starboard engine. The cowling and other engine parts fell over a Denver suburb. The captain declared an emergency and returned to land at the Denver airport. An immediate examination, before any formal investigation, found that two fan blades had broken off. One blade had suffered metal fatigue and may have chipped another blade, which also broke off. Boeing recommended suspending flights of all 128 operational 777s equipped with Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines until they had been inspected. Several countries also restricted flights of PW4000-equipped 777s in their territory. In 2018, a similar issue occurred on United Airlines Flight 1175 from San Francisco to Hawaii involving another 777-200 equipped with the same engine type. On May 21, 2024, Singapore Airlines Flight 321, operated by a 777-300ER, encountered severe turbulence over Myanmar that injured 104 passengers and crew and led to the death of a passenger, who died of a suspected heart attack. == Aircraft on display == The first prototype, a Boeing 777-200, B-HNL (ex. N7771), was built in 1994 and originally used by Boeing for flight testing and development. In 2000, it was sold to Cathay Pacific (as no delivery slots were available for newly-built 777s) and refurbished for passenger service. After 18 years of commercial service, B-HNL was retired in mid-2018 amid press reports that it was to be displayed at the Museum of Flight in Seattle. On September 18, 2018, Cathay Pacific and Boeing announced that B-HNL would be donated to the Pima Air & Space Museum near Tucson, Arizona, where it would be placed on permanent display. Three retired Saudia 777-200ER aircraft, formerly registered HZ-AKG, HZ-AKK, and HZ-AKP, respectively, were transported by road from Jeddah to Riyadh in September 2024 to be displayed at the Riyadh Season exhibition. The fuselage of each aircraft was to be used as a tourist attraction featuring aviation-themed exhibits and/or dining and retail options. Former Korean Air Boeing 777-200ER HL7526 is now displayed at Inha University Square campus near Incheon. Originally delivered in 1998, the plane was withdrawn from service in 2022 before being disassembled in 2024 for transport, then reassembled on-site at Inha University. == Specifications (Boeing 777-300ER) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 365 passengers in three classes or 396 in two class, 7,120 ft3 (201.6 m3) of cargo Length: 242 ft 4 in (73.86 m) Wingspan: 212 ft 7 in (64.80 m) Width: 20 ft 4 in (6.20 m) (fuselage) Height: 61 ft 10 in (18.85 m) Wing area: 4,702 sq ft (436.8 m2) Empty weight: 370,000 lb (167,829 kg) Max takeoff weight: 775,000 lb (351,535 kg) Fuel capacity: 47,890 US gal (181,300 L) Powerplant: 2 × General Electric GE90-115B turbofan engine, 115,300 lbf (513 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: Mach 0.89 Cruise speed: 554 mph (892 km/h, 482 kn) Range: 8,480 mi (13,649 km, 7,370 nmi) with 396 passengers Service ceiling: 43,100 ft (13,100 m) Takeoff distance: 10,000 ft (3.0 km) == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A330 – Wide-body twin-engine jet airliner Airbus A340 – Wide-body, long-range, quad-engine jet airliner family Airbus A350 – Wide-body, long-range, twin-engine jet airliner family Boeing 767 – Wide-body twin-engine jet airliner family Boeing 787 Dreamliner – Boeing wide-body jet airliner Ilyushin Il-96 – Russian long-range wide-body airliner McDonnell Douglas MD-11 – Wide body airliners developed from the DC-10 Related lists List of Boeing 777 operators List of Boeing 777 orders and deliveries List of Boeing 777X orders and deliveries List of Boeing customer codes List of commercial jet airliners List of civil aircraft == Notes == == References == == Sources == == External links == Official website
Boeing 767	The Boeing 767 is an American wide-body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The aircraft was launched as the 7X7 program on July 14, 1978, the prototype first flew on September 26, 1981, and it was certified on July 30, 1982. The initial 767-200 variant entered service on September 8, 1982, with United Airlines, and the extended-range 767-200ER in 1984. It was stretched into the 767-300 in October 1986, followed by the extended-range 767-300ER in 1988, the most popular variant. The 767-300F, a production freighter version, debuted in October 1995. It was stretched again into the 767-400ER from September 2000. Designed to complement the larger 747, it has a seven-abreast cross-section accommodating smaller LD2 ULD cargo containers. The 767 is Boeing's first wide-body twinjet, powered by General Electric CF6, Rolls-Royce RB211, or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans. JT9D engines were eventually replaced by PW4000 engines. The aircraft has a conventional tail and a supercritical wing for reduced aerodynamic drag. Its two-crew glass cockpit, a first for a Boeing airliner, was developed jointly for the 757 − a narrow-body aircraft, allowing a common pilot type rating. Studies for a higher-capacity 767 in 1986 led Boeing to develop the larger 777 twinjet, introduced in June 1995. The 159-foot-long (48.5 m) 767-200 typically seats 216 passengers over 3,900 nautical miles [nmi] (7,200 km; 4,500 mi), while the 767-200ER seats 181 over a 6,590 nmi (12,200 km; 7,580 mi) range. The 180-foot-long (54.9 m) 767-300 typically seats 269 passengers over 3,900 nmi (7,200 km; 4,500 mi), while the 767-300ER seats 218 over 5,980 nmi (11,070 km; 6,880 mi). The 767-300F can haul 116,000 lb (52.7 t) over 3,225 nmi (6,025 km; 3,711 mi), and the 201.3-foot-long (61.37 m) 767-400ER typically seats 245 passengers over 5,625 nmi (10,415 km; 6,473 mi). Military derivatives include the E-767 for surveillance and the KC-767 and KC-46 aerial tankers. Initially marketed for transcontinental routes, a loosening of ETOPS rules starting in 1985 allowed the aircraft to operate transatlantic flights. A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2018, with Delta Air Lines being the largest operator with 77 aircraft in its fleet. As of April 2025, Boeing has received 1,430 orders from 74 customers, of which 1,329 airplanes have been delivered, while the remaining orders are for cargo or tanker variants. Competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200. Its successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in 2011. == Development == === Background === In 1970, the 747 entered service as the first wide-body jetliner with a fuselage wide enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body jetliner intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body airliners. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar wide-bodies. To defray the high cost of development, Boeing signed risk-sharing agreements with Italian corporation Aeritalia and the Civil Transport Development Corporation (CTDC), a consortium of Japanese aerospace companies. This marked the manufacturer's first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. The initial 7X7 was conceived as a short take-off and landing airliner intended for short-distance flights, but customers were unenthusiastic about the concept, leading to its redefinition as a mid-size, transcontinental-range airliner. At this stage the proposed aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By 1976, a twinjet layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300, became the baseline configuration. The decision to use two engines reflected increased industry confidence in the reliability and economics of new-generation jet powerplants. While airline requirements for new wide-body aircraft remained ambiguous, the 7X7 was generally focused on mid-size, high-density markets. As such, it was intended to transport large numbers of passengers between major cities. Advancements in civil aerospace technology, including high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight deck systems, aerodynamic improvements, and more efficient lightweight designs were to be applied to the 7X7. Many of these features were also included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size narrow-body airliner, code-named 7N7, which would become the 757. Work on both proposals proceeded through the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s. In January 1978, Boeing announced a major extension of its Everett factory—which was then dedicated to manufacturing the 747—to accommodate its new wide-body family. In February 1978, the new jetliner received the 767 model designation, and three variants were planned: a 767-100 with 190 seats, a 767-200 with 210 seats, and a trijet 767MR/LR version with 200 seats intended for intercontinental routes. The 767MR/LR was subsequently renamed 777 for differentiation purposes. The 767 was officially launched on July 14, 1978, when United Airlines ordered 30 of the 767-200 variant, followed by 50 more 767-200 orders from American Airlines and Delta Air Lines later that year. The 767-100 was ultimately not offered for sale, as its capacity was too close to the 757's seating, while the 777 trijet was eventually dropped in favor of standardizing the twinjet configuration. === Design effort === In the late 1970s, operating cost replaced capacity as the primary factor in airliner purchases. As a result, the 767's design process emphasized fuel efficiency from the outset. Boeing targeted a 20 to 30 percent cost saving over earlier aircraft, mainly through new engine and wing technology. As development progressed, engineers used computer-aided design for over a third of the 767's design drawings, and performed 26,000 hours of wind tunnel tests. Design work occurred concurrently with the 757 twinjet, leading Boeing to treat both as almost one program to reduce risk and cost. Both aircraft would ultimately receive shared design features, including avionics, flight management systems, instruments, and handling characteristics. Combined development costs were estimated at $3.5 to $4 billion. Early 767 customers were given the choice of Pratt & Whitney JT9D or General Electric CF6 turbofans, marking the first time that Boeing had offered more than one engine option at the launch of a new airliner. Both jet engine models had a maximum output of 48,000 pounds-force (210 kN) of thrust. The engines were mounted approximately one-third the length of the wing from the fuselage, similar to previous wide-body trijets. The larger wings were designed using an aft-loaded shape which reduced aerodynamic drag and distributed lift more evenly across their surface span than any of the manufacturer's previous aircraft. The wings provided higher-altitude cruise performance, added fuel capacity, and expansion room for future stretched variants. The initial 767-200 was designed for sufficient range to fly across North America or across the northern Atlantic, and would be capable of operating routes up to 3,850 nautical miles (7,130 km; 4,430 mi). The 767's fuselage width was set midway between that of the 707 and the 747 at 16.5 feet (5.03 m). While it was narrower than previous wide-body designs, seven abreast seating with two aisles could be fitted, and the reduced width produced less aerodynamic drag. The fuselage was not wide enough to accommodate two standard LD3 wide-body unit load devices side-by-side, so a smaller container, the LD2, was created specifically for the 767. Using a conventional tail design also allowed the rear fuselage to be tapered over a shorter section, providing for parallel aisles along the full length of the passenger cabin, and eliminating irregular seat rows toward the rear of the aircraft. The 767 was the first Boeing wide-body to be designed with a two-crew digital glass cockpit. Cathode-ray tube (CRT) color displays and new electronics replaced the role of the flight engineer by enabling the pilot and co-pilot to monitor aircraft systems directly. Despite the promise of reduced crew costs, United Airlines initially demanded a conventional three-person cockpit, citing concerns about the risks associated with introducing a new aircraft. The carrier maintained this position until July 1981, when a US presidential task force determined that a crew of two was safe for operating wide-body jets. A three-crew cockpit remained as an option and was fitted to the first production models. Ansett Australia ordered 767s with three-crew cockpits due to union demands; it was the only airline to operate 767s so configured. The 767's two-crew cockpit was also applied to the 757, allowing pilots to operate both aircraft after a short conversion course, and adding incentive for airlines to purchase both types. === Production and testing === To produce the 767, Boeing formed a network of subcontractors which included domestic suppliers and international contributions from Italy's Aeritalia and Japan's CTDC. The wings and cabin floor were produced in-house, while Aeritalia provided control surfaces, Boeing Vertol made the leading edge for the wings, and Boeing Wichita produced the forward fuselage. The CTDC provided multiple assemblies through its constituent companies, namely Fuji Heavy Industries (wing fairings and gear doors), Kawasaki Heavy Industries (center fuselage), and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (rear fuselage, doors, and tail). Components were integrated during final assembly at the Everett factory. For expedited production of wing spars, the main structural member of aircraft wings, the Everett factory received robotic machinery to automate the process of drilling holes and inserting fasteners. This method of wing construction expanded on techniques developed for the 747. Final assembly of the first aircraft began in July 1979. The prototype aircraft, registered as N767BA and equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans, was rolled out on August 4, 1981. By this time, the 767 program had accumulated 173 firm orders from 17 customers, including Air Canada, All Nippon Airways, Britannia Airways, Transbrasil, and Trans World Airlines (TWA). On September 26, 1981, the prototype took its maiden flight under the command of company test pilots Tommy Edmonds, Lew Wallick, and John Brit. The maiden flight was largely uneventful, save for the inability to retract the landing gear because of a hydraulic fluid leak. The prototype was used for subsequent flight tests. The 10-month 767 flight test program utilized the first six aircraft built. The first four aircraft were equipped with JT9D engines, while the fifth and sixth were fitted with CF6 engines. The test fleet was largely used to evaluate avionics, flight systems, handling, and performance, while the sixth aircraft was used for route-proving flights. During testing, pilots described the 767 as generally easy to fly, with its maneuverability unencumbered by the bulkiness associated with larger wide-body jets. Following 1,600 hours of flight tests, the JT9D-powered 767-200 received certification from the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) in July 1982. The first delivery occurred on August 19, 1982, to United Airlines. The CF6-powered 767-200 received certification in September 1982, followed by the first delivery to Delta Air Lines on October 25, 1982. === Entry into service === The 767 entered service with United Airlines on September 8, 1982. The aircraft's first commercial flight used a JT9D-powered 767-200 on the Chicago-to-Denver route. The CF6-powered 767-200 commenced service three months later with Delta Air Lines. Upon delivery, early 767s were mainly deployed on domestic routes, including US transcontinental services. American Airlines and TWA began flying the 767-200 in late 1982, while Air Canada, China Airlines, El Al, and Pacific Western began operating the aircraft in 1983. The aircraft's introduction was relatively smooth, with few operational glitches and greater dispatch reliability than prior jetliners. === Exemptions from major certification rule changes === Following the 1996 in-flight explosion of TWA Flight 800, the FAA introduced new rules about flammability reduction in 2008. In 2012, Boeing requested an exemption for the 767 from new wiring separation rules that would prevent ignition sources, because design improvements it introduced fell short of meeting such rules. One of the justification by Boeing: changes to the fuel quantity indication system would require a halt of delivery by three years as production of the 767 model was expected to end shortly. FAA gave the manufacturer three years to have a compliant system while deliveries continued. In 2014, Boeing, without a new design available, asked for and received another time-limited exemption for just the 767-300 and 767-300ER until 2019 when commercial production was expected to cease. But in 2017, with continual demand for the 767-300F, Boeing asked for another exemption up to the end of 2027, well past the revised production end date. It is noted that while Boeing requested extension of the original exemption from 2016 to 2019 based upon the cost of upgrading the design and their low production rate and ending production in 2019, Boeing developed the KC-46 tanker (based on the 767) which fully compliant with the new rulings and is assembled on the same production line as the 767. Since the 2019 exemption went into effect, Boeing has increased production of the freighter to satisfy demand. === Stretched derivatives === ==== First stretch: -300/-300ER/F ==== Forecasting airline interest in larger-capacity models, Boeing announced the stretched 767-300 in 1983 and the extended-range 767-300ER in 1984. Both models offered a 20 percent passenger capacity increase, while the extended-range version was capable of operating flights up to 5,990 nautical miles (11,090 km; 6,890 mi). Japan Airlines placed the first order for the -300 in September 1983. Following its first flight on January 30, 1986, the type entered service with Japan Airlines on October 20, 1986. The 767-300ER completed its first flight on December 9, 1986, but it was not until March 1987 that the first firm order, from American Airlines, was placed. The type entered service with American Airlines on March 3, 1988. The 767-300 and 767-300ER gained popularity after entering service, and came to account for approximately two-thirds of all 767s sold. Until the 777's 1995 debut, the 767-300 and 767-300ER remained Boeing's second-largest wide-bodies behind the 747. Buoyed by a recovering global economy and ETOPS approval, 767 sales accelerated in the mid-to-late 1980s; 1989 was the most prolific year with 132 firm orders. By the early 1990s, the wide-body twinjet had become its manufacturer's annual best-selling aircraft, despite a slight decrease due to economic recession. During this period, the 767 became the most common airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe. By the end of the decade, 767s crossed the Atlantic more frequently than all other aircraft types combined. The 767 also propelled the growth of point-to-point flights which bypassed major airline hubs in favor of direct routes. Taking advantage of the aircraft's lower operating costs and smaller capacity, operators added non-stop flights to secondary population centers, thereby eliminating the need for connecting flights. The increased number of cities receiving non-stop services caused a paradigm shift in the airline industry as point-to-point travel gained prominence at the expense of the traditional hub-and-spoke model. In February 1990, the first 767 equipped with Rolls-Royce RB211 turbofans, a 767-300, was delivered to British Airways. Six months later, the carrier temporarily grounded its entire 767 fleet after discovering cracks in the engine pylons of several aircraft. The cracks were related to the extra weight of the RB211 engines, which are 2,205 pounds (1,000 kg) heavier than other 767 engines. During the grounding, interim repairs were conducted to alleviate stress on engine pylon components, and a parts redesign in 1991 prevented further cracks. Boeing also performed a structural reassessment, resulting in production changes and modifications to the engine pylons of all 767s in service. In January 1993, following an order from UPS Airlines, Boeing launched a freighter variant, the 767-300F, which entered service with UPS on October 16, 1995. The 767-300F featured a main deck cargo hold, upgraded landing gear, and strengthened wing structure. In November 1993, the Japanese government launched the first 767 military derivative when it placed orders for the E-767, an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) variant based on the 767-200ER. The first two E-767s, featuring extensive modifications to accommodate surveillance radar and other monitoring equipment, were delivered in 1998 to the Japan Self-Defense Forces. ==== Second stretch:-400ER ==== In November 1995, after abandoning development of a smaller version of the 777, Boeing announced that it was revisiting studies for a larger 767. The proposed 767-400X, a second stretch of the aircraft, offered a 12 percent capacity increase versus the 767-300, and featured an upgraded flight deck, enhanced interior, and greater wingspan. The variant was specifically aimed at Delta Air Lines' pending replacement of its aging Lockheed L-1011 TriStars, and faced competition from the A330-200, a shortened derivative of the Airbus A330. In March 1997, Delta Air Lines launched the 767-400ER when it ordered the type to replace its L-1011 fleet. In October 1997, Continental Airlines also ordered the 767-400ER to replace its McDonnell Douglas DC-10 fleet. The type completed its first flight on October 9, 1999, and entered service with Continental Airlines on September 14, 2000. === Dreamliner introduction === In the early 2000s, cumulative 767 deliveries approached 900, but new sales declined during an airline industry downturn. In 2001, Boeing dropped plans for a longer-range model, the 767-400ERX, in favor of the proposed Sonic Cruiser, a new jetliner which aimed to fly 15 percent faster while having comparable fuel costs to the 767. The following year, Boeing announced the KC-767 Tanker Transport, a second military derivative of the 767-200ER. Launched with an order in October 2002 from the Italian Air Force, the KC-767 was intended for the dual role of refueling other aircraft and carrying cargo. The Japanese government became the second customer for the type in March 2003. In May 2003, the United States Air Force (USAF) announced its intent to lease KC-767s to replace its aging KC-135 tankers. The plan was suspended in March 2004 amid a conflict of interest scandal, resulting in multiple US government investigations and the departure of several Boeing officials, including Philip Condit, the company's chief executive officer, and chief financial officer Michael Sears. The first KC-767s were delivered in 2008 to the Japan Self-Defense Forces. In late 2002, after airlines expressed reservations about its emphasis on speed over cost reduction, Boeing halted development of the Sonic Cruiser. The following year, the manufacturer announced the 7E7, a mid-size 767 successor made from composite materials which promised to be 20 percent more fuel efficient. The new jetliner was the first stage of a replacement aircraft initiative called the Boeing Yellowstone Project. Customers embraced the 7E7, later renamed 787 Dreamliner, and within two years it had become the fastest-selling airliner in the company's history. In 2005, Boeing opted to continue 767 production despite record Dreamliner sales, citing a need to provide customers waiting for the 787 with a more readily available option. Subsequently, the 767-300ER was offered to customers affected by 787 delays, including All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines. Some aging 767s, exceeding 20 years in age, were also kept in service past planned retirement dates due to the delays. To extend the operational lives of older aircraft, airlines increased heavy maintenance procedures, including D-check teardowns and inspections for corrosion, a recurring issue on aging 767s. The first 787s entered service with All Nippon Airways in October 2011, 42 months behind schedule. === Continued production === In 2007, the 767 received a production boost when UPS and DHL Aviation placed a combined 33 orders for the 767-300F. Renewed freighter interest led Boeing to consider enhanced versions of the 767-200 and 767-300F with increased gross weights, 767-400ER wing extensions, and 777 avionics. Net orders for the 767 declined from 24 in 2008 to just three in 2010. During the same period, operators upgraded aircraft already in service; in 2008, the first 767-300ER retrofitted with blended winglets from Aviation Partners Incorporated debuted with American Airlines. The manufacturer-sanctioned winglets, at 11 feet (3.35 m) in height, improved fuel efficiency by an estimated 6.5 percent. Other carriers including All Nippon Airways and Delta Air Lines also ordered winglet kits. On February 2, 2011, the 1,000th 767 rolled out, destined for All Nippon Airways. The aircraft was the 91st 767-300ER ordered by the Japanese carrier, and with its completion the 767 became the second wide-body airliner to reach the thousand-unit milestone after the 747. The 1,000th aircraft also marked the last model produced on the original 767 assembly line. Beginning with the 1,001st aircraft, production moved to another area in the Everett factory which occupied about half of the previous floor space. The new assembly line made room for 787 production and aimed to boost manufacturing efficiency by over twenty percent. At the inauguration of its new assembly line, the 767's order backlog numbered approximately 50, only enough for production to last until 2013. Despite the reduced backlog, Boeing officials expressed optimism that additional orders would be forthcoming. On February 24, 2011, the USAF announced its selection of the KC-767 Advanced Tanker, an upgraded variant of the KC-767, for its KC-X fleet renewal program. The selection followed two rounds of tanker competition between Boeing and Airbus parent EADS, and came eight years after the USAF's original 2003 announcement of its plan to lease KC-767s. The tanker order encompassed 179 aircraft and was expected to sustain 767 production past 2013. In December 2011, FedEx Express announced a 767-300F order for 27 aircraft to replace its DC-10 freighters, citing the USAF tanker order and Boeing's decision to continue production as contributing factors. FedEx Express agreed to buy 19 more of the −300F variant in June 2012. In June 2015, FedEx said it was accelerating retirements of planes both to reflect demand and to modernize its fleet, recording charges of $276 million (~$347 million in 2023). On July 21, 2015, FedEx announced an order for 50 767-300F with options on another 50, the largest order for the type. With the announcement FedEx confirmed that it has firm orders for 106 of the freighters for delivery between 2018 and 2023. In February 2018, UPS announced an order for 4 more 767-300Fs to increase the total on order to 63. With its successor, the Boeing New Midsize Airplane, that was planned for introduction in 2025 or later, and the 787 being much larger, Boeing could restart a passenger 767-300ER production to bridge the gap. A demand for 50 to 60 aircraft could have to be satisfied. Having to replace its 40 767s, United Airlines requested a price quote for other widebodies. In November 2017, Boeing CEO Dennis Muilenburg cited interest beyond military and freighter uses. However, in early 2018 Boeing Commercial Airplanes VP of marketing Randy Tinseth stated that the company did not intend to resume production of the passenger variant. In its first quarter of 2018 earnings report, Boeing plans to increase its production from 2.5 to 3 monthly beginning in January 2020 due to increased demand in the cargo market, as FedEx had 56 on order, UPS has four, and an unidentified customer has three on order. This rate could rise to 3.5 per month in July 2020 and 4 per month in January 2021, before decreasing to 3 per month in January 2025 and then 2 per month in July 2025. In 2019, unit cost was US$217.9 million for a -300ER, and US$220.3 million for a -300F. Production of the 767 was expected to cease by the end of 2027 due to more stringent emissions and noise limits that will go into effect in 2028. However, as of May 2024, the US Congress is considering giving Boeing a waiver to continue to produce the 767 freighter for an additional five years. If granted, these aircraft would be restricted to domestic use within the US only. Boeing is widely expected to begin production of 787 Freighter during that extension period. === Continued development === ==== 767-X (partial double-deck) ==== After the debut of the first stretched 767s, Boeing sought to address airline requests for greater capacity by proposing larger models, including a partial double-deck version informally named the "Hunchback of Mukilteo" (from a town near Boeing's Everett factory) with a 757 body section mounted over the aft main fuselage. In 1986, Boeing proposed the 767-X, a revised model with extended wings and a wider cabin, but received little interest. The 767-X did not get enough interest from airlines to launch and the model was shelved in 1988 in favor of the Boeing 777. ==== 767-400ERX ==== In March 2000, Boeing was to launch the 259-seat 767-400ERX with an initial order for three from Kenya Airways with deliveries planned for 2004, as it was proposed to Lauda Air. Increased gross weight and a tailplane fuel tank would have boosted its range by 5,990 to 6,490 nautical miles (11,100 to 12,025 km), and GE could offer its 65,000–68,000 lbf (290–300 kN) CF6-80C2/G2. Rolls-Royce offered its 68,000–72,000 lbf (300–320 kN) Trent 600 for the 767-400ERX and the Boeing 747X. Offered in July, the longer-range -400ERX would have a strengthened wing, fuselage and landing gear for a 15,000 lb (6.8 t) higher MTOW, up to 465,000 lb (210.92 t). Thrust would rise to 72,000 lbf (320 kN) for better takeoff performance, with the Trent 600 or the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7172, also offered on the 747X. Range would increase by 525 nmi (604 mi; 972 km) to 6,150 nmi (7,080 mi; 11,390 km), with an additional fuel tank of 2,145 US gal (8,120 L) in the horizontal tail. The 767-400ERX would offer the capacity of the Airbus A330-200 with 3% lower fuel burn and costs. Boeing cancelled the variant development in 2001. Kenya Airways then switched its order to the 777-200ER. ==== 767-XF (re-engine) ==== In October 2019, Boeing was reportedly studying a re-engined 767-XF for entry into service around 2025, based on the 767-400ER with an extended landing gear to accommodate larger General Electric GEnx turbofan engines. The cargo market is the main target, but a passenger version could be a cheaper alternative to the proposed New Midsize Airplane. == Design == === Overview === The 767 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a conventional tail unit featuring a single fin and rudder. The wings are swept at 31.5 degrees and optimized for a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 (533 mph or 858 km/h). Each wing features a supercritical airfoil cross-section and is equipped with six-panel leading edge slats, single- and double-slotted flaps, inboard and outboard ailerons, and six spoilers. The airframe further incorporates Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite material wing surfaces, Kevlar fairings and access panels, plus improved aluminum alloys, which together reduce overall weight by 1,900 pounds (860 kg) versus preceding aircraft. To distribute the aircraft's weight on the ground, the 767 has a retractable tricycle landing gear with four wheels on each main gear and two for the nose gear. The original wing and gear design accommodated the stretched 767-300 without major changes. The 767-400ER features a larger, more widely spaced main gear with 777 wheels, tires, and brakes. To prevent damage if the tail section contacts the runway surface during takeoff, 767-300 and 767-400ER models are fitted with a retractable tailskid. All passenger Boeing 767 models have full-sized doors at the front and rear of the aircraft. Most -200 and -200ER models feature a single overwing exit, though an optional second overwing exit increases maximum capacity from 255 to 290. The 767-300 and 767-300ER typically have either two overwing exits or an additional full-sized mid-cabin door along with a single overwing exit. A higher-capacity configuration includes the full-sized mid-cabin door a smaller exit door aft the wing, raising the maximum capacity from 290 to 351. The 767-400ER is configured with the full-sized mid-cabin door a smaller exit door aft the wing. The 767-300F cargo model has a single exit door on the forward left side of the aircraft. In addition to shared avionics and computer technology, the 767 uses the same auxiliary power unit, electric power systems, and hydraulic parts as the 757. A raised cockpit floor and the same forward cockpit windows result in similar pilot viewing angles. Related design and functionality allows 767 pilots to obtain a common type rating to operate the 757 and share the same seniority roster with pilots of either aircraft. === Flight systems === The original Boeing 767 flight deck features a two-crew glass cockpit, the first of its kind on a Boeing airliner, developed jointly with the narrow-body 757. This design allows for a common pilot type rating between the two aircraft. The cockpit includes six Rockwell Collins CRT screens that display electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) and engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) information, eliminating the need for a flight engineer by enabling pilots to manage monitoring tasks. These CRT screens replace the traditional electromechanical instruments used in earlier aircraft. The aircraft's enhanced flight management system, an improvement over early Boeing 747 versions, automates navigation and other functions. Additionally, an automatic landing system supports CAT IIIb instrument landings in low-visibility conditions. In 1984, the 767 became the first aircraft to receive FAA certification for CAT IIIb landings, permitting operations with a minimum visibility of 980 feet (300 m). The 767-400ER further simplifies the cockpit layout with six Rockwell Collins LCD screens, designed for operational similarity with the 777 and 737NG. To maintain commonality, these LCD screens can be configured to present information in the same format as earlier 767 models. In 2012, Rockwell Collins introduced a 787-inspired cockpit upgrade for the 767, featuring three landscape-format LCD screens capable of displaying two windows each. === Interior === The 767 features a twin-aisle cabin with a typical configuration of six abreast in business class and seven across in economy. The standard seven abreast, 2–3–2 economy class layout places approximately 87 percent of all seats at a window or aisle. As a result, the aircraft can be largely occupied before center seats need to be filled, and each passenger is no more than one seat from the aisle. It is possible to configure the aircraft with extra seats for up to an eight abreast configuration, but this is less common. The 767 interior introduced larger overhead bins and more lavatories per passenger than previous aircraft. The bins are wider to accommodate garment bags without folding, and strengthened for heavier carry-on items. A single, large galley is installed near the aft doors, allowing for more efficient meal service and simpler ground resupply. Passenger and service doors are an overhead plug type, which retract upwards, and commonly used doors can be equipped with an electric-assist system. In 2000, a 777-style interior, known as the Boeing Signature Interior, debuted on the 767-400ER. Subsequently, adopted for all new-build 767s, the Signature Interior features even larger overhead bins, indirect lighting, and sculpted, curved panels. The 767-400ER also received larger windows derived from the 777. Older 767s can be retrofitted with the Signature Interior. Some operators have adopted a simpler modification known as the Enhanced Interior, featuring curved ceiling panels and indirect lighting with minimal modification of cabin architecture, as well as aftermarket modifications such as the NuLook 767 package by Heath Tecna. == Operational history == In its first year, the 767 logged a 96.1 percent dispatch rate, which exceeded the industry average for all-new aircraft. Operators reported generally favorable ratings for the twinjet's sound levels, interior comfort, and economic performance. Resolved issues were minor and included the recalibration of a leading edge sensor to prevent false readings, the replacement of an evacuation slide latch, and the repair of a tailplane pivot to match production specifications. Seeking to capitalize on its new wide-body's potential for growth, Boeing offered an extended-range model, the 767-200ER, in its first year of service. Ethiopian Airlines placed the first order for the type in December 1982. Featuring increased gross weight and greater fuel capacity, the extended-range model could carry heavier payloads at distances up to 6,385 nautical miles (11,825 km; 7,348 mi), and was targeted at overseas customers. The 767-200ER entered service with El Al Airline on March 27, 1984. The type was mainly ordered by international airlines operating medium-traffic, long-distance flights. In May 1984, an Ethiopian Airlines 767-200ER set a non-stop record for a commercial twinjet of 12,082 km (6,524 nmi; 7,507 mi) from Washington, D.C. to Addis Ababa. In the mid-1980s, the 767 and its European rivals, the Airbus A300 and A310, spearheaded the growth of twinjet flights across the northern Atlantic under extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations, the FAA's safety rules governing transoceanic flights by aircraft with two engines. In 1976, the A300 was the first twinjet to secure permission to fly 90 minutes away from diversion airports, up from 60 minutes. In May 1985, the FAA granted its first approval for 120-minute ETOPS flights to the 767, on an individual airline basis starting with TWA, provided that the operator met flight safety criteria. This allowed the aircraft to fly overseas routes at up to two hours' distance from land. The 767 burned 7,000 lb (3.2 t) less fuel per hour than a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on the route between Boston and Paris, a huge savings. The Airbus A310 secured approval for 120-minute ETOPS flights one month later in June. The larger safety margins were permitted because of the improved reliability demonstrated by twinjets and their turbofan engines. The FAA lengthened the ETOPS time to 180 minutes for CF6-powered 767s in 1989, making the type the first to be certified under the longer duration, and all available engines received approval by 1993. Regulatory approval spurred the expansion of transoceanic flights with twinjet aircraft and boosted the sales of both the 767 and its rivals. == Variants == The 767 has been produced in three fuselage lengths. These debuted in progressively larger form as the 767-200, 767-300, and 767-400ER. Longer-range variants include the 767-200ER and 767-300ER, while cargo models include the 767-300F, a production freighter, and conversions of passenger 767-200 and 767-300 models. When referring to different variants, Boeing and airlines often collapse the model number (767) and the variant designator, e.g. –200 or –300, into a truncated form, e.g. "762" or "763". Subsequent to the capacity number, designations may append the range identifier, though -200ER and -300ER are company marketing designations and not certificated as such. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aircraft type designator system uses a similar numbering scheme, but adds a preceding manufacturer letter; all variants based on the 767-200 and 767-300 are classified under the codes "B762" and "B763"; the 767-400ER receives the designation of "B764". === 767-200 === The 767-200 was the original model and entered service with United Airlines in 1982. The type has been used primarily by mainline U.S. carriers for domestic routes between major hub centers such as Los Angeles to Washington. The 767-200 was the first aircraft to be used on transatlantic ETOPS flights, beginning with TWA on February 1, 1985, under 90-minute diversion rules. Deliveries for the variant totaled 128 aircraft. There were 52 examples of the model in commercial service as of July 2018, almost entirely as freighter conversions. The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310. The 767-200 was produced until 1987 when production switched to the extended-range 767-200ER. Some early 767-200s were subsequently upgraded to extended-range specification. In 1998, Boeing began offering 767-200 conversions to 767-200SF (Special Freighter) specification for cargo use, and Israel Aerospace Industries has been licensed to perform cargo conversions since 2005. The conversion process entails the installation of a side cargo door, strengthened main deck floor, and added freight monitoring and safety equipment. The 767-200SF was positioned as a replacement for Douglas DC-8 freighters. === 767-2C === A commercial freighter version of the Boeing 767-200 with wings from the -300 series and an updated flightdeck was first flown on December 29, 2014. A military tanker variant of the Boeing 767-2C is developed for the USAF as the KC-46. Boeing is building two aircraft as commercial freighters which will be used to obtain Federal Aviation Administration certification, a further two Boeing 767-2Cs will be modified as military tankers. As of 2014, Boeing does not have customers for the freighter. === 767-200ER === The 767-200ER was the first extended-range model and entered service with El Al in 1984. The type's increased range is due to extra fuel capacity and higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of up to 395,000 lb (179,000 kg). The additional fuel capacity is accomplished by using the center tank's dry dock to carry fuel. The non-ER variant's center tank is what is called cheek tanks; two interconnected halves in each wing root with a dry dock in between. The center tank is also used on the -300ER and -400ER variants.: 35 This version was originally offered with the same engines as the 767-200, while more powerful Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and General Electric CF6 engines later became available. The 767-200ER was the first 767 to complete a non-stop transatlantic journey, and broke the flying distance record for a twinjet airliner on April 17, 1988, with an Air Mauritius flight from Halifax, Nova Scotia to Port Louis, Mauritius, covering 8,727 nmi (16,200 km; 10,000 mi). The 767-200ER has been acquired by international operators seeking smaller wide-body aircraft for long-haul routes such as New York to Beijing. Deliveries of the type totaled 121 with no unfilled orders. As of July 2018, 21 examples of passenger and freighter conversion versions were in airline service. The type's main competitors of the time included the Airbus A300-600R and the A310-300. === 767-300 === The 767-300, the first stretched version of the aircraft, entered service with Japan Airlines in 1986. The type features a 21.1-foot (6.43 m) fuselage extension over the 767-200, achieved by additional sections inserted before and after the wings, for an overall length of 180.25 ft (54.9 m). Reflecting the growth potential built into the original 767 design, the wings, engines, and most systems were largely unchanged on the 767-300. An optional mid-cabin exit door is positioned ahead of the wings on the left, while more powerful Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines later became available. The 767-300's increased capacity has been used on high-density routes within Asia and Europe. The 767-300 was produced from 1986 until 2000. Deliveries for the type totaled 104 aircraft with no unfilled orders remaining. The type's main competitor was the Airbus A300. === 767-300ER === The 767-300ER, the extended-range version of the 767-300, entered service with American Airlines in 1988. The type's increased range was made possible by greater fuel tankage and a higher MTOW of 407,000 lb (185,000 kg). Design improvements allowed the available MTOW to increase to 412,000 lb (187,000 kg) by 1993. Power is provided by Pratt & Whitney PW4000, General Electric CF6, or Rolls-Royce RB211 engines. The 767-300ER comes in three exit configurations: the baseline configuration has four main cabin doors and four over-wing window exits, the second configuration has six main cabin doors and two over-wing window exits; and the third configuration has six main cabin doors, as well as two smaller doors that are located behind the wings. Typical routes for the type include New York to Frankfurt. The combination of increased capacity and range for the -300ER has been particularly attractive to both new and existing 767 operators. It is the most successful 767 version, with more orders placed than all other variants combined. As of November 2017, 767-300ER deliveries stand at 583 with no unfilled orders. There were 376 examples in service as of July 2018. The type's main competitor is the Airbus A330-200. At its 1990s peak, a new 767-300ER was valued at $85 million, dipping to around $12 million in 2018 for a 1996 build. === 767-300F === The 767-300F, the production freighter version of the 767-300ER, entered service with UPS Airlines in 1995. The 767-300F can hold up to 24 standard 88-by-125-inch (220 by 320 cm) pallets on its main deck and up to 30 LD2 unit load devices on the lower deck, with a total cargo volume of 15,469 cubic feet (438 m3). The freighter has a main deck cargo door and crew exit, while the lower deck features two starboard-side cargo doors and one port-side cargo door. A general market version with onboard freight-handling systems, refrigeration capability, and crew facilities was delivered to Asiana Airlines on August 23, 1996. As of August 2019, 767-300F deliveries stand at 161 with 61 unfilled orders. Airlines operated 222 examples of the freighter variant and freighter conversions in July 2018. ==== Converted freighters ==== In June 2008, All Nippon Airways took delivery of the first 767-300BCF (Boeing Converted Freighter), a modified passenger-to-freighter model. The conversion work was performed in Singapore by ST Aerospace Services, the first supplier to offer a 767-300BCF program, and involved the addition of a main deck cargo door, strengthened main deck floor, and additional freight monitoring and safety equipment. Israel Aerospace Industries offers a passenger-to-freighter conversion program called the 767-300BDSF (BEDEK Special Freighter). Wagner Aeronautical also offers a passenger-to-freighter conversion program for 767-300 series aircraft. === 767-400ER === The 767-400ER, the first Boeing wide-body jet resulting from two fuselage stretches, entered service with Continental Airlines in 2000. The type features a 21.1-foot (6.43-metre) stretch over the 767-300, for a total length of 205.11 feet (62.5 m). The wingspan is also increased by 14.3 feet (4.36 m) through the addition of raked wingtips. The exit configuration uses six main cabin doors and two smaller exit doors behind the wings, similar to certain 767-300ERs. Other differences include an updated cockpit, redesigned landing gear, and 777-style Signature Interior. Power is provided by uprated General Electric CF6 engines. The FAA granted approval for the 767-400ER to operate 180-minute ETOPS flights before it entered service. Because its fuel capacity was not increased over preceding models, the 767-400ER has a range of 5,625 nautical miles (10,418 km; 6,473 mi), less than previous extended-range 767s. No 767-400 (non-extended range) version was developed. The longer-range 767-400ERX was offered in July 2000 before being cancelled a year later, leaving the 767-400ER as the sole version of the largest 767. Boeing dropped the 767-400ER and the -200ER from its pricing list in 2014. A total of 37 767-400ERs were delivered to the variant's two airline customers, Continental Airlines (now merged with United Airlines as of 2010) and Delta Air Lines, with no unfilled orders. All 37 examples of the -400ER were in service in July 2018. One additional example was produced as a military testbed for cancelled E-10, and later sold to Bahrain as a VIP transport. The type's closest competitor is the Airbus A330-200. === Military and government === Versions of the 767 serve in a number of military and government applications, with responsibilities ranging from airborne surveillance and refueling to cargo and VIP transport. Several military 767s have been derived from the 767-200ER, the longest-range version of the aircraft. Airborne Surveillance Testbed – the Airborne Optical Adjunct (AOA) was modified from the prototype 767-200 for a United States Army program, under a contract signed with the Strategic Air Command in July 1984. Intended to evaluate the feasibility of using airborne optical sensors to detect and track hostile intercontinental ballistic missiles, the modified aircraft first flew on August 21, 1987. Alterations included a large "cupola" or hump on the top of the aircraft from above the cockpit to just behind the trailing edge of the wings, and a pair of ventral fins below the rear fuselage. Inside the cupola was a suite of infrared seekers used for tracking theater ballistic missile launches. The aircraft was later renamed as the Airborne Surveillance Testbed (AST). Following the end of the AST program in 2002, the aircraft was retired for scrapping. E-767 – the Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) platform for the Japan Self-Defense Forces; it is essentially the Boeing E-3 Sentry mission package on a 767-200ER platform. E-767 modifications, completed on 767-200ERs flown from the Everett factory to Boeing Integrated Defense Systems in Wichita, Kansas, include strengthening to accommodate a dorsal surveillance radar system, engine nacelle alterations, as well as electrical and interior changes. Japan operates four E-767s. The first E-767s were delivered in March 1998. KC-767 Tanker Transport – the 767-200ER-based aerial refueling platform operated by the Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare), and the Japan Self-Defense Forces. Modifications conducted by Boeing Integrated Defense Systems include the addition of a fly-by-wire refueling boom, strengthened flaps, and optional auxiliary fuel tanks, as well as structural reinforcement and modified avionics. The four KC-767Js ordered by Japan have been delivered. The Aeronautica Militare received the first of its four KC-767As in January 2011. KC-767 Advanced Tanker – the 767-200ER-based aerial tanker developed for the USAF KC-X tanker competition. It is an updated version of the KC-767, originally selected as the USAF's new tanker aircraft in 2003, designated KC-767A, and then dropped amid conflict of interest allegations. The KC-767 Advanced Tanker is derived from studies for a longer-range cargo version of the 767-200ER, and features a fly-by-wire refueling boom, a remote vision refueling system, and a 767-400ER-based flight deck with LCD screens and head-up displays. KC-46 Pegasus – a 767-based tanker, not derived from the KC-767, awarded as part of the KC-X contract for the USAF. Tanker conversions – the 767 MMTT or Multi-Mission Tanker Transport is a 767-200ER-based aircraft operated by the Colombian Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Colombiana) and modified by Israel Aerospace Industries. In 2013, the Brazilian Air Force ordered two 767-300ER tanker conversions from IAI for its KC-X2 program. E-10 MC2A – the Northrop Grumman E-10 was to be a 767-400ER-based replacement for the USAF's 707-based E-3 Sentry AWACS, Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS, and RC-135 SIGINT aircraft. The E-10 would have included an all-new AWACS system, with a powerful active electronically scanned array (AESA) that was also capable of jamming enemy aircraft or missiles. One 767-400ER aircraft was built as a testbed for systems integration, but the program was terminated in January 2009 and the prototype was later sold to Bahrain as a VIP transport. == Operators == In July 2018, 742 aircraft were in airline service: 73 -200s, 632 -300, and 37 -400ER with 65 -300F on order; the largest operators are Delta Air Lines (77), FedEx (60; largest cargo operator), UPS Airlines (59), United Airlines (51), Japan Airlines (35), All Nippon Airways (34). The largest 767 customers by orders placed are FedEx Express (150), Delta Air Lines (117), All Nippon Airways (96), American Airlines (88), and United Airlines (82). Delta and United are the only customers of all -200, -300, and -400ER passenger variants. In July 2015, FedEx placed a firm order for 50 Boeing 767 freighters with deliveries from 2018 to 2023. The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310. === Orders and deliveries === Boeing 767 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year): Orders Deliveries — as of April 2025 === Model summary === Data as of April 2025. == Accidents and incidents == As of February 2025, the Boeing 767 has been in 67 aviation occurrences, including 19 hull-loss accidents. Eleven fatal crashes, including seven hijackings, have resulted in a total of 854 occupant fatalities. === Accidents === The airliner's first fatal crash, Lauda Air Flight 004, occurred near Bangkok on May 26, 1991, following the in-flight deployment of the left engine thrust reverser on a 767-300ER. None of the 223 aboard survived. As a result of this accident, all 767 thrust reversers were deactivated until a redesign was implemented. Investigators determined that an electronically controlled valve, common to late-model Boeing aircraft, was to blame. A new locking device was installed on all affected jetliners, including 767s. On October 31, 1999, EgyptAir Flight 990, a 767-300ER, crashed off Nantucket, Massachusetts, in international waters killing all 217 people on board. The United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded "not determined", but determined the probable cause to be a deliberate action by the first officer; the Egyptian government disputed this conclusion. On April 15, 2002, Air China Flight 129, a 767-200ER, crashed into a hill amid inclement weather while trying to land at Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea. The crash resulted in the death of 129 of the 166 people on board, and the cause was attributed to pilot error. This was the deadliest plane crash in South Korea at the time. On February 23, 2019, Atlas Air Flight 3591, a Boeing 767-300ERF air freighter operating for Amazon Air, crashed into Trinity Bay near Houston, Texas, while on descent into George Bush Intercontinental Airport; both pilots and the single passenger were killed. The cause was attributed to pilot error and spatial disorientation. Hull losses On November 1, 2011, LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16, a 767-300ER, safely landed at Warsaw Chopin Airport in Warsaw, Poland, after a mechanical failure of the landing gear forced an emergency landing with the landing gear retracted. There were no injuries, but the aircraft involved was damaged and written off. At the time aviation analysts speculated that it may have been the first instance of a complete landing gear failure in the 767's service history. Subsequent investigation determined that while a damaged hose had disabled the aircraft's primary landing gear extension system, an otherwise functional backup system was inoperative due to an accidentally deactivated circuit breaker. On October 29, 2015, Dynamic Airways Flight 405, a 767-200ER, caught fire while taxiing to the runway at Hollywood International Airport. There were no fatalities, but 22 people were injured, 1 of them seriously. The aircraft was written off. On October 28, 2016, American Airlines Flight 383, a 767-300ER with 161 passengers and 9 crew members, aborted takeoff at Chicago O'Hare Airport following an uncontained failure of the right GE CF6-80C2 engine. The engine failure, which hurled fragments over a considerable distance, caused a fuel leak, resulting in a fire under the right wing. Fire and smoke entered the cabin. All passengers and crew evacuated the aircraft, with 20 passengers and one flight attendant sustaining minor injuries using the evacuation slides. Hijackings The 767 has been involved in six hijackings, three resulting in loss of life, for a combined total of 282 occupant fatalities. On November 23, 1996, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961, a 767-200ER, was hijacked and crash-landed in the Indian Ocean near the Comoro Islands after running out of fuel, killing 125 out of the 175 persons on board; this was a rare example of occupants surviving a land-based aircraft ditching on water. Two 767s were involved in the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001, resulting in the collapse of its two main towers. American Airlines Flight 11, a 767-200ER, crashed into the North Tower, killing all 92 people on board, and United Airlines Flight 175, a 767-200, crashed into the South Tower, with the death of all 65 on board. In addition, more than 2,600 people were killed in the towers or on the ground. A failed shoe bomb attempt in December 2001 involved an American Airlines 767-300ER. === Incidents === The 767's first incident was Air Canada Flight 143, a 767-200, on July 23, 1983. The airplane ran out of fuel at an altitude of about 41,000 feet. Eventually, the pilots had to glide with both engines out for almost 43 nautical miles (80 km; 49 mi) to an emergency landing at Gimli, Manitoba, Canada. The pilots used the aircraft's ram air turbine to power the hydraulic systems for aerodynamic control. There were no fatalities and only minor injuries. This aircraft was nicknamed "Gimli Glider" after its landing site. The aircraft, registered as C-GAUN, continued flying for Air Canada until its retirement in January 2008. In January 2014, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration issued a directive that ordered inspections of the elevators on more than 400 767s beginning in March 2014; the focus was on fasteners and other parts that can fail and cause the elevators to jam. The issue was first identified in 2000 and has been the subject of several Boeing service bulletins. The inspections and repairs are required to be completed within six years. The aircraft has also had multiple occurrences of "uncommanded escape slide inflation" during maintenance or operations, and during flight. In late 2015, the FAA issued a preliminary directive to address the issue. == Aircraft on display == As new 767 variants roll off the assembly line, older series models have been retired and converted to cargo use, stored, or scrapped. One complete aircraft, N102DA, is the first 767-200 to operate for Delta Air Lines and the twelfth example built. It was retired from airline service in February 2006 after being repainted back to its original 1982 Delta widget livery and given a farewell tour. It was then put on display at the Delta Flight Museum in the Delta corporate campus at the edge of Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport. "The Spirit of Delta" is on public display as of 2022. In 2013 a Brazilian entrepreneur purchased a 767-200 that had operated for the now-defunct carrier Transbrasil under the registration PT-TAC. The aircraft, which was sold at a bankruptcy auction, was placed on outdoor display in Taguatinga as part of a proposed commercial development. As of 2019, however, the development has not come to fruition. The aircraft is devoid of engines or landing gear and has deteriorated due to weather exposure and acts of vandalism but remains publicly accessible to view. == Specifications == Below is an organized chart composed of the variants of the 767 and their specifications. == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Boeing 757 Boeing E-767 Boeing KC-46 Pegasus Boeing KC-767 Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A300 Airbus A310 Related lists List of jet airliners List of civil aircraft == Notes == == References == == Sources == == External links == Media related to Boeing 767 at Wikimedia Commons Official website "Introducing the 767-400ER". Aero Magazine. Boeing. July 1998. "Strategic stretch". Flight International. August 25, 1999. "767-300BCF converted freighter" (PDF). Boeing. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2016.
Boeing-Boeing (play)	Boeing-Boeing is a farce written by the French playwright Marc Camoletti. The English-language adaptation, translated by Beverley Cross, was first staged in London at the Apollo Theatre in 1962 and transferred to the Duchess Theatre in 1965, running for seven years. In 1991, the play was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the most performed French play throughout the world. == Synopsis == The play is set in the 1960s, and centres on bachelor Bernard, who has a flat in Paris and three airline stewardesses all engaged to him without knowing about each other. Bernard's life gets bumpy, though, when his friend Robert comes to stay, and complications such as weather and a new, speedier Boeing jet disrupt his careful planning. Soon, all three stewardesses are in the city simultaneously and catastrophe looms. == Characters == Bernard: a Parisian architect and lothario (turned into an American who resides in Paris in the most recent Broadway production) Berthe: Bernard's French housekeeper Robert: Bernard's old school chum (from Wisconsin) Jaqueline (or Gabriella): the French fiancée (or the Italian fiancée) and air hostess Janet (or Gloria): the American fiancée and air hostess Judith (or Gretchen): the German fiancée and air hostess == Productions == The English version of the play was first staged in London's West End at the Apollo Theatre in 1962 with David Tomlinson in the lead role and then transferred to the Duchess Theatre in 1965, running for seven years. After a year in the play, Tomlinson was replaced by Leslie Phillips, who played in it for two years. He was then replaced by Nicholas Parsons, who played in it for 15 months. The play was produced on Broadway at the Cort Theatre from February 2, 1965, closing on February 20, 1965, after 23 performances. Directed by Jack Minster, the cast included Ian Carmichael, Susan Carr, Diana Millay, and Gerald Harper. The play was also on in Blackpool at the South Pier during 1967, and featured Vicki Woolf, Dandy Nichols, Hugh Lloyd, Ann Sidney, and Christina Taylor. In 1978, the play was produced in Kansas City, featuring Jerry Mathers and Tony Dow of Leave It to Beaver. The play was adapted by W!LD RICE production in Singapore in 2002. It was directed by Glen Goei; Glen and the company revisited, modernized, and relocated this comedy to Asia and the present day, whilst keeping faithful to the text and the spirit of the play. The three air hostesses's nationalities were changed to Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. The show starred Lim Yu-Beng, Pam Oei, Emma Yong, Chermaine Ang, Sean Yeo, and Mae Paner-Rosa. Boeing-Boeing was revived in London in February 2007 at the Comedy Theatre in a production directed by Matthew Warchus. Once again, the play proved to be a hit with critics and audiences alike. The original cast of the production featured Roger Allam as Bernard, Frances de la Tour as Bertha, Mark Rylance as Robert, and Tamzin Outhwaite, Daisy Beaumont, and Michelle Gomez as Bernard's three fiancées, Gloria, Gabriella, and Gretchen. This production received two Olivier Award nominations, for Best Revival and Best Actor (Mark Rylance), but won neither. Elena Roger later took on the role of Gabriella. Warchus also directed the 2008 Broadway revival, which started previews on April 19, 2008, and opened on May 4 at the Longacre Theatre to good reviews. The cast featured Christine Baranski as Berthe, Mark Rylance, reprising his role as Robert, Bradley Whitford as Bernard, Gina Gershon as Gabriella, Mary McCormack as Gretchen, and Kathryn Hahn as Gloria. The curtain call of this revival was choreographed by Kathleen Marshall with original music by Claire van Kampen. The production closed on January 4, 2009, after 279 performances and 17 previews. A 45-week North American tour began in fall 2009. The production won the Best Revival of a Play and Rylance won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actor. The production was nominated for several other Tony Awards including: Best Featured Actress (Mary McCormack), Best Director (Matthew Warchus), Best Costume Design (Rob Howell) and Best Sound Design (Simon Baker). The production won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play, and Mark Rylance won for lead actor in a play. === 2007 West End revival === === 2008 Broadway === == Adaptations == Boeing Boeing (1965 film), American film adapted by Edward Anhalt with John Rich directing, stars Jerry Lewis, Tony Curtis and Thelma Ritter, released by Paramount Pictures Moutarada Gharamia, 1968 Egyptian film starring Fouad el-Mohandes, Shwikar and Abdel Moneim Madbouly. Boeing Boeing (1985 film), Malayalam film adaptation by Priyadarshan starring Mohanlal, Mukesh, and M. G. Soman Chilakkottudu, Telugu film adaption by E. V. V. Satyanarayana starring Jagapathi Babu and Rajendra Prasad Garam Masala (2005 film), Hindi film adaptation by Priyadarshan starring Akshay Kumar, John Abraham, and Paresh Rawal Nee Tata Naa Birla, Kannada film adaptation. == References == == Further reading == Camoletti, Marc; Mithois, Marcel (1961). Boeing-boeing. Avant-scène no. 240 (in French). Paris: L'Avant-scène. pp. 46 pp. OCLC 56696680. == External links == Boeing-Boeing at the Internet Broadway Database
Boeing 727	The Boeing 727 is an American narrow-body airliner that was developed and produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. After the heavier 707 quad-jet was introduced in 1958, Boeing addressed the demand for shorter flight lengths from smaller airports. On December 5, 1960, the 727 was launched with 40 orders each from United Airlines and Eastern Air Lines. The first 727-100 rolled out on November 27, 1962, first flew on February 9, 1963, and entered service with Eastern on February 1, 1964. The only trijet aircraft to be produced by Boeing, the 727 is powered by three Pratt & Whitney JT8D low-bypass turbofans below a T-tail, one on each side of the rear fuselage and a center one fed through an S-duct below the tail. It shares its six-abreast upper fuselage cross-section and cockpit with the 707 that was also later used on the 737. The 133-foot-long (41 m) 727-100 typically carries 106 passengers in two classes over 2,250 nautical miles [nmi] (4,170 km; 2,590 mi), or 129 in a single class. Launched in 1965, the stretched 727-200 flew in July 1967 and entered service with Northeast Airlines that December. The 20 ft (6.1 m) longer variant typically carries 134 passengers in two classes over 2,550 nmi (4,720 km; 2,930 mi), or 155 in a single class. A freighter and a "Quick Change" convertible version were also offered. The 727 was used for domestic flights and on international flights within its range. Airport noise regulations have led to hush kit installations. Its last commercial passenger flight was in January 2019. It was succeeded by the 757 and larger variants of the 737. There have been 353 incidents involving the Boeing 727. Production ended in September 1984 with 1,832 having been built. The 727 was an industry workhorse for many years, often fondly referred to as "the DC-3 of the Jet Age." == Development == The Boeing 727 design was a compromise among United Airlines, American Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines; each of the three had developed requirements for a jet airliner to serve smaller cities with shorter runways and fewer passengers. United Airlines requested a four-engine aircraft for its flights to high-altitude airports, especially its hub at Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado. American Airlines, which was operating the four-engined Boeing 707 and Boeing 720, requested a twin-engined aircraft for efficiency. Eastern Airlines wanted a third engine for its overwater flights to the Caribbean, since at that time twin-engine commercial flights were limited by regulations to routes with 60-minute maximum flying time to an airport (see ETOPS). Eventually, the three airlines agreed on a trijet design for the new aircraft. In 1959, Lord Douglas, chairman of British European Airways (BEA), suggested that Boeing and de Havilland Aircraft Company (later Hawker Siddeley) work together on their trijet designs, the 727 and D.H.121 Trident, respectively. The two designs had a similar layout, the 727 being slightly larger. At that time Boeing intended to use three Allison AR963 turbofan engines, license-built versions of the Rolls-Royce RB163 Spey used by the Trident. Boeing and de Havilland each sent engineers to the other company's locations to evaluate each other's designs, but Boeing eventually decided against the joint venture. De Havilland had wanted Boeing to license-build the D.H.121, while Boeing felt that the aircraft needed to be designed for the American market, with six-abreast seating and the ability to use runways as short as 4,500 feet (1,400 m). In 1960, Pratt & Whitney was looking for a customer for its new JT8D turbofan design study, based on its J52 (JT8A) turbojet, while United and Eastern were interested in a Pratt & Whitney alternative to the RB163 Spey. Once Pratt & Whitney agreed to go ahead with development of the JT8D, Eddie Rickenbacker, chairman of the board of Eastern, told Boeing that the airline preferred the JT8D for its 727s. Boeing had not offered the JT8D, as it was about 1,000 lb (450 kg) heavier than the RB163, though slightly more powerful; the RB163 was also further along in development than the JT8D. Boeing reluctantly agreed to offer the JT8D as an option on the 727, and it later became the sole powerplant. With high-lift devices on its wing, the 727 could use shorter runways than most earlier jets (e.g. the 4,800 ft (1,500 m) runway at Key West International Airport). A later 727 model, the 727-200, was stretched by 20 feet (6.10 metres) to carry 58 more passengers and replaced earlier jet airliners on short- and medium-haul routes such as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, as well as aging propeller airliners such as the DC-4, DC-6, DC-7, and the Lockheed Constellations. For over a decade, more 727s were built per year than any other jet airliner; in 1984, production ended with 1,832 built and 1,831 delivered, the highest total for any jet airliner until the 737 surpassed it in the early 1990s. == Design == The airliner's middle engine (engine 2) at the very rear of the fuselage gets air from an inlet ahead of the vertical fin through an S-shaped duct. This S-duct proved to be troublesome in that flow distortion in the duct induced a surge in the centerline engine on the take-off of the first flight of the 727-100. This was fixed by the addition of several large vortex generators in the inside of the first bend of the duct. The 727 was designed for smaller airports, so independence from ground facilities was an important requirement. This led to one of the 727's most distinctive features: the built-in airstair that opens from the rear underbelly of the fuselage, which initially could be opened in flight. Hijacker D. B. Cooper used this hatch when he parachuted from the back of a 727, as it was flying over the Pacific Northwest. Boeing subsequently modified the design with the Cooper vane so that the airstair could not be lowered in flight. The design included an auxiliary power unit (APU), which allowed electrical and air-conditioning systems to run independently of a ground-based power supply, and without having to start one of the main engines. An unusual design feature is that the APU is mounted in a hole in the keel beam web, in the main landing gear bay. The 727 is equipped with a retractable tailskid that is designed to protect the aircraft in the event of an over-rotation on takeoff. The 727's fuselage has an outer diameter of 148 inches (3.8 m). This allows six-abreast seating (three per side) and a single aisle when 18-inch (46 cm) wide coach-class seats are installed. An unusual feature of the fuselage is the 10-inch (25 cm) difference between the lower lobe forward and aft of the wing as the higher fuselage height of the center section was simply retained towards the rear. Nosewheel brakes were available as an option to reduce braking distance on landing, which provided reduction in braking distances of up to 490 ft (150 m). The 727 proved to be such a reliable and versatile airliner that it came to form the core of many startup airlines' fleets. The 727 was successful with airlines worldwide partly because it could use smaller runways while still flying medium-range routes. This allowed airlines to carry passengers from cities with large populations, but smaller airports to worldwide tourist destinations. One of the features that gave the 727 its ability to land on shorter runways was its clean wing design. With no wing-mounted engines, leading-edge devices (Krueger, or hinged, flaps on the inner wing and extendable leading edge slats out to the wingtip) and trailing-edge lift enhancement equipment (triple-slotted, Fowler flaps) could be used on the entire wing. Together, these high-lift devices produced a maximum wing lift coefficient of 3.0 (based on the flap-retracted wing area). The 727 was stable at very low speeds compared to other early jets, but some domestic carriers learned after review of various accidents that the 40° flap setting could result in a higher-than-desired sink rate or a stall on final approach. These carriers' Pilots' Operation Handbooks disallowed using more than 30° of flaps on the 727, even going so far as installing plates on the flap lever slot to prevent selection of more than 30° of flaps. === Noise === The 727 is one of the noisiest commercial jetliners, categorized as Stage 2 by the U.S. Noise Control Act of 1972, which mandated the gradual introduction of quieter Stage 3 aircraft. The 727's JT8D jet engines use older low-bypass turbofan technology, whereas Stage 3 aircraft use the more efficient and quieter high-bypass turbofan design. When the Stage 3 requirement was being proposed, Boeing engineers analyzed the possibility of incorporating quieter engines on the 727. They determined that the JT8D-200 engine could be used on the two side-mounted pylons. The JT8D-200 engines are much quieter than the original JT8D-1 through -17 variant engines that power the 727, as well as more fuel efficient due to the higher bypass ratio, but the structural changes to fit the larger-diameter engine (49.2-inch (125 cm) fan diameter in the JT8D-200 compared to 39.9 inches (101 cm) in the JT8D-1 through -17) into the fuselage at the number two engine location were prohibitive. Current regulations require that a 727, or any other Stage 2 noise jetliner in commercial service must be retrofitted with a hush kit to reduce engine noise to Stage 3 levels to continue to fly in U.S. airspace. These regulations have been in effect since December 31, 1999. One such hush kit is offered by FedEx, and has been purchased by over 60 customers. Aftermarket winglet kits, originally developed by Valsan Partners and later marketed by Quiet Wing Corp. have been installed on many 727s to reduce noise at lower speeds, as well as to reduce fuel consumption. In addition, Raisbeck Engineering developed packages to enable 727s to meet the Stage 3 noise requirements. These packages managed to get light- and medium-weight 727s to meet Stage 3 with simple changes to the flap and slat schedules. For heavier-weight 727s, exhaust mixers must be added to meet Stage 3. American Airlines ordered and took delivery of 52 Raisbeck 727 Stage 3 systems. Other customers included TWA, Pan Am, Air Algérie, TAME, and many smaller airlines. Since September 1, 2010, 727 jetliners (including those with a hush kit) are banned from some Australian airports because they are too loud. == Operational history == In addition to domestic flights of medium range, the 727 was popular with international passenger airlines. The range of flights it could cover (and the additional safety added by the third engine) meant that the 727 proved efficient for short- to medium-range international flights in areas around the world. The 727 also proved popular with cargo and charter airlines. FedEx Express introduced 727s in 1978. The 727s were the backbone of its fleet until the 2000s; FedEx began replacing them with Boeing 757s in 2007. Many cargo airlines worldwide employ the 727 as a workhorse, since, as it is being phased out of U.S. domestic service because of noise regulations, it becomes available to overseas users in areas where such noise regulations have not yet been instituted. Charter airlines Sun Country, Champion Air, and Ryan International Airlines all started with 727 aircraft. The 727 had some military uses as well. Since the aft stair could be opened in flight, the Central Intelligence Agency used them to drop agents and supplies behind enemy lines in Vietnam. In early 1988, The Iraqi Air Force modified a Boeing 727 by fitting it with Thomson-CSF TMV-018 Syrel pods for ESM and Raphael-TH pods with side looking radar. Known as 'Faw-727', it was reportedly used as an ELINT platform in the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 (during which it was briefly locked on by a Kuwaiti Mirage F1 on August 2) and the subsequent Iraqi monitoring of Coalition forces during Desert Shield. The 727 has proven to be popular where the airline serves airports with gravel, or otherwise lightly improved, runways. The Canadian airline First Air, for example, previously used a 727-100C to serve the communities of Resolute Bay and Arctic Bay in Nunavut, whose Resolute Bay Airport and former Nanisivik Airport both have gravel runways. The high-mounted engines greatly reduce the risk of foreign object damage. A military version, the Boeing C-22, was operated as a medium-range transport aircraft by the Air National Guard and National Guard Bureau to airlift personnel. A total of three C-22Bs were in use, all assigned to the 201st Airlift Squadron, District of Columbia Air National Guard. At the start of the 21st century, the 727 remained in service with a few large airlines. Faced with higher fuel costs, lower passenger volumes due to the post-9/11 economic climate, increasing restrictions on airport noise, and the extra expenses of maintaining older planes and paying flight engineers' salaries, most major airlines phased out their 727s; they were replaced by twin-engined aircraft, which are quieter and more fuel-efficient. Modern airliners also have a smaller flight deck crew of two pilots, while the 727 required two pilots and a flight engineer. Delta Air Lines, the last major U.S. carrier to do so, retired its last 727 from scheduled service in April 2003. Northwest Airlines retired its last 727 from charter service in June 2003. Many airlines replaced their 727s with either the 737-800 or the Airbus A320; both are close in size to the 727-200. As of July 2013, a total of 109 Boeing 727s were in commercial service with 34 airlines; three years later, the total had fallen to 64 airframes in service with 26 airlines. On March 2, 2016, the first 727 produced (N7001U), which first flew on February 9, 1963, made a flight to a museum after extensive restoration. The 727-100 had carried about three million passengers during its years of service. Originally a prototype, it was later sold to United Airlines, which donated it to the Museum of Flight in Seattle in 1991. The jet was restored over 25 years by the museum and was ferried from Paine Field in Everett, Washington to Boeing Field in Seattle, where it was put on permanent display at the Aviation Pavilion. The Federal Aviation Administration granted the museum a special permit for the 15-minute flight. The museum's previous 727-223, tail number N874AA, was donated to the National Airline History Museum in Kansas City and was planned to be flown to its new home once FAA ferry approval was granted. After a series of financial problems with the restoration, N874AA was seized by Boeing Field for nonpayment of storage fees in 2021 and subsequently broken up and scrapped. Iran Aseman Airlines, the last passenger airline operator, made the worldwide last scheduled 727 passenger flight on January 13, 2019 between Zahedan and Tehran. == Variants == Data from: Boeing Aircraft since 1916 The two series of 727 are the initial -100 (originally only two figures as in -30), which was launched in 1960 and entered service in February 1964, and the -200 series, which was launched in 1965 and entered service in December 1967. === 727-100 === The first 727-100 (N7001U) flew on February 9, 1963. FAA type approval was awarded on December 24 of that year, with initial delivery to United Airlines on October 29, 1963, to allow pilot training to commence. The first 727 passenger service was flown by Eastern Air Lines on February 1, 1964, between Miami, Washington, DC, and Philadelphia. A total of 571 Boeing 727-00/100 series aircraft were delivered (407 -100s, 53 -100Cs, and 111 -100QCs), the last in October 1972. One 727-100 was retained by Boeing, bringing total production to 572. The -100 designation was assigned retroactively to distinguish the original short-body version. Prior to the introduction of the 727-200, all short-body aircraft followed a "727-00" pattern. Aircraft were delivered for United Airlines as 727-22, for American Airlines as 727-23 and these designations were retained even after the advent of the 727-200. However, short-body aircraft ordered after the introduction of the 727-200 followed the new "727-100" pattern (i.e. 727-123 for American Airlines). 727-100C Convertible passenger cargo version, additional freight door and strengthened floor and floor beams, three alternative fits: 94 mixed-class passengers 52 mixed-class passengers and four cargo pallets (22,700 lb or 10,300 kg) Eight cargo pallets (38,000 lb or 17,000 kg) 727-100QC QC stands for Quick Change. This is similar to the convertible version with a roller-bearing floor for palletised galley and seating and cargo to allow a much faster changeover time of 30 minutes. 727-100QF QF stands for Quiet Freighter. A cargo conversion for United Parcel Service, these were re-engined with Stage 3-compliant Rolls-Royce Tay turbofans. Boeing C-22A A single 727-30 acquired from the Federal Aviation Administration, this aircraft was originally delivered to Lufthansa. It served mostly with United States Southern Command flying from Panama City / Howard Air Force Base. Boeing C-22B Four 727-35 aircraft were acquired from National Airlines by the United States Air Force for transporting Air National Guard and National Guard personnel. === 727-200 === A stretched version of the 727-100, the -200 is 20 feet (6.1 m) longer (153 feet 2 inches or 46.69 metres) than the -100 (133 feet 2 inches or 40.59 metres). A 10 ft (3.0 m) fuselage section ("plug") was added in front of the wings and another 10 ft fuselage section was added behind them. The wing span and height remain the same on both the -100 and -200 (108 and 34 feet (33 and 10 m), respectively). The original 727-200 had the same maximum gross weight as the 727-100; however, as the aircraft evolved, a series of higher gross weights and more powerful engines were introduced along with other improvements, and from line number 881, 727-200s are dubbed -200 Advanced. The aircraft gross weight eventually increased from 169,000 to 209,500 pounds (76,700 to 95,000 kg) for the latest versions. The dorsal intake of the number-two engine was also redesigned to be round in shape, rather than oval as it was on the -100 series. The first 727-200 flew on July 27, 1967, and received FAA certification on November 30, 1967. The first delivery was made on December 14, 1967, to Northeast Airlines. A total of 310 727-200s were delivered before the -200 was replaced on the production line by the 727-200 Advanced in 1972. 727-200C A convertible passenger cargo version; only one was built. 727-200 Advanced The Advanced version of the 727-200 was introduced in 1970. It featured powerful engines, fuel capacity and MTOW (185,800–210,000 lb or 84.3–95.3 t) increased the range from 1,930 to 2,550 nmi (3,570 to 4,720 km; 2,220 to 2,930 mi) or by 32%. After the first delivery in mid-1972, Boeing eventually raised production to more than a hundred per year to meet demand by the late 1970s. Of the passenger model of the 727-200 Advanced, a total of 935 were delivered, after which it had to give way to a new generation of aircraft. 727-200F Advanced A freighter version of the 727-200 Advanced became available in 1981, designated the Series 200F Advanced. Powered by Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17A engines, it featured a strengthened fuselage structure, an 11 ft 2 in (3.40 m) by 7 ft 2 in (2.18 m) forward main deck freight door, and a windowless cabin. Fifteen of these aircraft were built, all for Federal Express. This was the last production variant of the 727 to be developed by Boeing; the last 727 aircraft completed by Boeing was a 727-200F Advanced. Super 27 Certificated by Valsan Partners in December 1988 and marketed by Goodrich from 1997, the side engines are replaced by more efficient, quieter JT8D-217C/219, and the center engine gains a hush kit for $8.6 million (but loses the thrust reverser) (2000): fuel consumption is reduced by 10-12%, range and restricted airfield performance are improved. Boeing C-22C A single 727-212 aircraft was operated by the USAF. === Proposed === 727-300 A proposed 169-seat version was developed in consultation with United Airlines in 1972, which initially expressed an interest in ordering 50 aircraft. Also, interest was shown from Indian Airlines for a one-class version with 180 seats. The fuselage would have been lengthened by 18 feet (5.5 m) and the undercarriage strengthened. The three engines would have been replaced by two more powerful JT8D-217 engines under the T tail. Many cockpit components would have been in common with the 737-200 and improved engine management systems would have eliminated the need for the flight engineer. United did not proceed with its order and Indian Airlines instead ordered the larger Airbus A300, so the project was cancelled in 1976. 727-400 A concept with a 155-foot (47 m) fuselage and two high-bypass turbofan engines under the wings (but retaining the T tail) was proposed in 1977. More compact systems, a redesign of the internal space, and removing the need for the flight engineer would have increased the capacity to 189 seats in a two-class configuration. After only a few months, the concept was developed into the Boeing 7N7 design, which eventually became the Boeing 757. === Other variants === Faw-727 This Boeing 727 was reportedly modified by Iraq in early 1988 to serve as an ELINT platform. It was used during the invasion of Kuwait and Operation Desert Shield. == Operators == === Commercial operators === As of March 2025, 14 Boeing 727s were in commercial service, operated by the following companies: Aerosucre (2) Air Class Lineas Aereas (2) IFL Group (2) USA Jet Airlines (2) Oil Spill Response (2, operated by 2 Excel Aviation) Solar Cargo Venezuela (2) UniWorld Air Cargo (1) Zero Gravity Corporation (1) === Government, military, and other operators === In addition, the 727 has seen sporadic government use, having flown for the Belgian, Yugoslav, Mexican, New Zealand, and Panama air forces, along with a small group of government agencies that have used it. === Private aircraft === A number of 727s have been outfitted for use as private aircraft, especially since the early 1990s, when major airlines began to eliminate older 727-100 models from their fleet. Donald Trump traveled in a former American Airlines 727-100 with a dining room, a bedroom, and shower facilities known as Trump Force One before upgrading to a larger Boeing 757 in 2009; Peter Nygård acquired a 727-100 for private use in 2005. American financier Jeffrey Epstein owned a private 727 nicknamed the "Lolita Express". The Gettys bought N311AG from Revlon in 1986, and Gordon Getty acquired the aircraft in 2001. == Accidents and incidents == As of March 2024, a total of 353 incidents involving 727s had occurred, including 120 hull-loss accidents resulting in a total of 4,211 fatalities. The deadliest incident involving the 727 was Mexicana Flight 940 which took place on March 31, 1986, with 167 fatalities. == Orders and deliveries == Source: Data from Boeing, through the end of production Boeing 727 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year): Orders Deliveries === Model summary === Source: Boeing == Aircraft on display == A large number of surviving retired 727s remain, largely as a result of donation by FedEx of 84 of them to various institutions. The vast majority of the aircraft was given to university aviation maintenance programs. All but five are located within the United States. Notable aircraft include: N7001U – 727-022 is on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. It was the first 727 completed. It departed from Paine Field in Everett, Washington, and landed at the museum on March 2, 2016. N7004U – 727-022 is in storage at the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. It was the first 727 delivered to a customer and the first to make a commercial flight. N7017U – 727 is on static display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. It was donated by United Airlines. It features cutaway sections showing airplane framework and lavatory, cockpit view, and a few rows of seating. N166FE Bud - 727-100F is on static display at Musée de l'air et de l'espace in Le Bourget, France. It was formerly operated by FedEx and donated to the museum in 2007. N186FE – 727-100 is on static display at Owens Community College in Perrysburg, Ohio. It formerly was operated by FedEx and donated by the company in 2007. N199FE – 727-173C is on static display at the Kansas Aviation Museum in Wichita, Kansas. It was formerly operated by FedEx as N199FE. N113FE Jarrod – 727-022C is in storage at the National Museum of Commercial Aviation in Atlanta, Georgia. It was formerly operated by FedEx as N113FE, and by United Airlines before that as N7437U. N265FE Paul – 727-200 is on static display at the Florida Air Museum in Lakeland, Florida. It was formerly operated by FedEx. N492FE Two Bears – 727-227 is on static display at FLY8MA in Big Lake, Alaska. It was transported from Anchorage, Alaska to The FLY8MA Pilot Lodge in April 2023, and converted into an airplane home. N874AA – 727-223 was previously on display at the Museum of Flight and later stored for the Airline History Museum at Boeing Field in Seattle. The aircraft was eventually seized by King County, Washington for nonpayment of rent and storage fees, declared nonairworthy, and scrapped at Boeing Field in November 2021. N211DB - 727-2J4 forward fuselage is reused as a commercial aviation set and on display at EECity, an experience facility for children located in Beijing, China. It was formally operated by Sky One Express Airlines before retirement. G-BNNI Lady Patricia – 727-276 was last flown by Sabre Airways in 2000. Purchased by 727 Communications, an advertising company in Skanderborg, Denmark, it now serves as a conference room and billboard at their offices. VP-CMN "PYTCHAir" - 727-46 is located in Bristol, UK, and was purchased by technology investor Johnny Palmer for his media company PYTCH. The fuselage is resting atop a series of shipping containers and was transported in February 2021. XA-RRA – 727-14, last operated by Taesa is located in Mexicana de Aviación livery at Parque Metropolitano in León, Guanajuato, Mexico. XC-FPA – 727-264/Adv, last operated by the Mexican Federal Police, is on display in Parque Tangamanga, San Luis Potosí City, Mexico. A nose section of a 727 is on static display at the Museum of Flying in Santa Monica, California; it was donated by FedEx after retirement, and underwent a complete restoration in the fall of 2018. N149FE, a 727-22 (S/N 19807) manufactured in 1967, is on static display at Guilford Technical Community College (GTCC) in Greensboro, North Carolina. It was formerly used by the FedEx Express before being donated to TIMCO (now HAECO) as a maintenance training aid before being donated to Guilford Technical Community College for use as a training aid for their Aircraft maintenance technician program. SX-CBA, the first Boeing 727 delivered for Olympic Airways, is preserved at the Sourmena Stadium in Elliniko. == Specifications (Boeing 727-100 with JT8D-7) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 3 Capacity: 106 passengers in two classes, 125 in one class Length: 133 ft 2 in (40.59 m) Wingspan: 108 ft 0 in (32.92 m) Width: 11 ft 8 in (3.56 m) (cabin) Height: 34 ft 3 in (10.44 m) Wing area: 1,650 sq ft (153 m2) Empty weight: 87,696 lb (39,778 kg) Max takeoff weight: 169,000 lb (76,657 kg) Fuel capacity: 7,680 US gal (29,100 L) Powerplant: 3 × Pratt & Whitney JT8D-7 turbofan engine, 14,000 lbf (62 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 632 mph (1,017 km/h, 549 kn) Maximum speed: Mach 0.9 Cruise speed: 600 mph (960 km/h, 518 kn) Range: 2,590 mi (4,170 km, 2,250 nmi) Takeoff distance: 8,300 ft (2,500 m) == See also == 2012 Boeing 727 crash experiment Notable appearances in media Related development Boeing 707 Boeing 737 Boeing 7J7 Boeing 757 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Hawker Siddeley Trident BAC One-Eleven McDonnell Douglas DC-9 Tupolev Tu-154 Related lists List of civil aircraft List of jet airliners == Notes == == References == Connors, Jack (2010). The Engines of Pratt & Whitney: A Technical History. Reston. Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-60086-711-8. Himmelsbach, Ralph P.; Worcester, Thomas K. (1986). Norjak: The Investigation of D. B. Cooper. West Linn, Oregon: Norjak Project. ISBN 978-0-9617415-0-1. Gilchrist, Peter (1996). Modern Civil Aircraft 13: Boeing 727. Shepperton, United Kingdom: Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN 0-7110-2081-7. == External links == "727 Commerciat transport : Historical Snapshot". Boeing. 727 Datacenter \| website dedicated to the history of the Boeing's trijet (http://727datacenter.net/) Encyclopedia 727 \| Book series with 5 volumes about the Boeing 727. Volume 1 already available (https://www.enciclopedia727.com.br/en) 727 prototype on rbogash.com Boeing-727.com site Fatal Boeing 727 Events on Airsafe.com "Boeing jet has new appearance". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). (AP photo). November 2, 1962. p. 2B. Murdo Morrison (November 28, 2014). "Soldiering on: 10 veteran airliner types still in service". Flightglobal. Guy Norris (January 16, 2015). "727 And The Birth Of Boeing's 'Family' Plan (1962)". Aviation Week. From The Archives. Archived from the original on March 21, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2016.
Boeing 707	The Boeing 707 is an early American long-range narrow-body airliner, the first jetliner developed and produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype, the initial 707-120 first flew on December 20, 1957. Pan Am began regular 707 service on October 26, 1958. With versions produced until 1979, the 707 is a swept wing quadjet with podded engines. Its larger fuselage cross-section allowed six-abreast economy seating, retained in the later 720, 727, 737, and 757 models. Although it was not the first commercial jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be widespread, and is often credited with beginning the Jet Age. It dominated passenger air-transport in the 1960s, and remained common through the 1970s, on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, as well as cargo and military applications. It established Boeing as a dominant airliner manufacturer with its 7x7 series. The initial, 145-foot-long (44 m) 707-120 was powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines. The shortened, long-range 707-138 and the more powerful 707-220 entered service in 1959. The longer-range, heavier 707-300/400 series has larger wings and is stretched slightly by 8 feet (2.4 m). Powered by Pratt & Whitney JT4A turbojets, the 707-320 entered service in 1959, and the 707-420 with Rolls-Royce Conway turbofans in 1960. The 720, a lighter short-range variant, was also introduced in 1960. Powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3D turbofans, the 707-120B debuted in 1961 and the 707-320B in 1962. The 707-120B typically flew 137 passengers in two classes over 3,600 nautical miles [nmi] (6,700 km; 4,100 mi), and could accommodate 174 in one class. With 141 passengers in two classes, the 707-320/420 could fly 3,750 nmi (6,940 km; 4,320 mi) and the 707-320B up to 5,000 nmi (9,300 km; 5,800 mi). The 707-320C convertible passenger-freighter model entered service in 1963, and passenger 707s have been converted to freighter configurations. Military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transport. In total, 865 Boeing 707s were produced and delivered, not including 154 Boeing 720s. == Development == === Model 367-80 origins === During and after World War II, Boeing was known for its military aircraft. The company had produced innovative and important bombers, from the B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress to the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress, but its commercial aircraft were not as successful as those from Douglas Aircraft and other competitors. As Douglas and Lockheed dominated the postwar air transport boom, the demand for Boeing's offering, the 377 Stratocruiser, quickly faded with only 56 examples sold and no new orders as the 1940s drew to a close. That venture had netted the company a $15 million loss. During 1949 and 1950, Boeing embarked on studies for a new jet transport and saw advantages with a design aimed at both military and civilian markets. Aerial refueling was becoming a standard technique for military aircraft, with over 800 KC-97 Stratofreighters on order. The KC-97 was not ideally suited for operations with the USAF's new fleets of jet-powered fighters and bombers; this was where Boeing's new design would win military orders. As the first of a new generation of American passenger jets, Boeing wanted the aircraft's model number to emphasize the difference from its previous propeller-driven aircraft, which bore 300-series numbers. The 400-, 500- and 600-series were already used by their missiles and other products, so Boeing decided that the jets would bear 700-series numbers, and the first would be the 707. The marketing personnel at Boeing chose 707 because they thought it was more appealing than 700. The project was enabled by the Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engine, the civilian version of the J57 that yielded much more power than the previous generation of jet engines and was proving itself with the B-52. Freed from the design constraints imposed by limitations of late-1940s jet engines, developing a robust, safe, and high-capacity jet aircraft was within reach for Boeing. Boeing studied numerous wing and engine layouts for its new transport/tanker, some of which were based on the B-47 and C-97, before settling on the 367-80 "Dash 80" quadjet prototype aircraft. Less than two years elapsed from project launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14, 1954, with the first Dash 80 flying on July 15, 1954. The prototype was a proof-of-concept aircraft for both military and civilian use. The United States Air Force was the first customer, using it as the basis for the KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling and cargo aircraft. Whether the passenger 707 would be profitable was far from certain. At the time, nearly all of Boeing's revenue came from military contracts. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside Seattle, on August 7, 1955, test pilot Tex Johnston performed a barrel roll in the 367-80 prototype. Although he justified his unauthorized action to Bill Allen, then president of Boeing, as selling the airplane with a 1 'g' maneuver he was told not to do it again. The 132 in (3,400 mm) wide fuselage of the Dash 80 was large enough for four-abreast (two-plus-two) seating like the Stratocruiser. Answering customers' demands and under Douglas competition, Boeing soon realized this would not provide a viable payload, so it widened the fuselage to 144 in (3,660 mm) to allow five-abreast seating and use of the KC-135's tooling. Douglas Aircraft had launched its DC-8 with a fuselage width of 147 in (3,730 mm). The airlines liked the extra space and six-abreast seating, so Boeing increased the 707's width again to compete, this time to 148 in (3,760 mm). === Production and testing === The first flight of the first-production 707-120 took place on December 20, 1957, and FAA certification followed on September 18, 1958. Both test pilots Joseph John "Tym" Tymczyszyn and James R. Gannett were awarded the first Iven C. Kincheloe Award for the test flights that led to certification. A number of changes were incorporated into the production models from the prototype. A Krueger flap was installed along the leading edge between the inner and outer engines on early 707-120 and -320 models. This was in response to de Havilland Comet overrun accidents which occurred after over-rotating on take-off. Wing stall would also occur on the 707 with over-rotation so the leading-edge flaps were added to prevent stalling even with the tail dragging on the runway. === Further developments === The initial standard model was the 707-120 with JT3C turbojet engines. Qantas ordered a shorter-bodied version called the 707-138, which was a -120 with six fuselage frames removed, three in front of the wings, and three aft. The frames in the 707 were set 20 in (510 mm) apart, so this resulted in a shortening of 10 ft (3.0 m) to a length of 134 ft 6 in (41.0 m). With the maximum takeoff weight the same as that of the -120 (247,000 lb (112 t)), the -138 was able to fly the longer routes that Qantas needed. Braniff International Airways ordered the higher-thrust version with Pratt & Whitney JT4A engines, the 707-220. The final major derivative was the 707-320, which featured an extended-span wing and JT4A engines, while the 707-420 was the same as the -320, but with Conway turbofan engines. Though initially fitted with turbojet engines, the dominant engine for the Boeing 707 family was the Pratt & Whitney JT3D, a turbofan variant of the JT3C with lower fuel consumption and higher thrust. JT3D-engined 707s and 720s were denoted with a "B" suffix. While many 707-120Bs and -720Bs were conversions of existing JT3C-powered machines, 707-320Bs were available only as newly built aircraft, as they had a stronger structure to support a maximum takeoff weight increased by 19,000 lb (8,600 kg), along with modifications to the wing. The 707-320B series enabled nonstop westbound flights from Europe to the West Coast of the United States and from the US to Japan. The final 707 variant was the 707-320C, (C for "Convertible"), which had a large fuselage door for cargo. It had a revised wing with three-sectioned leading-edge flaps, improving takeoff and landing performance and allowing the ventral fin to be removed (although the taller fin was retained). The 707-320Bs built after 1963 used the same wing as the -320C and were known as 707-320B Advanced aircraft. In total, 1,010 707s were built for civilian use between 1958 and 1978, though many of these found their way to military service. The 707 production line remained open for purpose-built military variants until 1991, with the last new-build 707 airframes built as E-3 and E-6 aircraft. Traces of the 707 are still found in the 737, which uses a modified version of the 707's fuselage, as well as the same external nose and cockpit configurations as those of the 707. These were also used on the previous 727, while the 757 also used the 707 fuselage cross-section. == Design == === Wings === The 707's wings are swept back at 35°, and like all swept-wing aircraft, display an undesirable "Dutch roll" flying characteristic that manifests itself as an alternating combined yawing and rolling motion. Boeing already had considerable experience with this on the B-47 and B-52, and had developed the yaw damper system on the B-47 that would be applied to later swept-wing configurations like the 707. However, many pilots new to the 707 had no experience with this instability as they were mostly accustomed to flying straight-wing propeller-driven aircraft such as the Douglas DC-7 and Lockheed Constellation. On one customer-acceptance flight, where the yaw damper was turned off to familiarize the new pilots with flying techniques, a trainee pilot's actions violently exacerbated the Dutch roll motion and caused three of the four engines to be torn from the wings. The plane, a brand new 707-227, N7071, destined for Braniff, crash-landed on a river bed north of Seattle at Arlington, Washington, killing four of the eight occupants. In his autobiography, test pilot Tex Johnston describes a Dutch roll incident he experienced as a passenger on an early commercial 707 flight. As the aircraft's movements did not cease and most of the passengers became ill, he suspected a misrigging of the directional autopilot (yaw damper). He went to the cockpit and found the crew unable to understand and resolve the situation. He introduced himself and relieved the ashen-faced captain who immediately left the cockpit feeling ill. Johnston disconnected the faulty autopilot and manually stabilized the plane "with two slight control movements". Johnston recommended Boeing increase the height of the tail fin, add a boosted rudder as well as add a ventral fin. These modifications were aimed at mitigating Dutch roll by providing more directional stability in yaw. === Engines === The initial 145-foot-long (44 m) 707-120 was powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines. The JT3D-3B engines are readily identifiable by the large gray secondary-air inlet doors in the nose cowl. These doors are fully open (sucked in at the rear) during takeoff to provide additional air. The doors automatically close with increasing airspeed. The 707 was the first commercial jet aircraft to be fitted with clamshell-type thrust reversers. ==== Turbocompressors ==== The 707 uses engine-driven turbocompressors to supply compressed air for cabin pressurization. On many commercial 707s, the outer port (number 1) engine mount is distinctly different from the other three, as this engine is not fitted with a turbocompressor. Later-model 707s typically had this configuration, although American Airlines had turbocompressors on engines 2 and 3 only. Early 707 models often had turbocompressor fairings on all four engines, but with only two or three compressors installed. ==== Upgraded engines ==== Pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS) and Omega Air, selected the JT8D-219 low-bypass turbofan as a replacement powerplant for Boeing 707-based aircraft, calling their modified configuration a 707RE. Northrop Grumman selected the -219 to re-engine the US Air Force's fleet of 19 E-8 Joint STARS aircraft, which would allow the J-STARS more time on station due to the engine's greater fuel efficiency. NATO also planned to re-engine their fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft. The -219 is publicized as being half the cost of the competing powerplant, the CFM International CFM56, and is 40 dB quieter than the original JT3D engines. == Operational history == The first commercial orders for the 707 came on October 13, 1955, when leading global carrier Pan Am committed to 20 Boeing 707s, and 25 Douglas DC-8s, dramatically increasing their passenger capacity (in available revenue passenger seat-miles per hour/per day) over its existing fleet of propeller aircraft. The competition between the 707 and DC-8 was fierce. Pan Am ordered these planes when and as they did so that they would be the operators of the "first-off" production line for each aircraft type. Once the initial batch of the aircraft had been delivered to them and put into operation, Pan Am would have the distinction of being not only the "Launch Customer" for both transcontinental American jets, but the exclusive operator of American intercontinental jet transports for at least a year. The only rival in intercontinental jet aircraft production at the time was the British de Havilland Comet. However, the Comet series had been the subject of fatal accidents (due to design flaws) early in its introduction and withdrawn from service; virtually redesigned from scratch, it was still smaller and slower than the 707 when reintroduced as version -4. In addition, airlines and their passengers at the time preferred the more established Douglas Aircraft as a maker of passenger aircraft, and several major carriers committed only to the Douglas DC-8, delayed by Douglas' decision to wait for the larger and more fuel efficient (Pratt & Whitney JT4A) turbojet to design a larger and longer range aircraft around. Anticipating this advantage, Boeing made a late and costly decision to redesign and enlarge the initial 707's wing to help increase range and payload, giving birth to the 707-320. Pan Am inaugurated 707 service with a christening at National Airport on October 17, 1958, attended by President Eisenhower, followed by a transatlantic flight for VIPs (personal guests of founder Juan Trippe) from Baltimore's Friendship International Airport to Paris. The aircraft's first commercial flight was from Idlewild Airport, New York, to Le Bourget, Paris, on October 26, 1958, with a fuel stop in Gander, Newfoundland. In December, National Airlines operated the first US domestic jet airline flights between New York/Idlewild and Miami, using 707s leased from Pan Am. In February 1956, rival global giant Trans World Airlines' then-President Howard Hughes ordered eight new Boeing 707-120, dubbing the new jet service StarStream, launching its first jet service, between New York-Idlewild International Airport and San Francisco International Airport, on January 25, 1959. American Airlines was the first domestic airline to fly its own jets, on January 25, 1959. TWA started domestic 707-131 flights in March and Continental Airlines started 707-124 flights in June; airlines that had ordered only the DC-8, such as United, Delta, and Eastern, were left without jets until September and lost market share on transcontinental flights. Qantas was the first non-US airline to use the 707s, starting in 1959. The 707 quickly became the most popular jetliner of its time. Its success led to rapid developments in airport terminals, runways, airline catering, baggage handling, reservations systems, and other air transport infrastructure. The advent of the 707 also led to the upgrading of air traffic control systems to prevent interference with military jet operations. As the 1960s drew to a close, the exponential growth in air travel led to the 707 being a victim of its own success. The 707 had become too small to handle the increased numbers of passengers on the routes for which it had been designed. Stretching the fuselage again was not a viable option because the installation of larger, more powerful engines would need a larger undercarriage, which was not feasible given the design's limited ground clearance at takeoff. Rather than stretch the fuselage, which would have also required pilot retraining, Boeing's answer to the problem was the first wide-body airliner—the Boeing 747. The 707's first-generation engine technology was also rapidly becoming obsolete in the areas of noise and fuel economy, especially after the 1973 oil crisis. Operations of the 707 were threatened by the enactment of international noise regulations in 1985. Shannon Engineering of Seattle developed a hush kit with funding from Tracor, Inc, of Austin, Texas. By the late 1980s, 172 Boeing 707s had been equipped with the Quiet 707 package. Boeing acknowledged that more 707s were in service than before the hush kit was available. Trans World Airlines flew the last scheduled 707 flight for passengers by a US carrier on October 30, 1983, although 707s remained in scheduled service by airlines from other nations for much longer. Middle East Airlines of Lebanon flew 707s and 720s in front-line passenger service until the end of the 1990s. Since LADE of Argentina removed its 707-320Bs from regular service in 2007, Saha Airlines of Iran was the last commercial operator of the Boeing 707. After suspending its scheduled passenger service in April 2013, Saha continued to operate a small fleet of 707s on behalf of the Iranian Air Force. As of 2019, only a handful of 707s remain in operation, acting as military aircraft for aerial refueling, transport, and AWACS missions. == Variants == Although certified as Series 100s, 200s, 300s, etc., the different 707 variants are more commonly known as Series 120s, 220s, 320s, and so on, where the "20" part of the designation is Boeing's "customer number" for its development aircraft. === 707-020 === Announced in July 1957 as a derivative for shorter flights from shorter runways, the 707-020 first flew on November 23, 1959. Its type certificate was issued on June 30, 1960, and it entered service with United Airlines on July 5, 1960. As a derivative, the 720 had low development costs, allowing profitability despite few sales. Compared to the 707-120, it has a length reduced by 9 feet (2.7 m), a modified wing and a lightened airframe for a lower maximum takeoff weight. Powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojets, the initial 720 could cover a 2,800 nmi (5,200 km; 3,200 mi) range with 131 passengers in two classes. Powered by JT3D turbofans, the 720B first flew on October 6, 1960, and entered service in March 1961. It could seat 156 passengers in one class over a 3,200 nmi (5,900 km; 3,700 mi) range. A total of 154 Boeing 720s and 720Bs were built until 1967. Some 720s were later converted to the 720B specification. The 720 was succeeded by the Boeing 727 trijet. === 707-120 === The 707-120 was the first production 707 variant, with a longer, wider fuselage, and greater wingspan than the Dash 80. The cabin had a full set of rectangular windows and could seat up to 189 passengers. It was designed for transcontinental routes, and often required a refueling stop when flying across the North Atlantic. It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojets, civilian versions of the military J57, initially producing 13,000 lbf (57.8 kN) with water injection. Maximum takeoff weight was 247,000 lb (112,000 kg) and first flight was on December 20, 1957. Major orders were the launch order for 20 707-121 aircraft by Pan Am and an American Airlines order for 30 707-123 aircraft. The first revenue flight was on October 26, 1958; 56 were built, plus seven short-bodied -138s; the last -120 was delivered to Western in May 1960. === 707-138 === The 707-138 featured a -120 fuselage, from which 5 ft (1.5 m) (three frames) were removed both ahead of and behind the wing, increasing range. The maximum takeoff weight remained the same as the standard version, at 247,000 lb (112,000 kg). The variant was produced for Qantas and included their customer number, 38, in its designation. To allow for full-load takeoffs at the midflight refueling stop in Fiji, the wing's leading-edge slats were modified for increased lift, and the allowable temperature range for use of full takeoff power was increased by 10 °F (5.5 °C). Seven -138s were delivered to Qantas between June and September 1959, and they first carried passengers in July of that year. === 707-120B === The 707-120B had Pratt & Whitney JT3D-1 turbofan engines, which were quieter, more powerful, and more fuel-efficient, rated at 17,000 lbf (75.6 kN), with the later JT3D-3 version giving 18,000 lbf (80 kN). (This thrust did not require water injection, eliminating both the system and 5000–6000 lb of water.) The -120B had the wing modifications introduced on the 720 and a longer tailplane; a total of 72 were built, 31 for American and 41 for TWA, plus six short-bodied -138Bs for Qantas. American had its 23 surviving -123s converted to -123Bs, but TWA did not convert its 15 -131s. The only other conversions were Pan Am's five surviving -121s and one surviving -139, the three aircraft delivered to the USAF as -153s and the seven short-bodied Qantas -138s (making 13 total 707s delivered to Qantas between 1959 and 1964). The first flight of the -120B was on June 22, 1960, and American carried the first passengers in March 1961; the last delivery was to American in April 1969. Maximum weight was 258,000 lb (117,000 kg) for both the long- and short-bodied versions. === 707-220 === The 707-220 was designed for hot and high operations with more powerful 15,800 lbf (70.3 kN) Pratt & Whitney JT4A-3 turbojets. Five of these were produced, but only four were ultimately delivered, with one being lost during a test flight. All were for Braniff International Airways and carried the model number 707-227; the first entered service in December 1959. This version was made obsolete by the arrival of the turbofan-powered 707-120B. === 707-320 Intercontinental === The 707-320 Intercontinental is a stretched version of the turbojet-powered 707-120, initially powered by JT4A-3 or JT4A-5 turbojets producing 15,800 lbf (70.3 kN) each (most eventually got 17,500 lbf (77.8 kN) JT4A-11s). The interior allowed up to 189 passengers, the same as the -120 and -220 series, but improved two-class capacity due to an 80-in fuselage stretch ahead of the wing (from 138 ft 10 in (42.32 m) to 145 ft 6 in (44.35 m) ), with extensions to the fin and horizontal stabilizer extending the aircraft's length further. The longer wing carried more fuel, increasing range by 1,600 miles (2,600 km) and allowing the aircraft to operate as true transoceanic aircraft. The wing modifications included outboard and inboard inserts, as well as a kink in the trailing edge to add area inboard. Takeoff weight was increased to 302,000 lb (137,000 kg) initially and to 312,000 lb (142,000 kg) with the higher-rated JT4As and center section tanks. Its first flight was on January 11, 1958; 69 turbojet 707-320s were delivered through January 1963, the first passengers being carried (by Pan Am) in August 1959. === 707-420 === The 707-420 was identical to the -320, but fitted with Rolls-Royce Conway 508 (RCo.12) turbofans (or by-pass turbojets as Rolls-Royce called them) of 18,000 lbf (80 kN) thrust each. The first announced customer was Lufthansa. BOAC's controversial order was announced six months later, but the British carrier got the first service-ready aircraft off the production line. The British Air Registration Board refused to give the aircraft a certificate of airworthiness, citing insufficient yaw control, excessive rudder forces, and the ability to over-rotate on takeoff, stalling the wing on the ground (a fault of the de Havilland Comet 1). Boeing responded by adding 40 in (100 cm) to the vertical stabilizer, applying full instead of partial rudder boost, and fitting an underfin to prevent over-rotation. These modifications except to the fin under the tail became standard on all 707 variants and were retrofitted to all earlier 707s. The 37 -420s were delivered to BOAC, Lufthansa, Air-India, El Al, and Varig through November 1963; Lufthansa was the first to carry passengers, in March 1960. === 707-320B === The 707-320B had the application of the JT3D turbofan to the Intercontinental, but with aerodynamic refinements. The wing was modified from the -320 by adding a second inboard kink, a dog-toothed leading edge, and curved low-drag wingtips instead of the earlier blunt ones. These wingtips increased overall wingspan by 3.0 ft (0.9 m). Takeoff gross weight was increased to 328,000 lb (149,000 kg). The 175 707-320B aircraft were all new-build; no original -320 models were converted to fan engines in civilian use. First service was June 1962, with Pan Am. The 707-320B Advanced is an improved version of the -320B, adding the three-section leading-edge flaps already seen on the -320C. These reduced takeoff and landing speeds and altered the lift distribution of the wing, allowing the ventral fin found on earlier 707s to be removed. From 1965, -320Bs had the uprated -320C undercarriage allowing the same 335,000 lb (152,000 kg) MTOW. These were often identified as 707-320BA-H. === 707-320C === The 707-320C has a convertible passenger–freight configuration, which became the most widely produced variant of the 707. The 707-320C added a strengthened floor and a new cargo door to the -320B model. The wing was fitted with three-section leading-edge flaps which allowed the removal of the underfin. A total of 335 of this variant were built, including some with JT3D-7 engines (19,000 lbf (85 kN) takeoff thrust) and a takeoff weight of 335,000 lb (152,000 kg). Most -320Cs were delivered as passenger aircraft with airlines hoping the cargo door would increase second-hand values. The addition of two new emergency exits, one on each side aft of the wing, raised the maximum passenger limit to 219. Only a few aircraft were delivered as pure freighters. One of the final orders was by the Iranian Government for 14 707-3J9C aircraft capable of VIP transportation, communication, and in-flight refueling tasks. === 707-700 === The 707-700 was a test aircraft used to study the feasibility of using CFM International CFM56 engines on a 707 airframe and possibly retrofitting existing aircraft with the engine. After testing in 1979, N707QT, the last commercial 707 airframe, was restored to 707-320C configuration and delivered to the Moroccan Air Force as a tanker aircraft via a "civilian" order. Boeing abandoned the retrofit program, since they felt it would be a threat to the 757 and 767 programs. The information gathered from testing led to the eventual retrofitting of CFM56 engines to the USAF C-135/KC-135R models, and some military versions of the 707 also used the CFM56. The Douglas DC-8 "Super 70" series with CFM56 engines was developed and extended the DC-8's life in a stricter noise regulatory environment. As a result, significantly more DC-8s remained in service into the 21st century than 707s. === Undeveloped variants === The 707-620 was a proposed domestic range-stretched variant of the 707-320B. The 707-620 was to carry around 200 passengers while retaining several aspects of the 707-320B. It would have been delivered around 1968 and would have also been Boeing's answer to the stretched Douglas DC-8 Series 60. Had the 707-620 been built, it would have cost around US$8,000,000. However, engineers discovered that a longer fuselage and wing meant a painstaking redesign of the wing and landing-gear structures. Rather than spend money on upgrading the 707, engineer Joe Sutter stated the company "decided spending money on the 707 wasn't worth it". The project was cancelled in 1966 in favor of the newer Boeing 747. The 707-820 was a proposed intercontinental stretched variant of the 707-320B. This 412,000-pound MTOW (187,000 kg) variant was to be powered by four 22,500-pound-force thrust (100 kN) Pratt & Whitney JT3D-15 turbofan engines, and it would have had a nearly 10-foot (3.0 m) extension in wingspan, to 155.5 feet (47.4 m). Two variations were proposed, the 707-820(505) model and the 707-820(506) model. The 505 model would have had a fuselage 45 feet (14 m) longer than the 707-320B, for a total length of 198.6 feet (60.5 m). This model would have carried 209 passengers in mixed-class configuration and 260 passengers in all-economy configuration. The 506 model would have had a fuselage 55 feet (17 m) longer than the 707-320B, to 208.6 feet (63.6 m) in length. This second model would have carried 225 passengers in mixed-class configuration and 279 passengers in all-economy configuration. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 was also set to compete with the stretched DC-8-60 Super Series models. The design was being pitched to American, TWA, BOAC, and Pan Am at the time of its proposal in early 1965. The 707-820 would have cost US$10,000,000. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 would have required a massive structural redesign to the wing and gear structures. The 707-820 was also cancelled in 1966 in favor of the 747. === Military versions === The militaries of the US and other countries have used the civilian 707 aircraft in a variety of roles, and under different designations. (The 707 and US Air Force's KC-135 were developed in parallel from the Boeing 367–80 prototype.) The Boeing E-3 Sentry is a US military airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft based on the Boeing 707 that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control, and communications. The Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS is an aircraft modified from the Boeing 707-300 series commercial airliner. The E-8 carries specialized radar, communications, operations and control subsystems. The most prominent external feature is the 40 ft (12 m) canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 24 ft (7.3 m) APY-7 active electronically scanned array side looking airborne radar antenna. The VC-137 variant of the Stratoliner was a special-purpose design meant to serve as Air Force One, the secure transport for the President of the United States. These models were in operational use from 1962 to 1990. The first presidential jet aircraft, a VC-137B designated SAM 970, is on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle. Two VC-137C aircraft are on display with SAM 26000 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio and SAM 27000 at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The Canadian Forces also operated the Boeing 707 with the designation CC-137 Husky (707-347C) from 1971 to 1997. Boeing 717 was the company designation for the C-135 Stratolifter and KC-135 Stratotanker derivatives of the 367-80. (The 717 designation was later reused in renaming the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 to Boeing 717 after the company merged with Boeing.) == Operators == Boeing's customer codes used to identify specific options and livery specified by customers was started with the 707, and has been maintained through all Boeing's models. In essence the same system as used on the earlier Boeing 377, the code consisted of two digits affixed to the model number to identify the specific aircraft version. For example, Pan Am was assigned code "21". Thus, a 707-320B sold to Pan Am had the model number 707-321B. The number remained constant as further aircraft were purchased; thus, when Pan Am purchased the 747-100, it had the model number 747-121. In the 1980s, the USAF acquired around 250 used 707s to provide replacement turbofan engines for the KC-135E Stratotanker program. The 707 is no longer operated by commercial airlines. American actor John Travolta owned an ex-Qantas 707-138B, with the registration N707JT. In May 2017, he donated the plane to the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society near Wollongong, Australia. The plane is planned to be flown to Shellharbour Airport, where HARS is based, once repairs to ensure safe flying condition have been completed. The repairs were delayed several times since the 2017 announcement. == Orders and deliveries == === Deliveries === === 707 Model summary === == Accidents and incidents == As of January 2019, the 707 has been in 261 aviation occurrences and 174 hull-loss accidents with a total of 3,039 fatalities. The deadliest incident involving the 707 was the Agadir air disaster which took place on August 3, 1975, with 188 fatalities. On January 14, 2019, a Saha Airlines cargo flight crashed, killing 15 people and seriously injuring one more person. It was the last civil 707 in operation. == Aircraft on display == VH-XBA model 707-138B (line number 29) is one of the first 707s exported, and the first civilian jet registered in Australia (to Qantas in 1959); it is on display at the Qantas Founders Outback Museum in Longreach, Queensland, Australia. 4X-BYD model 707-131(F), (line number 34), an ex-Israeli Air Force and TWA aircraft, is on display at the Israeli Air Force Museum near Hatzerim, Israel. N7515A model 707-123B (MSN 17642, line number 41), posing as D-ABOF, a 707-123B formerly operated by American Airlines and American Trans Air has its nose section preserved at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. OO-SJA model 707-329 (line number 78), ex-Sabena, is the first jetliner registered in Belgium; forward fuselage, salvaged following an uncontained engine failure and emergency landing, is on display at the Royal Military Museum Brussels. 4X-JYW model 707-328 (MSN 173617, line number 110), is a former Air France (F-BHSE) aircraft sold to the Israeli Air Force; it is on display at the Israeli Air Force Museum, Beersheba – Hatzerim (LLHB). G-APFJ model 707-436 (MSN 17711, line number 163) is a forward fuselage on display at the National Museum of Flight, East Fortune, in BOAC livery. 4X-ATA model 707-458 (MSN 18070, line number 205) is a former El Al aircraft, the nose of which is preserved at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York. CC-CCG model 707-330B (MSN 18642, line number 233), an ex-Lufthansa and LAN Chile craft, is undergoing restoration at Santiago – Los Cerillos, Chile (ULC/SCTI) and will be repainted in the Chilean airline's 1960s scheme. F-BLCD model 707-328B (line number 471) is on display at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris, France. EP-IRJ model 707-321B (MSN 18958, line number 475), a former Iran Air aircraft, was originally delivered to Pan Am as N416PA, and is currently the Air Restaurant at Mehrabad Airport, Tehran. A20-627 model 707-338C (MSN 19627, line number 707) flew with the RAAF. Originally delivered to Qantas as VH-EAG, its forward fuselage is preserved at the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society, Albion Park Rail, New South Wales, Australia. 1419 model 707-328C (MSN 19917, line number 763), an ex-SAAF aircraft, is on display at the South African Air Force Museum – Swartkop Air Force Base, Pretoria. N893PA model 707-321B (MSN 20030, line number 791), a former CAAC aircraft originally delivered to Pan Am, is preserved at Tianjin, China. HZ-HM2 Model 707-386C (MSN 21081, line number 903) is a Saudi Air Force VIP aircraft painted in the current Saudia color scheme; delivered in 1975, it is registered as HZ-HM1 and preserved at the Saudi Air Force Museum, Riyadh. == Specifications (Boeing 707-320C with JT3D-3) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 3 Capacity: 194 passengers (all passenger configuration) or 13 cargo pallets (all cargo configuration) Length: 152 ft 11 in (46.61 m) Wingspan: 145 ft 9 in (44.42 m) Width: 12 ft 4 in (3.76 m) (fuselage) Height: 42 ft 0 in (12.80 m) Wing area: 3,050 sq ft (283 m2) Empty weight: 148,300 lb (67,268 kg) (all cargo configuration) Gross weight: 283,000 lb (128,367 kg) Max takeoff weight: 333,600 lb (151,318 kg) Fuel capacity: 23,855 US gal (90,300 L) Powerplant: 4 × Pratt & Whitney JT3D-3 turbofan engine, 18,000 lbf (80 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 454 mph (731 km/h, 394 kn) at 23,000 ft (7,000 m) Maximum speed: Mach 0.887 Minimum control speed: 133 mph (214 km/h, 116 kn) Range: 3,300 mi (5,400 km, 2,900 nmi) with 13 pallets and 17,000 lb (7.7 t) lower deck cargo Service ceiling: 42,000 ft (13,000 m) Takeoff distance: 10,000 ft (3 km) Landing distance: 6,200 ft (1.9 km) == See also == Aircraft in fiction, Boeing 707 Related development Boeing 367-80 Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker Boeing 720 Boeing 727 Boeing 737 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era de Havilland Comet Convair 880 Convair 990 Coronado Douglas DC-8 Ilyushin Il-62 Shanghai Y-10 Vickers VC10 Related lists List of jet airliners List of Boeing customer codes == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == Further reading == === Print === === Online ===
Boeing 787 Dreamliner	The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an American wide-body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. After dropping its unconventional Sonic Cruiser project, Boeing announced the conventional 7E7 on January 29, 2003, which focused largely on efficiency. The program was launched on April 26, 2004, with an order for 50 aircraft from All Nippon Airways (ANA), targeting a 2008 introduction. On July 8, 2007, a prototype 787 without major operating systems was rolled out; subsequently the aircraft experienced multiple delays, until its maiden flight on December 15, 2009. Type certification was received in August 2011, and the first 787-8 was delivered in September 2011 and entered commercial service on October 26, 2011, with ANA. At launch, Boeing targeted the 787 with 20% less fuel burn compared to aircraft like the Boeing 767. It could carry 200 to 300 passengers on point-to-point routes up to 8,500 nautical miles [nmi] (15,700 km; 9,800 mi), a shift from hub-and-spoke travel. The twinjet is powered by General Electric GEnx or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 high-bypass turbofans. It is the first airliner with an airframe primarily made of composite materials and makes greater use of electrical systems. Externally, it is recognizable by its four-window cockpit, raked wingtips, and noise-reducing chevrons on its engine nacelles. Development and production rely on subcontractors around the world more than for previous Boeing aircraft. Since March 2021 final assembly has been at the Boeing South Carolina factory; it was formerly in the Boeing Everett Factory in Washington. The initial 186-foot-long (57 m) 787-8 typically seats 248 passengers over a range of 7,305 nmi (13,529 km; 8,406 mi), with a 502,500 lb (227.9 t) MTOW compared to 560,000 lb (250 t) for later variants. The stretched 787-9, 206 ft (63 m) long, can fly 7,565 nmi (14,010 km; 8,706 mi) with 296 passengers; it entered service on August 7, 2014, with All Nippon Airways. The further stretched 787-10, 224 ft (68 m) long, seating 336 over 6,330 nmi (11,720 km; 7,280 mi), entered service with Singapore Airlines on April 3, 2018. Early 787 operations encountered several problems caused mainly by its lithium-ion batteries, including fires onboard some aircraft. In January 2013, the U.S. FAA grounded all 787s until it approved the revised battery design in April 2013. Significant quality control issues from 2019 onward caused a production slowdown and, from January 2021 until August 2022, an almost total cessation of deliveries. Boeing has spent $32 billion on the program; estimates for the number of aircraft sales needed to break even vary between 1,300 and 2,000. As of April 2025, the 787 program has received 2,010 orders and made 1,182 deliveries with no fatalities and no hull losses. == Development == === Background === During the late 1990s, Boeing considered replacement aircraft programs due to slowing sales of the 767 and 747-400. Two new aircraft were proposed. The 747X would have lengthened the 747-400 and improved efficiency, and the Sonic Cruiser would have achieved 15% higher speeds (approximately Mach 0.98) while burning fuel at the same rate as the 767. Market interest for the 747X was tepid; several major American airlines, including Continental Airlines, showed initial enthusiasm for the Sonic Cruiser, although concerns about the operating cost were also expressed. The global airline-market was disrupted by the 9/11 attacks and increased petroleum prices, making airlines more interested in efficiency than speed. The worst-affected airlines, those in the United States, had been considered the most likely customers of the Sonic Cruiser; thus the Sonic Cruiser was officially canceled on December 20, 2002. On January 29, 2003, Boeing announced an alternative product, the 7E7, using Sonic Cruiser technology in a more conventional configuration. The emphasis on a smaller midsize twinjet rather than a large 747-size aircraft represented a shift from the hub-and-spoke theory toward the point-to-point theory, in response to analysis of focus groups. Randy Baseler, Boeing Commercial Airplanes VP Marketing stated that airport congestion comes from large numbers of regional jets and small single-aisles, flying to destinations where a 550-seat Airbus A380 would be too large; to reduce the number of departures, smaller airplanes can increase by 20% in size and airline hubs can be avoided with point-to-point transit. In 2003, a recent addition to the Boeing board of directors, James McNerney (who would become Boeing's Chairman and CEO in 2005), supported the need for a new aircraft to regain market share from Airbus. The directors on Boeing's board, Harry Stonecipher (Boeing's President and CEO) and John McDonnell issued an ultimatum to "develop the plane for less than 40 percent of what the 777 had cost to develop 13 years earlier, and build each plane out of the gate for less than 60 percent of the 777's unit costs in 2003", and approved a development budget estimated at US$7 billion as Boeing management claimed that they would "require subcontractors to foot the majority of costs." Boeing Commercial Airplanes president Alan Mulally, who had previously served as general manager of the 777 programs contrasted the difference in the approval process by the board between the 777 and 787 saying "In the old days, you would go to the board and ask for X amount of money, and they'd counter with Y amount of money, and then you'd settle on a number, and that's what you'd use to develop the plane. These days, you go to the board, and they say, 'Here's the budget for this airplane, and we'll be taking this piece of it off the top, and you get what's left; don't fuck up.'" The replacement for the Sonic Cruiser project was named "7E7" (with a development code name of "Y2"). Technology from the Sonic Cruiser and 7E7 was to be used as part of Boeing's project to replace its entire airliner product line, an endeavor called the Yellowstone Project (of which the 7E7 became the first stage). Early concept images of the 7E7 included rakish cockpit windows, a dropped nose, and a distinctive "shark-fin" tail. The "E" was said to stand for various things, such as "efficiency" or "environmentally friendly". In the end, Boeing said it stood for "Eight". In July 2003, a public naming competition was held for the 7E7, for which out of 500,000 votes cast online the winning title was Dreamliner. Other names included eLiner, Global Cruiser, and Stratoclimber. On April 26, 2004, Japanese airline All Nippon Airways (ANA) became the launch customer for the 787, announcing a firm order for 50 aircraft with deliveries to begin in late 2008. The ANA order was initially specified as 30 787-3, 290–330 seat, one-class domestic aircraft, and 20 787-8, long-haul, 210–250 seat, two-class aircraft for regional international routes such as Tokyo-Narita to Beijing-Capital, and could perform routes to cities not previously served, such as Denver, Moscow, and New Delhi. The 787-3 and 787-8 were to be the initial variants, with the 787-9 entering service in 2010. On October 5, 2012, Indian state carrier Air India became the first carrier to take possession of a Dreamliner that was manufactured in the Charleston, South Carolina, Boeing plant. This was the first Boeing Dreamliner that was manufactured outside of Washington state. Boeing would go on to use both the Everett and South Carolina plants to deliver the Dreamliner. The 787 was designed to be the first production airliner with the fuselage comprising one-piece composite barrel sections instead of the multiple aluminum sheets and some 50,000 fasteners used on existing aircraft. Boeing selected two new engines to power the 787, the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx. Boeing stated the 787 would be approximately 20 percent more fuel-efficient than the 767, with approximately 40 percent of the efficiency gain from the engines, plus gains from aerodynamic improvements, increased use of lighter-weight composite materials, and advanced systems. The airframe underwent extensive structural testing during its design. The 787-8 and −9 were intended to have a certified 330 minute ETOPS capability. During the design phase, the 787 underwent extensive wind tunnel testing at Boeing's Transonic Wind Tunnel, QinetiQ's five-meter wind tunnel at Farnborough, United Kingdom, and NASA Ames Research Center's wind tunnel, as well as at the French aerodynamics research agency, ONERA. The final styling was more conservative than earlier proposals, with the fin, nose, and cockpit windows changed to a more conventional form. By 2005, customer-announced orders and commitments for the 787 reached 237 aircraft. Boeing initially priced the 787-8 variant at US$120 million, a low figure that surprised the industry. By 2007, the list price had increased to US$157–167 million, eventually exceeding US$200 million by the time the aircraft received type certification. Airlines and lessors do not pay the full list price, with market prices for the 787-8 being up to 46% lower. === Manufacturing and suppliers === On December 16, 2003, Boeing announced that the 787 would be assembled in its factory in Everett, Washington. Instead of conventionally building the aircraft from the ground up, the final assembly employed 800 to 1,200 people to join completed subassemblies and integrate systems. Boeing assigned global subcontractors to do more assembly work, delivering completed subassemblies to Boeing for final assembly. This approach was intended to result in a leaner, simpler assembly line and lower inventory, with pre-installed systems reducing final assembly time by three-quarters to three days. Subcontractors had early difficulties procuring needed parts and finishing subassemblies on schedule, leaving remaining assembly work for Boeing to complete as "traveled work." In 2010, Boeing considered in-house construction of the 787-9 tail; the tail of the 787-8 is made by Alenia. The 787 was unprofitable for some subcontractors; Alenia's parent company, Finmeccanica, had a total loss of €750 million on the project. Subcontracted assemblies included wing and center wing box (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan; Subaru Corporation, Japan); horizontal stabilizers (Alenia Aeronautica, Italy; Korea Aerospace Industries, South Korea); fuselage sections (Global Aeronautica, Italy; Boeing, North Charleston, US; Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Japan; Spirit AeroSystems, Wichita, US; Korean Air, South Korea); passenger doors (Latécoère, France); cargo doors, access doors, and crew escape door (Saab AB, Sweden); software development (HCL Enterprise, India); floor beams (TAL Manufacturing Solutions Limited, India); wiring (Labinal, France); wing-tips, flap support fairings, wheel well bulkhead, and longerons (Korean Air, South Korea); landing gear (Messier-Bugatti-Dowty, UK/France); and power distribution and management systems, air conditioning packs (Hamilton Sundstrand, Connecticut, US). To speed up deliveries, Boeing modified four used 747-400s into 747 Dreamlifters to transport 787 wings, fuselage sections, and other smaller parts. Japanese industrial participation was key to the project. Japanese companies co-designed and built 35% of the aircraft; the first time that outside firms played a key design role on Boeing airliner wings. The Japanese government supported development with an estimated US$2 billion in loans. On April 26, 2006, Japanese manufacturer Toray Industries and Boeing signed a production agreement involving US$6 billion worth of carbon fiber, extending a 2004 contract. In May 2007, the final assembly on the first 787 began at Everett. Boeing worked to trim excess weight since assembly of the first airframe began; in late 2006, the first six 787s were stated to be overweight, with the first aircraft being 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) heavier than specified. The seventh and subsequent aircraft would be the first optimized 787-8s expected to meet all goals. Accordingly, some parts were redesigned to include more use of titanium. In July 2015, Reuters reported that Boeing was considering reducing the use of titanium to reduce construction costs. Early built 787s (line numbers under 20) were overweight, increasing their fuel burn and reducing their maximum range, and some carriers decided to take later aircraft. Boeing struggled to sell these aircraft, eventually offering significant discounts and scrapping one. Because of their line numbers, these aircraft were nicknamed the "Terrible Teens." Boeing planned the first flight by the end of August 2007 and premiered the first 787 (registered N787BA) at a rollout ceremony on July 8, 2007. The 787 had 677 orders at this time, which is more orders from launch to roll-out than any previous wide-body airliner. The major systems were not installed at the time; many parts were attached with temporary non-aerospace fasteners requiring replacement with flight fasteners later. In September 2007, Boeing announced a three-month delay, blaming a shortage of fasteners as well as incomplete software. On October 10, 2007, a second three-month delay to the first flight and a six-month delay to first deliveries were announced due to supply chain problems, a lack of documentation from overseas suppliers, and flight guidance software delays. Less than a week later, Mike Bair, the 787 program manager was replaced. On January 16, 2008, Boeing announced a third three-month delay to the first flight of the 787, citing insufficient progress on "traveled work." On March 28, 2008, to gain more control over the supply chain, Boeing announced plans to buy Vought Aircraft Industries' interest in Global Aeronautica; a later agreement was also made to buy Vought's factory in North Charleston. On April 9, 2008, a fourth delay was announced, shifting the maiden flight to the fourth quarter of 2008, and delaying initial deliveries by around 15 months to the third quarter of 2009. The 787-9 variant was postponed to 2012 and the 787-3 variant was to follow at a later date. On November 4, 2008, a fifth delay was announced due to incorrect fastener installation and the Boeing machinists strike, stating that the first test flight would not occur in the fourth quarter of 2008. After assessing the program schedule with suppliers, in December 2008, Boeing stated that the first flight was delayed until the second quarter of 2009. Airlines, such as United Airlines and Air India, stated their intentions to seek compensation from Boeing for the delays. A secondary factor in the delays faced by the 787 program was the lack of detailed specifications provided to partners and suppliers. In previous programs Boeing had supplied high level design data, but for the 787, decided to provide broad level specifications only, on the assumption that relevant partners had the competencies to perform the design and integration work with the limited data. This decision created several delays as suppliers struggled to work with the limited design data. === Pre-flight ground testing === As Boeing worked with its suppliers toward production, the design proceeded through a series of test goals. On August 23, 2007, a crash test involving a vertical drop of a partial composite fuselage section from about 15 ft (4.6 m) onto a 1 in (25 mm)-thick steel plate occurred in Mesa, Arizona; the results matched predictions, allowing modeling of various crash scenarios using computational analysis instead of further physical tests. While critics had expressed concerns that a composite fuselage could shatter and burn with toxic fumes during crash landings, test data indicated no greater toxicity than conventional metal airframes. The crash test was the third in a series of demonstrations conducted to match FAA requirements, including additional certification criteria due to the wide-scale use of composite materials. The 787 meets the FAA's requirement that passengers have at least as good a chance of surviving a crash landing as they would with current metal airliners. On August 7, 2007, on-time certification of the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engine by European and US regulators was received. The alternative GE GEnx-1B engine achieved certification on March 31, 2008. On June 20, 2008, the first aircraft was powered up, for testing the electrical supply and distribution systems. A non-flightworthy static test airframe was built; on September 27, 2008, the fuselage was successfully tested at 14.9 psi (103 kPa) differential, which is 150 percent of the maximum pressure expected in commercial service. In December 2008, the 787's maintenance program was passed by the FAA. On May 3, 2009, the first test 787 was moved to the flight line following extensive factory testing, including landing gear swings, systems integration verification, and a total run-through of the first flight. On May 4, 2009, a press report indicated a 10–15% range reduction, about 6,900 nmi (12,800 km; 7,900 mi) instead of the originally promised 7,700 to 8,200 nautical miles (14,300 to 15,200 km; 8,900 to 9,400 mi), for early aircraft that were about 8% overweight. Substantial redesign work was expected to correct this, which would complicate increases in production rates; Boeing stated the early 787-8s would have a range of almost 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi). As a result, some airlines reportedly delayed deliveries of 787s to take later planes that may be closer to the original estimates. Boeing expected to have the weight issues addressed by the 21st production model. On June 15, 2009, during the Paris Air Show, Boeing said that the 787 would make its first flight within two weeks. On June 23, the first flight was postponed due to structural reasons. Boeing provided an updated 787 schedule on August 27, 2009, with the first flight planned to occur by the end of 2009 and deliveries to begin at the end of 2010. The company expected to write off US$2.5 billion because it considered the first three Dreamliners built unsellable and suitable only for flight tests. On October 28, 2009, Boeing selected Charleston, SC as the site for a second 787 production line, after soliciting bids from multiple states. On December 12, 2009, the first 787 completed high-speed taxi tests, the last major step before flight. === Flight testing === On December 15, 2009, Boeing conducted the 787-8 maiden flight from Paine Field in Everett, Washington, at 10:27 am PST and landed three hours later at 1:33 p.m. at Seattle's Boeing Field. During the flight the 787 reached a top speed of 180 kn (333 km/h) and maximum altitude of 13,200 ft (4,000 m). Originally scheduled for ⁠5+1/2⁠ hours, the test flight was shortened to three hours due to unfavorable weather conditions. The six-aircraft ground and flight test program was scheduled to be done in eight and a half months and 6800 hours, which was the fastest certification campaign for a new Boeing commercial design. The flight test program comprised six aircraft, ZA001 through ZA006, four with Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines and two with GE GEnx-1B64 engines. The second 787, ZA002 in All Nippon Airways livery, flew to Boeing Field on December 22, 2009, to join the flight test program; the third 787, ZA004 made its first flight on February 24, 2010, followed by ZA003 on March 14, 2010. On March 24, 2010, flutter and ground effects testing was completed, clearing the aircraft to fly its entire flight envelope. On March 28, 2010, the 787 completed the ultimate wing load test, which requires that the wings of a fully assembled aircraft be loaded to 150% of the design limit load and held for 3 seconds. The wings were flexed approximately 25 ft (7.6 m) upward during the test. Unlike past aircraft, the wings were not tested to failure. On April 7, data showed the test had been a success. On April 23, 2010, the newest 787, ZA003, arrived at the McKinley Climatic Laboratory hangar at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, for extreme weather testing in temperatures ranging from 115 to −45 °F (46 to −43 °C), including takeoff preparations at both temperature extremes. ZA005, the fifth 787 and the first with GEnx engines, began ground engine tests in May 2010, and made its first flight on June 16, 2010. In June 2010, gaps were discovered in the horizontal stabilizers of test aircraft due to improperly installed shims; all aircraft were inspected and repaired. That same month, a 787 experienced its first in-flight lightning strike; inspections found no damage. As composites can have as little as 1/1,000th the electrical conductivity of aluminum, conductive material is added to alleviate potential risks and to meet FAA requirements. The FAA also planned requirement changes to help the 787 show compliance. In December 2019, it was reported that Boeing had removed the copper foil that formed part of the protection against lightning strikes to the wings of the aircraft; it then worked with the FAA to override concerns raised. The 787 made its first appearance at an international air show at the Farnborough Airshow, United Kingdom, on July 18, 2010. On August 2, 2010, a Trent 1000 engine suffered a blowout at Rolls-Royce's test facility during ground testing. This engine failure caused a reevaluation of the timeline for installing Trent 1000 engines; on August 27, 2010, Boeing stated that the first delivery to launch customer ANA would be delayed until early 2011. That same month, Boeing faced compensation claims from airlines owing to ongoing delivery delays. In September 2010, it was reported that two additional 787s might join the test fleet for a total of eight flight test aircraft. On September 10, 2010, a partial engine surge occurred in a Trent engine on ZA001 at Roswell. On October 4, 2010, the sixth 787, ZA006 joined the test program with its first flight. On November 9, 2010, the second 787, ZA002 made an emergency landing at Laredo International Airport, Texas, after smoke and flames were detected in the main cabin during a test flight. The electrical fire caused some systems to fail before landing. Following this incident, Boeing suspended flight testing on November 10, 2010; ground testing continued. After investigation, the in-flight fire was primarily attributed to foreign object debris (FOD) that was present in the electrical bay. After electrical system and software changes, the 787 resumed flight testing on December 23, 2010. === Test evaluation and certification === On November 5, 2010, it was reported that some 787 deliveries would be delayed to address problems found during flight testing. In January 2011, the first 787 delivery was rescheduled to the third quarter of 2011 due to software and electrical updates following the in-flight fire. By February 24, 2011, the 787 had completed 80% of the test conditions for the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engine and 60% of the conditions for the General Electric GEnx-1B engine. In July 2011, ANA performed a week of operations testing using a 787 in Japan. The test aircraft had flown 4,828 hours in 1,707 flights combined by August 15, 2011. During testing, the 787 visited 14 countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America to test in extreme climates and conditions and for route testing. On August 13, 2011, certification testing of the Rolls-Royce powered 787-8 finished. The FAA and European Aviation Safety Agency certified the 787 on August 26, 2011, at a ceremony in Everett, Washington. === Entry into service === Certification cleared the way for deliveries and in 2011, Boeing prepared to increase 787 production rates from two to ten aircraft per month at assembly lines in Everett and Charleston over two years. Legal difficulties clouded production at Charleston; on April 20, 2011, the National Labor Relations Board alleged that a second production line in South Carolina violated two sections of the National Labor Relations Act. In December 2011, the National Labor Relations Board dropped its lawsuit after the Machinists' union withdrew its complaint as part of a new contract with Boeing. The first 787 assembled in South Carolina was rolled out on April 27, 2012. The first 787 was officially delivered to All Nippon Airways (ANA) on September 25, 2011, at the Boeing Everett factory. A ceremony to mark the occasion was also held the next day. On September 27, it flew to Tokyo Haneda Airport. The airline took delivery of the second 787 on October 13, 2011. On October 26, 2011, an ANA 787 flew the first commercial flight from Tokyo's Narita International Airport to Hong Kong International Airport. The Dreamliner entered service some three years later than originally planned. Tickets for the flight were sold in an online auction; the highest bidder had paid $34,000 for a seat. An ANA 787 flew its first long-haul flight to Europe on January 21, 2012, from Haneda to Frankfurt Airport. === Proposed variants === ==== Freighter version ==== Even after production of the 787 began, Boeing continued to produce the 767 as a freighter. More stringent emissions and noise limits will go into effect in 2028 and prevent 767 sales in its current form. To address this concern, Boeing has widely reported to be working on a freighter version of the 787, showing proposals to customers including FedEx Express. As of May 2024, production of the 787 Freighter is expected to begin between 2028 and 2033. ==== 787-3 ==== The 787-3 would have carried 290–330 passengers in two-class over 2,500–3,050 nmi (4,630–5,650 km; 2,880–3,510 mi) range, limited by a 364,000 lb (165 t) MTOW. In April 2008, to keep the −8 on track for delivery, the −9 stretch was postponed from 2010 to at least 2012 and prioritized before the 787-3 and its 43 orders to follow without a firm delivery date. It kept the −8 length but its 51.7 m wingspan would have fit in ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code D. It was designed to operate on Boeing 757-300/Boeing 767-200 sized regional routes from airports with restricted gate spacing. The wingspan was decreased by using blended winglets instead of raked wingtips. By January 2010, all orders, from Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways, had been converted to the 787-8. As it was designed specifically for the Japanese market, Boeing would likely scrap it after they switched orders. The −8's longer wingspan makes it more efficient on stages longer than 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi). In December 2010, Boeing withdrew the short-haul model as it struggled to produce the 787-8 after program delays of three years. === Market and costs === The 787 Dreamliner program has reportedly cost Boeing $32 billion. In 2013, the 787 program was expected to be profitable after 1,100 aircraft have been sold. At the end of 2013, the cost of producing a 787 exceeded the purchase price. Boeing's accounting method books sales immediately and distributes estimated production costs over ten years for the 1,300 aircraft it expects to deliver during that time. JPMorgan Chase analyst Joseph Nadol estimated the program's cash loss to be $45 million per airplane, decreasing as the program moves forward. The actual cash flow reflects Boeing collecting most of the purchase price upon delivery; Boeing expects deferred costs to total $25 billion before the company begins to break even on production; the comparable number for the Boeing 777, adjusted for inflation, is $3.7 billion. Boeing lost $30 million per 787 delivered in the first quarter of 2015, although Boeing planned to break even by the end of the year. The accumulated losses for the 787 totaled almost $27 billion (~$33.9 billion in 2023) by May 2015. The cost of producing the fuselage may increase because of a tentative deal reached with Spirit Aerosystems of Wichita, Kansas, wherein severe price cuts demanded by Boeing would be eased, in return for a comprehensive agreement that lowers the cost of fuselages for other jetliners that Spirit helps Boeing manufacture. In the second quarter of 2015, Boeing lost $25 million (~$31.4 million in 2023) on each 787 delivered but was planning to break even per plane before the year-end. After that Boeing hoped to build 900 Dreamliners over six years at an average profit of more than $35 million each. But with deferred costs peaking in 2016 at $33 billion, (~$41.1 billion in 2023) Leeham analyst Bjorn Fehrm believes Boeing cannot make an overall profit on the program. Ted Piepenbrock, an academic affiliated with MIT and the University of Oxford, projects losses decreasing through the first 700 airliners and forecasts the cumulative deferred costs to peak beyond $34 billion. The model most favorable to Boeing projects a program loss of $5 billion after delivering 2,000 Dreamliners. Boeing's original development investment, estimated at least at a further $20 billion, is not included in these costs. To recoup the deferred costs and earn its goal of a "low single-digit" overall profit margin, Boeing has to make an average profit of more than $50 million on the final 205 airplanes of the accounting block to be delivered from 2020: a profit margin of more than 30% while the mature Boeing 737 and 777 programs have 20% to 25% margins. Boeing is reaching it through a larger proportion of the 20% to 40% higher price −9/10s, costing only 5% to 10% more than the −8 with lower production costs from reliability and producibility investments and the expected experience curve. Former Douglas Aircraft chief economist Adam Pilarski notes that two assembly sites slow the experience curve. Boeing assumed a faster improvement than on previous programs which had not happened. Competition with the Airbus A350 and the launch of the A330neo put strong pressure on the 787 pricing. On July 21, 2016, Boeing reported charges of $847 million against two flight-test 787s built in 2009. Boeing had planned to refurbish and sell them but instead wrote them off as research and development expense. In 2017, Boeing's Jim Albaugh said that the requested return on net assets (RONA) led to outsourcing systems reducing investment, but improving RONA had to be balanced against the risk of loss of control. From 2019, Boeing was to build 14 787s per month (168 per year), helping to offset the $28 billion in deferred production costs accumulated through 2015 and would add 100 aircraft to the current accounting block of 1,300 at the end of 2017 third quarter. In 2019, the list price for a 787-8 was US$248.3M, $292.5M for a 787-9, and $338.4M for a 787-10. The valuation for a new 787-9 is $145 million in 2018, up from $135 million in 2014, but it may have been sold for $110–115 million to prevent A330neo sales while an A330-900 is worth $115 million. In February 2018, Boeing priced six 787-9s for less than $100–115m each to Hawaiian Airlines, close to their production cost of $80–90m, to overcome its A330-800 order. By late 2018, deferred production costs were reduced from a peak of $27.6 billion in early 2016 to $23.5 billion as assembly efficiency improved and the 800th production started. === Production rate === By 2014, Boeing planned to improve financial return by reorganizing the production line, renegotiating contracts with suppliers and labor unions, and increasing the 787 production rate, stepwise, to 12 airplanes per month by the end of 2016 and 14 airplanes per month by the end of the decade. By April 2015, the production rate was 10 per month. From late 2020, the production rate is to be reduced from 14 to 12 airplanes per month due to the China-United States trade war. Production could be trimmed to 10 planes per month as demand for wide-body aircraft falters. On October 1, 2020, Boeing announced the 787 would be produced only in North Charleston from mid-2021 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, as the production rate fell to six per month. In December, the monthly rate was further reduced to five. === Quality-control issues (2019–2025) === ==== 2019 ==== In 2019, reports began to emerge about quality-control issues at the North Charleston plant leading to questions about the jet's safety; and later that same year KLM, which had discovered loose seats, missing and incorrectly installed pins, nuts and bolts not fully tightened and a fuel-line clamp left unsecured on its jet, complained that the standard of manufacture was "way below acceptable standards." ==== 2020 ==== Early in 2020, Boeing engineers complained about depressions in the 787's vertical tail fin, affecting hundreds of planes or the vast majority of the fleet. Workers in Charleston and Everett had improperly discarded shims before the final installation of fasteners, which could lead to structural failure under limited loads. In late August 2020, Boeing grounded eight 787s due to such improper fuselage shimming and inner skin surfacing issues—issues which proved to have been discovered in August 2019 at Boeing South Carolina. The following month, Boeing admitted that "nonconforming" sections of the rear fuselage did not meet engineering standards, and the FAA was investigating quality-control lapses dating back to the introduction of the 787 in 2011 and considering requiring additional inspections for up to 900 of the roughly 1,000 Dreamliners in service. The FAA then began to inquire into the company's Quality Management System (QMS), which Boeing had previously argued justified a reduction of 900 quality inspectors, but which had failed to detect either the shim or skin surface issues. A third quality-control issue then emerged, this time with the 787's horizontal stabilizers, and affecting as many as 893 Dreamliners: workers in Salt Lake City had clamped portions of the tail section too tightly, which could lead to premature material fatigue. At this point Boeing expected a one-time inspection during regularly scheduled maintenance to address the issues and expected merely to slow 787 deliveries "in the near term". ==== 2021 ==== By January 2021, Boeing had halted 787 deliveries to complete the inspection relating to poor quality control, then in March the FAA withdrew Boeing's delegated authority to inspect and sign off on four new 787s, saying that it would extend this withdrawal to further aircraft if needed. Boeing briefly resumed deliveries on March 26, 2021, handing over one 787-9 to United Airlines, but deliveries ceased again in May 2021; meaning that almost all deliveries had been paused for nearly a year. The delay generated $1 billion in abnormal costs and caused the company to cut production to around two planes a month. On July 13, Boeing discovered gaps at joints in the forward pressure bulkhead and again reduced production; the company also investigated whether the issue affected 787s already in service. Questions were asked about the inspection process used to check the work, and Boeing worked with the FAA to fix the problem, which was said to pose "no immediate threat to flight safety" and did not require 787s already in service to be grounded. On September 4, the Wall Street Journal reported that the FAA would not accept Boeing's proposed new inspection method, aiming to speed deliveries with targeted checks rather than nose-to-tail teardowns, until at least late October; and in late November it was reported that the FAA had discovered further problems, including additional out of tolerance gaps and contamination and associated weakening of fuselage composites. The rectification process for existing aircraft was made more complex by a lack of detailed configuration data on each aircraft. The new problems and the extension of the 13 month long disruption to 787 deliveries led to anger from buyers; a slide in the company's stock price; and demands by a subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives for a review of the FAA's oversight of the plane. ==== 2022 ==== In January 2022, it was reported that deliveries were not anticipated to restart until April 2022. In February, the FAA announced that it would withdraw Boeing's delegated authority to issue airworthiness certificates for individual 787 aircraft until Boeing can demonstrate consistent quality, stable delivery processes, and a robust plan for the rework needed on the undelivered aircraft in storage. In late March Boeing began sounding out suppliers about their ability to support the production of up to seven aircraft a month by late 2023. Vistara, which had been expecting delivery of four Dreamliners in 2022, indicated a lack of confidence in Boeing meeting its delivery aims by arranging to lease aircraft instead. Later in April reports began to emerge of a further delay of at least two months, and it was only in late April that Boeing submitted the necessary certification package laying out the inspections and repairs to be undertaken on already constructed planes. The FAA rejected portions of the package as incomplete and returned it to Boeing, indicating a further delay before the resumption of deliveries. In late July, the FAA approved Boeing's revised certification package, leading the company to anticipate resuming deliveries "within days". Deliveries resumed on August 10, 2022, after the FAA granted clearance. ==== 2023 ==== In February 2023, a further problem, of an analysis error by a supplier related to the 787 forward pressure bulkhead, was identified, leading to a further temporary halt in deliveries (but not in production) and a 5% drop in the company's share price. On March 10, the FAA approved the resumption of the deliveries. ==== 2024 ==== In April 2024, Boeing engineer Sam Salehpour reported that the 787's (as well as the 777's) fuselage had been improperly assembled and that it could cause individual aircraft to break apart in mid-air. Salehpour also claimed that he tried to raise these concerns to Boeing but was reprimanded by the company. The FAA is investigating Salehpour's allegations. Boeing released a statement rejecting these claims. ==== 2025 ==== In early 2025, Italian authorities found out about a fraud scheme involving over 4,800 parts. The investigation indicated that Manufacturing Process Specification (MPS), an Italian supplier, and its subcontractors had falsified quality certifications for the components used in the Dreamliner. MPS, however, no longer exists as a company. == Design == The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long-haul, widebody, twin-engine jetliner, designed with lightweight structures that are 80% composite by volume; Boeing lists its materials by weight as 50% composite, 20% aluminum, 15% titanium, 10% steel, and 5% other materials. Aluminum has been used throughout the leading edges of wings and tailplanes, titanium is predominantly present within the elements of the engines and fasteners, while various individual components are composed of steel. External features include a smooth nose contour, raked wingtips, and engine nacelles with noise-reducing serrated edges (chevrons). The longest-range 787 variant can fly up to 7,565 nmi (14,010 km; 8,710 mi), or the even longer Qantas QF 9 flight between Perth and London Heathrow, over 7,828 nmi (14,497 km; 9,008 mi). Its cruising airspeed is Mach 0.85 (488 kn; 903 km/h; 561 mph). The aircraft has a design life of 44,000 flight cycles. === Flight systems === Among 787 flight systems, a key change from traditional airliners is the electrical architecture. The architecture is bleedless and replaces bleed air with electrically powered compressors and four of six hydraulic power sources with electrically-driven pumps while eliminating pneumatics and hydraulics from some subsystems, e.g. engine starters and brakes. Boeing says that this system extracts 35% less power from the engines, allowing increased thrust and improved fuel efficiency. Spoiler electromechanical actuators (SEMAs) control two of the seven spoiler pairs on each wing surface, providing roll control, air and ground speed brake, and droop capabilities similar to those provided by the hydraulic actuators used on the remaining spoiler surfaces. The SEMAs are controlled by electronic motor control units (EMCUs). The total available onboard electrical power is 1.45 megawatts, which is five times the power available on conventional pneumatic airliners; the most notable electrically-powered systems include engine start, cabin pressurization, horizontal-stabilizer trim, and wheel brakes. Wing ice protection is another new system; it uses electro-thermal heater mats on the wing slats instead of traditional hot bleed air. An active gust alleviation system, similar to the system used on the B-2 bomber, improves ride quality during turbulence. The 787 has a "fly-by-wire" control system similar in architecture to that of the Boeing 777. The flight deck features multi-function LCDs, which use an industry-standard graphical user interface widget toolkit (Cockpit Display System Interfaces to User Systems / ARINC 661). The 787 flight deck includes two head-up displays (HUDs) as a standard feature. Like other Boeing airliners, the 787 uses a yoke (as opposed to a side-stick). Under consideration is the future integration of forward-looking infrared into the HUD for thermal sensing, allowing pilots to "see" through clouds. Lockheed Martin's Orion spacecraft will use a glass cockpit derived from Honeywell International's 787 flight deck systems. Honeywell and Rockwell Collins provide flight control, guidance, and other avionics systems, including standard dual head-up guidance systems, Thales supplies the integrated standby flight display and power management, while Meggitt/Securaplane provides the auxiliary power unit (APU) starting system, electrical power-conversion system, and battery-control system with lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) batteries by GS Yuasa. One of the two batteries weighs 28.5 kg and is rated 29.6 V, 76 Ah, giving 2.2 kWh. Battery charging is controlled by four independent systems to prevent overcharging, following early lab testing. The battery systems were the focus of a regulatory investigation due to multiple lithium battery fires, which led to the grounding of the 787 fleet starting in January 2013. A version of Ethernet (Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX) / ARINC 664) transmits data between the flight deck and aircraft systems. The control, navigation, and communication systems are networked with the passenger cabin's in-flight internet systems. In January 2008, FAA concerns were reported regarding possible passenger access to the 787's computer networks; Boeing has stated that various protective hardware and software solutions are employed, including air gaps to physically separate the networks, and firewalls for software separation. These measures prevent data transfer from the passenger internet system to the maintenance or navigation systems. The −9/10 hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) system delays the critical transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far back as possible on the vertical tail by passive suction from leading-edge holes to mid-fin low-pressure doors but was dropped from the tailplane due to lower benefits than the extra complexity and cost. === Airframe === The 787 is the first commercial aircraft to have an airframe majority made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), applied in: the empennage, fuselage, wings, doors, and in most other main components. Each 787 contains approximately 77,000 lb (35 t) of CFRP, made with 51,000 lb (23 t) of pure carbon fiber. CFRP materials have a higher strength-to-weight ratio than conventional aluminum structural materials, which contributes significantly to the 787's weight savings, as well as superior fatigue behavior. Historically, the first CFRP primary structure in Boeing commercial aircraft was put into service in 1984 on the horizontal tail of the Boeing 737 Classic, and in the mid-1990s on both vertical and horizontal tail (empennage) of the Boeing 777. In the early 2000s, while studying the proposed Sonic Cruiser, Boeing built and tested the first CFRP fuselage section for commercial aircraft, a 20-foot (6.1-meter) long anechoic chamber, which later applied to the Dreamliner. Instead of designing one-piece composite fuselage barrels like the 787, the competing Airbus A350 uses a slightly more conventional approach with CFRP panels on CFRP frames, which is considered less risky in terms of assembly tolerance between fuselage sections. Safety can be a concern due to lower impact energy absorption and poorer fire, smoke and toxicity capability of CFRP fuselages in the event of a crash landing, leading to whistleblower complaints at Boeing by Vince Weldon, who was fired in 2006. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) later denied Weldon whistleblower status "largely on the grounds that Boeing's 787 design does not violate any FAA regulations or standards". Boeing further argued that CFRP structures have been used on empennages and other parts of airliners for many years without incident, and special damage detection procedures will be instituted for the 787 to detect any potential hidden damage. In 2006, Boeing launched the 787 GoldCare program. This is an optional, comprehensive life-cycle management service, whereby aircraft in the program are routinely monitored and repaired, as needed. Although the first program of its kind from Boeing, post-sale protection programs are not new; such programs are usually offered by third party service centers. Boeing is also designing and testing composite hardware so inspections are mainly visual. This reduces the need for ultrasonic and other non-visual inspection methods, saving time and money. === Interior === The 787-8 is designed to typically seat 234 passengers in a three-class setup, 240 in two-class domestic configuration, and 296 passengers in a high-density economy arrangement. Seat rows can be arranged in four to seven abreast in first or business—e.g., 1–⁠2–⁠1, 2–⁠2–⁠2, or 2–⁠3–⁠2. Eight or nine abreast are options in economy—e.g., 2–⁠4–⁠2 or 3–⁠3–⁠3. Typical seat room ranges from 46 to 61 in (120 to 150 cm) pitch in first, 36 to 39 in (91 to 99 cm) in business, and 32 to 34 in (81 to 86 cm) in economy. Cabin interior width is approximately 18 feet (550 cm) at armrest level. The Dreamliner's cabin width is 15 inches (38 cm) more than that of the Airbus A330 and A340, 5 inches (13 cm) less than the A350, and 16 in (41 cm) less than the 777. The 787's economy seats can be up to 17.5 in (44.4 cm) wide for nine-abreast seating and up to 19 inches (48 cm) wide for eight-abreast seating arrangements. Most airlines are selecting the nine-abreast (3–3–3) configuration. The 787's nine-abreast seating for economy provides passengers less space, particularly across the hips and shoulders, than any other jet airliner. Some observers recommended passengers avoid flying 787s with nine-abreast seating, although others suggested that the 787 is more comfortable than other airliners. The 787's cabin windows have dimensions of 10.7 by 18.4 in (27 by 47 cm), and a high eye level so passengers can maintain a view of the horizon. The composite fuselage permits larger windows without the need for structural reinforcement. Instead of plastic window shades, the windows use electrochromism-based smart glass (supplied by PPG Industries) allowing flight attendants and passengers to adjust five levels of sunlight and visibility to their liking, reducing cabin glare while maintaining a view to the outside world, but the most opaque setting still has some transparency. While the lavatory window also uses smart glass, it was given a traditional sunshade. The 787's cabin features light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as standard equipment, allowing the aircraft to be entirely "bulbless". LED lights have previously been an option on the Boeing 777 and Airbus aircraft fitted with standard fluorescent lights. The system has three-color LEDs plus a white LED. The 787 interior was designed to better accommodate persons with mobility, sensory, and cognitive disabilities. For example, a 56 by 57 in (140 by 140 cm) convertible lavatory includes a movable center wall that allows two separate lavatories to become one large wheelchair-accessible facility. The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of 6,000 feet (1,800 m) altitude, resulting in a higher pressure than for the 8,000 feet (2,400 m) altitude of older conventional aircraft. According to Boeing, in a joint study with Oklahoma State University, this significantly improves passenger comfort. Cabin air pressurization is provided by electrically driven compressors, rather than traditional engine-bleed air, thereby eliminating the need to cool heated air before it enters the cabin. The cabin's humidity is programmable based on the number of passengers carried and allows 15% humidity settings instead of the 4% found in previous aircraft. The composite fuselage avoids metal fatigue issues associated with higher cabin pressure and eliminates the risk of corrosion from higher humidity levels. The cabin air-conditioning system improves air quality by removing ozone from outside air and, besides standard HEPA filters, which remove airborne particles, uses a gaseous filtration system to remove odors, irritants, and gaseous contaminants, as well as particulates like viruses, bacteria and allergens. === Engines === The Boeing 787 has two engine options: the General Electric GEnx-1B and the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000. As of early 2020, of the 1,484 total 787 orders, 905 (61%) had selected General Electric engines, 476 (32%) had chosen Rolls-Royce engines, and 103 (7%) remained undecided. Both engines use a standardized electrical interface, enabling airlines to install either model with minimal modifications. This interchangeability reduces the time and cost typically associated with switching engine types and is particularly attractive to lessors, as it allows airlines to maintain a common engine type across their fleet when an aircraft changes ownership. While earlier aircraft could accommodate engines from different manufacturers, swaps were rarely performed due to their complexity and expense. Boeing has stated that engine changes on the 787 were designed to take approximately 24 hours, although lessors have reported that in practice it can take as long as 15 days. The 787's engines use an all-electric, bleedless system, adapted from the Sonic Cruiser, that eliminates the need for traditional superheated air conduits used for de-icing, cabin pressurization, and other functions. As part of its "Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2" program, Boeing integrated several noise-reduction features into the aircraft. These include an air inlet lined with sound-absorbing materials and an exhaust duct with a chevron-toothed pattern to promote quieter mixing of exhaust with ambient air. Boeing says these technologies make the 787 significantly quieter both inside the cabin and in surrounding areas, with sound levels kept below 85 decibels at airport boundaries. In 2016, Rolls-Royce began flight testing the Trent 1000 TEN engine, an upgraded version of the Trent 1000 featuring a new compressor system derived from the Trent XWB and a new turbine design for extra thrust, up to 78,000 lbf (350 kN). == Operational history == On December 6, 2011, test aircraft ZA006 (sixth 787), powered by General Electric GEnx engines, flew 10,710 nmi (19,830 km; 12,320 mi) non-stop from Boeing Field eastward to Shahjalal International Airport in Dhaka, Bangladesh, setting a new world distance record for aircraft in the 787's weight class, which is between 440,000 and 550,000 lb (200 and 250 t). This flight surpassed the previous record of 9,127 nautical miles (16,903 km; 10,503 mi), set in 2002 by an Airbus A330. The Dreamliner then continued eastbound from Dhaka to return to Boeing Field, setting a world-circling speed record of 42 hours, 27 minutes. In December 2011, Boeing started a six-month promotion 787 world tour, visiting various cities in China, Africa, the Middle East, Europe, United States, and others. In April 2012, an ANA 787 made a delivery flight from Boeing Field to Haneda Airport partially using biofuel from cooking oil. ANA surveyed 800 passengers who flew the 787 from Tokyo to Frankfurt: expectations were surpassed for 90% of passengers; features that met or exceeded expectations included air quality and cabin pressure (90% of passengers), cabin ambiance (92% of passengers), higher cabin humidity levels (80% of passengers), headroom (40% of passengers) and the larger windows (90% of passengers). 25% said they would go out of their way to again fly on the 787. After its first six months of service, Rolls-Royce powered ANA aircraft were burning around 21% less fuel than the replaced 767-300ER on international flights, slightly better than the 20% originally expected, and 15–20% on domestic routes, while GE-powered Japan Airlines aircraft were potentially slightly better. Other 787 operators have reported similar fuel savings, ranging from 20 to 22% compared with the 767-300ER. An analysis by consultant AirInsight concluded that United Airlines' 787s achieved an operating cost per seat that was 6% lower than the Airbus A330. In November 2017, International Airlines Group chief Willie Walsh said that for its budget carrier Level the lower cost of ownership of its two A330-200 more than offsets the 13,000 lb (6 t) higher fuel burn ($3,500 on a Barcelona-Los Angeles flight). It would introduce three more A330s as there were not enough 787 pilots. Early operators discovered that if the APS5000 Auxiliary power unit was shut down with the inlet door closed, heat continued to build up in the tail compartment and cause the rotor shaft to bow. It could take up to two hours for the shaft to straighten again. This was particularly acute on short haul flights as there was insufficient time to allow the unit to cool before a restart was needed. Procedures were modified and the APU was later redesigned to address the issue. On September 15, 2012, the NTSB requested the grounding of certain 787s due to GE engine failures; GE believed the production problem had been fixed by that time. In December 2012, responding to unhappiness within the airline industry at the continuing issues affecting the aircraft, Boeing CEO James McNerney stated that he regretted the impact on passengers: he went on to say that the 787's issues had been no greater than those experienced with the introduction of other Boeing models such as the 777. In March 2014, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries informed Boeing of a new problem that was caused by a change in manufacturing processes. Employees did not fill gaps with shims to connect wing rib aluminum shear ties to the carbon composite wing panels; the tightened fasteners, without shims, cause excessive stress that creates hairline cracks in the wings, which could enlarge and cause further damage. Forty-two aircraft awaiting delivery were affected, and each required one to two weeks to inspect and repair. Boeing did not expect this problem to affect the overall delivery schedule, even if some airplanes were delivered late. Dispatch reliability is an industry standard measure of the rate of departure from the gate with no more than 15 minutes delay due to technical issues. The 787-8 started out with a ~96% operational reliability, increasing to ~98.5% in April 2015. Daily utilization increased from five hours in 2013 to twelve hours in 2014. Dispatch reliability grew to 99.3% in 2017. Airlines have often assigned the 787 to routes previously flown by larger aircraft that could not return a profit. For example, Air Canada offered a Toronto-Pearson to New Delhi route, first utilizing a Lockheed L1011, then a Boeing 747-400, then an Airbus A340-300, but none of these types were efficient enough to generate profit. The airline operated the route profitably with a 787-9, and credits the right number of seats and greater fuel efficiency for this success. Up to June 30, 2017, after 565 units were delivered since 2011: 60% -8 (340) and 40% -9 (225), the airports with most 787 departures are Haneda Airport with 304 weekly, Narita Airport with 276 and Doha Airport with 265. By the end of 2017, there were 39 airlines operating the 787 on 983 routes with an average length of 5,282 km (2,852 nmi; 3,282 mi), including 163 new routes (17%). As of 24 March 2018, the 787's longest route is Qantas' Perth-London Heathrow, a distance of 14,499 km (7,829 nmi; 9,009 mi) and the second-longest regular scheduled flight behind Qatar Airways' 14,529 km (7,845 nmi; 9,028 mi) route from Doha to Auckland, flown with a Boeing 777-200LR. In March 2020, Air Tahiti Nui executed a record commercial flight of 9,765 mi (8,486 nmi; 15,715 km), from Papeete to Paris-Charles de Gaulle, on a route that would typically refuel at Los Angeles but was able to fly the Boeing 787-9 non-stop because it was "nowhere near full" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2023, the first 787s to be withdrawn from commercial service, two 10-year-old -8s, were torn down by Irish company EirTrade Aviation, as they would otherwise have shortly required 12-year checks and landing-gear overhauls. The used parts were in high demand amid the post-pandemic global shortage. There is no obvious recycling path for the carbon composite airframe. == Variants == The shortest Dreamliner variant, the 787-8 was the first variant to fly in December 2009, then the longer 787-9 in September 2013, followed by the longest variant, the 787-10, in March 2017. These variants are called B788, B789, and B78X, respectively in the list of ICAO aircraft type designators. The short-range 787-3 was canceled in 2010. === 787-8 === With a typical capacity of 248 passengers and a range of 7,305 nautical miles (13,529 km; 8,406 mi), the −8 is the base model of the 787 family and was the first to enter service in 2011. The 787-8 is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-200ER and Airbus A330-200, as well as expand into new non-stop markets where larger planes would not be economically viable. As of January 2023, approximately 26% of 787 orders are for the 787-8 with 386 delivered. In 2018, Boeing said it would change the −8 manufacturing to raise its commonality with the −9 above the current 30% to be more like the 95% commonality between the −9 and −10, as it will benefit from learning from those. When it was launched, a new 787-8 was to cost only slightly more than the 767-300ER, valued new for $85 million at its 1990s peak, but it ended being 20% more costly. It competes with the Airbus A330-800. === 787-9 === Keeping the same wingspan as the 787-8, the 787-9 is a lengthened and strengthened variant with a 20 feet (6.1 m) longer fuselage and a 54,500 pounds (24,700 kg) higher maximum take-off weight (MTOW), seating 296 passengers in a typical two-class cabin configuration over a 7,565 nautical miles (8,706 mi; 14,010 km) range. It features active boundary-layer control on the tail surfaces, reducing drag. The 787-9 is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-300ER and Airbus A330-300. It competes with the Airbus A330-900. In 2005, the entry into service (EIS) was planned for 2010. The firm configuration was finalized on July 1, 2010. By October 2011, deliveries were scheduled to begin in 2014. The prototype 787-9 made its maiden flight from Paine Field on September 17, 2013. By November 8, 2013, it had flown 141 hours. A 787-9 was on static display at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show prior to first delivery. On July 8, 2014, launch customer Air New Zealand took its first 787-9, in a distinctive black livery in a ceremony at Paine Field. The first revenue service was operated by All Nippon Airways on August 7, 2014. Air New Zealand operated its first commercial flight from Auckland to Sydney on August 9, 2014. The 787-9 was to begin commercial service with All Nippon Airways on August 7, 2014. United Airlines was to start the longest nonstop scheduled 787 service between Los Angeles and Melbourne in October 2014. Air China started a 787-9 route between Beijing and Chengdu in May 2016. As of January 2023, 63% of all 787 orders are for the 787-9, with 580 deliveries. A 2014 787-9 leased for $1.05 million per month, and fell to $925,000 per month in 2018. The 20-foot (6.1 m) stretch was achieved by adding 10-foot (3.0 m) (five-frame) extensions forward and aft of the wing. The 787-8 and 787-9 have 50% commonality: the wing, fuselage and systems of the 787-8 had required radical revision to achieve the payload-range goals of the 787-9. Following a major revamp of the original 787-8 wing, the latest configuration for the 787-9 and −10 is the fourth design evolution. On March 25, 2018, a Qantas 787-9 completed the first scheduled non-stop flight between Australia and the UK flying seventeen hours from Perth to London Heathrow. On October 20, 2019, a Qantas 787-9 was flight tested from New York to Sydney with a restricted payload. A team of researchers monitored passengers and crew to investigate wellness and performance on long flights. On March 16, 2020, an Air Tahiti Nui 787-9 achieved the longest commercial flight of 8,485 nmi (15,714 km; 9,764 mi). === 787-10 === In December 2005, pushed by the interest of Emirates and Qantas, Boeing was studying the possibility of stretching the 787-9 further to seat 290 to 310 passengers. This variant would be similar to the capacity of the Boeing 777-200 and the Airbus A350-900, although with a shorter range. Customer discussions were continuing in early 2006. Mike Bair, Boeing's vice president and general manager for the 787 development program at the time, said it was easier to proceed with the 787-10 development after other customers followed Emirates' request. This variant is targeted to replace the Boeing 767-400ER and Airbus A330-300. On May 30, 2013, Singapore Airlines became the launch customer by stating it would order 30 787-10s (provided Boeing launched the program), to be delivered in 2018–2019. On June 18, 2013, Boeing officially launched the 787-10 at the Paris Air Show, with orders or commitments for 102 aircraft from Air Lease Corporation (30), Singapore Airlines (30), United Airlines (20), British Airways (12), and GE Capital Aviation Services (10). As of January 2023, the aircraft has 189 orders out of which 115 have been delivered, 7 of which are stored. This variant was envisioned as replacing Boeing 777-200 and Airbus A340-500 aircraft. It competes with the Airbus A350-900, and according to Boeing, it offers better economics than its Airbus competitor on shorter routes. Steven Udvar-Hazy said, "If it's identically configured, the −10 has a little bit of an edge on the −900", but smaller than Boeing's estimate of 10 percent. The 787-10 is 224 ft (68 m) long, seats 336 passengers in a two-class cabin configuration, and has a range of 6,330 nmi (11,720 km; 7,280 mi). Boeing completed detailed design for the −10 on December 2, 2015. Major assembly began in March 2016. Designers targeted 90% commonality between the 787-9 and −10 and achieved 95%; the 18-foot (5.5 m) stretch was reached by adding 10 ft forward of the wing and 8 ft aft, and by strengthening the fuselage for bending loads in the center wingbox. Because of the length and additional tail strike protection needed, a semilevered landing gear enables rotation over the aft wheels rather than at the bogie center, like the 777-300ER, and the cabin air conditioning system has 15% more capacity. The first and third −10 test-platforms incorporate Rolls-Royce's new Trent 1000 TEN engines, while the second is powered by the competing General Electric GEnx-1B engine. Major fuselage parts were received for final assembly on November 30, 2016. The 787-10's mid-fuselage sections are too large for transport to Everett, Washington and it is built only in Charleston, South Carolina; it is the first Boeing airliner assembled exclusively there. The first −10 was rolled out on February 17, 2017. The variant's first flight took place on March 31, 2017, and lasted 4 hours and 48 minutes. The first test 787-10 aircraft is engaged in flight envelope expansion work and the second joined the program in early May 2017, while the third with a passenger cabin interior to test the uprated environmental control system and Trent fuel-burn performance was scheduled to join in June. The −10 was scheduled to appear at the 2017 Paris Air Show. The second −10 is being used to prove the GE Aviation engines and the third made its first flight on June 8, 2017, when the flight-test programme was 30% complete. Boeing finished final assembly and painting of the first production 787-10 in October 2017, before its certification. The last stages of flight tests focused on fuel burn validation and revised flight control software. At the start of the November 2017 Dubai Air Show, the 787-10 had 171 orders; Emirates committed to 40 787-10s, in two- and three-class cabins for 240 to 330 passengers, to be delivered from 2022 and with conversion rights to the smaller 787-9. These aircraft are adapted for 7–8.5 hour missions, in a 280-seat three–class layout. Emirates' Tim Clark was doubtful it would meet its MTOW for the payload-range required with initial 70,000–72,000 lbf (310–320 kN) thrust engines, but with the current 76,000 lbf (340 kN) turbofans and the −9 early margins gave the −10 "stellar economics". By early 2019, Emirates was considering canceling its 787-10 order, due to engine margins being insufficient for the hot Dubai weather, in favor of the Airbus A350 (which would also replace its last Airbus A380 order). At the 2019 Dubai Air Show, Emirates placed an order for 30 787-9 aircraft rather than the 787-10. In January 2018, the −10 was certified by the FAA after testing for 900 flight hours. Boeing received its production certificate on February 15. It was first delivered to launch customer Singapore Airlines on March 25, 2018. Fitted with 337 seats, 36 in business and 301 in economy, the −10 began commercial service on April 3, 2018. The 8.7% fuselage stretch from the −9 to the −10 likely increased empty weight at a lower rate than the 7.4% growth from the −8 to the −9 due to the 10.7% stretch. Software changes increased the tailplane effectiveness to avoid modifying it. With the same wing but a longer fuselage than the −9, the flutter margin was reduced for the −10 but to avoid stiffening the wing or adding wingtip counterweights for commonality, software oscillates the elevators in the flaps up vertical mode suppression system (F0VMS), similar to the vertical gust load alleviation system. To replace Air New Zealand's 777-200 fleet, Boeing wants to increase the 787-10 MTOW by over 13,000 pounds (5.9 t) to 572,000 pounds (259 t) with some reinforcements and updated fuel systems. This would allow more range, such as the 5,600 nmi (10,400 km; 6,400 mi) trip from Auckland to Los Angeles with no passenger restrictions and some cargo. The increased performance could trickle down to the 787-9, allowing Auckland to New York flights. === BBJ 787 === The 787-8 and −9 are offered as Boeing Business Jets, the first offering 2,415 sq ft (224.4 m2) of floor space and a range of 9,945 nmi (18,418 km; 11,445 mi)), the other 2,775 sq ft (257.8 m2) and 9,485 nmi (17,566 km; 10,915 mi), both with 25 passengers. Through June 2018, fifteen have been ordered, twelve delivered and four were in service. === Experimental === Two 787 aircraft have been used in Boeing's ecoDemonstrator program which aims to develop technology and techniques to reduce the environmental effects of aviation. The testing involves many partner organizations including engine and systems manufacturers, NASA, academic, research, and regulatory institutions. The program started in 2011 with a different airframe being used each year. In 2014, the fourth prototype 787-8 was used for tests including use of sustainable aviation fuel, ceramic matrix composite engine exhaust nozzles, and systems for improved air traffic control (ATC) communications and closer landing approach spacing. In 2020, a new 787-10 took part in the program, including intensive noise reduction trials, and including text-based ATC communications and cabin hygiene and cleansing tests related to the COVID-19 pandemic. After removal of the test equipment, the aircraft was delivered to Etihad Airways. In April 2023, Boeing announced the ecoDemonstrator Explorer program, which would run alongside the ecoDemonstrator program. The first Explorer program in 2023 tested international route planning (trajectory-based operations – a major aim of the FAA's NextGen project) and maximization of sustainable aviation fuel use for a planned 10% fuel efficiency gain, using a 787-10. == Operators == There are 1,006 Boeing 787 aircraft in airline service as of February 2022, comprising 377 787-8s, 568 787-9s and 61 787-10s, with outstanding orders for further 481 aircraft. As of August 2019, the largest operators are All Nippon Airways (77), United Airlines (63), Japan Airlines (47), and American Airlines (46). === Orders and deliveries === In September 2011, the 787 was first officially delivered to launch customer All Nippon Airways. As of December 2018, the top five identified 787 customers are American Airlines with 89 orders (37 -8s and 52 -9s), All Nippon Airways with 83 orders (36 -8s, 44 -9s and three −10s), ILFC (an aircraft leasing company) with 74 orders (23 -8s and 51 -9s), and United Airlines (12 -8s, 38 -9s and 21 -10s) and Etihad Airways (41 -9s, 30 -10s), both with 71 orders. On December 13, 2018, the 787th Boeing 787 was delivered to AerCap and leased to China Southern Airlines. By then the 787 had flown 300 million passengers on 1.5 million flights and opened 210 new nonstop routes. The 1000th Dreamliner, a 787-10 for Singapore Airlines, made its maiden flight on April 3, 2020. Boeing 787 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year): Orders Deliveries — as of April 2025. == Accidents and incidents == The Boeing 787 has been involved in seven accidents and incidents as of March 2025, with no fatalities or hull losses. === Operational problems === A Japan Airlines (JAL) 787 experienced a fuel leak on January 8, 2013, and its flight from Boston was canceled. The next day, United Airlines reported a problem in one of its six 787s with the wiring near the main batteries. Soon, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board opened a safety probe. Fuel leaks also occurred on January 11, 2013 and on January 13, 2013, at Narita International Airport outside Tokyo. The aircraft reportedly was the same one that had a fuel leak on January 8. Japan's transport ministry also launched an investigation. On January 11, 2013, the FAA completed a comprehensive review of the 787's critical systems including the design, manufacture, and assembly. The Department of Transportation secretary Ray LaHood stated the administration was "looking for the root causes" behind the recent issues. The head of the FAA, Michael Huerta, said that so far nothing found "suggests [the 787] is not safe." On July 12, 2013, a fire started on an empty Ethiopian Airlines 787 parked at Heathrow Airport before it was extinguished by the airport fire and rescue service. No injuries were reported. The fire caused extensive heat damage to the aircraft. The FAA and NTSB sent representatives to assist in the investigation. The initial investigation found no direct link with the aircraft's main batteries. Further investigations indicated that the fire was due to lithium-manganese dioxide batteries powering an emergency locator transmitter (ELT). The UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) issued a special bulletin on July 18, 2013, requesting the US FAA ensure that the locator is removed or disconnected in Boeing 787s and to review the safety of lithium battery-powered ELT systems in other aircraft types. On August 19, 2015, the Associated Press reported that the fire was started by a short circuit caused by crossed wires located under the battery. The Air Accidents Investigation Branch's investigators recommended that "the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, together with similar bodies in Europe and Canada, should conduct a review of equipment powered by lithium metal batteries to ensure they have 'an acceptable level of circuit protection.'" On July 26, 2013, ANA said it had found wiring damage on two 787 locator beacons. United Airlines also reported that it had found a pinched wire in one 787 locator beacon. On August 14, 2013, the media reported a fire extinguisher fault affecting three ANA airplanes, which caused the fire extinguishers to discharge into the opposite engine from the one requested. The fault was caused by a supplier assembly error. On November 22, 2013, Boeing issued an advisory to airlines using General Electric GEnx engines on 787 and 747-8 aircraft to avoid flying near high-level thunderstorms due to an increased risk of icing on the engines. The problem was caused by a buildup of ice crystals just behind the main fan causing a brief loss of thrust on six occasions. On January 21, 2014, a Norwegian Air Shuttle 787 experienced a fuel leak which caused a 19-hour delay to a flight from Bangkok to Oslo. The leak became known to pilots only after it was pointed out by concerned passengers. It was found later that a faulty valve was responsible. This fuel leak is one of numerous problems experienced by Norwegian Air Shuttle's 787 fleet. Mike Fleming, Boeing's vice president for 787 support and services, subsequently met with executives of Norwegian Air Shuttle and expressed Boeing's commitment to improving the 787's dispatch reliability, "we're not satisfied with where the airplane is today, flying at a fleet average of 98 percent...The 777 today flies at 99.4 percent...and that's the benchmark that the 787 needs to attain." In March 2016 the FAA accelerated the release of an airworthiness directive in response to reports indicating that in certain weather conditions "erroneous low airspeed may be displayed..." There was concern "abrupt pilot control inputs in this condition could exceed the structural capability of the airplane." Pilots were told not to apply "large, abrupt control column inputs" in the event of an "unrealistic" drop in displayed airspeed. On April 22, 2016, the FAA issued an airworthiness directive following a January 29 incident in which a General Electric GEnx-1B PIP2 engine suffered damage and non-restartable power loss while flying at an altitude of 20,000 feet. The damage is thought to have been caused by a fan imbalance resulting from fan ice shedding. On June 18, 2021, a British Airways 787-8, registration G-ZBJB, spontaneously suffered a nose gear collapse at London Heathrow Airport while stationary at Stand 583. Photographs circulated after the incident showed the aircraft resting on its nose, with some damage to its nose gear door. No passengers were on board, and the flight was in the process of being loaded with cargo for a cargo-only flight from Heathrow to Frankfurt Airport at the time of the incident. The UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) determined that an incorrectly inserted pin, used during routine maintenance to prevent the gear retracting when the hydraulics are cycled, was the cause of the accident. On March 11, 2024, LATAM Airlines Flight 800 experienced a sudden drop in altitude, resulting in 50 injuries to those aboard and 12 with serious injuries being hospitalized. As of March 13, 2024, the cause is still under investigation. === Lithium-ion battery problems === On January 16, 2013, All Nippon Airways Flight 692, en route from Yamaguchi Ube Airport to Tokyo Haneda, had a battery problem warning followed by a burning smell while climbing from Ube about 35 nautical miles (65 km; 40 mi) west of Takamatsu, Japan. The aircraft diverted to Takamatsu and was evacuated via the slides; three passengers received minor injuries during the evacuation. Inspection revealed a battery fire. A similar incident in a parked Japan Airlines 787 at Boston's Logan International Airport within the same week led the Federal Aviation Administration to ground all 787s. On January 16, 2013, both major Japanese airlines ANA and JAL voluntarily grounded their fleets of 787s after multiple incidents involving different 787s, including emergency landings. At the time, these two carriers operated 24 of the 50 787s delivered. The grounding reportedly cost ANA some 9 billion yen (US$93 million) in lost sales. On January 16, 2013, the FAA issued an emergency airworthiness directive ordering all American-based airlines to ground their Boeing 787s until yet-to-be-determined modifications were made to the electrical system to reduce the risk of the battery overheating or catching fire. This was the first time that the FAA had grounded an airliner type since 1979. Industry experts disagreed on consequences of the grounding: Airbus was confident that Boeing would resolve the issue and that no airlines will switch plane type, while other experts saw the problem as "costly" and "could take upwards of a year". The FAA also conducted an extensive review of the 787's critical systems. The focus of the review was on the safety of the lithium-ion batteries made of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The 787 battery contract was signed in 2005, when this was the only type of lithium aerospace battery available, but since then newer and safer types (such as LiFePO4), which provide less reaction energy with virtually no cobalt content to avoid cobalt's thermal runaway characteristic, have become available. FAA approved a 787 battery in 2007 with nine "special conditions". A battery approved by FAA (through Mobile Power Solutions) was made by Rose Electronics using Kokam cells; the batteries installed in the 787 are made by Yuasa. On January 20, the NTSB declared that overvoltage was not the cause of the Boston incident, as voltage did not exceed the battery limit of 32 V, and the charging unit passed tests. The battery had signs of short circuiting and thermal runaway. Despite this, by January 24, the NTSB had not yet pinpointed the cause of the Boston fire; the FAA would not allow U.S.-based 787s to fly again until the problem was found and corrected. In a press briefing that day, NTSB Chairwoman Deborah Hersman said that the NTSB had found evidence of failure of multiple safety systems designed to prevent these battery problems, and stated that fire must never happen on an airplane. The Japan Transport Safety Board (JTSB) said on January 23 that the battery in ANA jets in Japan reached a maximum voltage of 31 V (below the 32 V limit like the Boston JAL 787), but had a sudden unexplained voltage drop to near zero. All cells had signs of thermal damage prior to runaway. ANA and JAL had replaced several 787 batteries before the mishaps. As of January 29, 2013, JTSB approved the Yuasa factory quality control while the NTSB examined the Boston battery for defects. The failure rate, with two major battery thermal runaway events in 100,000 flight hours, was much higher than the rate of one in 10 million flight hours predicted by Boeing. The only American airline that operated the Dreamliner at the time was United Airlines, which had six. Chile's Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGAC) grounded LAN Airlines' three 787s. The Indian Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) directed Air India to ground its six Dreamliners. The Japanese Transport Ministry made the ANA and JAL groundings official and indefinite following the FAA announcement. The European Aviation Safety Agency also followed the FAA's advice and grounded the only two European 787s operated by LOT Polish Airlines. Qatar Airways grounded their five Dreamliners. Ethiopian Airlines was the final operator to temporarily ground its four Dreamliners. By January 17, 2013, all 50 of the aircraft delivered to date had been grounded. On January 18, Boeing halted 787 deliveries until the battery problem was resolved. On February 7, 2013, the FAA gave approval for Boeing to conduct 787 test flights to gather additional data. In February 2013, FAA oversight of the 787's 2007 safety approval and certification was under scrutiny. On March 7, 2013, the NTSB released an interim factual report about the Boston battery fire on January 7, 2013. The investigation stated that "heavy smoke and fire coming from the front of the APU battery case." Firefighters "tried fire extinguishing, but smoke and flame (flame size about 3 inches, or 8 cm) did not stop". Boeing completed its final tests on a revised battery design on April 5, 2013. The FAA approved Boeing's revised battery design with three additional, overlapping protection methods on April 19, 2013. The FAA published a directive on April 25 to provide instructions for retrofitting battery hardware before the 787s could return to flight. The repairs were expected to be completed in weeks. Following the FAA approval in the U.S. effective April 26, Japan approved resumption of Boeing 787 flights in the country on April 26, 2013. On April 27, 2013, Ethiopian Airlines took a 787 on the model's first commercial flight after battery system modifications. On January 14, 2014, a battery in a JAL 787 emitted smoke from the battery's protection exhaust while the aircraft was undergoing pre-flight maintenance at Tokyo Narita Airport. The battery partially melted in the incident; one of its eight lithium-ion cells had its relief port vent and fluid sprayed inside the battery's container. It was later reported that the battery may have reached a temperature as high as 1,220 °F (660 °C), and that Boeing did not understand the root cause of the failure. The NTSB criticized the FAA, Boeing, and battery manufacturers for the faults in a 2014 report. It also criticized the GE-made flight data and cockpit voice recorder in the same report. The enclosure Boeing added is 185 lb (84 kg) heavier, negating the lighter battery potential. == Aircraft on display == All three prototype 787-8s are preserved in museums. N787BA (ZA001) – Chubu Centrair Airport in Nagoya, Japan—first prototype aircraft N787EX (ZA002) – Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona, United States—second prototype aircraft N787BX (ZA003) – Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington, United States—third prototype aircraft == Specifications == == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Boeing Business Jet Boeing Sonic Cruiser Boeing 747-8 Boeing 777X Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A330neo Airbus A350 Comac C929 Related lists List of jet airliners == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === Norris, Guy; Wagner, Mark (2009). Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Minneapolis: Zenith Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-2815-6. Thisdell, Dan; Seymour, Chris (August 5, 2019). "World Airliner Census". Flight International. Vol. 196, no. 5697. pp. 24–47. ISSN 0015-3710. == External links == Official website Fred George (December 10, 2012). "Aviation Week Evaluates Boeing 787". Aviation Week & Space Technology. and Aviation Week (December 7, 2012). Aviation Week Pilot Report: Flying the Boeing 787. Youtube. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Boeing 787-8 Critical System Review Team (March 19, 2014). "Boeing 787-8 Design, Certification, and Manufacturing Systems Review" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Al Jazeera (September 10, 2014). Al Jazeera Investigates – Broken Dreams: The Boeing 787. Youtube. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Richard Aboulafia (February 2015). "Boeing 787 Dreamliner Program Briefing" (PDF). Teal Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2016. Boeing (June 11, 2015). Boeing Prepares the 787-9 Dreamliner for the 2015 Paris Air Show. Youtube. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Steep climb after takeoff. British Airways (September 30, 2015). Building the 787-9 Dreamliner. Youtube. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Construction time-lapse. "Type Certificate data sheet T00021SE" (PDF). FAA. January 19, 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 11, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2018. "Review: Celebrating Eleven Years of Boeing 787 Dreamliner". Airways International. July 8, 2018. Archived from the original on July 9, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2018. "Boeing 787-8 Seating & Review". April 23, 2024.
Boeing 737 MAX	The Boeing 737 MAX is a series of narrow-body aircraft developed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes as the fourth generation of the Boeing 737. It succeeds the Boeing 737 Next Generation and incorporates more efficient CFM International LEAP engines, aerodynamic improvements such as split-tip winglets, and structural modifications. The program was announced in August 2011, the first flight took place in January 2016, and the aircraft was certified by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in March 2017. The first delivery, a MAX 8, was made to Malindo Air in May 2017. The 737 MAX series includes four main variants—the MAX 7, MAX 8, MAX 9, and MAX 10—with increasing fuselage length and seating capacity. Boeing also developed a high-density version, the MAX 8-200, launched by Ryanair. The aircraft typically seats 138 to 204 passengers in a two-class configuration and has a range of 3,300 to 3,850 nautical miles [nmi] (6,110 to 7,130 km; 3,800 to 4,430 mi). As of April 2025, Boeing had delivered 1,813 aircraft and held orders for 4,742 more. The MAX 8 is the most widely ordered variant. As of April 2025, the MAX 7 and MAX 10 had not yet received FAA certification, and the agency has not provided a timeline for their approval. Its primary competitor is the Airbus A320neo family, which occupies a similar market segment. Two fatal accidents, Lion Air Flight 610 in October 2018 and Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 in March 2019, led to the global grounding of the 737 MAX fleet from March 2019 to November 2020. The crashes were linked to the Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS), which activated erroneously due to faulty angle of attack sensor data. Investigations revealed that Boeing had not adequately disclosed MCAS to operators and identified shortcomings in the FAA's certification process. The incidents caused significant reputational and financial damage to Boeing, including billions of dollars in legal settlements, fines, and cancelled orders. Following modifications to the flight control software and revised pilot training protocols, the aircraft was cleared to return to service. By late 2021, most countries had lifted their grounding orders. However, the type came under renewed scrutiny after a January 2024 incident in which a door plug detached mid-flight on Alaska Airlines Flight 1282, causing a rapid decompression. The FAA temporarily grounded affected MAX 9 aircraft, and investigations raised further concerns about production quality and safety practices at Boeing. == Development == === Background === In 2006, Boeing began to consider replacing the 737 with a "clean sheet" design that could follow the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. In June 2010, executives postponed the decision. On December 1, 2010, Boeing competitor Airbus launched the Airbus A320neo family, which offered better fuel economy and operating efficiency than the 737 NG, thanks to its engines: the LEAP from CFM International and the PW1000G from Pratt & Whitney. In February 2011, Boeing CEO Jim McNerney said, "We're going to do a new airplane." The company had been developing a new aircraft to replace the 737 as part of its Yellowstone Project. In March 2011, Boeing CFO James A. Bell told investors that the company might re-engine the 737, but later that month Boeing Commercial Airplanes President James Albaugh said that the company was not sure about that. The Airbus A320neo gathered 667 commitments at the June 2011 Paris Air Show, bringing its order backlog to 1,029 aircraft, an order record for a new commercial airliner. On July 20, 2011, American Airlines, which had long bought only Boeing jets, announced an order for 460 narrowbody jets including 130 A320ceo (current engine option), 130 A320neo, and 100 737NG. Officials also said they would order 100 re-engined 737s with CFM LEAP if Boeing pursued the project. === Program launch === Faced with the record orders for Airbus and the defection of a long-time customer, on August 30, 2011, Boeing's board of directors approved the launch of the re-engined 737 MAX, which they said would meet or exceed the range of the Airbus A320neo while burning 4% less fuel. Studies for additional drag reduction were performed during 2011, including revised tail cone, natural laminar flow engine nacelle, and hybrid laminar flow vertical stabilizer. To focus on the re-engine project, Boeing abandoned the development of a new design under its Yellowstone Project. Firm configuration for the 737 MAX was scheduled for 2013. In March 2010, the estimated cost to re-engine the 737, according to Mike Bair, Boeing Commercial Airplanes' vice president of business strategy and marketing, would be US$2–3 billion, including the CFM engine development. During Boeing's Q2 2011 earnings call, CFO James Bell said the development cost for the airframe only would be 10–15% of the cost of a new program, which was estimated at US$10–12 billion at the time. Bernstein Research predicted in January 2012, that this cost would be twice that of the A320neo. The MAX development cost could have been well over the internal target of US$2 billion, and closer to US$4 billion. Fuel consumption is reduced by 14% from the 737NG. Southwest Airlines was signed up as the launch customer in 2011. In November 2014, McNerney said the 737 would be replaced by a new airplane by 2030—probably using composite materials—that would be slightly bigger and have new engines but would retain the 737's general configuration. Boeing talked about developing a clean sheet aircraft to replace the 737. The conceived aircraft was to have a fuselage similar to the 737 though slightly larger, and would make use of the advanced composite technology developed for the 787 Dreamliner. Boeing also considered a parallel development along with the 757 replacement, similar to the development of the 757 and 767 in the 1970s. === Production === On August 13, 2015, the first 737 MAX fuselage completed assembly at Spirit Aerosystems in Wichita, Kansas, for a test aircraft that would eventually be delivered to launch customer Southwest Airlines. On December 8, 2015, the first 737 MAX—a MAX 8 named Spirit of Renton—was rolled out at the Boeing Renton Factory. Because GKN could not produce the titanium honeycomb inner walls for the thrust reversers quickly enough, Boeing switched to a composite part produced by Spirit to deliver 47 MAXs per month in 2017. Spirit supplies 69% of the 737 airframe, including the fuselage, thrust reverser, engine pylons, nacelles, and wing leading edges. A new spar-assembly line with robotic drilling machines was expected to increase throughput by 33%. The Electroimpact automated panel assembly line sped up the wing lower-skin assembly by 35%. Boeing planned to increase its 737 MAX monthly production rate from 42 planes in 2017, to 57 planes by 2019. The new spar-assembly line is designed by Electroimpact. Electroimpact has also installed fully automated riveting machines and tooling to fasten stringers to the wing skin. The rate increase strained the production and by August 2018, over 40 unfinished jets were parked in Renton, awaiting parts or engine installation, as CFM Leap-1B engines and Spirit fuselages were delivered late. After parked airplanes peaked at 53 at the beginning of September, Boeing reduced this by nine the following month, as deliveries rose to 61 from 29 in July and 48 in August. On September 23, 2015, Boeing announced a collaboration with Comac (Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China) to build a completion and delivery facility for the 737, in Zhoushan, China, the first outside the United States. This facility initially handles interior finishing only, but will subsequently be expanded to include paintwork. The first aircraft was delivered from the facility to Air China on December 15, 2018. The largest part of the suppliers cost are the aerostructures at US$10–12 million (35-34% of the US$28.5−35 million total), followed by the engines at US$7−9 million (25-26%), systems and interiors at US$5–6 million each (18-17%), then avionics at US$1.5–2 million (5-6%). === Flight testing and certification === The 737 MAX gained its airworthiness approval based on the 737 legacy series (first approved on December 15, 1967), as a Supplemental type certificate (STC), in lieu of a new design approval. The MAX's first flight took place on January 29, 2016, at Renton Municipal Airport, nearly 49 years after the maiden flight of the original 737-100, on April 9, 1967. The first MAX 8, 1A001, was used for aerodynamic trials: flutter testing, stability and control, and takeoff performance-data verification, before it was modified for an operator and delivered. 1A002 was used for performance and engine testing: climb and landing performance, crosswind, noise, cold weather, high altitude, fuel burn and water-ingestion. Aircraft systems including autoland were tested with 1A003. 1A004, with an airliner layout, flew function-and-reliability certification for 300 hours with a light flight-test instrumentation. The 737 MAX 8 gained FAA certification on March 8, 2017, and in the same month was approved by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) on March 27, 2017. After completing 2,000 test flight hours and 180-minute ETOPS testing requiring 3,000 simulated flight cycles in April 2017, CFM International notified Boeing of a possible manufacturing quality issue with low pressure turbine (LPT) discs in LEAP-1B engines. Boeing suspended 737 MAX flights on May 4, and resumed flights on May 12. During the certification process, the FAA delegated many evaluations to Boeing, allowing the manufacturer to review their own product. It was widely reported that Boeing pushed to expedite approval of the 737 MAX to compete with the Airbus A320neo, which hit the market nine months ahead of Boeing's model. === Entry into service === The first delivery was a MAX 8 on May 16, 2017, to the then Malindo Air (now Batik Air Malaysia); it entered service on May 22. Norwegian Air International was the second airline to put a 737 MAX into service, when it performed its first transatlantic flight with a MAX 8 named Sir Freddie Laker on July 15, 2017, between Edinburgh Airport in Scotland and Bradley International Airport in the U.S. state of Connecticut. Boeing aimed for 737 MAX to match the 99.7% dispatch reliability of the 737 Next Generation (NG). Southwest Airlines, the launch customer, took delivery of its first 737 MAX on August 29, 2017. Boeing planned to deliver at least 50 to 75 aircraft in 2017, 10–15% of the more than five hundred 737s to be delivered in the year. === Grounding and recertification === The 737 MAX was grounded after two fatal crashes, Lion Air Flight 610 on October 29, 2018, and Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 on March 10, 2019, in which a total of 346 people died. The day following the second crash, China became the first air authority to ground the aircraft, followed the next day by Australia, the European Union, India, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, and Turkey. The United States Federal Aviation Administration was one of the last to ground the aircraft, defending against groundings by issuing a Continued Airworthiness Notice to operators on March 11, garnering criticism before finally grounding it on March 13, 2019. Contributing to the accidents was the Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS), which activated unexpectedly due to erroneous angle of attack data, and inadequate pilot training. Investigations found Boeing did not fully inform operators about MCAS and found shortcomings in the FAA's certification process for the aircraft. In the twenty months the aircraft was grounded, Boeing redesigned the computer architecture that supported MCAS. As initially designed, data from just one of the aircraft's two angle-of-attack (AoA) sensors was fed into MCAS. When erroneous data from that sensor was fed into flight computers, it caused repeated uncommanded activation of MCAS, which applied nose-down trim to the horizontal stabilizer. The accident investigations revealed that the AoA sensor on Lion Air Flight 610 was miscalibrated, and the Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 sensor was likely damaged by a bird strike during takeoff. Boeing was criticized for using data from just one of the two sensors, representing a single point of failure on a flight control system. Before the crash of Lion Air Flight 610, pilots were not informed by Boeing of the existence of MCAS and were not required to undergo simulator training on the difference between the 737 MAX and earlier 737 versions. Boeing and the FAA would later require simulator training to demonstrate an MCAS activation to pilots. The final report by the National Transportation Safety Committee of Indonesia into the Lion Air crash criticized Boeing's design and the FAA's certification process for the MCAS flight-control system and said the issues were compounded by maintenance issues and lapses by Lion Air's maintenance crews and its pilots, as well as Xtra Aerospace, a US-based company that supplied Lion Air with a replacement AoA sensor that was likely miscalibrated. In the crash of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board and France's Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety identified pilot error and inadequate training by Ethiopian Airlines as critical contributing factors to the crash. Boeing faced legal and financial consequences, as no deliveries of the MAX could be made while the aircraft was grounded, and airlines canceled more orders than Boeing produced during this period. Boeing found foreign object debris in the fuel tanks of 35 of 50 grounded 737 MAX aircraft that were inspected and had to check the remainder of the 400 undelivered planes. The FAA curtailed Boeing's delegated authority and invited global aviation stakeholders to comment on pending changes to the aircraft and to pilot training. The FAA lifted its grounding order in 2020; all aircraft must be repaired to comply with various airworthiness directives. After being charged with fraud in connection of both crashes of the 737 MAX, Boeing settled by paying over US$2.5 billion in penalties and compensation: a criminal monetary penalty of $243.6 million, $1.77 billion in damages to airline customers, and $500 million to a fund for the families of crash victims. === Production slowdown and suspension === From mid-April 2019, Boeing announced that it was temporarily cutting production of the 737 aircraft from 52 per month to 42 amid the 737 MAX groundings. Production of the LEAP-1B engine continued at an unchanged rate, enabling CFM to catch up its backlog within a few weeks. As the 737 MAX recertification moved into 2020, Boeing suspended production from January to conserve funds and prioritize stored aircraft delivery. The 737 MAX program was the company's largest source of profit. Around 80% of the 737 production costs involve payments to parts suppliers, which may be as low as US$10 million per plane. After the announcement, Moody's cut Boeing's debt ratings in December, citing the rising costs due to the grounding and the production halt including financial support to suppliers and compensation to airlines and lessors which could lower the program's margins and cash generation for years. The rating agency also warned that the production halt would have wide and harmful impact to the whole aerospace and defense supply chain and the ramp-up would be slower than previously anticipated. CFM International reduced production of the LEAP-1B for the 737 MAX, in favor of the LEAP-1A for the Airbus A320neo, but was prepared to meet demand for both aircraft. Boeing did not publicly say how long the suspension would last. The last pre-suspension fuselages entered final assembly in early January 2020. Boeing was reported to internally expect production to be halted for at least 60 days. Industry observers began to question if Boeing's projection of record production rate of 57 per month would ever be reached. In early April, the COVID-19 pandemic led Boeing to shut down its other airliner production lines and further delayed recertification of the MAX. === Recertification and return to service === In early January 2020, an issue was discovered in the MAX software update, which impacted its recertification effort. As of mid-January, Boeing expected the MAX to return to service by mid-2020. In late April, following the COVID-19 pandemic, Boeing then hoped to win regulatory approval by August 2020. Between June 29 and July 1, the FAA and Boeing conducted a series of recertification test flights. Transport Canada and EASA each concluded their own independent recertification flights in late August and early September. On November 18, the FAA announced that the MAX had been cleared to return to service. Before individual aircraft could resume service, repairs were required as set out in an airworthiness directive from the FAA. Airline training programs also required approval. On December 3, American Airlines made a demonstration flight for journalists to explain the FAA-required modifications, to regain public trust. The first airline to resume regular passenger service was Brazilian low-cost Gol on December 9. The first in the United States was American Airlines on December 29. Transport Canada and EASA both cleared the MAX in late January 2021, subject to additional requirements. Other regulators worldwide progressively ungrounded the aircraft, including those in the UAE, Australia, Kenya, and Brazil. The Indian Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) rescinded its ban on MAX airplanes in late August on the condition that they meet the requirements set by the FAA and EASA. China's civil aviation regulator (CAAC) cleared the 94 jets stored by 11 carriers in China to fly again in December 2021. Deliveries of Chinese airplanes stored by Boeing is expected to resume in 4Q 2023. However, EASA forbade airlines from performing RNP AR approaches with the MAX. In response to the recertification, some booking sites introduced tools allowing travelers to filter results to avoid flying on the type. === Production ramp-up and recovery === In late January 2020, production was expected to restart in April and take a year and a half to clear the inventory of 400 airplanes, ramping up slowly and building over time: Boeing might have delivered 180 stored jets by year-end and produce an equal number. Boeing did not disclose any possible effect on deliveries caused by the FAA's withdrawal of Boeing's delegated authority to certify the airworthiness of each aircraft. MAX supplier Spirit AeroSystems said it does not expect to return production rate to 52 per month until late 2022. On May 27, Boeing resumed 737 MAX production at a low production rate, with the rate planned to increase towards 31 per month in 2021. On August 19, Boeing announced that it had received new orders for the 737 MAX for the first time in 2020. Per a statement from the company, Poland's Enter Air SA entered into an agreement to buy up to four 737s. On October 28, Boeing indicated that it expected to deliver about half of the 450 stockpiled aircraft in 2021, and the majority of the remainder in 2022, noting that some of these aircraft will need to be re-marketed and potentially reconfigured. The delivery rate will also condition the production rate for new aircraft, to avoid compounding the problem. In November, Boeing saw more than 1,000 order cancelations since the grounding in March 2019. Some of these already-built aircraft have seen their order canceled and Boeing is working to find new customers to take delivery. In late January 2022, Boeing's Chief Financial Officer said the 737 program was producing at a rate of 27 aircraft a month and was on track to ramp up the production. On March 4, Boeing reportedly had preliminary plans to ramp up production of the 737 MAX aircraft to about 47 a month by the end of 2023 as the company looked to extend its recovery from successive crises. On July 12, the company said it had met its goal of increasing 737 production to 31 per month when it reported its June order and delivery tally. In September, however, the company noted that it was regularly having to pause production due to component shortages and other supply chain problems. In late January 2023, Boeing announced that a fourth production line for the 737 MAX would open at the Boeing Everett Factory in Everett, Washington. The line will replace the discontinued Boeing 787 line at the factory. However, after the January 2024 Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 accident in which a door plug became detached (after not being bolted in place by Boeing) and resulted in an uncontrolled decompression of the aircraft, the FAA announced it would not grant any production expansion of the 737 MAX until it is satisfied that more stringent quality control measures have been enacted. === Certification of the MAX 7 and MAX 10 === Following the recertification of the MAX 8 and MAX 9, Boeing resumed work to certify the MAX 7 and MAX 10. In March 2022, there were rumors that Boeing would request an exemption from the U.S. Aircraft Safety and Certification Reform Act of 2020, a safety reform law passed in response to the MAX crashes. The act requires airliners to be fitted with an engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) if type certificated after December 31, 2022. Adding this feature would make the MAX 7 and MAX 10 different from other MAX variants, necessitating additional training for pilots. In November 2022, Boeing announced expected delays to the certification of the MAX 7 and MAX 10, then expected in early 2023 and early 2024 respectively. In December, two proposals to exempt the MAX 7 and MAX 10 from the new EICAS requirements were considered for inclusion in a U.S. defense spending bill—one a simple two-year extension to the deadline, the second an exemption for aircraft whose certification applications were submitted before the law was enacted, combined with some equipment changes—but neither proposal was included in the final spending bill. The U.S. Congress agreed in December 2022 on a bill allowing Boeing to certify the MAX 7 and MAX 10 without EICAS but required that the company must install a third angle-of-attack sensor in all 737 MAX types as previously demanded by European and Canadian regulators. The company also must install a switch to disable the stick shaker, which distracted pilots during the MAX crashes. Boeing would have to retrofit these design changes to all 737 MAXs already delivered in Canada, Europe, and the U.S. within three years of MAX 10 certification. Boeing requested an additional exemption for the MAX 7 in December 2023. The exemption was related to a problem with the engine anti-ice system Boeing had announced in August 2023 that affected all MAX variants. Boeing had found that if pilots left the engine anti-ice system running after icing was no longer an issue, the system could heat the carbon composite inlet at the front end of the pod surrounding the engine (known as a nacelle) to break and fall off, potentially damaging the engine or fuselage. Boeing said that it was working on a fix for all MAX variants and requested that it be exempted from correcting the MAX 7 before it was allowed to enter service. Boeing withdrew its exemption request in January 2024 after being asked to do so in meetings with the U.S. Congress held after the Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 accident. As of February 2024, Boeing estimated that the development, testing and validation of the fix to the anti-ice system would take an additional nine to 18 months. As of February 2024, the MAX 7 and MAX 10 have not been certified, with the FAA declining to put any timetable on approval. The delays have set back the fleet plans of major carriers including Southwest Airlines and United Airlines, the biggest customers for the MAX 7 and MAX 10 respectively. United also gave a rare, public rebuke of Boeing saying it was "disappointed" with the company and would no longer include the MAX 10 in its fleet planning, and had a meeting with Airbus to discuss securing more favorable production slots to enable the airline to introduce A321neos more rapidly to cover the delayed MAX 10s. In January 2025, Boeing requested another time-limited exemption for the MAX 7 and MAX 10's stall management yaw damper (SMYD) system incorporating the required angle-of-attack enhancements, to allow time for certification of the system to a higher design assurance level in line with "increased regulatory expectations". == Design == In mid-2011, one design objective was matching fuel burn of the 737 MAX to that of the Airbus A320neo's 15% fuel-burn advantage. The initial 737 MAX reduction was 10–12%; it was later enhanced to 14.5%. The fan was widened from 61 inches (150 cm) to 69.4 in (176 cm) by raising the nose gear and placing the engine higher on the wing and further forward. The split tip winglet added 1–1.5% fuel burn reduction and a re-lofted tail cone another 1%. Electronically controlling the bleed air system improved efficiency. The new engine nacelle included chevrons, similar to those of the Boeing 787, which also helped to reduce engine noise. === Aerodynamic changes === The 737 MAX uses a split-tip winglet, designed to reduce vortex drag, which improves fuel efficiency by maximizing lift, while staying in the same ICAO aerodrome reference code letter C gates as current Boeing 737s. It resembles a three-way hybrid of a blended winglet, wingtip fence, and raked wingtip. A split-tip wingtip was first proposed for the McDonnell Douglas MD-12, a 1990s twin-deck aircraft concept. A MAX 8 with 162 passengers on a 3,000-nautical-mile (5,600 km; 3,500 mi) flight is projected to have a 1.8% lower fuel burn than a blended winglet-equipped aircraft (like many 737NG aircraft) and 1% lower over 500 nmi (930 km; 580 mi) at Mach 0.79. The new winglet has a total height of 9 feet 6 inches (2.90 m). Other improvements include a re-contoured tail cone, revised auxiliary power unit inlet and exhaust, aft body vortex generator removal, and other small aerodynamic improvements. The engines on the 737 MAX were also repositioned, the top of the new engine slightly higher than the top surface of the wing, resulting in a change to the aerodynamic characteristics of the airframe. Due to the aircraft's close proximity to the ground, the larger and more fuel-efficient engines did not have enough clearance. As a result, the engines were mounted higher on the wings and further forward, changing the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft compared to the 737NG. The MCAS software-based flight control law was implemented to account for the undesirable aerodynamic changes. === Structural and other changes === The 8-inch (20 cm) taller nose-gear strut maintains the same 17-inch (43 cm) ground clearance of previous 737 engine nacelles. New struts and nacelles for the heavier engines add bulk, the main landing gear and supporting structure have been reinforced, and fuselage skins are thicker in some places—thus adding 6,500 pounds (2,900 kg) to the MAX 8's empty aircraft weight. To preserve fuel and payload capacity, its maximum takeoff weight is 7,000 lb (3,200 kg) heavier. Rockwell Collins was selected to supply four 15.1-inch (380 mm) liquid-crystal displays (LCD), as used on the 787, for the glass cockpit to improve pilots' situation awareness and efficiency. Boeing plans no major modifications for the 737 MAX flight deck, as it wants to maintain commonality with the 737 Next Generation family. Boeing Commercial Airplanes CEO Jim Albaugh said in 2011, that adding more fly-by-wire control systems would be "very minimal". However, the 737 MAX extended spoilers are fly-by-wire controlled. Most of the systems are carried from the 737NG to allow for a short differences-training course to upgrade flight crews. In addition to the Speed Trim System (STS), the automatic stabilizer control system has been enhanced to include MCAS. Compared to STS, MCAS has greater authority and cannot be disengaged with the aft and forward column cutout switches. The center console stabilizer-trim cutout switches have been re-wired. Unlike previous versions of the 737, the automatic stabilizer trim control functions cannot be turned off while retaining electric trim switches functionality. MCAS was deemed necessary by Boeing to meet its internal objective of minimizing training requirements for pilots already qualified on the 737NG. MCAS was to automatically mitigate the pitch-up tendency of the new flight geometry due to the engines being located farther forward and higher than on previous 737 models. During a reassessment of the aircraft in February 2020, both FAA and EASA determined that the stability and stall characteristics of the plane would have been acceptable with or without MCAS. As a production standard, the 737 MAX features the Boeing Sky Interior with overhead bins and LED lighting based on the Boeing 787's interior. === Engines === In 2011, the CFM LEAP-1B engine was initially 10–12% more efficient than the previous 61-inch (156 cm) CFM56 of the 737NG. The 18-blade, woven carbon-fiber fan enables a 9:1 bypass ratio (up from 5.1:1 with the previous 24-blade titanium fan) for a 40% smaller noise footprint. The CFM56 bypass ranges from 5.1:1 to 5.5:1. The two-spool design has a low-pressure section comprising the fan and three booster stages driven by five axial turbine stages and a high-pressure section with a 10-stage axial compressor driven by a two-stage turbine. The 41:1 overall pressure ratio increased from 28:1, and advanced hot-section materials enabling higher operating temperatures permit a 15% reduction in thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC), along with 20% lower carbon emissions, 50% lower nitrogen-oxide emissions, though each engine weighs 849 pounds (385 kg) more at 6,129 pounds (2,780 kg). In August 2011, Boeing had to choose between 66-inch (168 cm) or 68-inch (173 cm) fan diameters, necessitating landing gear changes to maintain a 17 in (43 cm) ground clearance beneath the new engines; Boeing Commercial Airplanes chief executive officer Jim Albaugh stated "with a bigger fan you get more efficiency because of the bypass ratio [but also] more weight and more drag", with more airframe changes. In November 2011, Boeing selected the larger fan diameter, necessitating a 6–8 in (15–20 cm) longer nose landing gear. In May 2012, Boeing further enlarged the fan to 69.4 in (176 cm), paired with a smaller engine core within minor design changes before the mid-2013 final configuration. The nacelle features chevrons for noise reduction like the 787. A new bleed air digital regulator will improve its reliability. The new nacelles being larger and more forward possess aerodynamic properties which act to further increase the pitch rate. The larger engine is cantilevered ahead of and slightly above the wing, and the laminar flow engine nacelle lipskin is a GKN Aerospace one-piece, spun-formed aluminum sheet inspired by the 787. == Operational history == After one year of service, 130 MAXs had been delivered to 28 customers, logging over 41,000 flights in 118,000 hours and flying over 6.5 million passengers. Flydubai observed 15% more efficiency than the NG, more than the 14% promised, and dependability reached 99.4%. Long routes include 24 over 2,500 nautical miles (4,630 km; 2,877 mi), including a daily Aerolíneas Argentinas service from Buenos Aires to Punta Cana over 3,252 nmi (6,023 km; 3,742 mi). In 2019, Moody's had estimated Boeing's operating margin to be US$12–15 million for each 737 MAX 8 at its list price of $121.6 million (~$143 million in 2023), although the list price is usually discounted 50–55% in practice. This high margin was made possible by the efficiencies of production volume and the amortization of development costs and capital investment over the decades of the program run. However, costs have since risen significantly and the margin reduced following the two crashes, the FAA grounding, and the severe disruption to production. Boeing estimated it would cost an additional $6.3 billion to produce the remaining 737 MAX program, $4 billion for "future abnormal costs" as production restarted, plus an estimated $8.3 billion for concessions and compensation to customers. The rising costs also led Moody's to downgrade Boeing's credit rating. == Variants == The 737 MAX 7, MAX 8 and MAX 9 succeed the 737-700, -800, and -900ER, respectively—the most widely used variants of the previous 737 Next Generation series. Since 2020, their official FAA type certificate and marketing designations have been 737-7, 737-8, and 737-9. The MAX 8 entered service in May 2017, followed by the MAX 9 in March 2018, and the MAX 200, a high-density variant of the MAX 8, in June 2021. Deliveries of the MAX 7 and MAX 10 have not yet begun, following years of certification delays. The MAX 8 is the most widely ordered variant. In 2018, Boeing projected that 60–65% of demand would be for the midsized MAX 8, 20–25% for the larger MAX 9 and MAX 10, and 10% for the smaller MAX 7. === 737 MAX 7 === At the July 2016 Farnborough Air Show, Boeing announced that the MAX 7, originally based on the 737-700, will accommodate two more seat rows than the 737-700 for 138 seats. Compared to the 737-700, the MAX 7 has a pair of over-wing exit doors rather than the single-door, a 46 in (120 cm) longer aft fuselage and a 30 in (76 cm) longer forward fuselage, structural re-gauging and strengthening, and systems and interior modifications to accommodate the longer length. The MAX 7 uses the same wing and landing gear as the MAX 8. It is expected to fly 1,000 nmi (1,900 km; 1,200 mi) farther than the -700 with 18% lower fuel costs per seat. Boeing predicts that the MAX 7 will carry 12 more passengers 400 nmi (740 km; 460 mi) farther than A319neo with seven percent lower operating costs per seat. Production on the first 65-foot-long (20 m) wing spar for the 737 MAX 7 began in October 2017. Assembly of the first flight-test aircraft began on November 22, 2017, and was rolled out of the factory on February 5, 2018. The MAX 7 took off for its first flight on March 16, 2018, from the factory in Renton, Washington, and flew for three hours over Washington state. It reached 250 knots (460 km/h; 290 mph) and 25,000 ft (7,600 m), performed a low approach, systems checks and an inflight engine restart, and landed at Boeing's flight test center in Moses Lake, Washington. Entry into service with launch operator Southwest Airlines was originally expected in January 2019, however, it has been repeatedly delayed. Southwest had ordered a total of 234 MAX 7s. WestJet also ordered 22 MAX 7s, but later converted those into MAX 8s amid the delays. In 2022, Southwest announced that it would take early delivery of its MAX 8 orders to make up for the delay of the MAX 7. As of January 2024, Southwest has removed the MAX 7 from future fleet planning, however, the company said that it remained committed to the type, and was willing to wait until 2026 or 2027 for first delivery. In July 2024, Boeing CEO David Calhoun estimated the MAX 7 could be certified in the first half of 2025. === 737 MAX 8 === The first variant developed in the 737 MAX series; the MAX 8 replaces the 737-800 with a longer fuselage than the MAX 7. In 2016, Boeing planned to improve its range from 3,515 nautical miles (6,510 km; 4,045 mi) to 3,610 nmi (6,690 km; 4,150 mi) after 2021. On July 23, 2013, Boeing completed the firm configuration for the 737 MAX 8. The MAX 8 has a lower empty weight and higher maximum takeoff weight than the A320neo. During a test flight conducted for Aviation Week, while cruising at a true airspeed of 449 knots (517 mph; 832 km/h) and a weight of 140,500 pounds (63,700 kg), at a lower than optimal altitude (FL350 vs. the preferred FL390) and with an "unusually far forward" center of gravity, the test aircraft consumed 4,460 lb (2,020 kg) of fuel per hour. The Boeing 737 MAX 8 completed its first flight test in La Paz, Bolivia. The 13,300-foot (4,100 m) altitude at El Alto International Airport tested the MAX's capability to take off and land at high altitudes. Its first commercial flight was operated by Malindo Air on May 22, 2017, between Kuala Lumpur and Singapore as Flight OD803. In early 2017, a new MAX 8 was valued at $52.85 million, rising to below $54.5 million by mid 2018. ==== 737 MAX 200 ==== In September 2014, Boeing launched a high-density version of the 737 MAX 8, the 737 MAX 200 or 737-8-200, named for seating for up to 200 passengers in a single-class high-density configuration with slimline seats; an extra pair of exit doors is required because of the higher passenger capacity. Boeing states that this version would be 20% more cost-efficient per seat than current 737 models and would be the most efficient narrow-body on the market when delivered, including 5% lower operating costs than the 737 MAX 8. Three of eight service trolleys are omitted to accommodate more passenger space. An order by Ryanair for 100 aircraft was finalized in December 2014. In mid-November 2018, the first of then 135 ordered by Ryanair rolled out, in a 197-seat configuration. It was first flown from Renton on January 13, 2019, and was due to enter service in April 2019, with another four MAX 200s expected later in 2019, though certification and deliveries were deferred while the MAX was grounded. In November 2019, Ryanair informed its pilots that, due to an unspecified design issue with the additional over-wing exit doors, it did not expect to receive any MAX 200s until late April or early May 2020. In 2020, at the height of the COVID travel slump, Ryanair renegotiated its order and purchased an additional 75 MAX 200 aircraft at one-third of the list price. The high-density variant was certified by the FAA on March 31, 2021. Ryanair took delivery of its first MAX 200 in June 2021. Besides launch customer Ryanair, other customers include International Airlines Group and low-cost airlines Akasa Air of India, Allegiant Air of the US, Arajet of the Dominican Republic and Vietnam's VietJet. ==== Proposed 737-8ERX ==== Airlines have been shown a 737-8ERX concept based on the 737 MAX 8 with a higher 194,700-pound (88.3 t) maximum take-off weight and a longer range of 4,000 nautical miles (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) using the wings, landing gear, and central section from the MAX 9. The range of this aircraft would be closer to the Airbus A321LR, although with a smaller 150 seat capacity. === 737 MAX 9 === The 737 MAX 9 replaces the 737-900 and has a longer fuselage than the MAX 8. In 2016, Boeing planned to improve its range from 3,510 nautical miles (6,500 km; 4,040 mi) to 3,605 nmi (6,676 km; 4,149 mi) after 2021. Lion Air was the launch customer with an order for 201 in February 2012. It made its roll-out on March 7, 2017, and first flight on April 13, 2017; it took off from Renton Municipal Airport and landed at Boeing Field after a 2 hr 42 min flight. It was presented at the 2017 Paris Air Show. Boeing 737 MAX 9 flight tests were scheduled to run through 2017, with 30% of the -8 tests repeated; aircraft 1D001 was used for auto-land, avionics, flutter, and mostly stability-and-control trials, while 1D002 was used for environment control system testing. It was certified by February 2018. Asian low-cost carrier Lion Air Group took delivery of the first MAX 9 on March 21, 2018, before entering service with Thai Lion Air. As the competing Airbus A321neo attracted more orders, the sale value of a 737 MAX 9, as of 2018, was the same as a MAX 8 at $53 million (~$63.4 million in 2023). === 737 MAX 10 === Loyal customers, such as Korean Air and United Airlines, pressed Boeing to develop a variant larger than the MAX 9 in order to compete with the Airbus A321neo, of which Boeing revealed studies in early 2016. As the Airbus A321neo had outsold the MAX 9 five-to-one, the proposed MAX 10 included a larger engine, stronger wings, and telescoping landing gear in mid-2016. In September 2016, it was reported that the variant would be simpler and lower-risk, with a modest stretch of 6–7 feet (1.83–2.13 m) for a length of 143–144 ft (43.6–43.9 m), seating 12–18 more passengers for 192–198 in a dual-class layout or 226-232 for a single class, needing an uprated 31,000 pounds-force (140 kN) LEAP-1B that could be available by 2019 or 2020, and would likely require a landing-gear modification to move the rotation point slightly aft. In October 2016, Boeing's board of directors granted authority to offer the stretched variant with two extra fuselage sections forward and aft with a 3,100 nautical miles (5,700 km; 3,600 mi) range, reduced from the 3,300 nmi (6,100 km; 3,800 mi) range of the MAX 9. In early 2017, Boeing showed a 66 inches (1.7 m) stretch to 143 ft (44 m), enabling seating for 230 in a single class or 189 in two-class capacity, compared to 193 in two-class seating for the A321neo. The modest stretch of the MAX 10 enables the aircraft to retain the existing wing, and the Leap 1B engine from the MAX 9 with a trailing-link main landing gear as the only major change. Boeing 737 MAX Vice President and General Manager Keith Leverkuhn said the design had to be frozen in 2018, for a 2020 introduction. Boeing hopes that 737 operators and 737 MAX customers like United Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Alaska Airlines, Air Canada, Lion Air, and Chinese airlines will be interested in the new variant. Boeing predicts a 5% lower trip cost and seat cost compared to the A321neo. Air Lease Corporation wants it a year sooner; its CEO John Pleuger stated, "It would have been better to get the first airplane in March 2019, but I don't think that's possible." AerCap CEO Aengus Kelly is cautious and said the -9 and -10 "will cannibalize each other". The 737 MAX 10 was launched on June 19, 2017, with 240 orders and commitments from more than ten customers. United Airlines will be the largest 737 MAX 10 customer, converting 100 of their 161 orders for the MAX 9 into orders for the MAX 10. Boeing ended the 2017 Paris Air Show with 361 orders and commitments, including 214 conversions, from 16 customers, including 50 orders from Lion Air. The variant configuration was firmed up by February 2018, and by mid-2018, the critical design review was completed. As of August 2018, assembly was underway with a first flight planned for late 2019. The semi-levered landing gear design has a telescoping oleo-pneumatic strut with a down-swinging lever to permit 9.5 inches (24 cm) taller gear. Driven by the existing retraction system, a shrink-link mechanical linkage mechanism at the top of the leg, inspired by carrier aircraft designs, allows the gear to be drawn in and shortened while being retracted into the existing wheel well. Entry into service was slated for July 2020. On November 22, 2019, Boeing unveiled the first MAX 10 to employees in its Renton factory, Washington, scheduled for the first flight in 2020. At the time, 531 MAX 10s were on order, compared to the 3142 Airbus A321neos sold, capable of carrying 244 passengers or to fly up to 4,700 nautical miles (8,700 km; 5,400 mi) in its heaviest A321XLR variant. The MAX 10 has similar capacity as the A321XLR, but shorter range and much poorer field performance, greatly hindering its potential to service smaller airports as compared to the A321XLR. By early 2021, Boeing expected 737 MAX 10 deliveries to start in 2023. The variant made its maiden flight on June 18, 2021, initiating its flight test and certification program. On June 29, 2021, United Airlines placed an order for another 150 of the Boeing 737 MAX 10. These MAX 10 will replace a large number of United's older Boeing 757-200s. In January 2024, United CEO Kirby noted in an interview that the airline was in the process of developing plans that did not include the MAX 10 in its future fleet. In September 2021, Ryanair failed to reach an agreement with Boeing over an order of MAX 10s, citing cost as a primary concern. However, in May 2023, Ryanair announced the order of 150 MAX 10s and an option to purchase a further 150. In November 2022, Boeing Commercial Airplanes CEO Stanley Deal told investors at a conference that the MAX 10 was expected to enter service in 2024, though this did not happen. By October 2023, deliveries were anticipated in early 2025. In July 2024, Boeing CEO David Calhoun estimated the MAX 10 could be certified in the first half of 2025. By October 2024, Delta Air Lines expected to receive its first deliveries of the MAX 10 in 2026. === Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) === The BBJ MAX 8 and BBJ MAX 9 are business jet variants of the 737 MAX 8 and 9, with new CFM LEAP-1B engines and advanced winglets providing 13% better fuel burn than the Boeing Business Jet; the BBJ MAX 8 has a 6,325 nautical miles (11,710 km; 7,280 mi) range, and the BBJ MAX 9 a 6,255 nmi (11,580 km) range. The BBJ MAX 7 was unveiled in October 2016, with a 7,000 nmi (12,960 km; 8,060 mi) range and 10% lower operating costs than the original BBJ, while being larger. The BBJ MAX 8 first flew on April 16, 2018, before delivery later the same year, and has a range of 6,640 nmi (12,300 km; 7,640 mi) with an auxiliary fuel tank. == Operators == As of October 2023, the five largest operators of the Boeing 737 MAX were Southwest Airlines (207), United Airlines (145), Ryanair Holdings (126), Alaska Airlines (62), and American Airlines (54). === Orders and deliveries === American Airlines was the first disclosed customer. By November 17, 2011, there were 700 commitments from nine customers, including Lion Air and SMBC Aviation Capital. By December 2011, the 737 MAX had 948 commitments and firm orders from thirteen customers. On September 8, 2014, Ryanair agreed to 100 firm orders with 100 options. In January 2017, aircraft leasing company GECAS ordered 75. By January 2019 the 737 MAX had 5,011 firm orders from 78 identified customers, with the top three being Southwest Airlines with 280, flydubai with 251, and Lion Air with 251. The first 737 MAX 8 was delivered to Malindo Air on May 16, 2017. Following the groundings in March 2019, Boeing suspended all deliveries of 737 MAX aircraft, reduced production from 52 to 42 aircraft per month, and on December 16, 2019, announced that production would be suspended from January 2020 to conserve cash. At the time of the grounding, the 737 MAX had 4,636 unfilled orders valued at an estimated $600 billion. Boeing produced over 450 MAX aircraft awaiting delivery, about half of which are expected to be delivered in 2021, and the majority of the remainder in 2022. By November 30, 2020, at the time of the ungrounding, the unfilled orders stood at 4,039 aircraft. In November 2021, during the Dubai Airshow, Boeing received 72 firm orders from a new 737 MAX customer, India based Akasa Air, to be fulfilled over a 4-year period with first delivery in June 2022. In late January 2022 Boeing was working to clear the remaining inventory of 335 MAX aircraft and estimated most of them would be delivered by the end of 2023. In December 2022, the 1000th 737 MAX was delivered. In July 2023, Boeing first revealed the 737 MAX sub-type orders as follows: 2,751 MAX 8 (63%), 810 MAX 10 (19%), 344 MAX 200 (8%), 297 MAX 7 (7%), and 137 MAX 9 (3%). As of April 2025, the 737 MAX has 4,742 unfilled orders and 1,813 deliveries. Cumulative Boeing 737 MAX orders and deliveries Orders Deliveries — as of April 2025 == Accidents and incidents == As of 2023, the 737 MAX series had experienced 1.48 fatal hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs. === Lion Air Flight 610 === On October 29, 2018, Lion Air Flight 610, a recently-delivered 737 MAX 8, crashed into the Java Sea 13 minutes after takeoff from Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Jakarta, Indonesia. The flight was a scheduled domestic flight to Depati Amir Airport, Pangkal Pinang, Indonesia. All 189 people on board died. This was the first fatal aviation crash and first hull loss of a 737 MAX. The aircraft had been delivered to Lion Air two months earlier. People familiar with the investigation reported that during a flight piloted by a different crew on the day before the crash, the same aircraft experienced a similar malfunction but an extra pilot sitting in the cockpit jumpseat correctly diagnosed the problem and told the crew how to disable the malfunctioning Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS) flight-control system. Indonesia's National Transportation Safety Committee released its final report into the crash on October 25, 2019, attributing the crash to the MCAS pushing the aircraft into a dive due to data from a faulty angle-of-attack sensor, causing the aircraft to think it was pitching up more than it was in reality. Following the Lion Air crash, Boeing issued an operational manual guidance, advising airlines on how to address erroneous cockpit readings. === Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 === On March 10, 2019, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, operated by a four-month-old 737 MAX 8, crashed approximately six minutes after takeoff from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on a scheduled flight to Nairobi, Kenya, killing all 149 passengers and 8 crew members. The cause of the crash was initially unclear, though the aircraft's vertical speed after takeoff was reported to be unstable. Evidence retrieved on the crash site suggests, that at the time of the crash, the aircraft was configured to dive, similar to Lion Air Flight 610. The similarity of the physical and flight data evidence from the accidents led to the global 737 MAX groundings beginning on the day of the second accident, with the Aircraft returning to service on December 9th, 2020. === Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 === On January 5, 2024, Alaska Airlines Flight 1282, a 737 MAX 9, suffered an uncontrolled decompression shortly after takeoff from Portland International Airport due to a mid-cabin exit door plug blow-out shortly after takeoff. The MAX 9, like the 737-900ER, features a rear mid-cabin exit door on each side behind the wings that is required when used with dense seating configurations. On less densely configured aircraft, those exit doors are not required and door plugs are installed in their place, as was the case on this aircraft. The plane returned to Portland, and there were no fatalities or significant injuries among the 171 passengers and 6 crew on board. Some small personal belongings, along with cabin trim such as seat covers and headrests, were sucked out of the opening. According to some passengers, a child seated nearby had his shirt pulled off and sucked out of the aircraft while his mother held him. The FAA, Boeing, Alaska Airlines, and the NTSB quickly acknowledged the accident and an investigation was launched. As a precautionary measure, Alaska Airlines grounded their 737 MAX 9 fleet. Hours later, the FAA ordered the grounding and inspection of 171 aircraft from the global 737 MAX 9 fleet with similar configuration to the incident aircraft, along with corrective action if necessary. Alaska Airlines and United Airlines both reported finding loose door plug bolts on some of the aircraft inspected. On February 5, 2024, the NTSB said in its preliminary report that the four key bolts that should have secured the door plug were not installed on delivery to Alaska Airlines because Boeing had opened the door plug at its Renton factory to repair damaged rivets, then failed to secure it. === Southwest Airlines Flight 746 === In May 2024, US authorities were investigating an incident which occurred on Southwest Airlines Flight 746 from Phoenix to Oakland. The 737 MAX 8 airliner experienced Dutch roll and some damage to the rudder standby power control unit was reported. == Specifications == == See also == Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Boeing 737 Next Generation Boeing Business Jet Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A220-300 Airbus A320neo family Comac C919 Yakovlev MC-21 == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Robison, Peter (2021). Flying Blind: The 737 MAX Tragedy and the Fall of Boeing (Hardcover). New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-54649-2. Wise, Jeff (March 11, 2019). "Where did Boeing go wrong?". Slate. "Countdown to Launch: The Boeing 737 MAX Timeline". Airways. January 27, 2016. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved January 9, 2018. == External links == Official website Smith, Paul (May 12, 2017). "Flight test: Boeing's 737 Max – the same but different". FlightGlobal. "Boeing's Fatal Flaw (full documentary)". Frontline PBS. September 14, 2021. Retrieved September 19, 2021.
Boeing 737 Next Generation	The Boeing 737 Next Generation, commonly abbreviated as 737NG, or 737 Next Gen, is a twin-engine narrow-body aircraft produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Launched in 1993 as the third generation derivative of the Boeing 737, it has been produced since 1997. The 737NG is an upgrade of the 737 Classic (–300/–400/–500) series. Compared to the 737 Classic, it has a redesigned wing with a larger area, a wider wingspan, greater fuel capacity, and higher maximum takeoff weights (MTOW) and longer range. It has CFM International CFM56-7 series engines, a glass cockpit, and upgraded and redesigned interior configurations. The series includes four variants, the –600/–700/–800/–900, seating between 108 and 215 passengers. The 737NG's primary competition is the Airbus A320 family. As of April 2025, a total of 7,126 737NG aircraft had been ordered, of which 7,115 had been delivered, with remaining orders for two -700, two -800, and 7 -800A variants. The most-ordered variant is the 737-800, with 4,991 commercial, 191 military, and 23 corporate, or a total of 5,205 aircraft. Boeing stopped assembling commercial 737NGs in 2019 and made the final deliveries in January 2020. The 737NG is superseded by the fourth generation 737 MAX, introduced in 2017. == Development == === Background === When regular Boeing customer United Airlines bought the more technologically advanced Airbus A320 with fly-by-wire controls, this prompted Boeing to update the slower, shorter-range 737 Classic variants into the more efficient, longer New Generation variants. In 1991, Boeing initiated development of an updated series of aircraft. After working with potential customers, the 737 Next Generation (NG) program was announced on November 17, 1993. === Testing === The first NG to roll out was a 737−700, on December 8, 1996. This aircraft, the 2,843rd 737 built, first flew on February 9, 1997, with pilots Mike Hewett and Ken Higgins. The prototype 737−800 rolled out on June 30, 1997, and first flew on July 31, 1997, piloted by Jim McRoberts and again by Hewett. The smallest of the new variants, the −600 series, is identical in size to the −500, launching in December 1997 with an initial flight occurring January 22, 1998; it was granted FAA certification on August 18, 1998. The flight test program used 10 aircraft: 3 -600s, 4 -700s, and 3 -800s. === Enhancements === In 2004, Boeing offered a Short Field Performance package in response to the needs of Gol Transportes Aéreos, which frequently operates from restricted airports. The enhancements improve takeoff and landing performance. The optional package is available for the 737NG models and standard equipment for the 737-900ER. In July 2008, Boeing offered Messier-Bugatti-Dowty's new carbon brakes for the Next-Gen 737s, which are intended to replace steel brakes and will reduce the weight of the brake package by 550–700 pounds (250–320 kg) depending on whether standard or high-capacity steel brakes were fitted. A weight reduction of 700 pounds (320 kg) on a 737-800 results in 0.5% reduction in fuel burn. Delta Air Lines received the first Next-Gen 737 model with this brake package, a 737-700, at the end of July 2008. The CFM56-7B Evolution nacelle began testing in August 2009 to be used on the new 737 PIP (Performance Improvement Package) due to enter service mid-2011. This new improvement is said to shave at least 1% off the overall drag and have some weight benefits. Overall, it is claimed to have a 2% improvement on fuel burn on longer stages. ==== Enhanced Short Runway Package ==== This short-field design package is an option on the 737-600, -700, and -800 and is standard equipment for the new 737-900ER. These enhanced short runway versions could increase pay or fuel loads when operating on runways under 5,000 feet (1,500 m). Landing payloads were increased by up to 8,000 lb on the 737-800 and 737-900ER and up to 4,000 lb on the 737-600 and 737-700. Takeoff payloads were increased by up to 2,000 lb on the 737-800 and 737-900ER and up to 400 lb on the 737-600 and 737-700. The package includes: A winglet lift credit, achieved through additional winglet testing, that reduces the minimum landing-approach speeds. Takeoff performance improvements such as the use of sealed leading-edge slats on all takeoff flap positions, allowing the airplane to climb more rapidly on shorter runways. A reduced idle thrust transition delay between approach and ground-idle speeds, which improves stopping distances and increases field-length-limited landing weight Increased flight-spoiler deflection from 30 degrees to 60 degrees, improving aerodynamic braking on landing. A two-position tail skid at the rear of the aircraft to protect against inadvertent tailstrikes during landing, which allows higher aircraft approach attitudes and lower landing speeds The first enhanced version was delivered to Gol Transportes Aéreos (GOL) on July 31, 2006. At that time, twelve customers had ordered the package for more than 250 airframes. Customers include: GOL, Alaska Airlines, Air Europa, Air India, Egyptair, GE Commercial Aviation Services (GECAS), Hapagfly, Japan Airlines, Pegasus Airlines, Ryanair, Sky Airlines and Turkish Airlines. === Structural problems === In 2005, three ex-Boeing employees filed a lawsuit on behalf of the U.S. government, claiming that dozens of 737NG contained defective structural elements supplied by airframe manufacturer Ducommun, allegations denied by Boeing. The federal judge presiding the case sided with Boeing, and a subsequent court of appeal also ruled in favor of the company. A 2010 documentary by Al Jazeera alleged that in three crashes involving 737NGs—Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, American Airlines Flight 331, and AIRES Flight 8250—the fuselage broke up following impact with the ground because of the defective structural components that were the subject of the 2005 lawsuit. However, the accident investigations in all three cases did not highlight any link between post-impact structural failures and manufacturing issues. During an inspection of a 737NG in 2019 that had 35,000 flights, fatigue cracks were found on a fuselage-to-wing attachment known as a "pickle fork", designed to last a lifetime of 90,000 flights. Boeing reported the issue to the FAA at the end of September 2019, and more planes showed similar cracking after inspection. The cracks were found in an airliner with more than 33,500 flights, when it was stripped down for conversion to freighter. Aircraft with more than 30,000 flights (15 years at 2,000 flights per year) should be inspected within one week, while those with over 22,600 flights (11 years) should be inspected within one year. The FAA Airworthiness Directive (AD) was issued on October 3, 2019. Of the 500 first inspected aircraft, 5% (25) had cracks and were grounded; Boeing expected to repair the first aircraft three weeks after the issuance of the directive, serving as the template for the resulting Service bulletin. Of the 810 examined aircraft over 30,000 cycles, 38 had structural cracks (4.7%), leaving 1,911 737NGs over 22,600 cycles to be inspected within their next 1,000 cycles, i.e., nearly all of the US in-service fleet of 1,930. By early November, 1,200 aircraft were inspected, with cracks on about 60 (5%). Cracks were discovered near fasteners outside the original area in four airplanes. On November 5, Boeing recommended expanding the checks to include them, to be mandated in a November 13 FAA AD. Aircraft below 30,000 cycles were to be reinspected within 1,000 cycles, within 60 days above. About one-quarter of the global NG fleet of 6,300 aircraft were to be inspected. Following the contained engine failure of the Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 on April 17, 2018, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommended on November 19, 2019, to redesign and retrofit its nacelle for the 6,800 airplanes in service. === Production === Boeing was to increase 737 production from 31.5 units per month in September 2010 to 35 in January 2012 and to 38 units per month in 2013. Production rate was 42 units per month in 2014, and was planned to reach rates of 47 units per month in 2017 and 52 units per month in 2018. In 2016, the monthly production rate was targeted to reach 57 units per month in 2019, even to the factory limit of 63 units later. A single airplane was then produced in the Boeing Renton Factory in 10 days, less than half what it was a few years before. The empty fuselage from Spirit AeroSystems in Wichita, Kansas, enters the plant on Day 1. Electrical wiring is installed on Day 2 and hydraulic machinery on Day 3. On Day 4 the fuselage is crane-lifted and rotated 90 degrees, wings are mated to the airplane in a six-hour process, along with landing gear, and the airplane is again rotated 90 degrees. The final assembly process begins on Day 6 with the installation of airline seats, galleys, lavatories, overhead bins, etc. Engines are attached on Day 8 and it rolls out of the factory for test flights on Day 10. Boeing stopped assembling passenger 737NGs in 2019. The last aircraft assembled was a 737-800 registered PH-BCL delivered to KLM in December 2019; the last two deliveries were to China Eastern Airlines on January 5, 2020. Production of the P-8 Poseidon variant continues. The FAA has proposed a fine of approximately $3.9 million for Boeing's alleged installation of the same faulty components of the 737 MAX on some 133 737 NGs. === Further developments === From 2006, Boeing discussed replacing the 737 with a "clean sheet" design (internally named "Boeing Y1") that could follow the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. A decision on this replacement was postponed, and delayed into 2011. In 2011, Boeing launched the 737 MAX, an updated and re-engined version of the 737NG with more efficient CFM International LEAP-1B engines, and aerodynamic changes with distinctive split-tip winglets. The first 737 MAX performed its first flight in January 2016. The fourth generation 737 MAX supersedes the third generation 737NG. Split Scimitar winglets became available in 2014 for the 737-800, 737-900ER, BBJ2 and BBJ3, and in 2015 for the 737-700, 737-900 and BBJ1. These resemble the 737 MAX's split winglet, though they are not identical. Split Scimitar winglets were developed by Aviation Partners, the same Seattle-based corporation that developed the blended winglets; the Split Scimitar winglets produce up to a 5.5% fuel savings per aircraft compared to 3.3% savings for the blended winglets. Southwest Airlines flew their first flight of a 737-800 with Split Scimitar winglets on April 14, 2014. == Design == The wing was redesigned with a new thinner airfoil section, and a greater chord and increased wing span (by 16 ft [4.9 m]) increased the wing area by 25%, which also increased total fuel capacity by 30%. New quieter and more fuel-efficient CFM56-7B engines are used. Higher MTOWs are offered. The 737NG includes redesigned vertical stabilizers, and winglets are available on most models. The 737NG encompasses the -600, -700, -800, and -900 with improved performance and commonality retained from previous 737 models. The wing, engine, and fuel capacity improvements combined increase the 737's range by 900 nautical miles [nmi] (1,700 km; 1,000 mi) to over 3,000 nmi (5,600 km; 3,500 mi), permitting transcontinental service. The Speed Trim System, introduced on the 737 Classic, has been updated for the 737NG to include a stall identification function. Originally inhibited in high alpha scenarios, STS operates at any speed on the 737NG. STS is triggered by airspeed sensor and commands Airplane Nose Down as the airplane slows down. === Interior === The flight deck was upgraded with modern avionics, and passenger cabin improvements similar to those on the Boeing 777, including more curved surfaces and larger overhead bins than previous-generation 737s. The Next Generation 737 interior was also adopted on the Boeing 757-300. This improved on the previous interior of the Boeing 757-200 and the Boeing 737 Classic variants, the new interior became optional on the 757-200. In 2010, new interior options for the 737NG included the 787-style Boeing Sky Interior. It introduced new pivoting overhead bins (a first for a Boeing narrow-body aircraft), new sidewalls, new passenger service units, and LED mood lighting. Boeing's newer "Space Bins" can carry 50 percent more than the pivoting bins, thus allowing a 737-800 to hold 174 carry-on bags. Boeing also offered it as a retrofit for older 737NG aircraft. == Variants == === 737-600 === The 737-600 was launched by SAS in March 1995, with the first aircraft delivered in September 1998. A total of 69 have been produced, with the last aircraft delivered to WestJet in 2006. Boeing displayed the 737-600 in its price list until August 2012. The 737-600 replaces the 737-500 and is similar to the Airbus A318. Winglets were not an option. WestJet was to launch the -600 with winglets, but dropped them in 2006. === 737-700 === In November 1993, Southwest Airlines launched the Next-Generation program with an order for 63 737-700s and took delivery of the first one in December 1997. It replaced the 737-300, typically seating 126 passengers in two classes to 149 in all-economy configuration, similar to the Airbus A319. In long-range cruise, it burns 4,440 lb (2,010 kg) per hour at Mach 0.785 (450 kn; 834 km/h) and FL410, increasing to 4,620–4,752 lb (2,096–2,155 kg) at Mach 0.80 – Mach 0.82 (459–470 kn; 850–871 km/h). As of July 2018, all -700 series on order, 1,128 -700, 120 -700 BBJ, 20 -700C, and 14 -700W aircraft, have been delivered. By June 2018, around one thousand were in service: half of them with Southwest Airlines, followed by WestJet with 56 and United Airlines with 39. The value of a new -700 stayed around $35 million from 2008 to 2018. A 2003 aircraft was valued for $15.5 million in 2016 and $12 million in 2018 and will be scrapped for $6 million by 2023. The 737-700C is a convertible version where the seats can be removed to carry cargo instead. There is a large door on the left side of the aircraft. The United States Navy was the launch customer for the 737-700C under the military designation C-40 Clipper. ==== 737-700ER ==== Boeing launched the 737-700ER (Extended Range) on January 31, 2006, with All Nippon Airways as the launch customer. Inspired by the Boeing Business Jet, it features the fuselage of the 737-700 and the wings and landing gear of the 737-800. When outfitted with nine auxiliary fuel tanks, it can hold 10,707 US gallons (40,530 L; 8,915 imp gal) of fuel with a 171,000-pound (78,000 kg) MTOW, but with a cargo payload capacity significantly decreased from 966 to 165 cu ft (27.4 to 4.7 m3), trading payload for increased range of 5,775 nmi (10,695 km; 6,646 mi). The first was delivered on February 16, 2007, to ANA with 24 business-class and 24 premium-economy seats only. A 737-700 can typically accommodate 126 passengers in two classes. It is similar to the Airbus A319LR. === 737-800 === The Boeing 737-800 is a stretched version of the 737-700. It replaced the 737-400 and competes primarily with the Airbus A320. The 737-800 seats 162 passengers in a two-class layout or 189 passengers in a one-class layout. The 737-800 was launched on September 5, 1994. Launch customer Hapag-Lloyd Flug (now TUI fly Deutschland) received the first one in April 1998. Following Boeing's merger with McDonnell Douglas, the 737-800 also filled the gap left by Boeing's decision to discontinue the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 and MD-90 aircraft. For many airlines in the U.S., the 737-800 replaced aging Boeing 727-200 trijets. The 737-800 burns 850 US gallons (3,200 L) of jet fuel per hour—about 80 percent of the fuel used by an MD-80 on a comparable flight, while carrying more passengers. The Airline Monitor, an industry publication, quotes a 737-800 fuel burn of 4.88 US gal (18.5 L) per seat per hour, compared to 5.13 US gal (19.4 L) for the A320. In 2011, United Airlines— flying a Boeing 737-800 from Houston to Chicago—operated the first U.S. commercial flight powered by a blend of algae-derived biofuel and traditional jet fuel to reduce its carbon footprint. In early 2017, a new 737-800 was valued at $48.3 million, falling to below $47 million by mid-2018. By 2025, a 17-year-old 737-800W will be worth $9.5 million and leased for $140,000 per month. As of May 2019, Boeing had delivered 4,979 737-800s, 116 737-800As, and 21 737-800 BBJ2s, and has 12 737-800 unfilled orders. The 737-800 is the best-selling variant of the 737NG and is the most widely used narrow-body aircraft. Ryanair, an Irish low-cost airline, is among the largest operators of the Boeing 737-800, with a fleet of over 400 of the -800 variant serving routes across Europe, Middle East, and North Africa. ==== 737-800BCF ==== In February 2016, Boeing launched a passenger-to-freighter conversion program, with converted aircraft designated as 737-800BCF (for Boeing Converted Freighter). Boeing started the program with orders for 55 conversions, with the first converted aircraft due for late 2017 delivery. The first converted aircraft was delivered to West Atlantic in April 2018. At the 2018 Farnborough Airshow, GECAS announced an agreement for 20 firm orders and 15 option orders for the 737-800BCF, raising the commitment to 50 aircraft. Total orders and commitments include 80 aircraft to over half a dozen customers. Since early 737NG aircraft become available on the market, they have been actively marketed to be converted to cargo planes via the Boeing Converted Freighter design because the operational economics are attractive due to the low operating costs and availability of certified pilots on a robust airframe. Modifications to the 737-800 airframe include installing a large cargo door, a cargo handling system, and additional accommodations for non-flying crew or passengers. The aircraft is designed to fly up to 1,995 nmi (3,695 km; 2,296 mi) at a MTOW of 174,100 lb (79,000 kg). ==== 737-800SF ==== In 2015, Boeing launched the 737-800SF passenger to freighter conversion program with Aeronautical Engineers Inc (AEI). The conversion can be completed by AEI or third parties such as HAECO. GECAS was the initial customer. It has a 52,800-pound (23,900 kg) payload capacity, and a range of 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi). It received its supplemental type certificate from the FAA in early 2019. In March 2019, the first AEI converted aircraft was delivered to Ethiopian Airlines on lease from GECAS. The Civil Aviation Administration of China cleared it in January 2020. Aircraft lessor Macquarie AirFinance ordered four 737-800SFs in March 2021. === 737-900 === Boeing later introduced the 737-900, an even longer variant stretched to 138 ft 2 in (42.11 m). Because the −900 retains the same exit configuration of the -800, seating capacity is limited to 189, although aircraft equipped with a typical 2-class layout will seat approximately 177. The 737-900 also retains the MTOW and fuel capacity of the −800, trading range for payload. Alaska Airlines launched the 737-900 in November 1997, and the model first flew on August 3, 2000. Alaska Airlines accepted the first delivery on May 15, 2001. The type proved unpopular, with only 52 delivered, before being replaced by the improved 737-900ER. ==== 737-900ER ==== The 737-900ER (Extended Range), which was called the 737-900X before launch, was the final and largest variant of the Boeing 737 NG line. It was introduced to fill the range and passenger capacity gap in Boeing's product offerings after the 757-200 was discontinued, address the shortcomings of the 737-900, and to directly compete with the Airbus A321. Up to two auxiliary fuel tanks in the cargo hold and standard winglets improved the range of the stretched jet to that of other 737NG variants, while an additional pair of exit doors and a flat rear pressure bulkhead increased maximum seating capacity to 220 passengers. Airlines may deactivate (plug) the additional exit doors if the total configured capacity of the plane is 189 passengers or less. The 737-900ER was launched in July 2005 and first flew in September 2006. The first plane was delivered to its launch customer, the Indonesian low-cost airline Lion Air, on April 27, 2007, and was painted in a special dual paint scheme combining Lion Air's logo on the vertical stabilizer and Boeing's livery colors on the fuselage. A total of 505 -900ERs were delivered. === Military models === C-40 Clipper: The C-40A is a 737-700C used by the U.S. Navy as a replacement for the C-9B Skytrain II. The C-40B and C-40C are based on the BBJ (see below) and used by the U.S. Air Force for transport of generals and other senior leaders. E-7 Wedgetail: The E-7 is based on the 737-700ER. This is an airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) version of the 737NG. Australia was the first customer (as Project Wedgetail), followed by Turkey, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The aircraft is also designated as the 737-700IGW and 737-700W by Boeing. P-8 Poseidon: The P-8 is based on the 737-800ER, but with the stronger wings from the -900 and raked wingtips instead of the blended winglets available on civilian 737NG variants. The P-8 is a maritime patrol aircraft. The aircraft was selected by the U.S. Navy on June 14, 2004 to replace the Lockheed P-3 Orion, with additional orders from Australia, Canada, Germany, India, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, and the United Kingdom. The P-8 is designated as the 737-800ERX and 737-800A by Boeing. === Boeing Business Jet === In the late 1980s, Boeing marketed the Boeing 77-33 jet, a business jet version of the 737-300. The name was short-lived. After the introduction of the next generation series, Boeing introduced the Boeing Business Jet (BBJ). The BBJ (retroactively referred to as the BBJ1) was similar in dimensions to the 737-700 but had additional features, including stronger wings and landing gear from the 737-800, and has increased range (through the use of extra fuel tanks) over the other various 737 models. The first BBJ rolled out on August 11, 1998, and flew for the first time on September 4. A total of 113 BBJ1s were delivered to customers. On October 11, 1999, Boeing launched the BBJ2. Based on the 737-800, it is 19 ft 2 in (5.84 m) longer than the BBJ1, with 25% more cabin space and twice the baggage space, but with slightly reduced range. It is also fitted with auxiliary fuel tanks in the cargo hold and winglets. The first BBJ2 was delivered on February 28, 2001. A total of 23 BBJ2s were delivered to customers. The BBJ3 aircraft is based on the 737-900ER aircraft. The BBJ3 is approximately 16 feet (4.9 m) longer than the BBJ2 and has a slightly shorter range. Seven BBJ3s were delivered to customers. == Operators == As of July 2018, 6,343 Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft were in commercial service. This comprised 69 -600s, 1,027 -700s, 4,764 -800s and 513 -900s. === Orders and deliveries === Data as of April 2025 == Accidents and incidents == The Boeing 737 Next Generation series has been involved in 22 hull-loss accidents and 13 hijackings, for a total of 767 fatalities, according to the Aviation Safety Network, as of January 2020. An analysis by Boeing of commercial airplane accidents in the period 1959–2017 showed that the Next Generation series had a hull loss rate of 0.17 per million departures compared to 0.71 for the classic series and 1.75 for the original series. The deadliest occurrence for a 737NG is Jeju Air Flight 2216, a 737-800, which overshot the runway while performing a belly landing at Muan International Airport in South Korea and crashed into an embankment on December 29, 2024, killing 179 of the 181 on board. == Specifications (Boeing 737-800 with CFM56-7B26 and winglets) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 160 passengers in two classes or 175 in one class, and 1,591 cu ft (45.1 m3) of cargo Length: 129 ft 6 in (39.47 m) Wingspan: 117 ft 5 in (35.79 m) Width: 12 ft 4 in (3.76 m) (fuselage) Wing area: 1,341.2 sq ft (124.60 m2) Empty weight: 91,300 lb (41,413 kg) Max takeoff weight: 174,200 lb (79,016 kg) Fuel capacity: 6,875 US gal (26,020 L) Powerplant: 2 × CFM International CFM56-7B26 turbofan engine, 26,300 lbf (117 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: Mach 0.82 Cruise speed: 452 mph (727 km/h, 393 kn) at 39,000 ft (12,000 m) (long-range cruise) Range: 3,368 mi (5,421 km, 2,927 nmi) Service ceiling: 41,000 ft (12,000 m) Takeoff distance: 706 m (2,316 ft) Landing distance: 490 m (1,600 ft) == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Boeing 737 Boeing 737 Classic Boeing 737 MAX Boeing Business Jet Boeing C-40 Clipper Boeing E-7 Wedgetail Boeing P-8 Poseidon Boeing T-43 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A320 family Boeing 717 Boeing 757 Airbus A220/Bombardier CSeries Comac C919 Embraer 195 McDonnell Douglas MD-90 Related lists List of aircraft == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == 737 page on Boeing.com Brady, Chris (September 12, 2016). The Boeing 737 Technical Guide. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1447532736.
Airbus	Airbus SE ( AIR-buss; French: [ɛʁbys] ; German: [ˈɛːɐ̯bʊs] ; Spanish: [ˈejɾβus]) is a European aerospace corporation. The company's primary business is the design and manufacturing of commercial aircraft but it also has separate defence and space and helicopter divisions. Airbus has long been the world's leading helicopter manufacturer and, in 2019, also emerged as the world's biggest manufacturer of airliners. The company was incorporated as the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) in the year 2000 through the merger of the French Aérospatiale-Matra, the German DASA and Spanish CASA. The new entity subsequently acquired full ownership of its subsidiary, Airbus Industrie GIE, a joint venture of European aerospace companies originally incorporated in 1970 to develop and produce a wide-body aircraft to compete with American-built airliners. EADS rebranded itself as Airbus SE in 2015. Reflecting its multinational origin, the company operates major offices and assembly plants in France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom, along with more recent additions in Canada, Malaysia, United States, Morocco and India. Airbus' headquarters are legally registered in Leiden, Netherlands, but daily management is conducted from the company's main office located in Blagnac, France. The SE in its corporate name stands for Societas Europaea. The company is led by CEO Guillaume Faury and is a component of the EURO STOXX 50 stock market index. Since its inception in 2000, the company's shares have been listed on the Paris Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the four regional Spanish stock exchanges (including the Bolsa de Madrid). == History == The current company is the product of consolidation in the European aerospace industry, tracing back to the formation of the Airbus Industrie GIE consortium in 1970. In 2000, the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) NV was established. In addition to other subsidiaries pertaining to security and space activities, EADS owned 100% of the pre-existing Eurocopter SA, established in 1992, as well as 80% of Airbus Industrie GIE. In 2001, Airbus Industrie GIE was reorganised as Airbus SAS, a simplified joint-stock company. In 2006, EADS acquired BAE Systems' remaining 20% of Airbus. EADS NV was renamed Airbus Group NV and SE in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Due to the dominance of the Airbus SAS division within Airbus Group SE, the executive committees of the parent and subsidiary companies were aligned in January 2017, but the companies were kept as separate legal entities. The holding company was given its present name in April 2017. The logos of Airbus Industrie GIE and Airbus SAS displayed a stylised turbine symbol, redolent of a jet engine, and a font similar to Helvetica Black. The logo colours were reflected in the standard Airbus aircraft livery in each period. The EADS logo between 2000 and 2010 combined the logos of the merged companies, DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (a four-ray star) and Aérospatiale-Matra (a curved arrow), after which these elements were removed and a new font with 3D shading was chosen. This font was retained in the logos of Airbus Group NV (2014–2015) and Airbus Group SE (2015–2017), then Airbus SE: == Products == === Civilian === The Airbus product line started with the A300 in 1972, the world's first wide-body, twinjet aircraft. The aircraft greatly benefited from the 1976 introduction of the ETOPS 90 rule, which allowed twinjet aircraft to operate up to 90 minutes (increased from 60 minutes) away from the nearest airport. Under the new rule, the A300 was able to operate over the North Atlantic, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean more efficiently than the trijets and four-engined jet aircraft offered by competitors. They then went on to make the Airbus A310, also a wide-body aircraft. Airbus had identified a demand for an aircraft smaller than the Airbus A300, the first twin-jet wide-body. It was manufactured from 1981-1998. Building on its success with the A300, Airbus worked to develop a narrow-body aircraft along with additional wide-body aircraft based on the A300. The narrow-body efforts led to the launch of the A320 in 1987, which was and continues to be a major commercial success. The A320 was the first commercial jet to use a digital fly-by-wire control system. All Airbus aircraft developed since then have cockpit systems similar to the A320, making it easier to train crew. The success led Airbus to introduce a lengthened version, the A321 in 1993, along with the shorter A319 in 1995 and the even shorter A318 in 2002. In 2016, Airbus re-engineered the narrow-body family, in a programme called the A320neo (new engine option). The wide-body programme led to the introduction of the four-engine A340 in 1991 and the twinjet A330 in 1992. At that time, Airbus wanted to offer four-engined jet aircraft to allow for longer transatlantic and transpacific flights. However, during the aircraft's development, new rules extended twinjet operations to 120 minutes in 1986, and 180 minutes in 1989. Although the new rules hurt sales of the A340, they greatly benefited the A330. Production of the A340 ended in 2011, while the A330 would be re-engineered as the A330neo (new engine option) in 2018. The world's largest passenger airliner was introduced by Airbus in 2005; the A380 is a four-engine aircraft with two full-length passenger seating decks. Intended to challenge the dominance of the Boeing 747 in the long-haul market, the A380 was ultimately a money-losing venture for Airbus due to large development costs and limited sales arising from high operating costs, and production ended in December 2021. The A350, a wide-body, twinjet aircraft was introduced in 2013. The A350 was the first Airbus aircraft made largely from carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers. It is longer and wider than the fuselage used on the A300, A310, A330, and A340. A second narrow-body jet was added to the product list in 2018 when Airbus gained control of the Bombardier CSeries programme, and rebranded it as the A220. The jet offers five-abreast seating compared to the six-abreast seating on the A320. In December 2024, it was reported that the total aircraft delivery in the year for Airbus has reached 643 units, with 84 planes delivered in November 2024 alone. Subsequently in January 2025, it was reported that Airbus have successfully delivered 766 aircraft to its customers out of 878 orders in the entire 2024, marking a 4% increase from the previous year and further reinforce its position as the leading aircraft manufacturer in the world. The company is also a 50% owner of the ATR joint venture which builds the ATR 42 and ATR 72 regional aircraft. === Corporate jets === Airbus Corporate Jets markets and modifies new aircraft for private and corporate customers. It has a model range that parallels the commercial aircraft offered by the company. Following the entry of the 737-based Boeing Business Jet, Airbus joined the business jet market with the A319 Corporate Jet in 1997. Although the term Airbus Corporate Jet was initially used only for the A319CJ, it is now often used for all models, including VIP widebodies. As of December 2008, 121 corporate and private jets are operating, and 164 aircraft have been ordered. The company is also a 10% owner of Dassault Aviation, which builds the Falcon family of smaller business jets. === Military === Airbus Defence and Space markets and either builds or modifies new aircraft for military use. Airbus became increasingly interested in developing and selling to the military aviation market in the late 1990s. It embarked on two main fields of development: aerial refuelling with the Airbus A310 MRTT (Multi-Role Tanker Transport) and later the Airbus A330 MRTT, and tactical airlift with the Airbus A400M Atlas. The company has also continued to market and assemble some military aircraft previously offered by the companies that formed Airbus, notably CASA. The A310 and A330-based MRTT aircraft are conversions of civilian airliners. The aircraft are called multi-role tanker transports because, in addition to their aerial refuelling capability, the aircraft can also be configured for troop transport, medevac, and cargo transportation. The A400M Atlas is a four-engine, turboprop-powered tactical transport aircraft. The A400M is sized between the American-made C-130 and the C-17 transports, and while it can carry heavier loads than the C-130, its turboprop engines allow it to retain the ability to use rough landing strips. The A400M was developed for European NATO members Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Turkey and the UK, as an alternative to relying on foreign aircraft. During development, the A400M programme faced delays and cost overruns; with customer nations stepping in offer additional subsidies. The first aircraft was delivered to the French Air Force in 2013, and by 2023, more than 100 aircraft had been built. The Defence and Space division also market and assembles the EADS CASA C295, a smaller tactical transport aircraft, that was designed and initially manufactured by the Spanish aerospace company CASA. The company is also a 50% owner of the ArianeGroup joint venture which builds the Ariane 5 space launch vehicle, a 46% owner of the Eurofighter joint venture which builds the Typhoon fighter jet, a 42.5% owner of the Panavia Aircraft joint venture which built the Tornado fighter jet, a 37.5% owner of the MBDA joint venture which builds missiles, and a 10% owner of Dassault Aviation which builds the Rafale fighter jet, and previously, the Mirage 2000 fighter. === Helicopters === Airbus Helicopters markets and builds new rotorcraft for civilian and military use. The division was founded formed in 1992 as the Eurocopter Group, through the merger of the helicopter divisions of Aérospatiale and DASA (two of the founding companies of Airbus). Airbus Helicopters is the foremost player in the turbine helicopter industry both in terms of revenues and deliveries. The division's civilian products include the single engine H125 and H130, the light twin engine H135 and H145, the medium twin engine H155 and H160, the super medium twin engine H175, and the heavy twin engine H215 and H225. Military products include the Tiger attack helicopter, along with militarized versions of the H125, H135, H145, H160, H175, H215, and H225. The company is also a 62.5% owner of the NHIndustries joint venture, which builds the NH90 military utility helicopter. == Organisation == === Divisions === ==== Commercial Aircraft ==== Commercial aircraft generated 74% of total revenue for the Airbus group in 2018 and 72% in 2023. The key trends for Airbus Commercial Aircraft (excluding Defence, Space and Helicopters) are as of each financial year ending December 31: ==== Defence and Space ==== The division Airbus Defence and Space was formed in January 2014 as part of the group restructuring from the former EADS divisions Airbus Military, Astrium, and Cassidian (composed of Cassidian Electronics – develops and manufactures sensors, radars, avionics and electronic warfare systems for military and security applications, Cassidian Air Systems – develops manned and unmanned aerial systems (UAVs), mission avionics, electronic defence and warning systems and Cassidian Systems – provides global security systems such as command & control, lead system integration, TETRA and TETRAPOL communication systems for public safety, industry, transportation and defence). This line of business was the first one in the world to begin field tests with TETRA Enhanced Data Service (TEDS). EADS 3 Sigma – a Hellenic company focused on the design, development, production and services provision of airborne and surface target drone systems. The Airbus Military division, which manufactured tanker, transport and mission aircraft; Airbus Helicopters, the world's largest helicopter supplier; Astrium, provided systems for aerial, land, naval and civilian security applications including Ariane, Galileo and Cassidian. Through Cassidian, EADS was a partner in the Eurofighter consortium as well as in the missile systems provider MBDA. ==== Helicopters ==== Airbus Helicopters, formerly known as Eurocopter, is a helicopter manufacturing and support company. === Subsidiaries === Airbus APWorks AirBusiness Academy Airbus Flight Academy Airbus Group, Inc. – the U.S. holding company for the North American activities of Airbus Group Airbus Transport International – cargo airline managing the transportation of Airbus parts between facilities Airbus Protect Airbus Crisa Dornier Consulting GPT NAVBLUE Premium AEROTEC Satair Airbus Atlantic Testia UP42 VoltAir === Joint ventures === === Largest shareholders === The 10 largest shareholder of Airbus in early 2024 were: Government of France (10.83%) Government of Germany (10.82%) Government of Spain (4.081%) The Children's Investment Fund Management (3.013%) Amundi (0.3994%) Silverbay Capital Management (0.2518%) OFI Invest Asset Management (0.1688%) Crédit Mutuel (0.1611%) Moneta Asset Management (0.1139%) Rothschild & Co (0.1110%) == Senior leadership == The corporate management of Airbus is: Chairman: René Obermann (since April 2020) Chief Executive: Guillaume Faury (since April 2019) == International manufacturing presence == Airbus has several final assembly lines for different models and markets. These are: Toulouse, France (A320 family, A330 and A350) Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder, Hamburg, Germany (A320 family) Seville, Spain (A400M and C295) Tianjin, China (A320 family) Airbus Mobile, Mobile, Alabama, United States (A220 and A320 family) Mirabel, Quebec: Airbus Canada originator of the A220 Airbus, however, has a number of other plants in different European locations, reflecting its foundation as a consortium. For aircraft assembled in Europe, aircraft parts often move between the different factories and the assembly lines via the use of the Beluga and BelugaXL, a fleet modified aircraft capable of carrying entire sections of fuselage. For aircraft assembled in China and the United States, the parts needed to build an aircraft meet in a single European location where they are loaded onto ships for the final journey to the assembly line. Airbus opened an assembly plant for the A320 family of aircraft in Tianjin, China in 2009. Airbus started constructing a $350 million component manufacturing plant in Harbin, China in July 2009, which now employs over 1,000 people. It was fully operational by early 2011, the 30,000 square metre plant manufactures composite parts and assembles composite work-packages for the A350 XWB, A320 families and future Airbus programmes. Harbin Aircraft Industry Group Corporation, Hafei Aviation Industry Company Ltd, AviChina Industry & Technology and other Chinese partners hold an 80% stake in the plant while Airbus controls the remaining 20%. In 2022, the Tianjin plant finished upgrading works to allow for production of A321. In 2023, the Tianjin final assembly plant started construction to be expanded with a second production line. North America plays a crucial role for Airbus, both in terms of aircraft sales and suppliers. Of the approximately 5,300 Airbus jetliners sold worldwide, 2,000 are ordered by North American customers. These orders span Airbus' entire product line, from the compact A318 to the massive A380, accommodating 107 to 565 passengers. Notably, US contractors contribute significantly, supporting around 120,000 jobs and generating an estimated $5.5 billion in business. For instance, one variant of the A380 boasts 51% American content in terms of work share value. Plans for a Mobile, Alabama aircraft assembly plant were unveiled by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Centre on 2 July 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley for the assembly of the A220, A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. It could employ up to 1,000 full-time workers when operational. Construction began on 8 April 2013, and became operable by 2015, producing up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. On 16 December 2024, it was reported that Airbus has leased 650,000 sq ft of office space in Bengaluru's Whitefield to build its Global Capacity Centre. The lease is for 10 years and valued at Rs 500 crore, securing the entire building in Titanium Tech Park. This marks a significant milestone for Airbus in strengthening its technology and innovation in India. == Financial information == The key trends of Airbus SE are (as of each financial year ending December 31): In October 2005 the British Ministry of Defence warned European politicians to stop, as it saw it, interfering in the corporate governance of EADS. The former UK Defence Procurement Minister Lord Drayson hinted that the UK government, a major customer for EADS, may withhold future contracts. "As a key customer, we see it as important for EADS to move in a direction that is free from political interference." On 4 April 2006, DaimlerChrysler announced its intention to reduce its shareholding from 30 % to 22.5 %. The company placed a value of the stake at "approximately €2.0 billion." Lagardère was to reduce its holding by an identical amount. However, Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations, a unit of the French government, acquired 2.25 % of EADS. At issue, as a result, is the fact that the German and French shareholdings were now in imbalance. On 30 August 2006, shortly after the stock price decline caused by the A380 delivery delays, more than 5 % of EADS stock was reportedly purchased by the Russian state-owned Vneshtorgbank, bringing its share to nearly 6 %. In December 2007, Vneshtorgbank sold EADS shares to another state-controlled bank, Vnesheconombank. EADS shares were to be delivered by Vneshekonombank to the charter capital of JSC United Aircraft Corporation in 2008. On 3 October 2006, shortly after EADS admitted further delays in the Airbus 380 programme would cost the company 4.8 billion euros in lost earnings in 2010, EADS shares, traded on the Paris arm of Euronext, were suspended after they surpassed the 10 % loss limit. Trading resumed later in the day with the one-day loss holding at 7 %. In 2007, Dubai Holding acquired 3.12 % of EADS stock, making the Dubai buy-out fund one of the largest institutional shareholders. In 2008, EADS had arms sales equivalent to $17.9 billion, which constituted 28 % of total revenue. In April 2013, Daimler sold its shares in EADS. As of 31 December 2024, 73.7 % of Airbus Group stock is publicly traded on six European stock exchanges (Euronext Paris in France, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in Germany, and the four regional stock exchanges Bolsa de Madrid, Borsa de Barcelona, Bolsa de Valencia and Bolsa de Bilbao in Spain). 0.6 % of the shares are treasury shares owned by Airbus, while the remaining 25.7% are owned by a "Contractual Partnership". As of 31 December 2024, the partnership is owned by SOGEPA (10.8%), GZBV (10.8%) and SEPI (4.1%). SOGEPA is owned by the French State, GZBV is majority owned by the German state-owned investment and development bank KfW, and SEPI is a Spanish state holding company. In April 2020, Airbus announced that it had cut aircraft production by a third due to the COVID-19 outbreak. According to Guillaume Faury, the company was "bleeding cash at an unprecedented speed." The recession put its survival at stake and presented the need for deep job cuts throughout all Airbus departments. 3,000 workers in France were involved in government-assisted furlough schemes. == Environmental record == Airbus has committed to "Flightpath 2050", an aviation industry plan to reduce noise, CO2, and NOx emissions. Airbus was the first aerospace business to become ISO 14001 certified, in January 2007; this is a broader certification covering the whole organisation, not just the aircraft it produces. === Co-development of biofuels === In association with Honeywell and JetBlue, Airbus has developed an aviation biofuel to reduce pollution and dependence on fossil fuels, claiming that this has the potential to replace up to a third of the world's aviation fuel. Algae-based biofuel absorbs carbon dioxide during growth and does not compete with food production. This alternative may be commercially available by 2030 but algae and other vegetation-based fuels are in an early stage of development, and fuel-bearing algae have been expensive to develop. Airbus offers delivery flights to airlines using a 10% biofuel blend in standard engines. The fuel does not cut carbon emissions but is free of sulphur emissions, which demonstrates that the fuel could be used in commercial flights in unmodified engines. On 22 July 2024, at the 2024 Farnborough International Airshow, Airbus and Airports Council International (ACI) World association signed a cooperation agreement to support the industry's efforts to reduce the environmental impact of aviation, including the adoption of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). === Hydrogen powered aircraft concepts announced === In September 2020, Airbus unveiled three liquid hydrogen-fueled "ZEROe" concept aircraft that it claims could become the first commercial zero-emission aircraft, entering service by 2035. The design includes an aircraft with six eight-bladed turbo-prop removable motors. At the Airbus Summit in March 2025, Airbus delivered updates on its development of the ZEROe hydrogen powered aircraft. == Controversies == === Government subsidies === Boeing has continually protested over "launch aid" and other forms of government aid to Airbus, while Airbus has argued that Boeing receives illegal subsidies through military and research contracts and tax breaks. In July 2004, former Boeing CEO Harry Stonecipher accused Airbus of abusing a 1992 bilateral EU-US agreement providing for disciplines for large civil aircraft support from governments. Airbus is given reimbursable launch investment (RLI), called "launch aid" by the US, from European governments, with the money being paid back with interest plus indefinite royalties, but only if the aircraft is a commercial success. Airbus contends that this system is fully compliant with the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. The agreement allows up to 33% of the programme cost to be met through government loans, which are to be fully repaid within 17 years with interest and royalties. These loans are held at a minimum interest rate equal to the cost of government borrowing plus 0.25%, which would be below market rates available to Airbus without government support. Airbus claims that since the signature of the EU-US agreement in 1992, it has repaid European governments more than U.S.$6.7 billion and that this is 40% more than it has received. Airbus argues that the military contracts awarded to Boeing, the second largest U.S. defence contractor, are in effect a form of subsidy, such as the controversy surrounding the Boeing KC-767 military contracting arrangements. The significant U.S. government support of technology development via NASA also provides significant support to Boeing, as do the large tax breaks offered to Boeing, which some people claim are in violation of the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. In its recent products such as the 787, Boeing has also been offered direct financial support from local and state governments. In January 2005 the European Union and United States trade representatives, Peter Mandelson and Robert Zoellick respectively, agreed to talks aimed at resolving the increasing tensions. These talks were not successful with the dispute becoming more acrimonious rather than approaching a settlement. WTO ruled in August 2010 and in May 2011 that Airbus had received improper government subsidies through loans with below market rates from several European countries. In a separate ruling in February 2011, WTO found that Boeing had received local and federal aid in violation of WTO rules. === Cluster bomb allegation === In 2005 the Government Pension Fund of Norway recommended the exclusion of several companies producing cluster bombs or components. EADS and its sister company EADS Finance BV were among them, arguing that EADS manufactures "key components for cluster bombs". The criticism was centred around TDA, a joint venture between EADS and Thales S.A. TDA produced the mortar ammunition PR Cargo, which can be considered cluster ammunition, however this definition has since been successfully battled by EADS. EADS and its subsidiaries are now regarded as fulfilling all the conditions of the Ottawa Treaty. According to the new point of view, no product of EADS or its subsidiaries falls into the category of antipersonnel mines as defined by the Ottawa Treaty ("landmines under the Ottawa Treaty"). In April 2006, the fund declared that the basis for excluding EADS from investments related to the production of cluster munitions is no longer valid, however its shareholding of MBDA means the fund still excludes EADS due to its indirect involvement in nuclear weapons production. === Insider trading investigation === On 2 June 2006 co-CEO Noël Forgeard and Airbus CEO Gustav Humbert resigned following the controversy caused by the June 2006 announcement that deliveries of the A380 would be delayed by a further six months. Forgeard was one of a number of executives including Jean-Paul Gut who exercised stock options in November 2005 and March 2006. He and twenty-one other executives are under investigation as to whether they knew about the delays in the Airbus A380 project which caused a 26 % fall in EADS shares when publicised. The French government's actions were also under investigation; The state-owned bank Caisse des Dépots et Consignations (CDC) bought part of Lagardère's 7.5 % stake in EADS in April 2006, allowing that latter to partially escape the June 2006 losses. === Investment in Chinese firm supplying Myanmar military === In 2024, Airbus received negative press attention for increasing their investments in Aviation Industry Corporation of China, a Chinese company that provides weapons to the Myanmar junta. === Bribery allegations === ==== South Africa ==== In 2003 Tony Yengeni, former chief whip of South Africa's African National Congress, was convicted of fraud worth around US$5 billion relating to an arms deal with South Africa, in which Airbus (formerly EADS) were major players. It was claimed that Airbus had admitted that it had "rendered assistance" to around thirty senior officials, including defence force chief General Siphiwe Nyanda, to obtain luxury vehicles. In March 2003, South Africa withdrew all charges of bribery against the former head of EADS South Africa, and in September 2004, the prosecutor's office dismissed the bribery charges against Yengeni. ==== Saudi Arabia ==== In August 2012 the UK's Serious Fraud Office opened a criminal investigation into an EADS subsidiary, GPT Special Project Management Ltd, regarding bribery allegations made by GPT's former programme director, Ian Foxley. Foxley alleged that luxury cars were bought for senior Saudis, and that millions of pounds sterling were paid to mysterious Cayman Islands companies, possibly to secure a £2 billion contract to renew the Saudi Arabian National Guard's military telecommunications network. Foxley's allegations were supported by two other GPT employees. The later agreement between Airbus and the SFO on 31 January 2020 excluded the settlement of this case. ==== British and French investigations ==== The French National Financial Prosecutor's Office (PNF), the UK Serious Fraud Office (SFO) and the US Department of Justice (DoJ) had been jointly investigating irregularities in Airbus marketing practices since 2016, in particular the activities of agents Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Indonesia and Austria, but also China, the United Arab Emirates, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Kuwait, Turkey, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, Vietnam, India, Colombia and Nepal. In July 2016, SFO opened a criminal investigation into "suspicions of fraud, bribes and corruption" after Airbus informed British authorities of a failure to disclose the role played by some intermediaries facilitating the sale of aircraft. Airbus was required to provide this information in order to benefit from export credits, which the British, French and German governments had suspended. In March 2017, the PNF subsequently opened a preliminary investigation into "suspicions of fraud and corruption in civil aviation activities" in cooperation with the SFO. The allegations included that from 2012 onwards Airbus was responsible for recruiting and remunerating intermediaries to influence the award of civil and military contracts. Payments worth hundreds of millions of euros in alleged secret commissions were made and numerous sales including in Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, Philippines, Indonesia, Austria, China and Mauritius were under suspicion of bribery. The investigation focused on the Airbus, Strategy and Marketing Organization (SMO), the department responsible for negotiating sales contracts and which, La Tribune reported as having "a network and an incredible influence around the world." Directed successively by Jean-Paul Gut and Marwan Lahoud, the SMO was dissolved in 2016 under the new executive director, Thomas Enders, as part of a "clean hands" operation. In 2014, in a case referred to as the Kazakhgate affair, a search at Airbus Helicopters by French authorities found emails confirming that Airbus had agreed in principle to pay €12 million in bribes to the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan to facilitate the sale of helicopters. Officers from the Central Anti-Corruption Office (OCLCIFF) then searched the home of Marwan Lahoud on 8 February 2016. This revealed that two Turkish intermediaries had claimed payment of commissions due in connection with the sale of 160 aircraft to China valued at US$10 billion. A message by Lahoud suggested that the commissions could reach US$250 million. The SMO was to conceal these commissions as false invoices for a fictitious Caspian pipeline project. In January 2020, French, British and American courts validated three agreements between Airbus and the PNF, the UK SFO, and the US DoJ. Airbus recognised the charges and agreed to pay fines of €2.1 billion in France, €984 million in the United Kingdom and €526 million in the United States. The penalties were the highest ever issued by the French and British bodies. These settlements close the prosecution of Airbus regarding the Kazakhstan case but not allegations of misconduct in Saudi Arabia, China and Turkey, which Airbus denies. Airbus managers may still be pursued as private individuals. == See also == Airbus Training Centre Europe Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom Airbus affair Boeing Bombardier Aerospace Comac Competition between Airbus and Boeing Competition in the regional jet market Embraer Liebherr Aerospace United Aircraft Corporation == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Congressional Research Service (1992). Airbus Industrie: An Economic and Trade Perspective. U.S. Library of Congress. Heppenheimer, T.A. (1995). Turbulent Skies: The History of Commercial Aviation. John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-19694-0. Lynn, Matthew (1997). Birds of Prey: Boeing vs. Airbus, a Battle for the Skies. Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-107-6. McGuire, Steven (1997). Airbus Industrie: Conflict and Cooperation in U.S.E.C. Trade Relations. St. Martin's Press. McIntyre, Ian (1982). Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle Over Airbus. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94278-3. Thornton, David Weldon (1995). Airbus Industrie: The Politics of an International Industrial Collaboration. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-12441-4. == External links == Official website
Airbus A330	The Airbus A330 is a wide-body aircraft developed and produced by Airbus. Airbus began developing larger A300 derivatives in the mid–1970s, giving rise to the A330 twinjet as well as the Airbus A340 quadjet, and launched both designs along with their first orders in June 1987. The A330-300, the first variant, took its maiden flight in November 1992 and entered service with Air Inter in January 1994. The A330-200, a shortened longer-range variant, followed in 1998 with Canada 3000 as the launch operator. The A330 shares many underpinnings with the airframe of the early A340 variants, most notably the same wing components, and by extension the same structure. However, the A330 has two main landing gear legs instead of three, lower weights, and slightly different fuselage lengths. Both airliners have fly-by-wire controls as well as a similar glass cockpit to increase the commonality. The A330 was Airbus's first airliner to offer a choice of three engines: the General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or the Rolls-Royce Trent 700. The A330-300 has a range of 11,750 km (6,340 nmi; 7,300 mi) with 277 passengers, while the shorter A330-200 can cover 13,450 km (7,260 nmi; 8,360 mi) with 247 passengers. Other variants include the A330-200F dedicated freighter, the A330 MRTT military tanker, and the ACJ330 corporate jet. The A330 MRTT was proposed as the EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45 for the US Air Force's KC-X competition, but lost to the Boeing KC-46 in appeal after an initial win. In July 2014, Airbus announced the re-engined A330neo (new engine option) comprising A330-800 and -900, which entered service with TAP Air Portugal in December 2018. With the exclusive, more efficient Trent 7000 turbofan and improvements including sharklets, it offers up to 14% better fuel economy per seat. The first-generation A330s (-200, -200F, and -300) are now called A330ceo (current engine option). Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 75 airplanes in its fleet as of May 2025. A total of 1,863 orders have been placed for the A330 family, of which 1,632 have been delivered and 1,464 are in service with 149 operators. The global A330 fleet had accumulated more than 65 million flight hours since its entry into service. The A330 is the second most delivered wide-body airliner after the Boeing 777. It competes with larger variants of the Boeing 767, smaller variants of the 777, and the 787. It is complemented by the larger Airbus A350, which succeeded the four-engined A340. As of June 2024, the Airbus A330 has been involved in 46 aviation accidents and incidents, including 14 hull-losses (10 due to flight related accidents and 4 due to criminal related accidents), for a total of 339 fatalities. == Development == === Background === Airbus's first airliner, the A300, was envisioned as part of a diverse family of commercial aircraft. Pursuing this goal, studies began in the early 1970s into derivatives of the A300. Before introducing the A300, Airbus identified nine possible variations designated B1 through B9. A tenth variant, the A300B10, was conceived in 1973 and developed into the longer-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on single-aisle (SA) studies, conceiving a family of airliners later known as the Airbus A320 family, the first commercial aircraft with digital fly-by-wire controls. During these studies Airbus turned its focus back to the wide-body aircraft market, simultaneously working on both projects. In the mid 1970s, Airbus began development of the A300B9, a larger derivative of the A300, which would eventually become the A330. The B9 was essentially a lengthened A300 with the same wing, coupled with the most powerful turbofan engines available. It was targeted at the growing demand for high-capacity, medium-range, transcontinental trunk routes. Offering the same range and payload as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 but with 25 per cent better fuel efficiency, the B9 was seen as a viable replacement for the DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar trijets. It was also considered as a medium-ranged successor to the A300. At the same time, a 200-seat four-engine version, the B11 (which would eventually become the A340) was also under development. The B11 was originally planned to take the place of narrow-body Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s then in commercial use, but would later evolve to target the long-range, wide-body trijet replacement market. To differentiate from the SA series, the B9 and B11 were re-designated as the TA9 and TA11, with TA standing for "twin aisle". Development costs were reduced by the two aircraft using the same fuselage and wing, with projected savings of US$500 million. Another factor was the split preference of those within Airbus and, more importantly, those of prospective customers; twinjets were favoured in North America, quad-jets desired in Asia, and operators had mixed views in Europe. Airbus ultimately found that most potential customers favoured four engines for their exemption from existing twinjet range restrictions and their ability to be ferried with one inactive engine. As a result, development plans prioritised the four-engined TA11 ahead of the TA9. === Design effort === The first specifications for the TA9 and TA11, aircraft that could accommodate 410 passengers in a one-class layout, emerged in 1982. They showed a large underfloor cargo area that could hold five cargo pallets or sixteen LD3 cargo containers in the forward, and four pallets or fourteen LD3s in the aft hold—double the capacity of the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar or DC-10, and 8.46 metres (27.8 ft) longer than the Airbus A300. By June 1985, the TA9 and TA11 had received more improvements, including the adoption of the A320 flight deck, digital fly-by-wire (FBW) control system, and side-stick control. Airbus had developed a common cockpit for their aircraft models to allow quick transition by pilots. The flight crews could transition from one type to another after only one week's training, which reduces operator costs. The two TAs would use the vertical stabiliser, rudder, and circular fuselage sections of the A300-600, extended by two barrel sections. Airbus briefly considered the variable camber wing, a concept that requires changing the wing profile for a given phase of flight. Studies were carried out by British Aerospace (BAe), now part of BAE Systems, at Hatfield and Bristol. Airbus estimated this would yield a two per cent improvement in aerodynamic efficiency, but the feature was rejected because of cost and difficulty of development. A true laminar flow wing (a low-drag shape that improves fuel efficiency) was also considered but rejected. With necessary funding available, the Airbus Supervisory Board approved the development of the A330 and A340 with potential customers on 27 January 1986. Its chairman Franz Josef Strauss stated afterwards that Airbus Industrie is now in a position to finalise the detailed technical definition of the TA9, now officially designated as the A330, and the TA11, now called the A340, with potential launch customer airlines, and to discuss with them the terms and conditions for launch commitments. The designations were originally reversed and were switched so the quad-jet airliner would have a "4" in its name. Airbus hoped for five airlines to sign for both the A330 and A340, and on 12 May sent sale proposals to the most likely candidates, including Lufthansa and Swissair. ==== Engines ==== From the beginning of the TA9's development, a choice of engines from the three major engine manufacturers, Rolls-Royce, Pratt & Whitney, and GE Aviation, was planned. GE Aviation first offered the CF6-80C2. However, later studies indicated that more thrust was needed to increase the initial power capability from 267 to 289 kN (60,000 to 65,000 lbf). GE enlarged the CF6-80C2 fan from 236 to 244 centimetres (92.9 to 96.1 in) and reduced the number of fan blades from 38 to 34 to create the CF6-80E1 with a thrust of 300–320 kN (67,000–72,000 lbf). Rolls-Royce initially wanted to use the 267 kN (60,000 lbf) Trent 600 to power Airbus's newest twinjet and the upcoming McDonnell Douglas MD-11. However, the company later agreed to develop an engine solely for the A330, the Trent 700, with a larger diameter and 311 kN (69,900 lbf) of thrust. The A330 became the first Airbus aircraft for which Rolls-Royce supplied engines. Similarly, Pratt & Whitney signed an agreement that covered the development of the A330-exclusive PW4168. The company increased the fan size from 94 in (2.39 m) to 100 in (2.54 m), enabling the engine to deliver 311 kN (69,900 lbf) of thrust. Like the CF6-80E1, 34 blades were used instead of the 38 found on the smaller PW4000 engines. === Production and testing === In preparation for the production of the A330 and the A340, Airbus's partners invested heavily in new facilities. In south-western England, BAe made a £7 million investment in a three-storey technical centre with 15,000 m2 (161,000 sq ft) of floor area at Filton. In north Wales, BAe also spent £5 million on a new production line at its Broughton wing production plant. In Germany, Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) invested DM400 million ($225 million) on manufacturing facilities in the Weser estuary, including at Bremen, Einswarden, Varel, and Hamburg. France saw the biggest investments, with Aérospatiale constructing a new Fr.2.5 billion ($411 million) final-assembly plant adjacent to Toulouse-Blagnac Airport in Colomiers; by November 1988, the pillars for the new Clément Ader assembly hall had been erected. The assembly process featured increased automation, such as robots drilling holes and installing fasteners during the wing-to-fuselage mating process. On 12 March 1987, Airbus received the first orders for the twinjet. Domestic French airline Air Inter placed five firm orders and fifteen options, while Thai Airways International requested eight aircraft, split evenly between firm orders and options. Airbus announced the next day that it would formally launch the A330 and A340 programmes by April 1987, with deliveries of the A340 to begin in May 1992 and A330 deliveries to start in 1993. Northwest Airlines signed a letter of intent for twenty A340s and ten A330s on 31 March. In 2001, the program cost with the A340 was $3.5 billion (equivalent to $5.75 billion in 2023). BAe eventually received £450 million of funding from the UK government, well short of the £750 million it had originally requested for the design and construction of the wings. The German and French governments also provided funding. Airbus issued subcontracts to companies in Australia, Austria, Canada, China, Greece, Italy, India, Japan, South Korea, Portugal, the United States, and the former Yugoslavia. With funding in place, Airbus launched the A330 and A340 programmes on 5 June 1987, just before the Paris Air Show. At that time, the order book stood at 130 aircraft from ten customers, including lessor International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC). Of the order total, forty-one were for A330s. In 1989, Asian carrier Cathay Pacific joined the list of purchasers, ordering nine A330s and later increasing this number to eleven. The wing-to-fuselage mating of the first A330, the tenth airframe of the A330 and A340 line, began in mid February 1992. This aircraft, coated with anti-corrosion paint, was rolled out on 31 March without its General Electric CF6-80E1 engines, which were installed by August. During a static test, the wing failed just below requirement; BAe engineers later resolved the problem. At the 1992 Farnborough Airshow, Northwest deferred delivery of sixteen A330s to 1994, following the cancellation of its A340 orders. The first completed A330 was rolled out on 14 October 1992, with the maiden flight following on 2 November. Weighing 181,840 kg (401,000 lb), including 20,980 kg (46,300 lb) of test equipment, the A330 became the largest twinjet to have flown until the first flight of the Boeing 777. The flight lasted five hours and fifteen minutes during which speed, height, and other flight configurations were tested. Airbus intended the test flight programme to comprise six aircraft flying a total of 1,800 hours. On 21 October 1993, the A330 received the European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certifications simultaneously after 1,114 cumulative airborne test hours and 426 test flights. At the same time, weight tests came in favourable, showing the plane was 500 kg (1,100 lb) underweight. On 30 June 1994, a fatal crash occurred during certification of the Pratt & Whitney engine when an A330 crashed near Toulouse. Both pilots and the five passengers died. The flight was designed to test autopilot response during a one-engine-off worst-case scenario with the centre of gravity near its aft limit. Shortly after takeoff, the pilots had difficulty setting the autopilot, and the aircraft lost speed and crashed. An investigation by an internal branch of Direction Générale d'Aviation concluded that the accident resulted from slow response and incorrect actions by the crew during the recovery. This led to a revision of A330 operating procedures. === Entry into service === Air Inter became the first operator of the A330, having put the aircraft into service on 17 January 1994 between Orly Airport, Paris, and Marseille. Deliveries to Malaysia Airlines (MAS) and Thai Airways International were postponed to address delamination of the composite materials in the PW4168 engine's thrust reverser assembly. Thai Airways received its first A330 during the second half of the year, operating it on routes from Bangkok to Taipei and Seoul. Cathay Pacific received its Trent 700 A330s following the certification of that engine on 22 December 1994. MAS received its A330 on 1 February 1995 and then rescheduled its other ten orders. Its initial range was around 4,000 nautical miles but subsequent refinements increased the range of newer models to 5,000 nautical miles and by 2015, the range was 6,100 nautical miles. === A330-200 === In response to a decline in A330-300 sales, increased market penetration by the Boeing 767-300ER, and airline requests for increased range and smaller aircraft, Airbus developed the A330-200. Known as the A329 and A330M10 during development, the A330-200 would offer nine per cent lower operating costs than the Boeing 767-300ER. The plane was aimed at the 11,900 km (6,430 nmi; 7,390 mi) sector, where Airbus predicted demand for 800 aircraft between 1995 and 2015. The project, with US$450 million in expected development costs, was approved by the Airbus Industrie Supervisory Board on 24 November 1995. The A330-200 first flew on 13 August 1997. The sixteen-month certification process involved logging 630 hours of test flights. The A330-200's first customer was ILFC; these aircraft were leased by Canada 3000, who became the type's first operator. As Airbus worked on its A330-200, hydraulic pump problems were reported by both A330 and A340 operators. This issue was the suspected cause of a fire that destroyed an Air France A340-200 in January 1994. On 4 January of that year, a Malaysia Airlines A330-300, while undergoing regular maintenance at Singapore Changi Airport, was consumed by a fire that started in the right-hand main undercarriage well. The incident caused US$30 million in damage, and the aircraft took six months to repair. Consequently, operators were advised to disable electrical pumps in January 1997. === Proposed variants === A330-400/600 In 1996, Airbus evaluated a 12-frame stretch which would be able to carry 380 passengers over almost 7,000 km (3,800 nmi; 4,300 mi), the -400, and a "super-stretch" using the A340-600's 22-frame stretch and powered by 400 kN (90,000 lbf) engines, the -600. A330-100/500 In February 2000, it was reported that a 250-seat A330-100 replacement for the A300/A310 could be launched by year end for 2003 deliveries. Shortened and keeping its fly-by-wire cockpit and systems, with a cleaner A300-600 wing with sealed control surfaces and winglets and at least two new engine types among the GE CF6-80, the PW4000 and the A340-500/600's Trent 500 aimed for 5% better SFC than the A300-600. Its 44.8 m (147 ft) wing allowed a 173 t (381,000 lb) MTOW and 4,200 nmi (7,770 km; 4,830 mi) range. In May, the 210-260 seat design had evolved towards keeping the A330 60.3 m (198 ft) span wing and engines for a 195 t MTOW and 4,500 nmi (8,300 km; 5,200 mi) range. Interested customers included Singapore Airlines, Lufthansa and Hapag-Lloyd. Announced in July at Farnborough Air Show, the -500 first flight was targeted for early 2003 and introduction in early 2004. ILFC would take 10 if it was launched and CIT was interested too. The eight-frame shrink would carry 222 in three classes or 266 in two classes. Its initial 13,000 km (7,000 nmi; 8,100 mi) range would be followed by derated versions for 8,000 km (4,300 nmi; 5,000 mi). The market was lukewarm as airlines like Lufthansa, Hapag-Lloyd and Singapore Airlines were unimpressed by the long-range A330-500, favouring a more refined short-range design. Lack of airline demand made lessors interest wane and as ILFC would order as 30 -500s, it would be with converting rights to larger A330-200/300. A330-200Lite To compete with Boeing's 7E7 (later 787), Airbus offered a minimum-change derivative called the A330-200Lite in 2004. As the name indicated, this proposed variant would have had a lower maximum takeoff weight of 202 tonnes (445,000 lb), coupled with de-rated engines, giving a range of 7,400 km (4,000 nmi; 4,600 mi). It was aimed at Singapore Airlines, who had looked to replace its Airbus A310-300s. The variant was also to be a replacement for Airbus A300-600Rs and early Boeing 767s. Airlines, however, were not satisfied with the compromised aircraft; the company instead proceeded with an entirely new aircraft, the A350 XWB. === Further developments === Initially, the GE90 was only one of three Boeing 777 options, and GE Aviation then-CEO Brian H. Rowe would have paid for the development of putting it on an A330; however, Airbus' strategy for long-haul was the four-engine A340, missing the market favouring twins. Responding to lagging A300-600F and A310F sales, Airbus began marketing the Airbus A330-200F, a freighter derivative of the A330-200, around 2001. The freighter has a range of 7,400 km (4,000 nmi; 4,600 mi) with a 65 tonnes (140,000 lb) payload, or 5,900 km (3,200 nmi; 3,700 mi) with 70 tonnes (150,000 lb). The plane utilises the same nosegear as the passenger version; however, it is attached lower in the fuselage and housed in a distinctive bulbous "blister fairing". This raises the aircraft's nose so that the cargo deck is level during loading, as the standard A330's landing gear results the plane having a nose-down attitude while on the ground. The A330-200F made its maiden flight on 5 November 2009. This marked the start of a four-month, 180-hour certification programme. JAA and FAA certifications were expected by March the following year although approval by the JAA was delayed until April. The first delivery was subsequently made to the Etihad Airways cargo division, Etihad Cargo, in July 2010. On 25 September 2013, at the Aviation Expo China (Beijing Airshow), Airbus announced a new lower weight A330-300 variant, optimised for use on domestic and regional routes in high growth markets with large populations and concentrated traffic flows; China and India were recognised as prime targets. This variant could carry up to 400 passengers. The increased efficiency, however, comes more from the installation of more seats than any weight reduction. On relatively short, yet congested routes, the A330 competes against single-aisle jetliners. While the A330's operating costs in these conditions are not far above those of the Boeing 737 or Airbus A321, the A320neo and 737 MAX promise more efficiency. Where the frequency of flights cannot be increased, using larger aircraft, such as the A330, is the only available option to increase capacity. The first customer for the A330 Regional was announced as Saudia at the 2015 Paris Air Show. In 2018, the unit cost of an A330-200 was US$238.5M, US$264.2M for an A330-300 and US$241.7M for an A330-200F. === New Engine Option === The A330neo ("neo" for "New Engine Option") is a development from the initial A330 (now A330ceo — "Current Engine Option"). A new version with modern engines developed for the Boeing 787 was called for by owners of the current A330. It was launched in July 2014 at the Farnborough Airshow, promising 14% better fuel economy per seat. It will use the larger Rolls-Royce Trent 7000 exclusively. Its two versions are based on the A330-200 and -300: the -800 should cover 8,100 nmi (15,000 km; 9,320 mi) with 257 passengers while the -900 should cover 7,350 nmi (13,610 km; 8,460 mi) with 287 passengers. The -900 made its first flight on 19 October 2017, received its EASA type certificate on 26 September 2018, and was first delivered to TAP Air Portugal on 26 November. The -800 made its first flight on 6 November 2018, aiming for a mid 2019 type certification and delivery in the first half of 2020. === Production === Airbus announced in February 2011 that it intended to raise production rates from seven-and-a-half/eight per month to nine per month in 2012, and ten in 2013. Production increased to 10 aircraft per month in April 2013, the highest for any Airbus wide-body aircraft. In 2012, Airbus expected the A330 to continue selling until at least 2020, with the A350-900 expected to replace the A330-300. On 19 July 2013, Airbus delivered its 1000th A330 to Cathay Pacific. The A330 became the first Airbus wide-body airliner to reach 1,000 deliveries, and the fourth wide-body to achieve the milestone after the Boeing 747, 767, and 777. As of May 2025, a total of 1,479 A330ceos had been ordered, with 1,472 delivered. In December 2014, Airbus announced that it would reduce A330 production to nine aircraft per month from ten, because of falling orders. Airbus did not rule out any further production cuts. The announcement led to an immediate drop in Airbus Group's stock price because the company derived a significant percentage of its cash flow and net profit from the A330 program; the A330's financial impact was magnified amid problems in the A350 and A380 programs. In February 2015, Airbus announced another production rate cut to six aircraft per month in the first quarter of 2016. This would extend A330ceo production to July 2017, allowing for a smooth transition to A330neo production, which was set to start in spring 2017. In February 2016, Airbus announced it would re-increase the production rate from 6 to 7 per month, in response to new A330 orders. In April 2018, as a result of weakening demand, Airbus announced further rate cuts to 4-5 aircraft a month (50 per year) in 2019. In 2019, Airbus delivered 53 A330s (including 41 A330neos), including some delayed from 2018, and was set to reach a rate of 40 per year, to reflect softer demand for wide-bodies, as the backlog reached 331 (including 293 A330neos) − or 8.3 years' worth of production. The last A330-200 was delivered to OpenSkies (operating for LEVEL) on October 1, 2019, registered F-HLVN (subsequently reregistered EC-NNH in 2021). The last A330-300 built was registered EI-EIN and flown to Brussels Airport on February 28, 2020; Aer Lingus took delivery on 4 March 2020. At the time, four completed A330-300s for troubled Hong Kong Airlines were still undelivered. A330 MRTT/KC-30B and BelugaXL production both continue alongside that of the A330neo. The COVID-19 pandemic reduced demand for new jets in 2020, and Airbus cut its monthly production from 4.5 to 2 A330s. In September 2020, the A330 reached a milestone of 1500 deliveries, Airbus's first twin-aisle aircraft to do so, and the third overall after the Boeing 747 and 777. == Design == The A330 is a medium-size, wide-body aircraft, with two engines suspended on pylons under the wings. A two-wheel nose undercarriage and two four-wheel bogie main legs built by Messier-Dowty support the aeroplane on the ground. Its MTOW grew from 212 tonnes (467,000 lb) at introduction to 242 tonnes (534,000 lb) in 2015, enhancing its payload-range performance. John Leahy states that originally the A330 was intentionally being held down in takeoff weight and performance in order to avoid overlapping with the A340. The airframe of the A330 features a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a wing virtually identical to that of the A340-200/300. On the A330-300, one engine is installed at the inboard pylon while the outboard pylon position is not used; for the A340-300, both engine pylons are used, which allows the A340-300 wing to sustain a higher (wing-limited) MTOW. This is as the A340's two engines at each wing provide a more equal force distribution (engine weight) over the wing, while also the total engine weight counteracting moment is located more outboard with more engine weight located further outboard on the wing, hence the wing root bending moment with equal TOW is less on the A340-300 than on the A330-300. The A340 has a longer range and heavier payload, while the A330 has better fuel economy over the same distance. The wings were designed and manufactured by BAe, which developed a long slender wing with a very high aspect ratio to provide high aerodynamic efficiency. The wing is swept back at 30 degrees and, along with other design features, allows a maximum operating Mach number of 0.86. To reach a long span and high aspect ratio without a large weight penalty, the wing has relatively high thickness-to-chord ratio of 11.8% or 12.8%. Jet airliners have Thickness-to-chord ratios ranging from 9.4% (MD-11 or Boeing 747) to 13% (Avro RJ or 737 Classic). Each wing also has a 2.74 m (9 ft 0 in) tall winglet instead of the wingtip fences found on earlier Airbus aircraft. The shared wing design with the A340 allowed the A330 to incorporate aerodynamic features developed for the former aircraft. The failure of International Aero Engines' radical ultra-high-bypass V2500 "SuperFan", which had promised around 15 per cent fuel burn reduction for the A340, led to multiple enhancements including wing upgrades to compensate. Originally designed with a 56 m (180 ft) span, the wing was later extended to 58.6 m (190 ft) and finally to 60.3 m (200 ft). At 60.3 m (200 ft), the wingspan is similar to that of the larger Boeing 747-200, but with 35 percent less wing area. The A330 and A340 fuselage is based on that of the Airbus A300-600, with many common parts, and has the same external and cabin width: 5.64 m (19 ft) and 5.26 m (17 ft). Typical seating arrangements are 2–2–2 six-abreast in business class and 2–4–2 eight-abreast in economy class. The fin, rudder, elevators, horizontal tail plane (used as fuel tank), flaps, ailerons, and spoilers are made of composite materials, making 10% of the structure weight. When necessary, the A330 uses the Honeywell 331–350C auxiliary power unit (APU) to provide pneumatics and electrical power. The A330 shares the same glass cockpit flight deck layout as the A320 and the A340, featuring electronic instrument displays rather than mechanical gauges. Instead of a conventional control yoke, the flight deck features side-stick controls, six main displays, and the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), which covers navigation and flight displays, as well as the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM). Apart from the flight deck, the A330 also has the fly-by-wire system common to the A320 family, the A340, the A350, and the A380. It also features three primary and two secondary flight control systems, as well as a flight envelope limit protection system which prevents maneuvers from exceeding the aircraft's aerodynamic and structural limits. == Operational history == Airbus intended the A330 to compete in the Extended-range Twin-engine Operation Performance Standards (ETOPS) market, specifically with the Boeing 767. (ETOPS is a standard that allows longer range flights away from a diversion airport for aircraft that have met special design and testing standards.) Instead of the "ETOPS out of the box" or "Early ETOPS" approach taken by Boeing with its 777, Airbus gradually increased ETOPS approval on the A330 using in-service experience. Airbus suggested that the A340 and the A330 were essentially identical except for their engine number, and that the A340's experience could be applied to the A330's ETOPS approval. The plans were for all three engine types to enter service with 90-minute approval, before increasing to 120 minutes after the total A330 fleet accumulated 25,000 flight hours, and then to 180 minutes after 50,000 flight hours, in 1995. Aer Lingus and Cathay Pacific were two important airlines assisting Airbus in this endeavour by building up in-service flight hours on over-ocean flights. In November 2009, the A330 became the first aircraft to receive ETOPS–240 approval, which has since been offered by Airbus as an option. As of September 2024, the global A330 fleet of 1,471 aircraft had 12 years average aircraft age (≈2.5 years for A330neo), opened more than 350 new city pairs since the launch of the Boeing 787 in 2011, and accumulated more than 65 million flight hours since its entry into service with 99.2% operational reliability. == Variants == With the launch of Airbus A330neo, the existing members of the Airbus A330 family (A330-200, 200F, 300, and MRTT) received the Airbus A330ceo ("current engine option") name. === A330ceo === ==== A330-200 ==== The A330-200 is a shortened, longer-range variant, which entered service in 1998 with Canada 3000. The typical range with 253 passengers in a three-class configuration is 13,400 km (7,240 nmi; 8,330 mi). The A330-200 is ten fuselage frames shorter than the original −300, with a length of 58.82 m (193 ft 0 in). To compensate for the smaller moment arm of the shorter fuselage, the vertical stabiliser height of the -200 was increased by 104 cm (40.9 in). The −200's wing was also modified; structural strengthening of the wing allowed the maximum takeoff weight of the −200 to be increased to 229.8 tonnes (507,000 lb). The −200 is offered with three engine types similar to those found on the −300, namely the General Electric CF6-80E, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 700. Airbus also boosted fuel capacity to 139,090 L (36,740 US gal; 30,600 imp gal) by adding the centre section fuel tank, standard in the A340. A new vertical stabiliser was introduced in 2004 beginning with MSN 555. This newer fin is shorter in height by 50 cm (20 in) and was derived from the design of the vertical stabiliser of the A340-500 and -600, later becoming standard on all new A330-200s. In 2008, Airbus released plans for a higher gross weight version of the A330-200 to more effectively compete against the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. The new-build A330-200HGW had a 5 tonne increase in Maximum Takeoff Weight, allowing a 560 kilometres (302 nmi; 348 mi) range increase and a 3.4 tonnes (7,500 lb) payload increase. Korean Air became the first customer on 27 February 2009 with an order for six −200HGWs. Deliveries of the first aircraft started in 2010. In mid 2012, Airbus proposed another version of the −200 with the maximum gross weight increased by 2 t (4,400 lb) to 240 t (530,000 lb). This version had its range extended by 270 nmi (500 km; 310 mi) and carried 2.5 t (5,500 lb) more payload. It saw engine and aerodynamic improvements reducing its fuel burn by about 2%. In November 2012, it was announced that the gross weight was to be further increased to 242 t (534,000 lb) with the range extended by 350 nmi (650 km; 400 mi) over the 238 t (525,000 lb) version. It was certified by the EASA on 8 September 2015. As a result of its vastly increased range while still maintaining the fuel efficiency of the larger A330-300, the A330-200 came into internal competition with the initial A340 variants; the A330-200 proved much more popular than the A340-200 which carried fewer passengers and its only advantage was an extra range of 2000 miles that most airline routes did not need; the A330-200 managed to approach (though not match) the range of the A340-300 which did have a higher passenger capacity. This in turn led to Airbus making significant changes for subsequent A340 variants for significantly increased capacity and further range to distinguish the resultant A340-500/600 from the A330 family. The A330−200 competes with the Boeing 767-400ER and the new 787-8. In 1998, a newly delivered -200 was valued $94 million, rose over $100 million in 2005 but lowered at almost $75 million in 2019 as the market favours the -300 and the A330neo. The 2018 list price was US$238.5 million. As of April 2024, 661 of the −200 had been ordered, 656 of which had been delivered, with 572 aircraft in operation. ==== A330-200F ==== The A330-200F is an all-cargo derivative of the A330-200 capable of carrying 65 t (140,000 lb) over 7,400 km (4,000 nmi; 4,600 mi) or 70 t (150,000 lb) up to 5,900 km (3,200 nmi; 3,700 mi). To overcome the standard A330's nose-down body angle on the ground, the A330F uses a revised nose undercarriage layout to provide a level deck during cargo loading. The normal A330-200 undercarriage is used, but its attachment points are lower in the fuselage, thus requiring a distinctive blister fairing on the nose to accommodate the retracted nose gear. Power is provided by two Pratt & Whitney PW4000 or Rolls-Royce Trent 700 engines. General Electric does not offer an engine for the A330-200F. And unlike the passenger variant, the A330-200F does not offer a centre tank as a standard equipment in order to save the weight of the inerting system, reducing fuel capacity by 41,560 litres. However, it is still offered as an optional equipment per customer needs. As of December 2020, Airbus had delivered 38 aircraft with no outstanding orders. The list price is $241.7 million. As well as new-build freighters, Airbus has proposed passenger-to-freighter conversions of existing −200 airliners. The A330-200F is sized between the 767-300F and 777F, but trails both Boeing models in orders and deliveries. ==== A330-300 ==== Powered by two General Electric CF6-80E1, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 700 engines, the 63.69 m (208 ft 11 in) long −300 has a range of 11,750 km (6,340 nmi; 7,300 mi), typically carries 277 passengers with a 440 exit limit and 32 LD3 containers. It received European and American certification on 21 October 1993 after 420 test flights over 1,100 hours. The −300 entered service on 16 January 1994. The A330-300 is based on a stretched A300 fuselage but with new wings, stabilisers and fly-by-wire systems. In 2010, Airbus offered a new version of the −300 with the maximum gross weight increased by two tonnes to 235 t. This enabled 120 nmi (220 km; 140 mi) extension of the range as well as 1.2 t increase in payload. In mid 2012, Airbus proposed another increase of the maximum gross weight to 240 t. It is planned to be implemented by mid 2015. This −300 version will have the range extended by 400 nmi (740 km; 460 mi) and will carry 5 t more payload. It will include engine and aerodynamic improvements reducing its fuel burn by about 2%. In November 2012, it was further announced that the gross weight will increase from 235 t to 242 t, and the range will increase by 500 nmi (926 km; 575 mi) to 6,100 nmi (11,300 km; 7,020 mi). Airbus is also planning to activate the central fuel tank for the first time for the −300 model. As of December 2020, a total of 779 of the -300 had been ordered, 771 of which had been delivered, with 742 in operation. The 2015 list price is $264 million. The closest competitors have been the Boeing 777-200, 787-9, and the now out-of-production McDonnell Douglas MD-11. ==== A330-300HGW ==== In 2000, it was reported that Airbus was studying an A330-300 version with a higher gross weight. It was named A330-300HGW and had a takeoff weight of 240 tonnes (530,000 lb), 7 tonnes (15,000 lb) greater than the -300's weight at the time. The version would have a strengthened wing and additional fuel capacity from a 41,600-litre (11,000 US gal) centre section fuel tank. The A330-300HGW's range was increased to over 11,000 km (5,940 nmi; 6,840 mi). Among those that showed interest was leasing company ILFC, which sought airliners that could fly from the US West Coast to Europe. Power was to be supplied by all three engines offered to A330-200 and A330-300 with lower gross weight. Airbus also considered using the new Engine Alliance GP7000 engine for the A330-300HGW, which would have been the engine's first twinjet application. The −300HGW was to enter airline service in 2004. However, the -300HGW programme was not launched and quietly disappeared. The 240-tonne A330 reappeared years later when Airbus announced at the 2012 Farnborough Airshow that it would be an available option for both the A330-300 and the A330-200. In November 2012, the maximum take off weight was further increased to 242 tonnes. The first of these aircraft was delivered to Delta Air Lines on 28 May 2015. ==== A330 Regional ==== In September 2013, Airbus announced a version of the A330-300, named A330 Regional or A330-300 Regional. The A330 Regional has seating for up to around 400 passengers, with reduced engine thrust, reduced maximum takeoff weight of 199 t (439,000 lb), and reduced range of 2,700 nautical miles (5,000 km; 3,110 mi). It is said that the maximum takeoff weight of these aircraft is an "easy upgrade to 242 t (534,000 lb)", which is the extended range version with range of 6,350 nmi (11,800 km; 7,310 mi). It is said to provide up to 26% lower operating costs than the longer range version A330-300. On 18 August 2016, Airbus delivered the first A330 Regional to Saudia. ==== A330P2F ==== The A330P2F (Passenger-to-Freighter) conversion programme was launched at the 2012 Singapore Airshow with the support of Airbus, their Dresden-based Elbe Flugzeugwerke (EFW) joint venture and Singapore-based engineering firm ST Aerospace. Targeting a 2016 introduction, Airbus then estimated a market requirement for 2,700 freighters over 20 years, including 900 conversions, with half of these being mid-sized aircraft like the A330. The aircraft will be converted mainly at EFW's facility in Dresden, Germany, and at a new conversion site in Shanghai, China. The A330-300P2F, targeted towards operators with lower density express delivery and e-commerce loads, can carry up to 62 t (137,000 lb) over 3,650 nmi (6,760 km; 4,200 mi). Following flight tests in October 2017 and the awarding of the EASA supplemental type certificate (STC) in November, the first A330-300P2F was delivered to DHL on 1 December. The A330-200P2F can carry 61 t (134,000 lb) over 4,250 nmi (7,870 km; 4,890 mi). Following flight tests in June 2018, and the awarding of the EASA STC in July, the first was delivered to Egyptair Cargo on 3 August 2018. The P2F version of the A330 retains the passenger aircraft's geometry and incorporates a powered cargo loading system to enable pallets to be moved "uphill" on the main cargo deck, and therefore does not have the distinctive nose blister, or "bulge", of the factory delivered A330-200F. On 3 March 2022, Air Transport Services Group, an air freighter lessor, committed to acquiring 29 Airbus A330-300P2F with deliveries in the 2023 to 2027 timeframe. === A330neo === ==== A330-800 ==== The Airbus A330-800 is based on the A330-200, with, cabin modifications, larger Trent 7000 engines and aerodynamic improvements. The A330-800s maiden flight took place on 6 November 2018. The first two A330-800s were delivered to their launch customer Kuwait Airways in October 2020. ==== A330-900 ==== The Airbus A330-900 maintains the A330-300's fuselage dimensions with 10 more seats thanks to cabin optimisation. With modern Trent 7000 engines and redesigned winglets, it should burn 14% less fuel per seat than the A330-300 over a distance of 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi). It travels 7,350 nmi (13,610 km; 8,460 mi) with 287 passengers in a standard configuration. The A330-900 made its maiden flight on 19 October 2017 and received its EASA type certificate on 26 September 2018; it entered service with its launch customer, TAP Air Portugal, on 15 December 2018. === BelugaXL (large cargo freighter) === Airbus started design of a replacement aircraft for the Beluga in November 2014. The BelugaXL A330-743L is based on the Airbus A330, and has 30% more space than its predecessor. Like the Beluga, the BelugaXL features an extension on its fuselage top, but can accommodate two A350 wings instead of one. The new aircraft rolled out of the assembly line on 4 January 2018, making its maiden flight on 19 July 2018. It began ferrying cargo between different Airbus factories in January 2020. === Corporate jet variants === ==== ACJ330 ==== The A330-200 is available as an ultra-long-range Airbus Corporate Jet known as the A330-200 Prestige, with a range of 15,400 km (8,300 nmi; 9,600 mi) and a capacity of 50 passengers. ==== ACJ330neo ==== A corporate jet version of the new A330neo capable of flying 25 passengers 19,260 km (10,400 nmi; 11,970 mi) or 21 hours, enough to fly non-stop from Europe to Australia. === Military variants === ==== Airbus A330 MRTT ==== The Airbus A330 MRTT is the Multi-Role Transport and Tanker (MRTT) version of the A330-200, designed for aerial refuelling and strategic transport. As of November 2020, approximately 60 orders had been placed for the A330 MRTT by air forces of thirteen countries. ==== EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45 ==== The EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45 was a proposed version of the A330 MRTT for the United States Air Force (USAF)'s KC-X aerial refuelling programme. In February 2008, the USAF selected the aircraft to replace the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker. The replacement process was mired in controversy, instances of corruption, and allegations of favouritism. In July 2010, EADS submitted a tanker bid to the USAF without Northrop Grumman as a partner. However, on 24 February 2011, the USAF picked the Boeing KC-767 proposal, later named KC-46, as the winner because of its lower cost. == Operators == As of May 2025, a total of 1,464 A330 family aircraft, comprising 546 A330-200s, 38 -200Fs, 720 -300s, 7 -800s and 153 -900s, are in airline service with 149 operators. The five largest operators were Delta Air Lines (78), Turkish Airlines (60), China Eastern Airlines (56), Air China (44) and Cathay Pacific (43). By 2012, the 830 A330s in service with over 90 operators had accumulated five million revenue flights and 20 million flight hours, with a dispatch reliability above 99%. In November 2017, 1,190 were transporting passengers with 106 airlines (the top 29 operated two-thirds of the fleet), consisting of 530 -200s and 660 A330-300s, mainly high-gross-weight, with 36 original shorter-range A330-300s, half of them built since January 2010. Its average sector is 2,000 nmi (3,700 km; 2,300 mi); the longest flight for the -200 was 6,000 nmi (11,000 km; 6,900 mi), from Buenos Aires to Rome, by Aerolíneas Argentinas, and 5,000 nmi (9,300 km; 5,800 mi), from Paris to Reunion, by Corsair and French Blue for the -300. Of operators of at least five A330s, 17 have ordered A350-900s, 11 have ordered 787-8/9s, 13 both, 3 have ordered A330neos and 2 both A330neos and A350s; 14 haven't yet decided on a replacement. By August 2019, the A330 was operated between over 400 airports in the world, by more than 120 operators, while its average dispatch reliability was over 99% and annual utilization up to 6,000 flight hours. The 1,500th airplane, an A330-900 (A330neo), was delivered to Delta Air Lines on 21 September 2020. In June 2023, the A330 became the second most delivered wide-body airliner after the Boeing 777. In May 2024, the A330 became the second wide-body airliner after the Boeing 777 to reach 1,600 deliveries. === Orders and deliveries === As of May 2025, A330 family aircraft orders stood at 1,863 of which 1,632 had been delivered, excluding 2 A330-900 delivered to Air Belgium via Airbus Financial Services. Data as of May 2025 == Accidents and incidents == As of June 2024, the Airbus A330 has been involved in 46 aviation accidents and incidents, including 14 hull-losses (10 due to flight related accidents and 4 due to criminal related accidents), for a total of 339 fatalities. === Accidents === The A330's first fatal accident occurred on 30 June 1994 near Toulouse on a test flight when an Airbus-owned A330-300 crashed while simulating an engine failure on climbout, killing all seven on board. Airbus subsequently advised A330 operators to disconnect the autopilot and limit pitch attitude in the event of an engine failure at low speed. The second fatal and deadliest accident, and first while in commercial service, occurred on 1 June 2009 when Air France Flight 447, an A330-200 registered as F-GZCP, en route from Rio de Janeiro to Paris with 228 people on board, crashed in the Atlantic Ocean 640–800 km (350–430 nmi; 400–500 mi) northeast of the islands of Fernando de Noronha, with no survivors. Malfunctioning pitot tubes provided an early focus for the investigation, as the aircraft involved had Thales-built "–AA" models known to indicate faulty airspeed data during icing conditions. In July 2009, Airbus advised A330 and A340 operators to replace Thales pitots with equivalents manufactured by Goodrich. Investigators later determined that the inadequate response of the pilots to both a loss of airspeed data from malfunctioning pitot tubes and subsequent autopilot disengagement followed by incorrect reaction by the pilot flying resulted in Flight 447 entering into an aerodynamic stall. On 12 May 2010, Afriqiyah Airways Flight 771, an A330-200 registered as 5A-ONG, crashed on approach to Tripoli International Airport, Libya, on a flight from O. R. Tambo International Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa. Of the 104 people on board, all but one nine-year-old Dutch child died. The cause of the crash was determined to be pilot error. On 23 October 2022, Korean Air Flight 631, an Airbus A330-300 registered as HL7525, operating from Seoul to Cebu, crash landed and overshot the runway while landing in poor weather at night; there were no fatalities or injuries. === Incidents === Engine related Several in-flight shutdowns of Trent 700–powered A330-300s have occurred. On 11 November 1996, engine failure on a Cathay Pacific flight forced it back to Ho Chi Minh City. On 17 April 1997, Dragonair experienced an engine shutdown on an A330, caused by carbon clogging the oil filter. As a result, Cathay Pacific self-suspended its 120-minute ETOPS clearance. Another engine failure occurred on 6 May during climbout with a Cathay Pacific A330, due to a bearing failure in a Hispano-Suiza-built gearbox. Three days later, a Cathay Pacific A330 on climbout during a Bangkok–Hong Kong flight experienced an oil pressure drop and a resultant engine spool down, forcing a return to Bangkok. The cause was traced to metal contamination in the engine's master chip. Following a fifth engine failure on 23 May, Cathay Pacific and Dragonair voluntarily grounded their A330 fleets for two weeks, causing major disruption as Cathay's eleven A330s made up fifteen per cent of its passenger capacity. Rolls-Royce and Hispano-Suiza developed a redesigned lubrication system to fix the problem. Other engines have issues too: on 14 July 2015, an Asiana PW4000 was shut down in flight, on 15 January 2017, an Air Europa CF6 was shut down in flight, on 28 December 2017, an Aer Lingus CF6 was shut down in flight, on 18 January 2018, a Malaysia Airlines PW4000 was shut down in flight, on 13 February 2018, a Delta Air Lines PW4000 caught fire, on April 18, 2018, another Delta Air Lines PW4000 caught fire, on 29 May 2018, a Delta Air Lines PW4000 had engine vibrations, on 1 June 2018, a Qantas CF6 was shut down in flight, on 1 October 2018, a China Airlines CF6 had an engine problem, and on 5 November 2018, a Brussels Airlines PW4000 was shut down in flight. Flight data related In 2008, Air Caraïbes reported two incidents of pitot tube icing malfunctions on its A330s. On 7 October 2008, Qantas Flight 72, an A330-300, suffered a rapid loss of altitude in two sudden uncommanded pitch-down manoeuvres while 150 km (81 nmi; 93 mi) from the RAAF Learmonth air base in northwestern Australia. After declaring an emergency, the crew landed the aircraft safely at Learmonth. It was later determined that the incident, which caused 106 injuries, 14 of them serious, was the result of a design flaw of the plane's Air Data Inertial Reference Unit and a limitation of the aircraft's flight computer software. Fuel system related On 24 August 2001, Air Transat Flight 236, an A330-200, developed a fuel leak over the Atlantic Ocean due to an incorrectly installed hydraulic part and was forced to glide for over 15 minutes to an emergency landing in the Azores. On 13 April 2010, Cathay Pacific Flight 780, an A330-300, from Surabaya Juanda International Airport to Hong Kong landed safely after contaminated fuel caused both engines to fail. Fifty-seven passengers and six crew members were injured. Its two pilots received the Polaris Award from the International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations for their heroism and airmanship. Chemical and fire related On 15 March 2000, a Malaysia Airlines A330-300 suffered structural damage due to leaking oxalyl chloride, a corrosive chemical substance that had been improperly labeled before shipping. The aircraft was written off. On 27 August 2019, an Air China A330-300 at Beijing Capital International Airport caught fire while at the gate. The passengers and crew were safely evacuated. The airplane was likely damaged beyond repair. Hijackings and war related The two hijackings involving the A330 have resulted in one fatality, namely the hijacker of Philippine Airlines Flight 812 on 25 May 2000, who jumped out of the aircraft to his death. The hijacking of Sabena Flight 689 on 13 October 2000 ended with no casualties when Spanish police took control of the aircraft. On 24 July 2001, two unoccupied SriLankan Airlines A330s were destroyed amid an attack on Bandaranaike International Airport, in Colombo, Sri Lanka, by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. On 25 December 2009, passengers and crew subdued a man who attempted to detonate explosives in his underwear on an A330-300 operating Northwest Airlines Flight 253. On 15 July 2014, a Libyan Airlines A330 was severely damaged in the fighting in Libya and sustained bullet holes in the fuselage. On 20 July 2014, two Afriqiyah Airways Airbus A330s were hit by an RPG at Tripoli International Airport. One was completely destroyed in the ensuing fire. On 15 April 2023, a Saudia A330 registered HZ-AQ30 was destroyed in Sudan bombings during an ongoing military coup. On 6 May 2025, a Yemenia A330-202 registered as 7O-AFE was destroyed on the ground at Sanaa International Airport during an israeli airstrike. == Aircraft on display == A former Turkish Airlines A330-300 is preserved at Aircraft Museum Kathmandu in Kathmandu, Nepal. This aircraft was only eight months old when it was written off in a runway excursion at Tribhuvan International Airport. The museum is inside the aircraft, with more than 200 miniature planes inside and aviation artifacts. Former Thai Airways A330-300 HS-TEF has been preserved since 2017 as the Airways Land Café at Sida, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand. Air Diamond Cafe in Chiang Mai, Thailand uses the former Thai Airways A330-300 HS-TEG at its main premises. Former Thai Airways A330-300 HS-TEM has been preserved as "Coffee War" cafe in Chonburi since 2020. == Specifications == === Aircraft model designations === === ICAO Aircraft Type Designators === == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Airbus A300 Airbus A330 MRTT Airbus CC-330 Husky Airbus A330neo Airbus A340 Airbus Beluga XL Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A350 Boeing 767 Boeing 777-200 Boeing 787 Dreamliner Ilyushin Il-96 McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Related lists List of civil aircraft List of jet airliners == References == Notes Citations Bibliography == Further reading == == External links == Official website "A330 Family overview: Aircraft design, Systems, Cabin, Freighter, Maintenance, Upgrades & retrofits". FAST — Flight Airworthiness Support Technology — technical magazine. Airbus. October 2015. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017.
Airbus A380	The Airbus A380 is a very large wide-body airliner, developed and produced by Airbus until 2021. It is the world's largest passenger airliner and the only full-length double-deck jet airliner. Airbus studies started in 1988, and the project was announced in 1990 to challenge the dominance of the Boeing 747 in the long-haul market. The then-designated A3XX project was presented in 1994 and Airbus launched the €9.5–billion ($10.7–billion) A380 programme on 19 December 2000. The first prototype was unveiled in Toulouse, France on 18 January 2005, commencing its first flight on 27 April 2005. It then obtained its type certificate from the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on 12 December 2006. Due to difficulties with the electrical wiring, the initial production was delayed by two years and the development costs almost doubled. It was first delivered to Singapore Airlines on 15 October 2007 and entered service on 25 October. Production peaked at 30 per year in both 2012 and 2014, with manufacturing of the aircraft ending in 2021. The A380's estimated $25 billion development cost was not recouped by the time Airbus ended production. The full-length double-deck aircraft has a typical seating for 525 passengers, with a maximum certified capacity for 853 passengers. The quadjet is powered by Engine Alliance GP7200 or Rolls-Royce Trent 900 turbofans providing a range of 8,000 nmi (14,800 km; 9,200 mi). As of December 2021, the global A380 fleet had completed more than 800,000 flights over 7.3 million block hours with no fatalities and no hull losses. As of April 2024, there were 189 aircraft in service with 10 operators worldwide. Of its fifteen total operating airlines, five have fully retired the A380 from their fleets. == Development == === Background === In mid-1988, Airbus engineers, led by Jean Roeder, began work in secret on the development of an ultra-high-capacity airliner (UHCA), both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the early 1970s with its Boeing 747.: 7 McDonnell Douglas unsuccessfully offered its double-deck MD-12 concept for sale. Lockheed was exploring the possibility for a Very Large Subsonic Transport. Roeder was given approval for further evaluations of the UHCA after a formal presentation to the President and CEO in June 1990. The megaproject was announced at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow, with the stated goal of 15% lower operating costs than the Boeing 747-400.: 16–17 Airbus organised four teams of designers, one from each of its partners (Aérospatiale, British Aerospace, Deutsche Aerospace AG, CASA) to propose new technologies for its future aircraft designs. The designs were presented in 1992 and the most competitive designs were used.: 17–18 In January 1993, Boeing and several companies in the Airbus consortium started a joint feasibility study of a Very Large Commercial Transport (VLCT), aiming to form a partnership to share the limited market.: 31 In June 1994, Airbus announced its plan to develop its own very large airliner, designated as A3XX. Airbus considered several designs, including an unusual side-by-side combination of two fuselages from its A340, the largest Airbus jet at the time.: 19 The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeing's own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747. In July 1995, the joint study with Boeing was abandoned, as Boeing's interest had declined due to analysis that such a product was unlikely to cover the projected $15 billion development cost. Despite the fact that only two airlines had expressed public interest in purchasing such a plane, Airbus was already pursuing its own large-plane project. Analysts suggested that Boeing would instead pursue stretching its 747 design, and that air travel was already moving away from the hub-and-spoke system that consolidated traffic into large planes, and toward more non-stop routes that could be served by smaller planes. From 1997 to 2000, as the 1997 Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook, Airbus refined its design, targeting a 15–20% reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747-400. The A3XX design converged on a double-decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single-deck design. Airbus did so in line with traditional hub-and-spoke theory, as opposed to the point-to-point theory with the Boeing 777, after conducting an extensive market analysis with over 200 focus groups. Although early marketing of the huge cross-section touted the possibility of duty-free shops, restaurant-like dining, gyms, casinos and beauty parlours on board, the realities of airline economics have kept such dreams grounded. On 19 December 2000, the supervisory board of newly restructured Airbus voted to launch a €9.5 billion ($10.7 billion) project to build the A3XX, re-designated as A380, with 50 firm orders from six launch customers. The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families, which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340. It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double-deck cross section, and is a lucky number in many East Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed. The aircraft configuration was finalised in early 2001, and manufacturing of the first A380 wing-box component started on 23 January 2002. The development cost of the A380 had grown to €11–14 billion when the first aircraft was completed. === Total development cost === In 2000, the projected development cost was €9.5 billion. In 2004, Airbus estimated that €1.5 billion (US$2 billion) would need to be added, totalling the developmental costs to €10.3 billion ($12.7 billion). In 2006, Airbus stopped publishing its reported cost after reaching costs of €10.2 billion and then it provisioned another €4.9 billion, after the difficulties in electric cabling and two years delay for an estimated total of €18 billion. In 2014, the aircraft was estimated to have cost $25bn (£16bn, €18.9bn) to develop. In 2015, Airbus said development costs were €15 billion (£11.4 billion, $16.64 billion), though analysts believe the figure is likely to be at least €5bn ($5.55 Bn) more for a €20 Bn ($22.19 Bn) total. In 2016, The A380 development costs were estimated at $25 billion for 15 years, $25–30 billion, or €25 billion ($28 billion). To start the programme in 2000, the governments of France, Germany and the UK loaned Airbus €3.5 billion and refundable advances reached €5.9 billion ($7.3 billion). In February 2018, after an Emirates order secured production of the unprofitable programme for ten years, Airbus revised its deal with the three loan-giving governments to save $1.4 billion (17%) and restructured terms to lower the production rate from eight per year in 2019 to six per year. On 15 May 2018, in its EU appeal ruling, a WTO ruling concluded that the A380 received improper subsidies through $9 billion of launch aids, but Airbus acknowledged that the threat posed to Boeing by the A380 is so marginal with 330 orders since its 2000 launch that any U.S. sanctions should be minimal, as previous rulings showed Boeing's exposure could be as little as $377 million. In 2018, unit cost was US$445.6 million. In February 2019, the German government disclosed that it was conducting talks with Airbus regarding €600 million in outstanding loans. Following the decision to wind down the A380 programme, Europe argues that the subsidies in effect no longer exist and that no sanctions are warranted. === Production === Major structural sections of the A380 are built in France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Due to the sections' large size, traditional transportation methods proved unfeasible, so they are taken to the Jean-Luc Lagardère Plant assembly hall in Toulouse, France, by specialised road and water transportation, though some parts are moved by the A300-600ST Beluga transport aircraft. A380 components are provided by suppliers from around the world; the four largest contributors, by value, are Rolls-Royce, Safran, United Technologies and General Electric. For the surface movement of large A380 structural components, a complex route known as the Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit was developed. This involved the construction of a fleet of roll-on/roll-off (RORO) ships and barges, the construction of port facilities and the development of new and modified roads to accommodate oversized road convoys. The front and rear fuselage sections are shipped on one of three RORO ships from Hamburg in northern Germany to Saint-Nazaire in France. The ship travels via Mostyn, Wales, where the wings are loaded. The wings are manufactured at Broughton in North Wales, then transported by barge to Mostyn docks for ship transport. In Saint-Nazaire, the ship exchanges the fuselage sections from Hamburg for larger, assembled sections, some of which include the nose. This ship unloads in Bordeaux. It then goes to pick up the belly and tail sections from Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA in Cádiz, Spain, and delivers them to Bordeaux. From there, the A380 parts are transported by barge to Langon, and by oversize road convoys to the assembly hall in Toulouse. To avoid damage from direct handling, parts are secured in custom jigs carried on self-powered wheeled vehicles. After assembly, the aircraft are flown to the Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder plant to be furnished and painted. Airbus sized the production facilities and supply chain for a production rate of four A380s per month. === Testing === In 2005, five A380s were built for testing and demonstration purposes. The first A380, registered F-WWOW, was unveiled in Toulouse 18 January 2005. It first flew on 27 April 2005. This plane, equipped with Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines, flew from Toulouse–Blagnac Airport with a crew of six headed by chief test pilot Jacques Rosay. Rosay said flying the A380 had been "like handling a bicycle". On 1 December 2005, the A380 achieved its maximum design speed of Mach 0.96, (its design cruise speed is Mach 0.85) in a shallow dive. In 2006, the A380 flew its first high-altitude test at Addis Ababa Bole International Airport. It conducted its second high-altitude test at the same airport in 2009. On 10 January 2006, it flew to José María Córdova International Airport in Colombia, accomplishing the transatlantic testing, and then it went to El Dorado International Airport to test the engine operation in high-altitude airports. It arrived in North America on 6 February 2006, landing in Iqaluit, Nunavut, in Canada for cold-weather testing. On 14 February 2006, during the destructive wing strength certification test on MSN5000, the test wing of the A380 failed at 145% of the limit load, short of the required 150% level. Airbus announced modifications adding 30 kg (66 lb) to the wing to provide the required strength. On 26 March 2006, the A380 underwent evacuation certification in Hamburg. With 8 of the 16 exits randomly blocked, 853 mixed passengers and 20 crew exited the darkened aircraft in 78 seconds, less than the 90 seconds required for certification. Three days later, the A380 received European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approval to carry up to 853 passengers. The first A380 using GP7200 engines—serial number MSN009 and flew on 25 August 2006. On 4 September 2006, the first full passenger-carrying flight test took place. The aircraft flew from Toulouse with 474 Airbus employees on board, in a test of passenger facilities and comfort. In November 2006, a further series of route-proving flights demonstrated the aircraft's performance for 150 flight hours under typical airline operating conditions. As of 2014, the A380 test aircraft continue to perform test procedures. Airbus obtained type certificates for the A380-841 and A380-842 model from the EASA and FAA on 12 December 2006 in a joint ceremony at the company's French headquarters, receiving the ICAO code A388. The A380-861 model was added to the type certificate on 14 December 2007. === Production and delivery delays === Initial production of the A380 was troubled by delays attributed to the 530 km (330 mi) of wiring in each aircraft. Airbus cited as underlying causes the complexity of the cabin wiring (98,000 wires and 40,000 connectors), its concurrent design and production, the high degree of customisation for each airline, and failures of configuration management and change control. The German and Spanish Airbus facilities continued to use CATIA version 4, while British and French sites migrated to version 5. This caused overall configuration management problems, at least in part because wire harnesses manufactured using aluminium rather than copper conductors necessitated special design rules including non-standard dimensions and bend radii; these were not easily transferred between versions of the software. File conversion tools were initially developed by Airbus to help solve this problem; however, the digital mock-up was still unable to read the full technical design data. Furthermore, organisational culture was also cited as a cause of the production delays. The communication and reporting culture at the time frowned upon delivery of bad news, meaning Airbus was unable to take early actions to mitigate technical and production issues. Airbus announced the first delay in June 2005 and notified airlines that deliveries would be delayed by six months. This reduced the total number of planned deliveries by the end of 2009 from about 120 to 90–100. On 13 June 2006, Airbus announced a second delay, with the delivery schedule slipping an additional six to seven months. Although the first delivery was still planned before the end of 2006, deliveries in 2007 would drop to only 9 aircraft, and deliveries by the end of 2009 would be cut to 70–80 aircraft. The announcement caused a 26% drop in the share price of Airbus' parent, EADS, and led to the departure of EADS CEO Paul Dupont, Airbus CEO Gustav Humbert, and A380 programme manager Charles Champion. On 3 October 2006, upon completion of a review of the A380 programme, Airbus CEO Christian Streiff announced a third delay, pushing the first delivery to October 2007, to be followed by 13 deliveries in 2008, 25 in 2009, and the full production rate of 45 aircraft per year in 2010. The delay also increased the earnings shortfall projected by Airbus through 2010 to €4.8 billion. As Airbus prioritised the work on the A380-800 over the A380F, freighter orders were cancelled by FedEx and United Parcel Service, or converted to A380-800 by Emirates and ILFC. Airbus suspended work on the freighter version, but said it remained on offer, albeit without a service entry date. For the passenger version Airbus negotiated a revised delivery schedule and compensation with the 13 customers, all of which retained their orders with some placing subsequent orders, including Emirates, Singapore Airlines, Qantas, Air France, Qatar Airways, and Korean Air. Beginning in 2007, the A380 was considered as a potential replacement for the existing Boeing VC-25 serving as Air Force One presidential transport, but in January 2009 EADS declared that they were not going to bid for the contract, as assembling only three planes in the US would not make financial sense. On 13 May 2008, Airbus announced reduced deliveries for the years 2008 (12) and 2009 (21). After further manufacturing setbacks, Airbus announced its plan to deliver 14 A380s in 2009, down from the previously revised target of 18. A total of 10 A380s were delivered in 2009. In 2010, Airbus delivered 18 of the expected 20 A380s, due to Rolls-Royce engine availability problems. Airbus planned to deliver "between 20 and 25" A380s in 2011 before ramping up to three a month in 2012. In fact, Airbus delivered 26 units, thus outdoing its predicted output for the first time. As of July 2012, production was 3 aircraft per month. Among the production problems are challenging interiors, interiors being installed sequentially rather than concurrently as in smaller planes, and union/government objections to streamlining. === Entry into service === Nicknamed Superjumbo, the first A380, MSN003, was delivered to Singapore Airlines on 15 October 2007 and entered service on 25 October 2007 with flight number SQ380 between Singapore and Sydney. Passengers bought seats in a charity online auction paying between $560 and $100,380. Two months later, Singapore Airlines CEO Chew Choong Seng stated the A380 was performing better than either the airline or Airbus had anticipated, burning 20% less fuel per seat-mile than the airline's 747-400 fleet. Emirates' Tim Clark claimed that the A380 has better fuel economy at Mach 0.86 than at 0.83, and that its technical dispatch reliability is at 97%, the same as Singapore Airlines. Airbus is committed to reach the industry standard of 98.5%. Emirates was the second airline to receive the A380 and commenced service between Dubai and New York in August 2008. Qantas followed, with flights between Melbourne and Los Angeles in October 2008. By the end of 2008, 890,000 passengers had flown on 2,200 flights. In February 2008, the A380 became the first airliner to fly using synthetic liquid fuel. The fuel is processed from gas to liquid form (GTL fuel). The flight was 3 hours long, taking off from Filton, UK, and landing in Toulouse, France, and was a significant step in evaluating the suitability of sustainable aviation fuels. === Improvements and upgrades === In 2010, Airbus announced a new A380 build standard, incorporating a strengthened airframe structure and a 1.5° increase in wing twist. Airbus also offered, as an option, an improved maximum take-off weight, thus providing a better payload/range performance. Maximum take-off weight is increased by 4 t (8,800 lb), to 573 t (1,263,000 lb) and the range is extended by 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi); this is achieved by reducing flight loads, partly from optimising the fly-by-wire control laws. British Airways and Emirates were the first two customers to have received this new option in 2013. Emirates asked for an update with new engines for the A380 to be competitive with the Boeing 777X around 2020, and Airbus was studying 11-abreast seating. In 2012, Airbus announced another increase in the A380's maximum take-off weight to 575 t (1,268,000 lb), a 6 t increase from the initial A380 variant and 2 t higher than the increased-weight proposal of 2010. This increased the range by some 150 nautical miles (280 km; 170 mi), taking its capability to around 8,350 nautical miles (15,460 km; 9,610 mi) at current payloads. The higher-weight version was offered for introduction to service early in 2013. === Post-delivery problems === During repairs following the Qantas Flight 32 engine failure incident, cracks were discovered in wing fittings. As a result, the European Aviation Safety Agency issued an Airworthiness Directive in January 2012 which affected 20 A380 aircraft that had accumulated over 1,300 flights. A380s with under 1,800 flight hours were to be inspected within 6 weeks or 84 flights; aircraft with over 1,800 flight hours were to be examined within four days or 14 flights. Fittings found to be cracked were replaced. On 8 February 2012, the checks were extended to cover all 68 A380 aircraft in operation. The problem is considered to be minor and is not expected to affect operations. EADS acknowledged that the cost of repairs would be over $130 million, to be borne by Airbus. The company said the problem was traced to stress and material used for the fittings. Additionally, major airlines are seeking compensation from Airbus for revenue lost as a result of the cracks and subsequent grounding of fleets. Airbus has switched to a different type of aluminium alloy so aircraft delivered from 2014 onwards should not have this problem. Around 2014, Airbus changed about 10% of all A380 doors, as some leaked during flight. One occurrence resulted in dropped oxygen masks and an emergency landing. The switch was estimated to cost over €100 million. Airbus stated that safety was sufficient, as the air pressure pushed the door into the frame. === Further continuation of programme === At the July 2016 Farnborough Airshow, Airbus announced that in a "prudent, proactive step", starting in 2018, it expected to deliver 12 A380 aircraft per year, down from 27 deliveries in 2015. The firm also warned production might slip back into red ink (be unprofitable) on each aircraft produced at that time, though it anticipated production would remain in the black (profitable) for 2016 and 2017. "The company will continue to improve the efficiency of its industrial system to achieve breakeven at 20 aircraft in 2017 and targets additional cost reduction initiatives to lower breakeven further." Airbus expected that healthy demand for its other aircraft would allow it to avoid job losses from the cuts. As Airbus expected to build 15 airliners in 2017 and 12 in 2018, Airbus Commercial Aircraft president Fabrice Brégier said that, without orders in 2017, production would be reduced to below one per month while remaining profitable per unit and allowing the programme to continue for 20 to 30 years. In its 2017 half-year report, Airbus adjusted 2019 deliveries to eight aircraft. In November 2017, its chief executive Tom Enders was confident Airbus would still produce A380s in 2027 with more sales to come, and further develop it to keep it competitive beyond 2030. Airbus was profitable at a rate of 15 per year and is trying to drive breakeven down further but will take losses at eight per year. An order from Emirates for 36 A380s would have ensured production beyond 2020, but the airline wanted guarantees that production would be maintained for 10 years, until 2028: reducing output to six a year would help to bridge that period and would support second-hand values while other buyers are approached, but the programme would still be unprofitable. If it had failed to win the Emirates order, Airbus claimed that it was ready to phase out its production gradually as it fulfilled remaining orders until the early 2020s. In January 2018, Emirates confirmed the order for 36 A380s, but the deal was thrown back into question in October 2018 over a disagreement regarding engine fuel burn. To extend the programme, Airbus offered China a production role in early 2018. While state-owned Chinese airlines could order A380s, it would not help their low yield, as it lowers frequency; they do not need more volume as widebody aircraft are already used on domestic routes and using the A380 on its intended long-haul missions would free only a few airport slots. After achieving efficiencies to sustain production at a lower level, in 2017, Airbus delivered 15 A380s and was "very close" to production breakeven, expecting to make additional savings as production was being further reduced: it planned to deliver 12 in 2018, eight in 2019 and six per year from 2020 with "digestible" losses. As of February 2018, Enders was confident the A380 would gain additional orders from existing or new operators, and saw opportunities in Asia and particularly in China where it is "under-represented". In 2019, Lufthansa had retired 6 of its 14 A380s due to their unprofitability. Later that year, Qatar Airways announced a switch from the A380 to the Boeing 777X starting from 2024. === End of production === In February 2019, Airbus announced it would end A380 production by 2021, after its main customer, Emirates, agreed to drop an order for 39 of the aircraft, replacing it with 40 A330-900s and 30 A350-900s. At the time of the announcement, Airbus had 17 more A380s on its order book to complete before closing the production line – 14 for Emirates and three for All Nippon Airways – taking the total number of expected deliveries of the aircraft type to 251. Airbus would have needed more than $90 million profit from the sale of each aircraft to cover the estimated $25 billion development cost of the programme. However, the $445 million price tag of each aircraft was not sufficient to even cover the production cost. With orders decreasing, the decision was made to cease production. Enders stated on 14 February 2019, "If you have a product that nobody wants anymore, or you can sell only below production cost, you have to stop it." One reason that the A380 did not achieve commercial viability for Airbus has been attributed to its extremely large capacity being optimised for a hub-and-spoke system, which was projected by Airbus to be thriving when the programme was conceived. However, airlines underwent a fundamental transition to a point-to-point system, which gets customers to their destination in one flight instead of two or three. The massive scale of the A380 design was able to achieve a very low cost for passenger seat-distance, but efficiency within the hub-and-spoke paradigm was not able to overcome the efficiency of fewer flights required in the point-to-point system. Specifically, US based carriers had been using a multihub strategy, which justified the need for only a handful of VLAs (very large aircraft with more than 400 seats) such as the A380, and having too few VLAs meant that they could not achieve economy of scale to spread out the enormous fixed cost of the VLA support infrastructure. Consequently, orders for VLAs slowed in the mid 2010s, as widebody twin jets now offer similar range and greater fuel efficiency, giving airlines more flexibility at a lower upfront cost. On 25 September 2020, Airbus completed assembly of the final A380 fuselage. Nine aircraft remained to be delivered (eight for Emirates, one for All Nippon Airways) and production operations continued to finish those aircraft. On 17 March 2021, the final Airbus A380 (manufacturing serial number 272) made its maiden flight from Toulouse to Hamburg for cabin outfitting, before being delivered to Emirates on 16 December 2021. == Design == === Overview === The A380 was initially offered in two models: the A380-800 and the A380F. The A380-800's original configuration carried 555 passengers in a three-class configuration or 853 passengers (538 on the main deck and 315 on the upper deck) in a single-class economy configuration. In May 2007, Airbus began marketing a configuration with 30 fewer passengers (525 total in three classes)—traded for 200 nmi; 230 mi (370 km) more range—to better reflect trends in premium-class accommodation. The design range for the A380−800 model is 8,500 nmi (15,700 km); capable of flying from Hong Kong to New York or from Sydney to Istanbul non-stop. The A380 is designed for 19,000 cycles. The second model, the A380F freighter, would have carried 150 t (330,000 lb) of cargo over a range of 5,600 nmi (10,400 km; 6,400 mi). Freighter development was put on hold as Airbus prioritised the passenger version, and all orders for freighters were cancelled. Other proposed variants included an A380-900 stretch – seating about 656 passengers (or up to 960 passengers in an all-economy configuration) – and an extended-range version with the same passenger capacity as the A380-800. === Engines === The A380 is offered with the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 (A380-841/-842) or the Engine Alliance GP7000 (A380-861) turbofan engines. The Trent 900 is a combination of the 3 m (118 in) fan and scaled IP compressor of the 777-200X/300X Trent 8104 technology demonstrator derived from the Boeing 777's Trent 800, and the Airbus A340-500/600's Trent 500 core. The GP7200 HP core technology is derived from GE's GE90 and its LP sections are based on the PW4000 expertise. At its launch in 2000, engine makers assured Airbus it was getting the best level of technology and they would be state-of-the-art for the next decade, but three years later Boeing launched the 787 Dreamliner with game-changing technology and 10% lower fuel burn than the previous generation, to the dismay of John Leahy. Due to its modern engines and aerodynamic improvements, Lufthansa's A380s produce half the noise of the Boeing 747-200 while carrying 160 more passengers. In 2012, the A380 received an award from the Noise Abatement Society. London Heathrow is a key destination for the A380. The aircraft is below the QC/2 departure and QC/0.5 arrival noise limits under the Quota Count system set by the airport. Field measurements suggest the approach quota allocation for the A380 may be excessively generous compared to the older Boeing 747, but still quieter. Rolls-Royce is supporting the CAA in understanding the relatively high A380/Trent 900 monitored noise levels. Due to Heathrow's landing charges having a noise component, the A380 is cheaper to land there than a Boeing 777-200 and -300 and it saves $4,300 to $5,200 per landing, or $15.3M to $18.8M of present value over 15 years. Tokyo Narita has a similar noise charge. The A380 has thrust reversers on the inboard engines only. The outboard engines lack them, reducing the amount of debris stirred up during landing. The combination of wheel braking and large spoilers and flaps reduces the aircraft's reliance on thrust reversal. The reversers are electrically actuated to save weight, and for greater reliability than pneumatic or hydraulic equivalents. Having reversers on only two engines also saves a great deal of maintenance expense for operators as well as avoiding unnecessary weight to the outboard engines. === Wings === The A380's wings are built for a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) over 600 tonnes to accommodate larger variants—the A380F freighter would require added internal strengthening. The optimal wingspan for such an MTOW is about 90 m (300 ft) but airport restrictions of 80 m (260 ft) force the A380 to compensate with a longer chord for an aspect ratio of 7.8. This suboptimal aspect ratio reduces fuel efficiency by about 10% and increases operating costs several percent, considering fuel costs constitute about 50% of the cost of long-haul aeroplane operation. The common wing design approach sacrifices fuel efficiency on the A380-800 passenger model in particular because its lower MTOW allows for a higher aspect ratio with a shorter chord or thinner wing. Still, Airbus estimated that the A380's size and advanced technology would provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747-400. The wings incorporate wingtip fences that extend above and below the wing surface, similar to those on the A310 and A320. These increase fuel efficiency and range by reducing induced drag. The wingtip fences also reduce wake turbulence, which endangers following aircraft. The wings of the A380 were designed in Filton and manufactured in Broughton in the United Kingdom. The wings were then transported to the harbour of Mostyn, where they were transported by barge to Toulouse, France, for integration and final assembly with the rest of the aircraft and its components. Singapore Airlines describes the A380's landing speed of 130–135 kn (240–250 km/h) as "impressively slow". === Materials === While most of the fuselage is made of aluminium alloys, composite materials comprise more than 20% of the A380's airframe. Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic, glass-fibre reinforced plastic and quartz-fibre reinforced plastic are used extensively in wings, fuselage sections (such as the undercarriage and rear end of fuselage), tail surfaces, and doors. The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing box made of carbon–fibre reinforced plastic. It is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross–section. The wings of other commercial airliners are partitioned span-wise into sections. This flowing continuous cross section reduces aerodynamic drag. Thermoplastics are used in the leading edges of the slats. The hybrid fibre metal laminate material GLARE (glass laminate aluminium reinforced epoxy) is used in the upper fuselage and on the stabilisers' leading edges. This aluminium-glass-fibre laminate is lighter and has better corrosion and impact resistance than conventional aluminium alloys used in aviation. Unlike earlier composite materials, GLARE can be repaired using conventional aluminium repair techniques. Newer weldable aluminium alloys are used in the A380's airframe. This enabled the widespread use of laser beam welding manufacturing techniques, eliminating rows of rivets and resulting in a lighter, stronger structure. High-strength aluminium (type 7449) reinforced with carbon fibre was used in the wing brackets of the first 120 A380s to reduce weight, but cracks were discovered and newer sets of the more critical brackets are made of standard aluminium 7010, increasing weight by 90 kg (198 lb). Repair costs for earlier aircraft were expected to be around €500 million (US$629 million). It takes 3,600 L (950 US gal) of paint to cover the 3,100 m2 (33,000 sq ft) exterior of an A380. The paint is five layers thick and weighs about 650 kg (1,433 lb) when dry. === Avionics === The A380 employs an integrated modular avionics (IMA) architecture, first used in advanced military aircraft, such as the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, and Dassault Rafale. The main IMA systems on the A380 were developed by the Thales Group. Designed and developed by Airbus, Thales and Diehl Aerospace, the IMA suite was first used on the A380. The suite is a technological innovation, with networked computing modules to support different applications. The data networks use Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet, an implementation of ARINC 664. These are switched, full-duplex, star-topology and based on 100baseTX fast-Ethernet. This reduces the amount of wiring required and minimises latency. Airbus used similar cockpit layout, procedures and handling characteristics to other Airbus aircraft, reducing crew training costs. The A380 has an improved glass cockpit, using fly-by-wire flight controls linked to side-sticks. The cockpit has eight 15 by 20 cm (5.9 by 7.9 in) liquid crystal displays, all physically identical and interchangeable; comprising two primary flight displays, two navigation displays, one engine parameter display, one system display and two multi-function displays. The MFDs were introduced on the A380 to provide an easy-to-use interface to the flight management system—replacing three multifunction control and display units. They include QWERTY keyboards and trackballs, interfacing with a graphical "point-and-click" display system. The Network Systems Server (NSS) is the heart of A380s paperless cockpit; it eliminates bulky manuals and traditional charts. The NSS has enough inbuilt robustness to eliminate onboard backup paper documents. The A380s network and server system stores data and offers electronic documentation, providing a required equipment list, navigation charts, performance calculations, and an aircraft logbook. This is accessed through the MFDs and controlled via the keyboard interface. === Systems === Power-by-wire flight control actuators have been used for the first time in civil aviation to back up primary hydraulic actuators. Also, during certain manoeuvres they augment the primary actuators. They have self-contained hydraulic and electrical power supplies. Electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA) are used in the aileron and elevator, electric and hydraulic motors to drive the slats as well as electrical backup hydrostatic actuators (EBHA) for the rudder and some spoilers. The A380's 350 bar (35 MPa or 5,000 psi) hydraulic system is a significant difference from the typical 210 bar (21 MPa or 3,000 psi) hydraulics used on most commercial aircraft since the 1940s. First used in military aircraft, high-pressure hydraulics reduce the weight and size of pipelines, actuators and related components. The 350 bar pressure is generated by eight de-clutchable hydraulic pumps. The hydraulic lines are typically made from titanium; the system features both fuel- and air-cooled heat exchangers. Self-contained electrically powered hydraulic power packs serve as backups for the primary systems, instead of a secondary hydraulic system, saving weight and reducing maintenance. The A380 uses four 150 kVA variable-frequency electrical generators, eliminating constant-speed drives and improving reliability. The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for weight reduction. The electrical power system is fully computerised and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid-state devices for better performance and increased reliability. The auxiliary power comprises the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), the electronic control box (ECB), and mounting hardware. The APU in use on the A380 is the 1,300 kW PW 980A APU. The APU primarily provides air to power the Analysis Ground Station (AGS) on the ground and to start the engines. The AGS is a semi-automatic analysis system of flight data that helps to optimise management of maintenance and reduce costs. The APU also powers two 120 kVA electric generators that provide auxiliary electric power to the aircraft. There is also a ram air turbine (RAT) with a 70 kVA generator. === Passenger provisions === The A380-800's cabin has 550 square metres (5,920 sq ft) of usable floor space, 40% more than the next largest airliner, the Boeing 747-8. The cabin has features to reduce traveller fatigue such as a quieter interior and higher pressurisation than previous generations of aircraft; the A380 is pressurised to the equivalent altitude of 1,520 m (5,000 ft) up to 12,000 m (39,000 ft).: 129 It has 50% less cabin noise, 50% more cabin area and volume, larger windows, bigger overhead bins, and 60 cm (2.0 ft) more headroom than the 747-400. Seating options range from 3-room 12 m2 (130 sq ft) "residence" in first class to 11-across in economy. A380 economy seats are up to 48 cm (19 in) wide in a 10-abreast configuration, compared with the 10-abreast configuration on the 747-400 that typically has seats 44.5 cm (17.5 in) wide. On other aircraft, economy seats range from 41.5 to 52.3 cm (16.3 to 20.6 in) in width. The A380's upper and lower decks are connected by two stairways, one fore and one aft, both wide enough to accommodate two passengers side by side; this cabin arrangement allows multiple seat configurations. The maximum certified carrying capacity is 853 passengers in an all-economy-class layout, Airbus lists the "typical" three-class layout as accommodating 525 passengers, with 10 first, 76 business, and 439 economy class seats. Airline configurations range from Korean Air's 407 passengers to Emirates' two-class 615 seats and average around 480–490 seats. Air Austral's proposed 840 passenger layout has not come to fruition. The A380's interior illumination system uses bulbless LEDs in the cabin, cockpit, and cargo decks. The LEDs in the cabin can be altered to create an ambience simulating daylight, night, or intermediate levels. On the outside of the aircraft, HID lighting is used for brighter illumination. Airbus's publicity has stressed the comfort and space of the A380 cabin, and advertised onboard relaxation areas such as bars, beauty salons, duty-free shops, and restaurants. Proposed amenities resembled those installed on earlier airliners, particularly 1970s wide-body jets, which largely gave way to regular seats for greater passenger capacity. Airbus has acknowledged that some cabin proposals were unlikely to be installed, and that it was ultimately the airlines' decision how to configure the interior. Industry analysts suggested that implementing customisation has slowed the production speeds, and raised costs. Due to delivery delays, Singapore Airlines and Air France debuted their seat designs on different aircraft prior to the A380. Initial operators typically configured their A380s for three-class service, while adding extra features for passengers in premium cabins. Launch customer Singapore Airlines introduced partly enclosed first-class suites on its A380s in 2007, each featuring a leather seat with a separate bed; center suites could be joined to create a double bed. A year later, Qantas debuted a new first-class seat-bed and a sofa lounge at the front of the upper deck on its A380s, and in 2009, Air France unveiled an upper deck electronic art gallery. In late 2008, Emirates introduced "shower spas" in first class on its A380s allowing each first class passenger five minutes of hot water, drawing on 2.5 tonnes of water, although only 60% of it was used. Etihad Airways and Qatar Airways also have a bar lounge and seating area on the upper deck, while Etihad has enclosed areas for two people each. In addition to lounge areas, some A380 operators have installed amenities consistent with other aircraft in their respective fleets, including self-serve snack bars, premium economy sections, and redesigned business-class seating. The Hamburg Aircraft Interiors Expo in April 2015 saw the presentation of an 11-seat row economy cabin for the A380. Airbus is reacting to a changing economy; the recession which began in 2008 saw a drop in market percentage of first class and business seats to six percent and an increase in budget economy travellers. Among other causes is the reluctance of employers to pay for executives to travel in First or Business Class. Airbus' chief of cabin marketing, Ingo Wuggestzer, told Aviation Week and Space Technology that the standard three-class cabin no longer reflected market conditions. The 11-seat row on the A380 is accompanied by similar options on other widebodies: nine across on the Airbus A330 and ten across on the A350. === Integration with infrastructure and regulations === ==== Ground operations ==== In the 1990s, aircraft manufacturers were planning to introduce larger planes than the Boeing 747. In a common effort of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) with manufacturers, airports and its member agencies, the "80-metre box" was created, the airport gates allowing planes up to 80 m (260 ft) wingspan and length to be accommodated. Airbus designed the A380 according to these guidelines, and to operate safely on Group V runways and taxiways with a 60 metres (200 ft) loadbearing width. The US FAA initially opposed this, then in July 2007, the FAA and EASA agreed to let the A380 operate on 45 m (148 ft) runways without restrictions. The A380-800 is approximately 30% larger in overall size than the 747-400. Runway lighting and signage may need changes to provide clearance to the wings and avoid blast damage from the engines. Runways, runway shoulders and taxiway shoulders may be required to be stabilised to reduce the likelihood of foreign object damage caused to (or by) the outboard engines, which are more than 25 m (82 ft) from the centre line of the aircraft, compared to 21 m (69 ft) for the 747-400, and 747-8. Airbus measured pavement loads using a 540-tonne (595 short tons) ballasted test rig, designed to replicate the landing gear of the A380. The rig was towed over a section of pavement at Airbus's facilities that had been instrumented with embedded load sensors. It was determined that the pavement of most runways will not need to be reinforced despite the higher weight, as it is distributed on more wheels than in other passenger aircraft with a total of 22 wheels (that is, its ground pressure is lower). The A380 undercarriage consists of four main landing gear legs and one noseleg (a layout similar to that of the 747), with the two inboard landing gear legs each supporting six wheels. The A380 requires service vehicles with lifts capable of reaching the upper deck, as well as tractors capable of handling the A380's maximum ramp weight. When using two jetway bridges the boarding time is 45 min, and when using an extra jetway to the upper deck it is reduced to 34 min. The A380 has an airport turnaround time of 90–110 minutes. In 2008, the A380 test aircraft were used to trial the modifications made to several airports to accommodate the type. ==== Takeoff and landing separation ==== As of 2023, the A380 is the only aircraft in wake turbulence category Super (J). ==== Maintenance ==== As the A380 fleet grows older, airworthiness authority rules require certain scheduled inspections from approved aircraft tool shops. The increasing fleet size (at the time projected to reach 286 aircraft in 2020) cause expected maintenance and modification to cost $6.8 billion for 2015–2020, of which $2.1 billion are for engines. Emirates performed its first 3C-check for 55 days in 2014. During lengthy shop stays, some airlines will use the opportunity to install new interiors. == Operational history == Singapore Airlines flew the inaugural commercial flight from Singapore to Sydney on October 25, 2007. In February 2009, the one millionth passenger was flown with Singapore Airlines and by May of that year 1,500,000 passengers had flown on 4,200 flights. Air France received its first A380 in October 2009. Lufthansa received its first A380 in May 2010. By July 2010, the 31 A380s then in service had transported 6 million passengers on 17,000 flights between 20 international destinations. Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013 to Malaysia Airlines. In June 2014, over 65 million passengers had flown the A380, and more than 100 million passengers (averaging 375 per flight) by September 2015, with an availability of 98.5%. In 2014, Emirates stated that its A380 fleet had load factors of 90–100%, and that the popularity of the aircraft with its passengers had not decreased in the past year. On 16 December 2021, their largest customer, Emirates, received its 123rd A380 in Hamburg, which was the 251st and the last Superjumbo delivered by Airbus. The airline's strategy has enabled A380 teams to develop new innovations on an ongoing basis and improve the aircraft's operational performance by up to 99.3%, a level never seen before on a quadjet airliner. Many of the innovations developed on the Emirates A380 cabin were a first for Airbus, such as the first class showers, lighting scenarios, and the recent premium economy cabin. The close collaboration has shaped the identity of the A380 over the years and continues to transform the passenger experience today. By December 2021, the global A380 fleet had carried over 300 million passengers to more than 70 destinations and completed more than 800,000 flights over 7.3 million block hours with 99 percent operational reliability and no hull-loss accidents. Over 50% of A380 capacity is from/to/within the Asia-Pacific region, of which around 15% is on regional flights within Asia (OAG 2017). == Proposed variants == While the A380-800 was the only model put into production, other variants were proposed that might have made the design more appealing in shifting market conditions. === A380F === Airbus offered a cargo aircraft variant, called the A380F, since at least June 2005, capable of transporting a 150 t (330,000 lb) maximum payload over a 5,600 nmi (10,400 km; 6,400 mi) range. It would have had 7% better payload and better range than the Boeing 747-8F, but also higher trip costs. It would have the largest payload capacity of any freighter aircraft except the Antonov An-225 Mriya. Production was suspended until the A380 production lines had settled, with no firm availability date. The A380F was displayed on the Airbus website until at least January 2013, but was not anymore in April. A patent for a "combi" version was applied for. This version would offer the flexibility of carrying both passengers and cargo, along with being rapidly reconfigurable to expand or contract the cargo area and passenger area as needed for a given flight. === A380 Stretch, A380-900 === At launch in December 2000, a 656-seat A380-200 was proposed as a derivative of the 555-seat baseline, called the A380 Stretch. In November 2007, Airbus top sales executive and chief operating officer John Leahy confirmed plans for another enlarged variant—the A380-900—with more seating space than the A380-800. The A380-900 would have had a seating capacity for 650 passengers in standard configuration and for approximately 900 passengers in an economy-only configuration. Airlines that expressed an interest in the A380-900 included Emirates, Virgin Atlantic, Cathay Pacific, Air France, KLM, Lufthansa, Kingfisher Airlines, and leasing company ILFC. In May 2010, Airbus announced that A380-900 development would be postponed until production of the A380-800 stabilised. On 11 December 2014, at the annual Airbus Investor Day forum, Airbus CEO Fabrice Bregier controversially announced, "We will one day launch an A380neo and one day launch a stretched A380". This statement followed speculation sparked by Airbus CFO Harald Wilhelm that Airbus could possibly axe the A380 ahead of its time due to softening demand. On 15 June 2015, John Leahy, Airbus's chief operating officer for customers, stated that Airbus was again looking at the A380-900 programme. Airbus's newest concept would be a stretch of the A380-800 offering 50 seats more—not 100 seats as originally envisaged. This stretch would be tied to a potential re-engining of the A380-800. According to Flight Global, an A380-900 would make better use of the A380's existing wing. === A380neo === On 15 June 2015, Reuters reported that Airbus was discussing an improved and stretched version of the A380 with at least six customers. The aircraft, called the A380neo, featured new engines and would accommodate an additional fifty passengers. Deliveries to customers were planned for sometime in 2020 or 2021. On 19 July 2015, Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier stated that the company will build a new version of the A380 featuring new improved wings and new engines. Speculation about the development of a so-called A380neo ("neo" for "new engine option") had been going on for a few months after earlier press releases in 2014, and in 2015, the company was considering whether to end production of the type prior to 2018 or develop a new A380 variant. Later it was revealed that Airbus was looking at both the possibility of a longer A380 in line of the previously planned A380-900 and a new engine version, i.e. A380neo. Brégier also revealed that the new variant would be ready to enter service by 2020. The engine would most likely be one of a variety of all-new options from Rolls-Royce, ranging from derivatives of the A350's XWB-84/97 to the future Advance project due at around 2020. On 3 June 2016, Emirates President Tim Clark stated that talks between Emirates and Airbus on the A380neo have "lapsed". On 12 June 2017, Fabrice Brégier confirmed that Airbus would not launch an A380neo, stating "...there is no business case to do that, this is absolutely clear." However, Brégier stated it would not stop Airbus from looking at what could be done to improve the performance of the aircraft. One such proposal is a 32 ft (9.8 m) wingspan extension to reduce drag and increase fuel efficiency by 4%, though further increase is likely to be seen on the aircraft with new Sharklets like on the A380plus. Tim Clark stated the proposed re-engining would have offered a 12–14% fuel-burn reduction with an enhanced Trent XWB. In June 2023, despite A380 production having ceased, Clark renewed his plea for a re-engined A380neo, suggesting that a next-generation Rolls-Royce UltraFan could give a 25% reduction in fuel burn and emissions. === A380plus === At the June 2017 Paris Air Show, Airbus proposed an enhanced variant, called the A380plus, with 13% lower costs per seat, featuring up to 80 more seats through better use of cabin space, split scimitar winglets and wing refinements allowing a 4% fuel economy improvement, and longer aircraft maintenance intervals with less downtime. The A380plus' maximum takeoff weight would have been increased by 3 t (6,600 lb) to 578 t (1,274,000 lb), allowing it to carry more passengers over the same 8,200 nmi (15,200 km; 9,400 mi) range or increase the range by 300 nmi (560 km; 350 mi). Winglet mockups, 4.7 m (15 ft 5 in) high, were displayed on the MSN04 test aircraft at Le Bourget. Wing twist would have been modified and camber changed by increasing its height by 33 millimetres (1+1⁄4 in) between Rib 10 and Rib 30, along with upper-belly fairing improvements. The in-flight entertainment, the flight management system and the fuel pumps would be from the A350 to reduce weight and improve reliability and fuel economy. Light checks for the A380plus would be required after 1,000 h instead of 750 h and heavy check downtime would be reduced to keep the aircraft flying for six days more per year. == Market == === Size === In its 2000 Global Market Forecast, Airbus estimated a demand for 1,235 passenger Very Large Aircraft (VLA) with more than 400 seats: 360 up to 2009 and 875 by 2019. In late 2003, Boeing forecast 320 "Boeing 747 and larger" passenger aircraft over 20 years, close to the 298 orders actually placed for the A380 and 747-8 passenger airliners as of March 2020. In 2007, Airbus estimated a demand for 1,283 VLAs in the following 20 years if airport congestion remains constant, up to 1,771 VLAs if congestion increases, with most deliveries (56%) in Asia-Pacific, and 415 very large, 120-tonne plus freighters. For the same period, Boeing was estimating the demand for 590 large (747 or A380) passenger airliners and 630 freighters. Estimates for the total over a twenty-year period have varied from 400 to over 1,700. === Frequency and capacity === In 2013, Cathay Pacific and Singapore Airlines needed to balance frequency and capacity. China Southern struggled for two years to use its A380s from Beijing, and finally received Boeing 787s in its base in Guangzhou, but where it cannot command a premium, unlike Beijing or Shanghai. In 2013, Air France withdrew A380 services to Singapore and Montreal and switched to smaller aircraft. In 2014, British Airways replaced three 777 flights between London and Los Angeles with two A380 per day. Emirates' Tim Clark saw a large potential for East Asian A380-users, and criticised Airbus' marketing efforts. As many business travellers prefer more choices offered by greater flight frequency achieved by flying any given route multiple times on smaller aircraft, rather than fewer flights on larger planes, United Airlines observed the A380 "just doesn't really work for us" with a much higher trip cost than the Boeing 787. At the A380 launch, most Europe-Asia and transpacific routes used Boeing 747-400s at fairly low frequencies but, since then, routes proliferated with open skies, and most airlines downsized, offering higher frequencies and more routes. The huge capacity offered by each flight eroded the yield: North America was viewed as 17% of the market but the A380 never materialised as a 747 replacement, with only 15 747s remaining in passenger service in November 2017 for transpacific routes, where time zones restrict potential frequency. Consolidation changed the networks, and US majors constrained capacity and emphasised daily frequencies for business traffic with midsize widebodies like the 787, to extract higher yields; the focus being on profits, with market share ceded to Asian carriers. The 747 was largely replaced on transatlantic flights by the 767, and on the transpacific flights by the 777; newer, smaller aircraft with similar seat-mile costs have lower trip costs and allow more direct routes. Cabin 'densification', to lower unit costs, could aggravate this overcapacity. === Production === In 2005, 270 sales were necessary to attain break-even and with 751 expected deliveries its internal rate of return outlook was at 19%, but due to disruptions in the ramp-up leading to overcosts and delayed deliveries, it increased to 420 in 2006. In 2010, EADS CFO Hans Peter Ring said that break-even could be achieved by 2015 when 200 deliveries were projected. In 2012, Airbus clarified that the aircraft production costs would be less than its sales price. On 11 December 2014, Airbus chief financial officer Harald Wilhelm hinted the possibility of ending the programme in 2018, disappointing Emirates president Tim Clark. Airbus shares fell down consequently. Airbus responded to the protests by playing down the possibility the A380 would be abandoned, instead emphasising that enhancing the aeroplane was a likelier scenario. On 22 December 2014, as the jet was about to break even, Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier ruled out cancelling it. Ten years after its first flight, Brégier said it was "almost certainly introduced ten years too early". While no longer losing money on each plane sold, Airbus admits that the company will never recoup the $25 billion investment it made in the project. Airbus consistently forecast 1,400 VLA demand over 20-year, still in 2017, and aimed to secure a 50% share, up to 700 units, but delivered 215 aircraft in 10 years, achieving three produced per month but not the four per month target after the ramp-up to achieve more than 350 and is now declining to 0.5 a month. As Boeing see the VLA market as too small to retain in its 2017 forecast, its VP marketing Randy Tinseth does not believe Airbus will deliver the rest of the backlog. Richard Aboulafia predicted a 2020 final delivery, with unpleasant losses due to "hubris, shoddy market analysis, nationalism and simple wishful thinking". In 2017, the A380 fleet exceeded the number of remaining passenger B747s, which had declined from 740 aircraft when the A380 was launched in 2000 to 550 units when the A380 was introduced in 2007, and around 200 ten years later. However, the market-share battle has shifted to large single-aisles and 300-seat twin-aisles. === Cost === As of 2016, the list price of an A380 was US$432.6 million. Negotiated discounts made the actual prices much lower, and industry experts questioned whether the A380 project would ever pay for itself. The first aircraft was sold and leased back by Singapore Airlines in 2007 to Dr. Peters for $197 million. In 2016, IAG's Willie Walsh said he could add a few, but also that he found the price of new aircraft "outrageous" and would source them from the second-hand market. AirInsight estimates its hourly cost at $26,000, or around $50 per seat hour (when configured for only 520 seats), which compares to $44 per seat hour for a Boeing 777-300ER, and $90 per seat hour for a Boeing 747-400 as of November 2015. The A380 was designed with large wing and tail surfaces to accommodate a planned stretch; this resulted in a high empty weight per seat. The stretch never occurred to take advantage of this, and the A380's cost-per-seat is expected to be matched by the A350-1000 and 777-9. === Economic aspects === With a theoretical maximum seating capacity of 853 seats, which is not used by any airline, the Airbus A380 consumes 2.4 liters of kerosene per 100 passenger kilometers. This increases with a reduced seating capacity from 555 to 3.5 l/100 pkm and is 5.2 liters of kerosene per 100 passenger kilometers in the smallest possible variant with only 362 seats. === Secondary === As of 2015, several airlines expressed their interest in selling their aircraft, partially coinciding with expiring lease contracts for the aircraft. Several in-service A380s were offered for lease to other airlines. The suggestion prompted concerns on the potential for new sales for Airbus, although these were dismissed by Airbus COO John Leahy who stated that "Used A380s do not compete with new A380s", noting that the second-hand market is more interesting for parties otherwise looking to buy smaller aircraft such as the Boeing 777. After Malaysia Airlines was unable to sell or lease its six A380s, it decided to refurbish the aircraft with seating for 700 and transfer them to a subsidiary carrier for religious pilgrimage flights. As it started receiving its six A350s to replace its A380s in December 2017, the new subsidiary will serve the Hajj and Umrah market with them, starting in the third quarter of 2018 and could be expanded above six beyond 2020 to 2022. The cabin will have 36 business seats and 600 economy seats, with a 712-seat reconfiguration possible within five days. The fleet could be chartered half the year for the tourism industry like cruise shipping and will be able to operate for the next 40 years if oil prices stay low. As they should be parked by June 2018 before reconfiguration, MAS confirmed the plans and will also use them for peak periods to high traffic markets like London. In August 2017, it was announced that Hi Fly would lease two used aircraft. The Portuguese ACMI/charter airline will use the aircraft for markets where high capacity is needed and airports where slots are scarce. The first aircraft was scheduled to begin commercial operations during the first quarter of 2018 Hi Fly was to receive its A380s from mid 2018 in a 471-seat configuration: 399 on the main deck, 60 business-class and 12 first-class seats on the upper deck, the Singapore Airlines layout. Hi Fly first used one of their A380s on 1 August 2018 for a one-off flight to enable Thomas Cook Airlines to repatriate passengers from Rhodes to Copenhagen following IT problems in the Greek airport. The same aircraft was then wet-leased to Norwegian to operate its evening London-New York service for several weeks in August 2018, to alleviate availability issues on its Boeing 787s affected by Trent 1000 engine problems; Air Austral also signed a deal to wet-lease an A380 from Hi Fly while one of its 787s is grounded for three months of Trent 1000 inspections. As of December 2019, Hi Fly has leased one used A380. Amedeo, mainly an A380 lessor and the largest with 22, mostly leased to Emirates, wants to find a use for them after their lease expires from 2022, and study if there is a demand to wet lease them. Swiss aircraft broker Sparfell & Partners plans to convert for head-of-state or VVIP transport some of Dr. Peters' four ex-SIA A380s for under $300 million apiece, less than a new Boeing 777 or Airbus A330. As of November 2018, Air France was planning to return five of its A380s to lessors by the end of 2019 and refurbish its other five with new interiors by 2020 for $51 million per aircraft. By July 2019, Air France revised this plan and intended to phase out all ten of its A380s by 2022 as part of an "accelerated" retirement plan, replacing them with no more than nine twin-engined wide-body aircraft. The A330-900, A350-900 and 787-9 were being evaluated as potential replacements. Following the cancellation of the programme in February 2019, the residual value of existing aircraft is in doubt. While Amedeo argued that cancellation should benefit the value, this will depend on whether any new airlines are prepared to adopt second-hand A380s, and how many existing users continue to operate the aircraft. Even the teardown value is questionable, in that the engines, usually the most valuable part of a scrap aircraft, are not used by any other models. === Teardown and second-hand market === With four A380s leased to Singapore Airlines having been returned between October 2017 and March 2018, Dr. Peters feared a weak aftermarket and is considering scrapping them, although they are on sale for a business jet conversion, but on the other hand Airbus sees a potential for African airlines and Chinese airlines, Hajj charters and its large Gulf operators. An A380 parted out may be worth $30 million to $50 million if it is at half-life. Teardown specialists have declined offers for several aircraft at part-out prices due to high risk as a secondary market is uncertain with $30 to $40 million for the refurbishment, but should be between $20 and $30 million to be viable. When the aircraft were proposed to British Airways, Hi Fly and Iran Air, BA did not want to replace its Boeing 747s until 2021, while Iran Air faced political uncertainty and Hi Fly did not have a convincing business case. Consequently, Dr. Peters recommended to its investors on 28 June 2018 to sell the aircraft parts with VAS Aero Services within two years for US$45 million, quickly for components like the landing gear or the APU. Rolls-Royce Trent 900 leasing beyond March 2019 should generate US$480,000 monthly for each aircraft before selling the turbofans by 2020. With a total revenue of US$80 million per aircraft, the overall return expected is 145–155% while 72% and 81% of their debt had already been repaid. The fifth plane coming back from SIA, owned by Doric, has been leased by Hi Fly Malta with a lease period of "nearly 6 years". Hi Fly Malta became the first operator of second-hand A380 (MSN006). Norwegian Long Haul briefly leased Hi Fly Malta A380 in August 2018, which operated the aircraft following engine problems with their Dreamliner fleet. Norwegian leased the A380 again in late 2018 to help deal with the passenger backlog as a result of the Gatwick Airport drone incident. Two others returned from Singapore Airlines in the coming weeks (June 2018) but they could stay with an existing Asian A380 flag carrier. The teardown value includes $32–$33 million from the engines in 2020 and $4 million from leasing them until then, while the value of a 2008 A380 would be $78.4 million in 2020 and its monthly lease in 2018 would be $929,000. The two aircraft have returned 3.8–4.2% per year since 2008 but the 145–155% return is lower than the 220% originally forecast. Of the nearly 500 made, 50 747-400s were sold in the secondary market, including only 25 to new customers. These are among the first A380s delivered, lacking the improvements and weight savings of later ones. The first two A380s delivered to Singapore Airlines (MSN003 and MSN005) flew to Tarbes, France, to be scrapped. Their engines and some components had been dismantled and removed while the livery was painted over in white. As of September 2019, Emirates initiated its A380 retirement plan – which will see the type remain in service until at least 2035 – by retiring two aircraft that were due for a major overhaul, and using them as parts donors for the rest of the fleet. Emirates does not see any demand in the second-hand market, but is indifferent in that the retired aircraft have already been fully written down and thus have no residual value. As further aircraft are retired, Emirates-owned airframes will continue to be used for parts, while leased airframes will be returned to the lessors. One such return to lessor Doric was purchased by Emirates for £25.3 million in late 2022, as spare parts. == Orders and deliveries == Fourteen customers have ordered and taken delivery of the A380 as of April 2019. Total orders for the A380 stand at 251 as of November 2019. The biggest customer is Emirates, which has committed to order a total of 123 A380s as of 14 February 2019. One VIP order was made in 2007 but later cancelled by Airbus. The A380F version attracted 27 orders, before they were either cancelled (20) or converted to A380-800 (7) following the production delay and the subsequent suspension of the freighter programme. Delivery takes place in Hamburg for customers from Europe and the Middle East and in Toulouse for customers from the rest of the world. EADS explained that deliveries in 2013 were to be slowed temporarily to accommodate replacement of the wing rib brackets where cracks were detected earlier in the existing fleet. In 2013, in expectation of raising the number of orders placed, Airbus announced "attractable discounts" to airlines who placed large orders for the A380. Soon after, at the November 2013 Dubai Air Show, Emirates ordered 150 777X and Etihad Airways ordered 50 aircraft, totalling $20 billion. In late July 2014, Airbus announced that it had terminated five A380 firm orders from the Japanese low-cost carrier, Skymark Airlines, citing concerns over the airline's financial performance. In 2016, the largest Japanese carrier, All Nippon Airways (ANA), took over three of the orders and the remaining two that were already produced and put into long-term storage were taken up later by the main customer, Emirates. Qantas planned to order eight more aircraft but froze its order while the airline restructured its operations. Qantas eventually cancelled its order in February 2019 amid doubts over the A380's future. Amedeo, an aircraft lessor that ordered 20 A380s, had not found a client for the airliner and eventually cancelled their order in 2019. Virgin Atlantic ordered six A380s in 2001 but never took delivery and later cancelled them in 2018. In June 2017, Emirates had 48 orders outstanding, but due to lack of space in Dubai Airport, it deferred 12 deliveries by one year and would not take any in 2019–20 before replacing its early airliners from 2021. There were open production slots in 2019, and Airbus reduced its production rate in 2017–2018 at 12 per year. The real backlog is much smaller than the official 107 with 47 uncertain orders: 20 commitments for the A380-specialized lessor Amedeo which commits to production only once aircraft are placed, eight for Qantas which wants to keep its fleet at 12, six for Virgin Atlantic which does not want them any more and three ex Transaero for finance vehicle Air Accord. At its 100th delivery ceremony, Emirates CEO Ahmed bin Saeed Al Maktoum was hoping to order new A380s at the November 2017 Dubai Air Show. Emirates does not need the small front staircase and eleven-abreast economy of the A380plus concept, but wants Airbus to commit to continue production for at least 10 years. On 18 January 2018, Airbus secured a preliminary agreement from Emirates for up to 36 A380s, to be delivered from 2020, valued at $16 billion at list prices. The contract was signed in February 2018, comprising a firm order for 20 A380s and options on 16 more. In early 2019, Airbus confirmed it was in discussions with Emirates over its A380 contract. If the A380's only stable client were to drop the type, Airbus could cease production of the superjumbo. Emirates was at odds with Rolls-Royce over shortfalls in fuel savings from the Trent 900s, and could switch its order for 36 A380s to the smaller A350. The A350 could also replace its provisional order for 40 Boeing 787-10s, placed in 2017, as engine margins on the 787 are insufficient for the hot Dubai weather. On 14 February 2019, Emirates decided to cancel its order for 39 planes, opting to replace them with A350s and A330neos. Airbus stated that this cancellation would bring the A380's production to an end when the last unfilled orders are delivered in 2021. On 21 March 2019, All Nippon Airways received its first of three A380s painted with the Sea Turtle livery. Called the ANA Blue, this A380 will be used for 3 flights a week, going from Tokyo to Honolulu and back. In October 2021, Emirates announced it would receive its final three A380s to be delivered with the last aircraft in December 2021, thus ending production of the A380. === Timeline === Cumulative orders and deliveries Orders Deliveries Data as of December 2021. == Operators == There were 189 aircraft (of 251 delivered) in service with 12 operators as of May 2025, with Emirates being the largest operator with 116 A380s in its fleet. == Aircraft on display == The fourth test A380 (MSN4) was donated to the Musée de l'air et de l'espace at Le Bourget in 2017. After several months of restoration, it was put on display on the apron in 2018, near the museum's Boeing 747-100, making the museum the first in the world where both large airliners can be seen together. Donated by Airbus at the same time as A380 MSN4, the second test A380 (MSN2), was donated to the Aeroscopia museum at Toulouse-Blagnac Airport, Toulouse, along with the first Airbus A320 and an Airbus A340, that had also previously been used by the company for test flights. == Incidents == The A380 has never been involved in a hull-loss accident as of January 2025, but was involved in two notable aviation accidents without any injuries, both of which were caused by uncontained engine failures: On 4 November 2010, Qantas Flight 32, en route from Singapore Changi Airport to Sydney Airport, suffered an uncontained engine failure, resulting in a series of related problems, and forcing the flight to make an emergency landing. The plane safely returned to Singapore. There were no injuries to the passengers, the crew, or people on the ground despite debris falling onto the Indonesian island of Batam. The damage to the aircraft was sufficient for the event to be classified as an accident. Qantas subsequently grounded all of its A380s that day subject to an internal investigation taken in conjunction with the engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce plc. A380s powered by the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines were affected, while those powered by the Engine Alliance GP7000 were not. Investigators determined that an oil leak, caused by a defective oil supply pipe, led to an engine fire and subsequent uncontained engine failure. Repairs cost an estimated A$139 million (~US$145M). As other Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines also showed problems with the same oil leak, Rolls-Royce ordered many engines to be changed, including about half of the engines in the Qantas A380 fleet. During the aeroplane's repair, cracks were discovered in wing structural fittings, which also resulted in mandatory inspections of all A380s and subsequent design changes. On 30 September 2017, Air France Flight 66, an Engine Alliance GP7270 powered Airbus A380, suffered an apparent uncontained engine failure while operating from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport to Los Angeles International Airport. The aircraft safely diverted to CFB Goose Bay, Canada. == Specifications == === Aircraft Type Designations === == See also == Related development Airbus A330 Airbus A340 Airbus A350 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 747-8 Boeing 777X Boeing New Large Airplane (proposal) McDonnell Douglas MD-12 (proposal) Sukhoi KR-860 (proposal) Related lists List of civil aircraft List of commercial jet airliners List of large aircraft List of aerospace megaprojects == Notes == == References == == Further reading == == External links == Official website "A380 Special Report". Flight International. June 2005. Power, Mark (2003–2006). "Project " A380: Photographs / Audio Visual". "Airbus A380 Aircraft Profile". FlightGlobal. 27 February 2007. Kingsley-Jones, Max (9 November 2017). "The path to an A380 century at Emirates". Flightglobal. Kaminski-Morrow, David (9 July 2018). "Analysis: A380 scrapes along in hope of revival". Flightglobal. Flottau, Jens; Haria, Rupa. "End of the Mega-Transport: Highs and Lows of the Airbus A380". Aviation Week Network.
Airbus A350	The Airbus A350 is a long-range, wide-body twin-engine airliner developed and produced by Airbus. The initial A350 design proposed in 2004, in response to the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, would have been a development of the Airbus A330 with composite wings, advanced winglets, and new efficient engines. Due to inadequate market support, Airbus switched in 2006 to a clean-sheet "XWB" (eXtra Wide Body) design, powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent XWB high bypass turbofan engines. The prototype first flew on 14 June 2013 from Toulouse, France. Type certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) was obtained in September 2014, followed by certification from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) two months later. The A350 is the first Airbus aircraft largely made of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers. The fuselage is designed around a 3-3-3 nine-across economy cross-section, an increase from the eight-across A330/A340 2-4-2 configuration. It has a common type rating with the A330. The airliner has two variants: the A350-900 typically carries 300 to 350 passengers over a 15,000-kilometre (8,100-nautical-mile) range, and has a 283-tonne (624,000 lb) maximum takeoff weight (MTOW); the longer A350-1000 accommodates 350 to 410 passengers and has a maximum range of 16,500 kilometres (8,900 nmi) and a 322-tonne (710,000 lb) MTOW. On 15 January 2015, the first A350-900 entered service with Qatar Airways, followed by the A350-1000 on 24 February 2018 with the same launch operator. As of April 2025, Singapore Airlines is the largest operator with 65 aircraft in its fleet, while Turkish Airlines is the largest customer with 110 aircraft on order. A total of 1,391 A350 family aircraft have been ordered and 658 delivered, of which 657 aircraft are in service with 38 operators. The global A350 fleet has completed more than 1.58 million flights on more than 1,240 routes, transporting more than 400 million passengers with one hull loss in an airport-safety-related incident. It succeeds the A340 and competes against Boeing's large long-haul twinjets, the Boeing 777, its future successor, the 777X, and the 787 Dreamliner. == Development == === Background and early designs === Airbus initially rejected Boeing's claim that the Boeing 787 Dreamliner would be a serious threat to the Airbus A330, stating that the 787 was just a reaction to the A330 and that no response was needed. When airlines urged Airbus to provide a competitor, Airbus initially proposed the "A330-200 Lite", a derivative of the A330 featuring improved aerodynamics and engines similar to those on the 787. The company planned to announce this version at the 2004 Farnborough Airshow, but did not proceed. On 16 September 2004, Airbus president and chief executive officer Noël Forgeard confirmed the consideration of a new project during a private meeting with prospective customers. Forgeard did not give a project name, and did not state whether it would be an entirely new design or a modification of an existing product. Airline dissatisfaction with this proposal motivated Airbus to commit €4 billion to a new airliner design. On 10 December 2004, Airbus' shareholders, EADS and BAE Systems, approved the "authorisation to offer" for the A350, expecting a 2010 service entry. Airbus then expected to win more than half of the 250-300-seat aircraft market, estimated at 3,100 aircraft overall over 20 years. Based on the A330, the 245-seat A350-800 was to fly over a 8,600 nmi (15,900 km; 9,900 mi) range and the 285-seat A350-900 over a 13,900 km (7,500 nmi; 8,600 mi) range. Fuel efficiency would improve by over 10% with a mostly carbon fibre reinforced polymer wing and initial General Electric GEnx-72A1 engines, before offering a choice of powerplant. It had a common fuselage cross-section with the A330 and also a new horizontal stabiliser. On 13 June 2005 at the Paris Air Show, Middle Eastern carrier Qatar Airways announced that they had placed an order for 60 A350s. In September 2006 the airline signed a memorandum of understanding with General Electric (GE) to launch the GEnx-1A-72 engine for the new airliner model. Emirates sought a more improved design and decided against ordering the initial version of the A350. On 6 October 2005, the programme's industrial launch was announced with an estimated development cost of around €3.5 billion. The A350 was initially planned to be a 250 to 300-seat twin-engine wide-body aircraft derived from the existing A330's design. Under this plan, the A350 would have modified wings and new engines while sharing the A330's fuselage cross-section. For this design, the fuselage was to consist primarily of aluminium-lithium rather than the carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) fuselage on the Boeing 787. The A350 would see entry in two versions: the A350-800 with a 8,800 nmi (16,300 km; 10,100 mi) range with a typical passenger capacity of 253 in a three-class configuration, and the A350-900 with 7,500 nmi (13,900 km; 8,600 mi) range and a 300-seat three-class configuration. The A350 was designed to be a direct competitor to the Boeing 787-9 and 777-200ER. The original A350 design was publicly criticised by two of Airbus's largest customers, International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC) and GE Capital Aviation Services (GECAS). On 28 March 2006, ILFC President Steven F. Udvar-Házy urged Airbus to pursue a clean-sheet design or risk losing market share to Boeing and branded Airbus's strategy as "a Band-aid reaction to the 787", a sentiment echoed by GECAS president Henry Hubschman. In April 2006, while reviewing bids for the Boeing 787 and A350, the CEO of Singapore Airlines (SIA) Chew Choon Seng, commented that "having gone through the trouble of designing a new wing, tail, and cockpit, [Airbus] should have gone the whole hog and designed a new fuselage." Airbus responded that they were considering A350 improvements to satisfy customer demands. Airbus's then-CEO Gustav Humbert stated, "Our strategy isn't driven by the needs of the next one or two campaigns, but rather by a long-term view of the market and our ability to deliver on our promises." As major airlines such as Qantas and Singapore Airlines selected the 787 over the A350, Humbert tasked an engineering team to produce new alternative designs. One such proposal, known internally as "1d", formed the basis of the A350 redesign. === Redesign and launch === On 14 July 2006, during the Farnborough International Airshow, the redesigned aircraft was designated "A350 XWB" (Xtra-Wide-Body). Within four days, Singapore Airlines agreed to order 20 A350 XWBs with options for another 20 A350 XWBs. The proposed A350 was a new design, including a wider fuselage cross-section, allowing seating arrangements ranging from an eight-across low-density premium economy layout to a ten-across high-density seating configuration for a maximum seating capacity of 440–475 depending on variant. The A330 and previous iterations of the A350 would only be able to accommodate a maximum of eight seats per row. The 787 is typically configured for nine seats per row. The 777 accommodates nine or ten seats per row, with more than half of recent 777s being configured in a ten-across layout that will come standard on the 777X. The A350 cabin is 12.7 cm (5.0 in) wider at the eye level of a seated passenger than the 787's cabin, and 28 cm (11 in) narrower than the Boeing 777's cabin (see the Wide-body aircraft comparison of cabin widths and seating). All A350 passenger models have a range of at least 14,800 kilometres (8,000 nmi; 9,200 mi). The redesigned composite fuselage allows for higher cabin pressure and humidity, and lower maintenance costs. On 1 December 2006, the Airbus board of directors approved the industrial launch of the A350-800, -900, and -1000 variants. The delayed launch decision was a result of delays to the Airbus A380 and discussions on how to fund development. EADS CEO Thomas Enders stated that the A350 programme was not a certainty, citing EADS/Airbus's stretched resources. However, it was decided programme costs are to be borne mainly from cash-flow. First delivery for the A350-900 was scheduled for mid-2013, with the -800 and -1000 following on 12 and 24 months later, respectively. New technical details of the A350 XWB were revealed at a press conference in December 2006. Chief operating officer, John Leahy indicated existing A350 contracts were being re-negotiated due to price increases compared to the original A350s contracted. On 4 January 2007, Pegasus Aviation Finance Company placed the first firm order for the A350 XWB with an order for two aircraft. The design change imposed a two-year delay into the original timetable and increased development costs from US$5.5 billion (€5.3 billion) to approximately US$10 billion (€9.7 billion). Reuters estimated the A350's total development cost at US$15 billion (€12 billion or £10 billion). The original mid-2013 delivery date of the A350 was changed, as a longer than anticipated development forced Airbus to delay the final assembly and first flight of the aircraft to the third quarter of 2012 and second quarter of 2013 respectively. As a result, the flight test schedule was compressed from the original 15 months to 12 months. A350 programme chief Didier Evrard stressed that delays only affected the A350-900 while the -800 and -1000 schedules remained unchanged. Airbus' 2019 earnings report indicated the A350 programme had broken even that year. === Design phase === Airbus suggested Boeing's use of composite materials for the 787 fuselage was premature, and that the new A350 XWB was to feature carbon fibre panels only for the main fuselage skin. However, after facing criticism for maintenance costs, Airbus confirmed in early September 2007 that it would also use carbon fibre for fuselage frames. The composite frames would feature aluminium strips to ensure the electrical continuity of the fuselage, for dissipating lightning strikes. Airbus used a full mock up fuselage to develop the wiring, a different approach from the A380, on which the wiring was all done on computers. In 2006, Airbus confirmed development of a full bleed air system on the A350, as opposed to the 787's bleedless configuration. Rolls-Royce agreed with Airbus to supply a new variant of the Trent turbofan engine for the A350 XWB, named Trent XWB. In 2010, after low-speed wind tunnel tests, Airbus finalised the static thrust at sea level for all three proposed variants to the 74,000–94,000 lbf (330–420 kN) range. GE stated it would not offer the GP7000 engine on the aircraft, and that previous contracts for the GEnx on the original A350 did not apply to the XWB. Engine Alliance partner Pratt & Whitney seemed to be unaligned with GE on this, having publicly stated that it was looking at an advanced derivative of the GP7000. In April 2007, former Airbus CEO Louis Gallois held direct talks with GE management over developing a GEnx variant for the A350 XWB. In June 2007, John Leahy indicated that the A350 XWB would not feature the GEnx engine, saying that Airbus wanted GE to offer a more efficient version for the airliner. Since then, the largest GE engines operators, which include Emirates, US Airways, Hawaiian Airlines and ILFC have selected the Trent XWB for their A350 orders. In May 2009, GE said that if it were to reach a deal with Airbus to offer the current 787-optimised GEnx for the A350, it would only power the -800 and -900 variants. GE believed it could offer a product that outperforms the Trent 1000 and Trent XWB, but was reluctant to support an aircraft competing directly with its GE90-115B-powered 777 variants. In January 2008, French-based Thales Group won a US$2.9 billion (€2 billion) 20-year contract to supply avionics and navigation equipment for the A350 XWB, beating Honeywell and Rockwell Collins. US-based Rockwell Collins and Moog Inc. were chosen to supply the horizontal stabiliser actuator and primary flight control actuation, respectively. The flight management system incorporated several new safety features. Regarding cabin ergonomics and entertainment, in 2006 Airbus signed a firm contract with BMW for development of an interior concept for the original A350. On 4 February 2010, Airbus signed a contract with Panasonic Avionics Corporation to deliver in-flight entertainment and communication (IFEC) systems for the Airbus A350 XWB. === Production === In 2008, Airbus planned to start cabin furnishing early in parallel with final assembly to cut production time in half. The A350 XWB production programme sees extensive international collaboration and investments in new facilities: Airbus constructed 10 new factories in Western Europe and the US, with extensions carried out on three further sites. Among the new buildings was a £570 million (US$760 million or €745 million) composite facility in Broughton, Wales, which would be responsible for the wings. In June 2009, the National Assembly for Wales announced provision of a £28 million grant to provide a training centre, production jobs and money toward the new production centre. Airbus manufactured the first structural component in December 2009. Production of the first fuselage barrel began in late 2010 at its production plant in Illescas, Spain. Construction of the first A350-900 centre wingbox was set to start in August 2010. The new composite rudder plant in China opened in early 2011. The forward fuselage of the first A350 was delivered to the final assembly plant in Toulouse on 29 December 2011. Final assembly of the first A350 static test model was started on 5 April 2012. Final assembly of the first prototype A350 was completed in December 2012. In 2018, the unit cost of the A350-900 was US$317.4 million and the A350-1000 was US$366.5 million. The production rate was expected to rise from three aircraft per month in early 2015 to five at the end of 2015, and would ramp to ten aircraft per month by 2018. In 2015, 17 planes would be delivered and the initial dispatch reliability was 98%. Airbus announced plans to increase its production rate from 10 monthly in 2018 to 13 monthly from 2019 and six A330 are produced monthly. Around 90 deliveries were expected for 2018, with 15% or ≈14 units being A350-1000 variants. That year, 93 aircraft were delivered, three more than expected. In 2019, Airbus delivered 112 A350s (87 A350-900s and 25 A350-1000s) at a rate of 10 per month, and were going to keep the rate around nine to 10 per month, to reflect softer demand for widebodies, as the backlog reached 579 − or 5.2 years of production at a constant rate. The COVID-19 pandemic caused the decrease of A350 production from 9.5 per month to six per month, since April 2020. After the pandemic a ramp-up is planned, aiming to reach a rate of 9 per month by the end of 2025. As the pre-pandemic rate of 10 monthly is aimed for by 2026, by April 2024 Airbus was planning a 12-monthly production rate by 2028 after securing 281 net orders in 2023. === Testing and certification === The first Trent engine test was made on 14 June 2010. The Trent XWB's flight test programme began use on the A380 development aircraft in early 2011, ahead of engine certification in late 2011. On 2 June 2013, the Trent XWB engines were powered up on the A350 for the first time. Airbus confirmed that the flight test programme would last 12 months and use five test aircraft. The A350's maiden flight took place on 14 June 2013 from the Toulouse–Blagnac Airport. Airbus's chief test pilot said, "it just seemed really happy in the air...all the things we were testing had no major issues at all." It flew for four hours, reaching Mach 0.8 at 25,000 feet after retracting the landing gear and starting a 2,500 h flight test campaign. Costs for developing the aircraft were estimated at €11 billion (US$15 billion or £9.5 billion) in June 2013. A350 XWB msn. 2 underwent two and a half weeks of climatic tests in the unique McKinley Climatic Laboratory at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, in May 2014, and was subjected to multiple climatic and humidity settings from 45 °C (113 °F) to −40 °C (−40 °F). The A350 received type certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) on 30 September 2014. On 15 October 2014, EASA approved the A350-900 for ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operations Performance Standards) 370, allowing it to fly more than six hours on one engine and making it the first airliner to be approved for "ETOPS Beyond 180 minutes" before entry into service. Later that month Airbus received regulatory approval for a Common Type Rating for pilot training between the A350 XWB and A330. On 12 November 2014, the A350 received certification from the FAA. On 1 August 2017, the EASA issued an airworthiness directive mandating operators to power cycle (reset) early A350-900s before 149 hours of continuous power-on time, reissued in July 2019. === Entry into service === In June 2011, the A350-900 was scheduled to enter service in the first half of 2014, with the -800 to enter service in mid-2016, and the -1000 in 2017. In July 2012, Airbus delayed the -900's introduction by three months to the second half of 2014. The delivery to launch customer Qatar Airways took place on 22 December 2014. The first commercial flight was made on 15 January 2015 between Doha and Frankfurt. The first A350-1000 was assembled in 2016 and had its first flight on 24 November 2016. The aircraft was then delivered on 20 February 2018 to Qatar Airways, which had also been the launch operator of the -900. and entered the commercial service with a flight from Doha to London on 24 February 2018. === Shorter A350-800 === The 60.45 m (198.3 ft)-long A350-800 was designed to seat 276 passengers in a typical three-class configuration with a range of 15,270 kilometres (8,245 nmi; 9,488 mi) with an MTOW of 259 tonnes (571,000 lb). In January 2010, Airbus opted to develop the -800 as a shrink of the baseline -900 to simplify development and increase its payload by 3 tonnes (6,600 lb) or its range by 460 kilometres (250 nmi; 290 mi), but this led to a fuel burn penalty of "a couple of percent", according to John Leahy. The previously planned optimisation to the structure and landing gear was not beneficial enough against better commonality and maximum takeoff weight increase by 11t from 248t. The −800's fuselage is 10 frames shorter (six forward and four aft of wing) than the −900 aircraft. It was designed to supplement the Airbus A330-200 long-range twin. Airbus planned to decrease structural weight in the -800 as development continued, which should have been around airframe 20. While its backlog reached 182 in mid-2008, it diminished since 2010 as customers switched to the larger -900. After launching the Airbus A330neo at the 2014 Farnborough Airshow, Airbus dropped the A350-800, with its CEO Fabrice Brégier saying "I believe all of our customers will either convert to the A350-900 or the A330neo". He later confirmed at a September 2014 press conference that development of the A350-800 had been "cancelled". There were 16 orders left for the -800 since Yemenia switched to the -900 and Hawaiian Airlines moved to the A330neo in December 2014: eight for Aeroflot and eight for Asiana Airlines, both also having orders for the -900. In January 2017, Aeroflot and Airbus announced the cancellation of its -800 order, leaving Asiana Airlines as the only customer for the variant. After the negotiation between Airbus and Asiana Airlines, Asiana converted orders of eight A350-800s and one A350-1000 to nine A350-900s. === Longer A350-1000 === In 2011, Airbus redesigned the A350-1000 with higher weights and a more powerful engine variant to provide more range for trans-Pacific operations. This boosted its appeal to Cathay Pacific and Singapore Airlines, who were committed to purchase 20 Boeing 777-9s, and to United Airlines, which was considering Boeing 777-300ERs to replace its 747-400s. Emirates was disappointed with the changes and cancelled its order for 50 A350-900s and 20 A350-1000s, instead of changing the whole order to the larger variant. Assembly of the first fuselage major components started in September 2015. In February 2016, final assembly started at the A350 Final Assembly Line in Toulouse. Three flight test aircraft were planned, with entry into service scheduled for mid-2017. The first aircraft completed its body join on 15 April 2016. Its maiden flight took place on 24 November 2016. The A350-1000 flight test programme planned for 1,600 flight hours; 600 hours on the first aircraft, MSN59, for the flight envelope, systems and powerplant checks; 500 hours on MSN71 for cold and warm campaigns, landing gear checks and high-altitude tests; and 500 hours on MSN65 for route proving and ETOPS assessment, with an interior layout for cabin development and certification. In cruise at Mach 0.854 (911.9 km/h; 492.4 kn) and 35,000 ft, its fuel flow at 259 t (571,000 lb) is 6.8 t (15,000 lb) per hour within a 5,400 nautical miles (10,000 km; 6,200 mi), 11+1⁄2 hours early long test flight. Flight tests allowed raising the MTOW from 308 to 316 t (679,000 to 697,000 lb), the 8 t (18,000 lb) increase giving 450 nmi (830 km; 520 mi) more range. Airbus then completed functional and reliability testing. Type Certification was awarded by EASA on 21 November 2017, along FAA certification. The first serial unit was on the final assembly line in early December. After its maiden flight on 7 December 2017, delivery to launch customer Qatar Airways slipped to early 2018. The delay was due to issues with the business class seat installation. It was delivered on 20 February 2018 and entered commercial service on Qatar Airways' Doha to London Heathrow route on 24 February 2018. === Possible further stretch === Airbus has explored the possibility of a further stretch offering 45 more seats. A potential 4 m (13 ft) stretch would remain within the exit limit of four door pairs, and a modest MTOW increase from 308 t to 319 t would need only 3% more thrust, within the Rolls-Royce Trent XWB-97 capabilities, and would allow a 7,600 nmi (14,100 km; 8,700 mi) range to compete with the 777-9's capabilities. This variant was to be a replacement for the 747-400, tentatively called the A350-8000, -2000 or -1100. At the June 2016 Airbus Innovation Days, chief commercial officer John Leahy was concerned about the size of a 400-seat market besides the Boeing 747-8 and the 777-9 and chief executive Fabrice Brégier feared such an aircraft could cannibalise demand for the -1000. The potential 79 m-long (258 ft) aeroplane was competing against a hypothetical 777-10X for Singapore Airlines. At the 2017 Paris Air Show, the concept was shelved for lacking market appeal and in January 2018 Brégier focused on enhancing the A350-900/1000 to capture potential before 2022/2023, when it would be possible to stretch the A350 with a new engine generation. === Improvements === ==== Performance improvement package (PIP) 2017 ==== In October 2017, Airbus was testing extended sharklets as part of the upcoming performance improvement package (PIP), which could offer 100–140 nmi (185–259 km; 115–161 mi) extra range and reduce fuel burn by 1.4–1.6%, it has also increased the maximum take off weight (MTOW) from 275,000 kilograms (606,000 lb) to 280,000 kilograms (620,000 lb). The wing twist is being changed for the wider, optimised spanload pressure distribution, and will be used for the Singapore Airlines A350-900ULR in 2018 before spreading to other variants. On 26 June 2018, Iberia was the first to receive the upgraded -900, with a 280 t (620,000 lb) MTOW version for an 8,200 nmi (15,200 km; 9,400 mi) range with 325 passengers in three classes. This eventually became a standard package for all the A350-900 airframes starting from MSN 216. ==== Hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) ==== By April 2019, Airbus was testing a hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) on the leading edge of an A350 prototype vertical stabiliser, with passive suction similar to the boundary layer control on the Boeing 787-9 tail, but unlike the natural laminar flow BLADE, within the same EU Clean Sky programme. ==== Improvement package 2019 ==== Starting with MSN 316, all the Airbus A350-900 and A350-1000 produced has the side slip angle (SSA) probe removed after a software update to prove these sensors are not needed anymore for redundancy. There's also a new light-emitting diode (LED) lighting package installed replacing the old high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, these new light units will have a longer life cycle improving reliability performance. In June 2019, Airbus delivered the first A350 equipped with the improvement package to Singapore Airlines (9V-SHH). ==== New production standard (NPS) 2022 ==== On 30 September 2022, an improved new production standard (NPS) was announced, it will apply to A359/A35K airframes starting from MSN 579, which is an A350-900 airframe that was delivered to Iberia. The NPS includes a 1.2 t (2,600 lb) weight reduction and a 3 t (6,600 lb) MTOW increase, along with a wider interior cabin to offer 30 additional seats. It offers the customers with a new weight variant WV020 for the 283t MTOW. The interior changes include moving the cockpit wall forward, moving the aft pressure bulkhead one frame further aft and resculpting the sidewalls to allow ten-across 17-inch seats. There are also improvements to the aircraft’s take off performance by introducing software evolutions which regulate the slat and flap positions, and has also implemented a faster landing gear retraction cycle – conferring greater obstacle clearance and reduced aerodynamic drag. === New Engine Option === By November 2018, Airbus was hiring in Toulouse and Madrid to develop a re-engined A350neo. Although its launch is not guaranteed, it would be delivered in the mid-2020s, after the A321XLR and a stretched A320neo "plus", potentially competing with the Boeing New Midsize Airplane. Service entry would be determined by ultra-high bypass ratio engine developments pursued by Pratt & Whitney, testing its Geared Turbofan upgrade; Safran Aircraft Engines, ground testing a demonstrator from 2021; and Rolls-Royce, targeting a 2025 Ultrafan service entry. The production target is a monthly rate of 20 A350neos, up from 10. In November 2019, General Electric was offering an advanced GEnx-1 variant with a bleed air system and improvements from the GE9X, developed for the delayed Boeing 777X, to power a proposed A350neo from the mid-2020s. In 2021, Rolls Royce signed an exclusive deal to supply A350-900 engines until 2030, following previous similar commitments for the A350-1000. == Design == Airbus expected 10% lower airframe maintenance compared with the original A350 design and 14% lower empty seat weight than the Boeing 777. Design freeze for the A350-900 was achieved in December 2008. The airframe is made out of 53% composites: CFRP for the empennage (vertical and horizontal tailplanes), the wing (centre and outer box; including covers, stringers, and spars), and fuselage (keel beam, rear fuselage, skin, and frame); 19% aluminium and aluminium–lithium alloy for ribs, floor beams, and gear bays; 14% titanium for landing gears, pylons, and attachments; 6% steel; and 8% miscellaneous. The A350's competitor, the Boeing 787, is 50% composites, 20% aluminium, 15% titanium, 10% steel, and 5% other. === Fuselage === The A350 features a new composite fuselage with a constant width from door 1 to door 4, unlike previous Airbus aircraft, to provide maximum usable volume. The double-lobe (ovoid) fuselage cross-section has a maximum outer diameter of 5.97 m (19.6 ft), compared to 5.64 m (18.5 ft) for the A330/A340. The cabin's internal width is 5.61 m (18.4 ft) at armrest level compared to 5.49 m (18.0 ft) in the Boeing 787 and 5.87 m (19.3 ft) in the Boeing 777. It allows for an eight-across 2–4–2 arrangement in a premium economy layout, with the seats being 49.5 cm (19.5 in) wide between 5 cm (2.0 in) wide arm rests. Airbus states that the seat will be 1.3 cm (0.5 in) wider than a 787 seat in the equivalent configuration. In the nine-across, 3–3–3 standard economy layout, the A350 seat will be 45 cm (18 in) wide, 1.27 cm (0.5 in) wider than a seat in the equivalent layout in the 787, and 3.9 cm (1.5 in) wider than a seat in the equivalent A330 layout. The current 777 and future derivatives have 1.27 cm (0.5 in) greater seat width than the A350 in a nine-across configuration. The 10-across seating on the A350 is similar to a 9-across configuration on the A330, with a seat width of 41.65 cm (16.4 in). Overall, the A350 gives passengers more headroom, larger overhead storage space, and wider panoramic windows than current Airbus models. The A350 nose section has a configuration derived from the A380 with a forward-mounted nosegear bay and a six-panel flightdeck windscreen. This differs substantially from the four-window arrangement in the original A350 XWB design. The new nose, made of aluminium, improves aerodynamics and enables overhead crew rest areas to be installed further forward and eliminate any encroachment in the passenger cabin. The new windscreen has been revised to improve vision by reducing the width of the centre post. The upper shell radius of the nose section has been increased. The Airbus A350 initially featured manual window shades. In 2020, Airbus announced that dimmable windows, similar to those on the Boeing 787, would be offered as an option. These windows are designed to darken or lighten more efficiently, providing greater control over light levels while maintaining an outside view. Starlux Airlines became the first carrier to receive A350s equipped with dimmable windows across all cabins, while Japan Airlines offers this feature exclusively in premium economy and higher-class cabins, retaining manual shades for economy passengers. === Wing === The A350 features new composite wings with a wingspan that is common to the proposed variants. Its 64.75 m (212.4 ft) wingspan stays within the same ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code E 65 m limit as the A330/A340 and the Boeing 777. The A350's wing has a 31.9° sweep angle for a Mach 0.85 cruise speed and has a maximum operating speed of Mach 0.89. The -900 wing has an area of 442 m2 (4,760 sq ft). This is between the 436.8 m2 (4,702 sq ft) wing of the current Boeing 777-200LR/300ER and the 466.8 m2 (5,025 sq ft) wing of the in-development Boeing 777X. However, Boeing and Airbus do not use the same measurement. The A350-1000 wing is 22.3 m2 (240 sq ft) larger through a 30 cm (12 in) extension to the inboard sections of the fixed trailing edge. A new trailing-edge high-lift device has been adopted with an advanced dropped-hinge flap similar to that of the A380, which permits the gap between the trailing edge and the flap to be closed with the spoiler. It is a limited morphing wing with adaptive features for continuously optimising the wing loading to reduce fuel burn: variable camber for longitudinal load control where inboard & outboard flaps deflect together and differential flaps setting for lateral load control where inboard & outboard flaps deflect differentially. The manufacturer has extensively used computational fluid dynamics and also carried out more than 4,000 hours of low- and high-speed windtunnel testing to refine the aerodynamic design. The final configuration of wing and winglet was achieved for the "Maturity Gate 5" on 17 December 2008. The wingtip device curves upwards over the final 4.4 m (14 ft). The wings are produced in the new £400 million (US$641M), 46,000 m2 (500,000 sq ft) North Factory at Airbus Broughton, employing 650 workers, in a specialist facility constructed with £29M of support from the Welsh Government. === Undercarriage === Airbus adopted a new philosophy for the attachment of the A350's main undercarriage as part of the switch to a composite wing structure. Each main undercarriage leg is attached to the rear wing spar forward and to a gear beam aft, which itself is attached to the wing and the fuselage. To help reduce the loads further into the wing, a double side-stay configuration has been adopted. This solution resembles the design of the Vickers VC10. Airbus devised a three-pronged main undercarriage design philosophy encompassing both four- and six-wheel bogies to stay within pavement loading limits. The A350-900 has four-wheel bogies in a 4.1 m (13 ft) long bay. The higher weight variant, the A350-1000 uses a six-wheel bogie, with a 4.7 m (15 ft) undercarriage bay. French-based Messier-Dowty provides the main undercarriage for the -900 variant, with titanium forgings from Kobelco, and UTC Aerospace Systems supplies the -1000 variant. The nose gear is supplied by Liebherr Aerospace. === Systems === Honeywell supplies its 1,700 horsepower (1,300 kW) HGT1700 auxiliary power unit with 10% greater power density than the TPE331 from which it is developed, and the air management system: the bleed air, environmental control, cabin pressure control and supplemental cooling systems. Airbus says that the new design provides a better cabin atmosphere with 20% humidity, a typical cabin altitude at or below 6,000 ft (1,800 m) and an airflow management system that adapts cabin airflow to passenger load with draught-free air circulation. The ram air turbine, with a nominal power of 50 kilovolt-ampere, is supplied by Hamilton Sundstrand and located in the lower surface of the fuselage. In light of the 787 Dreamliner battery problems, in February 2013 Airbus decided to revert from lithium-ion to the proven nickel-cadmium technology although the flight test programme will continue with the lithium-ion battery systems. In late 2015, A350 XWB msn. 24 was delivered with 80 kg (176 lb) lighter Saft Li-ion batteries and in June 2017, fifty A350s were flying with them and benefiting from a two-year maintenance schedule instead of NiCd's 4–6 months. Parker Hannifin supplies the complete fuel package: inerting system, fuel measurement and management systems, mechanical equipment and fuel pumps. The fuel tank inerting system features air-separation modules to generate nitrogen-enriched air to reduce the flammability of fuel vapour in the tanks. Parker also provides hydraulic power generation and distribution system: reservoirs, manifolds, accumulators, thermal control, isolation, software and new engine- and electric motor-driven pump designs. Parker estimates the contracts will generate more than US$2 billion in revenues over the life of the programme. === Cockpit and avionics === The revised design of the A350 XWB's glass cockpit dropped the A380-sized display and adopted 38 cm (15 in) liquid-crystal display screens. The new six-screen configuration includes two central displays mounted one above the other (the lower one above the thrust levers) and a single (for each pilot) primary flight/navigation display, with an adjacent on-board information system screen driven by laptops running EFB software which are connected while stowed behind each pilot. Airbus says the cockpit design allows for future advances in navigation technology to be placed on the displays plus gives flexibility and capacity to upload new software and to combine data from multiple sources and sensors for flight management and aircraft systems control. An optional head-up display is also present in the cockpit. Avionics are a further development of the integrated modular avionics (IMA) concept found on the A380. The A350's IMA will manage up to 40 functions (versus 23 functions for the A380) such as undercarriage, fuel, pneumatics, cabin environmental systems, and fire detection. Airbus stated that the benefits includes reduced maintenance and lower weight because as the IMA replaces multiple processors and LRUs with around 50% fewer standard computer modules known as line-replaceable modules. The IMA runs on a 100 Mbit/s network based on the Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet standard, as employed in the A380, in place of the architecture used on the A330/A340. === Engines === In 2005, GE was the launch engine of the original A350, aiming for 2010 deliveries, while Rolls-Royce offered its Trent 1700. For the updated A350 XWB, GE offered a 87,000 lbf (390 kN) GEnx-3A87 for the A350-800/900, but not a higher thrust version needed for the A350-1000, which competes with the longer range 777 powered exclusively with the GE90-115B. In December 2006, Rolls-Royce was selected for the A350 XWB launch engine. The Rolls-Royce Trent XWB features a 300 cm (118 in) diameter fan and the design is based on the advanced developments of the Airbus A380 Trent 900 and the Boeing 787 Trent 1000. It has four thrust levels to power the A350 variants: 75,000 lbf (330 kN) and 79,000 lbf (350 kN) for the regional variants of the A350-900 while the baseline A350-900 has the standard 84,000 lbf (370 kN) and 97,000 lbf (430 kN) for the A350-1000. The higher-thrust version will have some modifications to the fan module—it will be the same diameter but will run slightly faster and have a new fan blade design—and run at increased temperatures allowed by new materials technologies from Rolls-Royce's research. The Trent XWB may also benefit from the next-generation reduced acoustic mode scattering engine duct system (RAMSES), an acoustic quieting engine nacelle intake, and a carry-on design of the Airbus's "zero splice" intake liner developed for the A380. A "hot and high" rating option for Middle Eastern customers Qatar Airways, Emirates, and Etihad Airways keep its thrust available at higher temperatures and altitudes. Airbus aimed to certify the A350 with 350-minute ETOPS capability on entry into service; although Airbus achieved a 370-minute ETOPS rating on 15 October 2014, which covers 99.7% of the Earth's surface. There are plans to extend this to 420 minutes in the future. Engine thrust-reversers and nacelles are supplied by US-based Collins Aerospace (formerly UTC Aerospace Systems). == Operational history == One year after introduction, the A350 fleet had accumulated 3,000 flight cycles and around 16,000 block hours. Average daily usage by first customers was 11.4 hours with flights averaging 5.2 hours, which are under the aircraft's capabilities and reflect both short flights within the schedules of Qatar Airways and Vietnam Airlines, as well as flight-crew proficiency training that is typical of early use and is accomplished on short-haul flights. Finnair was operating the A350 at very high rates: 15 flight hours per day for Beijing, 18 hours for Shanghai, and more than 20 hours for Bangkok. This may have accelerated the retirement of the Airbus A340. In service, problems occurred in three areas. The onboard maintenance, repair, overhaul network needed software improvements. Airbus issued service bulletins regarding onboard equipment and removed galley inserts (coffee makers, toaster ovens) because of leaks. Airbus had to address spurious overheating warnings in the bleed air system by retrofitting an original connector with a gold-plated connector. Airbus targeted a 98.5% dependability by the end of 2016 and to match the mature A330 reliability by early 2019. By the end of May 2016, the A350 fleet had flown 55,200 hours over 9,400 cycles at a 97.8% operational reliability on three months. The longest operated sector was Qatar Airways' Adelaide–Doha at 13.8 hours for 6,120 nmi (11,334 km; 7,043 mi). 45% of flights were under 3,000 nmi (5,556 km; 3,452 mi), 16% over 5,000 nmi (9,260 km; 5,754 mi), and 39% in between. The average flight was 6.8 hours, with the longest average being 9.6 hours by TAM Airlines and the shortest being 2.1 hours by Cathay Pacific's. It is able to seat from 253 seats for Singapore Airlines to 348 seats for TAM Airlines, with a 30 to 46 seat business class and a 211 to 318 seat economy class, often including a premium economy. A total of 49 A350s were delivered to customers in 2016. It was also planned that the monthly rate would grow to 10 by the end of 2018, which was eventually achieved in 2019 when Airbus delivered 112 aircraft over a period of 11 months. In January 2017, two years after introduction, 62 aircraft were in service with 10 airlines. They had accumulated 25,000 flights over 154,000 hours with an average daily utilisation of 12.5 hours, and transported six million passengers with a 98.7% operational reliability. Zodiac Aerospace encountered production difficulties with business class seats in their Texas and California factories. After a year, Cathay Pacific experienced cosmetic quality issues and upgraded or replaced the seats for the earliest cabins. In 2017, average test flights before delivery decreased to 4.1 from 12 in 2014, with an average delay down to 25 days from 68. Its reliability was 97.2% in 2015, 98.3% in 2016, and 98.8% in June 2017, just behind its 99% target for 2017. In June 2017 after 30 months in commercial operation, 80 A350s were in service with 12 operators, the largest being Qatar Airways with 17 and 13 each at Cathay Pacific and Singapore Airlines (SIA). The fleet average block time (time between pushback and destination gate arrival) was 7.2 hours with 53% below 3,000 nmi (5,556 km; 3,452 mi), 16% over 5,000 nmi (9,260 km; 5,754 mi), and 31% in between. LATAM Airlines had the longest average sector at 10.7 hours, and Asiana had the shortest at 3.8 hours. Singapore Airlines operated the longest leg, Singapore to San Francisco 7,340 nmi (13,594 km; 8,447 mi), and the shortest leg, Singapore to Kuala Lumpur 160 nmi (296 km; 184 mi). Seating varied from 253 for Singapore Airlines to 389 for Air Caraïbes, with most between 280 and 320. As of February 2018, 142 A350-900s had been delivered, and were in operation with a dispatch reliability of 99.3%. As of November 2019, 33 operators had received 331 aircraft from 959 orders, and 2.6 million hours have been flown. On 30 September 2022, the 500th A350, an A350-900, was delivered to Iberia. As of September 2024, the global A350 fleet of 620 aircraft had completed more than 1,589,000 flights on more than 1,240 routes, and had carried more than 400 million passengers since its entry into service; the fleet had 99.3% operational reliability in the last 3 months. === Qatar Airways paint dispute === In August 2021, as several A350s were sent in to be repainted in a scheme advertising the 2022 FIFA World Cup (played in Qatar), Qatar Airways discovered that their paint was unusually degraded. The airline grounded its A350s until the root cause could be determined, and would not accept new aircraft deliveries until the problem could be solved. The European civil aviation regulator, EASA, found that paint degradation did not affect the aircraft structure or introduce "other risks". The Qatari civil aviation regulator was the only one that agreed with the airline that it was an airworthiness issue. In November 2021, Reuters found that Finnair, Cathay Pacific, Etihad, Lufthansa and Air France had also complained of paint damage as early as 2016. Singapore Airlines had not detected such problems with its fleet. On 20 December 2021, Airbus received a formal legal claim in the English courts filed by Qatar Airways. Qatar Airways alleged that the surface flaws cause the risk of fuel tank ignition due to the degradation in lightning protection over the fuel tanks in the wings. Qatar Airways claimed it was owed US$200,000 per day in compensation for each grounded aircraft. Meanwhile, according to a Flight International editorial, Airbus's decision to cancel Qatar's outstanding orders indicated that it was certain of its case. The court hearing was originally scheduled for summer 2023. Both Airbus and Qatar Airways agreed to settle the dispute on 1 February 2023. While the settlement was confidential, Flight International believed that Airbus achieved a more favourable outcome, opining that there was no major impact to Airbus's finances, the A350's reputation remained intact and Qatar's A321neos would nevertheless be delivered. == Variants == The three main variants of the A350 were launched in 2006, with entry into service planned for 2013. At the 2011 Paris Air Show, Airbus postponed the entry into service of the A350-1000 by two years to mid-2017. In July 2012, the A350's entry into service was delayed to the second half of 2014, before the -900 began service on 15 January 2015. In October 2012, the -800 was due to enter service in mid-2016, but its development was cancelled in September 2014 in favour of the reengined Airbus A330neo. The A350 is also offered as the ACJ350 corporate jet by Airbus Corporate Jets (ACJ), offering a 20,000 km; 12,400 mi (10,800 nmi) range for 25 passengers for the -900 derivative. === A350-900 === The A350-900 (ICAO code: A359) is the first A350 model; it has a MTOW of 283 tonnes (624,000 lb), typically seats 325 passengers, and has a range of 8,500 nmi (15,700 km; 9,800 mi). Airbus says that per seat, the Boeing 777-200ER should have a 16% heavier manufacturer's empty weight, a 30% higher block fuel consumption, and 25% higher cash operating costs than the A350-900. The −900 is designed to compete with the Boeing 777-200LR and 787-10, while replacing the Airbus A340-500 and Boeing 777-200ER. A proposed A350−900R extended-range variant was to feature the higher engine thrust, strengthened structure, and landing gear of the 308 tonnes (679,000 lb) MTOW -1000 to give a further 800 nmi (1,500 km; 920 mi) range. Philippine Airlines (PAL) will replace its A340-300 with an A350-900HGW ("high-gross weight") variant available from 2017. It will enable non-stop Manila-New York City flights without payload limitations in either direction, a 7,404 nmi (13,712 km; 8,520 mi) flight. The PAL version will have a 278 tonnes (613,000 lb) MTOW, and from 2020, the -900 will be proposed with the ULR's 280 tonnes (620,000 lb) MTOW, up from the 268 tonnes (591,000 lb) for the original weight variant and the certified 260, 272, and 275 tonnes (573,000, 600,000, and 606,000 lb) variants, with the large fuel capacity. This will enable an 8,100 nmi (15,000 km; 9,300 mi) range with 325 seats in a three-class layout. In early November 2017, Emirates committed to purchase 40 Boeing 787-10 aircraft before Airbus presented an updated A350-900 layout with the rear pressure bulkhead pushed back by 2.5 ft (1 m). After Emirates' Tim Clark was shown a ten-across economy cabin and galley changes, he said the -900 is "more marketable" as a result. The average lease rates of the first A350-900s produced in 2014 were $1.1 million per month, not including maintenance reserves amounting to $18 million after 10–12 years, and falling to $940,000 per month in 2018 while a new A350-900 is leased for $1.2 million per month and its interior can cost $12 million, 10% of the aircraft. By 2018, a 2014 build was valued $108M falling to $74.5M by 2022 while a new build was valued for $148M, a 6+12 year check cost $3M and an engine overhaul $4–6.5M. ==== A350-900ULR ==== Designated as weight variant 13 (WV013), the MTOW of the ultra-long range -900ULR has been increased to 280 t (620,000 lb) and its fuel capacity increased from 141,000 to 165,000 L (37,000 to 44,000 US gal) within existing fuel tanks, enabling up to 19-hour flights with a 9,700 nmi (18,000 km; 11,200 mi) range, the longest range of any airliner in service as of 2023. The MTOW is increased by 5 tonnes (11,000 lb) from the previously certified 275 tonnes (606,000 lb) variant. Because of the A350-900's fuel consumption of 5.8 tonnes (13,000 lb) per hour, it needs an additional 24 tonnes (53,000 lb) of fuel to fly 19 hours instead of the standard 15 hours: the increased MTOW and lower payloads will enable the larger fuel capacity. Non-stop flights could last more than 20 hours. The first −900ULR was rolled out without its engines in February 2018 for ground testing. Flight-tests after engine installation checked the larger fuel capacity and measured the performance improvements from the extended winglets. It made its first flight on 23 April 2018. There are no addition structural changes fitted to the A350-900ULR, therefore it retains the same type certificate and model name as the baseline A350-941. The larger fuel capacity is enabled by integrating a modified fuel system to make use of the extra spaces in the centre wing box, no auxiliary fuel tanks are fitted. Also the front cargo hold is disabled due to operational limits but can be reactivated depending on customer needs. Singapore Airlines, the launch customer and currently the only operator, uses its seven -900ULR aircraft on non-stop flights between Singapore and New York City and cities on the U.S. west coast. Singapore Airlines' seating is to range from 170 in largely business class seating up to over 250 in mixed seating. The planes can be reconfigured. They will have two seating classes. The airline received its first -900ULR on 23 September 2018, with 67 business class seats and 94 premium economy seats. On 12 October 2018, it landed the world's then-longest flight at Newark Liberty International Airport from Singapore Changi after 17 hours and 52 minutes, covering 16,561 kilometres (8,942 nmi; 10,291 mi) for a 15,353 kilometres (8,290 nmi; 9,540 mi) orthodromic distance. It burned 101.4 t (224,000 lb) of fuel to cover the route in 17 h 22 min: an average of 5.8 tonnes per hour (1.6 kg/s). As of 2022, the A350-900ULR is used on the longest flight in the world, Singapore Airlines Flights 23 and 24 from Singapore to New York JFK. At the 2015 Dubai Air Show, John Leahy noted the demand of the Persian Gulf airlines for this variant. In February 2018, Qatar Airways stated its preference for the larger -1000, having no need for the extra range of the -900ULR. Compared to the standard -900, the -900ULR additional value is likely around $2 million. ==== ACJ350 ==== Airbus Corporate Jet version of the A350, the ACJ350, is derived from the A350-900ULR. As a result of the increased fuel capacity from the -900ULR, the ACJ350 has a maximum range of 20,550 km (11,100 nmi; 12,770 mi). The German Air Force is to be the first to receive the ACJ350, having ordered three aircraft which will replace its two A340-300s. ==== A350-900 Regional ==== After the Boeing 787-10 launch at the 2013 Paris Air Show, Airbus discussed with airlines a possible A350-900 Regional with a reduced MTOW of 250 t (550,000 lb). Engine thrust would have been reduced to 70,000–75,000 lbf (310–330 kN) from the standard 85,000 lbf (380 kN) and the variant would have been optimised for routes up to 6,800 nmi (12,600 km; 7,800 mi) with seating for up to 360 passengers in a single-class layout. The A350 Regional was expected to be ordered by Etihad Airways and Singapore Airlines. Since 2013, there has been no further announcement about this variant. Singapore Airlines selected an A350-900 version for medium-haul use, and Japan Airlines took delivery of a 369-seat A350-900 with a 217 t (478,000 lb) MTOW (WV018) for its domestic flight network. The A350 Type Certificate Data Sheet includes MTOWs of 210, 217, 235, 240, 250, 255, 260, 268, 272, 275, 277, 278, 280 and 283 t. === A350-1000 === The A350-1000 (ICAO code: A35K) is the largest variant of the A350 family at just under 74 metres (243 ft) in length. It seats 350–410 passengers in a typical three-class layout with a range of 9,000 nmi (17,000 km; 10,000 mi). With a 9-across configuration, it is designed to replace the A340-600 and compete with the Boeing 777-300ER and 777-8. Airbus estimates a 366-seat -1000 should have a 35 tonnes (77,000 lb) lighter operating empty weight than a 398-seat 777-9, a 15% lower trip cost, a 7% lower seat cost, and a 400 nmi (740 km; 460 mi) greater range. Compared to a Boeing 777-300ER with 360 seats, Airbus claims a 25% fuel burn per seat advantage for an A350-1000 with 369 seats. The 7 m (23 ft) extension seats 40 more passengers with 40% more premium area. The -1000 can match the 40 more seats of the 777-9 with a 10-across seating configuration but diminished comfort. The A350-1000 has an 11-frame stretch over the −900 and a slightly larger wing than the −800/900 models with trailing-edge extension increasing its area by 4%. This will extend the high-lift devices and the ailerons, making the chord bigger by around 400 mm (16 in), optimising flap lift performance as well as cruise performance. The main landing gear is a 6-wheel bogie instead of a 4-wheel bogie, put in a one frame longer bay. The Rolls-Royce Trent XWB engine's thrust is augmented to 97,000 lbf (430 kN). These and other engineering upgrades are necessary so that the −1000 model maintains range. It features an automatic emergency descent function to around 10,000 ft (3,000 m) and notifies air traffic control if the crew fails to respond to an alert, indicating possible incapacitation from depressurisation. The avionics software adaptation is activated by a push and pull button to avoid mistakes and could be retrofitted in the smaller -900. All performance targets have been met or exceeded, and it remains within its weight specification, unlike early −900s. Its basic 308 t (679,000 lb) MTOW was increased to 311 t (686,000 lb) before offering a possible 316 t (697,000 lb) version. Its 316 t MTOW appeared on 29 May 2018 update of its type certificate data sheet. This raised its range from 7,950 to 8,400 nmi (14,720 to 15,560 km; 9,150 to 9,670 mi). A further MTOW increase by 3 t (6,600 lb), to a total of 319 t (703,000 lb) is under study to be available from 2020 and could be a response to Qantas' Project Sunrise. In November 2019, maximum accommodation increased to 480 seats from 440 through the installation of new "Type-A+" exits, with a dual-lane evacuation slide. On 17 December 2021, French Bee took delivery of the first A350-1000 in this 480-seat configuration, leased by Air Lease Corporation and to be operated by from Paris to Reunion Island, with 40 premium and 440 economy seats. In October 2023, the variant's MTOW was raised again to 322 t (710,000 lb). ==== Qantas Project Sunrise ==== In December 2019, Qantas tentatively chose the A350-1000 to operate their Project Sunrise routes, before a final decision in March 2020 for up to 12 aircraft. Initial speculation suggested that the variant might be marketed as the A350-1000ULR. However, the -1000 is not expected to share the -900ULR's larger fuel tanks and other fuel system modifications, and Airbus has stopped short of describing the largest MTOW variant as a ULR model, despite the 8,700 nmi (16,100 km; 10,000 mi) range. After a delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the decision was confirmed on 2 May 2022, when Qantas placed a formal order for 12 Airbus A350-1000 aircraft for Project Sunrise flights to originally start in 2025. On 6 June 2024, Qantas International CEO Cam Wallace, confirmed at the 80th International Air Transport Authority (IATA) AGM in Dubai, that the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) had approved the design of the rear centre tank (RCT) that allowed the aircraft to fly the distances required, following a requested redesign. With Airbus integrating the tank into the A350-1000 for flight testing in early 2025 for delivery to the group in mid-2026. The aircraft will be configured with 238 seats in four classes, with Qantas publications and website using the ULR abbreviation, but Airbus is yet to confirm. === A350F === An A350-900 freighter was first mentioned in 2007, offering a similar capacity to the MD-11F with a range of 9,250 km (5,000 nmi; 5,750 mi), to be developed after the passenger version. In early 2020, Airbus was proposing an A350F before a potential launch. The proposed freighter would be slightly longer than the A350-900 and Airbus would need 50 orders to launch the $2–3 billion programme. In July 2021, the Airbus board approved the freighter development. It is based on the -1000 version for a payload over 90 tonnes, and entry into service is targeted for 2025. The A350F, also referred to by Airbus as the A350-1000F, would keep the 319-tonne MTOW previously announced for the passenger A350-1000 on a shortened fuselage, but the proposed design remains 6.9 m (23 ft) longer than the Boeing 777F with 10% larger freight volume at 695 m3 (24,500 cu ft). With a main deck cargo door behind the wing and reinforced main deck aluminium floor beams, its 111 t (245,000 lb) payload is higher than the 103.7 t (229,000 lb) of the 777F, while its empty weight is 30 tonnes (66,000 lb) lighter than the A350-1000, 20 tonnes (44,000 lb) lighter than the 777F. The 70.8 m (232 ft) long cargo variant should have a 4,700 nmi (8,700 km; 5,400 mi) range at max payload. At the November 2021 Dubai Air Show, US lessor Air Lease Corporation became the launch customer with an order for seven to be delivered around 2026, among other Airbus airliners. The launch operator of the A350F will be Singapore Airlines, who ordered 7 aircraft at the 2022 Singapore Airshow, with deliveries expected to begin in 2026. In February 2025, Airbus announced that entry-into-service would be delayed until 2027 due to supply chain issues, particularly with Spirit Aerosystems which supplies the central fuselage section. == Operators == There are 657 A350 aircraft in service with 38 operators and 60 customers as of May 2025. The five largest operators were Singapore Airlines (65), Qatar Airways (58), Cathay Pacific (48), Delta Air Lines (37) and Air France (36). === Orders and deliveries === The A350 family of aircraft exceeded 1,000 orders in June 2023. It had 1,391 firm orders from 60 customers, of which Turkish Airlines is the largest with 110 orders, and 658 aircraft had been delivered as of May 2025. == Accidents and incidents == The global fleet of A350s has been involved in one airport-safety related hull-loss accident as of February 2025. Although there were no fatalities onboard the A350, there were five fatalities onboard another aircraft on the ground. On 2 January 2024 Japan Airlines Flight 516, an A350-900 flying from New Chitose Airport in Hokkaido to Haneda Airport in Tokyo, collided after touchdown with a De Havilland Canada Dash 8 operated by the Japan Coast Guard. The A350 caught fire and was completely destroyed, though all 367 passengers and 12 crew members successfully evacuated from the aircraft via the emergency slides, with 17 injuries reported. Five of the six crew members aboard the Coast Guard aircraft were killed; the sole survivor was the captain, who suffered serious injuries. The Japan Coast Guard aircraft was delivering supplies as part of relief efforts following the Noto earthquake the previous day. Flight 516 had been cleared to land by Haneda ATC when it struck the coast guard plane. == Specifications (A350-941, with Trent XWB-84 engines) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 53.3 t (118,000 lb)45.9–56.4 t (101,300–124,300 lb) Length: 66.80 m (219 ft 1.9 in) Wingspan: 64.75 m (212 ft 5.2 in) Wing area: 442 m2 (4,760 sq ft) Empty weight: 115,700 kg (255,075 lb) Max takeoff weight: 283,000 kg (623,908 lb) Fuel capacity: 140,795 L (37,194 US gal) Seats: 440 (maximum), 315 (standard) Lower deck cargo: 36 LD3 or 11 pallets Cabin width: 5.61 m (18 ft 5 in) with 18-inch-wide (46 cm), 9-across seating 5.71 m (18 ft 9 in) with 16.8-inch-wide (43 cm), 10-across seating Powerplant: 2 × Rolls-Royce Trent XWB-84 high-bypass turbofan, 374.5 kN (84,200 lbf) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 950 km/h (591 mph, 513 kn) Cruise speed: 903 km/h (561 mph, 488 kn) Range: 15,750 km (9,600 mi, 8,500 nmi) Service ceiling: 13,100 m (43,100 ft) Takeoff distance: 2,600 m (8,500 ft) Landing distance: 2,000 m (6,600 ft) == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Airbus A380 Airbus A330neo Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 777 Boeing 777X Boeing 787 Comac C939 Ilyushin Il-96-400M Related lists List of commercial jet airliners List of civil aircraft == References == Gunston, Bill (2009). Airbus: The Complete Story. Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84425-585-6. == External links == Official website "A350 XWB Milestones 2006–2014". Airbus. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. "A350 XWB Facts & Figures" (PDF). Airbus. June 2018. "Latest news, data, analysis and insight into the Airbus A350 programme". FlightGlobal. David Kaminski-Morrow (22 May 2023). "Ten years after its debut flight, A350 widebody is flying high". FlightGlobal.
Airbus A320 family	The Airbus A320 family is a series of narrow-body airliners developed and produced by Airbus. The A320 was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was introduced in April 1988 by Air France. The first member of the family was followed by the stretched A321 (first delivered in January 1994), the shorter A319 (April 1996), and the shortest variant, the A318 (July 2003). Final assembly takes place in Toulouse in France; Hamburg in Germany; Tianjin in China since 2009; and Mobile, Alabama, in the United States since April 2016. The twinjet has a six-abreast economy cross-section and came with either CFM56-5A or -5B, or IAE V2500 turbofan engines, except the A318. The A318 has either two CFM56-5B engines or a pair of PW6000 engines in place of the IAE V2500. The family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire and side-stick flight controls in airliners. Variants offer maximum take-off weights from 68 to 93.5 tonnes (150,000 to 206,000 lb), to cover a 5,740–6,940 kilometres; 3,570–4,320 miles (3,100–3,750 nmi) range. The 31.4 m (103 ft) long A318 typically accommodates 107 to 132 passengers. The 124-156 seat A319 is 33.8 m (111 ft) long. The A320 is 37.6 m (123 ft) long and can accommodate 150 to 186 passengers. The 44.5 m (146 ft) A321 offers 185 to 230 seats. The Airbus Corporate Jets are modified business jet versions of the standard commercial variants. In December 2010, Airbus announced the re-engined A320neo (new engine option), which entered service with Lufthansa in January 2016. With more efficient turbofans and improvements including sharklets, it offers up to 15% better fuel economy. The previous A320 generation is now called A320ceo (current engine option). American Airlines is the largest A320 operator with 483 aircraft in its fleet, while IndiGo is the largest customer with 930 aircraft on order. In October 2019, the A320 family surpassed the Boeing 737 to become the highest-selling airliner. As of May 2025, a total of 19,234 A320 family aircraft had been ordered and 12,054 delivered, of which 11,091 aircraft were in service with more than 350 operators. The global A320 fleet had completed more than 176 million flights over 328 million block hours since its entry into service. The A320ceo initially competed with the 737 Classic and the MD-80, then their successors, the 737 Next Generation (737NG) and the MD-90 respectively, while the 737 MAX is Boeing's response to the A320neo. == Development == === Origins === When Airbus designed the A300 during the late 1960s and early 1970s, it envisaged a broad family of airliners with which to compete against Boeing and Douglas (later McDonnell Douglas), two established US aerospace manufacturers. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10. It was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which was dominated by the 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, and to replace the 737-200 and DC-9. Germany's MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm), British Aircraft Corporation, Sweden's Saab and Spain's CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications. VFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. The design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2 (163 passengers), which then became the Airbus S.A1/2/3 series (Single Aisle), before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984. Previously, Hawker Siddeley had produced a design called the HS.134 "Airbus" in 1965, an evolution of the HS.121 (formerly DH.121) Trident, which shared much of the general arrangement of the later JET3 study design. The name "Airbus" at the time referred to a BEA requirement, rather than to the later international programme. === Design effort === In June 1977 a new Joint European Transport (JET) programme was set up, established by British Aerospace (BAe), Aerospatiale, Dornier and Fokker. It was based at the then BAe (formerly Vickers) site in Weybridge, Surrey, UK. Although the members were all of Airbus' partners, they regarded the project as a separate collaboration from Airbus. This project was considered the forerunner of Airbus A320, encompassing the 130- to 188-seat market, powered by two CFM56s. It would have a cruise speed of Mach 0.84 (faster than the Boeing 737). The programme was later transferred to Airbus, leading up to the creation of the Single-Aisle (SA) studies in 1980, led by former leader of the JET programme, Derek Brown. The group looked at three different variants, covering the 125- to 180-seat market, called SA1, SA2 and SA3. Although unaware at the time, the consortium was producing the blueprints for the A319, A320 and A321, respectively. The single-aisle programme created divisions within Airbus about whether to design a shorter-range twinjet rather than a longer-range quadjet wanted by the West Germans, particularly Lufthansa. However, works proceeded, and the German carrier would eventually order the twinjet. In February 1981 the project was re-designated A320, with efforts focused on the blueprint formerly designated SA2. During the year, Airbus worked with Delta Air Lines on a 150-seat aircraft envisioned and required by the airline. The A320 would carry 150 passengers over 2,850 or 1,860 nmi (5,280 or 3,440 km; 3,280 or 2,140 mi) using fuel from wing fuel tanks only. The -200 had the centre tank activated, increasing fuel capacity from 15,590 to 23,430 L (3,429 to 5,154 imp gal). They would measure 36.04 and 39.24 m (118 ft 3 in and 128 ft 9 in), respectively. Airbus considered a fuselage diameter of "the Boeing 707 and 727, or do something better" and settled on a wider cross-section with a 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in) internal width, compared to Boeing's 3.45 m (11 ft 4 in). Although heavier, this allowed the A320 to compete more effectively with the 737. The A320 wing went through several design stages, eventually measuring 33.91 m (111 ft 3 in). === National shares === The UK, France and West Germany wanted responsibility over final assembly and its associated work, known as "work-share arguments". The Germans requested an increased work-share of 40%, while the British wanted the major responsibilities to be swapped around to give partners production and research and development experience. In the end, British work-share was increased from that of the two previous Airbuses. France was willing to commit to launch aid, or subsidies, while the Germans were more cautious. The UK government was unwilling to provide funding for the tooling, requested by BAe and estimated at £250 million; it was postponed for three years. On 1 March 1984, the British government and BAe agreed that £50 million would be paid, whether the A320 flew or not, while the rest would be paid as a levy on each aircraft sold. In 1984, the program cost was then estimated at £2 billion ($2.8 billion) by Flight International, equivalent to £8 billion today. === Launch === The programme was launched on 2 March 1984. At the time, Airbus had 96 orders.: 48 Air France was its first customer to sign a "letter of intent" for 25 A320s and options for 25 more at the 1981 Paris Air Show. In October 1983, British Caledonian placed seven firm orders, bringing total orders to more than 80. Cyprus Airways became the first customer to place an order for V2500-powered A320s in November 1984, followed by Pan Am with 16 firm orders and 34 options in January 1985, and then Inex Adria.: 49 One of the most significant orders occurred when Northwest Airlines placed an order for 100 A320s in October 1986, powered by CFM56 engines, later confirmed at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow.: 49–50 During A320 development, Airbus considered propfan technology, which was backed by Lufthansa. At the time unproven, the technology essentially consisted of a fan placed outside the engine nacelle, offering turbofan speeds and turboprop economics; ultimately, Airbus stuck with turbofans. Power on the A320 was to be supplied by two CFM56-5-A1s rated at 111 kN (25,000 pounds-force). It was the only engine available until the arrival of the IAE V2500, offered by International Aero Engines, a group composed of Rolls-Royce plc, Pratt & Whitney, Japanese Aero Engine Corporation, Fiat and MTU. The first V2500 variant, the V2500-A1, has a thrust output of 110 kN (25,000 pounds-force), hence the name. It is 4% more efficient than the CFM56, with cruise thrust-specific fuel consumption for the -A5 at 16.3 and 16.9 g/kN/s (0.58 and 0.60 lb/lbf/h) for the CFM56-5A1. === Entry into service === In the presence of then-French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac and the Prince and Princess of Wales, the first A320 was rolled out of the final assembly line at Toulouse on 14 February 1987 and made its maiden flight on 22 February in 3 hours and 23 minutes. The flight test programme took 1,200 hours over 530 flights. European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) certification was awarded on 26 February 1988.: 50 The first A320 was delivered to Air France on 28 March, and began commercial service on 8 April with a flight between Paris and Berlin via Düsseldorf. In 1988, the clean-sheet aircraft program cost was 5.486 billion French francs. === Stretching the A320: A321 === The first derivative of the A320 was the Airbus A321, also known as the Stretched A320, A320-500 and A325. Its launch came on 24 November 1988 after commitments for 183 aircraft from 10 customers were secured. The aircraft was to be a minimally changed derivative, apart from minor wing modifications and the fuselage stretch itself. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, increasing wing area from 124 m2 (1,330 sq ft) to 128 m2 (1,380 sq ft). The fuselage was lengthened by four plugs (two ahead and two behind the wings), making the A321 6.94 metres (22 ft 9 in) longer than the A320 overall. The length increase required enlarged overwing exits, which were repositioned in front of and behind the wings. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate an increase in maximum takeoff weight of 9,600 kg (21,200 lb), for a total of 83,000 kg (183,000 lb). Final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany (then West Germany). This came after a dispute between the French, who claimed the move would incur $150 million (€135 million) in unnecessary expenditures associated with the new plant, and the Germans, who argued that it would be more productive for Airbus in the long run. The second production line was located at Hamburg, which would also subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319 and A318. For the first time, Airbus entered the bond market, through which it raised $480 million (€475 million) to finance development costs. An additional $180 million (€175 million) was borrowed from the European Investment Bank and private investors. The maiden flight of the Airbus A321 came on 11 March 1993, when the prototype, registration F-WWIA, flew with IAE V2500 engines; the second prototype, equipped with CFM56-5B turbofans, flew in May. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft, respectively. The first of Lufthansa's V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March. === Shrinking the A320: A319 === The A319 was the following derivative of the baseline A320. The design was a "shrink", with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, part of the Single-Aisle studies, which had been shelved as the consortium focused on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus focused once more on what was then known as the A320M-7, meaning A320 minus seven fuselage frames. It would provide direct competition for the 737-300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four fuselage frames fore and three aft of the wing, cutting the overall length by 3.73 metres (12 ft 3 in). Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two. The bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics; otherwise the aircraft was largely unchanged. Power is provided by the CFM56-5A, CFM56-5B, or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN (22,000 lbf), with option for 105 kN (24,000 lbf) thrust. Airbus began offering the new model from 22 May 1992, with the actual launch of the $275 million (€250 million) programme occurring on 10 June 1993; the A319's first customer was ILFC, which signed for six aircraft. On 23 March 1995, the first A319 underwent final assembly at Airbus' German plant in Hamburg, where A321s were also assembled. It was rolled out on 24 August 1995, with the maiden flight taking place the following day. The certification programme took 350 airborne hours involving two aircraft. Certification for the CFM56-5B6/2-equipped variant was granted in April 1996, and qualification for the V2524-A5 started the following month. Delivery of the first A319, to Swissair, occurred on 25 April 1996; it entered service by month's end. In January 1997, an A319 broke a record during a delivery flight by flying the 3,588 nautical miles (6,645 km; 4,129 mi) great circle route to Winnipeg, Manitoba from Hamburg in 9 hours and 5 minutes. The A319 has proven popular with low-cost airlines such as EasyJet, which purchased 172 of them. === Second shrink: A318 === The A318 was born out of mid-1990 studies between Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC), Singapore Technologies Aerospace, Alenia and Airbus on a 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the AE31X, and covered the 95-seat AE316 and 115- to 125-seat AE317. The former would have had an overall length of 31.3 m (102 ft 8 in), while the AE317 was longer by 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in), at 34.5 m (113 ft 2 in). The engines were to be two Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or the Pratt & Whitney PW6000; with the MTOW of 53.3 t (118,000 lb) for the smaller version and 58 t (128,000 lb) for the AE317, the thrust requirement were 77.9–84.6 kN (17,500–19,000 lbf) and 84.6–91.2 kN (19,000–20,500 lbf), respectively. Range was settled at 5,200 km (2,800 nmi; 3,200 mi) and 5,800 km (3,100 nmi; 3,600 mi) for the high gross weights of both variants. Both share a wingspan of 31.0 m (101 ft 8 in) and a flight deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $2 billion (€1.85 billion) to develop, aircraft production was to take place in China. Simultaneously, Airbus was developing the Airbus A318. In early 1998, Airbus revealed that it was designing a 100-seat aircraft based on the A320. The AE31X project was terminated by September 1998, and Airbus officially announced the A318 at that year's Farnborough Airshow. The aircraft was the smallest in Airbus's product range, and was developed coincidentally at the same time as the largest commercial aircraft in history, the Airbus A380. First called A319M5 in as early as March 1995, it was shorter by 0.79-metre (2 ft 7 in) ahead of the wing and 1.6 metres (5 ft 3 in) behind. These cuts reduced passenger capacity from 124 on the A319 to 107 passengers in a two-class layout. Range was 5,700 kilometres (3,100 nmi; 3,500 mi), or 5,950 kilometres (3,210 nmi; 3,700 mi) with upcoming Sharklets. The 107-seater was launched on 26 April 1999 with the options and orders count at 109 aircraft. After three years of design, the maiden flight took place at Hamburg on 15 January 2002. Tests on the lead engine, the PW6000, revealed worse-than-expected fuel consumption. Consequently, Pratt & Whitney abandoned the five-stage high-pressure compressor (HPC) for the MTU-designed six-stage HPC. The 129 order book for the A318 shrank to 80 largely because of switches to other A320 family members. After 17 months of flight certification, during which 850 hours and 350 flights were accumulated, JAA certification was obtained for the CFM56-powered variant on 23 May 2003. On 22 July 2003, first delivery for launch customer Frontier Airlines occurred, entering service before the end of the month. === Production === The Toulouse Blagnac final assembly line builds A320s, whereas the Hamburg Finkenwerder final assembly line builds A318s, A319s, and A321s. The Airbus factory in Tianjin, China assembles A319s, A320s, and A321s; A320s and A321s are also assembled at the Airbus Americas factory in Mobile, Alabama. Airbus produced a total of 42 A320s per month in 2015, and expected to increase to 50 per month in 2017. Production of parts takes place in a large number of countries around the world. For example, the centre fuselage is made in Hamburg, Germany; the horizontal stabiliser is produced in Getafe, Spain; and the rudder is produced in Harbin, China. As Airbus targets a 60 monthly global production rate by mid-2019, the Tianjin line delivered 51 in 2016 and it could assemble six per month from four as it starts producing A320neos in 2017; 147 Airbus were delivered in 2016 in China, 20% of its production, mostly A320-family, a 47% market share as the country should become the world's largest market ahead of the US before 2027. In June 2018, along a larger and modernised delivery centre, Airbus inaugurated its fourth Hamburg production line, with two seven-axis robots to drill 80% of fuselage upper side holes and autonomous mobile tooling platforms, following Design Thinking principles. By January 2019, Mobile was outputting 4.5 A320s per month, raising to five by the end of the year. In September 2019, Airbus reached a milestone with the delivery of the 9000th A320-family aircraft, to Easyjet. In October 2019, Airbus inaugurated a highly automated fuselage structure assembly line for A320 Family aircraft in Hamburg, showcasing an evolution in Airbus' industrial production system. Production rates continue to rise, and Airbus aims to reach a production rate of 63 aircraft per month by 2021, which would result in the 10,000th delivery occurring early that year. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, demand for new jets was reduced in 2020 and Airbus cut its monthly production from 60 to 40 A320s. In October 2020, the 500th A320 built in Tianjin, an A320neo, was delivered to China Southern, twelve years after the final assembly line start in 2008. === A320 Enhanced === In 2006, Airbus started the A320 Enhanced (A320E) programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4–5% efficiency gain, with large winglets (2%), aerodynamic refinements (1%), weight savings and a new aircraft cabin. Engine improvements that reduced fuel consumption by 1% were made to the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion and in 2008 with the V2500Select (One). ==== Sharklets ==== In 2006, Airbus tested three styles of winglets intended to counteract the wing's lift-induced drag and wingtip vortices more effectively than the previous wingtip fence. The first design type to be tested was developed by Airbus and based on work done by the AWIATOR programme. The second type of winglet incorporated a more blended design and was designed by Winglet Technology, a company based in Wichita, Kansas, US. Two aircraft were used in the flight test evaluation campaign – the prototype A320, which had been retained by Airbus for testing, and a new build aircraft which was fitted with both types of winglets before it was delivered to JetBlue. Despite the anticipated efficiency gains and development work, Airbus announced that those winglets would not be offered to customers, claiming that the weight of the modifications required negated any aerodynamic benefits. On 17 December 2008, Airbus announced it was to begin flight testing an existing blended winglet design developed by Aviation Partners Inc. as part of an A320 modernisation programme using the A320 prototype. Airbus launched the sharklet blended winglets during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow. Installation adds 200 kg (440 lb) but offers a 3.5% fuel burn reduction on flights over 2,800 km (1,500 nmi; 1,700 mi), saving approximately US$220,000 and 700 t of CO2 per aircraft per year. The 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) tall wingtip devices are manufactured by Korean Air Aerospace Division. In December 2011, Airbus filed suit in the western district of Texas over Aviation Partners' claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design and construction which were granted in 1993. Airbus' lawsuit seeks to reject responsibility to pay royalties to Aviation Partners for using its designs, despite work performed together with both parties to develop advanced winglets for the Airbus A320neo. The first sharklet-equipped Airbus A320 was delivered to Indonesia AirAsia on 21 December 2012, offering a 450 kg (990 lb) payload and 100 nmi (190 km; 120 mi) range increases over the original aircraft specifications. ==== Cabin ==== In 2007, Airbus introduced a new enhanced, quieter cabin with better luggage storage and a more modern look and feel, and a new galley that reduced weight, increased revenue space and improved ergonomics and design for food hygiene and recycling. It offered a new air purifier with filters and a catalytic converter, removing unpleasant smells from the air before it is pumped into the cabin, as well as LEDs for mood lighting and a new passenger service unit (PSU). Offering 10% more overhead bin volume, more shoulder room, a weight reduction, a new intercom and in-flight entertainment system, noise reduction and slimmer PSU, the enhanced cabin can be retrofitted. The flight crew controls the cabin through touchscreen displays. === New Engine Option === The A320neo (neo for new engine option) is a development launched on 1 December 2010, making its first flight on 25 September 2014 and introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Re-engined with CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines and with large sharklets, it was designed to be 15% more fuel efficient. Its three variants are based on the previous A319, A320 and A321. Airbus received 6,031 orders by March 2018 and delivered 318 by May 2018. The original family was renamed A320ceo, for current engine option. As of July 2024, IndiGo has 173 Airbus A320neos under service, making it the largest operator of this type of aircraft. === Replacement airliner === In 2006, Airbus was studying a future replacement for the A320 series, tentatively dubbed as NSR or "New Short-Range aircraft". The follow-on aircraft to replace the A320 was to be named A30X. In 2007, Airbus North America President Barry Eccleston stated that the earliest the aircraft could have been available was 2017. In January 2010, John Leahy, Airbus's chief operating officer-customers, stated that an all-new single-aisle aircraft was unlikely to be constructed before 2024 or 2025. == Design == The Airbus A320 family are narrow-body (single-aisle) aircraft with a retractable tricycle landing gear and powered by two wing pylon-mounted turbofan engines. After the oil price rises of the 1970s, Airbus needed to minimise the trip fuel costs of the A320. To that end, it adopted composite primary structures for the empennage with a conventional tail configuration, centre-of-gravity control using fuel, a glass cockpit (EFIS) with side-stick controllers and a two-crew flight deck. Airbus claimed the 737-300 burns 35% more fuel and has a 16% higher operating cost per seat than the V2500-powered A320. A 150-seat A320 burns 11,608 kg (25,591 lb) of jet fuel over 2,151 nmi (3,984 km; 2,475 mi) (between Los Angeles and New York City), or 2.43 L/100 km (97 mpg‑US) per seat with a 0.8 kg/L fuel. Its wing is long and thin, offering better aerodynamic efficiency because of the higher aspect ratio than the competing 737 and MD-80. === Airframe === The Airbus A320 family are low-wing cantilever monoplanes with a conventional empennage with a single vertical stabiliser and rudder. Its wing sweep is 25 degrees. Compared to other airliners of the same class, the A320 features a wider single-aisle cabin of 3.95 metres (156 in) outside diameter, compared to the 3.8 m (148 in) of the Boeing 737 or 757, and larger overhead bins. Its cargo hold can accommodate unit load device containers. The A320 airframe includes composite materials and aluminium alloys to save weight and reduce the total number of parts to decrease the maintenance costs. Its tail assembly is made almost entirely of such composites by CASA, which also builds the elevators, main landing gear doors, and rear fuselage parts. === Flight deck === The A320 flight deck features a full glass cockpit, rather than the hybrid versions found in previous airliners. It is also equipped with an Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) with side-stick controllers. The A320 has an Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) to give the flight crew information about all of the systems on the aircraft. The only analogue instruments were the radio-magnetic indicator and brake pressure indicator. Since 2003, the A320 has featured liquid crystal display (LCD) units on the flight deck instead of the original cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays. These include both main displays and the backup artificial horizon, which also previously had an analogue display. Airbus offers an avionics upgrade for older A320 aircraft, the In-Service Enhancement Package, to keep them updated. Digital head-up displays are also available. The A320 retained the dark cockpit (where an indicator is off when its system is running; useful for drawing attention to dysfunctions when an indicator is lit) from the A310, the first widebody designed to be operated without a flight engineer and influenced by Bernard Ziegler, first Airbus CEO Henri Ziegler's son. === Fly-by-wire === The A320 is the world's first airliner with digital fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system: input commands through the side-stick are interpreted by flight control computers and transmitted to flight control surfaces within the flight envelope protection; in the 1980s the computer-controlled dynamic system of the Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter cross-fertilised the Airbus team which tested FBW on an A300. At its introduction, fly-by-wire and flight envelope protection was a new experience for many pilots. All following Airbuses have similar human/machine interface and systems control philosophy to facilitate cross-type qualification with minimal training. For Roger Béteille, then Airbus president, introducing fly-by-wire with flight envelope protection was one of the most difficult decisions he had ever made, explaining: "Either we were going to be first with new technologies or we could not expect to be in the market." Early A320s used the Intel 80186 and Motorola 68010. In 1988, the flight management computer contained six Intel 80286 CPUs, running in three logical pairs, with 2.5 megabytes of memory. === Engines === The suppliers providing turbofan engines for the A320ceo family were CFM International with the CFM56, International Aero Engines offering its V2500, and Pratt & Whitney's PW6000 engines available only for the A318, while for the A320neo family are CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines. The engines on the A320 family tend to make a distinct two tone drone when flying low and taxiing. == Operational history == The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) issued the type certificate for the A320 on 26 February 1988. After entering the market on 18 April 1988 with Air France, Airbus then expanded the A320 family rapidly, launching the 185-seat A321 in 1989 and first delivered it in 1994; launching the 124-seat A319 in 1993 and delivering it in 1996; and launching the 107-seat A318 in 1999 with first deliveries in 2003. As of March 2024, the global A320 fleet had 99.7 percent operational reliability in the last 12 months and completed more than 176 million flights over 328 million block hours since its entry into service. === Competition === The A320 family was developed to compete with the Boeing 737 Classics (-300/-400/-500) and the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 series, and has since faced challenges from the Boeing 737 Next Generation (-600/-700/-800/-900) and the 717 during its two decades in service. As of 2010, the A320 family also faced competition from Embraer's E-195 (to the A318) and the CSeries being developed by Bombardier (now Airbus A220) to the A318/A319. Airbus has delivered 8,605 A320 family aircraft since their certification/first delivery in early 1988, with another 6,056 on firm order (as of 31 December 2018). In comparison, Boeing has shipped 10,444 737-series aircraft since late 1967, including 8,918 since March 1988, and has a further 4,763 on firm order (as of 31 December 2018). By September 2018, there were 7,251 A320ceo family aircraft in service versus 6,757 737NGs, while Airbus expected to deliver 3,174 A320neos compared with 2,999 Boeing 737 MAX through 2022. Airbus sold the A320 well to low-cost startups and offering a choice of engines could make them more attractive to airlines and lessors than the single-sourced 737, but CFM engines are extremely reliable. The six-month head start of the A320neo allowed Airbus to rack up 1,000 orders before Boeing announced the MAX. The A321 has outsold the 737-900 three to one, as the A321neo is again dominating the 737-9 MAX, to be joined by the 737-10 MAX. === Maintenance === A Checks are every 750 flight hours and structural inspections are at six- and 12-year intervals. == Variants == The baseline A320 has given rise to a family of aircraft which share a common design but with passenger capacity ranges from 100, on the A318, to 220, on the A321. They compete with the 737, 757, and 717. Because the four A320 variants share the same flight deck, all have the same pilot type rating. Today all variants are available as corporate jets. An A319 variant known as A319LR was also developed. Military versions like A319 MPA also exist. American Airlines is the largest airline operator of the A320 family of aircraft, with 392 aircraft in service as of 30 September 2017. Technically, the name "A320" only refers to the original mid-sized aircraft, but it is often informally used to indicate any of the A318/A319/A320/A321 family. All variants have had 180-minute ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) certification capacity since 2004 (EASA) and 2006 (FAA). === A318 === The Airbus A318 is the smallest member of the Airbus A320 family. The A318 carries up to 132 passengers and has a maximum range of 3,100 nmi (5,700 km; 3,600 mi). The aircraft entered service in July 2003 with Frontier Airlines, and shares a common type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants, allowing existing A320 family pilots to fly the aircraft without the need for further training. It is the largest commercial aircraft certified by the European Aviation Safety Agency for steep approach operations, allowing flights at airports such as London City Airport. Relative to other Airbus A320 family variants, the A318 has sold in only small numbers with total orders for only 80 aircraft placed as of 31 October 2015. In 2018, the A318 list price was US$77.4 million. === A319 === The A319 is 3.73 m (12 ft 3 in) shorter than the A320. Also known as the A320M-7, it is a shortened, minimum-change version of the A320 with four frames fore of the wing and three frames aft of the wing removed. With a similar fuel capacity as the A320-200 and fewer passengers, the range with 124 passengers in a two-class configuration extends to 6,650 km (3,590 nmi), or 6,850 km (3,700 nmi) with the "Sharklets". Four propulsion options available on the A319 are the 23,040–24,800 lbf (102.5–110.3 kN) IAE V2500, or the 22,000–27,000 lbf (98–120 kN) CFM56. Although identical to those of the A320, these engines are derated because of the A319's lower MTOW. The A319 was developed at the request of Steven F. Udvar-Házy, the former president and CEO of ILFC. The A319's launch customer, in fact, was ILFC, which had placed an order for six A319s by 1993. Anticipating further orders by Swissair and Alitalia, Airbus decided to launch the programme on 10 June 1993. Final assembly of the first A319 began on 23 March 1995 and it was first introduced with Swissair in April 1996. The direct Boeing competitor is the Boeing 737-700. A total of 1,460 of the A319ceo model have been delivered with 24 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. A 1998 A319 was $35 million new; the value was halved by 2009, and reached scrap levels by 2019. In 2018, the A319 list price was US$92.3 million. ==== ACJ319 ==== The A319CJ (rebranded the ACJ319) is the corporate jet version of the A319. It incorporates removable extra fuel tanks (up to six additional centre tanks) which are installed in the cargo compartment, and an increased service ceiling of 12,500 m (41,000 ft). Range with eight passengers' payload and auxiliary fuel tanks (ACTs) is up to 11,000 kilometres; 6,900 miles (6,000 nmi). Upon resale, the aircraft can be reconfigured as a standard A319 by removing its extra tanks and corporate cabin outfit, thus maximising its resale value. It was formerly also known as the ACJ, or Airbus Corporate Jet, while starting with 2014 it has the marketing designation ACJ319. The aircraft seats up to 39 passengers, but may be outfitted by the customers into any configuration. Tyrolean Jet Services Mfg. GmbH & CO KG, MJET and Reliance Industries are among its users. The A319CJ competes with other ultralarge-cabin corporate jets such as the Boeing 737-700-based Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) and Embraer Lineage 1000, as well as with large-cabin and ultralong-range Gulfstream G650, Gulfstream G550 and Bombardier's Global 6000. It is powered by the same engine types as the A320. The A319CJ was used by the Escadron de Transport, d'Entraînement et de Calibration which is in charge of transportation for France's officials and also by the Flugbereitschaft of the German Air Force for transportation of Germany's officials. An ACJ serves as a presidential or official aircraft of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Slovakia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela. === A320 === The A320 series has two variants, the A320-100 and A320-200. Only 21 A320-100s were produced. These aircraft, the first to be manufactured, were delivered to Air Inter – later acquired by Air France – and British Airways as a result of an order from British Caledonian made prior to its acquisition. The primary differences from the -100 were the -200's wingtip fences and increased fuel capacity, providing increased range. Powered by two CFM56-5s or IAE V2500s with thrust ratings of 98–120 kN (22,000–27,000 lbf), the A320's typical range with 150 passengers is 3,300 nmi (6,100 km; 3,800 mi). A total of 4,512 of the A320ceo model have been delivered, with 220 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. The closest Boeing competitor is the 737-800. In 1988, the value of a new A320 was $30 million, reaching $40 million by the end of the 1990s, a 30% increase lower than the inflation, it dipped to $37 million after 2001, then peaked to $47 million in 2008, and stabilised at $40–42 million until the transition to the A320neo. In 2018, its list price was US$101.0 million. === A321 === As the A320 was beginning operations in 1988, the A321 was launched as its first derivative the same year. The A321 fuselage is stretched by 6.93 metres (22 ft 9 in), with a 4.27 m (14 ft 0 in) front plug immediately forward of wing and a 2.67 m (8 ft 9 in) rear plug. The A321-100 maximum takeoff weight is increased by 9,600 kg (21,200 lb) to 83,000 kg (183,000 lb). To maintain performance, double-slotted flaps were included, in addition to increasing the wing area by 4 m2 (43 sq ft), to 128 m2 (1,380 sq ft). The maiden flight of the first of two prototypes came on 11 March 1993. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa. As the A321-100 range was less than the A320, development of the heavier and longer range A321-200 began in 1995. The higher range was achieved through higher thrust engines (V2533-A5 or CFM56-5B3), minor structural strengthening, and an increase in fuel capacity with the installation of one or two optional 2,990 L (790 US gal) tanks in the rear underfloor hold. Its fuel capacity was increased to 30,030 L (7,930 US gal) and its maximum takeoff weight to 93,000 kg (205,000 lb). It first flew in December 1996 and entered service with Monarch Airlines in April 1997. The A321's closest Boeing competitors are the 737-900/900ER, and the 757-200. In 2018, the A321 list price was US$118.3 million. A total 1,784 units of the A321ceo model have been delivered, with seven remaining on order as of 30 September 2023. == Conversions == === Civilian variants === ==== Passenger-to-freighter (P2F) ==== A programme to convert A320 and A321 aircraft into freighters was set up by Airbus Freighter Conversion GmbH. Airframes were to be converted by Elbe Flugzeugwerke GmbH (EFW) in Dresden, Germany, and Zhukovsky, Russia. Launch customer AerCap signed a firm contract on 16 July 2008 to convert 30 of its passenger A320/A321s into A320/A321P2F (passenger to freighter). However, on 3 June 2011, Airbus announced all partners would end the passenger-to-freighter programme, citing high demand on used airframes for passenger service. Finally, on 17 June 2015 ST Aerospace signed agreements with Airbus and EFW for a collaboration to launch the A320/A321 passenger-to-freighter (P2F) conversion programme. A321P2F In August 2019, Qantas was announced as launch operator for the A321P2F converted freighter, for Australia Post, with up to three aircraft to be introduced in October 2020. Titan Airways received their first A321P2F in January 2021; it was converted at Singapore Seletar Airport, with two more A321P2F's to be converted. The initial converted aircraft first flew on 22 January 2020, to be delivered to Vallair, and secured EASA supplementary type certificate in February. It was to replace older converted Boeing 757s with 14 main deck and 10 lower deck positions, carrying up to 27.9 t (62,000 lb) over 2,300 nmi (4,300 km; 2,600 mi). Airbus sees a market for 1,000 narrowbody conversions over the 2020-2040 period. On 27 October 2020, the first A321P2F was delivered to launch operator Qantas Airways, with windows and exit doors removed, and a large hydraulically actuated main cargo door installed. A320P2F After EFW began the first A320 conversion in March 2021, the A320P2F made its maiden three-hour flight on 8 December from Singapore. The aircraft was first delivered in 2006, and its first cargo operator was to be Nairobi-based Astral Aviation from the second quarter of 2022, leased from Middle Eastern lessor Vaayu Group. The A320P2F received its supplemental type certification at the end of March 2022. The A320P2F is suitable for express domestic as well as regional operations and can accommodate up to 27 metric tonnes over 1,900 nautical miles, offering space for 14 large containers/pallets on the main deck and 10 LD3-type containers on the lower deck. === Military variants === ==== DRDO AEW&CS (Airborne Early Warning and Control System) ==== In late 2020, the Indian Defence Ministry greenlit the modification by the Defence Research and Development Organisation of six Air India A320s into Netra Mk2 Airborne early warning and control planes for Rs 10,500 crore (US$1.42 billion). They were to complement two Indian-built Netra and three Israeli-and-Russian-made Phalcons of the Indian Air Force. == Operators == As of March 2025, there are 11,025 A320 family aircraft in commercial service with over 375 operators. The five largest operators are American Airlines (483), China Eastern Airlines (387), EasyJet (362), IndiGo (355) and China Southern Airlines (328). Aircraft in operation include 41 A318s, 1,268 A319s (1,238 ceo, 30 neo), 6,340 A320s (4,173 ceo, 2,167 neo) and 3,376 A321s (1,702 ceo, 1,674 neo) aircraft. In addition, 946 A320ceo family aircraft consisting of 39 A318s, 246 A319s, 579 A320s and 82 A321s were out of service through retirement or write-off. Air France, British Airways, and Frontier Airlines are the only operators to have operated all four variants of the A320ceo family. Middle East Airlines received two milestone aircraft. The first was an A320ceo with manufacturer serial number (MSN) 5,000 on 20 January 2012. Eight years later, on 9 October 2020, the airline received MSN 10,000, an A321neo, at the celebration of its 75th anniversary. In December 2022, over 10,000 A320 family aircraft were operated by more than 330 airlines, completing more than 158 million flights, or 292 million hours in the air. === Orders and deliveries === The A320ceo family was the fastest-selling airliner from 2005 to 2007. Its successor, the A320neo family, improved on this with 1,420 orders and commitments in less than a year in 2011. In November 2013, the A320 family aircraft reached 10,000 orders. In October 2019, the A320 family became the highest-selling airliner family with 15,193 orders, surpassing the Boeing 737's total of 15,136. In August 2021, the A320 family passed the 10,000 delivery mark, 33 years after its introduction, versus 50 years for the Boeing 737, which passed the 10,000 delivery mark in March 2018. On 16 December 2021, the last member of the A320ceo family, an A321ceo (MSN 10315), was delivered from the Airbus Mobile assembly line in Alabama to Delta Air Lines, registered N129DN. In July 2022, total orders for the A320neo family reached 8,502, exceeding the total orders for the A320ceo family of 8,120. In June 2023, total orders for the A321neo reached 5,163, surpassing total orders for the A320ceo of 4,763, and making it the most-ordered variant of the A320 family. In July 2023, total orders for the A321neo reached 5,259, surpassing the record 5,205 orders for the Boeing 737-800, making it the most ordered variant of any airliner in history. In December 2023, the A320neo family became the first of airliner generations to reach a record order of 10,000 units and an order backlog of 7,000 units. As of May 2025, a total of 12,054 A320 family aircraft have been delivered, with 6 A320ceos (2 A319s and 4 A320s from two defunct airlines) remaining in the backlog. In the first five months of 2025, Airbus delivered 189 A320neo family aircraft, comprising 6 A319neos, 63 A320neos and 120 A321neos. The A320 family backlog remains over the 7,000 mark, with A321s accounting for 60%, and total orders have reached 19,234, while total orders for the competing Boeing 737 have increased slightly to 16,813 aircraft, of which 12,060 have been delivered. Data as of 31 May 2025 == Accidents and incidents == As of June 2024, across the entire A320 family, 180 major aviation accidents and incidents have occurred, including 38 hull loss accidents (the latest being Air Busan Flight 391 on 28 January 2025), resulting in a total of 1490 fatalities. The A320 family has experienced 50 incidents in which several flight displays were lost. As of 2015, the Airbus A320 family had experienced 0.12 fatal hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs and 0.26 total hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs. As of 2023, the Airbus A320 family had experienced 0.095 (0.08 for A320ceo and 0.11 for A320neo) fatal hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs and 0.14 (0.17 for A320ceo and 0.11 for A320neo) total hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs. == Aircraft on display == == Specifications == === Aircraft type designations === == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Airbus A320neo family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A220 Boeing 717 Boeing 737 Classic Boeing 737 Next Generation Boeing 757 Comac C919 Embraer 195 Irkut MC-21 McDonnell Douglas MD-80 McDonnell Douglas MD-90 Tupolev Tu-204 Related lists List of aircraft List of jet airliners == Notes == == References == == External links == Official Airbus website of the A320 aircraft family Max Kingsley-Jones (26 March 2018). "Analysis : Three decades since first A320 delivery". Flightglobal.
Airbus A321	The Airbus A321 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short to medium range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin engine jet airliners; it carries 185 to 236 passengers. It has a stretched fuselage which was the first derivative of the baseline A320 and entered service in 1994, about six years after the original A320. The aircraft shares a common type rating with all other Airbus A320-family variants, allowing A320-family pilots to fly the aircraft without the need for further training. In December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo (new engine option). The similarly lengthened fuselage A321neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements and the addition of winglets (called Sharklets by Airbus). The aircraft delivers fuel savings of up to 15%. The A321neo carries up to 244 passengers, with a maximum range of 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) for the long-range version when carrying no more than 206 passengers. Final assembly of the aircraft takes place in Hamburg, Germany, Mobile, Alabama, United States, Tianjin, China, and Toulouse, France. As of May 2025, a total of 3,513 A321 airliners have been delivered, of which 3,430 are in service. In addition, another 5,288 A321neo aircraft are on firm order. American Airlines is the largest operator of the Airbus A321 with 302 examples in its fleet. == Development == The Airbus A321 was the first derivative of the A320, also known as the Stretched A320, A320-500 and A325. Its launch came on 24 November 1988, around the same time as the A320 entered service, after commitments for 183 aircraft from 10 customers were secured. The maiden flight of the Airbus A321 came on 11 March 1993, when the prototype, registration F-WWIA, flew with IAE V2500 engines; the second prototype, equipped with CFM56-5B turbofans, flew in May 1993. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft requested, respectively. The first of Lufthansa's V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March 1994. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa. Final assembly for the A321 was carried out in Germany (then West Germany), a first for any Airbus. This came after a dispute between the French, who claimed that the move would incur $150 million (€135 million) in unnecessary expenditure associated with the new plant, and the Germans, who claimed that it would be more productive for Airbus in the long run. The second production line was located in Hamburg, which later produced the smaller Airbus A319 and A318. For the first time, Airbus entered the bond market, through which it raised $480 million (€475 million) to finance development costs. An additional $180 million (€175 million) was borrowed from European Investment Bank and private investors. The A321 is the largest variant of the A320 family. The A321-200's length exceeds 44.5 m (146 ft), increasing maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) to 93,000 kg (205,000 lb). Wingspan remained unchanged, supplementing various wingtip devices. Two suppliers provided turbofan engines for the A321: CFM International with its CFM56 and International Aero Engines with the V2500 engine, both in the thrust range of 133–147 kN (30,000–33,000 lbf). Over 30 years since launch, the A321 MTOW grew by 20% from the 83 t (183,000 lb) -100 to the 101 t (223,000 lb) A321XLR, seating became 10% more dense with 244 seats, up by 24, and range doubled from 2,300 to 4,700 nmi (4,300 to 8,700 km; 2,600 to 5,400 mi). By 2019, 4,200 had been ordered—one-quarter of all Airbus single-aisles—including 2,400 neos, one-third of all A320neo orders. == Design == The Airbus A321 is a narrow-body (single-aisle) aircraft with a retractable tricycle landing gear, powered by two wing pylon-mounted turbofan engines. It is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a conventional tail unit having a single vertical stabilizer and rudder. Changes from the A320 include a fuselage stretch and some modifications to the wing. The fuselage was lengthened by a 4.27 m (14 ft 0 in) plug ahead of the wing and a 2.67 m (8 ft 9 in) plug behind it, making the A321 6.94 m (22 ft 9 in) longer than the A320. The length increase required the overwing window exits of the A320 to be converted into door exits and repositioned in front of and behind the wings. To maintain performance, double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications were included, increasing the wing area from 124 m2 (1,330 sq ft) to 128 m2 (1,380 sq ft). The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate a 9,600 kg (21,200 lb) increase in maximum takeoff weight, taking it to 83,000 kg (183,000 lb). == Variants == The variants of A321ceo and A321neo family aircraft are mainly defined by its cabin layout and fuel configuration. Airbus offers customers with only one fuel configuration with the A321-100. Airbus offers customers with 3 different fuel configuration options with the A321-200: customers can select up to 2 auxiliary fuel tanks (ACT) in the after cargo hold. Airbus offers customers with 4 different fuel configuration options with the standard A321neo: customers can select up to 1 auxiliary fuel tank (ACT) in the front cargo hold and up to 2 ACTs in the after cargo hold. The A321neo-ACF with 3 ACTs is exclusively branded as A321LR (Long Range). Airbus offers customers with 2 different fuel configuration options with the A321XLR: customers can select up to 1 ACT in the front cargo hold. === A321-100 === The original derivative of the A321, the A321-100, had shorter range than the A320 because no extra fuel tank was added to compensate for the increased weight. The MTOW of the A321-100 is 83,000 kg (183,000 lb). The A321-100 entered service with Lufthansa in 1994. Only about 90 were produced; a few were later converted to the A321-200 variant. === A321-200 === Airbus began development of the heavier and longer-range A321-200 in 1995 to give the A321 full-passenger transcontinental US range. This was achieved through higher thrust engines (V2533-A5 or CFM56-5B3), minor structural strengthening, and an increase in fuel capacity with the installation of one or two optional 2,990 L (790 US gal) tanks in the rear underfloor hold. The additional fuel tanks increased the total capacity to 30,030 L (7,930 US gal). These modifications also increased the maximum takeoff weight of the A321-200 to 93,000 kg (205,000 lb). This variant first flew in December 1996, and entered service with Monarch Airlines in April 1997. The following month, Middle East Airlines received its first A321-200 in May 1997. Its direct competitors include the 757-200 and the 737-900/900ER. === A321neo === On 1 December 2010, Airbus launched the A320neo family (neo for New Engine Option) with 500 nmi (930 km; 580 mi) more range and 15% better fuel efficiency, thanks to new CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines and large sharklets. The lengthened A321neo prototype made its first flight on 9 February 2016. It received its type certification on 15 December 2016. The first entered service in May 2017 with Virgin America. ==== A321LR ==== In October 2014, Airbus started marketing a longer range 97 t (214,000 lb) maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) variant with three auxiliary fuel tanks, giving it 100 nmi (190 km; 120 mi) more operational range than a Boeing 757-200. Airbus launched the A321LR (Long Range) on 13 January 2015; it has a range of 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) with 206 seats in two classes. On 31 January 2018, the variant completed its first flight. Airbus announced its certification on 2 October 2018. On 13 November 2018, Arkia received the first A321LR. ==== A321XLR ==== The A321XLR is an A321LR variant with a further increased MTOW intended to compete with the Boeing NMA, which has since been put on hold. The variant was launched at the June 2019 Paris Air Show, with a range of 4,700 nmi (8,700 km; 5,400 mi). It included a new permanent Rear Centre Tank (RCT) for more fuel, a strengthened landing gear for a 101 t (223,000 lb) MTOW and an optimised wing trailing-edge flap configuration to preserve take-off performance. In June 2022, the A321XLR completed its first flight. Aer Lingus was originally to be the launch customer of the A321XLR. However, due to internal pilot contract disputes, the first A321XLR was instead delivered to Iberia on October 30, 2024. The first flight with passengers was on November 6, 2024. The first long-haul flight with passengers was on 14 November 2024, from Madrid to Boston. ==== Freighter conversion ==== While no freighter version of the A321 has been built new by Airbus, a first attempt of converting used A320/321 into freighter aircraft was undertaken by Airbus Freighter Conversion GmbH. The program, however, was canceled in 2011 before any aircraft were converted. On 17 June 2015, ST Aerospace signed agreements with Airbus and EFW for a collaboration to launch the A320/A321 passenger-to-freighter (P2F) conversion programme. The initial converted aircraft first flew on 22 January 2020. On 27 October 2020, the first A321-200P2F was delivered to launch operator Qantas Freight. The A321-200PCF is a passenger to freighter conversion, developed by Precision Conversions and certificated in 2021. Sine Draco Aviation also offers an A321 passenger-to-freighter conversion programme; its first conversion is expected for the first quarter of 2022. On 15 March 2022, Lufthansa Cargo started to operate its A321F, a cargo variant of the A321. == Operators == As of May 2025, 3,430 Airbus A321 aircraft (1701 ceo+1729 neo) were in service with more than 100 operators. American Airlines and Delta Air Lines operate the largest A321 fleets of 302 and 201 aircraft, respectively. === Orders and deliveries === Data as of May 2025 == Accidents and incidents == For the Airbus A321, 32 aviation accidents and incidents have occurred, including six hull-loss accidents or criminal occurrences with a total of 377 fatalities as of August 2019. == Specifications == === Engines === == See also == Related development Airbus A321neo Airbus A318 Airbus A319 Airbus A320 family Airbus A320neo family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 737-900 Boeing 737 MAX 10 Boeing 757 Irkut MC-21 Tupolev Tu-204 Related lists List of Airbus A320 operators List of jet airliners == Notes == == References == == External links == Official website
Airbus A340	The Airbus A340 is a long-range, wide-body passenger airliner that was developed and produced by Airbus. In the mid-1970s, Airbus conceived several derivatives of the A300, its first airliner, and developed the A340 quadjet in parallel with the A330 twinjet. In June 1987, Airbus launched both designs with their first orders and the A340-300 took its maiden flight on 25 October 1991. It was certified along with the A340-200 on 22 December 1992 and both versions entered service in March 1993 with launch customers Lufthansa and Air France. The larger A340-500/600 were launched on 8 December 1997; the A340-600 flew for the first time on 23 April 2001 and entered service on 1 August 2002. Keeping the eight-abreast economy cross-section of the A300, the early A340-200/300 has a similar airframe to the A330-200/300. Differences include four 151 kN (34,000 lbf) CFM56s instead of two high-thrust turbofans to bypass ETOPS restrictions on trans-oceanic routes, and a three-leg main landing gear instead of two for a heavier 276 t (608,000 lb) Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW). Both airliners have fly-by-wire controls, which was first introduced on the A320, as well as a similar glass cockpit. The A340-500/600 are longer, have a larger wing, and are powered by 275 kN (62,000 lbf) Rolls-Royce Trent 500 for a heavier 380 t (840,000 lb) MTOW. The shortest A340-200 measured 59.4 m (194 ft 11 in), and had a 15,000-kilometre (8,100-nautical-mile) range with 210–250 seats in a three-class configuration. The most common A340-300 reached 63.7 m (209 ft 0 in) to accommodate 250–290 passengers and could cover 13,500 km (7,300 nmi). The A340-500 was 67.9 m (222 ft 9 in) long to seat 270–310 over 16,670 km (9,000 nmi), the longest-range airliner at the time. The longest A340-600 was stretched to 75.4 m (247 ft 5 in), then the longest airliner, to accommodate 320–370 passengers over 14,450 km (7,800 nmi). As improving engine reliability allowed ETOPS operations for almost all routes, more economical twinjets replaced quadjets on many routes. On 10 November 2011, Airbus announced that the production reached its end, after 380 orders had been placed and 377 delivered from Toulouse, France. The A350 is its successor; the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 and the Boeing 777 were its main competitors. By the end of 2021, the global A340 fleet had completed more than 2.5 million flights over 20 million block hours and carried over 600 million passengers with no fatalities. As of March 2023, there were 203 A340 aircraft in service with 45 operators worldwide. Lufthansa is the largest A340 operator with 27 aircraft in its fleet. == Development == === Background === When Airbus designed the Airbus A300 during the 1970s it envisioned a broad family of airliners to compete against Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, two established US aerospace manufacturers. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A tenth variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10. It was a smaller aircraft that would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which resulted in the Airbus A320 family, which was the first digital fly-by-wire commercial aircraft. The decision to work on the A320, instead of a four-engine aircraft proposed by the Germans, created divisions within Airbus. As the SA or "single aisle" studies (which later became the successful Airbus A320) underwent development to challenge the successful Boeing 737 and Douglas DC-9 in the single-aisle, narrow-body airliner market, Airbus turned its focus back to the wide-body aircraft market. The A300B11, a derivative of the A310, was designed upon the availability of "ten ton" thrust engines. Using four engines, it would seat between 180 and 200 passengers, and have a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km; 6,900 mi). It was deemed a replacement for the less-efficient Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s still in service. The A300B11 was joined by another design, the A300B9, which was a larger derivative of the A300. The B9 was developed by Airbus from the early 1970s at a slow pace until the early 1980s. It was essentially a stretched A300 with the same wing, coupled with the most powerful turbofan engine available at the time. It was targeted at the growing demand for high-capacity, medium-range, transcontinental trunk routes. The B9 offered the same range and payload as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, but it used between 25% and 38% less fuel. The B9 was therefore considered a replacement for the DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar. To differentiate the programme from the SA studies, the B9 and B11 were redesignated the TA9 and TA11 (SA standing for "single aisle" and TA standing for "twin aisle"). In an effort to save development costs, it was decided that the two would share the same wing and airframe; the projected savings were estimated at US$500 million (about £490 million or €495 million). The adoption of a common wing structure also had one technical advantage: the TA11's outboard engines could counteract the weight of the longer-range model by providing bending relief. Another factor was the split preference of those within Airbus and, more importantly, prospective airliner customers. Airbus vice president for strategic planning, Adam Brown, recalled, North American operators were clearly in favour of a twin[jet], while Asians wanted a quad[jet]. In Europe, opinion was split between the two. The majority of potential customers were in favour of a quad despite the fact, in certain conditions, it is more costly to operate than a twin. They liked that it could be ferried with one engine out, and could fly 'anywhere'— ETOPS (extend-range twin-engine operations) hadn't begun then. === Design effort === The first specifications of the TA9 and TA11 were released in 1982. While the TA9 had a range of 3,300 nautical miles (6,100 km; 3,800 mi), the TA11 range was up to 6,830 nautical miles (12,650 km; 7,860 mi). At the same time, Airbus also sketched the TA12, a twin-engine derivative of the TA11, which was optimised for flights of a 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) lesser range. By the time of the Paris Air Show in June 1985, more refinements had been made to the TA9 and TA11, including the adoption of the A320 flight deck, fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system and side-stick control. Adopting a common cockpit across the new Airbus series allowed operators to make significant cost savings; flight crews would be able to transition from one to another after one week of training. The TA11 and TA12 would use the front and rear fuselage sections of the A310. Components were modular and also interchangeable with other Airbus aircraft where possible to reduce production, maintenance, and operating costs. Airbus briefly considered a variable camber wing; the concept was that the wing could change its profile to produce the optimum shape for a given phase of flight. Studies were carried out by British Aerospace (BAe) at Hatfield and Bristol. Airbus estimated this would yield a 2% improvement in aerodynamic efficiency. However, the plan was later abandoned on grounds of cost and difficulty of development. Airbus had held discussions with McDonnell Douglas to jointly produce the aircraft, which would have been designated as the AM 300. This aeroplane would have combined the wing of the A330 with the fuselage of the McDonnell Douglas MD-11. However, talks were terminated as McDonnell Douglas insisted on the continuation of its trijet heritage. Although from the start it was intended that the A340 would be powered by four CFM56-5 turbofans, each capable of 110 kilonewtons (25,000 lbf), Airbus had also considered developing the aircraft as a trijet due to the limited power of engines available at the time, namely the Rolls-Royce RB211-535 and Pratt & Whitney JT10D-232 (redesignated PW2000 in December 1980). As refinements in the A340's design proceeded, a radical new engine option, the IAE SuperFan, was offered by International Aero Engines, a group comprising Rolls-Royce, Pratt & Whitney, Japanese Aero Engines Corporation, Fiat and MTU Aero Engines (MTU). The engine nacelles of the superfan engine consisted of provisions to allow a large fan near the rear of the engine. As a result of the superfan cancellation by IAE, the CFM56-5C4 was used as the sole engine choice instead of being an alternative option as originally envisioned. The later, longer-range versions, namely the A340-500 and −600, are powered by Rolls-Royce Trent 500 engines. On 27 January 1986, the Airbus Industrie Supervisory Board held a meeting in Munich, West Germany, after which board-chairman Franz Josef Strauß released a statement, Airbus Industrie is now in a position to finalise the detailed technical definition of the TA9, which is now officially designated the A330, and the TA11, now called the A340, with potential launch customer airlines, and to discuss with them the terms and conditions for launch commitments. The designations were originally reversed and were switched so the quad-jet airliner would have a "4" in its name. On 12 May 1986, Airbus dispatched fresh sale proposals to five prospective airlines including Lufthansa and Swissair. === Production and testing === In preparations for production of the A330/A340, Airbus's partners invested heavily in new facilities. Filton was the site of BAe's £7 million investment in a three-storey technical centre with an extra 15,000 square metres (160,000 sq ft) of floor area. BAe also spent £5 million expanding the Broughton wing production plant by 14,000 m2 (150,000 sq ft) to accommodate a new production line. However, France saw the biggest changes with Aérospatiale starting construction of a new Fr.2.5 billion ($411 million) assembly plant, adjacent to Toulouse-Blagnac Airport, in Colomiers. By November 1988, the first 21 m (69 ft) pillars were erected for the new Clément Ader assembly hall. The assembly process, meanwhile, would feature increased automation with holes for the wing-fuselage mating process drilled by eight robots. The use of automation for this particular process saved Airbus 20% on labour costs and 5% on time. British Aerospace accepted £450 million funding from the UK government, short of the £750 million originally requested. Funds from the French and West German governments followed thereafter. Airbus also issued subcontracts to companies in Austria, Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Italy, India, Japan, South Korea, Portugal, the United States, and Yugoslavia. The A330 and A340 programmes were jointly launched on 5 June 1987, just prior to the Paris Air Show. The program cost was $3.5 billion with the A330, in 2001 dollars. The order book then stood at 130 aircraft from 10 customers, apart from the above-mentioned Lufthansa and International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC). Eighty-nine of the total orders were A340 models. At McDonnell Douglas, ongoing tests of the MD-11 revealed a significant shortfall in the aircraft's performance. An important carrier, Singapore Airlines (SIA), required a fully laden aircraft that could fly from Singapore to Paris, against strong headwinds during mid-winter in the northern hemisphere. The MD-11, according to test results, would experience fuel starvation over the Balkans. Due to the less-than-expected performance figures, SIA cancelled its 20-aircraft MD-11 order on 2 August 1991, and ordered 20 A340-300s instead. A total of 200 MD-11s were sold, versus 380 A340s. The first flight of the A340 occurred on 21 October 1991, marking the start of a 2,000-hour test flight programme involving six aircraft. From the start, engineers noticed that the wings were not stiff enough to carry the outboard engines at cruising speed without warping and fluttering. To alleviate this, an underwing bulge called a plastron was developed to correct airflow problems around the engine pylons and to add stiffness. European JAA certification was obtained on 22 December 1992; the FAA followed on 27 May 1993. In 1992, unit cost of an A340-200 was US$105M and US$110M for an A340-300. (equivalent to $205 million in 2023 dollars). === Entry into service and demonstration === The first A340, a −200, was delivered to Lufthansa on 2 February 1993 and entered service on 15 March. The 228-seat airliner was named Nürnberg. The first A340-300, the 1000th Airbus, was delivered to Air France on 26 February, the first of nine it planned to operate by the end of the year. Air France replaced its Boeing 747s with A340s on its Paris–Washington D.C. route, flying four times weekly. Lufthansa intended to replace aging DC-10s with the A340s on Frankfurt–New York services. On 16 June 1993, an A340-200 dubbed the World Ranger flew from the Paris Air Show to Auckland, New Zealand in 21 hours 32 minutes and back in 21 hours 46 minutes after a five-hour stop; this was the first non-stop flight between Europe and New Zealand and the longest non-stop flight by an airliner at the time. The 19,277 km (10,409 nmi; 11,978 mi) flight from Paris to Auckland broke six world records with 22 persons and five center tanks. Taking off at 11:58 local time, it arrived back in Paris 48 hours and 22 minutes later, at 12:20. This record held until 1997 when a Boeing 777-200ER flew 20,044 km (10,823 nmi; 12,455 mi) from Seattle to Kuala Lumpur. === Stretch: -500/-600 variants === Formulated in 1991, the A340-400X concept was a simple 12-frame, 20 ft 10 in (6.35 m) stretch of the −300 from 295 to 335 passengers with the MTOW increased to 553,360 to 588,600 lb (251 to 267 t) and the range decreased by 1,390 to 10,930 km (750 to 5,900 nmi). CFM International was then set to develop a new engine for $1–1.5 billion that generated a thrust rating between the 150 kN (34,000 lbf) CFM56 and the 315–400 kN (70–90,000 lbf) GE90. In 1994, Airbus was studying a heavier A340 Advanced with a reinforced wing and a selection of 178 kN (40,000 lbf) engines; these included the Pratt & Whitney advanced ducted propulsor, CFM International CFMXX or Rolls-Royce RB411, to a −300 stretch for 50 more passengers over the same range, a −300 with the −200 range and a −200 with more range. These models were slated to be introduced in 1996. In 1995, the A340-400 was slated for introduction in the year 2000, seating 380 passengers with a 300 t (660,000 lb) take-off weight. In April 1996, GE Aviation obtained an exclusivity for the 13,000 km (7,000 nmi; 8,100 mi) 375-passenger −600 stretch with 226 kN (51,000 lbf) engines, above the 225.5 kN (50,700 lbf) limit of the CFM International engines made in partnership with SNECMA and dropping the 191 kN (43,000 lbf) CFMXX. The −600 would be stretched by 20–22 frames to 75 m (246 ft), unit thrust was raised from 227 kN (51,000 lbf) to 249 kN (56,000 lbf) and maximum takeoff weight would be increased to 330 t (730,000 lb). The wing area would increase by 56 m2 (600 sq ft) to 420 m2 (4,500 sq ft) through a larger chord needing a three-frame centre fuselage insert and retaining the existing front and rear spars, and a span increased by 3.5 to 63.8 m (11 to 209 ft), alongside a 25% increase in wing fuel capacity and four wheels replacing the centre twin-wheel bogie. A −500 with the larger wing and engines and three extra frames for 310 passengers would cover 15,725 km (9,770 mi; 8,490 nmi) to replace the smaller 14,800 km (9,200 mi; 8,000 nmi) range A340-200. At least $1 billion would be needed to develop the airframe, excluding the $2 billion required for engine development supported by the engine manufacturer. A 12 frame −400 simple stretch would cover 11,290 km (6,100 nmi; 7,020 mi) with 340 passengers in a three-class configuration. It was enlarged by 40% to compete with the then in-development 777-300ER/200LR: the wing would be expanded with a tapered wing box insert along the span extension, it would have enlarged horizontal stabilizers and the larger A330-200 fin and it would need 222–267 kN (50–60,000 lbf) of unit thrust. The ultra-long-haul 1.53 m (5.0 ft) -500 stretch would seat 316 passengers, a little more than the −300, over 15,355 km (8,290 nmi; 9,540 mi), while the 10.07 m (33.0 ft) -600 stretch would offer a 25% larger cabin for 372 passengers over a range of 13,700 km (7,400 nmi; 8,500 mi). MTOW was increased to 356 t (785,000 lb). Unwilling to commit to a $1 billion development without good return on investment prospects and a second application, in 1997 GE Aviation stopped exclusivity talks for GE90 scaled down to 245–290 kN (55–65,000 lbf), leaving Rolls-Royce proposing a more cost-effective Rolls-Royce Trent variant needing less development and Pratt & Whitney suggesting a PW2000 advanced ducted propulsor, a PW4000 derivative or a new geared turbofan. In June 1997, the 250 kN (56,000 lbf) Rolls-Royce Trent 500 was selected, with growth potential to 275 kN (62,000 lbf), derived from the A330 Rolls-Royce Trent 700 and the B777 Rolls-Royce Trent 800 with a reduced fan diameter and a new LP turbine, for a 7.7% lower TSFC than the 700. Airbus claims 10% lower operating costs per seat than the −300, 3% below those of what Boeing was then advertising for the 777-300X. The $2.9 billion program was launched in December 1997 with 100 commitments from seven customers worth $3 billion, aiming to fly the first −600 in January 2001 and deliver it from early 2002 to capture at least half of the 1,500 sales forecast in the category through 2010. In 1998, the −600 stretch was stabilised at 20 frames for 10.6 m (35 ft), the MTOW rose to 365 t (805,000 lb) and the unit thrust to 52,000 to 60,000 lbf (230 to 270 kN), keeping the Trent 700 2.47 m (8.1 ft) fan diameter with its scaled IP and HP compressors and the high-speed, low-loading HP and IP turbines of the Trent 800. Despite the −500/600 introduction, sales slowed in the 2000s as the Boeing 777-200LR/-300ER dominated the long-range 300–400 seat market. The A340-500IGW/600HGW high gross weight variants did not arouse much sales interest. In January 2006, Airbus confirmed it had studied an A340-600E (Enhanced) that was more fuel-efficient than earlier A340s, reducing the per-seat fuel consumption by 8–9% compared to the −600. This model would become more competitive with the Boeing 777-300ER by utilizing new Trent 1500 engines and technologies from the A350 initial design. At 380 passengers, the advertised three-class seating of the −600 was well above the real world average of 323 seats, while the B777-300ER is advertised for 365 and offers 332, impacting seat costs. By 2018, a 2006 -600 was worth $18M and a 2003 one $10M, projected to fall to $7M in 2021 with a $200,000/month lease rate falling to $180,000 in 2021; its D check cost $4.5M and its engine overhaul $3–6M. === End of production === In 2005, 155 B777s were ordered against 15 A340s: twin engine ETOPS restrictions were overcome by lower operating costs compared to quad jets and the relaxation of ETOPS requirements for the A330, 777, and other twin jets. In 2007, Airbus predicted that another 127 A340 aircraft would likely be produced through 2016, the projected end of production. In 2011, the unit cost of an A340-300 was US$238.0M ($332.7M today), US$261.8M for an A340-500 ($365.9M today) and US$275.4M for an A340-600 ($384.9M today). On 10 November 2011, Airbus announced the end of the A340 program, stating that all firm orders were delivered. The decision to terminate the program came as A340-500/600 orders came to a halt, with analyst Nick Cunningham pointing out that the A340 "was too heavy and there was a big fuel burn gap between the A340 and Boeing's 777 [specifically the A340-600 against the 777-300]". Bertrand Grabowski, managing director of DVB Bank, noted, "in an environment where the fuel price is high, the A340 has had no chance to compete against similar twin engines, and the current lease rates and values of this aircraft reflect the deep resistance of any airlines to continue operating it". As a sales incentive amid low customer demand during the Great Recession, Airbus had offered buy-back guarantees to airlines that chose to procure the A340. By 2013, the resale value of an A340 declined by 30% over ten years, and both Airbus and Rolls-Royce were incurring related charges amounting to hundreds of millions of euros. Some analysts have expected the price of a flight-worthy, CFM56-powered A340 to drop below $10 million by 2023. Airbus could offer used A340s to airlines wishing to retire older aircraft, such as the Boeing 747-400, claiming that the cost of purchasing and maintaining a second-hand A340 with increased seating and improved engine performance reportedly compared favourably to the procurement costs of a new Boeing 777. In 2013, as the ultra-long range market is a niche, the A340 was less attractive, with the best usage on long, thin routes from hot-and-high airports or as interim air charter. A 10-year-old A340-300 had a base value of $35m and a market value of $24m, leading to $320,000/mo ($240,000–$350,000) lease rate, while a −500 is $425,000 and a −600 is leased $450,000 to $500,000 per month, versus $1.3m for a 777-300ER. The lighter A340-300 consumes 5% less fuel per trip with 300 passengers than the 312 passengers 777-200ER while the heavier A340-600 uses 12% more fuel than a 777-300ER. As an effort to support the A340's resale value, Airbus has proposed reconfiguring the aircraft's interior for a single class of 475 seats. As the Trent 500 engines are half the maintenance cost of the A340, Rolls-Royce proposed a cost-reducing maintenance plan similar to the company's existing program that reduced the cost of maintaining the RB211 engine powering Iberia's Boeing 757 freighters. Key to these programs is the salvaging, repair and reuse of serviceable parts from retired older engines. Airbus has positioned the larger versions of the A350, specifically the A350-900 and A350-1000, as the successors to the A340-500 and A340-600. The ACJ340 is listed on the Airbus Corporate Jets website, as Airbus can convert retired A340 airliners to VIP transport configuration. == Design == The Airbus A340 is a twin-aisle passenger airliner that was the first long-range Airbus, powered by four turbofan jet engines. It was developed with technology from earlier Airbus aircraft and their features, like the A320 glass cockpit; it shares many components with the A330, notably identical fly-by-wire control systems and similar wings. Its features and improvements were usually shared with the A330. The four engines configuration avoided the ETOPS constraints such as more frequent inspections. The A340 has a low cantilever wing; the A340-200/300 wing is virtually identical to that of the A330, with both engine pylons used while only the inboard one is used on the A330. The two engines for each wing provide a more distributed weight and a more outboard engine weight for a lower wing root bending moment at equal TOW, allowing a higher wing limited MTOW for more range. However, the four engines of the A340-200/300 burn more fuel than the A330-200/300. The wings were designed and manufactured by BAe, which developed a long, slender wing with a high aspect ratio for a higher aerodynamic efficiency. The wing is swept back at 30 degrees, allowing a maximum operating Mach number of 0.86. To reach a long span and high aspect ratio without a significant weight penalty, the wing has a relatively high thickness-to-chord ratio of 11.8% or 12.8%. Jet airliners have thickness-to-chord ratios ranging from 9.4% (MD-11 or Boeing 747) to 13% (Avro RJ or 737 Classic). Each wing also has a 2.74 m (9.0 ft) tall winglet instead of the wingtip fences found on earlier Airbus aircraft. The failure of the ultra-high-bypass IAE SuperFan, promising around 15% better fuel burn, led to wing upgrades to compensate. Originally designed with a 56 m (184 ft) span, the wing was later extended to 58.6 m (192 ft) and finally to 60.3 m (198 ft). This wingspan is similar to that of the larger Boeing 747-200, but with 35% less wing area. The A340 uses a modified A320 glass cockpit, with side-stick controls instead of a conventional yoke. The main instrument panel is dominated by six displays, cathode-ray tube monitors initially then liquid crystal displays. Flight information is directed via the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) and systems information through the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM). The aircraft monitors various sensors and automatically alerts the crew to any parameters outside their normal range. Pilots can also inspect individual systems. Electronic manuals are used instead of paper ones, and web-based updates are optional. Maintenance difficulty and cost were reduced to half of that of the earlier and smaller Airbus A310. Improved engine control and monitoring improved time on the wing. The centralised maintenance computer can transmit real-time information to ground facilities via the onboard satellite-based ACARS datalink. Heavy maintenance, like structural changes, remained unchanged, while cabin enhancements, like the in-flight entertainment, were increased over preceding airliners. == Operational history == The first variant of the A340 to be introduced, the A340-200, entered service with the launch customer, Lufthansa, in 1993. It was followed shortly thereafter by the A340-300 with its operator, Air France. Lufthansa's first A340, dubbed Nürnberg (D-AIBA), began revenue service on 15 March 1993. Air Lanka (later renamed Sri Lankan Airlines) became the Asian launch customer of the Airbus A340; the airline received its first A340-300, registered (4R-ADA), in September 1994. British airline Virgin Atlantic was an early adopter of the A340; in addition to operating several A340-300 aircraft, Virgin Atlantic announced in August 1997 that it would be the worldwide launch customer for the new A340-600. Virgin performed the first commercial flight of the A340-600 in July 2002. Singapore Airlines ordered 17 A340-300s and operated them until October 2003. Boeing purchased those A340-300s as part of an order for Boeing 777s in 1999. The airline then purchased five long-range A340-500s, which joined the fleet in December 2003. In February 2004, the airline's A340-500 performed the longest non-stop commercial air service worldwide, conducting a non-stop flight between Singapore and Los Angeles. In 2004, Singapore Airlines launched an even longer non-stop route using the A340-500 between Newark and Singapore, SQ 21, a 15,344 kilometres (8,285 nmi; 9,534 mi) journey that was the longest scheduled non-stop commercial flight in the world. The airline continued to operate this route regularly until the airline decided to retire the type in favour of new A380 and A350 aircraft; its last A340 flight was performed in late 2013. The A340 was typically used by airlines as a medium-sized long-haul aircraft and was often a replacement for older Boeing 747s as it was more likely to be profitable than the less efficient 747. Airbus produced several A340s as large private jets for VIP customers, often to replace ageing Boeing 747s in this same role. In 2008, Airbus launched a dedicated corporate jetliner version of the A340-200: one key selling point of this aircraft was a range of up to 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km). Airbus had built up to nine different customised versions of the A340 to satisfy private customers' specific demands before 2008. The A340 has frequently been operated as a dedicated transport for heads of state. A pair of A340-300s were acquired from Lufthansa by the Flugbereitschaft of the German Air Force; they serve as VIP transports for the German Chancellor and other key members of the German government. The A340-200 was also operated by the air transport division of the French Air and Space Force, where it was used as a strategic transport for troop deployments and supply missions, as well as to transport government officials, until both aircraft were sold in 2020. A one-of-a-kind aircraft, the A340-8000, was originally built for Prince Jefri Bolkiah, brother of the Sultan of Brunei Hassanal Bolkiah. The aircraft was unused and stored in Hamburg until it was procured by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal of the House of Saud, and later sold to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, then-President of Libya; the aircraft was operated by Afriqiyah Airways and was often referred to as Afriqiyah One. In 2008, jet fuel prices doubled compared to the year before; consequently, the A340's fuel consumption led airlines to reduce flight stages exceeding 15 hours. Thai Airways International cancelled its 17-hour, nonstop Bangkok–New York/JFK route on 1 July 2008, and placed its four A340-500s for sale. While short flights stress aircraft more than long flights and result in more frequent fuel-thirsty take-offs and landings, ultra-long flights require completely filled fuel tanks to ensure an adequate fuel supply upon landing. The higher weights in turn require a greater proportion of an aircraft's fuel fraction just to take off and to stay airborne. In 2008, Air France-KLM's chief executive Pierre-Henri Gourgeon disparagingly referred to the A340 as a "flying tanker with a few people on board". While Thai Airways consistently filled 80% of the seats on its New York City–Bangkok flights, it estimated that, at 2008 fuel prices, it would need an impossible 120% of seats filled just to break even. Other airlines also re-examined long-haul flights. In August 2008, Cathay Pacific issued a declaration expressing concern over the adverse impact of escalating fuel expenses on its trans-Pacific long-haul routes, emphasizing a disproportionate burden on these particular flights. Consequently, the airline outlined its strategic decision to curtail the frequency of such flights and reallocate its fleet to cater to shorter routes, notably those connecting Hong Kong and Australia. The company's primary objective, as articulated by the airline's CEO Tony Tyler, entailed a comprehensive network restructuring aimed at optimizing operational efficiency by ensuring flights were directed to destinations that would yield cost coverage and financial gain simultaneously. Aviation Week noted that rapid performance increases of twin-engine aircraft has led to the detriment of four-engine types of comparable capacity such as the A340 and 747; at this point most 747s had accumulated significant flying hours before retirement in contrast to A340s which were relatively young when grounded. By 2014, Singapore Airlines had phased out the type, discontinuing SQ21 and SQ22, which had been the longest non-stop scheduled flights in the world. Emirates Airlines decided to accelerate the retirement of its A340 fleet, writing down the value of the A340-500 type to zero despite the oldest −500 only being 10 years old, with president Tim Clark saying they were "designed in the late 1990s with fuel at $25–30. They fell over at $60 and at $120 they haven't got a hope in hell". International Airlines Group, the parent of Iberia Airlines (which is also the operator of the last production A340 built), is overhauling its A340-600s for continued service for the foreseeable future, while it is retiring its A340-300s. The IAG overhaul featured improved conditions and furnishings in the business and economy classes; the business-class capacity was raised slightly while not changing the type's overall operating cost. Lufthansa, which operates both Airbus A340-300s and −600s, concluded that, while it is not possible to make the A340 more fuel efficient, it can respond to increased interest in business-class services by replacing first-class seats with more business-class seats to increase revenue. In 2013, Snecma announced that they planned to use the A340 as a flying testbed for the development of a new open rotor engine. This test aircraft is forecast to conduct its first flight in 2019. Open rotor engines are typically more fuel-efficient but noisier than conventional turbofan engines; introducing such an engine commercially has been reported as requiring significant legislative changes within engine approval authorities due to its differences from contemporary jet engines. The engine, partly based on the Snecma M88 turbofan engine used on the Dassault Rafale, is being developed under the European Clean Sky research initiative. In January 2021, Lufthansa, which was the largest remaining operator by then, announced that their entire Airbus A340-600 fleet will be retired with immediate effect and not return to service in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Ultimately, Lufthansa reactivated their A340-600s in the summer of 2022, while remaining committed to operating the smaller Airbus A340-300. Later in 2021, the Portuguese charter carrier HiFly landed an A340 in Antarctica for the first time in history. As of December 2021, the global A340 fleet had carried over 600 million passengers and completed more than 2.5 million flights over 20 million block hours since its entry into service with 99 percent operational reliability and zero fatal accidents. == Variants == There are four variants of the A340. The A340-200 and A340-300 were launched in 1987 with introduction into service in March 1993 for the −200. The A340-500 and A340-600 were launched in 1997 with introduction into service in 2002. All variants were available in a corporate version. === A340-200 === The −200 is one of two initial versions of the A340; it has seating for 261 passengers in a three-class cabin layout with a range of 13,800 kilometres (7,500 nmi; 8,600 mi) or seating for 240 passengers also in a three-class cabin layout for a range of 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi; 9,300 mi). This is the shortest version of the family and the only version with a wingspan measuring greater than its fuselage length. It is powered by four CFMI CFM56-5C4 engines and uses the Honeywell 331–350[A] auxiliary power unit (APU). It initially entered service with Air France in May 1993. Due to its large wingspan, four engines, low capacity and general inferiority to the larger and more improved A340-300, the −200 proved very unpopular with mainstream airlines. Only 28 A340-200s were produced. Boeing did not produce a direct competitor. One version of this type (referred to by Airbus as the A340-8000) was ordered by the prince Jefri Bolkiah, with the request for a non-stop range of 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi; 9,300 mi). This A340-8000, in the Royal Brunei Airlines livery had an increased fuel capacity, an MTOW of 275 tonnes (606,000 lb), similar to the A340-300, and minor reinforcements to the undercarriage. It is powered by the 150 kilonewtons (34,000 lbf) thrust CFM56-5C4s similar to the −300E. Only one A340-8000 was produced. Besides the −8000, some A340-200s are used for VIP or military use; these include Royal Brunei Airlines, Qatar Amiri Flight, Arab Republic of Egypt Government, Royal Saudi Air Force, Jordan and the French Air and Space Force. Following the −8000, other A340-200s were later given performance improvement packages (PIPs) that helped them achieve similar gains in capability as to the A340-8000. Those aircraft are labeled A340-213X. The range for this version is 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi; 9,300 mi). As of March 2024, all but two of the active remaining A340-200s still flying were VIP or government planes. Conviasa and Mahan Air are the only remaining commercial operators of the type. === A340-300 === The A340-300 flies 295 passengers in a typical three-class cabin layout over 6,700 nautical miles (12,400 km; 7,700 mi). This is the initial version, having flown on 25 October 1991, and it entered service with Lufthansa and Air France in March 1993. It is powered by four CFMI CFM56-5C engines and uses the Honeywell 331–350[A] APU, similar to the version used on the −200. The A340-300 was superseded by the A350-900. Its closest competitor was the Boeing 777-200ER. A total of 218 -300s were delivered. The A340-300E, often mislabelled as A340-300X, has an increased MTOW of up to 275 tonnes (606,000 lb) and is powered by the more powerful 34,000 lbf (150 kN) thrust CFMI CFM56-5C4 engines. Typical range with 295 passengers is between 7,200 and 7,400 nautical miles (13,300 and 13,700 km; 8,300 and 8,500 mi). The largest operator of this type is Lufthansa, who has operated a fleet of 30 aircraft. The A340-300 Enhanced is the latest version of this model and was first delivered to South African Airways in 2003, with Air Mauritius receiving the A340-300 Enhanced into its fleet in 2006. It received newer CFM56-5C4/P engines and improved avionics and fly-by-wire systems developed for the A340-500 and −600. As of March 2024, there were 61 Airbus A340-300s in airline service. === A340-500 === When the A340-500 was introduced, it was the world's longest-range commercial airliner. It first flew on 11 February 2002 and was certified on 3 December 2002. Air Canada was supposed to be the launch customer but filed for bankruptcy in January 2003, delaying delivery to March. This allowed early deliveries to the new launch customer, Emirates, allowing the carrier to launch nonstop service from Dubai to New York—its first route in the Americas. The A340-500 can fly 313 passengers in a three-class cabin layout over 16020 km (8650 nm). Compared with the A340-300, the −500 features a 4.3-metre (14.1 ft) fuselage stretch, an enlarged wing, a significant increase in fuel capacity (around 50% larger than the −300), slightly higher cruising speed, a larger horizontal stabiliser and a larger vertical tailplane. The centerline main landing gear was changed to a four-wheel bogie to support the additional weight. The A340-500 is powered by four 240 kN (54,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 553 turbofans and uses the Honeywell 331–600[A] APU. Designed for ultra-long-haul routes, the −500 has a range of 9,000 nautical miles. Due to its range, the −500 is capable of travelling non-stop from London to Perth, Western Australia, though a return flight requires a fuel stop due to headwinds. Singapore Airlines used this model (initially in a two-class 181-passenger layout, later in a 100-passenger business-only layout) between early 2004 and late 2013 for its Newark–Singapore and Singapore–Newark nonstop routes SQ21 and SQ22. The former was an 18-hour, 45-minute 'westbound' (actually a polar route northbound to 130 km (70 nm) across the North Pole, then south across Russia, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China) and the latter was an 18-hour, 30-minute eastbound, 15,344 kilometres (8,285 nmi; 9,534 mi) journey. At the time, the flight was the longest-scheduled non-stop commercial flight in the world. Singapore Airlines even added a special compartment to the aircraft to store a corpse if a passenger were to die during the flight, though it was reported that its use had not been necessary. Singapore Airlines suspended operating the flight from 2013 onwards partly due to high fuel prices at that time and returned its aircraft to Airbus in exchange for ordering new Airbus A350 aircraft. The SQ21/SQ22 route was eventually resumed, flown by A350-900ULR aircraft. The A340-500IGW (Increased Gross Weight) version has a range of 17,000 km (9,200 nmi; 11,000 mi) and a MTOW of 380 t (840,000 lb) and first flew on 13 October 2006. It uses the strengthened structure and enlarged fuel capacity of the A340-600. The certification aircraft, a de-rated A340-541 model, became the first delivery to Thai Airways International, on 11 April 2007. Nigerian airline Arik Air received a pair of A340-542s in November 2008, using the type to launch two new routes immediately Lagos–London Heathrow and Lagos–Johannesburg; a non-stop Lagos–New York route began in January 2010. The A340-500IGW is powered by four 250 kN (56,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 556 turbofans. The A340-500 proved to be unpopular with customers. This was primarily attributed to its perceived inefficiency, as it carried a relatively low number of passengers while still retaining most of the heavy structural elements of its larger sibling, the A340-600, from which it was derived. Furthermore, operating in the specialized ultra long-haul market proved challenging, given the substantial fuel load required for such extended flights, making it a segment where profitability was hard to achieve. As of May 2025, there are no longer any commercial A340-500 in service. The remaining A340-500 are currently operating private service or as government planes, such as Las Vegas Sands and Qatar Amiri Flight. === A340-600 === Designed to replace early-generation Boeing 747-200/300 airliners, the A340-600 can carry 379 passengers in a three-class cabin layout for 13,900 km (7,500 nmi; 8,600 mi). It provides a passenger capacity similar to a 747 but with 25 per cent more cargo volume and lower trip and seat costs. The first flight of the A340-600 was made on 23 April 2001. Virgin Atlantic began commercial services in August 2002. The variant's main competitor is the 777-300ER. The A340-600 was replaced by the A350-1000. The A340-600 is 12 m (39 ft 4.4 in) longer than a −300, more than 4 m (13 ft 1.5 in) longer than the Boeing 747-400 and 2.3 m (7 ft 6.6 in) longer than the A380, and has two emergency exit doors added over the wings. It held the record for the world's longest commercial aircraft until the first flight of the Boeing 747-8 in February 2010. The A340-600 is powered by four 250 kN (56,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 556 turbofans and uses the Honeywell 331–600[A] APU. As with the −500, it has a four-wheel undercarriage bogie on the fuselage centre-line to cope with the increased MTOW along with the enlarged wing and rear empennage. Upper deck main cabin space can be optionally increased by locating facilities such as crew rest areas, galleys, and lavatories upon the aircraft's lower deck. In early 2007, Airbus reportedly advised carriers to reduce cargo in the forward section by 5.0 t (11,000 lb) to compensate for overweight first and business-class sections; the additional weight caused the aircraft's centre of gravity to move forward, thus reducing cruise efficiency. Affected airlines considered filing compensation claims with Airbus. The A340-600HGW (High Gross Weight) version first flew on 18 November 2005 and was certified on 14 April 2006. It has an MTOW of 380 t (840,000 lb) and a range of up to 14,630 km (7,900 nmi; 9,090 mi), made possible by strengthened structure, increased fuel capacity, more powerful engines, and new manufacturing techniques like laser beam welding. The A340-600HGW is powered by four 61,900 lbf (275 kN) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 560 turbofans. Emirates became the launch customer for the −600HGW when it ordered 18 at the 2003 Paris Air Show; but postponed its order indefinitely and later cancelled it. Rival Qatar Airways, which placed its order at the same airshow, took delivery of only four aircraft, with the first aircraft on 11 September 2006. The airline has since let its purchase options expire in favour of orders for the Boeing 777-300ER. As of March 2024, there were 33 A340-600s in service with nine airlines worldwide. === Military designations === B.L.19 (Thai: บ.ล.๑๙) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the A340-541. == Operators == Over the duration of the programme, a total of 377 A340 family aircraft were delivered, of which 187 are in service as of April 2025. The five largest scheduled airline operators are Lufthansa (30), Mahan Air (15), European Cargo (6), Edelweiss Air (5), Swiss International Air Lines (4). === Deliveries === 'Note: The total number of deliveries corresponds to the Airbus O&D file, while the details are given in the ABCD list..' == Accidents and incidents == The A340 has never been involved in a fatal accident, although there have been six hull-loss accidents: === Accidents === Landing phase 5 November 1997 – Virgin Atlantic Flight 024, an Airbus A340-311 registered as G-VSKY China Girl, conducted an emergency landing on Runway 27L at London Heathrow Airport with the aircraft's left-main landing gear partially extended. The aircraft was repaired and returned to service. 29 August 1998 – a Sabena Airbus A340-200 registered as OO-SCW was severely damaged while landing on Runway 25L at Brussels Airport. The right main gear collapsed; the right engines and wingtip hit the runway and slid to the right in soft ground. The 248 passengers and 11 crew were safely evacuated. The cause of the gear failure was found to be a fatigue crack. Although severely damaged, the aircraft was repaired and returned to service for 16 years until it was stored. 2 August 2005 – Air France Flight 358, an Airbus A340-313E registered as F-GLZQ, was destroyed by a crash and subsequent fire after it overran runway 24L at Toronto Pearson International Airport while landing in a thunderstorm. The aircraft slid into Etobicoke Creek and caught fire. All 297 passengers and 12 crew survived; 43 people were injured, 12 seriously. 9 November 2007 – Iberia Flight 6463, an Airbus A340-642 registered as EC-JOH, was badly damaged after sliding off the runway at Ecuador's Mariscal Sucre International Airport. The landing gear collapsed and two engines broke off. All 345 passengers and 14 crew members were evacuated by inflatable slides, and there were no serious injuries. The aircraft was written off and scrapped. Take-off phase 20 March 2009 – Emirates Flight 407, an Airbus A340-541 registered as A6-ERG, failed to take off properly from Melbourne Airport, hitting several structures at the end of the runway before eventually climbing enough to return to the airport for a safe landing. There were no injures, but the occurrence was severe enough to be classified an accident by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau. The plane was subsequently repaired, and returned to service for five years before it was scrapped. === Incidents === Fire related 20 January 1994 – an Air France Airbus A340-200 registered as F-GNIA was destroyed by fire during servicing at Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport. This marks the first hull-loss of an A340. 11 June 2018 – A Lufthansa Airbus A340-300 registered as D-AIFA was being towed with maintenance staff on board to the departure gate at Frankfurt Airport's terminal when the tow truck caught fire. The flames substantially damaged the aircraft's front section, and ten people on the ground received minor injuries. The damage was assessed to be beyond economical repair and the aircraft was written off. Test related 15 November 2007 – an Airbus A340-600 with the test registration F-WWCJ was damaged beyond repair during ground testing at Airbus' facilities at Toulouse Blagnac International Airport. During a pre-delivery engine test, some safety checks had been disabled, leading to the unchocked aircraft accelerating to 31 knots (57 km/h; 36 mph) and colliding with a concrete blast deflection wall. The right-wing, tail, and left engines made contact with the ground or wall, leaving the forward section elevated several metres and the cockpit broken off; five people on board were injured, four of them seriously, but no fatalities resulted. The aircraft was written off and was later used at Virgin Atlantic's cabin crew training facility in Crawley, England. It had been due to be delivered to Etihad Airways as A6-EHG. War related 24 July 2001 – a SriLankan Airlines Airbus A340-300 registered as 4R-ADD was destroyed on the ground at Bandaranaike International Airport, being one of 26 aircraft which were damaged or destroyed during an attack upon the airport by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam militants. == Specifications == Line drawings === Engines === == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Deli Mike, an Airbus A340-300 notable for its strange unreliability Related development Airbus A330 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 777 Ilyushin Il-96 McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Related lists List of jet airliners List of civil aircraft == References == Notes References Bibliography == External links == Official Airbus A330 and A340 airliners web page Airbus A340-200/300 page on airliners.net "Airbus A340 Report". Forecast International. April 2007.
Airbus A220	The Airbus A220 is a family of five-abreast narrow-body airliners by Airbus Canada Limited Partnership (ACLP). It was originally developed by Bombardier Aviation and had two years in service as the Bombardier CSeries. The program was launched on 13 July 2008. The smaller A220-100 (formerly CS100) first flew on 16 September 2013, received an initial type certificate from Transport Canada on 18 December 2015, and entered service on 15 July 2016 with launch operator Swiss Global Air Lines. The longer A220-300 (formerly CS300) first flew on 27 February 2015, received an initial type certificate on 11 July 2016, and entered service with airBaltic on 14 December 2016. Both launch operators recorded better-than-expected fuel burn and dispatch reliability, as well as positive feedback from passengers and crew. In July 2018, the aircraft was rebranded as the A220 after Airbus acquired a majority stake in the programme through a joint venture that became ACLP in June 2019. The A220 thus became the only Airbus commercial aircraft programme managed outside of Europe. In August, a second A220 final assembly line opened at the Airbus Mobile facility in Alabama, supplementing the main facility in Mirabel, Quebec. In February 2020, Airbus increased its stake in ACLP to 75% through Bombardier's exit, while Investissement Québec held the remaining stake. Powered by Pratt & Whitney PW1500G geared turbofan engines under its wings, the twinjet features fly-by-wire flight controls, a carbon composite wing, an aluminium-lithium fuselage, and optimised aerodynamics for better fuel efficiency. The aircraft family offers maximum take-off weights from 63.1 to 70.9 t (139,000 to 156,000 lb), and cover a 3,450–3,600 nmi (6,390–6,670 km; 3,970–4,140 mi) range. The 35 m (115 ft) long A220-100 seats 108 to 133, while the 38.7 m (127 ft) long A220-300 seats 130 to 160. The ACJ TwoTwenty is the business jet version of the A220-100, launched in late 2020. Delta Air Lines is the largest A220 customer and operator with 79 aircraft in its fleet as of May 2025. A total of 904 A220s have been ordered of which 418 have been delivered and are all in commercial service with 24 operators. The global A220 fleet has completed more than 1.54 million flights over 2.69 million block hours, transporting more than 100 million passengers, with one smoke-related accident. The A220 family complements the A319neo in the Airbus range and competes with Boeing 737 MAX 7, as well as the smaller four-abreast Embraer E195-E2 and E190-E2, with the A220 holding over 55% market share in this small airliner category. == Development == === BRJ-X forerunner concept === Bombardier began discussions with Fokker on 5 February 1996 about acquiring that company's assets, including the 100-seat Fokker 100 short-haul aircraft. However, after evaluating the potential purchase, Bombardier announced an end to the talks on 27 February, and two weeks later, on 15 March, Fokker was declared bankrupt. Bombardier then launched the BRJ-X, or "Bombardier Regional Jet eXpansion" on 8 September, a larger regional jet than the CRJ Series or "Canadair Regional Jet" due to enter service in 2003. Instead of 2–2 seating, the BRJ-X was to have a wider fuselage with 2–3 seating for 85 to 110 passengers, and underwing engine pods. It was comparable to the smallest narrow-body jetliners, like the 2–3 DC-9/MD-80/Boeing 717 or the 3–3 Airbus A318 and Boeing 737-500/737-600. At the end of 2000, the project was shelved by Bombardier in favour of stretching the CRJ700 into the CRJ900. Meanwhile, Embraer launched its four-abreast E-Jet family for 70 to 122 passengers in June 1999, which entered service in 2004. Airbus launched its 107–117 passengers A318 on 21 April 1999, which entered service in July 2003, as Boeing had the 737-600 first delivered in September 1998. === CSeries feasibility study === Bombardier appointed Gary Scott on 8 March 2004 to evaluate the creation of a New Commercial Aircraft Program. A feasibility study for a five-seat abreast CSeries was then launched at the biennial Farnborough Airshow in July to investigate development of an aircraft to replace rival manufacturers' aging models: DC-9/MD-80, Fokker 100, Boeing 737 Classic and BAe-146 with 20% lower operating costs, and 15% lower operating costs than then-in-production models: Embraer E-Jet, Boeing 717, etc. The smaller variant (C110) should carry 110 to 115 passengers and the larger (C130) between 130 and 135 passengers over 3,200 nautical miles. The C110 was planned to weigh 60,420 kg (133,200 lb) at MTOW and have a length of 35.0 m (114.7 ft), while the C130 should be 38.2 m (125.3 ft) long and have a 66,000 kg (146,000 lb) MTOW. The aircraft would have 3-by-2 standard seating and 4-abreast business class, 2.1 m (7 ft) stand-up headroom, fly-by-wire and side stick controls. 20 percent of the airframe weight would be in composite materials for the centre and rear fuselages, tail cone, empennage and wings. The first flight was planned for 2008 and entry into service for 2010. Bombardier's Board of Directors authorized marketing the CSeries on 15 March 2005, seeking firm commitments prior to program launch. In May, the CSeries development was evaluated at US$2.1 billion, shared with suppliers and partner governments for one-third each. The Government of Canada would invest US$262.5 million, the Government of Quebec US$87.5 million and the Government of the United Kingdom US$340 million (£180 million), repayable on a royalty basis per aircraft. The UK contribution is part of an investment partnership for the location of the development of the composite wings and other parts at the Belfast plant, where Bombardier bought Short Brothers in 1989. === Search for engines and one-year development break === Despite government support, Bombardier had difficulty finding the right powerplant for the CSeries in June 2005 after failing to get the two engine consortia International Aero Engines and CFM International to compete for the CSeries contract. The former engine manufacturer had offered a new centreline engine in the 93 to 102 kN (21,000 to 23,000 lb) thrust class, while the latter was not yet ready to offer its next-generation CFM56 engine, as Bombardier required a significant upgrade in the event of an engine derivative for the CSeries program. Both prospective engine suppliers for the CSeries program were uncertain about the aircraft market projections after Bombardier failed to address these concerns, but they left the door open to future discussions of a potential program. Bombardier then returned to Pratt & Whitney (P&W) in search of the right engine for the CSeries, although the company had already rejected a PW6000 derivative offered by P&W a year earlier, maintaining its original plan to launch the all-new aircraft program only with a new centreline engine as well. Bombardier announced on 31 January 2006 that market conditions could not justify the launch of the program, and that the company would reorient CSeries project efforts, team and resources to regional jet and turboprop aircraft. A small team of employees were kept to develop the CSeries business plan and were further tasked to include other risk-sharing partners in the program. Bombardier announced on 31 January 2007 that work on the aircraft would continue, with entry into service planned for 2013. In November 2007, Bombardier finally selected the P&W Geared Turbofan (GTF), now the PW1500G, already selected to power the Mitsubishi Regional Jet, to be the exclusive powerplant for the CSeries, rated at 100 kN (23,000 lb). === Program launch and type redesignation === Bombardier's Board of Directors authorized offering formal sales proposals of the CSeries to airline customers on 22 February 2008, due to its 20% lower fuel burn and up to 15% better operating costs compared to similarly sized aircraft produced at the time. This interested Lufthansa, Qatar Airways and ILFC. In a press conference on the eve of the opening of the Farnborough Airshow on 13 July, Bombardier Aerospace formally launched the CSeries, with a letter of interest from Lufthansa for 60 aircraft, including 30 options, at a US$46.7 million list price. The aircraft fuel efficiency would be 2 litres per 100 kilometres (120 mpg‑US) per passenger in a dense seating. Bombardier estimated the market for the 100- to 150-seat segment at 6,300 aircraft over twenty years, representing more than $250 billion in revenue, with the company expected to generate up to half of that. Bombardier redesignated the C110 and C130 as CS100 and CS300, respectively in March 2009. The models were offered in standard- and extended-range (ER) variants; and additionally, an extra thrust (XT) variant of the CS300 was also offered. Bombardier subsequently settled on a single variant, with the ER becoming the new standard. === Prototype manufacturing === At the program launch in July 2008, Bombardier announced that final assembly of the CSeries would be done in Mirabel, wings would be developed and manufactured in Belfast and the aft fuselage and cockpit would be manufactured in Saint-Laurent, Quebec. The centre fuselage was to be built by China Aviation Industry Corporation (AVIC)'s affiliate Shenyang Aircraft Corporation. In March 2009, Bombardier confirmed major suppliers: Alenia Aeronautica for the composite horizontal and vertical stabilisers, Fokker Elmo for the wiring and interconnection systems and Goodrich Corporation Actuation Systems: design and production of the flap and slat actuation systems. By June 2009, 96% of billable materials had been allocated, with the company settling on various companies for remaining components and systems: Rockwell Collins for the avionics, Zodiac Aerospace for the interiors, Parker Hannifin for the fully integrated fuel and hydraulics systems, Liebherr-Aerospace for the air management system, and it was also anticipated that wireless In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) might be feasible when the CSeries entered service. By November, the first wing had been assembled at the Bombardier Aerostructures and Engineering Services (BAES) site in Belfast, Northern Ireland. In the same month, construction of a composite wing manufacturing facility at the Belfast site started and the first flight of the CSeries was expected by 2012. In 2010, Ghafari Associates was retained to develop the Montreal manufacturing site to accommodate the aircraft production. === Test preparation and high-density concept === Bombardier was about to reach the design freeze for the CSeries in January 2010 and announced that CS100 deliveries were planned to start in 2013, and CS300 deliveries would follow a year later. In November 2011, Bombardier expected a second-half 2012 first flight as it wasn't to receive the first fuselage package until mid-2012 at the earliest and Pratt & Whitney still had "a little bit more work to do" to meet the requirement. In June 2012, Bombardier reaffirmed the first flight should happen before the year's end with subsequent entry into service remaining 2013. In July 2012, Bombardier began discussions with AirAsia at the Farnborough Airshow about a 160-seat high-density CS300 concept, which was subsequently added to the CSeries program in November, despite the low cost airline's refusal to order 100 units of this version. In the same month, Bombardier announced a six-month delay in both the first flight to June 2013 and the entry into service (EIS) of the CS100 a year later due to unspecified supplier issues in some areas of the program. An extensive program update was presented on 7 March 2013, with the Flight Test Vehicle 1 (FTV1) was displayed in a near-complete state, along with three other FTVs in various states of assembly: one such FTV confirmed the 160 seat high-density concept for the CS300, featuring two sets of over-wing emergency exits. The first FTV's electrical system was powered up in March, while tests on the static airframe proceeded satisfactorily and on schedule. In June, Bombardier again delayed the first flight into July on account of software upgrades and final ground testing. On 24 July, after a protracted system integration process, the first flight was delayed into "the coming weeks". On 30 August, Bombardier received the flight test permit from Transport Canada, granting permission to perform high speed taxi testing and flight testing. === Flight testing & program delays === The CS100 (FTV1) took off for its maiden flight from Bombardier's facility at Montréal–Mirabel International Airport in Quebec on 16 September 2013. After reconfiguration and software upgrades, FTV1 flew for the second time on 1 October. The FTV2 completed its first flight on 3 January 2014, while the planned entry-into-service date was delayed into the second half of 2015 due to certification testing issues. On 29 May 2014, the FTV1 suffered an uncontained engine failure and flight testing of the four FTVs was subsequently suspended until an investigation could be completed. The incident kept Bombardier from displaying the CSeries at one of the most important aerospace events in that year, Farnborough Airshow. On 7 September, flight testing was resumed after the engine problem had been isolated to a fault in the lubrication system. On 18 September, Bombardier relocated the FTV4 to Wichita, Kansas (USA) joined FTV3 at the Bombardier Flight Test Center to take advantage of better weather for flight testing. The CS300 (FTV7) made its maiden flight from Mirabel airport on 27 February 2015, seven days after the four tested FTVs had accumulated over 1,000 flight hours. The flight test results surpassed the company's guarantees for noise, economics and performance, meaning a longer range than advertised could be possible. The fifth CS100 (FTV5) with a complete interior made its first flight on 18 March, while the sixth CS100 (not officially designated as FTV6) was the first production unit used for function and reliability flights. At the Paris Air Show in June, Bombardier released updated performance data, showing improvements over the initial specifications. The CS100 passed the required certification tests by mid-November. On 25 November, Bombardier completed the first phase of its route proving capabilities, with a 100% dispatch reliability. The final prototype, FTV8, the second CS300 with a complete interior, made its first flight on 3 March 2016. === Type certification === The smallest model in the series, the 110- to 125-seat CS100, received type certificate from Transport Canada on 18 December 2015, and simultaneously from US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in June 2016, clearing the way for delivery to the launch operator, Swiss International Air Lines. The largest model, the 130- to 145-seat CS300, obtained its type certificate from Transport Canada on 11 July 2016, from the EASA on 7 October that cleared the delivery to its launch operator airBaltic, and from the FAA on 14 December 2016. Both models were awarded a common type rating on 23 November 2016 simultaneously from Transport Canada and EASA, allowing pilots to qualify on both types interchangeably. Bombardier conducted steep 5.5˚ approach landings tests at London City Airport (LCY) in March 2017, and announced one month later, April 2017, that the CS100 received Transport Canada and EASA steep approach certification. === Entry into service === The first CSeries, a CS100, was delivered to Swiss Global Air Lines on 29 June 2016 at Montréal–Mirabel International Airport, and began commercial service on 15 July with a flight between Zürich and Paris. The launch operator stated in August, that "the customer feedback is very positive with the expected remarks concerning the bright cabin, reduced noise, enough leg room and space for hand luggage as well as the comfortable seats. Also, the feedback from our pilots is gratifying. They especially like the intuitive flying experience." The first CS300 was delivered to second CSeries operator AirBaltic on 28 November, and began revenue service on 14 December with a flight from Riga to Amsterdam in a two-class, 145-seat configuration. The type launch operator lauded lower noise levels for passengers and more space for luggage than its Boeing 737-300s. Upon introduction, both variants were performing above their original specifications, with airBaltic reporting that the CS300 range was 2% better, as were its per seat and per trip cost, and burned over 1% less fuel at 2,600 L/h. On long missions, the CS100 was up to 1% more fuel efficient than the brochure and the CS300 up to 3%. Therefore, Bombardier would update its performance specifications later in 2017. The CS300 burned 20% less fuel than the Airbus A319ceo, 21% less than the Boeing 737 Classic while the CS100 18 to 27% less per seat than the Avro RJ100. Furthermore, the CS300 was designed to be 6 t (13,000 lb) lighter than the Airbus A319neo and nearly 8 t (18,000 lb) lighter than the Boeing 737 MAX 7, giving it an operating cost advantage of up to 12%. After 28,000 engine hours in 14 in-service aircraft with a dispatch reliability of 99.9%, Swiss replaced an engine pair in May 2017 after 2,400 hours, while airBaltic replaced another one in June. Swiss initially flew six sectors a day and by July up to nine a day with an average time of 1 hours 15 minutes. airBaltic's flight length averaged 3 hours, and the average fleet daily usage was 14 hours. On 8 August, following the steep approach certification by EASA, Swiss operated its first revenue flight from Zurich to London City, replacing the Avro RJ. As of September, the CSeries fleet had undergone 20 A Checks with no significant maintenance issues, and over 1.5 million passengers had 16,000 revenue flights in the 18 aircraft in service, making up to 100 revenue flights per day on 100 routes: most used were up to 17 hours per day and up to 10 legs per day. Thirty-five minute turnarounds allowed 11 legs per day. On 22 December, after months of engine delivery delays, Korean Air became the third and latest operator of CSeries after receiving its first CS300, and completed its first revenue flight from Seoul to Ulsan on 20 January 2018. === A220 rebranding === The aircraft was rebranded A220 as a family name (formerly CSeries) with A220-100/300 (formerly CS100/CS300) as variant name on 10 July 2018, following the Airbus partnership ten days earlier. Financial issues at Bombardier due to the CSeries programme and production delays, stiff competition and ultimately a dumping petition by Boeing paved the way for the partnership. ==== Issues in the financial situation (JV formed as CSALP) ==== During the feasibility study prior to the programme launch, development costs for the CSeries were evaluated at $2.1 billion in May 2005, shared with suppliers and partner governments for one-third each. In November 2009, when the first CSeries wing was assembled for prototype manufacture, development costs rose to approximately $3.5 billion. Programme delays during the test preparation and flight test phase also resulted in order cancellations, including from the Swedish lessor. In August 2014, Bombardier changed the programme's management and slashed its workforce. In 2015, in exchange for help in the final development stages of the "overdue and over-budget" aircraft, Bombardier offered to sell a controlling stake in the CSeries programme to Airbus but then had to look for alternatives after the latter confirmed in October that it had turned down the offer. Just days prior, the Government of Quebec reiterated its willingness to provide Bombardier with financial aid, if it were requested. On 29 October, Bombardier took a CA$3.2 billion write-down on the CSeries. The Trudeau government indicated that it would reply to Bombardier's request for $350 million in assistance after it took power in early November. On the same day, the Quebec government invested CA$1 billion in the company to save the struggling programme. In early November, a Scotiabank report indicated that the company and the programme would probably need a second bailout, and that even then the CSeries would probably not make money. When Transport Canada granted type certification for the CS100 in December 2015, CSeries' total development costs, including the aforementioned write-offs, were $5.4 billion. At the time, the CSeries had 250 firm orders and letters of intent, plus commitments for another 360, mostly for the CS300. Bombardier reportedly requested a CA$1 billion aid package from the Canadian Government in April 2016. The Government then offered an aid package without divulging the amount or conditions imposed. In July, Bombardier set up the C Series Aircraft Limited Partnership (CSALP) together with Investissement Québec. The Government finally announced in February 2017 a package of CA$372.5 million in interest-free loans for the company, with the programme to receive one-third. ==== Delays in aircraft production ==== In 2016, Bombardier achieved its goal of delivering seven CSeries aircraft to both launch operators, Swiss and airBaltic. Production was then set to ramp to 30–35 aircraft deliveries in 2017 after PW1500G engine supply and start issues were resolved. However, the CSeries delivery goal for 2017 had to be revised to 20–22 aircraft only, due to persistent engine delivery delays, and finally, only 17 deliveries were completed in the year. By the time the Airbus partnership came into effect on 1 July 2018, a total of 37 CSeries had been delivered, which was a very low production rate considering Bombardier had forecast at the programme launch, 315 annual deliveries from 2008 to 2027 for 100- to 150-seat airliners, up to half of that (157 units) would be delivered by the company itself. However, the average production rate of the six available models (B737-700, A318/A319, CS100/CS300 and E195) was fewer than 80 aircraft per year for the first 10.5 years. ==== Market stiff competition ==== The CSeries competed with the smaller variants of the A320 family aircraft. The 2010 order for 40 CS300s and 40 options from Republic Airways Holdings – then owner of exclusive A319/320 operator Frontier Airlines – also pushed Airbus into the A320neo re-engine. Airbus opted to compete aggressively against the CSeries rather than ignoring it, as Boeing had done with Airbus. Airbus dropped the A320's price in head-to-head competition, successfully blocking Bombardier from several deals. The effect of stiff competition and production delays was apparent in early 2016. On 20 January, United Continental Holdings ordered 40 Boeing 737-700s instead of the CSeries due to the availability of the type that already in full production, and commonality with the United's 737 fleet of 310 aircraft. Boeing also reportedly gave United a massive 73% discount on the 737 deal, dropping the price to $22 million per unit, well below the CS300 market value at $36 million. David Tyerman, an analyst with Canaccord Genuity said to the Toronto Star: "This just shows how difficult it is for Bombardier to win orders these days.[...]. It also raises the question of how profitable the next C Series order they win will be for them." ==== Boeing dumping petition ==== On 28 April 2016, Bombardier Aerospace, a division of Bombardier Inc., recorded a firm order from Delta Air Lines for 75 CSeries CS100s plus 50 options. On 27 April 2017, The Boeing Company filed a petition for dumping them at $19.6m each, below their $33.2m production cost. On the same day, both Bombardier and the government of Canada rejected Boeing's claim, vowing to mount a "vigorous defence". On 9 June 2017, the US International Trade Commission (USITC) found that the US industry could be threatened and should be protected. On 26 September, after lobbying by Boeing, the US Department of Commerce (DoC) alleged subsidies of 220% and intended to collect deposits accordingly, plus a preliminary 80% anti-dumping duty, resulting in a duty of 300%. The DoC announced its final ruling, a total duty of 292%, on 20 December, hailing it as an affirmation of the "America First" policy. In October, with financial issues already mounting, Bombardier was indirectly forced by the US government tariffs to relinquish 50.01% of its stake in the CSeries program to Airbus for a symbolic CAD$1, and would produce CSeries aircraft in the United States. On 10 January 2018, Canada formally filed a complaint at the World Trade Organization (WTO) against the United States over the affair. On 26 January, the four USITC commissioners unanimously reversed their earlier claims, finding that US industry is no longer threatened and no duty orders will be issued, overturning the imposed duties. The Commission public report was made available by February 2018. On March 22, Boeing declined to appeal the ruling. ==== Airbus programme acquisition (JV renamed into ACLP) ==== Bombardier and Airbus announced on 16 October 2017 that Airbus would acquire a 50.01% majority stake in the CSALP partnership, with Bombardier keeping 31% and Investissement Québec 19%. Airbus paid no money, incurred no debt and assumed no liability for its share in the programme, but its supply chain expertise should save production costs, and a second assembly line would be built at its production facility, Airbus Mobile, in Mobile, Alabama. While assembling the aircraft in U.S. could circumvent the 292% duties proposed in the Boeing dumping petition, Airbus CEO Tom Enders and Bombardier CEO Alain Bellemare assured that this factor did not drive the partnership. However, negotiations began in August 2017 after the filing in April and the decision in June to proceed, and Boeing was therefore suspicious. Airbus CCO John Leahy considered that Boeing indirectly forced the CSeries programme into Airbus hands by pressing the U.S. administration for massive tariffs on the aircraft. Bombardier CEO predicted that the partnership would significantly accelerate sales as it would bring certainty to the CSeries programme through Airbus's global scale. AirInsight estimated that Airbus's corporate strength would increase the CSeries share of the 100- to 150-seat aircraft market over 20 years, from 40% of 5,636 aircraft (2,254 sales) to 55–60%, around 3,010 aircraft. Airbus would retain Bombardier as a strategic partner beyond the period required in the clauses, allowing it to acquire Investissement Québec's stake no earlier than 2023 and Bombardier's stake no earlier than 2025, but with main production remaining in Mirabel, Québec until at least 2041. The partnership was subject to regulatory approvals, and during competition investigation, Airbus and Bombardier were to operate separately and clean teams planned the integration with privileged access to competitively sensitive data but separated from their management. Embraer assured at the Dubai Airshow in November 2017 that its base country Brazil would sue Canada for its subsidies to Bombardier through the World Trade Organization, because the competitor viewed CSeries as a heavy, expensive, and long, thin-haul aircraft outperforming the range of its own E-Jet E2, a close rival for market share. Previously, in October 2017, Boeing was reportedly concerned over its ability to match fleet package deals enabled by the partnership. Then, in December 2017, The Wall Street Journal reported Boeing was planning to offer Embraer more than the company's $3.7 billion market value to set up a joint venture, in what aviation industry analysts said was a reaction to the partnership. The Boeing–Embraer joint venture was announced in February 2019, but before the antitrust investigations were completed, the deal was unilaterally terminated by Boeing in April 2020 due to impact of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic on aviation. The antitrust investigation was due to be completed ahead of Farnborough Airshow 2018 to allow for a marketing boost, and it was planned to rebrand the CSeries as an Airbus model, with A200 suggested as a family name and A210/A230 for the CS100 and CS300. On 8 June, following regulatory approval, the partnership confirmed that Airbus would take a majority stake on 1 July. The head office, and leadership team would remain in Mirabel, while the programme team would be formed by leaders from both Airbus and Bombardier and headed by Philippe Balducchi, then Head of Performance Management at Airbus Commercial Aircraft. Bombardier would fund any required cash shortfalls up to US$610 million from the second half of 2018 to 2021. Ten days after programme control was transferred to Airbus, the aircraft was rebranded with A220 as the family name (formerly CSeries) and A220-100/300 for the former CS100/CS300 variants. Later, on 1 June 2019, the CSALP joint venture was renamed to Airbus Canada Limited Partnership (ACLP) and adopted the Airbus logo as its sole visual identity. The A220 became the only Airbus commercial aircraft programme managed outside of Europe, making Canada Airbus's largest presence other than Europe. ==== Bombardier exit participation ==== After reassessing its participation in January 2020, Bombardier exited the A220 programme in February 2020, selling its share to Airbus for $591 million. Airbus thus owned 75% of the programme; the remaining 25% of shares were held by Investissement Québec. Under the acquisition terms Airbus acquired Bombardier's option to buy out Investissement Québec's share from 2023, with a revised option date of 2026. Airbus also agreed to acquire A220 and A330 work package production capabilities from Bombardier in Saint-Laurent, to be taken through the Airbus subsidiary, Stelia Aerospace. Airbus and the government of Quebec agreed in February 2022 to invest a further $1.2b in Airbus Canada, to support the acceleration of the A220 production rate to 14 A220s per month. Accordingly, Airbus would invest $900m into the aircraft programme and Investissement Québec $300m, allowing the partnership to continue until the programme becomes profitable in the middle of the decade. In addition, 2030 had been set as the new earliest date for Airbus to acquire the remaining shares, with Quebec hoping to definitely profit from the sale. Under the latest agreement in July 2024 the threshold for Airbus to buy out Québec's share will be further extended to 2035, securing that two-thirds of the jobs linked to the production of the A220 will remain in Quebec. Meanwhile, the A220 held a market share of over 55% in its category and PwC estimated the aircraft programme will have an economic impact in Canada of more than $40 billion over the next 20 years. === Production === The Airbus partnership in July 2018 decided to keep the primary final assembly line (FAL) in Mirabel, Quebec, with its 2,200 workforce. The secondary FAL in Mobile would start deliveries in 2020 with a monthly production rate of four, rising to six for a capacity of eight while the main Mirabel FAL could go to ten. Airbus CFO predicted a production potential of more than 100 A220 per year. The company targeted over 100 orders of A220 in 2018 and 3,000 over 20 years, half of the 100- to 150-seat market, and needed a supply chain cost reduction over 10%. It then sought to reduce costs from all suppliers, including Bombardier, wing builder Short Brothers and engine manufacturer Pratt & Whitney, and had reportedly pushed its suppliers to lower their prices by 20% for more volume, or to switch them, towards 150 yearly deliveries. As of January 2019, the A220 suppliers were Liebherr for the landing gear, air management system and pneumatics; UTC Aerospace for the electrical system and lighting; Parker for the fuel, hydraulics and fly by wire systems, Goodrich for the engine nacelle; Meggitt for the wheels and brakes; Michelin for the tires; Spirit for the pylons; Honeywell for the APU; and PPG supplies the windows. Supplier costs could be cut by 30–40% through Airbus's market power, as a 10% procurement costs decrease would add six gross margin points to the programme. Airbus waited to win several new orders before increasing pressure on suppliers and catching their attention in 2019 with the sale of 135 A220s to U.S. airlines, including a follow-up order from Delta. The market share was split between 80% A220-300 and 20% A220-100. Delivery rates continued to climb with the new brand, reaching a total output of 33 in 2018, and then rising to 48 A220 in 2019. The groundbreaking ceremony for the $300 million final assembly line (FAL) at the Airbus Mobile plant in Mobile, Alabama was held on 16 January 2019; on this occasion Airbus confirmed its confidence that there is enough demand to justify two assembly sites and that the airliner can be profitable. On 5 August 2019, production started at the Mobile facility, which was not due to be finished until 2020; work started early to ensure that the first delivery schedule could be met. The removal of Bombardier's financial constraints in February 2020 gave Airbus greater latitude for further investment in the programme, which will be needed to ramp up production rates, though this will push back the break-even point of the programme to the mid-2020s. The program cost was US$ 7 billion. On 2 June 2020, the first A220 produced in Alabama completed its first flight. By that date, production of the first aircraft for JetBlue Airways had also started. The first US-assembled A220 aircraft, an A220-300, was delivered to Delta on 22 October 2020. In January 2021, as Airbus reviewed its production rates following a shift in demand away from wide-bodies affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, the A220 was expected to reach a production rate of five aircraft per month by the end of the first quarter as previously foreseen. In May 2021, Airbus targeted a production rate of six per month from early 2022, and intends to reach 14 (ten in Quebec and four in Alabama) per month by the middle of the decade to be profitable. On 10 January 2022, Airbus introduced a "sub-assembly line" or the A220 pre-FAL, a U-shaped pre-assembly line with four stations used for preparatory work and seven for the actual equipping, in order to install systems earlier, stabilising the production process. The equipped fuselage sections are then moved to the FAL in Mirabel or in Mobile at a rate of six per month as of November 2022. These investments had accelerated A220 production and confirmed that the programme is on track to reach its target rate of 14 aircraft per month by mid-decade. The 50th US-assembled A220 aircraft, an A220-300, was delivered to Breeze Airways on 30 August 2023. After 1,600 new hires over the last two years, an increase of 75%, a total of 3,500 employees were working on the A220 programme in Quebec as of July 2024. === Further development === ==== Performance improvements ==== After beating performance promises by 3%, performance improvement packages shaving operating costs were explored prior to the Airbus partnership; these could include putting doors on the exposed main wheels, reducing drag but adding weight and complexity, and adding two to three more seats by moving the aft lavatory, without reducing the seat pitch. On 21 May 2019, Airbus announced a 2,268 kg (5,000 lb) MTOW increase from the second half of 2020, from 60.8 to 63.1 t (134,000 to 139,000 lb) for the A220-100 and 67.6 to 69.9 t (149,000 to 154,000 lb) for the A220-300, expanding the range by 450 nmi (830 km; 520 mi) to: 3,400 nmi (6,300 km; 3,900 mi) for the A220-100 and 3,350 nmi (6,200 km; 3,860 mi) for the A220-300. With the Airbus ruleset (90 kg (200 lb) passengers with bags, 3% enroute reserve, 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) alternate and 30 minutes hold), the 108-seat A220-100 could reach 3,800 nmi (7,000 km; 4,400 mi) and the 130-seat A220-300 would achieve a range of 3,500 nmi (6,500 km; 4,000 mi) while being limited by its fuel capacity. With a denser economy seating at a 30-inch pitch down from 32, a 116-seat A220-100 would still reach 3,700 nmi (6,900 km; 4,300 mi) and a 141-seat A220-300 would exceed 3,350 nmi (6,200 km; 3,860 mi). In February 2020, Airbus announced an increase in payload capacity, achieved through a 1.8 t (4,000 lb) increase in the maximum zero-fuel weight and maximum landing weight of both the -100 and the -300, to be introduced as an option from 2022. From 2021, David Neeleman's Breeze Airways project should receive A220-300s with extra fuel tanks for 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) of range, allowing transatlantic flights or long routes like Orlando–Curitiba, Brazil, more range than the A321LR with 70% lower trip costs than A330s. In March 2021, Airbus offered a further 1 t (2,200 lb) increase to the MTOW of the A220-300, to 70.9 t (156,000 lb), available from mid-2021 and providing another 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) of additional range to 3,550 nmi (6,570 km; 4,090 mi). On long routes the payload will be increased by about 900 kg (2,000 lb). ==== Business jet (ACJ TwoTwenty) ==== In October 2020, Airbus announced an Airbus Corporate Jets (ACJ) variant of the A220-100, to be known as the ACJ TwoTwenty, with a range of 5,650 nmi (10,460 km; 6,500 mi) and cabin space of 73 m2 (790 sq ft) for 18 passengers. On 17 May 2021, the first section of the ACJ TwoTwenty, the mid-fuselage section, had arrived at the A220 Final Assembly Line in Mirabel within the programme time frame and marked the start of the first Airbus corporate jet ever assembled in Canada. The business jet made its first flight on 14 December 2021, before delivery to Comlux to be outfitted with a VIP cabin in Indianapolis. ==== Stretched variant (A221) ==== In May 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that a stretched variant, tentatively dubbed the CS500, was being studied to compete with the 160- to 180-seat versions of the Boeing 737 and A320 airliners. The existing wing would be capable of supporting such a stretched version. After the Airbus partnership in 2018, the possible stretched variant was appropriately renamed the A220-500, which would allow Airbus to enlarge its A320-family replacement to better compete with the proposed Boeing New Midsize Airplane. In January 2019, Airbus hinted that a larger A220 variant could be developed, owing to ramped-up production and market demand for the current production models. Speculation about a stretched variant continued in November 2019, with Air France mentioning an A220-500 during an investor briefing on its modernisation strategy. In January 2022, Luxembourg flag carrier Luxair expressed interest in the A220-500 as the airline sought to simplify its operations and avoid operating a mixed fleet of narrow-body aircraft, similarly to airBaltic, which was also said to be looking forward to the stretched variant to complement its A220-300 fleet, while Breeze Airways eyed a longer-range variant. In the same month, following Allegiant Air's decision to walk away from the A220, due in part to the uncertainty surrounding the launch of the A220-500, Airbus CCO Christian Scherer said the stretched A220 variant was planned, although it was not an agenda item for a short-term decision. In July 2022, Airbus solicited an engine proposal from Pratt & Whitney and CFM International as a possible second supplier for the newly stretched variant, as well as the existing variants. In September, Airbus CEO Guillaume Faury signalled to investors at Capital Markets Day that a stretched variant is necessary to increase the A220 family's share of the narrowbody market, adding, "but we don't want to be right too early". The A220-500 could be launched only once the production is geared up and the programme is profitable. If launched in 2025, it would enter service in 2028-2029 and Airbus could accept the risk for the A320neo backlog, more so as Boeing is not expected to launch a new narrowbody before 2030. Another issue is that with the same wing and uprated engines, the A220-500 would have a shorter range than the -300 variant, which essentially has the same range as the A320neo of 3,400 nmi, less than the Boeing 737 MAX 8 advertised by Boeing at 3,550 nmi. Increasing the range to at least the level of the A320neo would require extensive modification work, making development more expensive and reducing the aircraft's competitiveness. In May 2023, Bloomberg reported that Airbus was reviewing the proposed stretched variant to compete more directly with the 737 MAX 8 and free up space for more A321 production. The concept, which Airbus now calls the A221, is gaining clarity as the company mulls an upgrade to the A220 wing design and accelerates design studies. These efforts aim to meet growing market demand and improve the aircraft's overall performance to become a more distinct model within the A220 Family. === Further certification === In December 2018, the EASA approved Category IIIa/IIIb instrument approaches for autolanding the A220 with no decision height but runway visibility minimum requirements. In January 2019, A220 powered with PW1500G gained ETOPS 180 approval from Transport Canada, allowing direct routes over water or remote regions. The A220 was the first commercial airliner to obtain domestic ETOPS certification from Transport Canada. In July 2021, the EASA had officially approved an increase in the A220-300's maximum seating to 149 passengers, subject to a modification on an overwing exit slide. In September 2021, Airbus entered into talks with the Civil Aviation Administration (CAA) of China over the certification of the A220 in order to enter the large Chinese aviation market, particularly in the western part of the country. In November 2022, Airbus was working to certify the 160-seat high-density A220-300, as well as 135-seat high-density A220-100. At the 2023 Dubai Airshow, Airbus confirmed that it is seeking certification of the A220-300 for steep approach landings at London City Airport (LCY). == Design == The Airbus A220 family is a five-abreast single-aisle airliner developed specifically for the 100- to 150-seat market segment between regional airliners and mainline airliners, which includes two models, the 35 m (115 ft) long A220-100 and the larger, 38.71 m (127 ft) long A220-300. The design goal of the unique aircraft was to improve fuel efficiency, as well as operating costs, passenger comfort and range while reducing noise and emissions. These environmental benefits make the A220 family aircraft suitable for urban operations and noise-sensitive airports. === Airframe === Commonality between both variants of the A220 family is over 99%. To support higher loads, the A220-300's wing and centre wing box are structurally reinforced, as is the centre fuselage, which is 3.4 m (11 ft) longer than the -100 variant, and the main landing gear. Extensive use of aluminium–lithium in the fuselage, and carbon composite in wings, empennage, rear fuselage section, and engine nacelles reduces weight and increases corrosion resistance, resulting in better maintainability. The overall airframe consists of 70% advanced lightweight materials, comprising 46% composite materials and 24% aluminium–lithium. The aircraft features a low drag nose and tailcone design, minimum fuselage wetted area and optimised wing aerodynamics. The nose landing gear is common for both variants, while the -300 main landing gear is slightly reinforced. The -100 has three pairs of disc brakes, the -300 one more. === Cabin === The five-abreast cabin cross section has 47.0 cm (18.5 in) wide economy seats, 48.3 cm (19 in) wide middle seats, and a 50.8 cm (20 in) wide aisle for fast turnarounds of 20 minutes. The rotating overhead bins offers 70 L (2.5 cu ft) of storage per passenger to allow one carry-on bag per passenger. Lavatories have improved accessibility for passengers with reduced mobility. Two flex zones allow modular cabin elements such as stowage areas and partitions to be customised. The cabin is lighted naturally through 28 cm × 41 cm (11 in × 16 in) windows at every seat row and artificially by customisable colour LEDs. The aircraft offers overhead video display, wireless content distribution and Ku band connectivity, and can be equipped with in-flight-entertainment. The onboard environment, entertainment offerings and mood lighting are controlled via an integrated cabin management system. It has a 10 cm (4 in) higher ceiling as well as 20% larger luggage bins than other aircraft in its class. The seat is 2.5 cm (1.0 in) wider than the Airbus A320 and 5.0 cm (2.0 in) wider than the Boeing 737. The A220 has a larger window than the A320. The new A220 Airspace XL bins would offer up to 19 additional passenger bags on the A220-300 and accommodate longer and heavier payload items thanks to the four-frame design. The bins would also reduce maintenance and the effort for cabin crew to close the bin doors, resulting in an overall shorter turnaround time and about 140-kilogram (300 lb) lighter cabin structure. To complement the Airspace XL bins, Airbus also took the opportunity to develop an improved Passenger Service Unit (PSU) in line with the Airspace design. At the Aircraft Interiors Expo in April 2025, Airbus launched the A220 Airspace cabin with Air Canada, which would receive its first A220 with this improved cabin in March 2026. === Cockpit === The cockpit features the Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion avionics suite, which incorporates five 38 cm (15.1 in) displays along with comprehensive navigation, communications, surveillance, engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS), electronic checklist, aircraft maintenance systems, and can be equipped with head-up displays. Other elements of the avionics and other subsystems include Parker Hannifin's flight control, fuel and hydraulics systems; Liebherr Aerospace's air management system; and United Technologies Corporation's air data system, flap and slat actuation systems. The cockpit includes a dual flight management system, multi-scan weather radar, fly-by-wire flight controls with full envelope protection & speed stabilisation, Cat IIIa Autoland, and side-stick controllers. The cockpit layout is common to the -100 and the -300 variants, enabling pilots to fly either variant with the same type rating. === Engine === The A220 is powered by two Pratt & Whitney PW1500G underwing turbofans. Its geared turbofan (GTF) architecture and advanced engine core improves efficiency and reduces the stage and parts count. The PW1500G has a 20 dB margin to Chapter IV noise limits, and high-efficiency components and advanced combustor technologies reduce CO2 and NOx emissions. It was certified in February 2013, the first variant in the PW1000G range. At that time, the PW1500G was the turbofan engine with the highest bypass ratio (BPR) of 12:1, only slightly lower than the 12.5:1 BPR of the later released PW1100G powering the A320neo family. Each engine can produce 84.5 to 104 kN (19,000 to 23,400 lb) of thrust flat rated at ISA +15°C. The PW1500G was designed to reach 12% better fuel economy than previous generation engines. === Efficiency === The A220 manufacturer states that the structural technology, aerodynamic design, ultra-high bypass GTF engine, and state-of-the-art flight control and systems together can save fuel burn per seat, CO2 and NOx emissions, as well as provide a reduction in maintenance costs and operating cost per seat, plus a reduced noise footprint with a 18 EPNdB margin to chapter 4 noise limits. Around two thirds of the overall fuel efficiency are attributed to the GTF engines, and one third to lightweight structures, state-of-the-art aerodynamics and systems. == Operational history == After successfully entering commercial service as the CSeries for two years in 2016, performing above its original specifications and receiving positive feedback from customers in Europe and Asia, the only airliner purpose-built for the 100-150 market seats has expanded its operations worldwide to America, Africa and Australia as the A220 following the Airbus partnership. 2018 On 20 July 2018, the first aircraft with Airbus branding, an A220-300, was delivered to the type launch operator airBaltic, and in the same month, the airline launch customer of the type, Korean Air, received also its first rebranded A220-300. On 26 October, the first American operator Delta Air Lines received its first A220, an A220-100, of its order for 75, which was previously disputed by Boeing. Delta configured the A220-100 with 109 seats, including 12 first class, 15 in Delta Comfort+ and 82 in the main cabin, and on 7 February 2019, the airline operated its maiden A220-100 flight with service from New York–LaGuardia Airport to Dallas–Fort Worth. On 21 December 2018, Air Tanzania received its first A220, an A220-300, to be based in Dar es Salaam. The flag carrier became the first African operator and the fifth worldwide to operate the A220 family aircraft, which had already been flying in Europe, Asia and America. 2019 As of April 2019, the global A220 fleet of 60 aircraft had completed more than 90,000 flights in 120,000 block hours on more than 170 routes to 130 destinations and carried 7 million passengers: most used were up to 18 hours and 13 legs per day. By July, the launch operator, Swiss Air Lines successfully completed C checks on its A220 fleet, performed by SAMCO Aircraft Maintenance in its MRO facilities at Maastricht Airport. On 6 September 2019, Egyptair received its first A220 of its order for 12, a -300 with 140 seats: 15 premium and 125 economy seats. Its final A220-300 was delivered on 5 October 2020. On 29 November 2019, the 100th A220, an A220-300, was delivered to the type launch operator, airBaltic. At that time the airline operated the longest flight by an A220 – a 6.5-hour flight from Riga to Abu Dhabi. That year, airBaltic became the first airline capable of providing a full scope of maintenance for the A220-300. On 20 December 2019, Air Canada received its first A220-300 of its order for 45 aircraft and became the second North American operator of the A220. Canada's flag carrier began A220 flights on 16 January 2020 between Calgary and Montreal. The airline expected A220-300s to be 15% cheaper to operate per seat than the Embraer 190s they will replace. 2020 During the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of flights on many routes was reduced by more than 80% over the same period in 2019. The A220's features made it popular with airlines, as they preferred smaller aircraft with similar range and economic performance as larger ones, in order to keep the load factor high enough. Delta grounded their 62 A320s, for example, but continued to sell flights on their 31 A220-100 models and Swiss only operated 30% of their A320s but maintained flights on 45% of their 29 A220s. Between May and December 2020, airBaltic operated all its flights with its A220-300s to minimize complexity. By November, the global A220 fleet of 135 aircraft had completed more than 295,000 flights over 440,000 block hours on more than 400 routes to 225 destinations with a daily utilisation of up to 18 hours and 13 legs per day. On 31 December, JetBlue Airways took delivery of its first A220-300 from a total order of 70 aircraft. The second US operator of A220 family aircraft began its revenue flight from Boston Logan International Airport to Tampa International Airport and expected around 30% lower direct operating cost per seat than its E190 fleet to be replaced, which came from both fuel and non-fuel savings. JetBlue configured its A220-300 with 140 seats and an expanded width of 47 cm (18.6 in), including ViaSat-2 connectivity. 2021 By January 2021, airBaltic's A220 fleet had completed close to 60,000 flights over 141,000 block hours, carrying over 5.6 million passengers as it completed C checks on the first seven aircraft of its fleet. On 22 April 2021, Air Manas received its first A220-300 of planned three aircraft to be based in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan and became the first operator in the CIS states to introduce the A220. On 26 May 2021, Swiss took delivery of its thirtieth and last A220 at Zurich Airport. On 27 July 2021, Réunion Island-based Air Austral became the first French A220 operator after receiving its first A220-300 of three planned to replace its ATR 72-500 and Boeing 737-800 aircraft, to be operated to Mauritius, Mayotte, Seychelles, South Africa, Madagascar and India. On 29 September 2021, Air France, the largest A220 customer in Europe, received its first A220-300 from an order for 60 aircraft, to be operated on the airline's medium-haul network with a 148 passengers single-class cabin. From August 2020 to July 2021, the A220 average on-time performance (OTP) was 99%, led by Korean Air with 99.63%, giving the airline the "Airbus A220 Best Operational Excellence 2021" award on 4 October 2021, during IATA's Annual General Meeting. On 17 December 2021, Breeze Airways, took delivery of its first A220-300, which was ferried from Airbus Mobile to Tampa International Airport. On 29 December 2021, Air Senegal, the flag carrier of the Republic of Senegal. became the fourth A220 operator in Africa after receiving its first A220-300, which was delivered from Montreal via Paris to the carrier's home base in Dakar. 2022 By January 2022, the global A220 fleet of 193 aircraft had completed more than 440,000 flights over 675,000 block hours on more than 550 routes to 275 destinations with 99.0% operational reliability. On 7 January, Iraqi Airways, the national carrier of Iraq, took delivery of its first out of five A220-300 aircraft from the Mirabel site. The airline began the type's commercial operation ten months later on 8 November 2022, becoming the second after Egyptair to operate the A220 in the MENA region. On 6 May, Air Austral resumed its route between Réunion and Chennai that had been suspended at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. At 2,870 nmi (5,320 km), the flight is the world's longest A220 route, a record previously held by airBaltic's Riga–Dubai flight of 2,684 nmi (4,971 km). On 12 July, approximately six years after the type entered service, Airbus delivered the 220th A220 to JetBlue Airways, the type's largest customer at the time, where the global A220 fleet had carried 60 million passengers on over 700 routes ranging from 30-minute to 7-hour flights to 300 destinations. In October, a batch of A220-300s originally destined for Russian airline Azimuth were delivered to ITA Airways (Italia Trasporto Aereo), the new Italian flag carrier, instead by their lessor. On 16 October, ITA Airways entered its A220-300 into service on a flight from Rome to Genoa. 2023 In early 2023, several operators: Iraqi Airways, airBaltic, Air Tanzania and Swiss Air Lines had to ground some of their A220s due to GTF engine problems amid aviation supply chain issues after the pandemic. According to Air Tanzania, the PW1524G-3 engines had to be removed for maintenance before 1,000 landings, when they were supposed to be removed after 5,260 landings. On 16 June, Bulgaria Air, the flag carrier of Bulgaria, took delivery of its first A220 from the Mirabel facility. The airline would lease a total of five A220-300s and two A220-100s from Air Lease Corporation (ALC) and fly the fleet across Europe on both regional and international routes. In July, five years after the A220 joined the Airbus aircraft family, the fleet of more than 260 A220s had flown over a billion kilometers on more than 1,100 routes ranging from 30 minutes to 8 hours, carrying more than 90 million passengers to over 375 destinations across the globe. On 21 July, Cyprus Airways welcomed its first two A220-300s leased from ALC. The islands' flag carrier nicknamed its new fleet member the 'Cyprus Airways Greenliner' as the A220 is to reduce the company's emissions by around 40%, and put it into service on 9 August with a flight from Larnaca to Athens. On 28 November, Nigerian operator Ibom Air took delivery of its first new A220-300, one of ten on order. The airline had already gained experience with A220 operations, having temporarily leased a pair from EgyptAir in 2021. On 16 December, Qantas Group's domestic subsidiary QantasLink took delivery of its first A220-300 of 29 units on order, making it the 20th operator of the type, which would serve metropolitan and regional destinations across Australia. The full-service carrier put its A220 into service on 1 March 2024, operating from Melbourne to Canberra and Brisbane. 2024 By January 2024 the global A220 fleet of 314 aircraft had completed more than 1,000,000 flights over 1,700,000 block hours on more than 1,350 routes to 400 destinations with 98.9% operational reliability. In February 2024, EgyptAir sold its relatively young fleet of 12 A220s to leasing company Azzora. Serviceability rates on the PW1500G engines were believed to be a factor in the decision. As of July 2024, the global A220 fleet had carried more than 100 million passengers. On 29 July 2024, the flag carrier Croatia Airlines took delivery of its first A220-300, part of a single type fleet renewal and the largest project in the airline's 35-year history. The first revenue flight took place on 6 August 2024 domestically from Zagreb to Split, and a day later internationally from Zagreb to Frankfurt, Germany, on the same route on which the airline operated its first international flight in 1992. On 20 September, the state-owned TAAG Angola Airlines took delivery of its first A220-300 as part of the modernization and growth of its fleet, and put it into commercial service on 11 November, connecting Luanda to a key Lusophony connection, São Tomé Island. Smartwings received its first A220-300 on 24 November and deployed it a day later on the Prague – Paris route under the Czech Airlines brand. Romanian airline AnimaWings received its first A220-300 from lessor Azorra on 16 December and was due to complete its first revenue flight on 27 December, making it the tenth A220 operator in Europe. 2025 By January 2025 the global A220 fleet of 389 aircraft had completed more than 1,440,000 flights over 2,500,000 block hours on more than 1,500 routes to 470 destinations with 98.8% operational reliability. In March, Airbus investigated corrosion issues on a "limited number" of A220s, affecting some passenger seat fittings and wing components, including the wing fairing, which does not pose an immediate safety concern. In mid-April, an A220-300 from Egypt Air's former fleet was being dismantled as part of an agreement between lessor Azorra and Delta Material Services to supply spare parts for the repair of Delta's A220 fleet and other international airlines, where the engines were also leased to Delta. By April, the global A220 fleet of 406 aircraft had completed more than 1,540,000 flights over 2,690,000 block hours on more than 1,600 routes to 470 destinations with 98.9% operational reliability. === Decarbonisation === The A220 family plays a key role in Airbus's commitment to its decarbonisation targets. The fuel-efficient aircraft can already fly with a blend of up to 50% Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) and, like all other Airbus commercial aircraft, will be certified for 100% SAF capability by 2030. === Dispatch reliability === The clean sheet airliner was targeted to have a 99.0% dispatch reliability at entry into service. In August 2016, Swiss reported "much higher" reliability than other all-new airliners, citing Airbus's A320, A380 and Boeing's 787. After four months of service with Swiss, this goal seemed to have been met based on only three aircraft and 1,500 hours flown; "nuisance messages" from the integrated avionics suite and engine start-up delays had been the main griefs. Dispatch reliability rates of 99.0% were met in April 2017. A year after introduction, in July 2017, launch operators had fewer issues than expected for an all-new aircraft program. At this time point, airBaltic had already a 99.3–99.4% dispatch reliability, similar to the established Q400 but less than the relatively ubiquitous Boeing 737 Classic's 99.8%. The dispatch reliability improved further to 99.85% in October 2017. === Engine reliability === Since the PW1500G mount generates less strain on the turbine rotor assembly than the A320neo's PW1100G, it does not suffer from start-up and bearing problems but still from premature combustor degradation. An updated combustor liner with a 6,000–8,000 hour limit has been developed and a third generation for 2018 will raise it to 20,000 hours in benign environments. After three inflight engine failures in 2019, Transport Canada issued an emergency airworthiness directive (EAD) limiting the power to 94% of N1 (Low Pressure Spool rotational speed) above 29,000 ft (8,800 m), disengaging the autothrottle for the climb over this altitude before engaging it again in cruise. === Maintenance === The A check is scheduled after 850 flight hours: the check originally took 5 hours and has since been reduced to less than 3 hours, within an 8-hour shift. The C check is scheduled after 8,500 hours – translating to about 3.5 years of operation. Based on experience since product launch, A checks intervals could increase to 1,000 hours and C checks to 10,000 hours toward the end of 2019. == Variants == There are two main variants of the A220 family: the 35 m (115 ft) long A220-100 including the ACJ TwoTwenty corporate jet version, and the 3.7 m (12 ft) longer A220-300. Their commonality over 99% allows a common spare part inventory, reducing investment and maintenance costs. === A220-100 === The A220-100 (ICAO code: BCS1) is the shorter variant of the A220 family at 35 m (115 ft) in length that can fly between 100 and 135 passengers over a distance of 3,600 nmi (6,667 km; 4,143 mi). The former CS100 made its maiden flight on 16 September 2013 and was first delivered to the launch operator Swiss Global Air Lines on 29 June 2016. The type entered service on 15 July 2016 with a revenue flight between Zurich and Paris. The A220-100 has a takeoff distance of 1,500 m (4,800 ft) and a landing distance of 1,390 m (4,550 ft) and is also certified for steep approaches by Transport Canada and EASA, making it one of the largest aircraft that can land at London City Airport (LCY) and connect it non-stop to New York City John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK). The model marketing designation is the BD-500-1A10 for aircraft from serial number 50011, including the first aircraft delivered to Swiss (MSN-50010). The A220-100, the smallest jetliner within the Airbus product line, competes with largest members of the Embraer E-Jet E2 family, the E195-E2 and the smaller E190-E2, replacing previous generation small airliners: E-195, E190, Boeing 717, 737-600, Airbus A318 as well as ageing models: McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-87, Fokker 100, BAe-146, and Boeing 737-500. The A220-100 is well ahead of the two E-Jet E2 variants in terms of range and payload, but the latter has a lower base price due to its more conservative design and correspondingly cheaper production costs. The unit price of an A220-100 is estimated at $81 million, while an E-190 E2 and E-195 E2 are priced at $61 million and $69 million, respectively. As of May 2025, there are 72 A220-100s in revenue service with four operators, where Delta is the largest operator with 45 aircraft in its fleet. === A220-300 === The A220-300 (ICAO code: BCS3) is the larger variant with a 38.71 m (127 ft) long fuselage or 3.7 m (12 ft) longer than A220-100 and can carry between 120 and 160 passengers over a distance of 3,600 nmi (6,700 km; 4,100 mi). The former CS300 had its maiden flight on 27 February 2015, and the first delivery to airBaltic, the type launch operator, in November 2016. The type entered service on 14 December with a revenue flight from Riga to Amsterdam in a 145 seat two-class configuration. In several performance improvements, the MTOW and thus the permissible tank content were increased, where Delta received the first improved aircraft on 18 June 2019. Airbus offered a further 1 t (2,200 lb) increase to the MTOW of the A220-300, to 70.9 t (156,000 lb) in March 2021, providing another 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) of additional range to 3,550 nmi (6,570 km; 4,090 mi). On long routes the payload will be increased by about 900 kg (2,000 lb). The model marketing designation is the BD-500-1A11 for aircraft from serial number 55003. The A220-300 complements the A319neo in the Airbus fleet and competes with the Boeing 737 MAX-7, replacing previous generation airliners, smaller variants of the 737 Next Gen/737 Classic and McDonnell Douglas MD-90/MD-80 series .The A220-300 was designed to be 6 t (13,000 lb) lighter than the A319neo and nearly 8 t (18,000 lb) lighter than the 737 MAX 7, giving it better operating costs of up to 12%. Due to this fact, there are suspicions that the A220-300 could cannibalise sales of the A319neo. The unit price of an A220-300 is estimated at $91.5 million, while an A319neo is priced at $101.5 million. As of May 2025, there are 346 A220-300s in commercial service with 23 operators, where airBaltic is the largest operator with 50 aircraft in its fleet. === ACJ TwoTwenty === Since 2020, the Airbus A220 has also been available as a business jet under the name ACJ TwoTwenty, which is a variant of the A220-100 with a range of 5,650 nmi (10,460 km) and customisable cabin space of 73 m2 (790 sq ft) for 18 passengers. To increase its range the type is offered with up to five removable auxiliary centre fuel tanks. The ACJ TwoTwenty made its first flight on 14 December 2021, and was to be outfitted with a VIP cabin in Indianapolis, before its first delivery to Comlux expected in 2023. == Operators == As of May 2025, there are 418 A220 family aircraft in service with 20 commercial operators amongst other undisclosed operators. The five largest A220 operators are Delta Air Lines (79), airBaltic (50), JetBlue (46), Air France (43) and Breeze Airways (41). The A220 family is currently the leading player in the category of small commercial aircraft with more than 55% market share. === Orders and deliveries === The A220 family has 904 firm orders from 33 customers, of which Delta is the largest with 145 orders. A total of 418 aircraft have been delivered as of May 2025. == Accidents and incidents == The A220 family recorded one engine-related accident (no hull loss) with one fatality due to smoke on board as of December 2024. === Accidents === On 23 December 2024, a SWISS International Air Lines A220-300 operating as Flight 1885 from Henri Coanda International Airport to Zurich Airport, diverted to Graz Airport after smoke developed in the cabin and cockpit due to an engine problem, while in cruise flight at FL400. All 79 people on board were evacuated via emergency slides, and the five crew members plus twelve passengers received medical treatment, while an incapacitated cabin crew member was rushed to hospital by helicopter, but died a week later on 30 December. === Incidents === After three inflight shutdowns due to PW1500G engine failure in July, September, and October 2019, Swiss International Air Lines temporarily withdrew its fleet for inspection. On 1 January 2024, a trespasser on the apron at Salt Lake City International Airport died after climbing into the idling engine of a Delta Air Lines A220 that was standing at a de-icing pad. On 4 January 2025, an Air Canada A220-300 operating as AC609 from Halifax Stanfield International Airport to Toronto-Pearson International Airport suffered a pressurization issue during the climb. The crew noticed that the pressurization was not stabilizing and they received a cabin altitude caution message. The crew then levelled off at 10,000 feet (3,000 m) and held 50 nmi (93 km) northwest of CYHZ to investigate the cabin pressurization issue. The crew completed all checklists but were unable to adjust the cabin altitude in manual control. The crew then declared a PAN PAN and diverted back to CYHZ. The aircraft landed safely at 17:32 UTC (13:32 AST) without further incident. An Air Canada maintenance inspection found that the aft cargo vent flap idler bearing was sheared, and the vent was in the open position. The idler bearing was replaced and the aircraft was returned to service. == Aircraft on display == Following a previous announcement in May 2018, at St-Hubert airport, the third flight test vehicle or FTV3 (A220-100) with around 1,400 flight hours was officially donated on 17 October to Quebec’s École Nationale d’Aérotechnique (ÉNA), the Canadian province’s sole provider of technical training for aerospace workers, a school affiliated with cégep Édouard-Montpetit. On 28 May 2021, seven years after its first flight and 760 flight hours, the first flight test vehicle or FTV1 (A220-100) was converted into an A220 full-size mock-up at the Airspace Customer Showroom (ACS) located in Toulouse, France. The mock-up will be used by customers who have already selected the A220 and for Airbus to design new cabin layouts. Airlines that are in the final stages of configuring their aircraft will be able to test their lighting and seat selection on the mock-up before their aircraft is delivered. In December 2023, flight test vehicles FTV2 (A220-100) and FTV7 (A220-300) were repatriated from Wichita, Kansas (USA) to the main facility in Mirabel, Quebec, where both became part of the A220 Flight and Integration Tests Center, which began operations on 1 January 2024. It is the second Airbus flight test center, consisting of the two aforementioned test aircraft and aircraft test beds, and is intended to ensure continuous improvement of the A220 family aircraft, in particular by supporting the development of sustainable aviation fuels and studies on the recycling of aviation materials through the partnerships between Airbus, SMEs, research centers and universities. == Specifications == === Aircraft type designations === == See also == Related development Bombardier CRJ700/900/1000 Comac C919 (agreement between Comac and Bombardier for program commonalities) Yakovlev MC-21 (agreement between Irkut and Bombardier for joint customer support) Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A320neo family Boeing 717 Boeing 737 MAX Comac C909 Embraer E-Jets/E-Jets E2 Yakovlev SJ-100 Related lists List of civil aircraft List of jet airliners == References == == External links == Official website "CSeries production list and orders". ABCDlist. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2020. "CS100 Airport planning publication" (PDF). Bombardier. 7 June 2018. "CS300 Airport planning publication" (PDF). Bombardier. 7 June 2018. Ross Marowits (20 February 2015). "Larger Bombardier CSeries set for first flight next week in Mirabel". Toronto Star. The Canadian Press. Bjorn Fehrm (9 November 2016). "Flying the CSeries". Leeham News. Mike Gerzanics (11 November 2016). "Flight Test: We put Bombardier's CSeries through its paces". Flight Global. Fred George (3 February 2017). "Pilot Report: Bombardier's C Series Sets New Standard". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Oleksandr Laneckij (17 October 2017). "New Aircraft As A Basis For Efficiency – Interview With CEO Of airBaltic". Center for transport strategies.
Airbus A319	The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries 124 to 156 passengers and has a maximum range of 3,700 nmi (6,900 km; 4,300 mi). Final assembly of the aircraft takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin, China. The A319 is a shortened-fuselage variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair, around two years after the stretched Airbus A321 and eight years after the original A320. The aircraft shares a common type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants, allowing existing A320 family pilots to fly the aircraft without the need for further training. In December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the re-engined A320neo family (new engine option). The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements and the addition of winglets, named "sharklets" by Airbus. The aircraft promises fuel savings of up to 15%. The A319neo sales are much lower than other A320neo variants, with around 1% of orders by June 2020. The previous A319 generation was retroactive renamed the A319ceo (current engine option). As of May 2025, a total of 1,516 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, of which 1,263 are in service. In addition, another 27 airliners are on order. American Airlines is the largest operator with 133 A319ceo in its fleet. == Development == === Background === The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984 and first flew on 22 February 1987. The family was extended to include the stretched A321 (first delivered 1994), the shortened A319 (1996), and the further shortened A318 (2003). The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, in commercial aircraft. The A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. === Origins and design === The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, part of the Single-Aisle studies. The SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was then known as the A320M-7, meaning A320 minus seven fuselage frames. It would provide direct competition for the 737-300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four fuselage frames fore and three aft the wing, cutting the overall length by 3.73 metres (12 ft 3 in). Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two. High-density A319s, such as 156-seat aircraft used by EasyJet, retain four overwing exits. The bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics; otherwise the aircraft is largely unchanged. Power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN (22,000 lbf), with option for 105 kN (24,000 lbf) thrust. With virtually the same fuel capacity as the A320-200 and fewer passengers, the range with 124 passengers in a two-class configuration extends to 6,650 km (3,590 nmi), or 6,850 km (3,700 nmi) with the "Sharklets". The A319's wingspan is wider than the aircraft's overall length. === Production and testing === Airbus began offering the new model from 22 May 1992, and the A319's first customer was ILFC, who signed for six aircraft. Anticipating further orders by Swissair and Alitalia, Airbus launched the $275 million (€250 million) programme on 10 June 1993. On 23 March 1995, the first A319 underwent final assembly at Airbus's German plant in Hamburg, where the A321s are also assembled. It was rolled out on 24 August 1995, with the maiden flight the following day. The certification programme took 350 airborne hours involving two aircraft; certification for the CFM56-5B6/2-equipped variant was granted in April 1996, and the qualification for the V2524-A5 started the following month. Delivery of the first A319, to Swissair, took place on 25 April 1996, entering service by month's end. In January 1997, an A319 broke a record during a delivery flight by flying 3,588 nautical miles (6,645 km) on the great circle route to Winnipeg, Manitoba from Hamburg, in 9 hours 5 minutes. The A319 has proved popular with low-cost airlines such as EasyJet, with 172 delivered. A total of 1,484 of the A319ceo (current engine option) model have been delivered. == Variants == === A319CJ === The A319CJ (rebranded ACJ319 "Elegance") is the corporate jet version of the A319. It incorporates removable extra fuel tanks (up to six additional Center Tanks) which are installed in the cargo compartment, and an increased service ceiling of 12,500 m (41,000 ft). Range with eight passengers' payload and auxiliary fuel tanks (ACTs) is up to 6,000 nautical miles (11,100 km). Upon resale, the aircraft can be reconfigured as a standard A319 by removing its extra tanks and corporate cabin outfit, thus maximising its resale value. It was formerly also known as the ACJ, or Airbus Corporate Jet, while starting with 2014 it has the marketing designation ACJ319. The aircraft seats up to 39 passengers, but may be outfitted by the customers into any configuration. Tyrolean Jet Service Nfg. GmbH & CO KG, MJET and Reliance Industries are among its users. The A319CJ competes with other ultralarge-cabin corporate jets such as the Boeing 737-700-based Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) and Embraer Lineage 1000, as well as with large-cabin and ultralong-range Gulfstream G650, Gulfstream G550 and Bombardier's Global 6000. It is powered by the same engine types as the A320. The A319CJ was used by the Escadron de Transport, d'Entraînement et de Calibration which is in charge of transportation for France's officials and also by the Flugbereitschaft of the German Air Force for transportation of Germany's officials. An ACJ serves as a presidential or official aircraft of Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Malaysia, Slovakia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela. Starting from 2014, a modularized cabin version of the ACJ319, known as "Elegance", is also available. It is said to be able to lower cost and ease reconfiguration. === A319LR === The A319LR is the longer-range version of the A319. The typical range of the A319LR is increased up to 4,500 nautical miles (8,300 km) compared to the standard A319. Qatar Airways was the launch customer, receiving two A319-100LRs, PrivatAir received two A319LRs in 2003, and Eurofly acquired two in 2005. === A319neo === The A319neo is the shortest variant of the Airbus A320neo family of airliners developed since December 2010 by Airbus, with the suffix "neo" meaning "new engine option". It is the last step of the A320 Enhanced (A320E) modernisation programme, which was started in 2006. The A319neo replaces the original A319, which is now referred to as A319ceo, for "current engine option". In addition to the new engines, the modernisation programme also included such improvements as: aerodynamic refinements, large curved winglets (sharklets), weight savings, a new aircraft cabin with larger hand luggage spaces, and an improved air purification system. Customers will have a choice of either the CFM International LEAP-1A or the Pratt & Whitney PW1100G engines. These improvements in combination are predicted to result in 15% lower fuel consumption per aircraft, 8% lower operating costs, reduced noise production, and a reduction of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions by at least 10% compared to the A320 series, as well as an increase in range of approximately 500 nautical miles (900 km). The A319neo is the least popular variant of the Airbus A320neo family, with total orders for only 61 aircraft placed as of 30 September 2023, compared with 4,234 for the A320neo and 5,422 for the A321neo. === Military variants === ==== A319 MPA ==== The Airbus A319 MPA (Maritime Patrol Aircraft) is a military derivative of the Airbus A319. Development was announced in 2018 by Airbus Defence and Space to compete against the Boeing P-8 Poseidon, which is a derivative aircraft of the Boeing 737 manufactured in the United States. ==== A319 OH ==== The new observation platform A319OH which means "Offener Himmel" (meaning "Open Sky") is equipped with electro-optical sensors, an EO-S/digital camera and an infrared sensor (IR-S). It is based on an A319CJ from Lufthansa Technik. This aircraft is designed for the German Air Force which uses it to perform surveillance missions as part of the Treaty on Open Skies. Twenty missions are planned every year by the German Air Force, and it is offered for lease to other countries who want to conduct such mission without the appropriate equipment. ==== Other military variants ==== VC-319A Italian Air Force designation for the three modified Airbus A319-115 (CJ) used for government transport. The planes fly under the callsign "IAM9001" when transporting the President. All aircraft are operated by the 31st Wing based in Ciampino Air Base, Rome. VC-1A A single A319-133X(CJ) served as a VIP transport for the president of Brazil. Known by its call sign Brazilian Air Force One, the aircraft was delivered in 2005. The Brazilian government began looking for a replacement for the VC-1A in 2024 after an engine issue in Mexico forced President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva to return to Brazil on a different aircraft. B.L.15 (Thai: บ.ล.๑๕) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the A319-115CJ. B.L.15A (Thai: บ.ล.๑๕ก) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the A319-115CJ1. === Future variants === ==== A319NAF ==== A319NAF (Neptune Aerial Firefighter) is an unofficial designation of the A319ceo converted by and for Neptune Aviation, an aerial firefighting company based in the US state of Montana. On 6 December 2024, Neptune announced they had signed a developmental contract with Aerotec & Concept, a French aerospace engineering company, to jointly design, modify, and eventually certify a fire retardant/water tank installation on an A319ceo. The new tank will have a payload of at least 4,500 gallons (approx. 37,500 lb; 17 tons), which is 50% greater than its current platform, the BAe 146-200A. The Airbus will supplement, and eventually replace, the BAe 146, of which the youngest in the fleet is over 33 years old. It is expected to enter service in spring/summer 2027. == Operators == As of May 2025, 1,263 Airbus A319 aircraft (1,232 ceo+31 neo) were in service with 87 operators, with American Airlines, EasyJet, United Airlines and Delta Air Lines operating the largest A319 fleets of 133, 88, 83 and 57 aircraft respectively. The A319 is the most popular variant of the Airbus A320 family to be operated by governments and as executive and private jets, with 78 aircraft (71 ceo+7 neo) in operation in these capacities as of 2025. === Orders and deliveries === Data as of May 2025. == Accidents and incidents == As of May 2022, there have been 23 aviation accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A319, including five hull-loss accidents. No fatal accidents have been recorded involving the aircraft type. == Preserved aircraft == == Specifications == === Engines === == See also == Airbus Corporate Jets Related development Airbus A318 Airbus A320 family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 717 Boeing 737-300 Boeing 737-700 Bombardier CSeries Comac C919 Irkut MC-21 Tupolev Tu-204 Related lists List of Airbus A320 operators List of jet airliners Lists of airlines == Notes == == References == == Sources == Eden, Paul E., ed. (2008). Civil Aircraft Today. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-905704-86-6. Gunston, Bill (2009). Airbus: The Complete Story. Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84425-585-6. Norris, Guy; Wagner, Mark (1999). Airbus. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7603-0677-2. == External links == Official website
Airbus A330neo	The Airbus A330neo ("neo" for "New Engine Option") is a wide-body airliner developed by Airbus from the original Airbus A330 (now A330ceo – "Current Engine Option"). A new version with modern engines comparable with those developed for the Boeing 787 was called for by operators of the A330ceo. It was launched on 14 July 2014 at the Farnborough Airshow, promising 14% better fuel economy per seat. It is exclusively powered by the Rolls-Royce Trent 7000 which has double the bypass ratio of its predecessor. Its two versions are based on the A330-200 and -300: the -800 has a range of 8,100 nmi (15,000 km; 9,320 mi) with 257 passengers while the -900 covers 7,350 nmi (13,610 km; 8,460 mi) with 287 passengers. The -900 made its maiden flight on 19 October 2017 and received its EASA type certificate on 26 September 2018; it was first delivered to TAP Air Portugal on 26 November 2018 and entered service on 15 December. The -800 made its first flight on 6 November 2018 and received EASA type certification on 13 February 2020; the first two -800s were delivered to Kuwait Airways on 29 October 2020 and entered service on 20 November. As of May 2025, a total of 384 A330neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 25 customers, of which 160 aircraft had been delivered. == Development == === Studies === At the Boeing 787 launch in 2004, Airbus' initial response was an improved A330. After negative feedback from airlines and lessors, the A350 XWB became a new design in 2006. After the A320neo launch in December 2010 and its commercial success, the largest airline of Malaysia – an all-Airbus operator – AirAsia asked Airbus to re-engine the A330. New engines like the GEnx or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 developed for the 787 could offer a 12%–15% fuel burn improvement, and sharklets at least 2%. Airbus sales chief John Leahy's argument was that the lower purchase price of an A330 even without new engines make the economics of buying an A330 competitive at midrange routes with that of the Boeing 787. An A330neo would accelerate the demise of the similarly sized A350-800. Airbus also considered re-engining the A380 but was wary of having two major modification programs simultaneously. In March 2014, Delta Air Lines expressed an interest in the A330neo to replace its ageing, 20+-year-old Boeing 767-300ER jets. In the 250-300-seat market, CIT Group believed an A330neo enables profitability on shorter ranges where the longer-range A350 and Boeing 787 are not optimised. CIT said that the A350-800 was not as efficient as it would like, and Air Lease Corp. added that the company did not consider it reasonable to take the A350-800 and A330neo as they saw no sustainable coexistence of the two aircraft. AirAsia X ended flights to London and Paris from Kuala Lumpur in 2012 because their Airbus A340s were not fuel-efficient enough and would try again with A330s. As Airbus gradually increased the output of the new A350, prolonging the production run of the A330 could help to maintain profitability. After Emirates cancelled 70 orders for the A350, Airbus said it continued to work on re-engining the smaller A330. === Launch === On 14 July 2014 at the Farnborough Airshow, Airbus launched the A330neo programme, to be powered by the new Rolls-Royce Trent 7000. It would improve the fuel burn per seat by 14%. Airbus hoped to sell 1,000 A330neo aircraft. Its range would increase by 400 nautical miles (740 km; 460 mi) and although 95% of the parts would be common with the A330ceo, maintenance costs would be lower. New winglets, 3.7 metres wider and similar to those of the A350 XWB, still within ICAO category E airport requirements, along with new engine pylons, would improve aerodynamics by 4%. The A330neo's development costs were expected to have an impact of around −0.7% on Airbus's return on sales target from 2015 to 2017, an estimated $2 billion (£1.18 billion). Airbus stated that lower capital cost would make the A330neo the most cost-efficient medium-range wide-body airliner. Airbus said that it could pursue demand for 4,000 aircraft and that there was an open market for 2,600 jets not already addressed by backlogs with operators already using A330s. Aerodynamic modifications would include a re-twisted wing and optimised slats. In 2014, The Airline Monitor's Ed Greenslet stated that the A330neo would have the advantage of not being designed to fly 8,000 nmi, unlike the A350 and Boeing 787 which were thus less economical on shorter routes, although "the vast majority of long-haul markets is 4,000 nmi or less". He also believed that an "A330neo would enjoy a monopoly in its segment instantly", with the Boeing 767 "essentially out of production", the Boeing 757 not replaced while the A321neo and the 737-9 are smaller and had less range, and that launching the A330neo would probably kill the smallest A350-800. John Leahy estimated that the A330-900 would have operating costs on par with the 787-9, but would be available at 25% lower capital costs and could reach a production rate of 10 per month after a 7/8 per month rate at the production start. Both A330neo variants were expected to have a maximum take-off weight of 242 t. The type design was frozen in late 2015. Boeing Vice Chairman and Commercial Airplanes CEO Ray Conner dismissed the A330neo as 2004 revamp which cannot match the 787's direct operating costs, being nine tonnes (20,000 lb) heavier and having a wing only slightly improved from the 1980s design, and claimed the 787-10 was almost 30% more efficient per-seat than the previous A330-300 and that a new engine would not close the gap – but he acknowledged that it could be a threat as it put pressure on Boeing as it sought to break even after 850–1,000 787 deliveries. === Production === On 7 September 2015, Airbus announced that it had begun production of the first A330neo with the construction of its centre wingbox and engine pylon. Final assembly of the first aircraft, an A330-900, started in September 2016 at the Airbus Toulouse site with the joining of the wings to the centre fuselage at the station 40. In December 2016, the programme schedule slipped by six weeks due to marginal engine development at Rolls-Royce, and launch customer TAP Air Portugal projected its first A330neo would be delivered in March 2018. The first aircraft left the paint shop in December 2016, awaiting its engines. By April 2017, the Trent 7000s were to be installed later during the summer so that the first flight was delayed until September. Due to the delay, TAP Air Portugal was not expected to receive the first A330neo until the end of the first half of 2018, or even in the third quarter. The engines were shipped to Airbus in June. The aircraft complete with engines showed at Toulouse in September before its first flight. Major structures of the first A330-800 were entering production in October 2017: high-lift devices are installed on the wing in Bremen, fuselage sections are built in Hamburg, the centre wing-box in Nantes, titanium engine pylons in Toulouse and sharklet wingtips in Korea. Its final assembly started in November 2017, on track for its planned first flight in mid-2018. Structural assembly was completed by February 2018, having its flight-test instruments installed and waiting for its engines before its 300h flight-test programme. At this time, production aircraft progressed through the final assembly line with the first 'Airspace' cabin interior being fitted. A330 production was cut to 50 deliveries in 2019, with more than half of them re-engined A330neos. In April 2020, the production rate decreased from 3.5 to 2 per month due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, and finished planes were stored while waiting for deferred deliveries. In 2018, unit cost was US$259.9 M for a -800 and US$296.4 M for a -900. === Flight testing === The A330-900 first flight on 19 October 2017 was a debut of the 1,400 hours flight test campaign involving three prototypes plus the first production aircraft: 1,100 flight hours for the A330-900 and 300 flight hours for the A330-800, targeting mid-2018 EASA and FAA Type Certification. The 4h 15m flight reached 30,125 ft (9,182 m) and 502 kn (930 km/h). It should establish certain maximum operating points and achieve an initial handling qualities assessment including at high angle of attack. This first aircraft, MSN1795, was scheduled to perform 600 h and was to be joined the following month by the second, MSN1813, which will fly 500 h, before the third, MSN1819, the first customer aircraft for TAP Portugal with a complete cabin. Two flight test engineers and two engine specialists monitored the 60GB per hour output of 1,375 sensors and 98,000 parameters, including strips of microelectromechanical systems to measure aerodynamic pressure distribution across the wing. MSN1795 was to undertake simulated icing tests and cold-weather tests in Canada, noise assessment, autoland testing and high angle-of-attack, minimum-unstick checks during rotation with a tail bumper. MSN1813 was to test natural icing conditions, assess hot and high conditions in the United Arab Emirates and La Paz, and fly 150h of route-proving; it has rakes and pressure sensors in the engine flows to compare actual thrust with ground bench measurements. MSN1819 was to validate the Airspace cabin interior fitting with artificial passengers for ventilation analysis and cabin environment measurements. The second test aircraft made its maiden flight on 4 December, to be used to validate aerodynamic & engine performance and airline operations. By the end of January 2018, the first logged almost 200h in 58 flights while the second had accumulated nearly 120h in 30 flights. Its flight envelope was fully opened including flutter and stall tests to complete powerplant calibration and strake configuration has been frozen. Airbus commenced autopilot, autoland and high-speed performance testing, and was to move on to hot- and cold-weather tests, as well as noise and icing tests, over the following three months. As of 10 April 2018, the two test aircraft had logged over 200 flights and more than 700 hours, testing −27 °C cold weather, natural icing, crosswind landing, 37 °C and 8,000 ft (2,400 m) hot and high operations. The first TAP Air Portugal aircraft made its first flight on 15 May 2018; it joined the two previous test aircraft to check the cabin systems: air conditioning, crew rest, etc. It started the final certification step on 18 June: function and reliability tests or route proving, including ETOPS, diversion airport landing, and testing ground handling over 150 flight test hours, as the flight test programme reached 1,000 hours. Entry into service was planned for the third quarter of 2018 and ETOPS was to be approved in October for 330min. EASA granted the A330-941 type certificate on 26 September 2018, with ETOPS not yet approved. ETOPS 180 min was approved on 14 November, restricted to engines with fewer than 500 flight cycles. Airbus expects the FAA type certification with 180 min ETOPS by the end of 2018 and 330 min ETOPS in the first half of 2019. Beyond-180min ETOPS was approved by the EASA on 24 January 2019. The maiden flight of the -800 took place on 6 November 2018; the 4h 4min flight inaugurated a 350h test program aiming for mid-2019 type certification, for delivery in the first half of 2020 to launch operator Kuwait Airways. By late March 2019, it was halfway through the 300-hour flight test programme, having completed 44 flights in 149 hours. The -800 received EASA type certification with 180-minute ETOPS on 13 February 2020; ETOPS clearance beyond 180 minutes was awarded on 2 April. === Entry into service === Leased from Avolon, the first A330-900 was delivered to TAP Air Portugal on 26 November 2018, featuring 298 seats: 34 full-flat business, 96 economy plus and 168 economy seats, and to be deployed from Portugal to the Americas and Africa. TAP made its first commercial flight on 15 December from Lisbon to São Paulo. The airline should receive 15 more A330neos in 2019 and fly the A330-900 from Lisbon to Chicago O'Hare and Washington Dulles from June 2019, both five times a week. === Increased takeoff weight === On the occasion of the 19 October 2017 first flight, an increase to 251 t (553,000 lb) MTOW by mid-2020 was announced, with a few changes to the landing gear and brakes, increasing its range by 700 or 1,000 nmi (1,300 or 1,900 km; 810 or 1,150 mi) compared to the current A330neo or A330ceo. The 251 t MTOW was confirmed by Airbus in November 2017. This gave the -900 a range of 7,200 nmi (13,300 km; 8,300 mi) and 8,150 nmi (15,090 km; 9,380 mi) for the -800. Test flights of the 251 t A330-900 started from 28 February 2020. Airbus was expecting a short 30–40h test campaign, as multiple tests were conducted with the previous variant adapted to higher weight, including flight performance and noise assessment. The heavier structure allows a transpacific range and is balanced by a weight-reduction effort, keeping the same empty weight and payload. On 8 October 2020, the 251 t A330-900 was EASA-certified, before introduction by Corsair International. Retaining 99% spares commonality, it offers 6 t (13,000 lb) more payload while strengthening the landing-gear and extending the time before overhaul interval from 10 to 12 years. On 31 March 2021, Corsair took delivery of the first 251t Airbus A330-900 in a three-class, 352-seat configuration. The 251 t A330-800 was certified by EASA in April 2022. === Further certification for international markets === On January 13, 2025, it is reported that the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) has granted the A330neo family with its type certificate for Chinese airlines to operate the A330neo family in China. The CAAC confirmed that the design of the Airbus A330neo complies with the relevant regulations of Chinese civil aviation and recognizes the A330neo type certificate issued by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). This marks a milestone of the type since China has been the biggest market for the previous generation A330ceo family. Also it is reported that the first potential Chinese customer of the new generation A330 is Hainan Airlines, with 20 A330-900 on order. == Design == The A330neo is advertised as having a 12% fuel burn advantage per flight over the older A330 variants. This advantage comes from the 11% gain from the Trent 7000 and its larger 112-inch fan, compared to the 97.5-inch Trent 700 engine. However, this gain is negated by 3%–2% by additional weight, and 1% due to engine drag, but the sharklets and aero optimization regain 4%, restoring the advantage to 12%. Furthermore, fuel consumption per seat is improved by 2% due to the rearranged cabin (Space-Flex and Smart-Lav) with increased seating, offering a 14% fuel burn reduction per seat for the new −900 compared to the previous 235-tonne −300 version. The newer 242-tonne −300 is already 2% more efficient. Since the fan is enlarged from 97 to 112 in (250 to 280 cm), the nacelles are mounted higher, necessitating extensive CFD analysis to avoid supersonic shock wave interference drag, as is the first slat's dog-tooth. The wing twist and belly fairings are tweaked to approach the lowest drag elliptical span-wise pressure distribution changed by the larger sharklets, like the flap track fairings shape to lower form drag. Initially based on the largest 242t MTOW A330, Airbus is studying an improvement to 245 t (540,000 lb) MTOW for the A330neo, which would match the figure originally given for the Airbus A350-800 before it was sidelined in favor of the A330neo. This would give the -900 a 7,000 nmi (12,964 km; 8,055 mi) range to better compete with the 787-9’s 7,635 nmi (14,140 km; 8,786 mi) On the -800 at FL400, cruise fuel flow at Mach 0.82 and low weight is 4.7 to 5.2 t (10,000 to 11,000 lb) per hour at a higher weight and Mach 0.83. === Cockpit and cabin === Airbus unveiled a distinctive cockpit windscreen to be featured on the A330neo, similar to that on the A350, and promised a new interior concept offering a better passenger experience on the A330neo. === Engines === Candidate engines included variants of Rolls-Royce's Trent 1000 and General Electric's GEnx-1B. Both engine makers were reportedly interested in winning an exclusive deal should a re-engined A330 be offered. The Trent 1000 TEN (Thrust, Efficiency, New Technology) engine was under development for the 787-10, but Rolls-Royce intended to offer a broad power range. The A330neo uses the Rolls-Royce Trent 7000 engine, which is an electronic controlled bleed air variant of the Trent 1000 used on the Boeing 787-10. It will have a 112 in (284 cm) diameter fan and a 10:1 bypass ratio. They deliver a thrust of 68,000 to 72,000 pounds-force (300 to 320 kN). The Trent is the exclusive powerplant, as Rolls-Royce offered better terms to obtain exclusivity. Customers bemoan the loss of competition among engine makers: Steven Udvar-Hazy, CEO of Air Lease Corporation, said that he wants a choice of engines, but Airbus has pointed out that equipping a commercial aircraft to handle more than one type of engine adds several hundred million dollars to the development cost. The head of Pratt and Whitney said: "Engines are no longer commodities...the optimization of the engine and the aircraft becomes more relevant." The decision to offer the aircraft with only one engine option is not unique to Airbus; the Boeing 777X will come equipped exclusively with General Electric GE9X engines, after Rolls-Royce made a bid with its Advance configuration but was not selected. == Variants == === A330-800 === The A330-800 retains the fuselage length of the A330-200, but can seat six more passengers (for a total of 252) with an optimised cabin featuring 18-inch-wide economy seats. The -800 havs a range of 8100 nmi (15,000 km; 9,300 mi) with 257 passengers (406 max). As the variants share 99% commonality, developing the smaller -800 has a negligible extra cost. After the first flight of the -900 on 19 October 2017, Hawaiian Airlines (then the only customer for the -800) considered changing its order to six -800s, seeking best to fit its current network to Asia and North America whilst allowing for future growth, possibly to Europe. Demand for the -800 fell to 3%. In contrast, the -200 commanded 40% of the CEO deliveries: its range advantage has eroded with the increased capabilities of the -900, and although it offers lower fuel per trip, fuel per seat is higher. As of 2017, demand for the -800 was limited by low fuel prices and the -200s it might replace after 2020 were still young (nine years on average). The Boeing 767-300s that the -800 might replace are 15 years older, and while Boeing considered relaunching production of the 767-300ER, mainly as an interim for American and United Airlines, this was complicated by a 30-year-old design including obsolete cabin amenities. At this time, Boeing intends to launch its New Midsize Airplane no earlier than 2027, affording Airbus opportunities with the 95 operators of the A330ceo. Long-haul low-cost carriers were a target for high-density nine-abreast layouts for 386 seats over 6,000–6,500 nmi (11,100–12,000 km; 6,900–7,500 mi) at the 251 t (553,000 lb) MTOW, 500 nmi (930 km; 580 mi) more than a similarly loaded 787-8 and with up to 30 more seats. Production of the -800 beyond the prototype was in doubt, as Hawaiian was choosing between the Airbus A350-900 and the Boeing 787-8/9. In February 2018, Hawaiian was thought to be cancelling its order for six A330-800s, replacing them with Boeing 787-9s priced at less than $100–115m, close to their production cost of $80–90m, while Boeing Capital released Hawaiian from three 767-300ER leases well in advance. Hawaiian denied that the order for the A330-800 had been cancelled, but did not dismiss a new deal with Boeing. In March 2018, Hawaiian confirmed the cancellation of its order for six A330-800s and ordered ten B787-9s instead. Airbus says it was "simply undercut in price". In July 2018, a new memorandum of understanding from Uganda Airlines for two -800s revived interest in the shorter variant. A firm order from Kuwait Airways for eight A330-800s followed in October 2018, making it the largest customer of the type; it was subsequently confirmed that Kuwait Airways would be the launch customer for the -800, with certification expected in mid-2019 and first deliveries in the first half of 2020. On 8 April 2019, Uganda National Airlines Company firmed up its order for two -800s. Compared to the competing 787-8 with similar engines, the A330-800 has a 1% fuel-per-trip disadvantage (−5% for being heavier but +4% for the longer wingspan) but consumes 4% less fuel per seat with 13 more seats in an eight-abreast configuration, and 8% less with 27 more seats at nine-abreast with 17 in (43 cm) wide seats and aisles: the -800 is longer by 4 rows or 2.5 m (130 in). Airbus could limit its MTOW to 200 t (440,000 lb) and derate its engines to 68,000 lbf (300,000 N) to optimise for the shorter routes to be targeted by the Boeing NMA, with the A321XLR tackling the lower end of the same niche. The A330-800 received EASA type certification on 13 February 2020. The first aircraft, configured with 226 seats including 23 in business class, was to be delivered to Kuwait Airways in March, but the airline postponed delivery until the third quarter of 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic. On 29 October, the first two A330-800s were delivered to Kuwait Airways; the airline had six more -800s on order but subsequently decided to switch to the -900, becoming the first airline to operate both variants. The A330-800 then operated its first revenue flight on 20 November, flying the short distance between Kuwait and Dubai. Uganda Airlines received their first A330-800 on 21 December, with the second unit expected in January 2021. Air Greenland took delivery of its only A330-800, named Tuukkaq, on 6 December 2022 and entered service on 19 December 2022 as a replacement for the Airbus A330-200. As of March 2024, there are seven A330-800s in revenue service with three operators, where Kuwait Airways is the largest operator with four aircraft in its fleet. === A330-900 === The A330-900 retains the fuselage length of the A330-300 and the similarly sized four-engined A340-300. Cabin optimisation allows ten additional seats on the A330-900 (310 passengers) with 18-inch-wide economy seats. The -900 travels 7,350 nmi (13,600 km; 8,460 mi) with 287 passengers (440 max). Delta expects a 20 percent reduction in operating cost per seat over the Boeing 767-300ER aircraft it replaces. Further reconfiguration of cabin facilities enables the –900 to seat up to 460 passengers in an all-economy layout. This exceeds the existing 440-seat maximum exit limit allowed by the type certificate, and requires a modification of the Type-A exit doors to meet emergency exit requirements. In November 2019, maximum accommodation increased to 460 seats, through the installation of new 'Type-A+' exits, with a dual-lane evacuation slide. === Freighter === Amazon Air and UPS Airlines pushed for a freighter version, stretching the A330-900 to carry more cargo over a shorter range, but retired passenger 767 and A330 aircraft provide a lot of conversion potential. Development costs for the proposed freighter would be lower than for a new program, as much of the engineering has already been done for the A330-200F. === Military === Airbus formally launched the tanker variant of the A330neo, dubbed as the A330 MRTT+, at the 2024 Farnborough International Airshow. The A330 MRTT+ is based on the A330-800 and is intended to replace the A330 MRTT. The A330 MRTT+ also retains the 111,000 kg (245,000 lb) fuel capacity of the A330 MRTT. === Corporate === Airbus launched the business version of the A330neo, known as the ACJ330neo. It can carry a maximum of 25 passengers and can fly up to 10,400 nautical miles in 21 hours without refueling. There are two versions of the business jet which are the ACJ330-800 and the ACJ330-900 and there are four cabin outfits.: 9 == Operators == There are 160 aircraft in service with 21 operators as of May 2025. The five largest operators of A330neo are Delta Air Lines (36), TAP Air Portugal (19), Condor (18), ITA Airways (11) and Cebu Pacific (11). On 11 April 2023, Airbus delivered the 100th A330neo, an A330-900, to German charter airline Condor Flugdienst GmbH, which would lease it from AerCap. At that time, the A330neo Family flew in the liveries of 22 airlines on over 200 routes and destinations worldwide. === List of operators === === Orders and deliveries === Orders and deliveries by type and year A330neo family orders and deliveries by year (cumulative) Orders Deliveries — as of May 2025 Orders and deliveries by customer Orders and deliveries graph as of May 2025 === Market === Third party analysis for a 3,350 nmi (6,200 km; 3,860 mi) transatlantic flight shows that the 787-9 has a slight advantage over the A330-900 in cash cost per available seat miles, while the Airbus outperforms the Boeing once capital costs are included, based on the A330-900 cost an estimated $10.6m less. They have close economics but the A330neo costs up to $30m less, according to another publication. An A330-900 is worth $115 million in 2018, while a new B787-9 valuation is $145 million, up from $135 million in 2014, but it may have been sold for $110–15 million to prevent A330neo sales. Between the 2004 launch of the Dreamliner and the A330neo launch in 2014, the market was split almost equally between both, with between 900 and 920 A330ceos sold against 950 to 1,000 787-8/9s. Between 2014 and the neo first flight in October 2017, the A330/A330neo had 440 orders (excluding freighters) compared to 272 for the 787-8/9 (excluding the -10), or since the 787 launch, 1211 A330ceo/neos compared to 1106 787-8/9s. Teal Group's Richard Aboulafia believes that the A330neo should dominate the lower range and lower capacity end of the twin aisle market because the 787-8 has the high operating economics and unit price associated with its 8,000-nm range. Flightglobal Ascend Consultancy forecast 600 deliveries including 10% of -800 variants, less optimistic than Airbus's 1,000. At entry into service in 2018, sales were disappointing and A330 production was to be cut to 50 in 2019 down from 67 in 2017: while it was the widebody with the largest operator base with 1,390 deliveries since 1993, the fleet was still very young with only 46 aircraft retired. Airbus believed A330 operators would start fleet renewal beginning in 2020. With the exception of Delta, industry-leading airlines preferred the Boeing 787. Between January 2014 and November 2019, the A330/A330neo had 477 net orders (net of cancellations) compared to a total of 407 for all three variants of the 787. The A330neo program was the best-selling Airbus widebody over the same period. Airbus believes there is potential for the A330neo in the growing long-haul, low-cost carrier sector. While Airbus expected a market for over 1,000 A330neos, one pessimistic forecast reported in 2018 came in as low as 400 sales, in that the A330neo was late to the market and fuel prices had declined markedly over the years, reducing demand. 19% of A330 operators are already 787 customers though some A330 operators have been dual sourcing from both Boeing and Airbus. Leeham News, on the one hand considered the A330-800 does not really cover the upper end of New Midsize Airplane studied by Boeing for some years, on the other hand stated that the A330-800 provides Airbus a cost-effective entry to the upper end of the middle of the market. In May 2019, Airbus's chief commercial officer made clear the company has a “rock”, the A321neo, and a “hard place”, the A330-800, for any airframer intending to bring a new airplane into the middle of the market at a time when Boeing was mired in the 737 MAX crisis. Compared to a 283-seat, 9-abreast 787-9, Airbus claims a 1% lower fuel burn for the -900: 3% higher due to the 4–5 t (8,800–11,000 lb) higher OEW, but 4% lower due to the 4 m (13 ft) wider wingspan, and 3% lower fuel burn per seat in a 287-seat, 8-abreast configuration, reaching 7% with a 303-seat, 9-abreast layout. == Specifications == === Weight variants === === Aircraft model designations === === ICAO aircraft type designators === == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing Related development Airbus A330 Airbus A350 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 787 Dreamliner Comac C929 == Notes == == References == == External links == Official website Max Kingsley-Jones (17 November 2017). "How Airbus's first big twin blossomed into the A330neo". Flightglobal. Kaminski-Morrow, David (15 June 2018). "Rolls-Royce confident over A330neo and A350 engine blades". Flightglobal. Gerzanics, Mike (2 May 2019). "Flight Test: Airbus's refreshed widebody – the A330neo". Flightglobal. "Anatomy of the Airbus A330neo". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 3 May 2019.
Airbus A300	The Airbus A300 is Airbus' first production aircraft and the world's first twin-engine, double-aisle (wide-body) airliner. It was developed by Airbus Industrie GIE, now merged into Airbus SE, and manufactured from 1971 to 2007. In September 1967, aircraft manufacturers in France, West Germany and the United Kingdom signed an initial memorandum of understanding to collaborate to develop an innovative large airliner. The French and West Germans reached a firm agreement on 29 May 1969, after the British withdrew from the project on 10 April 1969. A new collaborative aerospace company, Airbus Industrie GIE, was formally created on 18 December 1970 to develop and produce it. The A300 prototype first flew on 28 October 1972. The first twin-engine widebody airliner, the A300 typically seats 247 passengers in two classes over a range of 5,375 to 7,500 km (2,900 to 4,050 nmi; 3,340 to 4,660 mi). Initial variants are powered by General Electric CF6-50 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans and have a three-crew flight deck. The improved A300-600 has a two-crew cockpit and updated CF6-80C2 or PW4000 engines; it made its first flight on 8 July 1983 and entered service later that year. The A300 is the basis of the smaller A310 (first flown in 1982) and was adapted in a freighter version. Its cross section was retained for the larger four-engined A340 (1991) and the larger twin-engined A330 (1992). It is also the basis for the oversize Beluga transport (1994). Unlike most Airbus aircraft, it has a yoke and does not use a fly-by-wire system. Launch customer Air France introduced the type on 23 May 1974. After limited demand initially, sales took off as the type was proven in early service, beginning three decades of steady orders. It has a similar capacity to the Boeing 767-300, introduced in 1986, but lacked the 767-300ER range. During the 1990s, the A300 became popular with cargo aircraft operators, as both passenger airliner conversions and as original builds. Production ceased in July 2007 after 561 deliveries. As of September 2023, there are 197 A300 family aircraft still in commercial service. == Development == === Origins === During the 1960s, European aircraft manufacturers such as Hawker Siddeley and the British Aircraft Corporation, based in the UK, and Sud Aviation of France, had ambitions to build a new 200-seat airliner for the growing civil aviation market. While studies were performed and considered, such as a stretched twin-engine variant of the Hawker Siddeley Trident and an expanded development of the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) One-Eleven, designated the BAC Two-Eleven, it was recognized that if each of the European manufacturers were to launch similar aircraft into the market at the same time, neither would achieve sales volume needed to make them viable. In 1965, a British government study, known as the Plowden Report, had found British aircraft production costs to be between 10% and 20% higher than American counterparts due to shorter production runs, which was in part due to the fractured European market. To overcome this factor, the report recommended the pursuit of multinational collaborative projects between the region's leading aircraft manufacturers.: 49 : 2–13 European manufacturers were keen to explore prospective programmes; the proposed 260-seat wide-body HBN 100 between Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation being one such example.: 37–38 National governments were also keen to support such efforts amid a belief that American manufacturers could dominate the European Economic Community; in particular, Germany had ambitions for a multinational airliner project to invigorate its aircraft industry, which had declined considerably following the Second World War.: 49–50 During the mid-1960s, both Air France and American Airlines had expressed interest in a short-haul twin-engine wide-body aircraft, indicating a market demand for such an aircraft to be produced. In July 1967, during a high-profile meeting between French, German, and British ministers, an agreement was made for greater cooperation between European nations in the field of aviation technology, and "for the joint development and production of an airbus".: 34 The word airbus at this point was a generic aviation term for a larger commercial aircraft, and was considered acceptable in multiple languages, including French.: 34 Shortly after the July 1967 meeting, French engineer Roger Béteille was appointed as the technical director of what would become the A300 programme, while Henri Ziegler, chief operating office of Sud Aviation, was appointed as the general manager of the organisation and German politician Franz Josef Strauss became the chairman of the supervisory board. Béteille drew up an initial work share plan for the project, under which French firms would produce the aircraft's cockpit, the control systems, and lower-centre portion of the fuselage, Hawker Siddeley would manufacture the wings, while German companies would produce the forward, rear and upper part of the center fuselage sections. Additional work included moving elements of the wings being produced in the Netherlands, and Spain producing the horizontal tail plane.: 38 An early design goal for the A300 that Béteille had stressed the importance of was the incorporation of a high level of technology, which would serve as a decisive advantage over prospective competitors. For this reason, the A300 would feature the first use of composite materials of any passenger aircraft, the leading and trailing edges of the tail fin being composed of glass fibre reinforced plastic.: 2–16 Béteille opted for English as the working language for the developing aircraft, as well against using Metric instrumentation and measurements, as most airlines already had US-built aircraft. These decisions were partially influenced by feedback from various airlines, such as Air France and Lufthansa, as an emphasis had been placed on determining the specifics of what kind of aircraft that potential operators were seeking. According to Airbus, this cultural approach to market research had been crucial to the company's long-term success. === Workshare and redefinition === On 26 September 1967, the French, West German and British governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding to start the development of the 300-seat Airbus A300.: 38 : 43 : 57 At this point, the A300 was only the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, the first being the Anglo-French Concorde. Under the terms of the memorandum, the French and British were to each receive a 37.5 per cent work share on the project, while the West Germans would receive a 25 per cent share. Sud Aviation was recognized as the lead contractor for the A300, with Hawker Siddeley being selected as the British partner company. At the time, the news of the announcement had been clouded by the British Government's support for the Airbus, which coincided with its refusal to back BAC's proposed competitor, the BAC 2–11, despite a preference for the latter expressed by British European Airways (BEA).: 34 Another parameter was the requirement for a new engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce to power the proposed airliner; a derivative of the in-development Rolls-Royce RB211, the triple-spool RB207, capable of producing of 47,500 lbf (211 kN). The programme cost was US$4.6 billion (in 1993 dollars, equivalent to $8.76 billion in 2023). In December 1968, the French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. It had been feared that the original 300-seat proposal was too large for the market, thus it had been scaled down to produce the A250.: 2–14 The dimensional changes involved in the shrink reduced the length of the fuselage by 5.62 metres (18.4 ft) and the diameter by 0.8 metres (31 in), reducing the overall weight by 25 tonnes (55,000 lb).: 16 For increased flexibility, the cabin floor was raised so that standard LD3 freight containers could be accommodated side-by-side, allowing more cargo to be carried. Refinements made by Hawker Siddeley to the wing's design provided for greater lift and overall performance; this gave the aircraft the ability to climb faster and attain a level cruising altitude sooner than any other passenger aircraft. It was later renamed the A300B.: 34 Perhaps the most significant change of the A300B was that it would not require new engines to be developed, being of a suitable size to be powered by Rolls-Royce's RB211, or alternatively the American Pratt & Whitney JT9D and General Electric CF6 powerplants; this switch was recognized as considerably reducing the project's development costs.: 45 : 16–17 To attract potential customers in the US market, it was decided that General Electric CF6-50 engines would power the A300 in place of the British RB207; these engines would be produced in co-operation with French firm Snecma. By this time, Rolls-Royce had been concentrating their efforts upon developing their RB211 turbofan engine instead and progress on the RB207's development had been slow for some time, the firm having suffered due to funding limitations, both of which had been factors in the engine switch decision.: 2–13 : 17–18 On 10 April 1969, a few months after the decision to drop the RB207 had been announced, the British government announced that they would withdraw from the Airbus venture.: 38–39 In response, West Germany proposed to France that they would be willing to contribute up to 50% of the project's costs if France was prepared to do the same. Additionally, the managing director of Hawker Siddeley, Sir Arnold Alexander Hall, decided that his company would remain in the project as a favoured sub-contractor, developing and manufacturing the wings for the A300, which would prove to be an important contributor to the performance of subsequent versions.: 2–13 : 34 : 18 Hawker Siddeley spent £35 million of its own funds, along with a further £35 million loan from the West German government, on the machine tooling to design and produce the wings.: 39 === Programme launch === On 29 May 1969, during the Paris Air Show, French transport minister Jean Chamant and German economics minister Karl Schiller signed an agreement officially launching the Airbus A300, the world's first twin-engine widebody airliner. The intention of the project was to produce an aircraft that was smaller, lighter, and more economical than its three-engine American rivals, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar. In order to meet Air France's demands for an aircraft larger than 250-seat A300B, it was decided to stretch the fuselage to create a new variant, designated as the A300B2, which would be offered alongside the original 250-seat A300B, henceforth referred to as the A300B1. On 3 September 1970, Air France signed a letter of intent for six A300s, marking the first order to be won for the new airliner.: 39 : 21 In the aftermath of the Paris Air Show agreement, it was decided that, in order to provide effective management of responsibilities, a Groupement d'intérêt économique would be established, allowing the various partners to work together on the project while remaining separate business entities. On 18 December 1970, Airbus Industrie was formally established following an agreement between Aérospatiale (the newly merged Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation) of France and the antecedents to Deutsche Aerospace of Germany, each receiving a 50 per cent stake in the newly formed company.: 50 : 39 In 1971, the consortium was joined by a third full partner, the Spanish firm CASA, who received a 4.2 per cent stake, the other two members reducing their stakes to 47.9 per cent each.: 20 In 1979, Britain joined the Airbus consortium via British Aerospace, which Hawker Siddeley had merged into, which acquired a 20 per cent stake in Airbus Industrie with France and Germany each reducing their stakes to 37.9 per cent.: 53 : 2–14 : 39 === Prototype and flight testing === Airbus Industrie was initially headquartered in Paris, which is where design, development, flight testing, sales, marketing, and customer support activities were centred; the headquarters was relocated to Toulouse in January 1974. The final assembly line for the A300 was located adjacent to Toulouse Blagnac International Airport. The manufacturing process necessitated transporting each aircraft section being produced by the partner companies scattered across Europe to this one location. The combined use of ferries and roads were used for the assembly of the first A300, however this was time-consuming and not viewed as ideal by Felix Kracht, Airbus Industrie's production director. Kracht's solution was to have the various A300 sections brought to Toulouse by a fleet of Boeing 377-derived Aero Spacelines Super Guppy aircraft, by which means none of the manufacturing sites were more than two hours away. Having the sections airlifted in this manner made the A300 the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques, and allowed each company to manufacture its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly assemblies.: 53 In September 1969, construction of the first prototype A300 began.: 20 On 28 September 1972, this first prototype was unveiled to the public, it conducted its maiden flight from Toulouse–Blagnac International Airport on 28 October that year.: 39 : 34 : 51–52 This maiden flight, which was performed a month ahead of schedule, lasted for one hour and 25 minutes; the captain was Max Fischl and the first officer was Bernard Ziegler, son of Henri Ziegler. In 1972, unit cost was US$17.5M. On 5 February 1973, the second prototype performed its maiden flight.: 39 The flight test programme, which involved a total of four aircraft, was relatively problem-free, accumulating 1,580 flight hours throughout.: 22 In September 1973, as part of promotional efforts for the A300, the new aircraft was taken on a six-week tour around North America and South America, to demonstrate it to airline executives, pilots, and would-be customers. Amongst the consequences of this expedition, it had allegedly brought the A300 to the attention of Frank Borman, the CEO of Eastern Airlines, one of the "big four" U.S. airlines. === Entry into service === On 15 March 1974, type certificates were granted for the A300 from both German and French authorities, clearing the way for its entry into revenue service. On 23 May 1974, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification was received.: 22 The first production model, the A300B2, entered service in 1974, followed by the A300B4 one year later. Initially, the success of the consortium was poor, in part due to the economic consequences of the 1973 oil crisis,: 40 : 34 but by 1979 there were 81 A300 passenger liners in service with 14 airlines, alongside 133 firm orders and 88 options. Ten years after the official launch of the A300, the company had achieved a 26 per cent market share in terms of dollar value, enabling Airbus to proceed with the development of its second aircraft, the Airbus A310. == Design == The Airbus A300 is a wide-body medium-to-long range airliner; it has the distinction of being the first twin-engine wide-body aircraft in the world.: 34 : 57, 60 In 1977, the A300 became the first Extended Range Twin Operations (ETOPS)-compliant aircraft, due to its high performance and safety standards.: 40 Another world-first of the A300 is the use of composite materials on a commercial aircraft, which were used on both secondary and later primary airframe structures, decreasing overall weight and improving cost-effectiveness. Other pioneering technology included the use of centre-of-gravity control, achieved by transferring fuel between various locations across the aircraft, as first used on Concorde, and electrically signalled secondary flight controls. The A300 is powered by a pair of underwing turbofan engines, either General Electric CF6 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines; the sole use of underwing engine pods allowed for any suitable turbofan engine to be more readily used.: 57 The lack of a third tail-mounted engine, as per the trijet configuration used by some competing airliners, allowed for the wings to be located further forwards and to reduce the size of the vertical stabiliser and elevator, which had the effect of increasing the aircraft's flight performance and fuel efficiency.: 50 : 21 Airbus partners had employed the latest technology, some of which having been derived from Concorde, on the A300. According to Airbus, new technologies adopted for the airliner were selected principally for increased safety, operational capability, and profitability. Upon entry into service in 1974, the A300 was a very advanced plane, which went on to influence later airliner designs. The technological highlights include advanced wings by de Havilland (later BAE Systems) with supercritical airfoil sections for economical performance and advanced aerodynamically efficient flight control surfaces. The 5.64 m (222 in) diameter circular fuselage section allows an eight-abreast passenger seating and is wide enough for 2 LD3 cargo containers side by side. Structures are made from metal billets, reducing weight. It is the first airliner to be fitted with wind shear protection. Its advanced autopilots are capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing, and it has an electrically controlled braking system. Later A300s incorporated other advanced features such as the Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit (FFCC), which enabled a two-pilot flight crew to fly the aircraft alone without the need for a flight engineer, the functions of which were automated; this two-man cockpit concept was a world-first for a wide-body aircraft.: 23–24 Glass cockpit flight instrumentation, which used cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors to display flight, navigation, and warning information, along with fully digital dual autopilots and digital flight control computers for controlling the spoilers, flaps, and leading-edge slats, were also adopted upon later-built models. Additional composites were also made use of, such as carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP), as well as their presence in an increasing proportion of the aircraft's components, including the spoilers, rudder, air brakes, and landing gear doors. Another feature of later aircraft was the addition of wingtip fences, which improved aerodynamic performance and thus reduced cruise fuel consumption by about 1.5% for the A300-600. In addition to passenger duties, the A300 became widely used by air freight operators; according to Airbus, it is the best-selling freight aircraft of all time. Various variants of the A300 were built to meet customer demands, often for diverse roles such as aerial refueling tankers, freighter models (new-build and conversions), combi aircraft, military airlifter, and VIP transport. Perhaps the most visually unique of the variants is the A300-600ST Beluga, an oversized cargo-carrying model operated by Airbus to carry aircraft sections between their manufacturing facilities. The A300 was the basis for, and retained a high level of commonality with, the second airliner produced by Airbus, the smaller Airbus A310. == Operational history == On 23 May 1974, the first A300 to enter service performed the first commercial flight of the type, flying from Paris to London, for Air France.: 39 Immediately after the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to favor the domestically made product – notably Air France and Lufthansa, the first two airlines to place orders for the type.: 50–52 Following the appointment of Bernard Lathière as Henri Ziegler's replacement, an aggressive sales approach was adopted. Indian Airlines was the world's first domestic airline to purchase the A300, ordering three aircraft with three options. However, between December 1975 and May 1977, there were no sales for the type. During this period a number of "whitetail" A300s – completed but unsold aircraft – were completed and stored at Toulouse, and production fell to half an aircraft per month amid calls to pause production completely. During the flight testing of the A300B2, Airbus held a series of talks with Korean Air on the topic of developing a longer-range version of the A300, which would become the A300B4. In September 1974, Korean Air placed an order for four A300B4s with options for two further aircraft; this sale was viewed as significant as it was the first non-European international airline to order Airbus aircraft. Airbus had viewed South-East Asia as a vital market that was ready to be opened up and believed Korean Air to be the 'key'.: 23 Airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes were forced to reduce frequencies to try and fill the aircraft. As a result, they lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. Eventually, Airbus had to build its own narrowbody aircraft (the A320) to compete with the Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80. The saviour of the A300 was the advent of ETOPS, a revised FAA rule which allows twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them. This enabled Airbus to develop the aircraft as a medium/long-range airliner. In 1977, US carrier Eastern Air Lines leased four A300s as an in-service trial. CEO Frank Borman was impressed that the A300 consumed 30% less fuel, even less than expected, than Eastern's fleet of L-1011s. The A300 would be replacing the aging DC-9s and 727-100s but in smaller numbers, while being a twinjet sized between the Tristars and 727-200s, and capable of operating from short runway airports with sufficient range from New York City to Miami. Borman proceeded to order 23 A300s, becoming the first U.S. customer for the type. This order is often cited as the point at which Airbus came to be seen as a serious competitor to the large American aircraft-manufacturers Boeing and McDonnell Douglas.: 40 Aviation author John Bowen alleged that various concessions, such as loan guarantees from European governments and compensation payments, were a factor in the decision as well. Although the A300 was originally too large for Eastern's exiting routes, Airbus provided a fixed subsidy for a 57% load factor which decreased for every percent above that figure.: 52 The Eastern Air Lines breakthrough was shortly followed by an order from Pan Am. From then on, the A300 family sold well, eventually reaching a total of 561 delivered aircraft. In December 1977, Aerocondor Colombia became the first Airbus operator in Latin America, leasing one Airbus A300B4-2C, named Ciudad de Barranquilla. During the late 1970s, Airbus adopted a so-called 'Silk Road' strategy, targeting airlines in the Far East.: 52 As a result, The aircraft found particular favor with Asian airlines, being bought by Japan Air System, Korean Air, China Eastern Airlines, Thai Airways International, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Garuda Indonesia, China Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Indian Airlines, Trans Australia Airlines and many others. As Asia did not have restrictions similar to the FAA 60-minutes rule for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea. In 1977, the A300B4 became the first ETOPS compliant aircraft, qualifying for Extended Twin Engine Operations over water, providing operators with more versatility in routing. In 1982, Garuda Indonesian Airways became the first airline to fly the A300B4-200FFCC with the newly Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit concept, the world's first wide-body aircraft that only operated by two-man cockpit crew. By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 400 aircraft sold to over forty airlines. In 1989, Chinese operator China Eastern Airlines received its first A300; by 2006, the airline operated around 18 A300s, making it the largest operator of both the A300 and the A310 at that time. On 31 May 2014, China Eastern officially retired the last A300-600 in its fleet, having begun drawing down the type in 2010. From 1997 to 2014, a single A300, designated A300 Zero-G, was operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as a reduced-gravity aircraft for conducting research into microgravity; the A300 is the largest aircraft to ever have been used in this capacity. A typical flight would last for two and a half hours, enabling up to 30 parabolas to be performed per flight. By the 1990s, the A300 was being heavily promoted as a cargo freighter.: 24 The largest freight operator of the A300 is FedEx Express, which has 70 A300 aircraft in service as of September 2022. UPS Airlines also operates 52 freighter versions of the A300. The final version was the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters; large numbers were being converted during the late 1990s.: 24–25 The freighter versions – either new-build A300-600s or converted ex-passenger A300-600s, A300B2s and B4s – account for most of the world's freighter fleet after the Boeing 747 freighter. The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later stretched (A330 and A340), shortened (A310), or modified into derivatives (A300-600ST Beluga Super Transporter). In 2006, unit cost of an −600F was $105 million. In March 2006, Airbus announced the impending closure of the A300/A310 final assembly line, making them the first Airbus aircraft to be discontinued. The final production A300, an A300F freighter, performed its initial flight on 18 April 2007, and was delivered to FedEx Express on 12 July 2007. Airbus has announced a support package to keep A300s flying commercially. Airbus offers the A330-200F freighter as a replacement for the A300 cargo variants. The life of UPS's fleet of 52 A300s, delivered from 2000 to 2006, will be extended to 2035 by a flight deck upgrade based around Honeywell Primus Epic avionics; new displays and flight management system (FMS), improved weather radar, a central maintenance system, and a new version of the current enhanced ground proximity warning system. With a light usage of only two to three cycles per day, it will not reach the maximum number of cycles by then. The first modification will be made at Airbus Toulouse in 2019 and certified in 2020. As of July 2017, there are 211 A300s in service with 22 operators, with the largest operator being FedEx Express with 68 A300-600F aircraft. == Variants == === A300B1 === The A300B1 was the first variant to take flight. It had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 132 t (291,000 lb), was 51 m (167 ft) long and was powered by two General Electric CF6-50A engines.: 21 : 41 Only two prototypes of the variant were built before it was adapted into the A300B2, the first production variant of the airliner.: 39 The second prototype was leased to Trans European Airways in 1974.: 54 === A300B2 === ==== A300B2-100 ==== Responding to a need for more seats from Air France, Airbus decided that the first production variant should be larger than the original prototype A300B1. The CF6-50A powered A300B2-100 was 2.6 m (8.5 ft) longer than the A300B1 and had an increased MTOW of 137 t (302,000 lb), allowing for 30 additional seats and bringing the typical passenger count up to 281, with capacity for 20 LD3 containers.: 10 : 17 Two prototypes were built and the variant made its maiden flight on 28 June 1973, became certified on 15 March 1974 and entered service with Air France on 23 May 1974.: 27, 53 : 10 ==== A300B2-200 ==== For the A300B2-200, originally designated as the A300B2K, Krueger flaps were introduced at the leading-edge root, the slat angles were reduced from 20 degrees to 16 degrees, and other lift related changes were made in order to introduce a high-lift system. This was done to improve performance when operating at high-altitude airports, where the air is less dense and lift generation is reduced.: 52, 53 The variant had an increased MTOW of 142 t (313,000 lb) and was powered by CF6-50C engines, was certified on 23 June 1976, and entered service with South African Airways in November 1976.: 40 : 12 CF6-50C1 and CF6-50C2 models were also later fitted depending on customer requirements, these became certified on 22 February 1978 and 21 February 1980 respectively.: 41 : 12 ==== A300B2-320 ==== The A300B2-320 introduced the Pratt & Whitney JT9D powerplant and was powered by JT9D-59A engines. It retained the 142 t (313,000 lb) MTOW of the B2-200, was certified on 4 January 1980, and entered service with Scandinavian Airlines on 18 February 1980, with only four being produced.: 99, 112 : 14 === A300B4 === ==== A300B4-100 ==== The initial A300B4 variant, later named the A300B4-100, included a centre fuel tank for an increased fuel capacity of 47.5 tonnes (105,000 lb), and had an increased MTOW of 157.5 tonnes (347,000 lb).: 38 It also featured Krueger flaps and had a similar high-lift system to what was later fitted to the A300B2-200.: 74 The variant made its maiden flight on 26 December 1974, was certified on 26 March 1975, and entered service with Bavaria Germanair in December 1975.: 32, 54 : 16 ==== A300B4-200 ==== The A300B4-200 had an increased MTOW of 165 tonnes (364,000 lb) and featured an additional optional fuel tank in the rear cargo hold, which would reduce the cargo capacity by two LD3 containers.: 19 : 69 The variant was certified on 26 April 1979.: 19 ===== A300B4-200FFCC ===== It is the A300B4-200 without the flight engineer but analog flight instruments. Introduced by Garuda Indonesian Airways in 1982 === A300-600 === The A300-600, officially designated as the A300B4-600, was slightly longer than the A300B2 and A300B4 variants and had an increased interior space from using a similar rear fuselage to the Airbus A310; this allowed it to have two additional rows of seats.: 79 It was initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4H1 engines, but was later fitted with General Electric CF6-80C2 engines, with Pratt & Whitney PW4156 or PW4158 engines being introduced in 1986.: 82 Other changes include an improved wing featuring a recambered trailing edge, the incorporation of simpler single-slotted Fowler flaps, the deletion of slat fences, and the removal of the outboard ailerons after they were deemed unnecessary on the A310. The variant made its first flight on 8 July 1983, was certified on 9 March 1984, and entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian Airlines.: 42 : 58 A total of 313 A300-600s (all versions) have been sold. The A300-600 uses the A310 cockpits, featuring digital technology and electronic displays, eliminating the need for a flight engineer. The FAA issues a single type rating which allows operation of both the A310 and A300-600. A300-600: (Official designation: A300B4-600) The baseline model of the −600 series. A300-620C: (Official designation: A300C4-620) A convertible-freighter version. Four delivered between 1984 and 1985. A300-600F: (Official designation: A300F4-600) The freighter version of the baseline −600. A300-600R: (Official designation: A300B4-600R) The increased-range −600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail. First delivery in 1988 to American Airlines; all A300s built since 1989 (freighters included) are −600Rs. Japan Air System (later merged into Japan Airlines) took delivery of the last new-built passenger A300, an A300-622R, in November 2002. A300-600RC: (Official designation: A300C4-600R) The convertible-freighter version of the −600R. Two were delivered in 1999. A300-600RF: (Official designation: A300F4-600R) The freighter version of the −600R. All A300s delivered between November 2002 and 12 July 2007 (last ever A300 delivery) were A300-600RFs. === A300B10 (A310) === Airbus had demand for an aircraft smaller than the A300. On 7 July 1978, the A310 (initially the A300B10) was launched with orders from Swissair and Lufthansa. On 3 April 1982, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight and it received its type certification on 11 March 1983. Keeping the same eight-abreast cross-section, the A310 is 6.95 m (22.8 ft) shorter than the initial A300 variants, and has a smaller 219 m2 (2,360 sq ft) wing, down from 260 m2 (2,800 sq ft). The A310 introduced a two-crew glass cockpit, later adopted for the A300-600 with a common type rating. It was powered by the same GE CF6-80 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D then PW4000 turbofans. It can seat 220 passengers in two classes, or 240 in all-economy, and can fly up to 5,150 nmi (9,540 km; 5,930 mi). It has overwing exits between the two main front and rear door pairs. In April 1983, the aircraft entered revenue service with Swissair and competed with the Boeing 767–200, introduced six months before. Its longer range and ETOPS regulations allowed it to be operated on transatlantic flights. Until the last delivery in June 1998, 255 aircraft were produced, as it was succeeded by the larger Airbus A330-200. It has cargo aircraft versions, and was derived into the Airbus A310 MRTT military tanker/transport. === A300-600ST === Commonly referred to as the Airbus Beluga or "Airbus Super Transporter", these five airframes are used by Airbus to ferry parts between the company's disparate manufacturing facilities, thus enabling workshare distribution. They replaced the four Aero Spacelines Super Guppys previously used by Airbus. ICAO code: A3ST == Operators == As of April 2025, there are 209 A300 family aircraft in commercial service. The five largest operators are FedEx Express (63), UPS Airlines (52), European Air Transport Leipzig (25), Iran Air (8), and Mahan Air (8). === Deliveries === Data through end of December 2007. == Accidents and incidents == As of June 2021, the A300 has been involved in 77 occurrences including 24 hull-loss accidents causing 1133 fatalities, and 36 criminal occurrences and hijackings causing 302 fatalities. === Accidents with fatalities === 21 September 1987: At Luxor Airport, Egypt, an Egyptair Airbus A300B4-203, registration SU-BCA, touched down 700 m (2,300 ft) past the runway threshold during a training flight. The right main gear hit the runway lights and the aircraft collided with an antenna and fences. No passengers were on board the plane, but 5 crew members were killed. The aircraft was written off. This was the first fatal accident of an Airbus A300. July 3 1988: IranAir 655, an Airbus A300B2-203, was shot down by the USS Vincennes naval ship while flying from the second leg of the Mehrabad-Dubai route, Bandar Abbas to Dubai. All 290 on board were killed. 28 September 1992: An A300B4-203, registration AP-BCP, operating PIA Flight 268 crashed during approach, 18km S. of Kathmandu-Tribhuvan Airport, Nepal. All 12 crew members and all 155 passengers died. 26 April 1994: China Airlines Flight 140, an Airbus A300B4-622R, registration B-1816, crashed upon losing control during an attempted go-around at Nagoya-Komaki Airport, Japan, killing all 15 crew and 249 of 256 passengers on board. 26 September 1997: An Airbus A300B4-220, registration PK-GAI, operating Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 collided with hilly terrain on approach to Medan-Polonia International Airport, as the consequence of an air-traffic control error and limited ground visibility due to the 1997 Southeast Asian haze. All 234 persons aboard were killed in Indonesia's deadliest crash to-date. 16 February 1998: China Airlines Flight 676 an Airbus A300B4-622R, registration B-1814, stalled and impacted a residential area of Taipei during an attempted go around at Taipei-Chiang Kai Shek Airport, Taiwan. All 196 people on board were killed, including Taiwan's central bank president. Six people on the ground were also killed. 2 February 2000: While being towed to a hangar at Tehran-Mehrabad Airport, an Iran Air Airbus A300B2-203 (EP-IBR) was impacted by an Iranian Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport plane that had lost directional control and veered off the runway while attempting to take off. All 8 of the Hercules' occupants were killed and both aircraft were destroyed by fire. 12 November 2001: An Airbus 300B4-605R, registration N14053, operating American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into Belle Harbor, a neighbourhood in Queens, New York, USA, shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport. The vertical stabiliser separated from the aircraft after the rudder was mishandled while encountering wake turbulence created by the Boeing 747 that had immediately preceded 587's own departure. All 260 of the plane's occupants and 5 persons on the ground were killed. It is the second-deadliest accident involving an A300 to date and the second-deadliest aircraft incident in the United States. 14 April 2010: AeroUnion Flight 302, an A300B4-203F, crashed on a road 2 km (1.2 mi) short of the runway while attempting to land at Monterrey Airport in Mexico. Six people (five crew members and one on the ground) were killed. 14 August 2013: UPS Flight 1354, an Airbus A300F4-622R, crashed outside the perimeter fence on approach to Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Alabama, United States. Both crew members died. === Non-fatal hull losses === 18 December 1983: Malaysian Airline System Flight 684, an Airbus A300B4 leased from Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), registration OY-KAA, crashed short of the runway at Kuala Lumpur in bad weather while attempting to land on a flight from Singapore. All 247 people aboard escaped unharmed but the aircraft was destroyed in the resulting fire. 24 April 1993: an Air Inter Airbus A300B2-1C was written off after colliding with a light pole while being pushed back at Montpellier. 15 November 1993, an Indian Airlines Airbus A300, registered as VT-EDV, crash landed near Hyderabad Airport. There were no deaths but the aircraft was written off. 10 August 1994 – Korean Air Flight 2033 (Airbus A300) from Seoul to Jeju, the flight approached faster than usual to avoid potential windshear. Fifty feet above the runway the co-pilot, who was not flying the aircraft, decided that there was insufficient runway left to land and tried to perform a go-around against the captain's wishes. The aircraft touched down 1,773 meters beyond the runway threshold. The aircraft could not be stopped on the remaining 1,227 meters of runway and overran at a speed of 104 knots. After striking the airport wall and a guard post at 30 knots, the aircraft burst into flames and was incinerated. The cabin crew was credited with safely evacuating all passengers although only half of the aircraft's emergency exits were usable. 17 October 2001: Pakistan International Airlines flight PK231, registration AP-BCJ, from Islamabad via Peshawar to Dubai veered off the side of the runway after the right hand main landing gear collapsed as it touched down. The aircraft skidded and eventually came to rest in sand 50 meters from the runway. The aircraft sustained damage to its right wing structure and its no. 2 engine, which partly broke off the wing. All 205 passengers and crew survived. 1 March 2004: Pakistan International Airlines Flight 2002 burst 2 tyres whilst taking off from King Abdulaziz International Airport. Fragments of the tyre were ingested by the engines, this caused the engines to catch fire and an aborted takeoff was performed. Due to the fire substantial damage to the engine and the left wing caused the aircraft to be written off. All 261 passengers and 12 crew survived. 16 November 2012: an Air Contractors Airbus A300B4-203(F) EI-EAC, operating flight QY6321 on behalf of EAT Leipzig from Leipzig (Germany) to Bratislava (Slovakia), suffered a nose wheel collapse during roll out after landing at Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport. All three crew members survived unharmed, the aircraft was written off. As of December 2017, the aircraft still was parked at a remote area of the airport between runways 13 and 22. 12 October 2015: An Airbus A300B4-200F Freighter operated by Egyptian Tristar cargo carrier crashed in Mogadishu, Somalia. All the passengers and crew members survived the crash. 1 October 2016: An Airbus A300-B4 registration PR-STN on a cargo flight between São Paulo-Guarulhos and Recife suffered a runway excursion after landing and the aft gear collapsed upon touchdown. === Violent incidents === 27 June 1976: Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv, Israel and carrying 248 passengers and a crew of 12 took off from Athens, Greece, headed for Paris, France. The flight was hijacked by terrorists, and was eventually flown to Entebbe Airport in Uganda. At the airport, Israeli commandos rescued 102 of the 106 hostages. 3 February 1984: Serviços Aéreos Cruzeiro do Sul Flight 302, an Airbus A300B4-203, was hijacked while flying from São Luís to Belém and was forced to divert to Cuba. There were no fatalities among the 176 passengers and crew. 26 October 1986: Thai Airways Flight 620, an Airbus A300B4-601, originating in Bangkok suffered an explosion mid-flight. The aircraft descended rapidly and was able to land safely at Osaka. The aircraft was later repaired and there were no fatalities. The cause was a hand grenade brought onto the plane by a Japanese gangster of the Yamaguchi-gumi. 109 of the 247 people on board were injured. 3 July 1988: Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by USS Vincennes in the Persian Gulf after being mistaken for an attacking Iranian F-14 Tomcat, killing all 290 passengers and crew. 15 February 1991: two Kuwait Airways A300C4-620s and two Boeing 767s that had been seized during Iraq's occupation of Kuwait were destroyed in coalition bombing of Mosul Airport. 24 December 1994: Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked at Houari Boumedienne Airport in Algiers, by four terrorists who belonged to the Armed Islamic Group. The terrorists apparently intended to crash the plane over the Eiffel Tower on Boxing Day. After a failed attempt to leave Marseille following a confrontational firefight between the terrorists and the GIGN French Special Forces, the result was the death of all four terrorists. (Snipers on the terminal front's roof shot dead two of the terrorists. The other two terrorists died as a result of gunshots in the cabin after approximately 20 minutes.) Three hostages including a Vietnamese diplomat were executed in Algiers, 229 hostages survived, many of them wounded by shrapnel. The almost 15-year-old aircraft was written off. 24 December 1999: Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 from Kathmandu, Nepal, to New Delhi was hijacked. After refuelling and offloading a few passengers, the flight was diverted to Kandahar, Afghanistan. A Nepalese man was murdered while the plane was in flight. 22 November 2003: European Air Transport OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-14 'Gremlin' missile after takeoff from Baghdad International Airport. The aeroplane lost hydraulic pressure and thus the controls. After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was repaired and offered for sale, but in April 2011 it still remained parked at Baghdad Intl. 25 August 2011: an A300B4-620 5A-IAY of Afriqiyah Airways and A300B4-622 5A-DLZ of Libyan Arab Airlines were both destroyed in fighting between pro- and anti-Gaddafi forces at Tripoli International Airport. == Aircraft on display == Fifteen A300s are currently preserved: F-BUAD Airbus A300 ZERO-G, since August 2015 preserved at Cologne Bonn Airport, Germany. F-WUAB The first prototype of the Airbus A300 is Partially preserved with a fuselage section, the right-hand wing, and an engine on display at the Deutsches Museum ex-HL7219 Korean Air Airbus A300B4 preserved at Korean Air Jeongseok Airfield. ex-N11984 Continental Airlines Airbus A300B4 preserved in South Korea as a Night Flight Restaurant. ex TC-ACD and TC-ACE Air ACT, preserved as coffee house at Uçak Cafe in Burhaniye, Turkey. ex TC-MNJ MNG Airlines, preserved as Köfte Airlines restaurant at Tekirdağ, Turkey. ex TC-FLA Fly Air, preserved as the Airbus Cafe & Restaurant at Kayseri, Turkey. ex TC-ACC Air ACT, preserved as the Uçak Kütüphane library and education centre at Çankırı, Turkey. ex EP-MHA Mahan Air, preserved as instructional airframe at the Botia Mahan Aviation College at Kerman, Iran. ex TC-FLM Fly Air, preserved as a restaurant at Istanbul, Turkey. ex B-18585 China Airlines, preserved as the Flight of Happiness restaurant at Taoyuan, Taiwan. ex-PK-JID Sempati Air Airbus A300B4 repainted in first A300B1 prototype colours, including original F-WUAB registration, became an exhibit in 2014 at the Aeroscopia museum in Blagnac, near Toulouse, France. ex TC-MCE MNG Airlines, preserved as a restaurant at the Danialand theme park at Agadir, Morocco. ex HL7240 Korean Air, preserved as instructional airframe (gate guard) at the Korea Aerospace University at Goyang, South Korea. ex HS-TAM Thai Airways A300-600R, preserved in a field near Doi Saket, Chiang Mai. == Specifications == === Aircraft model designations === == See also == Competition between Airbus and Boeing F-WUAB (Airbus A300B1) Related development Airbus A310 Airbus A330 Airbus A340 Airbus Beluga – modified A300-600 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing 767 Ilyushin Il-86 Lockheed L-1011 TriStar McDonnell Douglas DC-10 Related lists List of jet airliners == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Chillon, Jacques; Dubois, Jean-Pierre & Wegg, John (1980). French Post-War Transport Aircraft. Tonbridge, UK: Air-Britain. ISBN 0-85130-078-2. Gunston, Bill (2009). Airbus: The Complete Story. Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84425-585-6. Hofton, Andy (10 October 1987). "Commercial Aircraft of the World". Flight International. Vol. 132, no. 4083. pp. 36–79. == External links == Official website "This Is The Start of Something Big". Aviation Week. 1968. Archived from the original on 25 February 2022.
Embraer	Embraer S.A. (Portuguese pronunciation: [ẽbɾaˈɛɾ]) is a Brazilian multinational aerospace corporation. It develops and manufactures aircraft and aviation systems, and provides leasing, equipment, and technical support services. Embraer is the third largest producer of civil aircraft worldwide after Boeing and Airbus. The company also has a significant presence in military aviation, ranking among the top 100 defense contractors. It is headquartered in São José dos Campos, São Paulo, with offices and operations in China, the Netherlands, Portugal, Singapore, and the United States. Embraer was founded in 1969 by the Brazilian government as a national champion for domestic aerospace technology. It initially focused on supplying military aircraft to the Brazilian Air Force, but by the 1980s began producing a series of successful commuter and regional airliners for export. The company was privatized in 1994 and began expanding to the production of larger regional airliners and smaller business jets. In 2000, Embraer became public as a limited company (Sociedade Anônima) with its own shares publicly traded in both the United States (NYSE) and Brazil (B3). Embraer has divisions for commercial, executive, military, and agricultural aviation; it also maintains an incubator for aerospace technologies and businesses. While the company continues producing aircraft for the defense sector, it is best known for the ERJ and E-Jet families of narrow-body short to medium range airliners, and for its line of business jets, including the market-leading Phenom 300. As of May 2024, Embraer has delivered more than 8,000 aircraft, including 1,800 E-Jet planes. == History == Seeking to develop a domestic aircraft industry, the Brazilian government under then President Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo made several investments in the aerospace industry during the 1940s and 1950s. However, it was not until 1969, following the establishment of the Brazilian military dictatorship after the 1964 coup d'état, that Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica (Brazilian Aeronautics Corporation, short Embraer) was created as a government-owned corporation. Its first president, Ozires Silva, was a government appointee, and the company initially only produced a turboprop passenger aircraft, the Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante. The city of São José dos Campos was chosen to host the company's headquarters because it had already hosted, since 1950, the Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA), the first higher education institution in Brazil dedicated to the aerospace sector. === Early growth === The Brazilian government contributed to Embraer's early growth by providing production contracts. The company sold solely to the domestic market until 1975. While military aircraft made up the majority of Embraer's products during the 1970s and early 1980s, including the Embraer AT-26 Xavante and the Embraer EMB 312 Tucano, it debuted a regional airliner, the Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante, which made its first flight in 1968, and the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, launched in 1985. Aimed at the export market, the EMB family was the first in a series of highly successful small and regional airliners. In addition to its own line of aircraft, beginning in 1974, Embraer was licensed by the United States' Piper Aircraft to develop, produce, and market its light airplanes, as Brazil was one of the world's leading importers of small single- or twin-engine aircraft. Piper first put together knock-down kits in its U.S. factory for Embraer to then assemble and market in Brazil and Latin America. By 1978, most parts and components were being sourced by Embraer locally. The aircraft were sold as the EMB 820 Navajo (Piper Navajo Chieftain), EMB 810 Seneca (Piper Seneca III), EMB 720 Minuano (Cherokee Six), EMB 710 Carioca aircraft (Cherokee 235 Pathfinder) and the EMB 711 Corisco (Cherokee Arrow II). Between 1974 and 2000, nearly 2,500 license-built Pipers were produced by Embraer. === Acquisition of Aerotec === Aerotec S/A Indústria Aeronáutica was a design and manufacturing company founded in São José dos Campos in 1962 under the auspices of the Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology. Beginning in the late 1960s, the firm manufactured a two-seat trainer for the Brazilian Air Force, the Aerotec Uirapuru. A small number were also built for the civilian market, and others were exported to other Latin American countries. By 1980, Aerotec's main business was producing components for Embraer. However, around this time, the Brazilian Air Force became interested in an upgraded version of the Uirapuru. A prototype, designated Uirapuru II, was built; but, by the time it flew, the Air Force no longer required it. A small number were built for export. In 1987, the firm was sold to Embraer. === Privatization === Born from a Brazilian government plan and having been state-run, Embraer eventually started a privatisation process in 1992 alongside other state-run companies, such as Telebrás and Vale. Privatisation was a key policy of the economically liberal government of Fernando Collor, elected in the 1989 presidential election. Embraer was sold to private investors on December 7, 1994, which helped it avoid a looming bankruptcy. The Brazilian government retained interest through possession of golden shares, which allow it veto power. Embraer continued to win government contracts throughout the 2000s and 2010s. === Initial public offerings === In 2000, Embraer made simultaneous initial public offerings on the NYSE and BM&F Bovespa stock exchanges. As of 2008 its NYSE-traded shares were American depositary receipts representing four BM&F Bovespa shares and it was partially owned by the Bozano Group (11.10%), Previ (16.40%), Sistel (7.40%), Dassault Aviation (2.1%), EADS (2.1%), Thales (2.1%), Safran (1.1%), and the government of Brazil (0.3% and golden share), the remainder being publicly traded. As of December 31, 2014 the shareholders with more than 5% of the company's capital were: OppenheimerFunds, 12.29% Caixa de Previdência dos Funcionários do Banco do Brasil, 6.71% Baillie Gifford, 6.46% BNDESPAR, 5.31%. === Product line expansion: military, regional and executive === In the mid-1990s, the company pursued a product line focused on small commercial airplanes over the military aircraft that had previously made up the majority of its manufacturing. It soon expanded to the production of larger regional airliners in the 70–110 seat range, and smaller business jets. By May 2019, Embraer considered developing a new family of turboprop regional airliners in the 50–70 seat range, complementing the E-Jet E2, so as to free engineering resources. It would compete against older ATR and Dash 8 designs for 1.5 to 2 h flights over 500–700 nmi (930–1,300 km). In August 2021, Embraer released a new configuration with quieter aft-mounted engines for a 70-90 seat aircraft, with the E-Jet cross-section, aiming for a 2022 launch and a 2027/2028 service entry. === Executive jets === At the 2000 Farnborough Airshow, Embraer introduced the Legacy 600, a business jet variant of the Embraer Regional Jet, which entered service in 2002. Embraer Executive Jets was created as a dedicated subsidiary in 2005. That same year, the Phenom 100 was envisioned as an air taxi similar to the Eclipse 500, competing with Cessna and Hawker Beechcraft. It was introduced in 2008 and is the basis of the larger Phenom 300. The midsize Legacy 450 and Legacy 500 were jointly developed as clean sheet designs, while the Lineage 1000 is a VIP version of the E190. In 2016, Embraer delivered its 1,000th executive jet and had a market share of 17% by volume, though it lacked an ultra-long-range large cabin jet. In October 2018 Embraer announced two new business jets—the Praetor 500 in the midsize cabin category—and the Praetor 600 in the super midsize category. === Military transport === On April 19, 2007, Embraer announced it was considering the production of a twin-jet military transport. Work began in May 2009 with funding from the Brazilian Air Force. Correios, the Brazilian postal service, has shown interest in buying this aircraft. Using much of the technology developed for the Embraer 190, the C-390 would carry up to 23 tons of cargo and aims to replace Cold War-era cargo aircraft. While firm orders for the yet-to-be-produced KC-390 transport had not yet been made in the fall of 2010, Argentina asked for six examples and several other South American nations also expressed interest. === Government subsidy controversy === Brazil and Canada engaged in an international, adjudicated trade dispute over government subsidies to domestic plane-makers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The World Trade Organization determined that both countries had provided illegal subsidies to what were supposed to be privately owned industries. Brazil ran an illegal subsidy program, Proex, benefiting its national aviation industry from at least 1999–2000, and Canada illegally subsidized its indigenous regional airliner industry including in export contracts, comprising Bombardier Aerospace. === Failed Boeing-Embraer joint venture === On July 5, 2018, a joint venture with Boeing was announced that would have resulted in Boeing owning 80% of Embraer's commercial aviation division. This was seen as a reaction to Airbus' acquisition of a majority in the competing Bombardier CSeries the previous year. Under the 2018 plan, Embraer would retain its executive business jet and its defence business. The resulting division would be known as Boeing Brasil – Commercial, though it was unclear whether the aircraft would be rebranded as Boeing models. On November 18, 2019, Boeing and Embraer announced another joint venture, at 49% and 51% respectively, to promote and develop new markets for the C-390 Millennium tactical transport aircraft; the resulting entity would be called Boeing Embraer – Defense and would begin operating after regulatory approvals and closing conditions. In April 2020, Boeing canceled its acquisition of Embraer's commercial operations after being heavily affected financially by the air crisis initiated by the COVID-19 pandemic and by the 737 MAX groundings. In November 2020, Embraer announced that its loss for the third quarter of the year is $121 million due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the travel restrictions. === STOUT light military transport aircraft === In December 2019, Embraer and the Brazilian Air Force tackled the development of a light military transport aircraft. The Short Take Off Utility Transport (STOUT) would replace its 64 EMB-110 Bandeirante (average age of 38.3 years) and 19 EMB-120 Brasilia (average age of 26.5 years) with similar dimensions. == Organization == Embraer is organized into four segments: Commercial Aviation, which manages the development, production, sale, and lease of commercial jets, as well as the provision of aviation support services; Defense & Security, which consists of research, development, production, modification, and support for military defense aircraft, and related products and services; Executive Aviation, which concerns the development, production, and sale of executive jets, and support services; and Other, which entails the production of structural parts, mechanical and hydraulic systems, agricultural crop-spraying aircraft, and customer training. === Corporate affairs === The key trends of Embraer are (as at the financial year ending December 31): == Production bases and facilities == The company's headquarters and main production base are in São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil. It also has production bases in the State of São Paulo at Botucatu, Eugênio de Melo (a district of São José dos Campos) and Gavião Peixoto. The company has offices in Beijing, Fort Lauderdale, Amsterdam, Singapore, and Washington, D.C. === Non-Brazilian main facilities === Production facilities for the Phenom 100EV and 300E, and Praetor 500 and 600 at Melbourne Orlando International Airport in Florida. == Subsidiaries == EAMS – Embraer Aircraft Maintenance Services Inc. (Nashville, TN, U.S.) – maintenance services site. OGMA – Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal (Alverca do Ribatejo, Portugal) – aircraft component maintenance, repair and manufacturing, plus aircraft maintenance services. Embraer Aircraft Holding, Inc. – Its U.S. headquarters are in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in a facility founded in 1979. Its external relations office is in Washington, D.C. Embraer Aero Seating Technologies – Inaugurated in September 2016 in the city of Titusville, Florida, Embraer Aero Seating Technologies produces aircraft seats. Mesa Unit (Located in Mesa, Arizona, U.S.) – Implemented in 2008, performs maintenance, repair and overhaul services on the Phenom and Legacy executive aircraft line. Windsor Locks Unit (Located in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, U.S.) – Implemented in 2008, as well as the Mesa Unit, also performs maintenance, repair and revision services in Embraer's executive line. Melbourne Unit (Located in Melbourne, Florida, U.S.) – Implemented in 2011, it is the first unit in the United States to carry out the final assembly of aircraft. It produces the line of executives Phenom 100 and Phenom 300. In November 2012 work began on an Engineering and Technology Center at the Melbourne facility. ECC Leasing – Embraer's in-house leasing division, based in Dublin, Ireland, managing and re-marketing the Embraer aircraft portfolio owned directly by the manufacturer. Eve - Embraer's partnership potentially merging with special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC) Zanite Acquisition Corp. Embraer have announced plans to build a new factory and manufacture a new Eve electric air taxi from 2016. === Joint ventures === Harbin Embraer (Harbin, China) – manufactures aircraft from the ERJ family for the Chinese market (canceled) Embraer's commercial airliner portfolio, as well as the KC-390, would be part of two separate joint ventures with Boeing. In the case of the civil aircraft line, Boeing would own 80% of the resulting firm. (canceled) == Aircraft models == === Commercial === By December 2018, Embraer claimed to lead the sub 150 seat jetliner market with 100 operators of the ERJ and E-Jet families. ==== Current ==== Embraer E-Jet family Embraer 170 (66–78 passengers) Embraer 175 (76–88 passengers) Embraer 190 (96–114 passengers) Embraer 195 (100–124 passengers) Embraer E-Jet E2 family Embraer 175-E2 (80–90 passengers) Embraer 190-E2 (97–114 passengers) Embraer 195-E2 (120–146 passengers) ==== Former ==== Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (18 passengers) Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia (30 passengers) Embraer ERJ family Embraer ERJ 135 (37 passengers) Embraer ERJ 140 (44 passengers) Embraer ERJ 145 (50 passengers) Embraer/FMA CBA 123 Vector (prototype) === Military === ==== Current ==== Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano (light attack) Embraer C-390 Millennium (medium transport) Embraer R-99 (Airborne early warning and control) JAS 39 Gripen E/F (multirole fighter) ==== Former ==== Embraer EMB 111 Bandeirante (light transport) Embraer EMB 312 Tucano (trainer) AMX International AMX (attack jet) Embraer MFT-LF (trainer/light attack, prototype only) Embraer Xavante (localized variant of the Aermacchi MB-326) === Business jets === ==== Current ==== Embraer Phenom 100 (very light jet) Embraer Phenom 300 (light jet) Embraer Praetor 500 (mid-size jet) Embraer Praetor 600 (super mid-size jet) ==== Former ==== Embraer Legacy 450 (mid-size jet) Embraer Legacy 500 (super mid-size jet) Embraer Legacy 600/650 (large jet, developed from the ERJ family) Embraer Lineage 1000 (ultra-large jet, developed from the E-Jet family) === Utility === ==== Current ==== Embraer EMB 202 Ipanema (cropduster) ==== Former ==== Embraer EMB 121 Xingu (general utility) === Piper localizations === ==== Current ==== Embraer Seneca (based on Piper PA-34) Embraer Corisco/Tupi (based on Piper PA-28 Archer II) ==== Former ==== Embraer Carioca/Minuano/Sertanejo (based on Piper PA-32) Embraer Navajo (based on Piper PA-31) == Commercial aircraft deliveries == The numbers include military versions of commercial aircraft. Total delivered-backlog-options as of June 30, 2007: 862-53-131 145 Family, 256-399-719 170/190 Family == References == == Further reading == Michael Mecham (April 23, 2012). "Brazil's A&D Industry Centers Around Embraer". Aviation Week. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) == External links == Official website Business data for Embraer:
Embraer E-Jet family	The Embraer E-Jet family is a series of four-abreast, narrow-body, short- to medium-range, twin-engined jet airliners designed and produced by Brazilian aerospace manufacturer Embraer. The E-Jet was designed to complement Embraer’s earlier ERJ family, the company’s first jet-powered regional aircraft. With a capacity of 66 to 124 passengers, the E-Jets were significantly larger than any aircraft Embraer had developed before that time. The project was unveiled in early 1997 and formally introduced at the 1999 Paris Air Show. On 19 February 2002, the first E-Jet prototype completed its maiden flight, and production began later that year. The first E170 was delivered to LOT Polish Airlines on 17 March 2004. Initial rollout issues were quickly overcome, and Embraer rapidly expanded product support for better global coverage. Larger variants, the E190 and E195, entered service later in 2004, while a stretched version of the E170, the E175, was introduced in mid-2005. The E-Jet series achieved commercial success, primarily due to their ability to serve lower-demand routes while offering many of the amenities and features of larger jets. The E-Jet family is used by both mainline and regional airlines worldwide, with particular popularity among regional airlines in the United States. It also served as the foundation for the Lineage 1000 business jet. In the 2010s, Embraer introduced the second-generation E-Jet E2 family, featuring more fuel-efficient engines. However, as of 2023, the first-generation E175 remains in production to meet the needs of U.S. regional airlines, which are restricted from operating the newer generation due to scope clause limitations. == Development == === Background === During the 1990s, the Brazilian aerospace manufacturer Embraer had introduced the ERJ family, its first jet-powered regional jet. As demand for the ERJ series proved strong even early on, the company decided that it could not rely on one family of aircraft alone and examined its options for producing a complementary regional jet, including designs that would be larger and more advanced than its preceding aircraft. During March 1997, Embraer made its first public disclosure that it was studying a new 70-seat aircraft, which was initially referred to as the EMB 170; this reveal was issued concurrently with the announcement of the development of the ERJ 135. As originally conceived, the EMB 170 was to feature a new wing and larger-diameter fuselage mated to the nose and cockpit of the ERJ 145. The proposed derivative would have cost $450 million to develop. While Alenia, Aerospatiale and British Aerospace through AI(R) were studying the Airjet 70 based on the ATR 42/72 fuselage for a 2,200 km (1,200 nmi; 1,400 mi) range, AI(R) and Embraer were studying a joint development of a 70-seater jet since their separate projects were not yet launched. In February 1999, Embraer announced it had abandoned the derivative approach in favour of an all-new design. On 14 June 1999, the E-Jet family was formally launched at the Paris Air Show, initially using the twin designations ERJ-170 and ERJ-190; these were subsequently changed to Embraer 170 and Embraer 190 respectively. The launch customers for the airliner were the French airline Régional, which placed ten orders and five options for the E170, and the Swiss airline Crossair, which had ordered 30 E170s and 30 E190s. During July 2000, production of components for the construction of both the prototype and test airframes began. Difficulties with the advanced avionics selected for the aircraft, supplied by the American company Honeywell, led to delays in the development schedule; originally, the first flight had been set to take place during 2000. On 29 October 2001, the first prototype PP-XJE was rolled out at São José dos Campos, Brazil. === Intro flight === On 19 February 2002, the first prototype performed its maiden flight, marking the beginning of a multi-year flight test campaign involving a total of six prototypes. In May 2002, the aircraft was displayed to the public at the Regional Airline Association convention. During that same year, full-rate production of the E-Jet commenced; this activity was centred around a recently-completed factory built by Embraer at its São José dos Campos base. After a positive response from the airline community, Embraer launched the E175, which stretched the fuselage of the E170 by 1.78 metres (5.8 ft). During June 2003, the first flight of the E175 took place. In April 2003, jetBlue placed an order for 100 Embraer 190s, the deliveries of which commenced two years later. Following several delays in the certification process, the E170 received type certification from the civil aviation authorities of Brazil, Europe and the United States in February 2004. === Production === In 2008, the 400th E-jet was delivered to Republic Airways in the United States. In September 2009, the 600th E-jet was delivered to LOT Polish Airlines. On 10 October 2012, Embraer delivered the 900th E-Jet to Kenya Airways, its 12th E-Jet. On 13 September 2013, the delivery of the 1,000th E-Jet, an E175 to Republic Airways for American Eagle, was marked by a ceremony held at the Embraer factory in São José dos Campos, with a special "1,000th E-Jet" decal above the cabin windows. On 6 December 2017, the 1,400th E-Jet was delivered, an E175; it had a backlog of over 150 firm orders on 30 September 2017. On 18 December 2018, Embraer delivered the 1,500th E-Jet, an E175 to Alaska Air subsidiary Horizon Air, as Embraer claims an 80% market share of the North American 76-seaters. By this point, the fleet had completed 25 million flight hours in 18 million cycles (an average of 1.4 h) with a 99.9% dependability. === E-Jets Second Generation === In November 2011, Embraer announced that it would develop revamped versions of the E-Jet to be called the E-Jet E2 family. The new jets would feature improved engines that would be more fuel efficient and take advantage of new technologies. Beyond the new engines, the E2 family would also feature new wings, improved avionics, and other improvements to the aircraft. The move came amid a period of high global fuel costs and better positions Embraer as competitors introduced new and more fuel efficient jets, including the Mitsubishi Regional Jet. The new aircraft family also includes a much larger variant, the E195-E2 capable of carrying between 120 and 146 passengers. This jet better positions Embraer against the competing Airbus A220 aircraft. The PW1000G was previously selected for use on competing aircraft. In January 2013, Embraer selected the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G geared turbofan engine to power the E2 family. On 28 February 2018, The E190-E2 received its type certificate from the ANAC, FAA and EASA. It was scheduled to enter service in the second quarter of 2018. == Design == The Embraer E-Jet family is composed of two main commercial families and a business jet variant. The smaller E170 and E175 make up the base model aircraft, while the E190 and E195 are stretched versions, being powered by different engines and furnished with larger wing, horizontal stabilizer, and landing gear structures. From the onset, the E-Jet had been designed to be stretched. The E170 and E175 share 95% commonality, as do the E190 and E195; the two families share near 89% commonality, maintaining identical fuselage cross-sections and avionics fitouts. The E190 and E195 possess capacities similar to the initial versions of the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. All members of the E-Jet family are available in baseline, long range (LR), and advanced range (AR) models, the latter being intended for long routes with limited passenger numbers. The smaller members of the E-Jet family are powered by the General Electric CF34-8E turbofan engine, each capable of generating up to 14,200 lbf (63 kN) of thrust, while the stretched aircraft are outfitted with the more powerful General Electric CF34-10E, capable of producing a maximum of 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust. These engines have been designed to minimise noise and emission outputs, exceeding the requirements established by the International Civil Aviation Organization; the relatively low acoustic signature has enabled the E-Jet to be operated from airports that have imposed strict noise restrictions, such as London City Airport. The type is also equipped with winglets that reduce fuel burn and thereby improve operational efficiency. The E-Jet family is equipped with a fly-by-wire flight control system. The flight deck is furnished with the Honeywell Primus Epic Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) suite and has been designed to facilitate a common type rating, enabling flight crews to be readily moved between different members of the family without the need for any retraining/recertifying and providing greater flexibility to operators. Early operations of the E-Jet were frequently troubled by avionics issues; by September 2008, Honeywell had issued software updates that sought to rectify the encountered issues. The main cabin is configured with four-abreast seating (2+2) as standard, and features a "double-bubble" design that Embraer has purpose-developed for its commercial passenger jets to provide stand-up headroom. The dimensions of the cabin were intentionally comparable to the narrowbody airliners of Airbus and Boeing to permit greater comfort levels than most regional aircraft. Considerable attention to detail was reportedly paid by Embraer to elevating the type's passenger appeal. Many operators have chosen to outfit their aircraft with amenities such as Wi-Fi and at-seat power outlets. The windows of the E-Jet family are relatively large at 185 sq in (0.119 m2) in comparison to most contemporary airliners, such as the 175 sq in (0.113 m2) windows of the Boeing 787. United and SkyWest have begun retrofitting their jointly operated E175 aircraft with larger "wheels first" overhead bins which can accommodate up to an extra 29 bags, an 80 percent increase in space. The airlines will modify 50 aircraft with the new bins in 2024, and if successful, plan to retrofit more than 150 aircraft by the end of 2026. == Operational history == In early March 2004, the first E170 deliveries were made to LOT Polish Airlines, other customers to receive early deliveries were Alitalia and US Airways-subsidiary MidAtlantic Airways. On 17 March 2004, LOT operated the first commercial flight of an E-Jet, which flew from Warsaw to Vienna. Within four years, LOT was sufficiently pleased with the type to order 12 additional E175s. Launch customer Crossair had in the meantime ceased to exist after its takeover of Swissair, leading to the cancellation of these orders. Furthermore, fellow launch customer Régional chose to defer its order, not receiving its first E-jet—an E190LR—until 2006. During July 2005, the first E175 was delivered to Air Canada, entering revenue service with the airline that same month. In April 2013, Air Canada began the transfer of its 15-strong E175 fleet to subsidiary Sky Regional Airlines; this reorganisation was completed during September 2013. By July 2020, approximately 25 million passengers had flown on the Canadian fleet over a cumulative 650,000 flight hours, while a total of 25 E175s were in service on both domestic and transborder flights into the US, which were then being flown under the Air Canada Express branding. In March 2021, Air Canada announced its intention to consolidate all regional flying under the Jazz branding, thereby ending its affiliation between Sky Regional Airlines and Air Canada; accordingly, all of the E175s were transferred to Jazz. Early operations of the E-Jet were not problem-free: the American operator JetBlue reported engine troubles with its fleet, while cold start hydraulic issues were experienced by Air Canada. Embraer had to undertake a rapid expansion of its product support network in order to satisfy the needs of its mainline operators; by October 2014, the company had two directly-owned service centers, alongside nine authorized centers and 26 independent MRO organizations around the globe, while directly employing 1,200 staff for product support alone. In response to customer demands, the company also developed web-based support. BA CityFlyer, a subsidiary of British Airways, operates a fleet of 21 E190s, typically flying routes from London City Airport to various destinations in the United Kingdom and continental Europe. CityFlyer has publicly stated that a key factor in it opting for the E-Jet over competitors such as the De Havilland Canada Dash 8 was its greater speed. The procurement of E-Jets by CityFlier led to other competing British regional airliners taking interest in the type; on 20 July 2010, Flybe ordered 35 E175s valued at US$1.3 billion (£850 million), along with options for 65 more (valued at $2.3 bn/£1.5 bn) and purchase rights for a further 40 (valued at $1.4 bn/£0.9 bn), deliveries of which commenced in November 2011. On 6 November 2008, the longest flight of an E190 was flown by JetBlue from Anchorage Airport to Buffalo International Airport over 2,694 nmi (4,989 km; 3,100 mi), a re-positioning flight after a two-month charter for vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin. On 14 October 2017, an Airlink E190-100IGW with 78 passengers aboard inaugurated the first scheduled commercial airline service in history to Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, arriving at Saint Helena Airport after a flight of about six hours from Johannesburg, South Africa, with a stop at Windhoek, Namibia. The flight began a once-per-week scheduled service by Airlink between Johannesburg and Saint Helena using E190 aircraft. The inaugural flight was only the second commercial flight to Saint Helena in the island's history, and the first since a chartered Airlink Avro RJ85 landed at Saint Helena Airport on 3 May 2017. == Variants == === E170 === The E170 is the smallest aircraft in the E-Jet family and was the first to enter revenue service in March 2004. As of 2017, the E170 went out of production. The Embraer 170 typically seats around 72 passengers in a typical single class configuration, 66 in a dual class configuration, and up to 78 in a high-density configuration. The E170 directly competed with the Bombardier CRJ700 and loosely with the turboprop Bombardier Q400. There are four variants of the E170, the E170STD, E170LR, E170SU and E170SE. The E170STD is the base-line airframe, the E170LR increased its range by having a higher max take off weight (MTOW). The E170SU and E170SE are both based on the E170LR but limits its passenger number to 76 and 70 due to scope clauses. The jet is powered with General Electric CF34-8E engines of 14,200 pounds (62.28 kN) thrust each. === E175 === The E175 is a slightly stretched version of the E170 and first entered revenue service with launch customer Air Canada in July 2005. The Embraer 175 typically seats around 78 passengers in a typical single-class configuration, 76 in a dual-class configuration, and up to 88 in a high-density configuration. Like the E170, it is powered by General Electric CF34-8E engines of 14,200 pounds-force (62.28 kN) of thrust each. It competed with the Bombardier CRJ900 in the market segment previously occupied by the earlier BAe 146 and Fokker 70. As of 2024, it is the only aircraft currently produced in this market segment. The E175 was initially equipped with the same style of winglets as the rest of the E-Jet family. Starting in 2014, the winglets were made wider and more angled. Those winglets and other changes to the aircraft over time have improved efficiency. Embraer said that aircraft produced after 2017 consume 6.4% less fuel than original E175 aircraft. The angled winglets increase the wingspan from 26 m (85 ft 4 in) to 28.65 m (93 ft 11 in). This winglet change was only made available to the E175 and no other models in the family. There are four different variants of the E175 airframe, E175STD, E175LR, E175SU and E175SC. The E175STD (standard) is the base-line version of the E175, the E175LR (long range) increased its range by having a higher max take off weight (MTOW) and max ramp weight. The E175SU is based on the E175LR but limits its max passenger seating capacity to 76 due to American regional market scope clause limitations. In late 2017, Embraer announced the E175SC (special configuration), officially designated as ERJ 170-200 LL, limited to 70 seats like the E170 to take advantage of the E175 performance improvements but still comply with US airline scope clauses limiting operators to 70 seats. Embraer is marketing the E175SC as a replacement for the older 70-seat Bombardier CRJ700 with better efficiency and a larger first class. In 2018, a new E175 had a value of US$27 million, projected to fall to US$3–8 million 13 years later due to their concentration in the US with more than 450 in service out of 560, with Republic and SkyWest operating over 120 each, Compass 35 and Envoy Air 90, after the similar experience with the CRJ200 and ERJ 145 demonstrates the limited remarketing opportunities. As of 2024, the E175 remains in production, with strong demand from regional airlines in the United States, which cannot order the newer but heavier E175-E2 due to scope clause restrictions on maximum takeoff weight. === E190 === The E190/195 models are larger stretches of the E170/175 models fitted with a new, larger wing, a larger horizontal stabilizer, adding two emergency overwing exits, and a new engine. Embraer 190 is fitted with two underwing-mounted General Electric CF34-10E turbofan engines, rated at 82.29 kN (18,500 lbf). The engines are equipped with full authority digital engine control (FADEC). The fully redundant, computerized management system continuously optimizes the engine performance resulting in reduced fuel consumption and maintenance requirements. The aircraft carries 13,000 kg (29,000 lb) of fuel and is fitted with a Parker Hannifin fuel system. Embraer offered three variants of the E190: the STD (Standard), LR (Long Range) and AR (Advanced Range). The STD served as the base model, while the LR featured a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) that was increased by 2,510 kg (5,530 lb) while the AR featured an MTOW that was further increased by 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) compared to LR, allowing more fuel to be carried. This enhancement extended the range by 50 nmi (93 km; 58 mi). The aircraft is equipped with a Hamilton Sundstrand auxiliary power unit and electrical system. The GE CF34-10E, customers can choose between 5 different variants (-10E5, -10E5A1, -10E6, -10E6A1, -10E7), each with different performance and capabilities. It is the only powerplant offered for the aircraft. These aircraft compete with the Bombardier CRJ-1000. It can carry up to 100 passengers in a two-class configuration or up to 124 in the single-class high-density configuration. On 12 March 2004, the first flight of the E190 took place. The launch customer of the E190 was New York-based low-cost carrier JetBlue with 100 orders options in 2003 and took its first delivery in 2005. Air Canada operated 45 E190 aircraft fitted with 9 business-class and 88 economy-class seats as part of its primary fleet. They were retired in May 2020. American Airlines operated E190s until 2020. JetBlue and Georgian Airways operate the E190 as part of their own fleet. Largest operator of the type is Alliance Airlines with 64 E190s in the fleet which mostly took over from American Airlines and JetBlue to serve the Australian regional market, the rest are Aeroméxico Connect (37), Tianjin Airlines (35), Airlink (29) and KLM Cityhopper (28). By 2018, early E190s were valued at under US$10 million and could be leased for less than US$100,000 per month, while the most recent aircraft were worth US$30 million and could be leased for less than US$200,000 per month. === E195 === The Embraer 195 is the further stretch version of the Embraer 190, it is fitted with two underwing-mounted General Electric CF34-10E turbofan engines, customers can choose between 5 different variants (-10E5, -10E5A1, -10E6, -10E6A1, -10E7), each with different performance and capabilities. The engines are equipped with full authority digital engine control (FADEC). The fully redundant, computerized management system continuously optimizes the engine performance resulting in reduced fuel consumption and maintenance requirements. The aircraft carries 13,000 kg (29,000 lb) of fuel and is fitted with a Parker Hannifin fuel system. Embraer offered three variants of the E190: the STD (Standard), LR (Long Range) and AR (Advanced Range). The STD served as the base model, while the LR featured a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) that was increased by 2,510 kg (5,530 lb) while the AR featured a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) that was further increased by 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) compared to LR, allowing more fuel to be carried. This enhancement extended the range by 300 nmi (560 km; 350 mi) for the E195. The aircraft is equipped with a Hamilton Sundstrand auxiliary power unit and electrical system. The GE CF34-10E, rated at 18,500 lb (82.30 kN), is the only powerplant offered for the aircraft. These aircraft compete with the Airbus A220-100, Boeing 717-200, Boeing 737-500, Boeing 737-600, and the Airbus A318. It can carry up to 100 passengers in a two-class configuration or up to 124 in the single-class high-density configuration. The first flight of the E195 occurred on December 7, 2004. British low-cost carrier Flybe was the first operator of the E195, had 14 orders and 12 options, and started E195 operations on 22 September 2006. Flybe have since decided that they would remove the aircraft from their fleet in favour of the Dash 8 Q400 and Embraer 175, in an effort to reduce costs, by 2020. The largest operators of the largest variant in the E-Jet family are Azul Brazilian Airlines (45), Tianjin Airlines (17), Austrian Airlines (17), Air Dolomiti (17) and LOT Polish Airlines (16). === Freighter conversions === On 7 March 2022, Embraer confirmed their intent to enter the cargo market, offering conversions of E190 and E195 passenger aircraft to freighters. The E190F made its first flights in April 2024, with certification expected later in the year. The E190F will have a payload capacity of 10,700 kg (23,600 lb), while the E195F’s will be 12,300 kg (27,100 lb). The company secured its first order in May 2023 for ten aircraft from lessor Nordic Aviation Capital, to be delivered to Astral Aviation as the launch operator. === Embraer Lineage 1000 === On 2 May 2006, Embraer announced plans for the business jet variant of the E190, the Embraer Lineage 1000. It has the same structure as the E190, but with an extended range of up to 4,200 nmi (7,800 km; 4,800 mi), and luxury seating for up to 19. The Lineage 1000 offers two different engine choices, the GE CF34-10E6 and the more powerful CF34-10E7-B. It was certified by the US Federal Aviation Administration on 7 January 2009. The first two production aircraft were delivered in December 2008. === Undeveloped variants === Embraer considered producing an aircraft which was known as the E195X, a stretched version of the E195. It would have seated approximately 130 passengers. The E195X was apparently a response to an American Airlines request for an aircraft to replace its McDonnell Douglas MD-80s. Embraer abandoned plans for the 195X in May 2010, following concerns that its flight range would be too short. === Military variants === ==== VC-2 ==== Since 2009, the 1st Squadron of the Brazilian Air Force's Special Transport Group (GTE-1) has operated two E190PR aircraft as VIP transports under the designation VC-2. === Commercial names and official model designations === The commercial names used for the E170 and E190 families differ from the official model designations, as used (for instance) with the Type-Certificates, and in national registries. == Operators == As of April 2024, the three largest operators of the E-Jet family were SkyWest Airlines (241), Republic Airways (208), and Envoy Air (152), operating variably for Alaska Airlines, American Eagle, Delta Connection, and United Express. === Orders and deliveries === List of Embraer's E-Jet family deliveries and orders: == Accidents and incidents == The E-Jet has been involved in 22 incidents, including nine hull losses: === Accidents with fatalities === Henan Airlines Flight 8387 – 44 casualties On 24 August 2010, Henan Airlines Flight 8387, an E190 that departed from Harbin, China, crash-landed about 1 km short of the runway at Yichun Lindu Airport, resulting in 44 deaths. The final investigation report, released in June 2012, concluded that the flight crew failed to observe safety procedures for operations in low visibility. Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 – 2 casualties among hijackers On 29 June 2012, Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554, six passengers carrying explosives stood up and announced a hijacking, but they were subdued by other passengers. The E190 returned to Hotan Airport where the hijackers were apprehended and two of them later died in hospital from injuries received in the fight. LAM Mozambique Airlines Flight 470 – 33 casualties On 29 November 2013, LAM Mozambique Airlines Flight 470, an E190, crashed in Namibia, killing all 33 aboard (27 passengers, 6 crew members) by the deliberate actions of the pilot. The first officer reportedly left the cockpit to use the bathroom. He was then locked out by the captain, who dramatically reduced the aircraft's altitude and ignored various automated warnings ahead of the high-speed impact. Envoy Air – 1 ground worker casualty On 31 December 2022, a baggage handler employed by Piedmont Airlines, an American Airlines regional carrier, was killed on the ramp at Montgomery Regional Airport when sucked into the jet engine of an Embraer 175 which was scheduled to fly as American Airlines Flight 3408. KLM Cityhopper – 1 ground worker casualty On 29 May 2024, a worker was sucked into the engine of an Embraer Jet owned by KLM Cityhopper at Amsterdam airport. Dutch authorities stated that the death was a suicide. Azerbaijan Airlines Flight 8243 – 38 casualties On 25 December 2024, a Russian Pantsir-S1 air-defence system attacked the plane.. It crashed in Kazakhstan. Out of the 67 people on board, 38 were killed, and 29 others survived. === Hull losses with no fatalities === On 17 July 2007, Aero República Flight 7330 overran the runway while landing at Simón Bolívar International Airport in Santa Marta, Colombia. The E190 slid down an embankment off the side of the runway and came to rest with the nose in shallow water. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair, but all 60 aboard evacuated unharmed. On 16 September 2011, an E190 operated by TAME landed long and ran off the end of the runway at Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito, colliding with approach equipment and a brick wall. The crew reportedly failed to adhere to the manufacturer's procedures in the event of a flap malfunction, continuing the approach in spite of the aircraft's condition. Eleven of the 103 aboard received minor injuries, and the aircraft was written off. On 31 July 2018, Aeroméxico Connect Flight 2431, an E190 bound for Mexico City, crashed in Durango, Mexico shortly after takeoff. 99 passengers and 4 crew were on board. Although there were no fatalities, the aircraft was destroyed by the ensuing fire. The probable cause was attributed to "loss of control [...] by low altitude windshear that caused a loss of speed and lift" with contributing factors from the crew and the Navigation Services. On 11 November 2018, Air Astana Flight 1388 on a flight from Alverca Airbase, Portugal, to Almaty suffered severe control issues including flipping over and diving sharply. The crew activated the direct mode for flight controls which allowed sufficient control to make an emergency landing on the third attempt at Beja Airbase in Portugal with serious damage sustained during these high-G maneuvers. It was subsequently written-off and broken up. The investigation revealed that the aileron cables were installed incorrectly, causing reversal of aileron controls. The investigation blamed the manufacturer of the airplane for the poorly written maintenance instructions, the supervising authorities for lack of oversight over the maintenance crew, who lacked the skill to perform the maintenance, and the flight crew for failing to notice the condition during pre-flight control checks. On 18 February 2024, Air Serbia Flight 324 from Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport to Dusseldorf International Airport, operated by an E195 leased from Marathon Airlines, overran the runway on take-off and struck the runway's instrument landing system antenna array. The aircraft sustained substantial damage to the fuselage, left wing root, and left stabiliser. After 58 minutes, the aircraft landed back safely at Belgrade, and there were no casualties. After the incident, Air Serbia cancelled its contract with Marathon Airlines; the aircraft will reportedly be retired and scrapped. === Other incidents === On 26 May 2007, Republic Airways Flight 4912, a E-170, near collided with Skywest Airlines Flight 5741, a Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, on a San Francisco International Airport. All 27 people on board both aircraft survived. On 9 August 2010, A flight attendant jumped off a JetBlue flight after an argument with a passenger before arriving at the gate at John F. Kennedy International Airport. The emergency slide of the E-190 was deployed as the flight attendant angrily left the aircraft, which prompted heavy investigations on his actions due to its non-emergency use. On 22 October 2023, Horizon Air Flight 2059 was operating from Paine Field in Everett, Washington to San Francisco International Airport when Joseph David Emerson, an off-duty pilot sitting in the jumpseat inside the cockpit, reportedly tried to pull both engine fire extinguisher handles on the overhead panel. The E175 aircraft was operating at 31,000 feet at the time, and had Emerson been successful at activating the fire extinguishers, both engines would have shut down. The crew was able to subdue him and land at the Portland International Airport in Oregon, where Emerson was arrested and later charged with 83 counts of attempted murder. On 9 April 2017, a passenger was dragged off a United Express flight after he refused to get up from his seat. In the process, the security officers struck the face of David Dao, a Vietnamese-American, knocking him unconscious. This incident was highly criticized. This incident happened at Chicago O'Hare International Airport. The aircraft was operating a Republic Airways flight under United Express trademark. == Preserved aircraft == JA04FJ - formerly N866RW, nose section preserved at Matsumoto Airport. == Specifications == == See also == Related development Embraer Lineage 1000 Embraer E-Jet E2 family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A220-100 (2017–, 108–128 seats) Airbus A318 (2003–2013, 107–132 seats) Antonov An-148 (2009–, 68–99 seats) Boeing 717 (1999–2006, 106–134 seats) Boeing 737-600 (1998–2006, 108–130 seats) Bombardier CRJ700 series (2001–2020, 66–104 seats) Comac C909 (2016–, 78–105 seats) Sukhoi Superjet 100 (2011–, 87–108 seats) Related lists List of jet airliners List of civil aircraft List of active Brazilian military aircraft == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Eden, Paul E. (2016). The World's Most Powerful Civilian Aircraft. Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 1-4994-6589-0. == External links == Official website Yokota, Satoshi (November 2003). "EMBRAER 170/190 Program". Embraer. Archived from the original on 11 February 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019. "Embraer 170 Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 9 October 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2018. "Embraer 175 Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 9 October 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2018. "Embraer 190 Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 9 October 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2018. "Embraer 195 Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 9 October 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano	The Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano (English: Super Toucan), also named ALX or A-29, is a Brazilian turboprop light attack and counter-insurgency aircraft designed and built by Embraer as a development of the Embraer EMB 312 Tucano. The A-29 Super Tucano carries a wide variety of weapons, including precision-guided munitions, and was designed to be a low-cost system operated in low-threat environments. In addition to its manufacture in Brazil, Embraer has set up a production line in Portugal through the company OGMA and in the United States in conjunction with Sierra Nevada Corporation for the manufacture of A-29s to export customers. == Design and development == During the mid-1980s, Embraer was working on the Short Tucano alongside a new version designated the EMB-312G1, carrying the same Garrett engine. The EMB-312G1 prototype flew for the first time in July 1986. However, the project was dropped because the Brazilian Air Force was not interested in it. Nonetheless, the lessons from recent combat use of the aircraft in Peru and Venezuela led Embraer to keep up the studies. Besides a trainer, it researched a helicopter attack version designated "helicopter killer" or EMB-312H. The study was stimulated by the unsuccessful bid for the US military Joint Primary Aircraft Training System program. A proof-of-concept prototype flew for the first time in September 1991. The aircraft features a 1.37 m (4.5 ft) fuselage extension with the addition of sections before and after of the cockpit to restore its center of gravity and stability, a strengthened airframe, cockpit pressurization, and stretched nose to house the more powerful PT6A-67R (1,424 shp or 1,062 kW) engine. Two new prototypes with the PT6A-68A (1,250 shp or 930 kW) engine were built in 1993. The second prototype flew for the first time in May 1993 and the third prototype flew in October 1993. The request for a light attack aircraft was part of the Brazilian government's Amazon Surveillance System project. This aircraft would fly with the R-99A and R-99B aircraft then in service and be used to intercept illegal aircraft flights and patrol Brazil's borders. The ALX project was then created by the Brazilian Air Force, which was also in need of a military trainer to replace the Embraer EMB 326GB Xavante. The new aircraft was to be suited to the Amazon region (high temperature, moisture, and precipitation; low military threat). The ALX was then specified as a turboprop engine plane with a long range and autonomy, able to operate night and day, in any meteorological conditions, and able to land on short airfields lacking infrastructure. In August 1995, the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics awarded Embraer a $50 million contract for ALX development. Two EMB-312Hs were updated to serve as ALX prototypes. These made their initial flights in their new configuration in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The initial flight of a production-configured ALX, further modified from one of the prototypes, occurred on 2 June 1999. The second prototype was brought up to two-seater configuration and performed its first flight on 22 October 1999. The changes had been so considerable that the type was given a new designation, the EMB-314 Super Tucano. The total cost of the aircraft development was quoted to be between US$200 million and US$300 million. The aircraft differs from the baseline EMB-312 Tucano trainer aircraft in several respects. It is powered by a more powerful 1,600 shp (1,200 kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-68C engine (compared to the EMB-312's 750 shp (560 kW) powerplant); has a strengthened airframe to sustain higher g loads and increase fatigue life to 8,000–12,000 hours in operational environments; a reinforced landing gear to handle greater takeoff weights and heavier stores load, up to 1,550 kilograms (3,420 lb); Kevlar armour protection; two internal, wing-mounted .50 cal. machine guns (with 200 rounds of ammunition each); capacity to carry various ordnance on five weapon hardpoints including Giat NC621 20 mm cannon pods, Mk 81/82 bombs, MAA-1 Piranha air-to-air missiles (AAMs), BLG-252 cluster bombs, and SBAT-70/19 or LAU-68A/G rocket pods on its underwing stations; and has a night-vision goggle-compatible "glass cockpit" with hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls; provision for a datalink; a video camera and recorder; an embedded mission-planning capability; forward-looking infrared; chaff/flare dispensers; missile approach warning receiver systems and radar warning receivers; and zero-zero ejection seats. The structure is corrosion-protected and the side-hinged canopy has a windshield able to withstand bird strike impacts up to 270 kn (500 km/h; 310 mph). In 1996, Embraer selected the Israeli firm Elbit Systems to supply the mission avionics for the ALX. For this contract, Elbit was chosen over GEC-Marconi and Sextant Avionique. The Israeli company supplies such equipment as the mission computer, head-up displays, and navigation and stores management systems. On 13 October 2010, the Super Tucano A-29B had passed the mark of 48,000 hours since 21 July 2005 on full-scale wing-fuselage structural fatigue tests, conducted by the Aeronautical Systems Division, part of the Aeronautics and Space Institute at the Structural Testing Laboratory. The tests involve a complex system of hydraulics and tabs that apply pressure to the aircraft structure, simulating air pressure from flying at varying altitudes. The simulation continued for another year to complete the engine-fatigue life test and crack-propagation studies for a damage-tolerance analysis program of conducted by Embraer and the Aeronautics and Space Institute. Embraer developed an advanced training and support system suite called Training Operational Support System (TOSS) an integrated computational tool composed of four systems: computer-based training enabling the student to rehearse the next sortie on a computer simulation; an aviation mission planning station, which uses the three-dimensional (3D) visuals to practice planned missions and to check intervisibility between aircraft and from aircraft and other entities; a mission debriefing station employing real aircraft data to play back missions for review and analysis; and a flight simulator. MPS and MDS was enhanced with MAK's 3D visualization solution to support airforces pre-existing data, including GIS, Web-based servers and a plug-in for custom terrain formats. In 2012, Boeing Defense, Space & Security was selected to integrate the Joint Direct Attack Munition and Small Diameter Bomb to the Super Tucano. In 2013, Embraer Defense and Security disclosed that its subsidiary, OrbiSat, was developing a new radar for the Super Tucano. A Colombian general disclosed that the side-looking airborne radar will be able to locate ground targets smaller than a car with digital precision. In April 2023, the manufacturer announced the A-29N, a variant intended for NATO nations. The A-29N will include NATO-required equipment, data link communications and be fitted for single-pilot operation. Available simulators used for training will incorporate virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality technology. In November 2024, the Brazilian Air Force announced a contract with Embraer for the modernization of 68 aircraft to the new A-29M standard, which includes some capabilities of fourth and fifth generation aircraft such as the inclusion of a data link, new digital head-up display, expansion of the range of guided weapons, integration of a helmet-mounted display, the installation of chaff and flares, laser rangefinder and finally a wide-area display similar to those of the new Brazilian Saab JAS-39 Gripen fighters. In April 2025, Embraer announced modifications to enhance anti-drone capabilities of the aircraft. == Operational history == === Afghanistan === In 2011, the Super Tucano was declared the winner of the US Light Air Support contract competition over the Hawker Beechcraft AT-6B Texan II. The contract was cancelled in 2012 citing Hawker Beechcraft's appeal when its proposal was disqualified during the procurement process, but rewon in 2013. Twenty of these light attack aircraft were purchased for the Afghan Air Force (AAF). The first four aircraft arrived in Afghanistan in January 2016, with a further four due before the end of 2016. Combat-ready Afghan A-29 pilots graduated from training at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia, and returned to Afghanistan to represent the first of 30 pilots trained by the 81st Fighter Squadron at Moody AFB. A fleet of 20 A-29s would be in place by 2018, according to a senior U.S. defense official. The Pentagon purchased the Super Tucanos in a $427 million contract with Sierra Nevada Corp. and Embraer, with the aircraft produced at Embraer's facility on the grounds of Jacksonville International Airport in Jacksonville, Florida. The first four aircraft arrived at Hamid Karzai International Airport on 15 January 2016. Prior to the A-29's delivery, the Afghan Air Force lacked close air support aircraft other than attack helicopters. In 2017, the AAF conducted roughly 2,000 airstrike sorties, about 40 a week. The AAF had a record high in October with more than 80 missions in a single week. By March 2018, the AAF had 12 A-29s in service. On 22 March 2018, the AAF deployed a GBU-58 Paveway II 250 lb (113.4 kg) bomb from an A-29 in combat, marking the first time the service had dropped a laser-guided weapon against the Taliban. ==== Fall of Kabul ==== In August 2021, during the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul, some Afghan pilots fled the country, taking an unknown number of aircraft, including A-29s, with them. An Afghan Air Force A-29 crashed in Uzbekistan's Surxondaryo Region; two pilots ejected and landed with parachutes. Initially it was reported shot down by Uzbekistan air defenses, then the Prosecutor General's office in Uzbekistan issued a statement saying that an Afghan military plane had collided mid-air with an Uzbekistan Air Force MiG-29, finally it retracted the statement about the mid-air collision. At least one Super Tucano was captured by the Taliban in the Mazar-i-Sharif International Airport. === Brazil === In August 2001, the Brazilian Air Force awarded Embraer a contract for 76 Super Tucano / ALX aircraft with options for a further 23. A total of 99 aircraft were acquired from a contract estimated to be worth U$214.1 million; 66 of these aircraft are two-seater versions, designated A-29B. The remaining 33 aircraft are the single-seat A-29 ALX version. The first aircraft was delivered in December 2003. By September 2007, 50 aircraft had entered service. The 99th, and last, aircraft was delivered in June 2012. ==== Sivam programme ==== One of the aircraft's main missions is border patrol under the Sivam programme, particularly to act against drug trafficking activities. On 3 June 2009, two Brazilian Air Force A-29s, guided by an Embraer E-99, intercepted a Cessna U206G inbound from Bolivia in the region of Alta Floresta d'Oeste; after exhausting all procedures, one of the A-29s fired a warning shot from its 12.7 mm machine guns, after which the Cessna followed the A-29s to Cacoal airport. This incident was the first use of powers granted under the Shoot-Down Act, which was enacted in October 2004 to legislate for the downing of illegal flights. A total of 176 kg of pure cocaine base paste, enough to produce almost a ton of cocaine, was discovered on board the Cessna; the two occupants attempted a ground escape but were arrested by federal police in Pimenta Bueno. ==== Operation Ágata ==== On 5 August 2011, Brazil started Operation Ágata, part of a major "Frontiers Strategic Plan" launched in June, with almost 30 continuous days of rigorous military activity in the region of Brazil's border with Colombia; it mobilized 35 aircraft and more than 3,000 military personnel of the Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy, and Brazilian Air Force surveillance against drug trafficking, illegal mining and logging, and trafficking of wild animals. A-29s of 1 / 3º Aviation Group (GAV), Squadron Scorpion, launched a strike upon an illicit airstrip, deploying eight 230 kg (500 lb) computer-guided Mk 82 bombs to render the airstrip unusable. Multiple RQ-450 UAVs and several E-99s were assigned for night operations to locate remote jungle airstrips used by drug smuggling gangs along the border. The RQ-450s located targets for the A-29s, allowing them to bomb the airstrips with a high level of accuracy using night vision systems and computer systems calculating the impact points of munitions. ==== Operation Ágata 2 ==== On 15 September 2011, Brazil launched the Operation Ágata 2 on the borders with Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay. Part of this border is the infamous Triple Frontier. A-29s from Maringá, Dourados, and Campo Grande, and Brazilian upgraded Northrop F-5 Tiger II/F-5EMs from Canoas, intercepted a total of 33 aircraft during Operation Ágata 2 in this area. Brazilian forces seized 62 tons of narcotics, made 3,000 arrests, and destroyed three illicit airstrips, while over 650 tons of weapons and explosives have been seized. ==== Operation Ágata 3 ==== On 22 November 2011, Brazil launched the Operation Ágata 3 on the borders with Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay. It involved 6,500 personnel, backed by 10 ships and 200 land patrol vehicles, in addition to 70 aircraft, including fighter, transport, and reconnaissance aircraft; it was the largest Brazilian coordinated action involving the Army, Navy, and Air Force against illegal trafficking and organized crime, along a border strip of almost 7,000 km. A-1 (AMX), Northrop F-5 Tiger II/ F-5EM and A-29s from Tabatinga, Campo Grande, Cuiabá, Vilhena, and Porto Velho were employed in defending air space, supported by airborne early warning and control E-99, equipped with a 450-km-range radar capable of detecting low-flying aircraft, and R-99, remote sensing and surveillance. On 7 December 2011, Brazilian Ministry of Defence informed that drug seizures were up by 1,319% over the last six months, compared to prior six months. === Chile === In August 2008, the Chilean Air Force signed a contract valued at $120 million for 12 A-29Bs. The contract includes a broad integrated logistic support package and an advanced training and operation support system (TOSS), covering not only the aircraft, but also an integrated suite for ground support stations. The FACH's TOSS consists of three systems: a mission planning station in which instructor and student program all phases of flight, setting the various parameters of each phase along with navigation, communications, goals, and simulations; a mission debriefing station empowering students with the ability to review all and each flight aspects and phases, enabling to look at the errors and correct them for their next mission; and a flight simulator. The first four A-29Bs arrived in December 2009 while further deliveries took place in the following year. They are based at Los Cóndores Air Base (45 km from Iquique) and are used for tactical instruction at the 1st Air Brigade for the Aviation Group #1, the fully digital cockpit allows students to do a smooth transition between the T-35 Pillán (basic trainer) and the F-16. In 2018, six additional A-29B, along with ground support equipment, arrived; four more units were received two years later. === Colombia === A total of 25 Super Tucanos (variant AT-29B) were purchased by the Colombian Air Force in a US$234 million deal, purchased directly from Embraer. On 14 December 2006, the first three aircraft arrived to the military airfield of CATAM in Bogotá; two more were delivered later that month, ten more in the first half of 2007, and the rest in June 2008. On 18 January 2007, a squadron of Colombian Air Force Super Tucanos launched the first-ever combat mission of its type, attacking FARC positions in the jungle with Mark 82 bombs. This attack made use of the Super Tucano's constantly computed impact point capability; the aircraft's performance in action was a reported success. On 11 July 2012, the first Super Tucano was lost near Jambalo during an anti-FARC operation; rebels claimed they shot it down with a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine gun, but the Colombian Air Force challenged the rebel group's claim after inspecting the wreckage. In 2008, during "Operation Phoenix", a Colombian Air Force Super Tucano used Griffin laser-guided bombs to destroy a guerrilla cell inside Ecuador and kill the second-in-command chief of FARC, Raúl Reyes. This event led to a diplomatic break between the two countries. On 21 September 2010, Operation Sodoma in the Meta department began, 120 miles south of the capital Bogotá. FARC commander Mono Jojoy was killed in a massive military operation on 22 September, after 25 EMB-314s launched seven tonnes of explosives on the camp, while some 600 special forces troops descended by rope from helicopters, opposed by 700 guerrillas; 20 guerrillas died in the attack. On 2 October 2010, during Operation Darién, Super Tucanos used infrared cameras to spot and bombard the FARC 57th front in the Chocó Department, just a kilometer away from the Panama border. Five rebels, including several commanders, were killed. On 15 October 2011, Operation Odiseo started with a total of 969 members of the Colombian armed forces. A total of 18 aircraft participated in Operation Odiseo. On 4 November 2011, five Super Tucanos dropped 1000 lb (450 kg) and 250 lb (135 kg) bombs, plus high-precision smart bombs. This operation ended with the death of the leader of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, FARC), Alfonso Cano. It was biggest blow in the history of the guerrilla organization. At dawn of 22 February 2012, EMB-314s identified the camp of FARC's 57th Front, 15 km (9.3 mi) north of Bojayá near the border with Panama. In Operation Frontera, Super Tucanos dropped two high-precision bombs, destroying the camp and killing six FARC rebels, including Pedro Alfonso Alvarado (alias "Mapanao"), who was responsible for the Bojayá massacre in 2002, in which 119 civilians were killed. ==== Espada de Honor War Plan ==== The Espada de Honor War Plan was an aggressive Colombian counterinsurgency strategy that aimed to dismantle FARC's structure, both militarily and financially. It targeted FARC leadership focusing on eliminating the 15 most powerful economic and military fronts. During Operacion Faraón, at the dawn of 21 March 2012, five Super Tucanos bombarded the FARC's 10th Front guerrilla camp in Arauca, near the Venezuelan border, killing 33 rebels. Five days later, in Operation Armagedón, nine Super Tucanos from Apiay Air Base attacked the FARC's 27th front camp in Vista Hermosa, Meta, using coordinates received from a guerrilla informant recruited by the police intelligence, launching 40 guided 500-lb bombs within three minutes, destroying the camp and killing 36 rebels. In late May, Super Tucanos bombarded a National Liberation Army camp located in rural Santa Rosa at Bolívar Department. On 31 May 2012, a bombardment over the Western Front of the ELN at an inhospitable area of the Chocó Department killed seven rebels. On 6 June 2012, during a minute and half bombardment over FARC's 37th front located in northern Antioquia Department, five Super Tucanos dropped 250-kg bombs, killing eight rebels. In September, Super Tucanos provided reconnaissance and close air support during an "Omega" operation, during which seven terrorists were gunned down and four were captured, including "Fredy Cooper", the 7th front's leader of the Public Order Company. On 5 September 2012, "Danilo Garcia", leader of the FARC's 33rd Front, was killed in a bombing raid; Danilo was considered "the right hand of supreme FARC leader alias Timochenko". Intelligence indicated that the bodies of 15 guerrillas may have been buried in the bombing. Eight A-29s carried out an air strike on 27 September during Operación Saturno at the FARC's 37th front camp in the northwest of Antioquia Department, resulting in the death of Efrain Gonzales Ruiz, "Pateñame", leader of the 35th and 37th fronts, and 13 others. In April 2013, two Super Tucanos bombarded the FARC's 59th front fort in Serranía del Perijá municipality Barrancas, La Guajira. === Dominican Republic === In August 2001, Embraer announced the signing of a contract with the Dominican Republic for 10 Super Tucanos, to use for pilot training, internal security, border patrol and counter-narcotics trafficking missions. The order was reduced to eight aircraft in January 2009, for a total amount of US$93 million. The first two aircraft were delivered on 18 December 2009, three arrived in June 2010, and the remaining three in October 2010. In February 2011, Dominican Republic Air Force Chief of Operations Col. Hilton Cabral stated: "since the introduction of the Super Tucano aircraft and ground-based radars, illicit air tracks into the Dominican Republic had dropped by over 80 percent." In August 2011, the Dominican Air Force said that since taking delivery of the Super Tucanos in 2009, it has driven away drug flights to the point that they no longer enter the country's airspace. In May 2012, the Dominican president Leonel Fernández gave a cooperative order for the armed forces to support a fleet of Super Tucanos for the antidrug fight on Haiti. === Ecuador === The Ecuadorian Air Force operates 18 Super Tucanos; they are established at Manta Air Base in two squadrons: 2313 "Halcones" (used for border surveillance and flight training) and 2311 "Dragones" (used for counterinsurgency). Ecuadorian Super Tucanos use the PT-6A-68A (1,300 shp) engine. On 23 March 2009, Embraer announced that negotiations over a nine-month-old agreement with the Ecuadorian Air Force had been completed. The deal covers the supply of 24 Super Tucanos to replace Ecuador's aging fleet of Vietnam-era Cessna A-37 Dragonfly strike aircraft, and help reassert control over the country's airspace. In May 2010, after receiving its sixth Super Tucano under a $270 million contract, Ecuador announced a reduction in its order from 24 to 18 Super Tucanos to release funds to buy some used South African Air Force Denel Cheetah C fighters. By cutting its order for the EMB-314, the Defence Ministry says the accrued savings would better allow it to bolster the air force's flagging air defence component. === Honduras === On 3 September 2011, the head of the Honduran Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Hondureña, or FAH), said that Honduras was to procure four Super Tucanos. On 7 February 2012, the Honduran government informed the Brazilian Trade Ministry of its interest in acquiring a large number of Super Tucanos. However, due to the economic situation, the government was forced to repair their aging aircraft inventory, instead of purchasing eight EMB-314s. On 17 October 2014, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation announced the go-ahead for acquiring two new A-29s by the FAH following approval from the country's National Council for Security and Defence. As part of the deal, six of the FAH's surviving EMB-312A Tucanos, acquired in 1984, will be refurbished and upgraded by Embraer. Originally operated only by the Academia Militar de Aviación at Palmerola for training, they have recently been armed for counter-narcotics missions. Just three were airworthy as the Brazilian deal was signed for the aircraft to be upgraded and the other three be made airworthy again. Together with the two newly acquired Super Tucanos, this will boost efforts to maintain security within the country. === Indonesia === In January 2010, Indonesian Air Force commander Air Marshal Imam Sufaat stated that Indonesia had split the competition, designating the Super Tucano as their preferred OV-10 replacement. Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding with Embraer at the Indo Defense 2010 exhibition in Jakarta. Indonesia initially ordered eight Super Tucanos, including ground-support stations and a logistics package, with an option for another eight on the same terms; the first were scheduled to arrive in 2012. Defense Minister Purnomo Yusgiantoro added that state aircraft maker PT Dirgantara Indonesia would perform maintenance work, and may also manufacture some components. While Indonesia could have made a unified choice to replace its OV-10 light attack and BAE Hawk Mk.53 trainer fleets with a multirole jet, the demands of forward air control and counterinsurgency wars give slower and more stable platforms an advantage. On 10 July 2012, Indonesia ordered a second set of eight Super Tucanos, along with a full flight simulator, bringing their order total to 16. In August 2012, Indonesia received the first four planes from the initial batch at a ceremony held in its facility in Gavião Peixoto, São Paulo, Brazil. Deliveries of the second batch of Super Tucanos were delayed by over seven months. In September 2014, the second batch left Brazil on their ferry flight to Malang Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Base in East Java; they will be based at the Malang air base on Indonesia's Java island and operated by Skadron Udara 21 as part of the 2nd Wing. The final four A-29Bs left Brazil on 15 February 2016, passing through Malta-Luqa International Airport on 21 February and ultimately arriving at Indonesia's Malang Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Force Base on 29 February 2016. One aircraft was lost in a crash on 10 February 2016, and a further two in crashes on 16 November 2023. === Lebanon === The Pentagon first proposed to provide to Lebanon a contract for 10 EMB-314s in 2010. Six Tucanos with 2,000 advanced precision-kill weapon systems went to Lebanon via the US LAS program, but financed by Saudi Arabia at US$462 million. The first two were delivered in October 2017, with four more in June 2018. === Mauritania === Negotiations for the acquisitions of Super Tucanos started in December 2011. On 28 March 2012 at Chile's FIDAE defense and air show, Embraer announced sales of undisclosed numbers of aircraft to Mauritania. On 19 October 2012, Embraer delivered the first EMB-314, fitted with a FLIR Safire III infrared turret for border surveillance operations. === Nigeria === In November 2013, Nigeria showed interest in acquiring twelve new Super Tucanos. Three aircraft were bought from the Brazilian Air Force inventory in 2017. In April 2017, the United States indicated that it would be moving forward with a deal to sell up to 12 of the aircraft for up to US$600 million, ending delays that had been caused by human-rights concerns. In August 2017, the US Department of State approved of the sale of 12 aircraft and associated supplies and weapons. In November 2018, Nigeria purchased 12 Super Tucanos from Sierra Nevada for $329 million, all of which can be fitted with forward-looking infrared systems. They were delivered to Nigeria in October 2021. === Panama === In March 2025, it was announced that four Super Tucanos would be purchased for Panama's National Aeronaval Service, which will become the first combat aircraft to ever be operated by the country. === Philippines === The Philippine Air Force (PAF) considered the acquisition of six Super Tucanos to replace the aging OV-10 Bronco. In late 2017, Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana signed the contract to purchase six for the Close Air Support Aircraft acquisition project as included in the AFP Modernization Program's Horizon 1 phase. On 13 October 2020, six A-29Bs were turned over to the PAF. They were inducted with the 16th Attack Squadron, 15th Strike Wing. Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana was reportedly considering buying six more A-29Bs. By 2024, the PAF intends to operate 24 aircraft across two squadrons. 12 aircraft are to be delivered by 2022, and six by 2024, allowing the PAF to operate close air support, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and light attack missions. On 9 December 2021, PAF A-29Bs conducted airstrikes on terrorist encampments as part of Oplan Stinkweed in Palimbang, Sultan Kudarat. === Portugal === In 2021, Portugal showed interest in acquiring at least 10 aircraft. In 2022, the Portuguese Air Force reportedly proposed to purchase 12 second-hand A-29s from Brazilian Air Force reserves. In August 2022 the Chief of Staff of the Air Force stated the service's interest in acquiring propeller aircraft for combat missions. By July 2024, it was reported that negotiations were underway for new-build A-29Ns. In December 2024, it was announced that the Força Aérea Portuguesa would acquire twelve A-29N Super Tucanos. === United States === ==== Civilian ==== One Super Tucano was purchased by a subsidiary of Blackwater Worldwide, an American private military contractor. It lacked the normal wing-mounted machine guns. In 2012, that aircraft was sold on to Tactical Air Support, Inc., of Reno, Nevada. ==== Military ==== ===== Special operations ===== In 2008, the U.S. Navy began testing the Super Tucano at the behest of the U.S. Special Operations Command for its potential use to support special warfare operations, giving it the official U.S. designation A-29B. ==== Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ==== In 2009, the Super Tucano was offered in a U.S. Air Force competition for 100 counterinsurgency aircraft. On 12 April 2010, Brazil signed an agreement to open negotiations for the acquisition of 200 Super Tucanos by the U.S. On 16 November 2011, the AT-6 was excluded from the LAS program, effectively selecting the Super Tucano. According to GAO: "the Air Force concluded that HBDC had not adequately corrected deficiencies in its proposal ... that multiple deficiencies and significant weaknesses found in HBDC's proposal make it technically unacceptable and results in unacceptable mission capability risk". Hawker Beechcraft's protest against its exclusion was dismissed. While the contract award was disputed, a stop-work was issued in January 2012. For this procurement, the avionics were supplied by Elbit Systems of America. Sierra Nevada, the US-based prime contractor built the Super Tucano in Jacksonville, Florida. The 81st Fighter Squadron, based at Moody Air Force Base, was reactivated on 15 January 2015 and received the A-29s and provided training to pilots and maintainers from the Afghan Air Force. They were turned over to the Afghans in batches from December 2018. ===== Light attack experiment ===== In August 2017, the US Air Force conducted the "Light Attack Experiment" to evaluate potential light attack aircraft. Following this, it decided to continue experimenting with two non-developmental aircraft, the Textron Aviation AT-6B Wolverine derivative of the T-6 Texan II and the Sierra Nevada/Embraer A-29 Super Tucano. Tests conducted at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona between May and July 2018, examined logistics requirements, weapons and sensor issues, and future interoperability with partner forces. The Air Force expects to have the information it needs to potentially buy light attack aircraft in a future competition, without conducting a combat demonstration, based on data collected during the first round of the experiment and future data anticipated to be collected in the next phase of experimentation. The A-29 had a fatal crash while over the Red Rio Bombing Range, White Sands Missile Range. By 2022, three A-29C aircraft had been delivered by Sierra Nevada to Air Force Special Operations Command. === Paraguay === In July 2024, Embraer and the Paraguayan Air Force announced the acquisition of six Super Tucanos, with deliveries planned to begin in 2025. === Uruguay === In July 2024, Embraer and the Uruguayan Air Force announced the acquisition of eleven Super Tucanos, with deliveries planned to begin in 2025. === Potential operators === ==== Bolivia ==== Embraer reportedly offered the Super Tucano to the Bolivian Air Force. ==== Equatorial Guinea ==== Equatorial Guinea was said to be interested in purchasing the Super Tucano. ==== Guatemala ==== In August 2011, the Guatemalan Air Force requested credit approval of $166 million to buy six EMB-314s, control centers, radar, and equipment, in the context of a programme named "C4I". In October 2012, the Guatemalan Congress approved a loan for the C4I programme, including the purchase of six A-29s, to be granted by Brazilian and Spanish banks (BNDES and BBVA). The deal was finalized in April 2013. The first two aircraft were expected to arrive in April 2014, followed by two units in 2015 and two more in 2016. However, the president of Guatemala cancelled the order in November 2013. In January 2015, the Guatemalan defence minister disclosed that his country was looking at purchasing two aircraft from Embraer. ==== Libya ==== The Libyan government is interested in buying up to 24 Super Tucanos. ==== Mozambique ==== Brazil planned to donate three EMB-312s for Mozambique Air Force, which may also acquire three Super Tucanos. In 2016, the donation deal was canceled by the Brazilian government. ==== Peru ==== In March 2011, a Brazilian federal representative spoke on the Unasur treaty, stating that it could promote the surveillance integration in the Amazon Basin and facilitate the sale of 12 Super Tucanos and upgrade kits for 20 Peruvian EMB-312s. In November 2011, Peru's defence minister announced the Super Tucano purchase was suspended in favor of the Korean KT-1. On 14 February 2012, Brazil's Ministry of Defence said Peru is considering buying ten Super Tucanos. However, in November 2012, a government-to-government contract was signed for 20 KT-1s. In 2012, the governments of Peru and Brazil restarted negotiations for the acquisition of 12 A-29s to replace A-37 Dragonflys that are due to withdraw in 2017. ==== Suriname ==== Suriname is interested in purchasing between two and four Super Tucanos for light attack roles. ==== Thailand ==== Embraer has also quoted Thailand as a potential customer for the type. ==== UAE ==== In September 2010, it was announced that Brazil and the United Arab Emirates were working a deal that includes sales of Super Tucanos. It was reported in early 2015 that the UAE is negotiating with Embraer the purchase of 24 Super Tucanos, the deal would include six aircraft from Brazilian Air Force inventory for immediate delivery. Since then an Emirati company, Callidus, bought a Brazilian company, Novaer, founded by an engineer involved in the Tucano project, and started a project for an alternative aircraft strongly resembling it, the Calidus B-250. ==== Ukraine ==== In August 2019, a Ukrainian military delegation visited Embraer's military division in São Paulo and flew the Super Tucano. In October 2019, the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelensky, in a meeting with Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro, informed that his country would buy the Super Tucano. In December 2022, the Brazilian media reported a Ukrainian interest in the Super Tucano, to equip its air force for the Russo-Ukrainian War; however, the sale was blocked by the Bolsonaro administration. A diplomatic effort by the United States to persuade the president-elect of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to unblock the deal, has been reported. === Missed contracts === ==== Bolivia ==== After the U.S. ban on Czech aircraft Aero L-159 Alca export on 7 August 2009, the Bolivian Defense Minister said they were considering six aircraft from Brazil or China with comparable role as the L-159. On 9 October 2009, it was announced that China would manufacture six K-8 for Bolivia, to be used for antidrug operations, at a price of $9.7 million per aircraft. ==== El Salvador ==== In November 2010, the President of the Legislative Defense Committee of El Salvador stated they would purchase an estimated 10 EMB-314s. It was postponed in February 2011 by lack of funds. In 2013, the El Salvador Air Force acquired 10 Cessna A-37 retired from Chilean Air Force. ==== Iraq ==== In January 2015 a report in Jane's Defence Weekly said the Iraqi Air Force would receive 24 Super Tucanos, six directly from Brazilian Air Force stocks, and some from an order placed by the United Arab Emirates. ==== Senegal ==== In September 2012, Senegal was reportedly in a procurement process with Embraer. In April 2013, the Brazilian minister of Defence disclosed that Senegal was the 4th African nation to order the Super Tucano, in the following day, Embraer confirmed the order, which included a training system for pilots and mechanics (TOSS) in Senegal, bringing autonomy to that country's Air Force in preparing qualified personnel. However, the deal was not finalized and Senegal opted for four Korean KT-1s. ==== Sweden ==== Sweden proposed replacing its Saab 105 trainer aircraft with Super Tucanos, if Brazil chose to buy the Gripen NG. In May 2021, the Swedish Armed Forces announced that it chose Grob G 120TP as the new trainer and it will enter service in 2023. ==== United Kingdom ==== Elbit Systems and Embraer offered the EMB-314 for the United Kingdom's basic trainer contest. However, the Beechcraft T-6C Texan II formed part of the preferred bid for the requirement in October 2014. ==== Venezuela ==== In February 2006, a 36-unit sale for Venezuela fell through because it was thought the U.S. would block the transfer of U.S.-built components. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez claimed the U.S. had pressured Brazil not to sign the contract. == Operators == Afghanistan Afghan Air Force – 26 A-29s ordered, deliveries took place from 2016 to late 2020. They were built by Sierra Nevada Corporation and Embraer in Jacksonville, Florida, and supplied to Afghanistan via the U.S. Air Force's Light Air Support (LAS) program. The first was delivered to the U.S. service in September 2014. The first four A-29s arrived at Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul on 15 January 2016. After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, it is unclear if A-29s will continue to be operated by Afghans. Angola National Air Force of Angola – six aircraft ordered. Deliveries were scheduled to begin in early 2012; but the first three were delivered on 31 January 2013. 8th Training Squadron, 24th Training Regiment at Menongue Airport Brazil Brazilian Air Force – 99 aircraft (33 A-29A & 66 A-29B). At least four aircraft have been lost. 1st Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (1º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Escorpião" (Scorpion Squadron) 2nd Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (2º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Grifo" (Griffon Squadron) 3rd Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (3º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Flecha" (Arrow Squadron) 2nd Squadron of the 5th Aviation Group (2º/5º GAv) "Esquadrão Joker" (Joker Squadron) The Aerial Demonstration Squadron "Esquadrilha da Fumaça" Smoke Squadron (EDA) Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Air Force – 3 aircraft delivered in September 2011 of version A-29B. Combat Squadron (Escadrille de Chasse) located at Ouagadougou Air Base Chile Chilean Air Force 22 aircraft (12 received in 2009, 6 in 2018 and 4 in 2020). Grupo de Aviacion N°1 located at Base aérea "Los Cóndores" in Iquique Colombia Colombian Aerospace Force – 25 aircraft, introduced between 2006 and 2008. At least one aircraft crashed, claimed shot down by FARC. 211 Combat Squadron "Grifos" of the Twenty-first Combat Group at the Captain Luis F. Gómez Niño Air Base 312 Combat Squadron "Drakos" of the Thirty-first Combat Group at the Major General Alberto Pauwels Rodríguez Air Base at Malambo, near Barranquilla 611 Combat Squadron of the Sixty-first Combat Group at the Captain Ernesto Esguerra Cubides Air Base Dominican Republic Dominican Air Force – 8 aircraft Escuadrón de Combate "Dragones" at the San Isidro Air Base Ecuador Ecuadorian Air Force – 18 aircraft, all delivered by 2011. Ala de Combate No.23, "Luchando Vencerás", Base Aérea Eloy Alfaro, Manta Escuadrón de Combate 2313 "Halcones" Escuadrón de Combate 2311 "Dragones" Ghana Ghana Air Force – 5 aircraft ordered in 2015. The total value of the contract was $88million with a loan from BNDES, which also includes logistics support and training for pilots and mechanics in Ghana. The first aircraft were expected to arrive in late 2016, and will be used as advanced training, border surveillance and internal security missions. Ghana's Air Force plans to acquire four more A-29s with light attack, reconnaissance and training capabilities; if finalized, the deal will increase Ghana's A-29 fleet to nine. Until 2024, no deliveries have been made and Embraer and the Sierra Nevada Corporation demonstrated their A-29 Super Tucano close air support, reconnaissance and trainer aircraft to the Ghana Air Force on 19 February 2024, at the Accra Air Force Base. This was done with their demonstrator aircraft PT-ZTU. Honduras Honduran Air Force – 2 aircraft ordered in 2014. Indonesia Indonesian Air Force – 16 aircraft ordered & delivered, one lost in a crash February 2016, a further two lost in crashes in November 2023. The first four aircraft of the first batch of eight were delivered as of August 2012., the delivery of the second batch of four aircraft was delayed till September 2014. A total of 16 were ordered in 2011 with deliveries taking place in 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2016. In March 2012, Indonesian Ministry of Defense informed the possibility of a future joint production, further modernization and sales in the Asia-Pacific region. Air Squadron 21 at the Lanud Abdul Rachman Saleh air base Lebanon Lebanese Air Force – 6 A-29s ordered, all six delivered by May 2018. Mali Mali Air Force – 4 A-29 delivered in July 2018. Six originally ordered but due to financial issues the order was reduced to four aircraft. Mauritania Mauritanian Air Force – 4 aircraft ordered, received two aircraft as of December 2012, two more aircraft on order. Nigeria Nigerian Air Force – 12 aircraft on order. First batch with 6 aircraft delivered on 22 July 2021, and the delivery was completed with the arrival of the final batch to Nigeria in October 2021. Panama Embraer announced on 2 April 2025 that Panama has chosen the Super Tucano for the surveillance of their air space. Paraguay Paraguayan Air Force – 6 aircraft ordered in July 2024, with deliveries planned to begin in 2025. Philippines Philippine Air Force – 6 aircraft delivered on 13 October 2020. Another 6 on order. 16th Attack Squadron "Eagles" Portugal Portuguese Air Force – On December 12th, 2024 Portugal has approved the acquisition of 12 A-29N Super Tucano aircraft in a 200-million-euro deal. These Super Tucano variants are configured according to NATO standards, with its avionics to include single-pilot operation and modern data link functions. This version is designed for Close Air Support (CAS), ISR, and advanced training. Acquisition addresses gaps left by the retired Portuguese Alpha Jets. Turkmenistan Turkmen Air Force – Total order quantity not disclosed. 5 aircraft delivered in 2020–21. United States EP Aviation – part of Academi (formerly Blackwater) – at least one twin-seater variant for pilot training (delivered in February 2008), possible further orders for counter-insurgency role. Later sold in 2010 to Tactical Air Support in Reno, NV. United States Navy leased an aircraft for testing, as part of the Imminent Fury program. United States Air Force - from 3 to 6 aircraft operated by United States Air Force Special Operations Command. Operated by Air Force Special Operations Command. Delivered in 2021. Transferred to the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School in 2024. Uruguay Uruguayan Air Force – 6 aircraft ordered in July 2024, with deliveries planned to begin in 2025. == Accidents == On 10 February 2016, an Indonesian Air Force Embraer EMB-314 Super Tucano crashed in Malang, East Java, on suburb area near Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Base. The aircraft (TT-3108) was on a routine test flight. Both pilots and two civilians died in the accident. On 15 August 2021, an Embraer 314 aircraft belonging to the Afghan Armed Forces crashed in the Sherabad district of the Surkhandarya region of the Republic of Uzbekistan. On 16 November 2023, two Indonesian Air Force Embraer EMB-314 Super Tucano crashed on the slopes of Mount Bromo, near Keduwung Village, Puspo District, Pasuruan, East Java. The aircraft (TT-3103 and TT-3111) were part of four-aircraft formation with another two Super Tucanos, and on training flight under cloudy weather condition. The four aircraft were flying in a box formation when they suddenly encountered heavy clouds, obstructing visibility; TT-3103 and TT-3111 allegedly collided with mountain slope when the four aircraft broke the formation and attempted to get out of the clouds. Another two Super Tucanos landed safely on Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Base. All four pilots of both planes died in the accident. == Aircraft on display == EMB 314B Super Tucano FAB-5900 – Brazilian Air Force – Memorial Aeroespacial Brasileiro, São José dos Campos == Specifications (EMB 314 Super Tucano) == Data from Type Analysis: Embraer Super Tucano (All specifications from Janes 2010–2011 unless otherwise indicated)General characteristics Crew: 2 (Pilot plus one navigator/student in tandem on Martin Baker Mk 10 LCX zero-zero ejection seats) Length: 11.38 m (37 ft 4 in) Wingspan: 11.14 m (36 ft 7 in) Height: 3.97 m (13 ft 0 in) Wing area: 19.4 m2 (209 sq ft) Airfoil: root: NACA 63A415; tip: NACA 63A212 Empty weight: 3,200 kg (7,055 lb) Max takeoff weight: 5,400 kg (11,905 lb) Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-68C turboprop engine, 1,196 kW (1,604 hp) Propellers: 5-bladed Hartzell, 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) diameter constant-speed, fully feathering, reversible-pitch propeller Performance Maximum speed: 590 km/h (370 mph, 320 kn) Cruise speed: 520 km/h (320 mph, 280 kn) Stall speed: 148 km/h (92 mph, 80 kn) Range: 1,330 km (830 mi, 720 nmi) Combat range: 550 km (340 mi, 300 nmi) (hi-lo-hi profile, 1,500 kg (3,307 lb) of external stores) Ferry range: 2,855 km (1,774 mi, 1,542 nmi) Endurance: 8 hours 24 minutes Service ceiling: 10,668 m (35,000 ft) g limits: +7 /−3.5 Rate of climb: 16.4 m/s (3,230 ft/min) Armament Guns: Internal: (2×) 12.7 mm (0.50 in) 1,100 rounds per minute FN Herstal or U.S. Ordnance M3P machine guns as designated "M3W", one fixed mounted in each wing with 200 rounds per M3. pod: 1 20 mm (0.79 in) 650 rounds per minute GIAT M20A1 cannon below the fuselage. pod: 1 12.7 mm (0.50 in) FN Herstal HMP for M3P machine gun under each wing pod: up to 4 7.62 mm (0.30 in) 3,000 rounds per minute Dillon Aero M134 Minigun (under development) under wings. Hardpoints: 5 (two under each wing and one under fuselage centreline) with a capacity of 1,550 kg (3,300 lb) Rockets: (4x) pods 70 mm (2.75 in) LM-70/19(SBAT-70) (4x) pods 70 mm (2.75 in) LAU-68A/G Missiles: Air-to-air: AIM-9L Sidewinder MAA-1A Piranha MAA-1B Piranha (under development) Python 3 Python 4 Air-to-ground: AGM-65 Maverick Roketsan Cirit General-purpose bombs: (10x) Mk 81 (5x) Mk 82 M117 Incendiary bombs: BINC-300 Cluster bombs: BLG-252 Precision-guided bombs: FPG-82 (under development) Friuli Aeroespacial INS/GPS guidance kit for Mk 82. SMKB-82 – INS/GPS guidance kit for Mk 82. GBU-54 (under development) GBU-38 (under development) GBU-39 (under development) Paveway II Lizard – Elbit laser guidance kit. Griffin – IAI laser guidance kit. Others: Chaff & flare (countermeasure) FLIR AN/AAQ-22 Star Safire II (Electro-optical/infrared sensors) Drop tanks Avionics MIL-STD-1553 standards. NVG ANVIS-9 (Night Vision) CCIP / CCRP / CCIL / DTOS / LCOS / SSLC (Computerized Attack Modes) Rohde & Schwarz M3AR VHF/UHF Airborne Transceiver (two-way encrypted Data Link provision) HUD / HOTAS HMD with UFCP (Up Front Control Panel) Laser INS with GPS Navigational System. CMFD (Colored Multi-Function Display) liquid crystal active matrix Integrated Radio Communication and Navigation Video Camera/Recorder Automatic Pilot with embedded mission planning capability Stormscope WX-1000E (Airborne weather mapping system) Laser Range Finder WiPak Support (Wi-Fi integration for Paveway bombs). Training and Operation Support System (TOSS). == See also == Related development Embraer EMB 312 Tucano Short Tucano Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Calidus B-250 KAI KT-1 Woongbi Pilatus PC-21 Piper PA-48 Enforcer PZL-130 Orlik TAI Hürkuş US Aircraft A-67 Dragon UTVA Kobac Related lists Counter-insurgency aircraft List of active Brazilian military aircraft == References == === Bibliography === Church, Aaron M. U. (2023). USAF & USSF Almanac 2023 Weapons & Platforms (PDF). Air & Space Forces Magazine (Report). Air & Space Forces Association. Retrieved 26 April 2024. Guevara, Iñigo. "Operation Fenix – Columbian Airstrike at Dawn". Air International, Vol. 74, No. 4, May 2008, pp. 52–55. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634. Rivas, Santiago and Juan Carlos Cicalesi. "Type Analysis: Embraer EMB-312/314 Tucano and Super Tucano". International Air Power Review, vol. 22, 2007, pp. 60–79. Westport, CT: AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1-880588-79-X. ISSN 1473-9917. van der Ende, Cees-Jan (February 2011). "Chile – Falcões da Cordilheira" Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese). Revista Asas ed. 59, pp. 38–49. Wall, Robert (23 April 2012). Velocci, Anthony (ed.). "Guided Trajectory". Aviation Week & Space Technology. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill: 79–80. ISSN 0005-2175. == External links == Super Tucano EMB 314 (Air recognition) Archived 25 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Super Tucano. Embraer Defense & Security.
Embraer ERJ family	The Embraer ERJ family (for Embraer Regional Jet) are regional jets designed and produced by the Brazilian aerospace company Embraer. The family includes the ERJ 135 (37 passengers), ERJ 140 (44 passengers), and ERJ 145 (50 passengers), as well as the Legacy 600 business jet and the R-99 family of military aircraft. Development of the ERJ 145 was launched in 1989. Its early design took the form of a turbofan-powered stretch of the existing turboprop-powered EMB 120 Brasilia regional aircraft. After the project was temporarily suspended in 1990, work on a revised configuration was undertaken during the early 1990s. While retaining the three-abreast seating of the Brasilia, the twinjet featured a new swept wing and is powered by two rear-fuselage-mounted Rolls-Royce AE 3007 turbofans for a range up to 2,000 nautical miles [nmi] (3,700 km; 2,300 mi). By the time of its maiden flight on 11 August 1995, Embraer had garnered 18 firm orders, 16 options and 127 letters of intent for the type. On 10 December 1996, the ERJ 145 received its type certificate; it entered revenue service with ExpressJet Airlines on 6 April 1997. Embraer prioritised the rapid expansion of the family, leading to the introduction of the shortened ERJ 135 and ERJ 140 in 1999. The ERJ series' primary competition came from the similarly sized Bombardier CRJ100/200 regional jets. In December 2002, Embraer entered a partnership with the Chinese aerospace manufacturer Harbin Aircraft Industry Group to jointly produce the ERJ 145 in Harbin, China; this production line was shuttered in 2016 after producing 41 aircraft. Overall production of the type was terminated in 2020, by which point 1,231 aircraft were built. By this point, the ERJ family had been eclipsed by the newer and more advanced E-Jet family. == Development == === Background and early design === The ERJ 145 was designed for a perceived new market for regional jet aircraft, where the increased speed, comfort and passenger appeal would outweigh the inherent fuel economy of the turboprop aircraft which were in service and in development. The 45–48 seat EMB 145, nicknamed Amazon, was launched at the Paris Air Show in 1989 as an 18-foot (5.5 m) stretch of the EMB 120 Brasilia developed for US$150 million plus $50 million for training and marketing, one third the cost of the cancelled Short Brothers FJX project. Its $11 million unit cost would have been $3 million less than the Canadair CRJ. The jet was anticipated to be able to travel at 400 knots (740 km/h; 460 mph), equipped with the CFE738, Lycoming ALF 502 or Rolls-Royce/Allison AB580 turbofan engines, with the model to be selected in the summer of 1989. It was targeted for a late 1992 introduction with six produced, then ramping to 60 per year by 1995. It aimed for half of a market for 1,000 aircraft with break-even after twelve years with 400 sold. Keeping 75% of the Brasilia parts and systems, the EMB 145 Amazon aimed for a 1991 first flight. The stretch resulted from two 11-foot (3.4 m) plugs of the 7-foot-6-inch (2.29 m) diameter fuselage in the front and behind the redesigned 538-square-foot (50.0 m2) wing. Its supercritical airfoil with a 14% root thickness had its chord extended at the leading edge with a slight sweepback, increased aspect ratio and winglets. The overwing podded engines were expected to generate 6,400 pounds-force (28 kN) of thrust. Designed for 500–600 nmi (930–1,110 km; 580–690 mi) stages, up to 1,400 nmi (2,600 km; 1,600 mi) with a reduced payload, it had a 36,375 lb (16,500 kg) maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) and a 21,045 lb (9,546 kg) operating empty weight. === Engine selection === In early 1990, no engine supplier willing to share the risk of the $250 million development was yet selected. The Allison GMA3007 (later renamed the Rolls-Royce AE 3007) was selected in March 1990, with a maximum 40 kN (7,100 lbf) take-off thrust and growth capability to 45 kN (10,000 lbf), first flight was then due in September 1991. Rolls-Royce could participate in the fan and low-pressure turbine, its original responsibility on the RB.580 joint development. By May, it had 296 commitments from 19 operators, and was seeking external finance. In June, maiden flight was expected by the end of 1990 before mid-1993 deliveries for $11.5 million each, cabin pressurisation was increased to 0.55 bar (8.0 psi) from the Brasilia 0.48 bar (7.0 psi). Following the engine selection, design was revised: length decreased from 27.08 to 26.74 m (88.8 to 87.7 ft), span increased from 22.37 to 22.49 m (73.4 to 73.8 ft), aspect ratio to 9.3 from 9.2. MTOW rose from 16,500 to 18,500 kg (36,400 to 40,800 lb), basic operating weight from 9,560 to 10,940 kg (21,080 to 24,120 lb), maximum fuel from 3,900 to 4,210 kg (8,600 to 9,280 lb) and payload from 4,500 to 5,160 kg (9,920 to 11,380 lb); wing loading increased from 330 to 370 kg/m2 (68 to 76 lb/sq ft), time-to-climb to FL400 gained 5 min to 30 min and maximum cruise rose from 405 to 428 kn (750 to 793 km/h) at FL360. The first delivery in 1993 was slated to Comair, which ordered 60. In November 1990, a major reduction in Brazilian government spending, which held 61% of its voting share, resulted in Embraer laying off 32% of its 12,800 employees and suspending development of the EMB 145 for six months. === Revised design === In March 1991, a revised configuration started wind tunnel testing: the quarter chord wing sweep increased to 22.3° with underslung engines for lower aerodynamic drag. This reduced the span by almost 2 to 20.5 m (6 ft 7 in to 67 ft 3 in), reducing its aspect ratio from 9.3 to 8.4 and wing area from 50 to 47 m2 (540 to 510 sq ft). The semi-monocoque wing has two main and one auxiliary spar and holds 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) of fuel, it has double-slotted fowler flaps and spoilers. To accommodate the underwing engines, the landing gear is longer, allowing using jetways, and the fuselage was lengthened from 25.8 to 26 m (85 to 85 ft). During June 1991, the Brazilian Government loaned $600 million to Embraer and in July the programme was re-evaluated while tooling was 80% complete. By November 1991, Embraer was still looking for partners to share the risk of the $350 million project, hoping to obtain Government approval by the end of the year. Sold at $12 million with an all-digital cockpit and 31.8 kN (7,100 lbf) engines, it had letters of intent for 337 units. The scheduled date for the first flight slipped to 1992 and certification for late 1993. === Definitive design === After re-evaluation late in 1991, the layout was again revised with two rear-fuselage-mounted engines, and a Mach 0.8 cruise speed would be tested in the wind tunnel. Seat pitch is 79 cm (31 in). A further stretch to 50–55 passengers is limited by a 12° rotation angle. Embraer continued to look for partners to share the $350 million development as first flight was expected for late 1994. In December 1994, Embraer was privatised for 80% to Brazilian and US investors while 20% was kept by the Brazilian Government. The definitive ERJ 145 first flew on August 11, 1995, with 18 firm orders, 16 options and 127 letters of intent. A 1,300h flight-test programme for the prototype and three pre-series aircraft (excluding two ground-test airframes) was planned within 13 months for certification in the third quarter of 1996, before deliveries in the fourth quarter of 1996 to launch customer Flight West. The $14.5 million aircraft is developed with risk-sharing partners including Spain's Gamesa producing the wing; Chile's Enaer for the tail; and the USA's C&D Interiors equipping the cabin. The standard maximum ramp weight is 19,300 and 20,300 kg (42,500 and 44,800 lb) for the extended-range, it is fitted with Honeywell Primus 1000 integrated avionics. The estimated $300 million development cost is divided between Embraer for 34%, risksharing partners for 33% (including Belgium's SONACA supplying centre and rear fuselage sections, doors, engine pylons and wing leading-edges), long-term loans from Brazilian development-funding institutions for 23% and participating suppliers for 10%. On both 370 km (200 nm) hubfeeder and 1,100 km hub-bypass sectors, the EMB145 was expected to offer lower operating costs than the similarly priced Saab 2000 high-speed turboprop and the CRJ. Its $15 million price was $4 million lower than the CRJ. The Flight Test campaign took four aircraft: S/N 801, PT-ZJA, S/N 001, PT-ZJB, S/N 002, PT-ZJC and S/N 003, PT-ZJD. Only S/N 003 was fitted with passenger seats and had no FTI (flight test instrumentation) and was used for functional and reliability tests. In July 1996, its certification was targeted for October, and the unit cost was then forecast to be US$15 million. The first delivery was planned for late November, while 29 aircraft were to be produced in 1997, 38 in 1998 and at least 48 per year thereafter. Its MTOW could be raised from the standard 19,200 to 20,600 kg (42,300 to 45,400 lb) for an Enhanced Range version. Flight tests allowed to increase its cruise speed to Mach 0.78 from 0.74, and showed fuel economy was 7% better than predicted. Before the Summer 1996 Farnborough Airshow, Embraer held 62 firm orders and 218 options. Continental Express then purchased 25 EMB145s and took 175 options. More than 50 seats would need a wider fuselage for four-abreast seating, an enlarged wing and a more powerful turbofan. On 10 December 1996, type certification was issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), clearing the type for operational use in North America. Embraer delivered 892 units of all variants through 2006, and predicted that another 102 units would be delivered in the 2007–2016 time period. === Production in China === During December 2002, Embraer entered a partnership with the Chinese aerospace manufacturer Harbin Aircraft Industry Group, resulting in the creation of Harbin Embraer Aircraft Industry, a joint venture company, to locally produce the ERJ 145 in Harbin for the Chinese market. The assembly line was sized to produce a maximum of 24 aircraft per year, assembling complete knock down kits prepared by Embraer at its facilities overseas. During February 2004, the first delivery of a Chinese-assembled ERJ 145 took place; two months later, China Southern took delivery for two of the locally-built ERJ145s. In April 2009, it was announced that Hainan Airlines had halved its original order for 50 ERJ145s from the joint venture. By April 2011, 41 aircraft had reportedly been produced in China, considerably less than the line's capacity. By this time, the company was undertaking changes to facilitate the local production of the similar Embraer Legacy 650 business jet as well. In March 2016, the final delivery of aircraft produced by the joint venture took place. Two months later, the discontinuation of the local assembly initiative was announced; it was reported that in excess of 40 ERJ 145 and five Legacy 650s has been completed by this point. === Shortened versions === Embraer has introduced two shortened versions of the ERJ145. All three aircraft share the same crew type rating, allowing pilots to fly any of the three aircraft without the need for further training. The ERJ 140 is 1.42 metres (4.7 ft) shorter, seating 44 passengers, and has 96% parts commonality with the ERJ145. The only significant changes are a shorter fuselage, a slightly derated engine and an increased range. The ERJ140 was designed with fewer seats in order to meet the needs of some major United States airlines, which have an agreement with the pilots' union to limit the number of 50-seat aircraft that can be flown by their affiliates. At launch, Embraer estimated the cost of an ERJ140 to be approximately US$15.2 million. The estimated cost of development of the ERJ140 was US$45 million. The ERJ 135 is 3.54 metres (11.6 ft) shorter, seating 37 passengers, and has 95% parts commonality with the ERJ145. The first ERJ 135 entered service in 1999. == Design == The Embraer ERJ family is a series of twin-engine jet-powered regional jets. The ERJ family retains a relatively high level of commonality with the Embraer Legacy 600 business jet; the principal difference being the addition of winglets and additional fuel tanks as standard on the latter. The airframe is composed of stretched, machined and chemically milled aluminium, with CFRP for moving parts, GFRP for fairings and sidewalls, kevlar for leading edges and Nomex honeycomb-CFRP/GFRP sandwiches for floors. The EMB145 family is generally powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce AE 3007 series turbofan engines. Each engine has a bypass ratio of 5:1 and can generate up to 8,917 lbf of thrust. The engines are controlled by a dual Full Authority Digital Engine Controls (FADEC) arrangement, which is capable of controlling virtually all aspects of the engine and sending engine data to be displayed on the engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) for the flight crew. The ERJ 145 family initially shared its cockpit layout with that of the aborted CBA123. It is equipped with the Honeywell Primus 1000 avionics suite. This provides an electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) that comprises five monitors; from left to right, these consists of a Primary Flight Display (PFD), Multi-Function Display (MFD), Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS), Multi-Function Display (MFD) (Co-pilot) and Primary Flight Display (PFD) (Co-pilot). While these are CRT displays as standard, they can be upgraded to LCD counterparts, which are lighter and have additional functionality. In a typical commuter/airliner configuration, the ERJ 145 can accommodate up to 60 seats, although many operators would have fewer seats than this on their selected configuration. Embraer has offered a premium cabin configuration, which seats between 16 and 28 passengers in a more comfortable and spacious arrangement. The cabin can accommodate various interiors, these being customisable to fulfil each customer's own requirements. The fittings can be suited to various market sectors, from the relatively modest commuter to the more luxury-inclined VIP traveller. It is typical, but not compulsory, for ERJ 135/145 airliners to be configured with an offset aisle. Dependent on an individual aircraft's role, overhead bins may be installed; their exclusion gives more headroom but reduces the available storage space for carry-on luggage. Embraer has stated that every ERJ 145 is capable of being converted into a semi-private aircraft configuration, and that the conversion process can be performed at Embraer-owned service centers. Numerous aftermarket companies have also offered their own conversions of ERJ family aircraft, often involving various levels of interior refurbishment, such as the installation of an expanded galley, redesigned lavatories, seat track relocation, at-seat power provision, Wi-Fi, alternative ceilings, LED lighting upgrades, and various storage options. == Operational history == In December 1996, the first delivery of the ERJ 145 was made to ExpressJet Airlines (then the regional division of Continental Airlines flying as Continental Express). As a newly established company, ExpressJet chose the ERJ 145 with which to launch its operations; this was achieved in April 1997, the same month that Embraer completed deliveries to the operator. Particular value was attached the American market as there was a near-insatiable hunger for regional aircraft at this time, and thus a substantial amount of potential sales to capitalise upon. The ERJ 145 quickly entered service with various other operators throughout the Americas, being particularly popular on high-demand regional routes. However, the type proved to be less successful in the European market allegedly on account of logistical difficulties. Nonetheless, several European operators did emerge; LOT Polish Airlines operated as many as 14 ERJ145s, while British Regional Airlines also flew the type on behalf of the national flag carrier British Airways. During the early 2000s, various governments opted to procure the ERJ 145 as dedicated transports for high-ranking officials, amongst some other purposes. One such country was Belgium, who operated a pair of ERJ145s for VIP transport, regularly carrying the Belgian prime minister, cabinet members, members of the royal family, or military officials, between 2001 and 2020. By the 2020s, various operators had elected to retire their ERJ 145 fleets in favour of newer airliners; they have often been replaced by members of Embraer's E-Jet family. Aircraft formerly used as regional airliners have often been sold on to charter operators. To capitalise on the growing sector of corporate/private travellers, some customers have elected to acquire secondhand ERJ145s from regional operators and refurbishing them with new interiors with more luxurious fittings to suit their new role. As of August 2021, the largest operator of the ERJ 145 is CommuteAir, which serves as United Express under United Airlines, possessing a fleet of 165 aircraft. During September 1999, the slightly smaller ERJ140 was introduced; it performing its first flight on 27 June 2000, and entering commercial service in July 2001. Envoy Air, the regional jet subsidiary of American Airlines flying as American Eagle, operated the majority of the ERJ140s built, including the first to be delivered (N800AE) However, Envoy Air opted to withdraw all of their ERJ140 fleet in mid-2020. By early 2005, 74 ERJ140s had been delivered; while this model has been marketed as ERJ140, its designation on the company's internal documents and on FAA certification is EMB 135KL. In March 2007, ExpressJet entered into a short-term agreement to operate some regional routes for JetBlue Airways using its ERJ 145 aircraft. In May 2017, the ERJ 135 was leased $33,000 to $43,000 per month ($396,000 to $516,000 per year) and the ERJ 145 $38,000 to $55,000 per month ($456,000 to $660,000 per year). As of 18 March 2018, the Embraer ERJ family was involved in 24 incidents, incurring a total of eight hull losses without any fatalities. == Variants == === Civilian models === ERJ 135ER – Extended Range, although this is the baseline 135 model. Simple shrink of the ERJ145, seating thirteen fewer passengers, for a total of 37 passengers. ERJ 135LR – Long Range, increased fuel capacity and upgraded engines. Launch customer: Belgium Air Component. ERJ 135KL ERJ 140ER – Extended Range, although this is the baseline 140 model. Simple shrink of the ERJ145, seating six fewer passengers for a total of 44 passengers. ERJ 140LR – Long Range (increased fuel capacity (5,187 kg) and upgraded engines. Launch customer: American Eagle (Envoy). ERJ 145STD – The baseline original, seating for a total of 50 passengers. ERJ 145EU – Model optimized for the European market. Same fuel capacity as 145STD (4,174 kg) but an increased MTOW 19,990 kg ERJ 145ER – Extended Range. Original version of the aircraft. Launch customer: ExpressJet Airlines ERJ 145EP – Same fuel capacity as 145ER (4,174 kg) but an increased MTOW 20,990 kg. Launch customer: Flybmi. ERJ 145LR – Long Range – increased fuel capacity (5,187 kg) and upgraded engines. ERJ 145LU – Same fuel capacity as 145LR (5,187 kg) but an increased MTOW 21,990 kg. ERJ 145MK – Same fuel capacity (4,174 kg), landing weight (MLW) and MTOW as in the 145STD, but a changed MZFW (17,700 kg). ERJ 145XR – Extra-long Range, numerous aerodynamic improvements, including winglets, strakes, etc. for lower cruise-configuration drag; a ventral fuel tank (aft location) in addition to the two main larger capacity wing tanks (same tanks as in the LR models); increased weight capacity; higher top speed and up-rated engines. Launch customer: ExpressJet Airlines. Legacy 600 (EMB 135BJ) – Business jet variant based on the ERJ 135. Legacy 650 (EMB 135BJ) – Business jet variant based on the Legacy 600 with increased range. Harbin Embraer ERJ 145 – joint venture with Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation The physical engines are the same (Rolls-Royce AE 3007), however, the FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronic Control) logic is what differs between the various models in regards to total thrust capability. The extended range version, the ERJ 145ER, has Rolls-Royce AE 3007A engines rated at 31.3 kN (7,036 lb) thrust, with the option of more powerful AE 3007A1 engines. A, A1, A1P models are mechanically identical but differ in thrust due to variations in FADEC software. The A1E engine, however, has not only new software, but significantly upgraded mechanical components. The long-range ERJ 145LR aircraft is equipped with Rolls-Royce AE 3007A1 engines which provide 15% more power. The engines are flat rated at 33.1 kN (7,440 lb) thrust to provide improved climb characteristics and improved cruise performance in high ambient temperatures. The extra-long-range ERJ 145XR aircraft is equipped with Rolls-Royce AE 3007A1E engines. The high performance engines provide lower specific fuel consumption (SFC) and improved performance in hot and high conditions. The engines also yield a higher altitude for one-engine-inoperable conditions." CommuteAir is the only operator of the ERJ 145XR. February 2011 Embraer presented its new EMB-145 AEW&C for India. Despite the multiple variants, pilots need only one type rating to fly any variant of the ERJ aircraft. Companies like American Eagle utilizes this benefit with its mixed fleet of ERJ 135ER/LR and ERJ145EP/LR/XR. Shared type-ratings allow operators to utilize a single pilot pool for any ERJ aircraft. === Military models === C-99A – Transport model EMB 145SA (E-99A / E-99M) – Airborne Early Warning model EMB 145RS (R-99B) – Remote sensing model EMB 145MP/ASW (P-99) – Maritime patrol model EMB 145H (Hellenic Air Force) – Airborne Early Warning model EMB 145I (Indian Air Force) – Airborne Early Warning model B.LL.2 (Royal Thai Navy) – (Thai: บ.ลล.๒) designation for the ERJ 135LR. == Operators == === Civilian operators === As of May 2025, the civilian operators with ten or more ERJs are: Piedmont Airlines: 61 (7 parked) CommuteAir: 53 (1 parked) JSX: 79 (31 parked) Airlink: 27 Contour Airlines: 23 (4 parked) Loganair: 11 (1 parked) TAR Aerolíneas: 11 (8 parked) === Military operators === == Accidents == The ERJ 135/140/145 has been involved in 26 aviation accidents and incidents, including 10 hull losses, which resulted in zero fatalities. == Specifications == Avionics Primus 1000 colour weather radar Dual digital ADCs Dual AHRS TCAS and GPWS standard with FMS/GPS optional HUD for Cat III landing from 2000 == See also == Related development Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia Embraer Legacy 600 Embraer R-99 and P-99 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Bombardier CRJ100/200 Fairchild Dornier 328JET VFW-Fokker 614 Yakovlev Yak-40 Embraer E-Jet family Related lists List of jet airliners List of civil aircraft == References == == Sources == Crane, Keith., Jill E. Luoto, Scott Warren Harold, David Yang, Samuel K. Berkowitz, and Xiao Wang. "The Effectiveness of China's Industrial Policies in Commercial Aviation Manufacturing". Rand Corporation, 2014. ISBN 0-8330-8584-0. Eden, Paul E. "The World's Most Powerful Civilian Aircraft." Rosen Publishing Group, 2016. ISBN 1-4994-6589-0. == External links == Official website Frawley, Gerard. "Aircraft Technical Data & Specifications > Embraer ERJ-145". The International Directory of Civil Aircraft – via Airliners.net. Endres, Gunter; Gething, Mike (2002). Aircraft Recognition Guide (2nd ed.). New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-713721-4. "Commercial transport update – Status of programs". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 29 October 2007. pp. 63–66. Embraer (22 February 2011). "Embraer unveils the first EMB-145 AEW&C for the Indian Government" (Press release). Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
Embraer E-Jet E2 family	The Embraer E-Jet E2 family is a series of four-abreast narrow-body airliners designed and produced by the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer. The twinjet is an incremental development of the original E-Jet family, adopting the more fuel-efficient Pratt & Whitney PW1900G, a geared turbofan engine. The aircraft family comprises three variants that share the same fuselage cross-section with different lengths and feature three different redesigned wings, fly-by-wire controls with new avionics, and an updated cabin. The variants offer maximum take-off weights from 44.6 to 62.5 t (98,000 to 138,000 lb), and cover a range of 2,000–3,000 nmi (3,700–5,600 km; 2,300–3,500 mi). The program was launched at the Paris Air Show in June 2013. The first variant, the E190-E2, made its maiden flight on 23 May 2016 and flight testing proceeded to schedule with little issue. It received certification on 28 February 2018 before entering service with launch customer Widerøe on 24 April. Certification of the larger E195-E2 was received during April 2019; Azul Brazilian Airlines was the first airline to operate this model. The smaller E175-E2 was originally set to be delivered in 2021, but has been delayed past 2027 due to a lack of demand. Regional airlines in the United States were a major customer of the first-generation of E-Jets, however scope clause agreements have prevented them from purchasing the heavier E175-E2. The E-190 E2 and E-195 E2 variants compete with the Airbus A220 family aircraft, particularly its smaller A220-100 variant. As of April 2024, a total of 306 E-Jet E2s have been ordered with 114 delivered and all are in commercial service. Sales for the E-Jet E2 program have been slow, particularly in light of the issues with the weight of the E175-E2. == Development == === Background === During the early 2010s, the regional jets segment of the international airliner market grew more competitive with the announcement of the Airbus A320neo and the Boeing 737 MAX, thus it was thought that Embraer would have to respond or else lose the competitiveness of the E-Jet family through inaction. In 2010, Embraer was reportedly considering directly challenging the Bombardier CSeries (now A220) by developing a clean-sheet five-abreast airliner for 100 to 150 passengers. The alternative option was to somehow improve the E-Jet family to maintain its attractiveness to customers. In November 2011, Embraer announced at the Dubai Air Show that it had committed to developing new generation of its E-Jet family. This option was both lower risk and lower cost than pursuing a clean sheet design. At the time, Embraer reportedly foresaw a demand for 6,400 commercial jets with capacity of up to 130 seats over the following 20 years. The smallest of the new variants, the E-175-E2, seats up to 88 passengers in a single class configuration, the medium-sized E-190-E2 seats up to 120 passengers, while the largest model, the E-195-E2 seats up to 150 passengers. During the late 2000s, Embraer had studied an aircraft of such capacity, dubbed the E-195X, but had discarded the concept in 2010 in light of degraded aircraft performance in the absence of a re-engine. On account of its poor sales and decreasing demand for 70 seat jets, a redesigned counterpart to the E-170 was not pursued. One key feature of these new variants would be more efficient engines with larger diameter fans; several large engine manufacturers, GE Aviation, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce, were all evaluated by Embraer as possible suppliers. During January 2013, it was announced the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G, a geared turbofan, had been selected to be the exclusive engine of the E2. Embraer commercial aircraft president Paulo Cesar de Souza e Silva noted that the PW1000G was the best suited engine for the performance sought by customers. The selection of the PW1000G is likely to have been eased by the parallel development of the smaller PW1200G engine for the Mitsubishi Regional Jet as well as the larger and more mature PW1500G for the Airbus A220. The E2 family made various improvements in its performance, such as a reduced specific fuel consumption, lower emissions and noise output, minimised maintenance costs, along with the use of a new aluminum or carbon fiber-based wing. These wings had a higher aspect ratio, a longer wingspan, and were equipped with raked wingtips instead of winglets. In early 2013, Embraer referred to this project as being "the E-jets second generation". During June 2013, the $1.7 billion program was launched at the Paris Air Show, citing strong customer demand. The development programme made extensive use of digital model simulations and static test rigs, enabling rapid progress to be made early on. By May 2016, less than three years after being launched, the E2 had 640 commitments from various airlines and leasing companies, 267 of which were firm orders while 373 were options and purchase rights. === Flight testing === On 25 February 2016, the first E-Jet E2, an E190-E2, was rolled out. It performed its maiden flight from São José dos Campos on 23 May 2016, three months ahead of schedule. It flew for three hours and twenty minutes to Mach 0.82, climbed to 12,000 metres (41,000 ft), retracted the landing gear and flaps, and engaged the fly-by-wire in normal mode. It flew earlier than the previously anticipated second half of 2016. The program had fewer challenges than expected and introduction was then planned in the first quarter of 2018. The airplane was slightly below expected weight and the other two E190-E2 prototypes should fly within a year. On 8 July 2016, the second prototype made its maiden flight; this initial flight lasted two hours and 55 minutes and was incident-free. The first E-Jet E2 flew from Brazil to Farnborough Airshow just 45 days after its maiden flight, demonstrating maturity and confidence in the design. By April 2017, 650 hours of flight tests had been completed and the program was reportedly on schedule. Embraer sought to guarantee a 99% schedule reliability in the first year of service. By June 2017, half of the flight testing had been completed; the aerodynamics were reportedly better than predicted and the E190-E2 hot and high performance was also better than anticipated. The E195-E2's MTOW increased to 61,500 kg (135,600 lb) and its range to 2,600 nmi (4,800 km). In June 2017, the four E190-E2s and the single E195-E2 - which was presented at the 2017 Paris Air Show - had made more than 900 flight-test hours, mostly by the E190-E2s. In July 2017, the five aircraft had flown 1,000 flight-test hours while the E190-E2 had accomplished 55% of its test campaign. In January 2018, 98% of the test campaign was completed with 2,000 flight hours. Fuel burn was 17.3% lower than for the E190, up from 16% predicted, while range had increased by 750 nmi (1,390 km) from hot-and-high or short runways: 1,600 or 2,200 nmi (3,000 or 4,100 km) from Mexico City or London City, and noise margin to Stage 4 was 3 EPNdB better than specification at 20 EPNdB. On 28 February 2018, the E190-E2 received its type certificate from the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil (ANAC), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The first production engines for the larger variant were delivered in February 2019 and should deliver a 24% reduction in per-seat fuel burn compared with the E195. The E195-E2 obtained its type certification in April 2019. === Production === Inspired by the automotive industry's production of multiple models on the same line, Embraer proposed building the E190/195-E2 alongside the original E175/190/195 at a steady rate of eight aircraft per month by the end of 2018. Production of the original E-Jet family was projected to slow if assembly of the E175-E2 had started in 2021. As Embraer transitioned from its previous E-jets to the upgraded E2, it was expecting to deliver 85-95 airliners in 2018 with a negative $150 million free cash flow, less than in 2017 with 78 deliveries in the first nine months with a cash outflow of $700 million: return to profitability will take at least three years once the program investment is reduced and the production ramp up is complete. Hybrid stations capable of work on either the E1 or E2 were more automated, moving to 90% automated drilling and riveting for the E2 wing. Elements such as the cabin were examined from a production standpoint relatively early in the design process, which included the involvement of external suppliers as well. Embraer opted for a sole-source solution for the cabin; this approach reportedly enabled more aggressive deals to be secured from key suppliers and thus lowering costs while also easing integration by reducing the number of suppliers involved. In November 2017, the E2 was forecast to account for 10% of Embraer's airliner deliveries in 2018 ahead of a planned rise in 2019. Embraer thought Airbus would not be able to lower the A220 supply chain costs enough to make it profitable and viewed the A220 as a heavy, expensive and long-range aircraft. Embraer hoped the E2's operational capabilities would win a majority of the market share as commitments were hoped to follow certification and entry into service. Embraer delivered 101 airliners in 2017, down from 162 in 2008, but targeted delivering 14 E2 monthly or even 16 or 18. Throughout 2022, Embraer worked to ramp production at its Sao Jose dos Campos facility, hiring Toyota to help improve efficiency on the E-Jet line using lessons from the Toyota Production System. During the fourth quarter of that year, deliveries surged to 80 aircraft, pushing Embraer's full-year deliveries to 159, up from 141 delivered in 2021. === Introduction === After type certification, the first E190-E2 was delivered to launch operator Widerøe in April 2018, configured with 114-seat in single-class, followed by deliveries for Air Astana and Chinese GX Airlines. Before the aircraft were delivered, Embraer announced that some of the initial E-Jet E2s will need to be retrofitted due to the shorter life of the combustor in their Pratt & Whitney PW1900G engines. A business class is developed with a 2+2 staggered seat layout offering a seat pitch of up to 137 cm (54 in), available from mid-2019. Embraer targets a 99% dispatch reliability after 12 months and 99.5% after four years while the E1 took 10 years to achieve its targeted reliability. On 4 April 2018, Widerøe took delivery of its first E190-E2 in Sao Jose dos Campos. It was introduced between Bergen and Tromsø, Norway on 24 April 2018. By June 2018, the first three E190-E2s delivered to Wideroe accumulated 413 flight hours and 332 cycles, an average of 6.57 cycles per day and an average stage length of 1.28 hours, with a 99.35% dispatch reliability and a 97.74% schedule reliability. Widerøe had a dispatch reliability of 98.5% after its first year of operation. The E2 series have received ETOPS 120 approval from Brazilian, American and European regulators as of March 2024. === Boeing–Embraer joint venture === In December 2017, Boeing and Embraer were discussing a potential combination. On 5 July 2018, Boeing and Embraer announced a Memorandum of Understanding to establish a joint venture, in which Boeing would hold an 80% stake, to produce and service Embraer's commercial airliners, including the E-Jet E2. Aviation industry analysts noted that the deal would be good for both companies, as Boeing needed smaller aircraft, like the E-Jet and E-Jet E2 families, and Embraer needed the marketing power of a larger company as the E-Jet E2 family was selling slowly. On 26 February 2019, the partnership was approved by Embraer's shareholders, and the new joint venture was waiting for regulatory approval. On 24 April 2020, Boeing terminated the deal, stating that Embraer did not satisfy the conditions of the agreement. Embraer rejected Boeing's reasons, saying the company sought to avoid its commitments and said it would pursue "all remedies against Boeing for the damages incurred," which industry analysts believe may include damages for orders that were lost while customers were waiting for the deal to close. == Design == The E-Jet E2 family had been built on the first generation E-Jet, its wing is redesigned, and it introduces new pylons, landing gear, horizontal stabilizers, cabin, cabin air system, air cycle machine, bleed air system, and a new fly-by-wire system. The E2 is exclusively powered by the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G Geared Turbofan engine; in comparison to traditional powerplants, the PW1000G offers double-digit improvements in fuel burn, pollutant and noise emissions, and operating costs via its lower fan pressure ratios and greater bypass ratios, achieved via the uncoupling of the fan from the low-pressure compressor and the low-pressure turbine. In addition to the main engines, the auxiliary power unit is also supplied by Pratt & Whitney. The raised, 11:1 aspect ratio gull-wing partially accommodate the 2.01 m (79 in) diameter geared turbofan engine, larger than the CF34 engine by 66 cm (26 in) while the trailing arm landing gear is taller for 23–25 cm (9.1–9.8 in) higher door sills, giving a 5 cm (2.0 in) lower nacelles than the E1. The wing remains broadly similar to that of the E1, the main difference being the use of single-slotted flaps instead of the more complex and drag-generating double-slotted arrangement while the engine pylon is also shorter. The adoption of a composite wing was considered but found to be not yet economically justifiable. The wing structure was lightened by 200 kg (440 lb) due to the fly-by-wire ailerons, also used when braking, avoiding larger wheels and brakes. The horizontal stabilizer was reduced from 26 m2 (280 sq ft) on the E190 and E195 to 23 m2 (250 sq ft) on the E2 jets. Embraer targeted 16 to 24% lower fuel burn and 15–25% lower maintenance cost per seat. In the E190-E2, of the 17.3% better fuel burn, 11% comes from the geared turbofan, 4.8% from the improved aerodynamics of the new high aspect ratio wing and 1.5% from the fly-by-wire's 15% smaller tail surfaces. Over a 600 nmi (1,100 km) trip and with a US$72 fuel barrel, Embraer estimates a 97-seat E190-E2 trip cost is 7% lower for a 1% higher seat cost than a 106-seat A220-100, a 120-seat E195-E2 has a 2% higher trip cost but a 10% lower seat cost and 10% lower trip cost and 3% lower seat cost than a 129-seat A220-300; and while a 97-seat E190 had an 18% higher seat cost than a 150-seat A320 and a 23% lower trip cost, an E190-E2 has a 30% lower trip cost for an 8% higher seat cost than a 150-seat A320neo, while an E195-E2 has the same seat cost but 20% lower trip cost. In October 2018, Embraer raised its E190/E195-E2 seat or trip costs claim to roughly 10% better than the A220. The cabin of the E2 was designed around customer requirements that called for greater robustness, flexible reconfiguration, and improved maintainability. The lighting is entirely by LEDs; they can be controlled via the integrated cabin management system along with other functions such as cabin temperature control, water and waste system monitoring, moving map, flight attendant calls, cabin systems power, and audio digital playback amongst others. The interior features modular provisions that enable the future installation of new equipment and whole systems relatively easily and quickly either while in the original production process or mid-life retrofitting. Many interior elements of the cabin, such as panels, bins, galley elements, and lavatories, are provided by EZ Air, a joint venture between Zodiac Aerospace and Embraer. In comparison with the E1 family, the cabin side walls were replaced with slimmer counterparts to gain 2.5 cm (1 in) on each side while new overhead bins are 7.6 cm (3 in) deeper. Baggage bins have been enlarged by 40%. The E2 features a closed loop fly-by-wire flight control system which reduces weight, increases fuel efficiency, enhances control and increases safety by full envelope protection in all flight phases compared to the first E-Jet. The fuel savings of the now closed loop fly-by-wire control come from the enhanced flight stability and the resulting increased lift (lower tail downward force) and weight savings and drag reductions related to the 26% reduction in the horizontal tail (tailplane) size. The Primary Flight Control System is supplied by Moog Inc. The Honeywell Primus Epic 2 avionics suite is used across the family, which aids in maintaining commonality with the E1. The cockpit is equipped with landscape displays and advanced graphics capabilities via this suite. Basic maintenance inspections occur every 1,000 flight hours, up from 850 on the E1, while the intermediate check interval grew to 10,000 flight hours from 8,500. The heavy-check downtime was reduced by 15% from the E1, no out-of-phase tasks are required, and control and corrosion prevention is required every eight years with 82 tasks down from 240. == Operational history == On 3 December 2018, Air Astana received its first E190-E2 of an order of five, to replace nine E190LR used on domestic and regional routes since 2011. On 31 October 2019, Helvetic Airways became the fourth airline to take delivery of an E2 aircraft and the third (after Widerøe and Air Astana) to receive an E190-E2 aircraft, configured in a single-class layout with 110 seats. On 1 November 2019, Helvetic Airways made their first revenue flight with the E190-E2. The inaugural flight, LX850, was a 336 nmi (623 km), 95-minute leg from Zürich to Bremen. On 21 November 2019, Binter Canarias became the fifth airline to take delivery of an E2 aircraft and the second (after Azul Brazilian Airlines) to receive an E195-E2 aircraft, configured in a single-class layout with 132 seats. On 13 December 2019, Binter Canarias made their first revenue flight with the E195-E2, which was to depart from Gran Canaria at 11:35 and to arrive at Sal at 14:00. On 30 December 2019, Air Kiribati received its first E190-E2 of an order of two, becoming the fourth airline to take delivery of an E190-E2 aircraft. The airliner, configured in a two-class layout with 92 seats (12 business and 80 economy class), is to serve destinations throughout the vast expanse of Kiribati, including nonstop from Tarawa to Kiritimati (Christmas) Island (the current domestic flight from Tarawa to Kiritimati requires an international stopover in Fiji). == Variants == === E175-E2 === The E175-E2 (ERJ 190-500) model is the smallest in the E-Jet Second Generation family. The E175-E2 will be extended by 60 cm (24 in) from the E175, allowing for the addition of one seat row and a capacity up to 90 passengers. In 2013, the aircraft was expected to cost US$46.8 million. While the first-generation E175 proved popular with regional airlines in the United States, the weight of the E175-E2 has prevented sales to these customers. Scope clause agreements between mainline carriers and their pilots unions prevent these airlines from contracting with regional airlines to operate aircraft with maximum takeoff weight exceeding 39,000 kg (86,000 lb). The E175-E2 exceeds this limit by 5,400 kg (12,000 lb), due to its heavier geared turbofan engines. The E175-E2 prototype first flew on 12 December 2019 from São José dos Campos and flew for 2 hours and 18 minutes, starting a test and certification campaign that was expected to take 24 months and involve two additional aircraft. At that time, Embraer said it believed there would be strong demand for the jet from outside North America, but as of 2023 the company has received no orders for the variant. First delivery was initially scheduled for 2021. It has been repeatedly delayed and in February 2022, Embraer announced that it will be halting development of the E175-E2 for three years, with deliveries expected to begin between 2027 and 2028. === E190-E2 === The E190-E2 (ERJ 190-300 STD) keeps the original E190 36.24 m (119 ft) length and has a single overwing exit per side. Powered by the 98 kN (22,000 lbf) PW1900G which has a 190 cm (73 in) fan for a 12:1 bypass ratio. The aluminum wing span increased to 33.7 m (111 ft) for the highest wing aspect ratio of any airliner, just over 11, while the larger E195-E2 has a longer wingtip and the smaller E175-E2 has a downsized wing. It was moved forward to shift the center of gravity envelope aft to reduce the horizontal stabilizer downforce, lowering fuel burn by 1.5%. The trailing link main landing gear has wheel doors to reduce fuel consumption by 1% and is 51 cm (20 in) taller to provide enough engine ground clearance. The E2 have 75% new parts, closed-loop controls fly-by-wire instead of the open-loop type in the E1 gaining improved maintenance intervals. For E1-rated pilots, the transition to the new type need 2.5 days with no full flight simulator, having similar Honeywell Primus Epic 2 avionics. The E190-E2 (ERJ 190-300) has a 5 m (16 ft) wider wingspan but otherwise is close in size to the E190, with up to 114 seats in a single class configuration. The E190-E2 unit cost was US$53.6 million in 2013. Embraer had it certified on 28 February 2018. Certification needed 46,000 test hours on ground and 2,200 in flight. Due to better than expected fuel burn during tests, in January 2018 Embraer increased the range to 2,880 nmi (5,330 km), and Bombardier tried to implicate it in the CSeries dumping petition by Boeing as it could attain a 2,900 nmi (5,400 km) range. It entered service with Widerøe on 24 April 2018. In 2018, a newly delivered E190-E2 is worth $34 million, $3 million more than the E190, falling to $20 million in seven years, a 40% decline to be compared with 30% projected for an A320neo over the same timeframe. === E195-E2 === The E195-E2 (ERJ 190-400 STD) is extended by three seat rows from the E195 by 2.85 m (9.4 ft) in length, accommodates up to 150 seats. The E195-E2 is 5.26 m (17.3 ft) longer than the E190-E2 and has dual overwing exits per side. The variant has a unit cost of US$60.4 million in 2013. In February 2016, Embraer announced that it had decided to increase the E195-E2's wingspan by 1.4 m (4.6 ft) for greater lift, along with a MTOW increase of 2 t (4,400 lb) to extend its range by 450 nmi (830 km) at sea-level starts, and 250 nmi (460 km) in hot and high conditions. It competes with the Airbus A220-300, at a lower unit cost. As well, Embraer claims E195 trip costs are 22% lower than a 154-seat A320neo and 24% below a 160-seat 737-8 - but airlines install more seats, widening seat costs further apart than the 6% and 8% quoted by Embraer. The variant rolled out on 7 March 2017 and Azul was confirmed as its launch operator. It first flew on 29 March 2017, ahead of the previously scheduled second half of the year. Embraer showcased the prototype at the Paris Air Show in June 2017 and planned for it to enter service in the first half of 2019. By January 2019, the flight-test program preliminary results showed the E195-E2 could end up being a little above specifications at introduction. It was certified on 15 April 2019, with a fuel burn 1.4% less than originally specified for 25.4% less per seat than the E195. Binter Canarias was its European launch customer, taking delivery in late 2019. On 12 September 2019, Embraer delivered its first E195-E2 to Azul through lessor AerCap, configured with 136 seats in a single class. On 22 July 2022, an E195-E2 landed at London City Airport (LCY) for the first time. The variant received EASA certification in November 2023 making it the largest aircraft cleared to operate from the small airport. On 23 July 2024, during the Farnborough International Airshow, Embraer announced performance upgrades on the E195-E2. Fuel burn was improved by 2.5%, and the MTOW increased to 62,500kg. Both of these changes enabled a range increase from 2,600 nmi to 3,000 nmi. The E195-E2 can produce a "whale sound" during takeoff and landing. This occurs when the engine causes the combustion chamber to resonate at a certain frequency. This is a normal behavior, and Embraer has announced that they will redesign the combustion chamber to reduce this effect. == Operators == As of February 2025, there were 155 E2-Jet aircraft in commercial service with 17 known operators; the three largest operators are Porter Airlines (44), Azul Brazilian Airlines (32), and KLM Cityhopper (22). === List of operators === Source: === Model summary === Source: Embraer's order book as of 25 February 2025. === Deliveries by year === Source: Embraer.com as of 25 February 2025 === Orders and deliveries === The Embraer E-Jet E2 program was officially launched during the 50th International Paris Air Show held in June 2013, with SkyWest Airlines, a North American regional airline, and International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC), a leasing company placing the first firm orders for the aircraft. SkyWest was intended as the launch customer of the Embraer E175-E2, with the airline placing a firm order for 100 aircraft, with purchase rights for another 100, an order valued at US$9.36 billion at list price, although airlines routinely receive deep discounts from the list price of planes. The order was canceled in Q3 of 2018 due to the airplane being too heavy to operate under scope clauses. ILFC is the launch customer for the Embraer E190-E2 and E195-E2, with the leasing company placing a firm order for 25 E190-E2 aircraft and 25 E195-E2 aircraft, with purchase rights for another 25 of each type in 2013. ILFC was purchased by AerCap in May 2014. Overall, sales for the E-Jet E2 program have been slow. Analysts attribute sluggish orders to the weight of the E175-E2 and the positioning of the E190-E2 “in-between” other models, and Pratt & Whitney's issues with the engine. Embraer has said that it needs to sell 700 aircraft to meet its goals for the program. == Specifications == == See also == Related development Embraer E-Jet family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A220 Mitsubishi SpaceJet Sukhoi Superjet 100/130 == References == == External links == Official E-Jet E2 page "An Ingenious Plane Design That Makes Room for Your Carry-Ons". Wired. 29 July 2014. "E-Jets E2 Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 11 May 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia	The Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia is a twin-turboprop 30-passenger commuter airliner designed and manufactured by the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer. The EMB 120 began development during 1974. While initially conceived as a modular series of aircraft, the Family 12X and referred to as the Araguaia, intending to achieve a high level of commonality with the EMB 121 Xingu, the aircraft was redesigned and relaunched with the Brasilia name scheme during 1979. The redesign, which drew on operator feedback, reduced the seating capacity somewhat while removing commonality with the EMB 121. Its size, speed, and ceiling enabled faster and more direct services to be flown in comparison to similar aircraft. The EMB 120 features a circular cross-section fuselage, low-mounted straight wings and has a T-tail. On 27 July 1983, the prototype performed its maiden flight. During October 1985, the first EMB 120 entered service with Atlantic Southeast Airlines; it quickly entered service with numerous regional airlines, particularly those in the lucrative US market. While the majority of sales were made to civilian operators, a few military customers were also garnered for the type; a specialised VIP transport version, the VC-97, was operated by the Brazilian Air Force. Numerous models were developed to fulfil differing roles and requirements; these included the flexible EMB120 Convertible and the extended range EMB120ER. During 2001, production of the EMB 120 was terminated; it was the last turboprop-powered airliner to be produced by Embraer. == Design and development == === Background === Following on from the success of the EMB 110 Bandeirante, Embraer commenced work on developing their first transport category airliner in 1974. At one point, this cumulated in the Family 12X, which comprised three models with modular design concept: EMB 120 Araguaia, EMB 123 Tapajós and EMB 121 Xingu. The original concept for the EMB 120 would have been a relatively straightforward stretch of the EMB 121, facilitating a high degree of commonality between the two types. However, the EMB 121 would be the sole 12X model that was actually produced in its original form; the EMB 120 would be redesigned during 1979, disposing of the Araguaia name at the same time. At the official launching of the project, held in 1979, the name Brasilia was first applied to the EMB 120. Reportedly, the concept had been heavily revised on the basis of suggestions that had been gathered from prospective operators attending Commuter Airline Association of America (CAAA) convention, and the renaming was to reflect the level of alteration to the EMB 120. Being a completely new aircraft, it was no longer related to the 12X family, and had effectively no parts in common with the EMB 121 Xingu. Furthermore, the capacity was revised downwards from 30 to 24 seats. It had originally been designed to be powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney Canada PW115 turboprop engine, which was capable of 1,500 shp, the aircraft was subsequently redesigned to make use of more powerful PW118 engines, which produced up to 1,892 shp. In terms of its basic configuration, the EMB 120 features a circular cross-section fuselage, low-mounted straight wings and has a T-tail. The fuselage is of semi-monocoque design, its skin being composed of an aluminium alloy. The wing structure comprises a single three-spar design that is linked to the frames of the lower side of the fuselage, while the nose cone, dorsal fin and leading edges of the wing and tailplane primarily comprise a Kevlar-reinforced glass fibre. The EMB 120 is equipped with retractable tricycle landing gear, which is actuated hydraulically. It is fitted with Goodrich-supplied wheels, oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers, a Hydro Aire anti-skid system, and either carbon or steel brakes. === Into flight === On 27 July 1983, the PW115-powered EMB 120 prototype performed its maiden flight. The type was able to rapidly attract interest from numerous regional airlines, particularly those based in the United States. Its size, speed, and ceiling enable faster and more direct services to be flown around the US and Europe in comparison to similar aircraft. During October 1985, the first aircraft entered service with Atlantic Southeast Airlines. Numerous models would be developed to suit different operational circumstances; the EMB120RT featured a reduced take off weight, while the EMB120 cargo freighter had an elevated payload capacity of 4,000 kg; the EMB120 Combi and EMB120 Convertible emphasised flexible operations. During 1993, the first deliveries of the EMB120ER, an extended range model, took place; it was thereafter adopted as the standard production model. Furthermore, hot-and-high versions of these models were commonly equipped with PW118A engines that retain their power ratings at a higher altitude. The EMB120ER Advanced incorporates a range of external and interior improvements in comparison to most other models. The EMB 120RT could be upgraded to the EMB 120 ER; older aircraft were retrofitted to this standard via a Service Bulletin. During 2001, production of the EMB 120 was terminated. As of 2021, Embraer has not manufactured a turboprop-powered successor, although company executives have occasionally hinted at there being interest in doing so at some point. == Operational history == The majority of the EMB 120s were sold in the United States and other countries across the Western Hemisphere. US airlines operating the type have included Great Lakes Airlines, which had six EMB 120s in its fleet, while Ameriflight was flying ten freighter-configured EMB 120s as late as 2022. The largest operator of the type in the United States was SkyWest Airlines, which operated more than 62 at one point in its history (c. 2006). SkyWest retired the fleet in early 2015. Several European airlines, such as Régional in France, Atlant-Soyuz Airlines in Russia, DAT in Belgium, and DLT in Germany, also purchased EMB 120s. The EMB 120 has also proven itself to be popular amongst African operators. One of the biggest operators in the region was the charter operator Sahara African Aviation, which had flown as many as nine EMB 120ERs. Into the 2020s, numerous airlines have opted to retain a handful of examples in their active fleet. It has been commonly contrasted against the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3, often being used as a more modern substitute for the aging classic and possessing roughly double the speed. Several military operators also procured the type, such as the Angolan Air Force, which received new-build aircraft during 2007. A specialised VIP transport version, the VC-97, was produced and procured by the Brazilian Air Force. == Variants == EMB 120 Basic production version. EMB 120ER Extended range and increased capacity version. All EMB 120ER S/Ns may be converted into the EMB 120FC or EMB 120QC models if desired. EMB 120FC Full cargo version. EMB 120QC Quick change cargo version. EMB 120RT Transport version. All EMB-120RT S/Ns may be converted into the model EMB-120ER. VC-97 VIP transport version for the Brazilian Air Force. == Operators == === Civil operators === As of July 2018, 105 Brasilias were in airline service: 45 in North/South America, 26 in Africa, 14 in Europe and 20 in Asia-Pacific, with major operators: As Salaam Air (2 passenger) Ameriflight (16 freighters) Swiftair Hellas (5 freighters) Freight Runners Express (9 passenger and freighters) Airnorth (7) InterCaribbean Airways (7) Skippers Aviation, Freedom Airlines Express (6) Berry Aviation (9)(freighters, on demand cargo) Budapest Aircraft Service (4) Allegiance Air (2) Sahara African Aviation (18) Flight West Airlines Australia (9) === Military operators === Brazil Brazilian Air Force - 20 transports Uruguay Uruguayan Air Force - 2 transports == Specifications (EMB 120) == Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988-89General characteristics Crew: 2 pilots and 1 flight attendant Capacity: 30-36 passengers Length: 20 m (65 ft 7 in) Wingspan: 19.78 m (64 ft 11 in) Height: 6.35 m (20 ft 10 in) Wing area: 39.4 m2 (424 sq ft) Airfoil: root: NACA 23018 mod.; tip: NACA 23012 Empty weight: 7,070 kg (15,587 lb) Max takeoff weight: 11,990 kg (26,433 lb) (ER) Maximum landing weight: 11,700 kg (25,794 lb) (ER) Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney Canada PW118, PW118A or PW118B turboprop engines, 1,340 kW (1,800 hp) each Powerplant: 1 × Garrett, GTCP36-150 or Sundstrand Turbomach T-62T-40C7E1 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Propellers: 4-bladed Hamilton Standard 14RF19 constant-speed, fully-feathering Performance Maximum speed: 608 km/h (378 mph, 328 kn) at 6,100 m (20,013 ft) Cruise speed: 552 km/h (343 mph, 298 kn) Stall speed: 162 km/h (101 mph, 87 kn) (flaps down) (CAS) Never exceed speed: 503 km/h (313 mph, 272 kn) Range: 1,750 km (1,090 mi, 940 nmi) (30 passengers, reserves for 185 km (115 mi; 100 nmi) divert and 45 minute hold) Service ceiling: 9,754 m (32,001 ft) Take-off run: 1,420 m (4,659 ft) Avionics Collins analog Flight Instrument System or Collins five-screen Electronic Flight Instrument System or Bendix five-screen Electronic Flight Instrument System Dual autopilots == Accidents and incidents == On 19 September 1986, an Atlantic Southeast Airlines EMB 120RT (N219AS) struck a mountain near Mantiqueira, Brazil while being delivered to Atlantic Southeast, killing all five on board. On 21 December 1987, an Air Littoral Flight 1919 crashed into trees during approach to the wrong runway at Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport (South-West of France). All 16 occupants died. On 8 July 1988, Brazilian Air Force EMB 120RT Brasília FAB-2001 crashed during an engine-out landing at São José dos Campos. Five of the nine occupants died. On 9 April 1990, Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2254, was involded in a mid-air collision with Cessna 172, operating by Civil Air Patrol, over Gadsden. All 7 people on board EMB 120 survived, but all 2 people on board Cessna died. On 5 April 1991, Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2311, operating for Delta Connection, crashed on approach to Glynco Jetport in Brunswick, Georgia. The crash claimed the lives of all twenty-three people on board, including former U.S. Senator John Tower of Texas and astronaut Sonny Carter. This was due to propeller control failure which led to incorrect propeller blade angles. On 11 September 1991, Continental Express Flight 2574 broke up in flight and crashed at Eagle Lake, Texas, killing all 14 passengers and crew members onboard. The NTSB determined that missing screws on the horizontal stabilizer led to part of it detaching from the aircraft. On 21 August 1995, one of the blades on Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 529's number-one propeller sheared off, partly tearing the left engine from its mount and increasing drag on the left side. It crashed in a field near Carrollton, Georgia. Of the twenty-nine people on board, ten of them died (one casualty was from a heart attack nearly eight weeks after the accident). On 9 January 1997, Comair Flight 3272 crashed in Monroe, Michigan. All of the 29 passengers and crew died. The probable cause was in-flight icing. On 21 May 1997, SkyWest Airlines Flight 724, an EMB 120 (N198SW), experienced a total loss of engine power to the right engine and associated engine fire, followed by a total loss of all airplane hydraulic systems, after takeoff from San Diego International-Lindbergh Field, San Diego, California. The airplane sustained substantial damage. The two pilots, one flight attendant, and 14 passengers were not injured. The flight was destined for Los Angeles, California. It diverted to NAS Miramar, San Diego, where it landed at 14:27 hrs. On 21 October 1998, a Capital Táxi Aéreo EMB 120RT Brasilia registration PT-WKH crashed due to pilot error during final approach to Pinto Martins International Airport. The two-man crew and one passenger on board were killed, along with one person on the ground. Seven more people were injured. On 30 August 2002, Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4823 operated by an EMB 120ER Brasília (registration PT-WRQ), en route from Cruzeiro do Sul and Tarauacá to Rio Branco crashed on approach to Rio Branco during a rainstorm, 1,5 km short of the runway. Of the 31 passengers and crew aboard, 23 died. On 14 May 2004, Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4815 operated by an EMB 120ER Brasília (registration PT-WRO), en route from São Paulo de Olivença and Tefé to Manaus, crashed in the forest about 18 nmi (33 km; 21 mi) from Manaus. All 33 passengers and crew died in the deadliest accident involving the EMB 120. On 26 May 2007, Skywest Airlines Flight 5741 near collided with Republic Airways Flight 4912, a Embraer E-170, at the intersection of runway 01L and 28R at San Francisco International Airport. All 27 people on board both aircraft survived. On 22 March 2010, an Airnorth EMB 120 (VH-ANB) took off approximately 10.10am (ACST) from Darwin International Airport on a routine simulated engine-failure training exercise known as a V1 cut when it apparently banked sharply to the left and crashed into the nearby bushland at RAAF Base Darwin. The two pilots on board were killed instantly. On 14 September 2011, Angolan Air Force EMB 120ER T-500 crashed while attempting to take off from Huambo Airport, killing 17 of 23 people on board. On 12 October 2011, a Nationale Regionale Transport EMB 120, registered as ZS-PYO, performing a charter flight from Libreville to Port Gentil (Gabon) overran runway 21 and came to a stop with the nose gear intact, both main gear struts bent backwards causing the engines to "pitch down" together with the wings. A few passengers sustained minor injuries, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and was written off. On 27 November 2012, an Inter Îles Air EMB 120ER Brasilia (registration number D6-HUA) was underway from Moroni to Anjouan (both in Comoros Islands) on a charter flight with 25 passengers and 4 crew, when after taking off from Moroni's Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport it lost height, and while attempting to return to the airport, waterlanded 200 m (660 ft) off the coast, about 5 km north of the airport. Local fishermen rescued everybody on board. There were only minor injuries, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and was written off. On 3 October 2013, Associated Aviation Flight 361, an EMB 120RT (5N-BJY), was involved in a crash on takeoff from Lagos Airport bound for Akure. The aircraft was on a charter flight taking the body of the former Governor of Ondo State, Dr. Olusegun Agagu, for burial. There were at least 16 reported fatalities amongst passengers travelling in the burial party. Two people who survived the crash died later in hospital. On 12 October 2017, an Air Guicango EMB-120 (D2-FDO) crashed en route from Dundo to Luanda (both in Angola). Crew declared engine failure and fire prior to losing radio contact. The wreckage was located the following day with no survivors. On 4 May 2020, an African Express Airways EMB 120 (5Y-AXO), operating a flight to Baidoa from Mogadishu, was reportedly shot down by a rocket in Somalia. This aircraft was carrying medical aids to fight COVID-19. A total of six people on board died after crash landing near Bardale. On 11 July 2023, a Halla Airlines EMB-120 (6O-AAD), operating a domestic flight from Garowe to Mogadishu, crashed into a fence at Aden Adde International Airport, while attempting to land on runway 05, after suffering a left landing gear collapse and veering off the runway. All 34 people onboard survived. Preliminary data indicated that the pilots lost control of the aircraft after landing due to strong tailwinds and wind shear which caused the left gear to collapse. == Preserved aircraft == PT-ZBA 120001 - Brasília's first prototype, preserved at the Brazilian Airspace Memorial at the entrance of São José dos Campos airport and Embraer plant. == See also == Related development Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante Embraer EMB 121 Xingu Embraer/FMA CBA 123 Vector Embraer ERJ family PT-ZBA Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Saab 340 De Havilland Canada Dash 8 100/200 Dornier 328 British Aerospace Jetstream 41 == References == == Sources == Taylor, John W. R., ed. (1988). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1988–89. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5. Thisdell, Dan; Morris, Rob (21 August – 3 September 2018). "World Airliner Census". Flight International. pp. 24–47. ISSN 0015-3710. Embraer, S.A., ed. (1987). EMB120 AFM (AFM-120/813 Revision 92 14/11/2019). AV. BRIGADEIRO FARIA LIMA, 2.170 – SÃO JOSÉ DOS CAMPOS - SÃO PAULO - BRASIL: Embraer S.A.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) Embraer, S.A., ed. (1985). EMB120 OM (OM-120BAS/625 Revision 48 20/12/2012). AV. BRIGADEIRO FARIA LIMA, 2.170 – SÃO JOSÉ DOS CAMPOS - SÃO PAULO - BRASIL: Embraer S.A.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) == External links == "Airport Planning Manual" (PDF). Embraer. 30 October 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante	The Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (English: pioneer) is a Brazilian twin-turboprop light transport aircraft designed by Embraer for military and civil use. The EMB 110 was designed by the French engineer Max Holste; it had been designed in line with specifications issued by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965. The goal was to create a general purpose aircraft, suitable for both civilian and military roles with a low operational cost and high reliability. On 26 October 1968, the YV-95 prototype performed its maiden flight; an additional two EMB 110 development aircraft would follow along with an initial order for 80 transport aircraft for the Brazilian Air Force in the following year. Type certification was received from the Brazilian aviation authorities in late 1972, permitting its entry to service in April 1973 with the Brazilian airline company Transbrasil. Various customers in both the military and civilian sectors opted to procure the EMB 110 during its 22-year production run. Over one hundred examples would serve with the Brazilian Air Force, who would modernise numerous examples during the twenty-first century to permit their continued operation. The EMB 110, being customisable to suit various roles and operator requirements, was adapted for various specialist roles, including aerial observation, maritime patrol, and search and rescue missions. During the 1970s, Embraer opted to design an enlarged derivative of the EMB 110, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; being faster, outfitted with a pressurized cabin, and able to accommodate up to 30 passengers, Embraer opted to concentrate its resources on the new aircraft. As a result, production of the EMB 110 was terminated in 1990. == Design and development == === Background === The origins of the EMB 110 Bandeirante can be traced back to the issuing of a directive by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965; this called for the production of a transport aircraft for both civilian and military operations that would be reliable and possess low operating costs. It was to be equipped with turboprop engines, a low-mounted wing, and have sufficient capacity to accommodate eight personnel; these stipulations had been drawn from a study of Brazilian commercial air traffic, and aimed to produce an aircraft that would be well suited to the existing airport infrastructure of the country at that time. The resulting specification that had been generated under the IPD-6504 programme would greatly shape the future aircraft. Early work on what would become the EMB 110 actually predates the establishment of its manufacturer, Embraer, which was founded in August 1969. The lead designer was the French engineer Max Holste. Construction of the prototype was supervised by the Brazilian aeronautical engineer Ozires Silva, who would also play a key role in founding and running of Embraer. The company was created to undertake the aircraft's commercialisation and serial production. On 26 October 1968, the first prototype, carrying the military designation YC-95, performed its maiden flight from São José dos Campos Airport. Piloted by José Mariotto Ferreira and accompanied by flight engineer Michel Cury, it landed after roughly 50 minutes. Prior to this point, a total of 110,000 project hours had been worked, producing 12,000 manufacturing drawings, supported by 22,000 hours of structural and aerodynamic calculations; an estimated 282,000 hours of aircraft manufacturing and tooling has also been expended. The prototype was officially presented before various civil and military officials along with members of the press at an event held four days later, during which its maiden flight was repeated. The positive performance of the prototype led to production of the aircraft, and thus the establishment of Embraer, being approved in mid-1969; the newly created company would assume responsibility for its production on 2 January 1970. === Redesign and quantity production === An additional pair of prototypes were constructed, which were designated EMB 100. On 19 October 1969, the second prototype performed its first flight, while the third prototype followed on 29 June 1970. While these prototypes yielded positive test results, it was recognised that market conditions had shifted to the point where an eight-seat aircraft appeared to be less viable than it had previously appeared; thus, it was decided to quickly redesign the EMB 100 into the EMB 110 Bandeirante, which featured several technological advances along with greater capacity. In May 1970, the programme was bolstered by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) deciding to issue Embraer with an initial order for 80 production aircraft. Near the end of 1972, the Bandeirante received its Brazilian airworthiness certificate. On 9 February 1973, the first delivery was made to FAB. In a typical configuration, the EMB 110 seated between 15 and 21 passengers, and was flown by a pair of pilots. Various configurations and customisations were possible in order to suit customers' diverse requirements and operating conditions. The EMB 110P1A/41 model, which was furnished with seats for 18 passengers, had a length of 15.1 metres (50 ft), a height of 4.92 metres (16.1 ft), and a wingspan of 15.33 metres (50.3 ft). It has a maximum cruising speed of 411 km/h (222 kn), while its more economical cruising speed was 341 km/h (184 kn), at which speed an effective range of 1,964 km (1,060 nmi) can be achieved even while retaining reserve fuels for another 45 minutes of flight. The EMB 110 has a service ceiling of 21,500 feet (6,600 m). During the 1970s, Embraer opted to build on the success of the EMB 110 by designing an enlarged derivative of the aircraft, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; beyond being large enough to accommodate up to 30 passengers, it was also faster and furnished with a pressurized cabin. All further development of the EMB 110 was halted by Embraer during the 1980s in order to concentrate its resources on the further development and production of the newer EMB 120 instead. == Operational history == Between 1968 and 1990, Embraer constructed a total of 494 aircraft in numerous configurations for a variety of roles. The passenger model first flew on 9 August 1972 and entered commercial service on 16 April 1973 with the now defunct Brazilian airline company Transbrasil. On 8 July 1985, the first aircraft to be operated by the Irish budget airline Ryanair in 1985 was 15-seat EMB 110; the airline continued to operate the type up until 1989. By October 2018, 50 years after its first flight and 498 deliveries, about 150 EMB 110s were still operating at airlines, air taxis, government entities, and air forces around the world. Production of the type came to an end in 1990, the EMB 110 having been superseded by the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, a derived successor. During February 1973, deliveries of the type commenced to the Brazilian Air Force. A pair of EMB 111A Patrulha maritime patrol aircraft were leased to the Argentine Navy during the Falklands War, acting as a stop-gap measure between the retirement of the service's last Lockheed SP-2H Neptune and the introduction of modified Lockheed L-188 Electras. On 15 December 2010, the Brazilian Air Force flew its first upgraded EMB 110, which had been equipped with modern avionics equipment. Designated as C/P-95, the aircraft has had several new systems installed by Israeli firm Elbit Systems' Brazilian subsidiary, Aeroeletronica. At the time, the Brazilian Air Force had an active fleet of 96 EMB 110s. In 2017, the Brazilian Air Force was reportedly operating 48 EMB 110s. == Variants == YC-95 or EMB 100 – Prototype, powered by two 550 shp (410 kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-20 turboprop engines. Three built. EMB 110 Initial production version, powered by 680 shp (510 kW) PT6A-27 engines – Twelve seat military transport for the Brazilian Air Force, who designate it the C-95. 60 built. EMB 110A – Radio calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force (EC-95). Three built. EC-95B – Calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force. EMB 110B – Aerial survey, aerial photography version. Seven built, six as R-95 for the Brazilian Air Force. EMB 110C – The first commercial model, similar to C-95, a 15-seat passenger version. EMB 110C(N) – Three navalised EMB 110Cs sold to the Chilean Navy. EMB 110E Executive version of EMB 110C. Six to eight seats. EMB 110E(J) Modified version of EMB 110E. EMB 110K Stretched version with 0.85 m (2 ft 9 in) fuselage plug and 750 shp (560 kW) PT6A-34 engines and fitted with ventral fin. EMB 110K1 – Cargo transport version for the Brazilian Air Force, with cargo door in rear fuselage. 20 built, designated C-95A. EMB 110P Dedicated commuter version of EMB 110C for Brazilian airlines, powered by PT6A-27 or -34 engines. EMB 110P1 – Quick change civil cargo/passenger transport version based on EMB 110K1, with same rear cargo door. EMB 110P2 – Dedicated civil passenger version of EMB 110P1, without cargo door. EMB 111A Patrulha – Maritime patrol version for the Brazilian Air Force. The aircraft also has the Brazilian Air Force designation P-95 Bandeirulha. P-95B – Improved EMB 111, with more advanced avionics and strengthened structure. Ten built for Brazilian Air Force. EMB 111AN – Six maritime patrol aircraft sold to the Chilean Navy. C-95B – Quick change cargo/passenger version for the Brazilian Air Force. EMB 110P1 SAR – Search and rescue version. EMB 110P/A – 18 seat passenger version, intended for export. EMB 110P1/A – Mixed passenger/freight version with enlarged cargo door. EMB 110P1/41 – Cargo/passenger transport aircraft. EMB 110P1K/110K – Military version. C-95C – The Brazilian Air Force version of the EMB 110P2. EMB 110P2 EMB 110P2/A – Modifications for airline commuter role, seating up to 21 passengers. EMB 110P2/41 – 21-seat pressurised commuter airliner. EMB 110S1 – Geophysical survey version. SC-95 – Search and rescue version for the Brazilian Air Force. XC-95 – Rain research version for the Brazilian Air Force. C/P-95 – Updated version with modernised avionics. == Operators == In 2020, 39 Bandeirantes were still in airline service with 15 operators, 31 in North/South America, 1 in Africa and 7 in Asia Pacific & Middle East. The main operators are: 7: Wiggins Airways 5: Royal Air Freight 4: Transportes Aereos Guatemaltecos == Specifications (EMB 110P1A/41) == Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 18 passengers Length: 15.1 m (49 ft 6 in) Wingspan: 15.33 m (50 ft 4 in) Height: 4.92 m (16 ft 2 in) Wing area: 29.1 m2 (313 sq ft) Airfoil: root: NACA 23016 mod.; tip: NACA 23012 Empty weight: 3,590 kg (7,915 lb) empty equipped - passengers 3,393 kg (7,480 lb) empty equipped - cargo Max takeoff weight: 5,900 kg (13,007 lb) Fuel capacity: 1,308 kg (2,884 lb) / 1,720 L (450 US gal; 380 imp gal) in four integral wing tanks Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-34 turboprop engines, 559 kW (750 hp) each Propellers: 3-bladed Hartzell HC-B3TN-3C/T10178H-8R, 2.36 m (7 ft 9 in) diameter fully-feathering reversible-pitch constant-speed propellers Performance Cruise speed: 411 km/h (255 mph, 222 kn) maximum at 2,440 m (8,005 ft) Economical cruise speed: 341 km/h (212 mph; 184 kn) at 3,050 m (10,007 ft) Range: 1,964 km (1,220 mi, 1,060 nmi) econ. cruise + 45 min reserve Service ceiling: 6,550 m (21,490 ft) Rate of climb: 8.333 m/s (1,640.4 ft/min) 1.8833 m/s (6 ft/s) on single engine Take-off run: 807 m (2,648 ft) (FAR23.135 / SFAR 41A) Landing run: 868 m (2,848 ft) at MLW == Incidents and accidents == 27 February 1975: a VASP EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PP-SBE operating flight 640 from São Paulo-Congonhas to Bauru crashed after take-off from Congonhas. All 13 passengers and two crew members died. 22 January 1976: a Transbrasil Embraer EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PT-TBD operating flight 107 from Chapecó to Erechim, crashed upon take-off from Chapecó. Seven of the nine passengers and crew on board died. 23 April 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2169 crashed upon landing at Natal Air Force Base. 3 June 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2157 crashed after take-off from Natal Air Force Base. All 18 occupants died. 20 June 1977: a Transporte Aéreo Militar Uruguayo EMB110C Bandeirante registration CX-BJE/T584 flying from Montevideo to Salto crashed after striking trees in an orange grove during approach to Salto. The crew of two, as well as three of the 13 passengers died. 31 January 1978: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GKW crashed upon take-off from Eirunepé. The crew of two died but all 14 passengers survived. 8 February 1979: a TAM Airlines EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-SBB operating a flight from Bauru to São Paulo-Congonhas, while on initial climb from Bauru, struck trees and crashed into flames. All two crew and 16 passengers died. 24 February 1981: a VOTEC EMB110P Bandeirante registration PT-GLB flying from Tucuruí to Belém-Val de Cans collided with a ship in dry dock while approaching Belém in rain and high winds. The aircraft subsequently struck two barges and broke in two. The front part crashed onto a tug, and the tail section sank. Only 3 passengers of a total of 14 passengers and crew survived. 2 September 1981: a Taxi Aéreo El Venado Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante registration HK-2651 crashed after taking off from Juan José Rondón Airport in Paipa. The aircraft, overloaded, entered a stall, went down and caught fire, killing both pilots and 19 of the 20 passengers. 6 November 1982: an Air Ecosse EMB110PI Bandeirante registration G-OAIR flying from Prestwick to Aberdeen lost left engine and shortly thereafter right generator. The pilot and sole occupant made a landing in a field north east of Hatton, Scotland. Aircraft sustained substantial damage. 7 October 1983: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBH flying from Campo Grande and Urubupungá to Araçatuba struck the ground just short of the runway threshold after missing the approach at Araçatuba Airport twice. Seven crew and passengers died. 18 April 1984: two VOTEC EMB 110 Bandeirante registrations PT-GJZ and PT-GKL collided on air, while on approach to land at Imperatriz. PT-GJZ was flying from São Luís to Imperatriz and crashed on ground killing all its 18 passengers and crew. PT-GKL was flying from Belém-Val de Cans to Imperatriz and its pilot was able to make an emergency landing on Tocantins river. One passenger of its 17-passenger and crew died. 28 June 1984: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBC operating a chartered flight by Petrobras from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão to Macaé flew into São João Hill while descending through rain and clouds over the Municipality of São Pedro da Aldeia. All 16 passengers and 2 crew died. The passengers were journalists of well-known Brazilian networks who were preparing a special report about the Campos Basin oil fields. 19 November 1984: EuroAir EMB 110 Bandeirante G-HGGS crashed into the side of a hill 6.5 mi (10.5 km) south of Inverness Airport shortly after take-off. The pilot was killed in the crash and the aircraft damaged beyond repair. 6 December 1984: PBA Flight 1039, using an EMB 110 Bandeirante (registration N96PB) crashed shortly after taking off from Jacksonville International Airport in Jacksonville, Florida, United States. All 11 passengers and both pilots died. 23 June 1985: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GJN flying from Juara to Cuiabá, while on approach to land at Cuiabá, had technical problems on engine number 1. An emergency landing was attempted but the aircraft stalled and crashed 1 km short of the runway. All 17 occupants died. 9 October 1985: a Nordeste EMB110C Bandeirante registration PT-GKA operating a cargo flight from Vitória da Conquista to Salvador da Bahia crashed during initial climb from Vitória da Conquista after flying unusually low. The two crew members died. 6 February 1987: A Talair MB 110P2 registration P2-RDM ditched into the sea in poor weather short of Hoskins Airport en route from Rabaul on the Island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. Three of the 17 on board survived. 1 March 1988: Comair Flight 206, using an EMB 110, crashed in Johannesburg, killing all 17 occupants. One source suggests that this incident was caused by an explosive device, carried by a passenger employed as a mineworker who had recently taken out a substantial insurance policy. 24 May 1988: Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2366, an Embraer 110 departing Lawton–Fort Sill Regional Airport, Oklahoma, crashed during takeoff from runway 35 due to failure of no. 1 engine. After climbing to 50–100 feet the aircraft lost altitude, struck the ground, and part of the aircraft caught fire. It appeared that the compressor turbine blade of no. 1 engine had separated. No fatalities. 14 November 1988: Oy Wasawings Ab flight to Seinäjoki crashed during landing in Ilmajoki, Finland. Resulted in six deaths and six injuries. 20 September 1990: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-FAW belonging to the Government of Pernambuco, flying from Fernando de Noronha to Recife, crashed into the sea shortly after take-off. All 12 crew and passengers died. 8 October 1991: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante, registration N731A, being ferried from Springfield, Missouri, to Southend, England, descended due to icing conditions and struck an ice sheet at a height of 5125 feet near Narsarsuaq, Greenland. All three crew members survived and were rescued by a helicopter of the Danish Navy. 11 November 1991: a Nordeste EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-SCU operating flight 115 from Recife to Maceió, during on initial climb had an engine failure followed by fire. The aircraft crashed on populated area. All 13 occupants of the aircraft and 2 persons on the ground died. 3 February 1992: a Nordeste EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-TBB en route from Salvador da Bahia to Guanambi descended below minimum levels in bad weather and crashed on a hill hidden by clouds near Caetité. All 12 passengers and crew aboard died. 13 January 1993: A Titan Airways cargo flight crashed into a hill near Sellafield, en route from London Southend Airport to Glasgow International Airport. The flight used G-ZAPE, a 110P, and both pilots were killed in the crash. 26 October 1993: A Brazilian Air Force patrol P-95 (EMB 111 Bandeirante Patrulha) registration FAB-2290 that departed from Canoas Air Force Base crashed into the ocean near Angra dos Reis while flying in bad weather conditions. All crew of 3 died. 19 July 1994: Alas Chiricanas Flight 901 Panamanian domestic airline ALAS, registration HP-1202AC using an EMB 110P1, crashed after a bomb exploded in the cabin killing 21, twelve Jewish businessmen were among the passengers. 24 May 1995: G-OEAA, an EMB-110-P1 operated by UK domestic airline Knight Air Flight 816 between Leeds and Aberdeen entered a steeply descending spiral dive, broke up in flight and crashed into farmland at Dunkeswick Moor near Leeds. All 12 occupants were killed. The probable cause of the accident was the failure of one or both artificial horizon instruments. There was no standby artificial horizon installed (as there was no airworthiness requirement for one on this aircraft) and the accident report concluded that this left the crew without a single instrument available for assured attitude reference or simple means of determining which flight instruments had failed. The aircraft entered a spiral dive from which the pilot, who was likely to have become spatially disoriented, was unable to recover. 13 September 1996: a Helisul EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-WAV operating a cargo flight from Porto Alegre to Joinville collided with a hill and crashed during final approach to land at Joinville. The crew of two died. 17 November 1996: Brazilian Air Force, a P-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-7102 flying from Salvador da Bahia Air Force Base to Natal Air Force Base had an accident in the vicinity of Caruaru. Four Brazilian Air Force Bandeirantes were flying on formation from Salvador to Natal when the tail of FAB-7102 was struck by the propeller of another aircraft. It crashed after control of the aircraft was lost. All nine occupants died. 24 July 1999: an Air Fiji EMB 110 Bandeirante registration DQ-AFN on a domestic flight from Nausori to Nadi in the Fiji Islands crashed on a slope of a ridge. The aircraft had apparently descended below the 5,400 feet (1,600 m) safety altitude until the right wing struck a tree on a ridgeline at 1,300 feet (400 m) altitude. The Bandeirante then broke up and impacted the slope of a ridge 1.3 km (0.81 mi) further on. The tail section and right wing were found 150 m (490 ft) from the main wreckage. Weather at 05:00 was good: nil wind, 40 km (25 mi) visibility, scattered clouds at 2,200 feet (670 m) and an insignificant small shower band. Investigation revealed that the captain had insufficient rest prior to the flight and that he had consumed an above-therapeutic level of antihistamine prior to the flight, which would have degraded his ability to safely pilot the aircraft. Also Air Fiji's published standard operating procedures were inadequate for the Bandeirante aircraft. 26 December 2002: Brazilian Air Force, an EMB 110 Bandeirante registration FAB-2292 en route from São Paulo-Campo de Marte to Florianópolis Air Force Base, crashed while trying to carry out an emergency landing at Curitiba-Afonso Pena. Reportedly, both engines had quit. The airplane had taken off with insufficient fuel on board to complete the flight to Florianópolis. Three passengers and crew of the 16 aboard died. 8 November 2005: an EMB 110, operated by Wiggins Airways, registration N7801Q, flying a cargo route from Manchester-Boston Regional Airport to Bangor International Airport suffered an engine failure shortly after takeoff, causing the aircraft to bank and fall to the ground, landing inside of a Walmart garden center 1.4 km (0.87 mi) away from Runway 17/35. The pilot was the only occupant and survived the crash, and the aircraft was written off. 7 February 2009: an EMB 110, operated by Manaus Aerotáxi, registration PT-SEA, flying a domestic route in Brazil from Coari to Manaus (Amazonas) struggled in bad weather conditions and crashed 80 km (50 mi) from Manaus killing 24 passengers. 4 survivors were reported. 3 July 2013: An EMB 110, operated by Batair Cargo, registration ZS-NVB, en route from Lanseria Airport in Johannesburg for Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, crashed while attempting to land in Francistown, Botswana. The pilots had planned to land and refuel but thick mist on the ground caused them to miss the landing strip on their first pass. They called in to the control tower to notify that they would make a second pass because they could see the landing strip, but never did. The wreckage was found two hours later about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the airport. The plane crashed with no survivors. 17 November 2022: An EMB 110, registration C6-CAB, operated by LeAir Charter Services, flying from Cap-Haïtien International Airport, Haiti, to Lynden Pindling International Airport, Nassau, Bahamas, was substantially damaged when the nosewheel collapsed and it skidded off of the runway when landing at Nassau. During the landing approach, the crew observed problems with the landing gear. After performing a low pass so that the landing gear could be observed by the control tower, the flight circled for several minutes to burn off fuel before another approach to landing, during which the nosewheel collapsed. No injuries were reported. 16 September 2023: An Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante carrying 12 passengers and 2 crew from Eduardo Gomes International Airport veered off of the runway at Barcelos Airport. All 14 occupants were killed. The aircraft was registered as PT-SOG. == See also == Related development Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia Embraer EMB 121 Xingu Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Dornier 228 de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter FMA IA 50 Guaraní II Let L-410 Turbolet == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === Endres, Gunter and Gething, Mike. (2002). Aircraft Recognition Guide, (2nd Ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-713721-4. Lambert, Mark (ed.) Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1991–92. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1991. ISBN 0-7106-0965-5. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976–77. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1976. ISBN 0-354-00538-3. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1982–83. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1982. ISBN 0-7106-0748-2. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89. Couldon, UK:Jane's Defence Data, 1988. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5. "The Pioneers from São Paulo". Air International, April 1978, Vol. 14 No. 4. pp. 163–170, 193–194. == External links == EMB 110 information at Airliners.net
Embraer Legacy 450/500 and Praetor 500/600	The Embraer Legacy 450/500 and Praetor 500/600 are a family of mid-size and super mid-size business jets built by Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer. The aircraft family was launched with the Legacy 500 in April 2008 and were the first jets in the size category to feature a flat-floor stand-up cabin and fly-by-wire. The Legacy 500, with a range of 3,125 nautical miles [nmi] (5,790 km; 3,600 mi) and room for up to 12 passengers, first flew on November 27, 2012, and was certified on August 12, 2014. The shorter Legacy 450 first flew on December 28, 2013, was certified on August 11, 2015, has a range of 2,900 nmi (5,370 km; 3,340 mi), and can accommodate up to 9. The Praetor 500 and 600 are improvements of the Legacy 450 and 500, respectively, introduced in October 2018 offering more range. The Praetor 600 has a range of 4,018 nmi (7,440 km; 4,620 mi), while the Praetor 500 has a range of 3,340 nmi (6,190 km; 3,840 mi). == Development == At the August 2007 National Business Aviation Association convention, Embraer unveiled a cabin mock-up of two concepts positioned between the $7 million Phenom 300 and the $26 million Legacy 600, called midsize jet (MSJ) and mid-light jet (MLJ), positioned on 22% of the market in units. The proposed aircraft share their flat floor, and stand-up cabin but the MSJ should be 5 feet longer to accommodate 8 passengers over a 2,800 nmi (5,200 km; 3,200 mi) range against 2,200 nmi (4,100 km; 2,500 mi) for the smaller version. The program was introduced in April 2008, Embraer planned to invest US$750 million and to introduce the larger model in 2012 and the smaller in 2013. Honeywell HTF7500E turbofans were selected along a Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion avionics suite integrated cockpit and a Parker Hannifin fly-by-wire flight control system. At the May 2008 European Business Aviation Convention and Exhibition, the larger was named Legacy 500 priced at $18.4 million and the smaller Legacy 450, priced at $15.25 million. The variants have 95% systems commonality. An assembly line was officially opened in Melbourne, Florida on 2 June 2016, adding Embraer Legacy 450 and 500 production to the existing Phenom 100 and 300 line, along a completion center/flight-prep building. The first Legacy 450 on the line since May 16 should be delivered in mid-December. The facility will be able to assemble up to 96 Phenoms and 72 Legacys annually. The first Legacy 450 produced in Florida was delivered in December 2016; the fuselage is built in Botucatu in Brazil, and the wings in Évora, Portugal. The first Legacy 500 entered final assembly in January 2017 and was flown in July. Embraer will eventually move most of its Legacy 450/500 production in Florida but has not set up a schedule yet. === Praetor 500/600 === Embraer introduced improved variants at the October 2018 NBAA convention, the Praetor 500 and 600, presented on display, with 3,250 nmi (6,020 km; 3,740 mi) and 3,900 nmi (7,200 km; 4,500 mi) of range; the 600 was expected to be certified in the second quarter of 2019 and the 500 in the third quarter of 2019. Both have 22 by 50 in (56 by 127 cm) taller and wider winglets. The $17 million Praetor 500 boosts the fuel capacity of the Legacy 450 from 12,108 to 13,058 lb (5,492 to 5,923 kg) to match the Legacy 500. The $21 million Praetor 600 is based on the Legacy 500 with two tanks on the fuselage belly for 2,928 lb (1,328 kg) more fuel for a 15,986 lb (7,251 kg) capacity, and more powerful 7,528 lbf (33.49 kN) HTF7500E engines. Praetor 600 flight testing began on 31 March 2018 and 300h were logged with three aircraft by October 2018, while the Praetor 500 flight tests began on 13 September 2018 with 80h accumulated. The synthetic vision system has a flight guidance system for CAT I airports approach with SBAS, allowing decision height to be reduced from 200 to 150 ft (61 to 46 m). Within US SBAS zones, the synthetic vision guidance system (SVGS) allows autopilot-flown instrument approaches down to 150 ft (46 m) height and 1,300 ft (400 m) RVR without the optional Rockwell Collins EVS and HUD. Previous Legacy 450s can be upgraded to the Praetor 500 configuration for $500,000. For the higher thrust Praetor 600, Honeywell maintenance plans increases to $294 per engine per hour. Active load alleviation deflects both ailerons upward at 2.0 Gs to prevent overstressing the wing without adding structural weight. At FL410, ISA-7°C to -14°C and Mach 0.77 (442 kn; 818 km/h) cruise, the Praetor 600 burns 1,760 lb (800 kg) of fuel per hour at a weight of 40,500 lb (18,400 kg), increasing to 1,800 to 1,900 lb (820 to 860 kg) at Mach 0.794 (455 kn; 843 km/h) max cruise. The Praetor 600 was certified by the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil by April 2019. Its range with four passengers and NBAA IFR reserves reached 4,018 nmi (7,441 km; 4,624 mi) from a 4,436 ft (1,352 m) take-off, and 3,719 nmi (6,887 km; 4,280 mi) at Mach 0.80. European and US certification were secured by May. The first delivery, to a European customer, happened on 28 June 2019. The Praetor 500 received its Brazilian type certificate in August, achieving a 3,340 nautical miles (6,186 km) range, 466 kn (863 km/h) high-speed cruise, a takeoff within 4,222 ft (1,287 m) and a landing within 2,086 ft (636 m). This was followed by the EASA and FAA approval by the end of September. On 23 December, the first was delivered to fractional operator Flexjet, two months after signing for 64 jets, including Praetor 500/600s and light Phenom 300Es. In 2023, the equipped price of the Praetor 500 was $18.995M, and $21.995M for the 600. == Design == They are low wing, T-tail airplanes with cabin pressurization, powered by two rear mounted turbofans. The landing gear is fully retractable and designed to be operated on paved runways only. The glass cockpit includes four multi-function displays. The operation is made through a flight management system with autopilot, autothrottle and closed-loop control and monitoring of flight controls Fly-By-Wire. The aircraft are certified for Day, Night, VFR and IFR flights, and are approved for reduced vertical separation minima (RVSM) airspace and flight into known icing conditions, extended flight over water, Category II ILS, operations at high altitude airports up to 13800 ft and steep approach operations. Embraer offers an enhanced flight vision system constituted by the Rockwell Collins HGS-3500 Head-up display combined with the EVS-3000 Infrared camera, permitting a decision altitude necessitating visual references of 100 ft above touchdown at a projected price of $515,000. Federal Aviation Administration's draft AC 20-167A further proposes a descent below 100 ft if the required visual references can be observed using the EFVS, similar to Cat II and III approaches with limited instrument landing systems in many small airports. == Variants == === EMB-550 Legacy 500 === Embraer's timeline was delayed because software development for the fly-by-wire flight control system was running behind schedule. Supported by 800 engineers, the first Legacy 500 prototype (PT-ZEX) was rolled out on 23 December 2011 to begin ground testing and systems evaluation, prior to the aircraft’s first flight scheduled for the third quarter of 2012. The first engine run was completed on January 17, 2012. The aircraft's first flight occurred on 27 November 2012, with certification and initial deliveries expected in early 2014. The first flight test crew was composed of the program Test Pilot Eduardo Camelier, Chief Test Pilot Mozart Louzada, Flight Test Director Alexandre Figueiredo and Flight Test Engineer Gustavo Paixao. The maiden flight was from Embraer headquarters at São José dos Campos Airport and all prototypes were flown to the Gaviao Peixoto Airport test facility after their first flight. After 1,800 hours of flight tests and 20,000 hours of laboratory tests, its type certificate was received from National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil (ANAC) on August 12, 2014, exceeding design goals. First delivery occurred to a Brazilian company on October 11, 2014. It received its Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification on October 21, 2014. Delivery of the 50th Legacy 500 is expected in the third quarter of 2016. The Legacy 500 can be configured to carry up to 12 passengers, and can carry eight passengers over 2,948 nautical miles (5,460 km; 3,392 mi), or four passengers over 3,125 nautical miles (5,788 km; 3,596 mi). The aircraft fly-by-wire control enhances safety and comfort. Climbing to its FL 430 initial cruise altitude takes 22 min and its 27° wing sweep allow a 436 kn (807 km/h) TAS average long-range cruise, Mach 0.76 - 0.78, while a Mach 0.80 cruise lowers the range by 3%. The Legacy 500 competes with midsize jets like the $17.9 million Cessna Citation Sovereign+ and $23.4 million Cessna Citation X, but also with super-midsize $24 million Gulfstream G280 and $26 million Bombardier Challenger 350 and can be compared with the halted $21 million Learjet 85 program. === EMB-545 Legacy 450 === The Legacy 450 first flight occurred on December 28, 2013. It received its Brazilian certification on 11 August 2015, exceeding its design goals. It was certified by the FAA shortly after on 31 August 2015. Embraer announced on 22 December 2015 its first delivery to LMG, LLC, an American provider of video, audio, and lighting support headquartered in Orlando. Its fuselage is shortened by 4 feet (122 cm) and it has a flight life of 27,500 flight hours, its stall speed is 104 kn (193 km/h) and its minimum control speed is 142 kn (263 km/h). It competes with the $16.25 million Cessna Citation Latitude and the $17.9 million Cessna Citation Sovereign. In July 2016, its certified range was extended to 2,904 nmi (5,378 km; 3,342 mi), 329 nmi (609 km; 379 mi) more than previously, and it is designed to carry seven to nine passengers. == Operational history == Near 70% of the 50+ Legacy 500s are in the U.S., mostly owned by Fortune 1000 private firms or wealthy individuals. Toluca's Fly Across operates four Legacy 500s, as is Flexjet which plan to trade its five 450s to five 500s to become its largest operator. U.S. jet charter and management company Clay Lacy Aviation operates multiple Legacy-family business jets. The Legacy 500 average mission is less than two hours, and while fleet operators fly them more than 700 hours per year, single-aircraft operators typically fly theirs 150–200 hours per year. It burns 2,200–2,400 lb (1,000–1,090 kg) of fuel in the first hour, and then 1,700–1,800 lb (770–820 kg) at heavy weights down to 1,500–1,600 lb (680–730 kg) when lighter. Maintenance per flight hour cost US$642 to US$658 for the two Honeywell HTF7500E depending on utilization, while airframe costs US$321 plus US$4,300 per month for low-utilization. Dispatch reliability often exceeds 99% with most components mounted outside the pressure vessel for easy access if it breaks, except batteries and potable water servicing. The EMB-550 Legacy 500 is known as Embraer IU-50 in the Brazilian Air Force, and used as radar calibration aircraft. == Specifications == == See also == Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Cessna Citation Latitude Cessna Citation Sovereign Cessna Citation Longitude Gulfstream G280 Bombardier Challenger 300 Bombardier Challenger 600 series == References == == External links == "Legacy 500". Embraer. "Legacy 450". Embraer. Fred George (May 1, 2014). "Pilot Report: Legacy 500". Business & Commercial Aviation. Aviation Week Pilot Report: Legacy 500. youtube. Aviation Week. May 16, 2014. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. "Photos : Embraer Legacy 500". Flying. February 3, 2015. Flying the New Embraer Legacy 500 Business Jet. youtube. Aviation International News. Aug 5, 2015. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. "FLIGHT TEST: Legacy 450 wired for success". Flight Global. 13 November 2015.
Embraer R-99	The Embraer R-99 is the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) military designation of the EMB-145-RS. Various models of the aircraft have been produced to perform special mission duties, including the E99 for airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) missions, the R-99 for remote sensing, and the P-99 for maritime patrol. Development of the R-99 began during the 1990s in response to a FAB requirement for an airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) platform, as well for the export market. The airframe is based on the ERJ 145 civil regional jet and modified with specialised mission equipment based on the mission role desired. It is typically powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce AE1 3007 turbofan engines; the military versions provide 20% more thrust than the civil version. The maiden flight of the R-99 took place in 1999; it entered operational service with the FAB two years later. Export customers for the type include the Hellenic Air Force, Mexican Air Force, and the Indian Air Force. Some customers have opted to buy the airframe and separately outfit it with their own electronics packages. It has been deployed in response to various events, including the Shining Path hostage crisis, the loss of Air France Flight 447, the 2011 military intervention in Libya, and the SIVAM program. During the 2010s, the FAB opted to modernise their R-99 fleet, not only extending its service life but also giving it new capabilities, such as a longer effective radar range and datalink facilities. Embraer has proposed new variants of the type, such as the armed P-99 anti-submarine warfare (ASW), which is to be capable of using both torpedoes and anti-ship missiles. == Variants == The R-99A/E-99/EMB 145 AEW&C is an airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft, equipped with the Erieye active electronically scanned array radar from Saab Microwave Systems. During the aircraft's development, particular attention was paid to market interest as well the specific requirements of the Brazilian Air Force (FAB). The FAB have claimed that R-99 has 95% of the capability of larger AEW&C aircraft which are in service in the air forces of other nations. During 2008, the FAB redesignated the R-99A as the E-99, the factory name for the Embraer EMB-145SA (Surveillance Aircraft), a special military conversion of the passenger version of the Embraer ERJ-145LR. The R-99B/R-99/EMB 145 MULTI INTEL is a remote sensing aircraft. It employs a synthetic aperture radar, combination electro-optical and FLIR systems as well as a multi-spectral scanner. The aircraft also possesses signal intelligence and C3I capabilities. During 2008, the FAB redesignated the R-99B as the R-99, for the Embraer EMB-145RS (Remote Sensing), a special military conversion of the passenger version of the Embraer ERJ-145LR. The EMB 145 MP is the maritime patrol version of the EMB-145. It shares much of the same sensor suite as the R-99B, but most visibly, lacks the multi-spectral scanner and the side-looking radar. It retains many of the C3I and ELINT capabilities of the EMB-145-RS. Mexico was the launch customer for this variant. The P-99 would be the anti-submarine warfare (ASW) modification of the EMB 145 MP and would have four underwing hardpoints, which could be mounted with a variety of torpedoes and/or anti-ship missiles. No prototype with those modifications was ever flown. During June 2019, it was announced that Embraer had partnered with the Israeli defense electronics company Elta Systems to develop the P600 AEW, which will be initially based on the Embraer Praetor 600 super-midsize business jet. In December 2020, an Embraer spokesperson stated that the P600 AEW system is likely to eventually replace the E-99 AEW; however, the Brazilian Air Force has currently committed itself to the moderization of its existing E-99 fleet, thus it is likely that the E-99M will be in service for a long time, while there were no orders placed for the P600. == Operational history == During September 2003, a Brazilian R-99 was deployed on request of Peruvian authorities to locate the site where 71 hostages were being kept by the armed group Shining Path. The aircraft detected the origin of VHF signals, and thus aided the Peruvian authorities in the recovery of the hostages. On 1 June 2009, a R-99 was deployed on the search for the missing Air France Flight 447. The fact is reported as the first real mission of a Brazilian R-99 on maritime search. The R-99 synthetic-aperture radar allowed to locate — even at night and under bad weather conditions — aircraft's debris and victims bodies 800 km away from Fernando de Noronha Archipelago. Various pieces of debris from the lost Airbus A330-200, the largest being the empennage and a galley, were located by the R-99. During early 2011, a Greek EMB-145-H was deployed to perform AEW missions as part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya, specifically in the enforcement of a no-fly zone over Libya, in response to the Libyan Civil War. The Indian Air Force has procured an initial three aircraft, which have been outfitted in India with an AESA radar array developed by the Electronics and Radar Development Establishment along with a datalink, identification friend or foe (IFF), radar warning receiver (RWR), and other systems. The first aircraft was delivered from Brazil on 16 August 2012 while the second followed in December 2012. The Air Force has the option to purchase another seven aircraft. Following a long "technology absorption" process, Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) has been selected as the Engineering and Life Support Agency (ELSA) for India's DRDO's (Defence Research and Development Organisation) EMB-145i AEW&C mission systems, while Embraer will be responsible for supporting the aircraft. The platform is in service with No. 200 Squadron IAF, based at Bathinda AFS. In Brazilian service, the E-99 and R-99 are based in Anapolis AFB. Five E-99s and three R-99s are operated by the Brazilian Air Force as part of the SIVAM program. Starting in 2013, these E-99s have undergone a modernization program that involved the updating of all onboard electronics, including a new Erieye-ER (extended range) radar, the same used on GlobalEye Detection range increased from 450 km to 723 km in the E99M version. The range of targets that can be detected ranges from vessels and large aircraft to watercraft, rubber dinghies and vehicles, as well as hovering helicopters. The first E-99M ("M" stands for modernized) was handed over to Brazilian Air Force on 27 November 2020. During 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Hellenic EMB-145H's flew several daily combat missions, monitoring NATO allied airspace over Romania and Bulgaria while covering part of the Black Sea. == Operators == Brazil Brazilian Air Force – 5 E-99s (undergoing modernization to E-99M, first delivery of which expected in the first half of 2020), 3 R-99s. On 27 November 2020, the FAB received the first modernized E-99 in a ceremony held at the Embraer facility in Gavião Peixoto (São Paulo, Brazil) Greece Hellenic Air Force – 4 EMB-145-H (HAF designation is "Erieye EMB-145H AEW&C") Mexico Mexican Air Force – 1 EMB-145-SA (FAM designation EMB-145AEW&C), 2 EMB-145-MP India Indian Air Force – Platform Only - 3 EMB-145-I were fitted with an Indian-developed AESA radar array along with other apparatus. Operated as DRDO Netra AEW&CS. == Gallery == == See also == Related development Embraer ERJ 145 family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era DRDO AEW&CS Dassault Falcon 8X ARCHANGE Raytheon Sentinel Saab GlobalEye Gulfstream G550 CAEW Eitam KJ-200 == References == == External links == ERJ Family official site
Embraer Legacy 600	The Embraer Legacy 600 is a business jet derivative of the Embraer ERJ family of commercial jet aircraft. == Design and development == The Legacy 600 (market designation adopted after 2005) is based on the ERJ-135 model. It was launched in 2000 at the Farnborough Airshow as the "Legacy 2000". The Legacy carries 13 passengers in three partitioned sections for 3,050 nautical miles (5,650 km; 3,510 mi) or 8 passengers for 3,450 nautical miles (6,390 km; 3,970 mi). It features added range via extra fuel tanks in the tail behind the baggage compartment and forward of the wing, winglets, and an extensive drag reduction program. It is certified to 41,000 feet (12,000 m) altitude versus 37,000 feet (11,000 m) for the airline configuration. The Legacy Shuttle can seat 19 to 37 in airline-style seats but without the range. The first flight was made in June 2000, with the prototype of the ERJ-135 (PT-ZJA). This same aircraft was once the prototype of the first ERJ-145. New winglets and new wing-to-fuselage fairing was added, but no additional fuel tanks were available. The new fuselage fuel tanks were ready for the second prototype (PT-XJO), along with engine and avionics, that flew only in 31 March 2001. It was the second Embraer model to feature winglets, as the first were installed on the EMB-145SA military model. Embraer winglet models differed in shape and structure, due to their optimum design speed. The Legacy 600 competes on the upper end of the small to mid-sized range of business jets and is considered a "Heavy Jet" aircraft. It has nearly the opposite design progression as the rival Canadair Challenger. The Legacy 600 was derived from the established ERJ family of regional jets, while the Canadair Regional Jet was developed by Bombardier from the Challenger business jet. Both lines of aircraft are competitors. Embraer has since launched an extensive lineup of business aircraft, from the entry-level Phenom 100 to the Lineage 1000, a bizliner version of the company's 100-seat E190. With the updated Mark I cockpit of the EMB-145, the Legacy includes a Honeywell Primus Elite avionics suite glass cockpit. U.S. private aviation companies offering Legacy 600-family business jets for charter include Embraer Executive Jet Services, Clay Lacy Aviation, ExcelAire, Aircraft Services Group and Jet Edge International. == Legacy 650 == Announced at the 2009 NBAA show, the Legacy 650 is a longer-range version of the Legacy 600, giving it a range capability of 7,220 km (3,900 nmi; 4,490 mi) non-stop with four passengers, or carry 1,134 kg (2,500 lb) more than the Legacy 600 for a 6,290 km (3,400 nmi; 3,910 mi) trip. It features also a lowered alley, with increased headroom. It was certified by the FAA in February 2011. Embraer had a joint venture with Aviation Industry Corp. in China assembling Legacy 650a and ERJ-145s from 2004 to 2016. An enhanced version, the 650E, was announced at the 2016 NBAA and scheduled for introduction in 2017. It includes a synthetic vision system and autothrottle as standard, a restyled three-zone interior and comes with a 10-year or 10,000-flight-hour warranty. In August 2020 Embraer announced that it was stopping sales of the Legacy 650. == Accidents and incidents == On 29 September 2006, an ExcelAire Legacy 600 (aircraft registration N600XL) collided with Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907, a Boeing 737-800, while cruising over Mato Grosso, Brazil. The Boeing aircraft crashed, killing all 154 passengers and crew, while the Embraer Legacy 600, despite serious damage to the left horizontal stabilizer and left winglet, was able to continue flying and landed at Cachimbo Air Force Base. On 23 August 2023, a Legacy 600 belonging to the military Wagner Group crashed in a field near Kuzhenkino, Tver Oblast, Russia. According to Russian officials, all 10 persons aboard, three crew members and seven passengers, including Yevgeny Prigozhin and Dmitry Utkin, were killed. DNA tests subsequently confirmed human remains recovered from the crash site exactly matched the flight's passenger manifest. Prigozhin was additionally identified by a partially severed finger on his left hand. Embraer stated they had not serviced the aircraft since 2019 due to international sanctions against the Wagner Group. US intelligence reported that an intentional explosion caused the aircraft to crash. == Aircraft deliveries == == Specifications == == See also == Related development Embraer ERJ 145 family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Gulfstream G280 Bombardier Challenger 350 Bombardier Challenger 650 Bombardier Challenger 850 Dassault Falcon 2000 Related lists List of civil aircraft == References == == External links == Legacy 600 – Embraer Executive Jets Legacy 650 – Embraer Executive Jets
Embraer C-390 Millennium	The Embraer C-390 Millennium is a medium-size, twin-engine, jet-powered military transport aircraft designed and produced by the Brazilian aerospace manufacturer Embraer. It is the heaviest aircraft the company has constructed to date. Work on the project began at Embraer during the mid-2000s, with early efforts centred around a conceptual derivative of the E190 jetliner of a similar size to the Lockheed C-130 Hercules. The company was keen to use turbofan jet engines, instead of turboprops. Support for the venture was forthcoming from both the Brazilian government and the Brazilian Air Force. In May 2008, the government invested R$800 million (US$440M) in the project's development. In April 2009, Embraer was issued a $1.5 billion contract for two prototypes. The aircraft was initially designated C-390 before changing to KC-390 in early 2011. At the 2011 Paris Air Show, Embraer announced plans to launch a stretched version of the aircraft as a civilian freighter. Partnerships were promptly formed with various other aerospace companies on the programme, including FAdeA, ENAER, OGMA, and Boeing. A joint venture with Boeing was announced in November 2019, but quickly fell apart within six months. Major subcontractors in the aircraft's manufacturing include Aero Vodochody, BAE Systems, and Rockwell Collins. On 3 February 2015, the first of two prototypes performed its maiden flight. On 4 September 2019, the first production aircraft was delivered to the Brazilian Air Force. In November 2019, during the Dubai Airshow, Embraer announced the aircraft's new name for the global market, C-390 Millennium. Several export customers for the C-390 have been secured, including the Portuguese Air Force, Hungarian Air Force, the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Austrian Air Force, and the Swedish Air Force. The C-390 can be configured to perform various conventional operations such as troop, VIP and cargo transportation, and more specialised logistical operations such as aerial refuelling as a tanker. It can carry payloads of up to 26 t (57,000 lb), such as two fully-tracked M113 armored personnel carriers, one Boxer armoured vehicle, a Sikorsky H-60 helicopter, 74 litters with life-support equipment, up to 80 soldiers or 66 paratroopers with full gear, and loads of up to 42,000 lb (19 t) can be air dropped. Each aircraft costs around €80 million as of 2024. == Development == === Studies === In the early 2000s, the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer became interested in developing its own medium-sized transport aircraft. Its initial design study was based around a high-wing derivative of its existing E190 jetliner. Between 2005 and 2007, it investigated the pairing of the wing and GE CF34 engine of the mature Embraer 190 (E190) with a cabin that was modified to function as a cargo hold, complete with a rear ramp, closed-loop fly-by-wire system, and synthetic vision. By 2006, Embraer was studying a military tactical transport design of a similar size to the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, to be powered by 17,000–22,000 lbf (75.6–98 kN) jet engines, such as the Pratt & Whitney PW6000 and Rolls-Royce BR715. In April 2007, Embraer publicly stated that it was studying a medium-size airlifter. Referred to by the company designation C-390, this transport aircraft was said to incorporate many of the technological solutions present on the Embraer E-Jet series and feature a rear ramp for the loading and unloading of a wide range of cargo. In March 2008, the Brazilian government planned to invest about R$60 million (equivalent to US$33 million) in the aircraft's initial development. Simultaneously, the Brazilian Air Force was in the process of finalizing an initial purchase contract for between 22 and 30 aircraft, while Embraer was negotiating with possible partners on the programme. Two months later, the Brazilian Congress released R$800 million (US$440M) to be invested in the project and fund the aircraft's development. Around this time, the media claimed that the aircraft would be operated by the Brazilian Air Force and the Army and Navy, and that there were unconfirmed sales to other government agencies in the works. === Program launch === On 14 April 2009, Embraer was awarded with a $1.5 billion contract to develop and build two prototypes. At the programme launch, the design was all-new in terms of its fuselage, wing, flight deck, and engine selection. The E-190's wing were dispensed with, partly due to its limited surface area. It was also stated that the aircraft would be the operational successor to the Brazilian Air Force's C-130 fleet. According to Embraer, the selected jet engine is sufficiently resilient to dust ingestion, whereas propeller tips close to the ground are susceptible to damage. Embraer also chose the IAE V2500 engine for its efficiency under normal conditions, rather than prioritising its performance under unusual conditions, such as on the Antonov An-32. In March 2010, Embraer drew up a development schedule, upon which the first prototype aircraft was scheduled to be delivered in late 2014. In July 2010, at the Farnborough Airshow, the Brazilian Air Force announced its intent to order 28 C-390s, while Embraer announced an increase in the aircraft's cargo capacity to 21 t (46,000 lb). At the 2011 Paris Air Show, Embraer announced plans to launch a stretched version of the C-390 focused on the civil market for freighters sometime around 2018. It estimated that the company would receive 200–250 orders over a 10-year period. To increase internal capacity, two plugs will be added fore and aft of the centre fuselage section, which would also provide a new side cargo door. In April 2011, Embraer estimated that 695 military transport aircraft worldwide would need to be replaced in the following decade. === Partnerships === In August 2010, the defence ministers of Chile and Brazil signed an agreement for the Chilean aircraft company ENAER to join the C-390 industry team. That same month, Argentine Defence Minister Nilda Garré announced that Argentina through FAdeA, would participate in the construction programme. In September 2010, Colombia signed an agreement to participate in the C-390 programme. On 10 September 2010, the defense minister of Portugal signed an intentions letter to join the programme. In December 2011, Brazil and Portugal agreed to a defense partnership with Empresa de Engenharia Aeronáutica (EEA) for developing the engineering data for the KC-390's components, which will be manufactured by Embraer's Portuguese subsidiary OGMA. In April 2012, the American aerospace giant Boeing and Embraer signed a cooperation agreement. Two months later, an agreement was signed by the two companies to collaborate on the development of the C-390, and possibly extending to sales as well. In June 2013, Boeing agreed to market the C-390 in the US, UK, and Middle East, building on the June 2012 MoU. In November 2019, it was announced that Boeing and Embraer were to form a new joint venture company to promote and develop new markets for the C-390 Millennium. This new company, Boeing Embraer – Defense, was to have its ownership divided between a 51% stake held by Embraer and 49% by Boeing. It was to begin operations following the granting of regulatory approvals and the satisfaction of closing conditions. However, in April 2020, Boeing terminated the planned joint ventures with Embraer. Major subcontractors include Aero Vodochody for the rear fuselage section, BAE Systems for the fly-by-wire primary flight control system, ELEB for the landing gear, OGMA, involved in the design and manufacturing of the sponsons, including the central fuselage, and development of the landing gear, rear wing elevators, fuselage and part of the rudder with CEiiA, with Rockwell Collins for the avionics, cargo handling and aerial delivery system. International Aero Engines (IAE) supplies the V2500-E5 turbofans. Its use on the C-390 is its first military application. Fábrica Argentina de Aviones supplies the tail cone, cargo door and landing gear doors. On 25 April 2023, in a joint announcement by Brazilian President Lula and the Prime Minister of Portugal, Costa stated that the KC-390 could be built or assembled in Portugal OGMA for European customers along with the new A-29N. === Flight testing === It was decided to construct a pair of prototypes to participate in the test programme. On 21 October 2014, the first prototype (PT-ZNF) rolled out from the Embraer subsidiary plant, Embraer Defense and Security, at Gavião Peixoto, São Paulo. On 3 February 2015, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. In July 2015, the company announced a two-year delay in the flight test program, citing the devaluation of the Brazilian currency and government spending cuts. However, a second test flight took place at Gavião Peixoto on 26 October 2015. By February 2016, the first prototype had logged more than 100 hours of flight. Following the resumption of flight-testing, the manufacturer expected to certify the C-390 sometime in 2017 and begin deliveries in 2018. The eight months between test flights were used to conduct ground vibration tests to validate aeroelastic models, as well as avionics, mission, landing gear and electric and hydraulic flight control system testing. Embraer reported good availability for testing, sometimes conducting two flights per day. The aircraft was tested to the limits of speed, Mach number, and altitude, as well as all slats, flaps and landing gear positions. In March 2016, the second prototype (PT-ZNJ) was completed. It conducted its first flight in April 2016. By then, Richard Aboulafia's Teal Group estimated the C-390's price to be around $50–55 million, which was $15 million below that of the competing Hercules. On 17 October 2017, the first prototype (PT-ZNF) made an uncommanded descent from 20,000 ft to 3,100 ft at 4,500 ft/min. In December 2017, as the two prototypes accumulated over 1,500 flight hours and laboratory testing over 40,000 hours, initial operating capability was reached, while full operational capability was expected in 2018. On 5 May 2018, the first prototype (PT-ZNF) ran off the runway during a ground test in Gaviao Peixoto, Brazil. The first production C-390, which was the third aircraft to be built including the prototypes, made its first flight on 6 October 2018. On 23 October 2018, the C-390 was issued with Brazilian civil type certification. By this point, the aircraft has cumulatively attained 1,900 flight hours during testing, while the first production aircraft was set to be delivered to the Brazilian Air Force in the first half of 2019 and should obtain military certification by the end of 2019. The third aircraft (PT-ZNG), originally slated for the first delivery, was instead redirected towards the certification efforts. In February 2021, Embraer and the Brazilian Air Force dispatched a single KC-390 to the US to undergo testing under extreme cold conditions. === Full operational capability === In the first quarter of 2023, the Brazilian Air Force fleet of C-390 had accumulated more than 8,000 flight hours, having participated in aviation fairs and carried out missions on all continents including Antarctica, where C-390 from the Fat Squadron (1st/1st GT) performed two air resupply missions for the Brazilian Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station. At the end of March 2023, the aircraft received the Final Type Certificate, reaching full operational capability (FOC). == Design == The Embraer C-390 Millennium is a mid-sized utility transport aircraft. Its design permits flexible operations. Both the internal and external configuration of the aircraft can be rapidly interchanged to accommodate different mission roles due the modular design adopted since the aircraft concept for all missions systems. It incorporates modern technology and mission software to aid crews in carrying out operations. The cockpit has head-up displays for the enhanced vision system with four cameras and Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion commercial avionics. The C-390 can provide inflight refueling to other aircraft through two wing-mounted probe and drogue pods from Cobham plc. These can deliver fuel at up to 1,500 L (400 US gal) per minute from a 35 t (77,000 lb) total fuel capacity, between 120 and 300 kn (220 and 560 km/h) and from 2,000 to 32,000 ft (610 to 9,750 m). The aircraft is powered by a pair of IAE V2500-E5 turbofan engines, which are mounted forward on the high wing. This wing features an anhedral angle, slats, and High-lift devices able to deflect up to 40°. The landing gear is equipped with low-pressure tires, two 5.9 bar (85 psi) on the nose and four 7.2 bar (105 psi) on either side bogies, which facilitate the aircraft's use upon soft, unpaved ground, such as austere airstrips, or damaged runways. The C-390 has a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 which, according to Embraer, enables payloads to be transported faster than any other airplane in the medium airlift market. It can attain a controlled descend rate of 9,000 ft/min (2,700 m/min) at its 300 kn (560 km/h) maximum IAS through a combination of extended slats, idle thrust, and flight spoilers extended to 40°. When its flaps are fully deployed at 40 degrees, it has a stall speed of 104 kn (193 km/h) IAS. The aircraft is equipped with fully fly-by-wire flight controls combined with active sidesticks, which reduces the crew's workload over conventional counterparts and permits load factors up to 3g. An autothrottle system is installed. The navigation systems, which were largely supplied by Thales Group, include an Inertial Navigation System (INS), GPS, and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) transponder. It is fitted with SELEX Galileo's Gabbiano tactical radar, capable of GMTI, SAR, ISAR, SART modes amongst others. For self-defense purposes, an Elbit Systems-supplied directional infrared countermeasures suite is typically installed. An integrated onboard maintenance system actively monitors the health of the overall aircraft and various subsystems at all times. The hold of the C-390 has a length of 18.5 m (61 ft), width of 3.45 m (11.3 ft), and height of 2.95 m (9 ft 8 in), and is primarily accessed via a large rear ramp built into the tail. It can carry payloads of up to 26 t (57,000 lb). This allows for the carriage of either two fully-tracked M113 armored personnel carriers, one Boxer or Brazilian VBTP-MR Guarani wheeled armoured vehicle, a Sikorsky H-60 helicopter, 74 litters with life-support equipment, up to 80 soldiers or 66 paratroopers with full gear. Loads of up to 42,000 lb (19 t) can be air dropped. A cargo handling and aerial delivery system, produced by DRS Defense Solutions, is incorporated. Typical amenities present in the hold include a galley, an accessibility-friendly toilet, automatic temperature control, and noise/vibration mitigation measures. Embraer have stated that considerable attention was paid to passenger comfort. == Variants == C-390: standard model of the aircraft for transport, SAR and aerial firefighting operations KC-390: aerial refueling variant, developed for the Brazilian Air Force C-390 IVR: anti-submarine and maritime patrol variant announced in December 2024, under studies for a joint development between Embraer and the Brazilian Air Force to replace the aging Brazilian Lockheed P-3 Orion fleet == Operational history == === Brazil === In 2014, the Brazilian government ordered 28 C-390s. There was the stated intention of progressively replacing the Brazilian Air Force's existing cargo aircraft fleet with the type, including its C-130s. The first C-390 was delivered to the Brazilian Air Force on 4 September 2019. The fleet of C-390s will be operated from Anápolis Air Force Base by the 1st Troop Transportation Group (1º GTT) Zeus and in Rio de Janeiro by the 1st/1st GT Gordo. In the first 3.5 years of operation, the C-390 in the FAB totaled more than 8,200 flight hours with 6,000 flights, the technical availability was around 80% and the mission completion rate was 99.5%, according to Embraer data and the FAB. In January 2021, in the middle of the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Brazilian city of Manaus, located in the interior of the Amazon rainforest, was left with an overburdened medical service needing medical supplies and help with transferring patients. A major operation was set up by the Brazilian air force, mobilizing all its available transport aviation. The C-390 played a key role in this operation, carrying out an airlift mission connecting the city of Manaus to the rest of the country, taking hospital supplies and removing hundreds of patients from an overloaded Manaus. Following the 2020 Beirut explosion, a C-390 and an Embraer 190 VC-2 were sent with around six tons of medicines, food and health equipment to provide emergency care. It was the first international mission of the aircraft in FAB service. In February 2021, during Operational Exercise "Culminating", in Louisiana, United States, the KC-390 conducted joint flights with US Air Force C-17 and C-130 airlifters. The combined force launched 4,000 paratroopers in a single night jump. In 2021, after the Haiti earthquake, the C-390 was dispatched to Haiti with around eleven tons of medicine and specialized firefighting equipment for search and rescue in collapsed structures, search dogs and doctors. A single C-390 flew to Ushuaia carrying spare parts in support of a FAB C-130 that was on an Antarctic operation. In the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, a KC-390 and a VC-99B Legacy were sent with a mission to rescue Brazilian nationals and other countries. The mission also brought around 12 tons of humanitarian aid to Ukraine. The mission rescued national, Ukrainian, Argentine and Colombian citizens, all of whom were taken to Brazil. In February 2022, the Brazilian government and Embraer agreed to downsize the former's order for C-390s to 22, which was a reduction from the original order for 28 aircraft. This measure, which was taken as a financial austerity measure due to COVID-19, was less severe than early suggestions for as few as 15. At this point, four C-390s were in FAB service. As of June 2022, a C-390 from the Fat Squadron (1st/1st GT) of the FAB participated for the first time in the Brazilian Antarctic Campaign, dropping supply loads for the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station. The C-390 participated in 2022 in Operation Cooperation VII in Colombia, operating on runways of up to 2,100 meters, at altitudes simulating missions of humanitarian assistance and paratrooper launches. In 2023, aircraft participated in Operation Surucucu delivering supplies by air to the indigenous Yanomami peoples who live between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. In 2023, they also participated in the Salitre IV exercise, in Chile, where a KC-390 and six F-5s carried out 50 combat missions with the tanker aircraft performing the first combat refueling in an international mission. In December 2024, Embraer and the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) signed an agreement at Mostra BID, the National Defense and Security Fair in Brasilia, to deepen collaborative studies aimed at expanding the capabilities of the C-390 Millennium platform for Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions, with a focus on Maritime Patrol. === Portugal === Among its first missions in the Portuguese Air Force in October 2023, the C-390 transported military personnel and cargo to the Canary Islands, Spain, in support of the multinational Spanish-led exercise Ocean Sky 2023. It then progressed to the United States where it picked up one of the Black Hawk helicopters procured by Portugal. On its return flight, it crossed the Atlantic Ocean on a direct flight from Providence, Rhode Island to Ovar. == Marketing and potential orders == The C-390 has been marketed as a jet-powered alternative to the Lockheed C-130. In May 2023, the commander of the Brazilian Air Force, Brigadier Marcelo Kanitz Damasceno, pointed to Austria, the Czech Republic, Egypt, India, Rwanda, South Africa, South Korea, and Sweden as potential buyers for the KC-390. Angola: The National Air Force of Angola mentioned ordering four C-390s to replace its Antonov An-12 and other transport aircraft during a visit of the Brazilian president Lula in August 2023. Colombia: The Colombian Aerospace Force is in discussion for ordering up to 12 C-390s, as of August 2023. Egypt: Following collaboration agreements between Embraer and Egypt, there is a hope for a purchase of the C-390 for the Egyptian Air Force. Finland: In April 2025 it was announced by Embraer that the Finnish Air Force was interested in the C-390 to supplement existing Tactical Transport Aircraft. Greece: The Hellenic Air Force has a need to replace the C-130H. Potential successors are second hand C-130J, or C-390, with 6 aircraft being considered. It evaluated the C-390 in November 2023 as a potential replacement for the ageing C-130s in service. India: In September 2023, it was reported that India is interested in procuring up to 40 units. In February 2024, Embraer Defense & Security and Mahindra signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the objective of jointly fulfilling the acquisition of the C-390 aircraft by the Indian Air Force in its upcoming Medium Transport Aircraft (MTA) procurement project. Later they signed another with local giant Mahindra group to explore the potential to turn India into a future hub of the medium transport aircraft C-390 for the region. The MoU was signed at the Embassy of Brazil in New Delhi in February 2024. In September 2024, Embraer proposed to setup an assembly line in India for C-390 aircraft in partnership with Mahindra group. Rwanda: The Rwandan Air Force is cited as a potential client for two C-390s. Saudi Arabia: In November 2023, it was reported that Embraer and Saudi Arabia's SAMI have partnered to pitch the C-390 transport to the Saudi Arabian government, including the potential for local assembly and support. South Africa: The South African Air Force is in discussion for six C-390s as of September 2023. BAE Systems signed an agreement with Embraer to market the C-390 to Kuwait, Qatar, Oman and United Arab Emirates. Morocco has received one KC-390 Millennium for testing purposes, pending a potential acquisition agreement between Morocco and Brazil. In April 2024, Embraer and Brazilian postal company Correios signed a Memorandum of Understanding focusing on air cargo transport. The partnership includes a plan to evaluate the C-390 as a civilian cargo aircraft for Correios. == Operators == === Current operators === Brazil Brazilian Air Force – 19 C-390s ordered, with seven delivered. 1st Troop Transportation Group Zeus 1st Squadron of the 1st Transportation Group (1°/1°GT) Gordo Hungary Hungarian Air Force – two C-390s ordered in 2020, 1 delivered in September 2024. These aircraft will be flown by Airlift Squadron "Teve" at Kecskemét Airbase. The configurations that the Hungarian Defence Forces ordered include the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) kit, enabling Hungary to provide intensive care medicine in humanitarian missions abroad. Portugal Portuguese Air Force – five C-390s ordered in 2019 to replace its C-130s. The deal includes five C-390s and a flight simulator for pilot training, was reportedly valued at €827 million. The first aircraft was delivered on 16 October 2022, at Beja Airbase, and entered service in October 2023. The second aircraft was delivered in June 2024. === Future operators === Austria Austrian Air Force – four C-390 Millenniums ordered in 2023 to replace the aging C-130K, with deliveries expected to begin in 2026. Czech Republic Czech Air Force – two C-390s selected in October 2023 for its future aerial refueling and fixed-wing medium-lift transport requirements. Contract signed on 25 October 2024. First aircraft is expected to be delivered in 2025, second in 2027 or 2028. Netherlands Royal Netherlands Air Force – selected the C-390 in 2022 with five airlifters ordered to replace its C-130H. Contract signed in July 2024 with deliveries to commence at the end of 2027. Slovakia Slovak Air Force – selected in December 2024. Negotiations for the purchase of three aircraft would begin. South Korea Republic of Korea Air Force – three C-390s ordered in 2023, to be introduced by 2026. Sweden Swedish Air Force – selected in November 2024, four units ordered. == Specifications (C-390 Millennium) == Data from Aviation Week, EmbraerGeneral characteristics Crew: Three (two pilots, one loadmaster) Capacity: 26,000 kg (57,000 lb) / 80 troops / 74 stretchers and 8 attendants / 66 paratroopers / 7 463L master pallets / 6 463L master pallets and 36 troops Length: 35.2 m (115 ft 6 in) Wingspan: 35.05 m (115 ft 0 in) Height: 11.84 m (38 ft 10 in) Max takeoff weight: 86,999 kg (191,800 lb) Fuel capacity: 23,000 to 35,000 kg (50,700 to 77,160 lb) with 3 aux. fuel tanks Useful lift: 26,000 kg (57,320 lb) Cargo hold length × height × width: 18.5 m × 3.0 m × 3.4 m (60.6 ft × 9.8 ft × 11.3 ft) Powerplant: 2 × IAE V2500-E5 turbofan, 139.4 kN (31,330 lbf) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 988 km/h (614 mph, 533 kn) Cruise speed: 870 km/h (540 mph, 470 kn) Mach 0.8 Stall speed: 193 km/h (120 mph, 104 kn) IAS Range: 5,020 km (3,120 mi, 2,710 nmi) with 14,000 kg (31,000 lb) payload 2,720 km (1,470 nmi; 1,690 mi) with 23,000 kg (51,000 lb) payload 2,000 km (1,080 nmi; 1,240 mi) with 26,000 kg (57,000 lb) payload Ferry range: 6,240 km (3,880 mi, 3,370 nmi) – 8,460 km (4,570 nmi; 5,260 mi) max. with aux. fuel tanks Service ceiling: 11,000 m (36,000 ft) Armament Hardpoints: 3 with a capacity of POD Optical / IR Rafael Litening II / IFR Cobham 900E Avionics Rockwell Collins Pro Line Fusion Systems and equipment RWR / chaff & flare (self-defense systems) DIRCM – Directional Infrared Countermeasures (self-defense systems) In-flight refueling system Dual HUD system Cabin lighting compatible with night vision systems CCDP – Continuously Computed Drop Point, an automated, accurate drop point calculation system CDS – Container Delivery System LVAD – Low Velocity Airdrop Delivery EEPGS – Emergency Electric Power Generator System (type RAT or Ram Air Turbine) == See also == Related development Embraer E-Jet family Embraer E-Jet E2 family Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A400M Atlas Antonov An-178 Shaanxi Y-9 Ilyushin Il-276 Kawasaki C-2 Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules == References == == External links == Official website "Embraer has Military Transport Aircraft Under Study" (PDF) (Press release). Embraer. 19 April 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2009. "C-390 Millennium Brochure" (PDF). Embraer. October 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2021. Sweetman, Bill (1 June 2009). "Options Expand in Heavy Lift". Aviation Week. Govindasamy, Siva (21 July 2010). "Lockheed prepares for KC-390 competition". Flightglobal.
Lockheed Martin	The Lockheed Martin Corporation is an American defense and aerospace manufacturer with worldwide interests. It was formed by the merger of Lockheed Corporation with Martin Marietta in March 1995. It is headquartered in North Bethesda, Maryland. As of January 2022, Lockheed Martin employs approximately 121,000 employees worldwide, including about 60,000 engineers and scientists. Reports from 2024 estimate that Lockheed Martin Corporation (LMT) holds a market cap of around $139.7 billion. Lockheed Martin is one of the largest companies in the aerospace, military support, security, and technologies industry. It was the world's largest defense contractor by revenue for fiscal year 2014. In 2013, 78% of Lockheed Martin's revenues came from military sales; it topped the list of US federal government contractors and received nearly 10% of the funds paid out by the Pentagon. In 2009, US government contracts accounted for $38.4 billion (85%), foreign government contracts for $5.8 billion (13%), and commercial and other contracts for $900 million (2%). Half of the corporation's annual sales are to the U.S. Department of Defense. Lockheed Martin is also a contractor for the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Lockheed Martin operates in four business segments: Aeronautics, Missiles and Fire Control (MFC), Rotary and Mission Systems (RMS), and Space. The company has received the Collier Trophy six times, including in 2001 for being part of developing the X-35/F-35B LiftFan Propulsion System and most recently in 2018 for the Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System (Auto-GCAS). Lockheed Martin is currently developing the F-35 Lightning II and leads the international supply chain, leads the team for the development and implementation of technology solutions for the new USAF Space Fence (AFSSS replacement), and is the primary contractor for the development of the Orion command module. The company also invests in healthcare systems, renewable energy systems, intelligent energy distribution, and compact nuclear fusion. == History == === 1990s === Merger talks between Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30, 1994. The headquarters for the combined companies would be at Martin Marietta headquarters in North Bethesda, Maryland. The deal was finalized on March 15, 1995, when the two companies' shareholders approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for L-3 Communications, a mid-size defense contractor in its own right. Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials. The company's executives received large bonuses directly from the government as a result of the merger. Norman R. Augustine, who was at the time CEO of Martin Marietta, received an $8.2 million bonus. Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio. Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft, U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance airplanes, F-117 Nighthawk, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories (management contract acquired in 1993), Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage (under subcontract to Orbital Sciences Corporation) and various satellite models. On April 22, 1996, Lockheed Martin completed the acquisition of Loral Corporation's defense electronics and system integration businesses for $9.1 billion, the deal having been announced in January. The remainder of Loral became Loral Space & Communications. Lockheed Martin abandoned plans for an $8.3 billion merger with Northrop Grumman on July 16, 1998, due to government concerns over the potential strength of the new group; Lockheed/Northrop would have had control of 25% of the Department of Defense's procurement budget. For the Mars Climate Orbiter, Lockheed Martin incorrectly provided NASA with software using measurements in US Customary force units when metric units were expected; this resulted in the loss of the Orbiter at a cost of $125 million. The development of the spacecraft cost $193 million. In addition to their military products, in the 1990s Lockheed Martin developed the texture mapping chip for the Sega Model 2 arcade system board and the entire graphics system for the Sega Model 3, which were used to power some of the most popular arcade games of the time. === 2000s === In May 2001, Lockheed Martin sold Lockheed Martin Control Systems to BAE Systems. On November 27, 2000, Lockheed completed the sale of its Aerospace Electronic Systems business to BAE Systems for $1.67 billion, a deal announced in July 2000. This group encompassed Sanders Associates, Fairchild Systems, and Lockheed Martin Space Electronics & Communications. In 2001, Lockheed Martin won the contract to build the F-35 Lightning II; this was the largest fighter aircraft procurement project since the F-16, with an initial order of 3,000 aircraft. In 2001, Lockheed Martin settled a nine–year investigation conducted by NASA's Office of Inspector General with the assistance of the Defense Contract Audit Agency. The company paid the United States government $7.1 million based on allegations that its predecessor, Lockheed Engineering Science Corporation, submitted false lease costs claims to NASA. On July 8, 2003, a Lockheed Martin plant in Meridian, Mississippi became the scene of a racially motivated mass shooting when an assembly line worker murdered six co-workers (five of whom were black) and wounded eight before killing himself. In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, Lockheed Martin's President refused to disclose whether company officials were previously aware of any red flags regarding the worker. The company had launched its own investigation into the worker's behavior prior to the massacre following complaints from numerous black employees regarding incidents involving the worker. He had been ordered to attend anger management courses and diversity training but refused. On May 12, 2006, The Washington Post reported that when Robert Stevens took control of Lockheed Martin in 2004, he faced the dilemma that within 10 years, 100,000 of the about 130,000 Lockheed Martin employees – more than three-quarters – would be retiring. On August 31, 2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contract from NASA to design and build the CEV capsule, later named Orion for the Ares I rocket in the Constellation Program. In 2009, NASA reduced the capsule crew requirements from the initial six seats to four for transport to the International Space Station. In August 2007, Lockheed Martin acquired 3Dsolve, a Cary, North Carolina, company that created simulations and training modules for the military and corporate clients. Renamed Lockheed Martin 3D Learning Systems, the company remained in Cary with 3D's founder Richard Boyd as director. The name was eventually shortened to Lockheed Martin 3D Solutions. On August 13, 2008, Lockheed Martin acquired the government business unit of Nantero, Inc., a company that had developed methods and processes for incorporating carbon nanotubes in next-generation electronic devices. In 2009, Lockheed Martin bought Unitech. === 2010s === On November 18, 2010, Lockheed Martin announced that it would be closing its Eagan, Minnesota, location by 2013 to reduce costs and optimize capacity at its locations nationwide. In January 2011, Lockheed Martin agreed to pay the U.S. Government $2 million to settle allegations that the company submitted false claims on a U.S. government contract for that amount. The allegations came from a contract with the Naval Oceanographic Office Major Shared Resource Center in Mississippi. On May 25, 2011, Lockheed Martin bought the first Quantum Computing System from D-Wave Systems. Lockheed Martin and D-Wave will collaborate to realize the benefits of a computing platform based upon a quantum annealing processor, as applied to some of Lockheed Martin's most challenging computation problems. Lockheed Martin established a multi-year contract that includes one system, maintenance, and services. On May 28, 2011, it was reported that a cyberattack using previously stolen EMC files had broken through to sensitive materials at the contractor. It is unclear if the Lockheed incident is the specific prompt whereby on June 1, 2011, the new United States military strategy, makes explicit that a cyberattack is casus belli for a traditional act of war. On March 3, 2012, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) said that Lockheed Martin had agreed to settle allegations that the defense contractor had sold overpriced perishable tools used on many contracts. The DOJ said the allegations were based specifically on the subsidiary Tools & Metals Inc's inflation of costs between 1998 and 2005, which Lockheed Martin then passed on to the U.S. government under its contracts. Further, in March 2006, Todd B. Loftis, a former TMI president, was sentenced to 87 months in prison and ordered to pay a fine of $20 million following his guilty plea. On July 10, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced it was cutting its workforce by 740 workers to reduce costs and remain competitive as necessary for future growth. On November 27, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced that Marillyn Hewson would become the corporation's chief executive officer on January 1, 2013. On January 7, 2013, Lockheed Martin Canada announced that it would be acquiring the engine maintenance, repair, and overhaul assets from Aveos Fleet Performance in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. On February 20, 2013, Lockheed Martin Corp complied with the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, agreeing to pay a $19.5 million lawsuit to conclude a securities fraud class-action legal battle that had accused the company of deceiving shareholders in regards to expectations for the company's information technology division. On July 3, 2013, Lockheed Martin announced that it was partnering with DreamHammer to use the company's software for integrated command and control of its unmanned aerial vehicles. Lockheed Martin teamed up with Bell Helicopter to propose the V-280 Valor tiltrotor for the Future Vertical Lift (FVL) program. In September 2013, Lockheed Martin acquired the Scotland-based tech firm, Amor Group, saying the deal would aid its plans to expand internationally and into non-defense markets. On November 14, 2013, Lockheed announced they would be closing their Akron, Ohio facility laying off 500 employees and transferring other employees to other locations. In March 2014, Lockheed Martin acquired Beontra AG, a provider of integrated planning and demand forecasting tools for airport, planning to expand their business in commercial airport information technology solutions. Also, in March 2014, Lockheed Martin announced its acquisition of Industrial Defender Inc. On June 2, 2014, Lockheed Martin received a Pentagon contract to build a space fence that would track debris, keeping it from damaging satellites and spacecraft. On December 20, 2014, Lockheed Martin Integrated Systems agreed to settle a False Claims Act lawsuit paying $27.5 million to finalize allegations that it had knowingly overbilled taxpayers for work performed by company staff who did not hold the relevant essential qualifications for the contract. On July 20, 2015, Lockheed Martin announced plans to purchase Sikorsky Aircraft from United Technologies Corporation at a cost of $7.1 billion. The Pentagon has criticized the acquisition as causing a reduction in competition. In November 2015, the acquisition received final approval from the Chinese government, with a total cost of $9 billion. Dan Schulz was named the president of Lockheed Martin's Sikorsky company. Lockheed Martin has shown sketches for a twin-engine, blended wing body strategic airlifter similar in size to the C-5. On March 31, 2015, the US Navy awarded Lockheed Martin a contract worth $362 million for the construction of Freedom-class ship LCS 21 and $79 million for advance procurement for LCS 23. The Freedom-class ships are built by Fincantieri Marinette Marine in Marinette, Wisconsin. In December 2015, Lockheed won an $867 million seven-year contract to train Australia's next generation of military pilots. The deal also has the option to extend this contract across 26 years, which would greatly increase the deal's value. In August 2016, Canadian Forces Maritime tested an integrated submarine combat system developed by Lockheed Martin. The test marked Canada's first use of the combat system with the MK 48 heavyweight torpedo, variant 7AT. The same month, a deal to merge Leidos with the entirety of Lockheed Martin's Information Systems & Global Solutions (IS&GS) business came to a close. In May 2017, during a visit to Saudi Arabia by President Donald Trump, Saudi Arabia signed business deals worth tens of billions of dollars with U.S. companies, including Lockheed Martin. (See: 2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal) On August 13, 2018, Lockheed Martin announced that the company had secured a $480 million contract from the United States Air Force to develop a hypersonic weapon prototype. A hypersonic missile can travel at one mile a second. This is the second contract for hypersonic weapons that Martin has secured; The first was from the Air Force as well and for $928 million which was announced in April 2018. On November 29, 2018, Lockheed Martin was awarded a Commercial Lunar Payload Services contract by NASA, which makes it eligible to bid on delivering science and technology payloads to the Moon for NASA, worth $2.6 billion. Lockheed Martin plans to formally propose a lander called McCandless Lunar Lander, named after the late astronaut and former Lockheed Martin employee Bruce McCandless II, who in 1984 performed the first free-flying spacewalk without a lifeline to the orbiting shuttle, using a jetpack built by the company. This lander would be based on the successful design of the Phoenix and InSight Mars landers. On April 11, 2019, at 6:35 pm EDT, an Arabsat-6A satellite was successfully launched from (LC-39A). This satellite is one of two, the other being SaudiGeoSat-1/HellasSat-4 and they are the "most advanced commercial communications satellites ever built by" Lockheed Martin. On September 23, 2019, Lockheed Martin and NASA signed a $4.6-billion contract to build six or more Orion capsules for NASA's Artemis program to send astronauts to the Moon. === 2020s === In January 2020, the Naval Sea Systems Command awarded Lockheed Martin with a $138 million contract related with the AEGIS Combat System Engineering Agent (CSEA). The LMT Rotary and Mission Systems (RMS) unit of the company is to develop, integrate, test, and deliver the AEGIS Advanced Capability Build (ACB) 20 integrated combat system. Martin will work on the AEGIS in New Jersey. The project is expected to be completed by December 2020. In January 2020, the Pentagon found at least 800 software defects in Lockheed Martin's F-35 fighter jets owned by the US Armed Forces during an annual review. The 2018 and 2019 reviews revealed a large number of defects as well. In February 2020, Lockheed Martin acquired Vector Launch Inc's satellite software technology GalacticSky for $4.25 million after a bankruptcy court received no bids by the February 21 deadline. On March 16, 2020, Lockheed Martin announced that James D. Taiclet would replace Marillyn Hewson as CEO, effective June 15. In January of 2021, Taiclet became chairman of the company as well. Lockheed Martin was sanctioned by the Chinese government in July 2020, October 2020, and February 2023 due to arm sales to Taiwan. On December 20, 2020, it was announced that Lockheed Martin would acquire Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings for $4.4 billion. The acquisition was expected to close in first quarter of 2022. On February 13, 2022, Lockheed abandoned the deal following regulatory disapproval. In 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, major arms manufacturers, including Lockheed Martin, reported a sharp increase in interim sales and profits. In May 2023, Lockheed formed a new microelectronics subsidiary ForwardEdge ASIC to design custom application-specific integrated circuits for its customers. In November 2023, attempts at Direct action were taken against arms companies in the United States and the United Kingdom, including Lockheed Martin, that supplied weapons to Israel during the Gaza war. In March 2024, Lockheed Martin submitted a bid to acquire Terran Orbital. On June 28, 2024, the U.S. Army awarded Lockheed Martin a $4.5 billion contract to supply Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) missiles. The contract included 870 PAC-3 MSE missiles and related hardware. Lockheed was tasked with manufacturing the newest version of these interceptors, with each PAC-3 MSE missile costing approximately $4 million, as per Army budget documents. On October 9, 2024, Lockheed Martin announced the appointment of Chauncey McIntosh as vice president and general manager of the F-35 Lightning II Program, effective December 1, 2024. He succeeded Bridget Lauderdale, who retired after 38 years with the company. In December 2024, Lockheed Martin announced that it had formed a subsidiary, Astris AI, that would help U.S. defense companies to incorporate artificial intelligence into their operations. == Finances == For the fiscal year 2020, Lockheed Martin reported earnings of $6.833 billion, with an annual revenue of $65.398 billion, an increase of 9.3% over the previous year. Backlog was 144.0 billion at the end of 2019, up from 130.5 billion at the end of the 2018. Firm orders were $94.5 billion at the end of 2019. Its shares traded at over $389 per share. Its market capitalization was valued at US$109.83 billion at the end of 2019. Lockheed Martin ranked No. 60 in the 2019 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue (down from No. 59 in 2018). == Government contracts == Lockheed Martin received $36 billion in government contracts in 2008 alone; more than any company in history. It does work for more than two dozen government agencies from the Department of Defense and the Department of Energy to the Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency. It is involved in surveillance and information processing for the CIA, the FBI, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), the National Security Agency (NSA), The Pentagon, the Census Bureau, and the Postal Service. In October 2013, Lockheed announced it expected to finalize a $2.2 billion contract with the United States Air Force for two advanced military communications satellites. Lockheed Martin has already begun to help the military transition to renewable energy sources with solar photovoltaic powered microgrids and as the military aims to reach 25% renewable energy by 2025 in order to improve national security. == Organization == === Business areas === Aeronautics Business Area, including Skunk Works Missiles and Fire Control Business Area "MFC" Rotary and Mission Systems Business Area "RMS", including Sikorsky (RMS was formerly called Mission Systems and Sensors and then Mission Systems & Training) Space Business Area === International operations === Lockheed Martin UK Lockheed Martin Canada === Enterprise operations === Corporate Headquarters Operations Internal Corporate Functions: Ethics, Finance, HR, Legal, etc. Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Laboratories === Wholly owned corporate subsidiaries === ForwardEdge ASIC Lockheed Martin Finance Corporation LMC Properties === Joint ventures === International Launch Services (with Khrunichev, RSC Energia) Lockheed Martin Alenia Tactical Transport Systems (with Alenia Aeronautica), now folded MEADS International (with EADS and MBDA) Space Imaging (46%, remainder public) United Launch Alliance (with Boeing) Javelin Joint Venture (with Raytheon) Longbow LLC (with Northrop Grumman) United Space Alliance (with Boeing) Kelly Aviation Center (with GE and Rolls-Royce) Protector USV – an unmanned surface vehicle (with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and BAE Systems) Defense Support Services (DS2) with Day & Zimmermann Tata Lockheed Martin Aerostructures Limited (with Indian company Tata Advanced Systems Limited) Advanced Military Maintenance Repair and Overhaul Center (AMMROC) (with Mubadala Development Company) === Divested === Pacific Architects and Engineers (PAE) Holding, Inc SIM Industries (to CAE) == Corporate governance == === Board of directors === The board of directors consists of 14 members. As of 2020, members include: Daniel Akerson (since 2014) David Burritt (since 2008) Bruce Carlson (since 2015) Joseph F. Dunford (since 2020) James Ellis (since 2004) Thomas Falk (since 2010) Ilene S. Gordon (since 2016) Vicki A. Hollub (since 2018) Jeh Johnson (since 2018) Debra L. Reed-Klages (since 2019) James D. Taiclet (since 2018) === Chief executive officer === Daniel Tellep (1995–1996) Norman Augustine (1996–1997) Vance Coffman (1997–2004) Robert J. Stevens (2004–2012) Marillyn Hewson (2013–2020) James D. Taiclet (2020–present) === Chairman of the board === Robert J. Stevens (2005–2013) Marillyn Hewson (2014–2021) James D. Taiclet (2021-present) === Ownership === As of December 2023, Lockheed Martin shares are mainly held by institutional investors (State Street Corporation, Vanguard group, BlackRock, Capital Group Companies, and others). === Criticism === Lockheed Martin is listed as the largest U.S. government contractor and ranks first for the number of incidents, and fifth for the size of settlements on the 'contractor misconduct' database maintained by the Project on Government Oversight, a Washington, D.C.–based watchdog group. Since 1995, the company has agreed to pay $676.8 million to settle 88 instances of misconduct. In 2013, Lt. Gen. Christopher Bogdan criticized the company's F-35 fighter program. The general said: "I want them both to start behaving like they want to be around for 40 years ... I want them to take on some of the risk of this program. I want them to invest in cost reductions. I want them to do the things that will build a better relationship. I'm not getting all that love yet." The criticism came in the wake of previous criticism from former Defense Secretary Robert Gates regarding the same program. === Lobbying === According to the magazine Politico, Lockheed Martin has "a political network that is already the envy of its competitors", and its contracts enjoy wide bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress thanks to it having "perfected the strategy of spreading jobs on weapons programs in key states and congressional districts". The company's 2022 lobbying expenditure is $13.6 million (2009 total: $13.7 million). Through its political action committee (PAC), the company provides low levels of financial support to candidates who advocate national defense and relevant business issues. It was the largest contributor to the House Armed Services Committee chairman, Republican Buck McKeon of California with over $50,000 donated in the election cycle as of January 2011. It also was the top donor to Sen. Daniel Inouye (D-HI), the chair of the Senate Appropriations Committee before his death in 2012. Lockheed Martin Employees Political Action Committee is one of the 50 largest in the country, according to FEC data. With contributions from 3,000 employees, it donates $500,000 a year to about 260 House and Senate candidates. == Management == Senior management consists of the CEO, CFO, and Executive Vice Presidents (EVPs) of four business areas. The EVPs are responsible for managing major programs. On March 16, 2020, Lockheed announced that CEO Marillyn Hewson would become executive chair and be succeeded as CEO by James Taiclet on June 15; Taiclet was at the time the head of American Tower, and had previously been the president of Honeywell Aerospace and before that a VP at United Technologies. Lockheed also announced that it would create the chief operating officer role, to which current EVP Frank A. St John would be promoted. Employees in each program are organized into four tiers: Tier 1: Program Manager/VP, Tier 2: Functional Teams (Finance, Chief Engineer, Quality, Operations, etc.), Tier 3: Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) (Weapon System Development, Weapon System Integration, etc.), and Tier 4: detailed product development. Floor or touch workers belong to component assembly teams. Lockheed Martin manages and maintains its relationship with these touch workers through its supervisors and unions. Lockheed Martin manages employees through its Full Spectrum Leadership and LM21 programs. The LM21 program relies on Six Sigma principles, which are techniques to improve efficiency. Senior management constructs leadership councils and assigns managers to facilitate Kaizen events, which target specific processes for improvement. A manager facilitates teams and processes stakeholders and suppliers to streamline process implementation. Tier 2 Functional Leads and Tier 3 IPT Leads report to Tier 1. IPT leads are responsible for entire systems or products defined by the contract's Statement of Work. To control quality, Lockheed Martin trains and builds IPT teams. and ensures that work is executed correctly through a Technical Performance Measure (TPM) system which emphasizes its Lean and 6 Sigma processes. Middle management uses commitment mechanisms that parallel high commitment and human relations theory. Floor employees assemble aircraft using Flow-to-takt lean manufacturing process which uses properties from both division of labor and scientific management. By separating tasks based on parts, Lockheed Martin utilizes the division of labor theory, specialization on a specific area creates efficiency. === Double Helix methodology === The "Double Helix methodology" is a systems development methodology used by Lockheed Martin. It combines experimentation, technology, and a warfighter's concept of operations to create new tactics and weapons. == See also == Arms industry Military–industrial complex Defense contractor – table of comparable companies Lockheed Martin Maintenance Trophy Top 100 US Federal Contractors == References == == Further reading == William D. Hartung. Prophets of War: Lockheed Martin and the Making of the Military-Industrial Complex. Nation Books, 2010. ISBN 9781568584201. "A Security Analyst Wins Big in Court". Time magazine "Lockheed Wins Contract to Build NASA's New Spaceship". Washington Post "Jury Slaps Defense Giant for Neglecting National Security". ABC News "NASA: Mars Surveyor Was Doomed By Humans". CBS News "Lockheed Fined Over Secrets Breach". BBC News "Coast Guard Failed to Properly Oversee Contracts, Officials Say". Washington Post Ceremonial event planned for final F-22 Raptor == External links == Official website Business data for Lockheed Martin: Lockheed Martin Corporation recipient profile on USAspending.gov FAS, history and key dates Lockheed Martin at SourceWatch "Patents owned by Lockheed Martin". US Patent & Trademark Office. Archived from the original on May 9, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules	The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. The C-130J is a comprehensive update of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, with new engines, flight deck, and other systems. The C-130J is the newest version of the C-130 Hercules, and the only model currently in production. As of March 2022, 500 C-130J aircraft have been delivered to 26 operators in 22 countries. == Development == On 16 December 1994, Lockheed received the launch order for the J-model from the United Kingdom's Royal Air Force (RAF). The C-130J launch order occurred after a UK government stalemate of several months that concerned whether to buy new transport aircraft from Europe or the United States. It was paired with a commitment to buy 40 to 50 of the proposed European Future Large Aircraft aircraft (FLA, which was later designated as the A400M). The FLA commitment, which reduced the size of the C-130J launch order, was intended to ensure a 20 percent British workshare in the FLA program, and to prevent German industry from threatening British Aerospace's position as the wing manufacturer on the FLA and future Airbus commercial projects. The RAF ordered 25 aircraft for a total fixed price of US$1.6 billion (~$2.87 billion in 2023), with first deliveries originally scheduled to begin in November 1996. The promised deliveries of the C-130J allowed the British Ministry of Defence to meet the 1996 deadline for replacing half of the RAF's aging fleet of Hercules aircraft, while the FLA aircraft was not at the time expected to be available until 2003. To speed up the sale of military and commercial versions of the aircraft, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) civil certification was pursued before delivery would happen. Civil certification was not a regulatory requirement and was unneeded for the RAF launch order. However, certification was stipulated in Lockheed Martin's contracts with some subsequent customers, including the United States Air Force (USAF) and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The program suffered from problems such as software integration glitches that extended the schedule by three months, followed by a nine-month delay caused by undiscovered stall characteristics that required aircraft modification. The stall problem was caused by the additional power of the engines and the increase in propeller blades from 4 to 6, which changed the aerodynamics such that the aircraft had a greater tendency to stall and roll at lower speeds. Lockheed Martin spent five months making 20 unsuccessful attempts at aerodynamic solutions, but the stall problems were so varied that the fixes it tried to make applied only to specific conditions (such as only during power off, or only at full power). Lockheed Martin changed the cockpit to include a stick pusher, which takes control and automatically pushes down the aircraft's nose if the pilot does not respond to stall warnings. The stick pusher was meant to be a temporary addition until Lockheed Martin could find an aerodynamic fix for all of the new stall conditions. In late 1997, the company discovered that directional problems could be caused by ice build-ups. Because the AE 2100 engines were more powerful and fuel-efficient than the Allison T56 engines that they replaced, the engines no longer produced enough bleed air to continuously warm the tail. This situation had been anticipated, but the cyclic system that replaced the old de-icing system was found to be insufficient when the C-130J flew in extreme conditions. This problem forced the company to extend the de-icing system higher and lower on the vertical stabilizer to prevent ice formation, causing another delay of five months. These issues resulted in Lockheed Martin exceeding its initial C-130J development budget of US$300 million. By May 1998, Lockheed had spent over US$900 million (~$1.57 billion in 2023) in development costs for the C-130J. By the end of 1998, the company owed the RAF about US$50 million (~$87.2 million in 2023) in penalties due to the delivery delays. FAA type certification occurred in September 1998 following 4,000 hours of flight testing. Deliveries commenced in 1999 as the Hercules C4 (C-130J-30) and Hercules C5 (C-130J). The standard C-130J had a flyaway cost of US$62 million in 2008. On 23 December 2004, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz approved a program budget decision that ended the procurement of C-130J for the Air Force and completed the remaining KC-130J order for the Marine Corps in 2006, which would save US$5 billion in the Pentagon budget. Deficiencies with the C-130J that were cited to support the decision included being unable to drop heavy equipment, the inability to perform combat search-and-rescue missions, cold-weather performance issues, the risk of paratroopers hitting the fuselage when jumping out of the aircraft, major cost increases, and inadequate radar to fly into hurricanes. U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld reversed this decision on May 10, 2005, after members of Congress stated that the canceling the pre-existing orders of 62 total Air Force aircraft over the following five years would result in about US$2 billion (~$3 billion in 2023) in termination costs to the government, which would have exceeded the cost of buying the aircraft. In mid-June 2008, the United States Air Force awarded a $470 million (~$653 million in 2023) contract to Lockheed Martin for six modified KC-130J aircraft for use by the Air Force and Special Operations Command. The contract led to C-130J variants that will replace aging HC-130s and MC-130s. The HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft's refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production. This test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. === Harvest HAWK === With the addition of the Marine Corps ISR / Weapon Mission Kit, the KC-130J tanker variant will be able to serve as an overwatch aircraft and can deliver ground support fire in the form of Hellfire or Griffin missiles, precision-guided bombs, and eventually 30mm Mk44 Bushmaster II cannon fire in a later upgrade. This capability, designated as "Harvest HAWK" (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, such as area denial. The aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The kit can be removed within a day if necessary. === TACAMO === The United States Navy is considering replacing its fleet of E-6B Mercury aircraft with C-130J-30 Hercules aircraft in the Take Charge And Move Out (TACAMO) survivable nuclear communications role. The U.S. Navy's Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) posted a solicitation for fatigue test aircraft to a government procurement website on 18 December 2020. It is to award Lockheed Martin a contract for three "stretched" Hercules in fiscal years 2022 and 2023 for testing and analysis for the TACAMO mission. == Design == Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model features considerably updated technology. These differences include new Rolls-Royce AE 2100 D3 turboprop engines, Dowty R391 six-bladed composite scimitar propellers that have blade tips swept by 35 degrees, digital avionics (including head-up displays (HUDs) for each pilot), and reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum speed, and 41% shorter takeoff distance. Because of the deicing problem discovered late in the certification program, the C-130J includes a black rubber deicing boot at the bottom of the vertical fin, which is another visual difference from previous versions of the Hercules. The J-model is available in a standard-length or stretched -30 variant. As a cargo and airlift aircraft, the C-130J's crew includes two pilots and one loadmaster (no navigator or flight engineer), while specialized USAF variants (e.g., AC-130J, EC-130J, MC-130J, HC-130J, WC-130J) may have larger crews, such as navigators/Combat Systems Officers or other specialized officer and enlisted air crew. The U.S. Marine Corps KC-130J uses a crew chief for expeditionary operations. The C-130J's cargo compartment is approximately 41 feet (12.5 m) long, 9 feet (2.74 m) high, and 10 feet (3.05 m) wide, and loading is from the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft can be configured with the "enhanced cargo handling system". The system consists of a computerized loadmaster's station from which the user can remotely control the under-floor winch and configure the flip-floor system to palletized roller or flat-floor cargo handling. Initially developed for the USAF, this system enables rapid role changes to be carried out and so extends the C-130J's time available to complete taskings. In 2010, Elbit Systems was awarded a contract to supply its J-MUSIC Directed Infrared Countermeasure (DIRCM) system for integration on the Italian Air Force's C-130J aircraft. J-MUSIC, part of the MUSIC family, uses fiber-laser technology and a high-speed thermal imaging system to protect against heat-seeking missiles, including shoulder-fired MANPADS. This enhancement significantly improves the self-protection capabilities of the C-130J, especially during operations in high-threat environments. == Operational history == The Super Hercules has been used extensively by the USAF and USMC in Iraq and Afghanistan. Canada has also deployed its CC-130J aircraft to Afghanistan. C-130Js from several countries have been deployed in support of the US Operation Odyssey Dawn and NATO's Operation Unified Protector during the 2011 Libyan civil war. From the first flight on 5 April 1996 to 30 April 2013, 290 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft operated by 13 nations surpassed 1 million flight hours. In January 2013, it was reported that some of Canada's CC-130J transports had counterfeit Chinese microchips in their cockpit displays that were made by an American Lockheed contractor L3 Communications. These parts are more likely to fail and result in failures such as blank instrument screens during flight. A 14-month investigation by the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee concluded that counterfeit parts in the Hercules and other American-made military equipment are prone to failure with potentially "catastrophic consequences." The U.S. congressional investigation reported the fake Hercules microchips were originally made by the Korean electronics giant Samsung in the 1990s, and more than a decade later, had been recycled, refurbished and remarked to appear genuine by a different supplier from China. Samsung later stated that "it is not possible to project the reliability" of the altered parts. The U.S. investigation reported that the problems on the Hercules first came to light in 2010 when the instrument panel failed on a U.S. Air Force aircraft during active duty. On 20 August 2013, the Indian Air Force performed the highest landing of a C-130J at the Daulat Beg Oldi airstrip in Ladakh at the height of 16,614 ft (5,064 m).. On 5 August 2024, following protests in Bangladesh, the former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina flew in a Bangladesh Air Force C-130J to Delhi, India to seek asylum. === Civilian use === The Modular Airborne FireFighting System (MAFFS) is a self-contained unit used for aerial firefighting that can be loaded onto a C-130 Hercules, which then allows the aircraft to be used as an air tanker against wildfires. This allows the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) to use military aircraft from the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve to serve as an emergency backup resource to the civilian air tanker fleet. The latest generation MAFFS II system was used for the first time on a fire in July 2010, using the C-130J Super Hercules. The 146th Airlift Wing was the first to transition to the MAFFS II system in 2008, and it remains the only unit flying the new system on the C-130J aircraft. == Orders and deliveries == The largest operator of the new model is the U.S. Air Force, which has ordered the aircraft in increasing numbers. Current operators of the C-130J are the USAF (including the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard), United States Marine Corps (being their fourth variant after KC-130F, KC-130R and KC-130T,) United States Coast Guard, Indian Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, Israeli Air Force, and the Italian Air Force. As of March 2022, a total of 500 units have been produced. === International orders === The Royal Australian Air Force was the second international customer for the C-130J-30, with an initial order of 12 aircraft. An order for two more aircraft was planned, but was replaced by the purchase of a fifth Boeing C-17 Globemaster III. On 2 November 2022, the US State Department approved the possible sale of 24 C-130Js worth up to $6.35 billion to the Royal Australian Air Force. The Royal Norwegian Air Force ordered four C-130J-30s in 2007 to replace six aging C-130Hs in need of repairs. Aircraft were delivered from November 2008 to 2010. One of these was lost in March 2012. The Canadian Forces signed a US$1.4 billion (~$1.95 billion in 2023) contract with Lockheed Martin for seventeen new C-130J-30s in January 2008, as part of the procurement process to replace the existing C-130E and H models. The C-130J is officially designated as the CC-130J Hercules in Canadian service. The first C-130J was delivered to CFB Trenton in June 2010. The final C-130J was delivered in May 2012. The Indian Air Force purchased six C-130J-30s in early 2008 at a cost of up to US$1.059 billion for its special operations forces in a package deal with the US government under its Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program. India has options to buy six more aircraft. The Indian government decided not to sign the Communications Interoperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), which resulted in the exclusion of high precision GPS and other sensitive equipment. The IAF added similar equipment produced indigenously to the aircraft after delivery. In October 2011, India announced its intent to exercise the option for the six additional aircraft, following the C-130J's favorable performance in the 2011 Sikkim earthquake relief operations. In July 2012, the U.S. accepted India's request for the six more C-130Js through the FMS program. In December 2013, India's CCS approved the order for six more aircraft. The Iraqi Air Force ordered six C-130J-30s in July 2008. Qatar ordered four C-130Js in October 2008, along with spare parts and training for the Qatar Emiri Air Force. The contract is worth a total of US$393.6 million (~$526 million in 2023) and deliveries are scheduled to begin in 2011. The United Arab Emirates Air Force announced an order for 12 C-130J transports at the 2009 International Defence Exhibition (IDEX), with an announced value of US$1.3 billion. The United Arab Emirates requested 12 C-130Js through a Direct Commercial Sale in December 2009, with logistics support, training and related systems to be provided through a Foreign Military Sales program. A contract with Lockheed Martin has not been signed. The Israeli Air Force is seeking to purchase nine C-130J-30s. In April 2010, Israel ordered one C-130J-30 with delivery in 2013, and was in contract talks for two more aircraft in June 2010. An option for a second C-130J-30 was exercised in April 2011, along with planning and advance long lead procurement of aircraft components to support the third C-130J Israeli aircraft. The first Israeli C-130J was delivered in June 2013 and was modified with Israeli-unique systems in the United States prior to its arrival in Israel in April 2014. Israel ordered a fourth C-130J-30 in July 2013. The C-130J's local name is "Shimshon". The Kuwait Air Force signed a contract for three KC-130J air refueling tankers in May 2010, with deliveries to begin in late 2013. The KC-130Js will refuel the KAF's F-18s and augment its fleet of three militarized L-100s. Oman increased its C-130J order in August 2010 by adding two C-130Js to the single C-130J-30 ordered in 2009. Deliveries are to be completed by early 2014. The Royal Saudi Air Force has purchased two KC-130Js to be delivered in 2016. The Mexican Government has requested two C-130J-30s. The Mongolian Air Force is planning to buy three C-130Js. In July 2013, the C-130J became part of a competition in the Peruvian Air Force for a medium transport aircraft. The Super Hercules was a candidate along with the EADS CASA C-295, the Alenia C-27J Spartan, the Antonov An-70, and the upgraded Antonov An-32. The Peruvian Air Force selected the C-27J in November 2013. In 2015, the French Air Force ordered four Super Hercules to supplement existing capabilities due to the ongoing problems and delays of the ordered Airbus A400M, through FMS the French got two C-130J in 2017/2018 and two KC-130J in 2018/2019 (helicopter refuelling capability), especially supporting French overseas operations in Africa. In January 2017, German defence minister announced the intention to purchase three C-130J and three KC-130J Hercules to acquire tactical airlift capabilities due to the delayed deliveries of the Airbus A400M. In September 2018, Indonesia's state-owned news agency Antara reported that minister of defence Ryamizard Ryacudu said Indonesia is looking to acquire five C-130J Super Hercules aircraft. In September 2021, it was reported that Indonesia ordered five C-130J-30 aircraft from Lockheed Martin for the Indonesian Air Force in 2019, with the first aircraft already under construction. In 2023, Indonesian Air Force received its first C-130J-30 that arrived at Lanud Halim Perdanakusuma. In June 2019, New Zealand's Minister of Defence Ron Mark identified the C-130J-30 as the preferred replacement for the Royal New Zealand Air Force's five remaining C-130Hs that were planned to be in service until 2023. In November 2019, the US Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of the potential sale of five C-130Js, 24 engines and related equipment for an estimated cost of US$1.4 billion (~$1.65 billion in 2023). The sale was confirmed in June 2020, with the planes expected to be delivered between 2024 and 2025. The first aircraft was delivered on August 8, 2024 at Lockheed Martin's facility in Marietta, Georgia. In September 2020, Philippine Air Force chief Allen T. Paredes planned to acquire five C-130J-30 aircraft. The quantity was later reduced to two after government funds were prioritized for the COVID-19 pandemic response. In December 2022, the Notice of Award has already been released for the acquisition of three C-130J-30 Super Hercules heavy transport aircraft from Lockheed Martin however no official announcement has been made by both parties including PAF. In October 2023, the DND announced the acquisition of three C-130J-30 with the contract worth ₱22.2 billion, the first C-130J is scheduled to be delivered in July 2026, the second is in October of the same year and the third plane is in January 2027. In January 2022, the United States Department of State announced its approval of Egypt's request to purchase 12 C-130J aircraft with related equipment and notified Congress. In 2022, the Swedish Air Force ordered four ex-Italian Air Force C-130J-30s for delivery in 2023 and 2024. This order was reportedly put on hold in 2023 for review. In 2024, the Embraer C-390 was chosen instead. In November 2022, the US agreed to a Foreign Military Sales purchase by Australia of 24 C-130J-30 aircraft, that will effectively double the RAAF fleet after the existing aircraft have been retired. In September 2024, NOAA announced an order for two modified C-130Js to replace its existing WP-3D Orion Hurricane Hunter aircraft. === Deliveries === == Variants == C-130J Super Hercules Tactical airlifter C-130J-30 Lockheed Martin designation for its 15 ft (4.6 m) extended fuselage variant; designated CC-130J by USAF for a short time after 2002 and later renamed into C-130J, so there are two different variants under the same designation. C-130J-SOF Variant outfitted with extended ISR equipment for use with special forces. Unveiled in June 2017. CC-130J Hercules Royal Canadian Air Force designation for the C-130J-30. E-130J Variant for the U.S. Navy's TACAMO operations to replace the E-6 Mercury. Based on the C-130J-30. EC-130J Commando Solo III Variant for the Air Force Special Operations Command, operated by the Pennsylvania Air National Guard. This variant was retired from service in September 2024. HC-130J Super Hercules and HC-130J Combat King II Comes in two variants: The HC-130J Super Hercules is a long range patrol and air-sea rescue variant for the U. S. Coast Guard. The HC-130J COMBAT KING II is a U.S. Air Force version that can be refueled in-flight by KC-46 and KC-135 aircraft and can itself in-flight refuel various models of U.S. military helicopters and the USAF CV-22, USMC MV-22, and USN CMV-22 tilt-rotor aircraft. The USAF HC-130J is nearly identical to the USAF MC-130J, differentiated by only a few additional electronic systems carried by the MC-130J. KC-130J Aerial refueling tanker and tactical airlifter version for United States Marine Corps. MC-130J Commando II Designed for Air Force Special Operations Command. Originally named Combat Shadow II. MC-130J Commando II Amphibious Capability A proposed twin-float amphibious modification to allow support operations at sea and in near-shore areas; the initial flight test has been repeatedly pushed back. WC-130J Weather reconnaissance ("Hurricane Hunter") version for the Air Force Reserve Command. Hercules C4 Royal Air Force designation for the C-130J-30 Hercules C5 Royal Air Force designation for the C-130J LM-100J A civilian version of the C-130J-30 SC-130J Sea Hercules Proposed maritime patrol version of the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance and anti-submarine warfare. == Operators == Algeria Algerian Air Force – two C-130J in service and 2 more on order as of June 2022. Australia Royal Australian Air Force – 12 C-130J-30s in service as of January 2014, 20 more C-130J-30s ordered in July 2023. 37 Squadron Bahrain Royal Bahraini Air Force – One ex-RAF C-130J in service as of December 2018, with additional one on order. Bangladesh Bangladesh Air Force – Five C-130Js on service. All are ex-RAF aircraft brought from surplus which were refurbished and modified by Marshall Group. 101 Squadron Special Flying Unit Canada Royal Canadian Air Force – 17 C-130J-30s in operation as of January 2025 : 32 436 Transport Squadron Denmark Royal Danish Air Force – four C-130J-30s in service as of December 2018 Egypt Egyptian Air Force – two C-130Js on order for delivery in 2019. France French Air and Space Force – two C-130J-30s and two KC-130Js based at Orléans – Bricy Air Base in joint Franco-German unit. First C-130J inducted into service in January 2018. Germany German Air Force – three C-130J-30s and 3 KC-130Js on order, to be based at Évreux-Fauville Air Base in France in joint Franco-German unit. India Indian Air Force – 12 C-130J-30s in service as of December 2019. A total of 12 C-130J-30s had been ordered by December 2013; One crashed in 2014, which was replaced in 2019. 77 Squadron 87 Squadron Indonesia Indonesian Air Force – five C-130J-30 in service as of May 2024 Iraq Iraqi Air Force – three C-130J-30s in service as of January 2014, with a total of six C-130J-30s on order. Israel Israeli Air Force – six C-130J-30s ordered with deliveries beginning in 2013. It planned to acquire a total of nine C-130J-30s in 2008. 7 received as of January 2019. Italy Italian Air Force – 20 aircraft (four C-130Js, ten C-130J-30s, and six KC-130J) in service as of January 2022. Kuwait Kuwait Air Force – three KC-130Js delivered with an option to purchase three more. Libya Libyan Air Force – two C-130J-30 on order New Zealand Royal New Zealand Air Force – five C-130J-30s in service as of 19 December 2024. Norway Royal Norwegian Air Force – four C-130J-30s in service as of January 2014. Oman Royal Air Force of Oman – one C-130J-30 in use as of January 2014. Two more C-130Js on order with delivery in 2014. Philippines Philippine Air Force – three C-130J-30s on order, with deliveries to be completed by 2027. Saudi Arabia Royal Saudi Air Force – two KC-130J tankers in service South Korea Republic of Korea Air Force – four C-130J-30s ordered with for delivery in 2014. Two of four aircraft were delivered to Republic of Korea Air Force in 2014. Tunisia Tunisian Air Force – two C-130J-30 received as of December 2014 Turkey Turkish Air Force – planned to receive 12 C-130J-30 from Royal Air Force. Qatar Qatar Emiri Air Force – four C-130J-30s in use as of January 2014 in 12th Squadron/Flying Wing 10. United States United States Air Force – 273 C-130Js and variants in use as of March 2022 United States Marine Corps/United States Navy – 65 C-130Js and variants in use as of March 2022 United States Coast Guard – 15 C-130Js and variants in use as of March 2022 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – two C-130Js on order with delivery by 2030. Intended to replace NOAA's WP-3D Orion Hurricane Hunter aircraft. === Former operator === United Kingdom Royal Air Force – Launch operator of C-130J. 14 aircraft (1 C-130J, and 13 C-130J-30s) were in service as of 2020. The RAF's C-130Js were formally withdrawn from service on 30 June 2023. == Accidents == C-130Js have been involved in the following notable accidents: On 12 February 2007, Royal Air Force (RAF) Hercules C.4 (C-130J-30), ZH876, c/n 5460 (built in 1998) was seriously damaged during landing on a desert airstrip by multiple improvised explosive devices (IEDs) along the airstrip, in Maysan province near Basrah, Iraq. There were no casualties to the crew and passengers, but the airframe was damaged beyond repair and subsequently destroyed at the crash site by explosives to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. On 15 March 2012, Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) (Norwegian: Luftforsvaret) C-130J-30, 10–5630 'SIW' (the newest of four C-130Js in the RNoAF inventory), c/n 5630, on a flight from Evenes Air Station, Norway to Kiruna, Sweden, impacted the side of Kebnekaise mountain at an altitude of 4,920 feet (1,500 metres) during bad weather after disappearing from radar, and disintegrated. All five RNoAF crew aboard were killed. Continued bad weather meant that a RNoAF Lockheed P-3C Orion surveillance aircraft was not able to spot the wreckage until 17 March. The RNoAF C-130J aircraft was to collect soldiers, and fly back to the Norwegian base for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO/OTAN) exercise Cold Response. On 28 March 2014, Indian Air Force (IAF) C-130J-30 KC-3803 (one of six operated by the IAF), operated by 77 Squadron 'Veiled Vipers', crashed near Gwalior, India, less than ten minutes after takeoff, killing all five personnel aboard. The aircraft was conducting low level penetration training by flying at around 300 feet (90 metres), following a second C-130J. It was then during a climb to 1,000 feet (300 metres) when it stalled after running into wake turbulence from the lead aircraft in the formation, which caused it to crash; suggesting an error of judgement by the pilot. On 2 October 2015, a United States Air Force (USAF) C-130J registered as 08-3174, originally from the 317th Airlift Group at Dyess Air Force Base, assigned to the 774th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron, part of the 455th Air Expeditionary Wing, crashed approximately 28 seconds after takeoff from Jalalabad Airport, Afghanistan; killing all eleven onboard (six US airmen and five civilian contractors), and three Afghan troops in a guard tower on the ground. The pilot had previously jammed the control yoke with the case from night-vision goggles, but forgot to remove the case again during the next takeoff. == Specifications (C-130J) == Data from USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet, International Directory of Military Aircraft, Encyclopedia of Modern Military AircraftGeneral characteristics Crew: 3 (two pilots, and one loadmaster are minimum crew) Capacity: 92 passengers (-30: 128) or 64 airborne troops (-30: 92) or 6 463L pallets (-30: 8) or 72 litter patients (-30: 97) 42,000 lb Maximum Allowable Payload (-30: 44,000 lb) Cargo bay length: 41 ft (12.50 m) Cargo bay width: 10 ft (3.05 m) Cargo bay height: 9 ft (2.74 m) Payload main: 42,000 lb (19,051 kg) Length: 97 ft 9 in (29.79 m) Wingspan: 132 ft 7 in (40.41 m) Height: 38 ft 10 in (11.84 m) Wing area: 1,745 sq ft (162.1 m2) Airfoil: root: NACA 64A318; tip: NACA 64A412 Empty weight: 75,562 lb (34,274 kg) Max takeoff weight: 155,000 lb (70,307 kg) Powerplant: 4 × Rolls-Royce AE 2100D3 turboprop engines, 4,637 shp (3,458 kW) each Propellers: 6-bladed Dowty R391 composite constant-speed fully-feathering reversible-pitch propellers Performance Maximum speed: 362 kn (417 mph, 670 km/h) — Mach 0.59 at 22,000 ft (6,706 m) altitude Cruise speed: 348 kn (400 mph, 644 km/h) Range: 1,800 nmi (2,100 mi, 3,300 km) at max normal payload (34,000 lb (15,422 kg)) Service ceiling: 28,000 ft (8,500 m) with 42,000 lb (19,051 kg) payload Absolute ceiling: 40,386 ft (12,310 m) == See also == Related development Lockheed C-130 Hercules Lockheed EC-130 Lockheed WC-130 Alenia C-27J Spartan Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A400M Atlas Embraer C-390 Millennium Shaanxi Y-9 Related lists List of accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed C-130 Hercules List of active Canadian military aircraft List of active Indian military aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force List of current Royal Australian Air Force aircraft List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft == Notes == == References == == Sources == == External links == Official website C-130J brochure on Lockheed Martin web site USAF C-130 Hercules fact sheet "The C-130J: New Hercules & Old Bottlenecks" on defenseindustrydaily.com C-130J Super Hercules Military transport aircraft on airrecognition.com; Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine "Indian Air Force Plane C-130J Hercules Sets New World Record of 13 Hour 31 Minute Non-Stop Flight"
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor	The Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor is an American twin-engine, jet-powered, all-weather, supersonic stealth fighter aircraft. As a product of the United States Air Force's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed as an air superiority fighter, but also incorporates ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22 airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while program partner Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems. First flown in 1997, the F-22 descended from the Lockheed YF-22 and was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Although the U.S. Air Force (USAF) had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs to replace its F-15 Eagles, it later scaled down to 381, and the program was ultimately cut to 195 aircraft – 187 of them operational models – in 2009 due to political opposition from high costs, a perceived lack of air-to-air threats at the time of production, and the development of the more affordable and versatile F-35. The last aircraft was delivered in 2012. The F-22 is a critical component of the USAF's high-end tactical airpower. While it had a protracted development and initial operational difficulties, the aircraft became the service's leading counter-air platform against peer adversaries. Although designed for air superiority operations, the F-22 has also performed strike and electronic surveillance, including missions in the Middle East against the Islamic State and Assad-aligned forces. The F-22 is expected to remain a cornerstone of the USAF's fighter fleet until its succession by the Boeing F-47. == Development == === Origins === The F-22 originated from the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program that the U.S. Air Force (USAF) initiated in 1981 to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Intelligence reports indicated that their effectiveness would be eroded by emerging worldwide threats emanating from the Soviet Union, including new developments in surface-to-air missile systems for integrated air defense networks, the introduction of the Beriev A-50 "Mainstay" airborne warning and control system (AWACS), and the proliferation of the Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker" and Mikoyan MiG-29 "Fulcrum" class of fighter aircraft. Code-named "Senior Sky", the ATF would become an air superiority fighter program influenced by these threats; in the potential scenario of a Soviet and Warsaw Pact invasion in Central Europe, the ATF was envisaged to support the air-land battle by spearheading offensive and defensive counter-air operations (OCA/DCA) in this highly contested environment that would then enable following echelons of NATO strike and attack aircraft to perform air interdiction against ground formations; to do so, the ATF would make an ambitious leap in capability and survivability by taking advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems and avionics, more powerful propulsion systems for supersonic cruise (or supercruise) around Mach 1.5, and stealth technology for low observability. The USAF published an ATF request for information (RFI) to the aerospace industry in May 1981, and following a period of concept and specification development, the ATF System Program Office (SPO) issued the demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth, supersonic cruise and maneuver. The RFP saw some alterations after its initial release, including more stringent signature reduction requirements in December 1985 and the addition of the requirement for flying technology demonstrator prototypes in May 1986. Owing to the immense investments required to develop the advanced technologies, teaming among companies was encouraged. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed, through its Skunk Works division at Burbank, California, teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas. These two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23; while they represented competing designs, the prototypes were meant for demonstrating concept viability and risk mitigation rather than a competitive flyoff. Concurrently, Pratt & Whitney and General Electric competed for the ATF engines. Dem/Val was focused on system engineering, technology development plans, and risk reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after down-select, the Lockheed team completely redesigned the airframe configuration in summer 1987 due to weight analysis, with notable changes including the wing planform from swept trapezoidal to diamond-like delta and a reduction in forebody planform area. The team extensively used analytical and empirical methods including computational fluid dynamics and computer-aided design, wind tunnel testing (18,000 hours for Dem/Val), and radar cross-section (RCS) calculations and pole testing. Avionics were tested in ground prototypes and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used trade studies from both teams to review the ATF system specifications and adjust or delete requirements that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. Side looking radars and the dedicated infrared search and track (IRST) system were eventually removed as well, although space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for their later addition. The ejection seat was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing ACES II. Despite efforts by both teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimates grew from 50,000 to 60,000 lb (22,700 to 27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 to 35,000 lbf (133 to 156 kN) class. Each team built two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each engine option. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and, in testing, successfully demonstrated supercruise, high angle-of-attack maneuvers, and the firing of air-to-air missiles from internal weapons bays. After the flight test of the demonstrator prototypes at Edwards Air Force Base, the teams submitted the results and their full-scale development design proposals – or Preferred System Concept – in December 1990; on 23 April 1991, the Secretary of the USAF, Donald Rice, announced the Lockheed team and Pratt & Whitney as the winners of the ATF and engine competitions. Both designs met or exceeded all performance requirements; the YF-23 was considered stealthier and faster, but the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky, having flown considerably more test sorties and hours than its counterpart. The press also speculated that the Lockheed team's design was more adaptable to the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) for replacing the F-14 Tomcat, but by fiscal year (FY) 1992, the U.S. Navy had abandoned NATF due to cost. === Full-scale development === The program formally moved to full-scale development, or Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), in August 1991. The production F-22 design (internally designated Configuration 645) had also evolved to have notable differences from the YF-22, which was immature due to being frozen relatively soon after the complete redesign in the summer of 1987. While the overall layout was similar, the external geometry saw significant alterations; the wing's leading edge sweep angle was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. The radome shape was changed for better radar performance, the wingtips were clipped for antennas, and the dedicated airbrake was eliminated. To improve pilot visibility and aerodynamics, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm) and the engine inlets moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the fuselage, wing, and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. The internal structural design was refined and reinforced, with the production airframe designed for a service life of 8,000 hours. The revised shaping was validated with over 17,000 additional hours of wind tunnel testing and further RCS testing at Helendale, California and the USAF RATSCAT range before the first flight. Increasing weight during EMD due to demanding ballistic survivability requirements and added capabilities caused slight reductions in projected range and maneuver performance. Aside from advances in air vehicle and propulsion technology, the F-22's avionics were unprecedented in complexity and scale for a combat aircraft, with the integration of multiple sensors systems and antennas, including electronic warfare, communication/navigation/identification (CNI), and software of 1.7 million lines of code written in Ada. Avionics often became the pacing factor of the whole program. In light of rapidly advancing computing and semiconductor technology, the avionics was to employ the Department of Defense's (DoD) PAVE PILLAR systems architecture and Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) program technology; the computing and processing requirements were equivalent to multiple contemporary Cray supercomputers to achieve sensor fusion. To enable early looks and troubleshooting for mission software development, the software was ground-tested in Boeing's Avionics Integration Laboratory (AIL) and flight-tested on a Boeing 757 modified with F-22 avionics and sensors, called Flying Test Bed (FTB). Because much of the F-22's avionics design occurred in the 1990s as the electronics industry was shifting from military to commercial applications as the predominant market, avionics upgrade efforts was initially difficult and protracted due to changing industry standards; for instance, C/C++ rather than Ada became predominant programming languages. The roughly equal division of work amongst the team largely carried through from Dem/Val to EMD, with prime contractor Lockheed responsible for the forward fuselage and control surfaces, General Dynamics for the center fuselage, and Boeing for aft fuselage and wings. Lockheed acquired General Dynamics' fighter portfolio at Fort Worth, Texas in 1993 and thus had the majority of the airframe manufacturing, and merged with Martin Marietta in 1995 to form Lockheed Martin. While Lockheed primarily performed Dem/Val work at its Skunk Works sites in Burbank and Palmdale, California, it shifted its program office and EMD work from Burbank to Marietta, Georgia, where it performed final assembly; Boeing manufactured airframe components, performed avionics integration and developed the training systems in Seattle, Washington. The EMD contract originally ordered seven single-seat F-22As and two twin-seat F-22Bs, although the latter was canceled in 1996 to reduce development costs and the orders were converted to single seaters. The first F-22A, an EMD aircraft with tail number 91-4001, was unveiled at Air Force Plant 6 in Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta on 9 April 1997 where it was officially named "Raptor". The aircraft first flew on 7 September 1997, piloted by chief test pilot Alfred "Paul" Metz. The Raptor's designation was briefly changed to F/A-22 starting in September 2002, mimicking the Navy's F/A-18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground-attack capability amid debate over the aircraft's role and relevance. The F-22 designation was reinstated in December 2005, when the aircraft entered service. The F-22 flight test program consisted of flight sciences, developmental test (DT), and initial operational test and evaluation (IOT&E) by the 411th Flight Test Squadron (FLTS) at Edwards AFB, California, as well as follow-on OT&E and development of tactics and operational employment by the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) at Nellis AFB, Nevada. Nine EMD jets assigned to the 411th FLTS would participate in the test program under the Combined Test Force (CTF) at Edwards. The first two aircraft conducted envelope expansion testing, such as flying qualities, air vehicle performance, propulsion, and stores separation. The third aircraft, the first to have production-level internal structure, tested flight loads, flutter, and stores separation, while two non-flying F-22s were built for testing static loads and fatigue. Subsequent EMD aircraft and the Boeing 757 FTB tested avionics, environmental qualifications, and observables, with the first combat-capable Block 3.0 software flying in 2001. Air vehicle testing resulted in several structural design modifications and retrofits for earlier lots, including tail fin strengthening to resolve buffeting in certain conditions. Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing in 2000 and subsequently sent to Wright-Patterson AFB for survivability testing, including live fire testing and battle damage repair training. Other retired EMD F-22s have been used as maintenance trainers. Because the F-22 had been designed to defeat contemporary and projected Soviet fighters, the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had major impacts on program funding; the DoD reduced its urgency for new weapon systems and the following years would see successive reductions in its budget. This resulted in the F-22's EMD being rescheduled and lengthened multiple times. Furthermore, the aircraft's sophistication and numerous technological innovations required extensive testing, which exacerbated the cost overruns and delays, especially from mission avionics. Some capabilities were also deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the upfront cost but increasing total program cost. The program transitioned to full-rate production in March 2005 and completed EMD that December, after which the test force had flown 3,496 sorties for over 7,600 flight hours. As the F-22 was designed for upgrades throughout its lifecycle, the 411th FLTS and 422nd TES continued the DT/OT&E and tactics development of these upgrades. Derivatives such as the X-44 thrust vectoring research aircraft and the FB-22 medium-range regional bomber were proposed in the late 1990s and early 2000s, although these were eventually abandoned. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's sophisticated capabilities, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft. === Production and procurement === The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in FY 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994 and service entry in the mid-to-late 1990s. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review (MAR) led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996 and service entry in the early-to-mid 2000s. After the end of the Cold War, this was further curtailed to 442 in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review while the USAF eventually set its requirement to 381 to support its Air Expeditionary Force structure with the last deliveries in 2013. Throughout development and production, the program was continually scrutinized for its costs and less expensive alternatives such as modernized F-15 or F-16 variants were being proposed, even though the USAF considered the F-22 to provide the greatest capability increase against peer adversaries for the investment. However, funding instability had reduced the total to 339 by 1997 and production was nearly halted by Congress in 1999. Although funds were eventually restored, the planned number continued to decline due to delays and cost overruns during EMD, slipping to 277 by 2003. In 2004, with its focus on asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare in Iraq and Afghanistan, the DoD under Secretary Donald Rumsfeld further cut procurement to 183 production aircraft, despite the USAF's requirement for 381; funding for this number was reached by a multi-year procurement contract awarded in 2006, with aircraft distributed to seven combat squadrons; total program cost was projected to be $62 billion (equivalent to approximately $90.2 billion in 2023). In 2008, the Congressional defense spending bill raised the number to 187. F-22 production would support over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month, about half of the initially planned rate from the 1990 MAR; after EMD aircraft contracts, the first production lot was awarded in September 2000. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost was estimated to be about $67.3 billion (about $360 million for each production aircraft delivered), with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at $138 million (equivalent to approximately $191 million in 2023) in 2009. In total, 195 F-22s were built. The first two were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing and envelope expansion, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production-quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 74 Block 10/20 training aircraft and 112 Block 30/35 combat aircraft for a total of 186 (or 187 when accounting for Production Representative Test Vehicles and certain EMD jets); one of the Block 30 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards AFB. By 2020, Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 onward were upgraded to Block 30 standards under the Common Configuration Plan, increasing the Block 30/35 fleet to 149 aircraft while 37 remained in the Block 20 configuration for training. === Ban on exports === In order to prevent the inadvertent disclosure of the aircraft's stealth technology and classified capabilities to U.S. adversaries, annual DoD appropriations acts since FY1998 have included a provision prohibiting the use of funds made available in each act to approve or license the sale of the F-22 to any foreign government. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of export sales on the U.S. aerospace industry. Some Australian defense officials and politicians have expressed interest in procuring the F-22; in 2008, the Chief of the Defence Force, Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, stated that the aircraft was being considered by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as a potential supplement to the F-35. Some defense commentators have even advocated for the purchase in lieu of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, considerations for the F-22 were later dropped and the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet would serve as the RAAF's interim aircraft prior to the F-35's service entry. The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. At one point the Israeli Air Force had hoped to purchase up to 50 F-22s. In November 2003, however, Israeli representatives announced that after years of analysis and discussions with Lockheed Martin and the DoD, they had concluded that Israel could not afford the aircraft. Israel eventually purchased the F-35. === Production termination === Throughout the 2000s when the U.S. was primarily fighting counterinsurgency wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the USAF's requirement for 381 F-22s was questioned over rising costs, initial reliability and availability problems, limited multirole versatility, and a lack of relevant adversaries for air combat missions. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition was expressed by Bush Administration Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and his successor Robert Gates, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) Senators John Warner and John McCain. Under Rumsfeld, procurement was severely cut to 183 aircraft. The F-22 lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. In November 2008, Gates stated that the F-22 lacked relevance in asymmetric post-Cold War conflicts, and in April 2009, under the Obama Administration, he called for production to end in FY 2011 after completing 187 F-22s. The loss of staunch F-22 advocates in the upper DoD echelons resulted in the erosion of its political support. In July 2008, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the SASC his reasons for supporting the termination of F-22 production, including shifting resources to the multi-service F-35 and the electric warfare EA-18G Growler. Although Russian and Chinese fighter developments fueled concern for the USAF, Gates dismissed this and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one, despite an effort by Wynne's and Moseley's successors Michael Donley and General Norton Schwartz to raise the number to 243; according to Schwartz, he and Donley finally relented in order to convince Gates to preserve the Long Range Strike Bomber program. After President Barack Obama threatened to veto further production at Gates' urging, both the Senate and House agreed to abide by the 187 cap in July 2009. Gates highlighted the F-35's role in the decision, and believed that the U.S. would maintain its stealth fighter numbers advantage by 2025 even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test and 187 production aircraft built; the jet was delivered on 2 May 2012. After production ended, F-22 tooling and associated documentation were retained and mothballed at the Sierra Army Depot to support repairs and maintenance throughout the fleet life cycle, as well as the possibility of a production restart or a Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). The Marietta plant space was repurposed to support the C-130J and F-35, while engineering work for sustainment and upgrades continued at Fort Worth, Texas and Palmdale, California. The curtailed production forced the USAF to extend the service of 179 F-15C/Ds until 2026—well beyond its planned retirement—and replace those with new-build F-15EX, which had an active export production line that minimized non-recurring start-up costs, to maintain adequate air superiority fighter numbers. In April 2016, Congress directed the USAF to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22, citing advancing threats from Russia and China. On 9 June 2017, the USAF submitted their report stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to cost-prohibitive economic and logistical challenges; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for acquisition with the first delivery in the mid-to-late 2020s. The long gap since the end of production meant hiring new workers, sourcing replacement vendors, and finding new plant space, contributing to the high start-up costs and lead times. The USAF believed that the funding would be better invested in its next-generation Air Superiority 2030 effort, which evolved into the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD). === Modernization and upgrades === The F-22 and its subsystems were designed to be upgraded over its life cycle via numbered Increments and Operational Flight Program (OFP) updates in anticipation for technological advances and evolving threats, although this initially proved difficult and costly due to the highly integrated avionics systems architecture. Amid debates over the airplane's relevance in asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare, the first upgrades primarily focused on ground attack, or strike capabilities. Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) employment was added with Increment 2 in 2005 and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) was integrated with 3.1 in 2011; the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes, was certified in March 2007 and fitted on airframes from Lot 5 onward. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012. In contrast to prior upgrades, Increment 3.2 emphasized air combat capabilities with updates to electronic warfare, CNI (including Link 16 receive), and geolocation as well as AIM-9X and AIM-120D integration. Fleet releases of the two-part process began in 2013 and 2019 respectively. Concurrently, OFP updates added Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System, cryptographic enhancements, and improved avionics stability, among others. A MIDS-JTRS terminal, which includes Mode 5 IFF and Link 16 transmit/receive capability, was installed starting in 2021. To address obsolescence and modernization difficulties, the F-22's mission computers were upgraded in 2021 with military-hardened commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) open mission system (OMS) processor modules with a modular open systems architecture (MOSA). Agile software development process in conjunction with an orchestration system was implemented to enable faster upgrades from additional vendors, and software updates shifted away from Increments developed using the waterfall model to numbered annual releases. Additional upgrades being tested include new sensors and antennas, integration of new weapons including the AIM-260 JATM, and reliability improvements such as more durable stealth coatings; the dedicated infrared search and track (IRST), originally deleted during Dem/Val, is one of the sensors added. Other developments include all-aspect IRST functionality for the Missile Launch Detector (MLD), manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T) capability with uncrewed collaborative combat aircraft (CCA) or "loyal wingmen", and integration of the Gentex/Raytheon (later Thales USA) Scorpion helmet-mounted display (HMD). To preserve the aircraft's stealth while enabling additional payload and fuel capacity, stealthy external carriage has been investigated since the early-2000s, with a low drag, low-observable external tank and pylon under development to increase stealthy combat radius. The F-22 has also been used a platform to test and apply technologies from the NGAD program. Not all proposed upgrades have been implemented. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation. While Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 onwards have been upgraded to Block 30/35 under the Common Configuration Plan, Lockheed Martin in 2017 had also proposed upgrading all remaining Block 20 training aircraft to Block 30/35 as well to increase numbers available for combat; this was not pursued due to other budget priorities. Aside from modernizations, the F-22's structural design and construction was improved over the course of the production run; for instance, aircraft from Lot 3 onwards had improved stabilators built by Vought. The fleet underwent a $350 million "structures repair/retrofit program" (SRP) to resolve problems identified during testing as well as address improper titanium heat treatment in the parts of early batches. By January 2021, all aircraft had gone through the SRP to ensure full service lives for the entire fleet. The F-22 has also been used to test and qualify alternative fuels, including a synthetic jet fuel consisting of 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer–Tropsch process-produced, natural gas-based fuel in August 2008, and a 50% mixture of biofuel derived from camelina in March 2011. == Design == === Overview === The F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation air superiority fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF. It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and integrated avionics (or sensor fusion) in a single weapons platform to enable it to survive and conduct missions, primarily offensive and defensive counter-air operations, in highly contested environments. The F-22's shape combines stealth and aerodynamic performance. Planform and panel edges are aligned at common angular aspects and the surfaces, also aligned accordingly, have continuous curvature to minimize the aircraft's radar cross-section. Its clipped diamond-like delta wings have the leading edge swept 42°, trailing edge swept −17°, a slight anhedral and a conical camber to reduce supersonic wave drag. The shoulder-mounted wings are smoothly blended into the fuselage with four empennage surfaces and leading edge root extensions running to the caret inlets' upper edges, where the forebody chines also meet. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for air braking, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag. Owing to the focus on supersonic performance, area rule is applied extensively to the airplane's shape and nearly all of the fuselage volume lies ahead of the wing's trailing edge to reduce drag at supersonic speeds, with the stabilators pivoting from tail booms extending aft of the engine nozzles. Weapons are carried internally in the fuselage for stealth. The jet has a retractable tricycle landing gear and an emergency tailhook. Fire suppression system and fuel tank inerting system are installed for survivability. The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate rectangular two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees in the pitch-axis; the nozzles are fully integrated into the F-22's flight controls and vehicle management system. Each engine has dual-redundant Hamilton Standard full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) and maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. The fixed shoulder-mounted caret inlets are offset from the forward fuselage to divert the turbulent boundary layer and generate oblique shocks with the upper inboard corners to ensure good total pressure recovery and efficient supersonic flow compression. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 in supercruise at military/intermediate power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners. With 18,000 lb (8,165 kg) of internal fuel and an additional 8,000 lb (3,629 kg) in two 600-gallon external tanks, the jet has a ferry range of over 1,600 nmi (1,840 mi; 2,960 km). The aircraft has a refueling boom receptacle centered on its spine and an auxiliary power unit embedded in the left wing root. The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. Its ability to supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using afterburners, allows it to intercept targets that afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of parasitic drag from external stores. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m), thus providing 50% greater employment range for air-to-air missiles and twice the effective range for JDAMs than with prior platforms. Its structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and bismaleimide/epoxy composites comprise 42% and 24% of the structural weight; the materials and multiple load path structural design also enable good ballistic survivability. The airplane's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope, capable of 9-g maneuvers at takeoff gross weight with full internal fuel. Its large control surfaces, vortex-generating chines and LERX, and vectoring nozzles provide excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, and is capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra; vortex impingement on the vertical tail fins did cause more buffeting than initially anticipated, resulting in the strengthening of the fin structure by changing the rear spar from composite to titanium. The computerized triplex-redundant fly-by-wire control system and FADEC make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling. === Stealth === The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar, with radio waves reflected, scattered, or diffracted away from the emitter source towards specific sectors, or absorbed and attenuated. Measures to reduce RCS include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges and continuous curvature of surfaces, internal carriage of weapons, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine fan faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio frequency emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's rectangular thrust-vectoring nozzles flatten the exhaust plume and facilitate its mixing with ambient air through shed vortices, which reduces infrared emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight. Compared to previous stealth designs, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions, and can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar without climate control. The F-22 incorporates a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the airplane has an RCS of 0.0001 m2 or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble"; the aircraft can mount a Luneburg lens reflector to mask its RCS. For missions where stealth is required, the mission capable rate is 62–70%. Beginning in 2021, the F-22 has been seen testing a new chrome-like surface coating, speculated to help reduce the F-22's detectability by infrared tracking systems. The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar-absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. These are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. === Avionics === The aircraft has an integrated avionics system where through sensor fusion, data from all onboard sensor systems as well as off-board inputs are filtered and processed into a combined tactical picture, thus enhancing the pilot's situational awareness and reducing workload. Key mission systems include Sanders/General Electric AN/ALR-94 electronic warfare system, Martin Marietta AN/AAR-56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch Detector (MLD), Westinghouse/Texas Instruments AN/APG-77 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, TRW Communication/Navigation/Identification (CNI) suite, and Raytheon advanced infrared search and track (IRST) being tested. The APG-77 radar has a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically scanned antenna with multiple target track-while-scan in all weather conditions; the antenna is tilted back for stealth. Its emissions can be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic attack capability. The radar changes frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125–150 mi (201–241 km) against an 11 sq ft (1 m2) target and 250 mi (400 km) or more in narrow beams. The upgraded APG-77(V)1 provides air-to-ground functionality through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mapping, ground moving target indication/track (GMTI/GMTT), and strike modes. The ALR-94 electronic warfare system, among the most technically complex equipment on the F-22, integrates more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage for all-round radar warning receiver (RWR) coverage and threat geolocation. It can be used as a passive detector capable of searching targets at ranges (250+ nmi) exceeding the radar's, and can provide enough information for a target lock and cue radar emissions to a narrow beam (down to 2° by 2° in azimuth and elevation). Depending on the detected threat, the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or chaff. The MLD uses six sensors to provide full spherical infrared coverage while the advanced IRST, housed in a stealthy wing pod, is a narrow field-of-view sensor for long-range passive identification and targeting. To ensure stealth in the radio frequency spectrum, CNI emissions are strictly controlled and confined to specific sectors, with tactical communication between F-22s performed using the directional Inter/Intra-Flight Data Link (IFDL); the integrated CNI system, which incorporates a MIDS-JTRS terminal, also manages TACAN, IFF (including Mode 5), and communication through various methods such as HAVE QUICK/SATURN and SINCGARS. The aircraft was also upgraded with an automatic ground collision avoidance system (GCAS). Information from radar, CNI, and other sensors are processed by two Hughes Common Integrated Processor (CIP) mission computers, each capable of processing up to 10.5 billion instructions per second. The F-22's baseline software has some 1.7 million lines of code, the majority involving the mission systems such as processing radar data. The highly integrated nature of the avionics architecture system, as well as the use of the programming language Ada, has made the development and testing of upgrades challenging. To enable more rapid upgrades, the CIPs were upgraded with Curtiss-Wright open mission systems (OMS) processor modules as well as a modular open systems architecture called the Open Systems Enclave (OSE) orchestration platform to allow the avionics suite to interface with containerized software from third-party vendors. The F-22's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the ability to function as a "mini-AWACS", though its radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. This allows the F-22 to rapidly designate targets for allies and coordinate friendly aircraft. Although communication with other aircraft types was initially limited to voice, upgrades have enabled data to be transferred through a Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) or via JTIDS/Link 16 traffic through MIDS-JTRS. The IEEE 1394B bus developed for the F-22 was derived from the commercial IEEE 1394 "FireWire" bus system. In 2007, the F-22's radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver, transmitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at gigabit speed, far faster than the Link 16 system. The radio frequency receivers of the electronic support measures (ESM) system give the aircraft the ability to perform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) tasks. === Cockpit === The F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital flight instruments. The monochrome head-up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument; information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels. The primary flight controls are a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pair of throttles. The USAF initially wanted to implement direct voice input (DVI) controls, but this was judged to be too technically risky and was abandoned. The canopy's dimensions are approximately 140 inches long, 45 inches wide, and 27 inches tall (355 cm × 115 cm × 69 cm) and weighs 360 pounds. The canopy was redesigned after the original design lasted an average of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours. Although the F-22 was originally intended to have a helmet mounted display (HMD), this was deferred during development to save costs; the aircraft is currently integrating the Scorpion HMD. The F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module. The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot data. Two 3 in × 4 in (7.6 cm × 10.2 cm) up-front displays located around the ICP are used to display integrated caution advisory/warning (ICAW) data, CNI data and also serve as the stand-by flight instrumentation group and fuel quantity indicator for redundancy. The stand-by flight group displays an artificial horizon, for basic instrument meteorological conditions. The 8 in × 8 in (20 cm × 20 cm) primary multi-function display (PMFD) is located under the ICP, and is used for navigation and situation assessment. Three 6.25 in × 6.25 in (15.9 cm × 15.9 cm) secondary multi-function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and stores management. The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II commonly used in USAF aircraft, with a center-mounted ejection control. The F-22 has a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG) valve controlling flow and pressure to the pilot's mask and garments. The pilot garments were developed under the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project and protect against chemical/biological hazards and cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and low pressure at high altitudes, and provide thermal relief. Following a series of hypoxia-related issues, the life support system was consequently revised to include an automatic backup oxygen system and a new flight vest valve. In combat environments, the ejection seat includes a modified M4 carbine designated the GAU-5/A. === Armament === The F-22 has three internal weapons bays: a large main bay on the bottom of the fuselage, and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage, aft of the engine inlets; a small bay for countermeasures such as flares is located behind each side bay. The main bay is split along the centerline and can accommodate six LAU-142/A launchers for beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles and each side bay has an LAU-141/A launcher for short-range missiles. The primary air-to-air missiles are the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the AIM-9 Sidewinder, with planned integration of the AIM-260 JATM. Missile launches require the bay doors to be open for less than a second, during which pneumatic or hydraulic arms push missiles clear of the aircraft; this is to reduce vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during high-speed flight. An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon is embedded in the airplane's right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door, which remains closed when the cannon is not firing in order to minimize the negative effect the exposed muzzle on the aircraft's radar signature The radar projection of the cannon fire's path is displayed on the pilot's head-up display. Although designed for air-to-air missiles, the main bay can replace four launchers with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1,000 lb (450 kg) or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs for a total of 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of air-to-surface ordnance. In 2024, Lockheed Martin disclosed its proposed Mako hypersonic missile, a 1,300 lb (590 kg) weapon that can be carried internally in the F-22. While capable of carrying weapons with GPS guidance such as JDAMs and SDBs, the F-22 cannot self-designate laser-guided weapons. While the F-22 typically carries weapons internally, the wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle 5,000 lb (2,300 kg). Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600-gallon (2,270 L) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air-to-air missiles; the two inboard hardpoints are "plumbed" for external fuel tanks. The two outboard hardpoints have since been dedicated to a pair of stealthy pods housing the IRST and mission systems. The aircraft can jettison external tanks and their pylon attachments to restore its low observable characteristics and kinematic performance. === Maintenance === Each F-22 requires a three-week packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 flight hours. Its stealth coatings were designed to be more robust and weather-resistant than those of earlier stealth aircraft, yet early coatings failed against rain and moisture when F-22s were initially posted to Guam in 2009. Stealth measures account for almost one third of maintenance, with coatings being particularly demanding. F-22 depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics Complex at Hill AFB, Utah; considerable care is taken during maintenance due to the small fleet size and limited attrition reserve. F-22s were available for missions 63% of the time on average in 2015, up from 40% when it was introduced in 2005. Maintenance hours per flight hour was also improved from 30 early on to 10.5 by 2009, lower than the requirement of 12; man-hours per flight hour was 43 in 2014. When introduced, the F-22 had a Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.7 hours, short of the required 3.0; this rose to 3.2 hours in 2012. By fiscal year 2015, the cost per flight hour was $59,116, while the user reimbursement rate was approximately US$35,000 (~$41,145 in 2023) per flight hour in 2019. == Operational history == === Introduction into service === The F-22 underwent extensive testing before its service introduction. While the first production aircraft was delivered to Edwards AFB in October 2002 for IOT&E and the first jet for the 422nd TES at Nellis AFB arrived in January 2003, IOT&E was continually pushed back from its planned start in mid-2003, with mission avionics stability being particularly challenging. Following a preliminary assessment, called OT&E Phase 1, formal IOT&E began in April 2004 and was completed in December of that year. This milestone marked the successful demonstration of the jet's air-to-air mission capability, although the jet was more maintenance intensive than expected. A Follow-On OT&E (FOT&E) in 2005 cleared the F-22's air-to-ground mission capability. The first combat ready F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing arrived at Langley AFB, Virginia in January 2005 and that December, the USAF announced that the aircraft had achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) with the 94th Fighter Squadron. The unit subsequently participated in Exercise Northern Edge 06 in Alaska in June 2006 and Exercise Red Flag 07–2 at Nellis AFB in February 2007, where it demonstrated the F-22's greatly increased air combat capabilities when flying against Red Force Aggressor F-15s and F-16s with a simulated kill ratio of 108–0. These large force exercises also further refined the F-22's operational tactics and employment. The F-22 achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air Combat Command (ACC) officially declared the F-22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192nd Fighter Wing fully operational. This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in April 2008, in which it was rated "excellent" in all categories, with a simulated kill-ratio of 221–0. The fielding of the F-22 with its precision strike capability also contributed to the retirement of the F-117 from operational service in 2008, with the 49th Fighter Wing operating the F-22 for a brief period prior to a series of fleet consolidations to reduce long term operational costs; further consolidations to improve availability and pilot training were recommended by the Government Accountability Office in 2018. === Training === The 43rd Fighter Squadron was reactivated in 2002 as the F-22 Formal Training Unit (FTU) for the type's basic course at Tyndall AFB and the first aircraft for pilot training was delivered in September 2003. Following severe damage to the installation in the wake of Hurricane Michael in 2018, the squadron and its aircraft were relocated to nearby Eglin AFB; although it was initially feared that several jets were lost due to storm damage, all were later repaired and flown out. The FTU and its aircraft were reassigned to the 71st Fighter Squadron at Langley AFB in 2023. As of 2014, B-Course students require 38 sorties to graduate (previously 43 sorties). Track 1 course pilots, pilots retraining from other aircraft, also saw a reduction in the number of sorties needed to graduate, from 19 to 12 sorties. F-22 students are first trained on the T-38 Talon trainer aircraft. Additional pilot training takes place on the F-16 because the aging T-38 is not rated to sustain higher G-forces and lacks modern avionics. Due to a lack of a modern trainer stand-in that can accurately emulate the F-22, the Air Force often uses F-22s to supplement training, which is costly as the F-22 costs almost 10 times more than the T-38 per flight hour. The upcoming T-7 Red Hawk features modern avionics that better approximate those of the F-22 and F-35. This is scheduled to enter initial operating capability in 2027, several years behind schedule. In 2014 the Air Force stood up the 2nd Fighter Training Squadron at Tyndall AFB which was equipped with T-38s to serve as adversary aircraft to reduce adversary training flights on the F-22s. To reduce operating costs and prolong the F-22's service life, some pilot training sorties are performed using flight simulators. The advanced F-22 weapons instructor course at USAF Weapons School is conducted by the 433rd Weapons Squadron at Nellis AFB. === Initial operational problems === During the initial years of service, F-22 pilots experienced symptoms as a result of oxygen system issues that include loss of consciousness, memory loss, emotional lability and neurological changes as well as lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough; the issues resulted in a fatal mishap in 2010 and four-month grounding in 2011 and subsequent altitude and distance flight restrictions. In August 2012, the DoD found that the BRAG valve, which inflated the pilot's vest during high-g maneuvers, was defective and restricted breathing and the OBOGS (onboard oxygen generation system) unexpectedly fluctuated oxygen levels at high g. A Raptor Aeromedical Working Group had recommended changes in 2005 regarding oxygen supply that were unfunded but received further consideration in 2012. The F-22 CTF and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron eventually determined breathing restrictions as the root cause; coughing symptoms were attributed to acceleration atelectasis from high g exposure and OBOGS delivering excessive oxygen concentration. The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed unrelated. Modifications to the life support and oxygen systems, including the installation of an automatic backup, allowed altitude and distance restrictions to be lifted in April 2013. === Operational service === Following IOC and large-scale exercises, the F-22 flew its first homeland defense mission in January 2007 under Operation Noble Eagle. In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, performed their first North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) interception of two Russian Tu-95MS bombers. Since then, F-22s have also escorted probing Tu-160 bombers. The F-22 was first deployed overseas in February 2007 with the 27th Fighter Squadron to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan. This first overseas deployment was initially marred by problems when six F-22s flying from Hickam AFB, Hawaii, experienced multiple software-related system failures while crossing the International Date Line (180th meridian of longitude). The aircraft returned to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft. Within 48 hours, the error was resolved and the journey resumed. Kadena would be a frequent rotation for F-22 units; they have also been involved in training exercises in South Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Defense Secretary Gates initially refused to deploy F-22s to the Middle East in 2007; the type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra, less than 200 miles from Iran. In March 2013, the USAF announced that an F-22 had intercepted an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an MQ-1 Predator flying off the Iranian coastline. On 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the type's first combat sorties by conducting some of the opening strikes of Operation Inherent Resolve, the American-led intervention in Syria; aircraft dropped 1,000-pound GPS-guided bombs on Islamic State targets near Tishrin Dam. Between September 2014 and July 2015, F-22s flew 204 sorties over Syria, dropping 270 bombs at some 60 locations. Throughout their deployment, F-22s conducted close air support (CAS) and also deterred Syrian, Iranian, and Russian aircraft from attacking U.S.-backed Kurdish forces and disrupting U.S. operations in the region. F-22s also participated in the U.S. strikes that defeated pro-Assad and Russian Wagner Group paramilitary forces near Khasham in eastern Syria on 7 February 2018. These strikes notwithstanding, the F-22's main role in the operation was conducting intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. The aircraft also performed missions in other regions of the Middle East; in November 2017, F-22s operating alongside B-52s bombed opium production and storage facilities in Taliban-controlled regions of Afghanistan. To increase deployment responsiveness and reduce logistical footprint in a peer or near-peer conflict, the USAF developed a deployment concept called Rapid Raptor which involves two to four F-22s and one C-17 for logistical support, first proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours in smaller and more austere environments that would enable more dispersed and survivable disposition of forces. This concept was tested at Wake Island in 2013 and Guam in late 2014. Four F-22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany, Łask Air Base in Poland, and Ämari Air Base in Estonia in August and September 2015 to further test the concept and train with NATO allies in response to the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014. The USAF would build on the principles of Rapid Raptor and eventually integrate it into its new operational concept called Agile Combat Employment, which shifts towards distributed operations during peer conflicts; for instance, detachments of F-22s have operated from austere airfields on Tinian and Iwo Jima during exercises. On 4 February 2023, an F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing shot down a suspected Chinese spy balloon within visual range off the coast of South Carolina at an altitude of 60,000 to 65,000 feet (20,000 m), marking the F-22's first air-to-air kill. The wreckage landed approximately 6 miles offshore and was subsequently secured by ships of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard. F-22s shot down additional high-altitude objects near the coast of Alaska on 10 February and over Yukon on 11 February. The USAF expects to begin retiring the F-22 in the 2030s as it gets replaced by the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) sixth-generation crewed fighter, the Boeing F-47. In May 2021, Air Force Chief of Staff Charles Q. Brown Jr. said that he envisioned a reduction in the future number of fighter fleets to "four plus one": the F-22 followed by NGAD, the F-35A, the F-15E followed by F-15EX, the F-16 followed by "MR-X", and the A-10; the A-10 was later dropped from the plans due that aircraft's accelerated retirement. In 2022 the Air Force requested that it be allowed to divest all but three of its Block 20 F-22s at Tyndall AFB. Congress denied the request to divest its 33 non-combat-coded Block 20 aircraft and passed language prohibiting the divestment through FY2026. While the Block 30/35 F-22 remains one of the USAF's top priorities and will be continually updated, the service believes the Block 20 aircraft is obsolescent and unsuitable even for training F-22 pilots and that upgrading them to Block 30/35 standards would be cost-prohibitive at $3.5 billion. == Variants == F-22A Single-seat version, was designated F/A-22A in early 2000s before reverting back to F-22A in 2005; 195 built, consisting of 8 test and 187 operational aircraft. F-22B Planned two-seat version with the same combat capabilities as the single-seat version, cancelled in 1996 to save development costs with test aircraft orders converted to F-22A. Naval F-22 variant Never formally designated, planned carrier-borne variant/derivative for the U.S. Navy's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program. Because the NATF needed lower landing speeds than the F-22 for aircraft carrier operations while still attaining Mach 2-class speeds, the design would have incorporated variable-sweep wings; it would also have had expanded weapons carriage, including the AIM-152 AAAM, AGM-88 HARM, and AGM-84 Harpoon. Program was cancelled in 1991 due to tightening budgets. === Proposed derivatives === The X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup. The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was halted in 2000. The FB-22 was proposed in the early 2000s as a supersonic stealth regional bomber for the USAF. The design went through several iterations and the later ones would combine an F-22 fuselage with greatly enlarged delta wings and was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to over 1,600 nmi (3,000 km), about twice the combat range of the F-22A. The FB-22 proposals were cancelled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic strategic bomber with a much greater range; this became the Next-Generation Bomber, although it would be rescoped in 2009 as the Long Range Strike Bomber resulting in the B-21 Raider. In August 2018, Lockheed Martin proposed an F-22 derivative to the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) for its 5th/6th generation F-X program. The design, which was later also proposed to the USAF, would combine a modified F-22 airframe with enlarged wings to increase fuel capacity and combat radius to 1,200 nmi (2,200 km) as well as the avionics and improved stealth coatings of the F-35. The proposal was ultimately not considered by the USAF or JASDF due to cost as well as existing export restrictions and industrial workshare concerns. == Operators == The United States Air Force is the only operator of the F-22. As of August 2022, it has 183 aircraft in its inventory. === Air Combat Command === === Pacific Air Forces === === Air National Guard === === Air Force Reserve Command === === Air Force Material Command === == Accidents == The first F-22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot ejected safely before impact. The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight-control system malfunction; consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem. Following a brief grounding, F-22 operations resumed after a review. On 25 March 2009, an EMD F-22 crashed 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight, resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high-G maneuver, or g-LOC, then ejected when he found himself too low to recover. Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt-force trauma from windblast due to the aircraft's speed. The investigation found no design issues. On 16 November 2010, an F-22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed, killing the pilot, Captain Jeffrey Haney. F-22s were restricted to flying below 25,000 feet, then grounded during the investigation. The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected, shutting down the Environmental Control System (ECS) and OBOGS. The accident review board ruled Haney was to blame, as he did not react properly to engage the emergency oxygen system. Haney's widow sued Lockheed Martin, claiming equipment defects, and later reached a settlement. After the ruling, the emergency oxygen system engagement handle was redesigned and the entire system was eventually replaced by an automatic backup. On 11 February 2013, the DoD's Inspector General released a report stating that the USAF had erred in blaming Haney, and that facts did not sufficiently support conclusions; the USAF stated that it stood by the ruling. On 15 November 2012, an F-22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB during a training mission. The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground. The investigation determined that a "chafed" electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line, causing a fire that damaged the flight controls. On 15 May 2020, an F-22 from Eglin Air Force Base crashed during a routine training mission shortly after takeoff; the pilot ejected safely. The cause of the crash was attributed to a maintenance error after an aircraft wash resulting in faulty air data sensor readings. == Aircraft on display == 91-4002 – Hill Air Force Base Aerospace Museum in Ogden, Utah 91-4003 – National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio == Specifications (F-22A) == Data from USAF, manufacturers' data, Aerofax, Aviation Week, Air Forces Monthly, and Journal of Electronic DefenseGeneral characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 62 ft 1 in (18.92 m) Wingspan: 44 ft 6 in (13.56 m) Height: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m) Wing area: 840 sq ft (78.04 m2) Aspect ratio: 2.36 Airfoil: NACA 6 series airfoil Empty weight: 43,340 lb (19,700 kg) Gross weight: 64,840 lb (29,410 kg) Max takeoff weight: 83,500 lb (38,000 kg) Fuel capacity: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) internally, or 26,000 lb (12,000 kg) with 2× 600 U.S. gal tanks Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofans, 26,000 lbf (120 kN) thrust each dry, 35,000 lbf (160 kN) with afterburner Performance Maximum speed: Mach 2.25, 1,500 mph (1,303 kn; 2,414 km/h) at altitude Mach 1.21, 800 knots (921 mph; 1,482 km/h) at sea level Supercruise: Mach 1.76, 1,162 mph (1,010 kn; 1,870 km/h) at altitude Range: 1,600 nmi (1,800 mi, 3,000 km) or more with 2 external fuel tanks Combat range: 460 nmi (530 mi, 850 km) clean with 100 nmi (115 mi; 185 km) in supercruise 595 nmi (685 mi; 1,102 km) clean subsonic 750 nmi (863 mi; 1,389 km) with 100 nmi in supercruise with 2× 600 U.S. gal tanks Ferry range: 1,740 nmi (2,000 mi, 3,220 km) Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (20,000 m) g limits: +9.0/−3.0 Wing loading: 77.2 lb/sq ft (377 kg/m2) Thrust/weight: 1.08 (1.25 with loaded weight and 50% internal fuel) Armament Guns: 1× 20 mm M61A2 Vulcan rotary cannon, 480 rounds Internal weapons bays: Air-to-air mission loadout: 6× AIM-120C/D AMRAAM or 4× AIM-120A/B 2× AIM-9M/X Sidewinder Air-to-ground mission loadout: 2× 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM and 2× AIM-120 or 8× 250 lb (110 kg) GBU-39 SDB and 2× AIM-120 or 4× 250 lb GBU-39 and 4× AIM-120 2× AIM-9 Hardpoint (external): 4× under-wing pylon stations can be fitted to carry weapons, each with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,270 kg) or 600 U.S. gallon (2,270 L) drop tanks 4x AIM-120 AMRAAM (external) Avionics AN/APG-77 or AN/APG-77(V)1 AESA radar: 125–150 miles (201–241 km) against 1 m2 (11 sq ft) targets (estimated range), more than 250 miles (400 km) in narrow beams AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) Advanced Infrared Search and Track (IRST) AN/ALR-94 electronic warfare system: 250 nautical miles (460 km) or more detection range for radar warning receiver (RWR) Integrated CNI Avionics including: Inter/Intra-Flight Datalink (IFDL) MIDS-JTRS Link 16/JTIDS IFF (Mode 5) Embedded GPS/INS (EGI) TACAN HAVE QUICK/SATURN SINCGARS MJU-39/40 flares for protection against IR missiles == See also == Advanced Tactical Fighter Aircraft in fiction#F-22 Raptor Related development Lockheed YF-22 Lockheed Martin FB-22 Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Chengdu J-20 Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Sukhoi Su-57 TAI TF Kaan Related lists List of fighter aircraft List of Lockheed aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of megaprojects, Aerospace List of military electronics of the United States == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == Further reading == Wallace, Mike; Holder, William G. (1998). Lockheed-Martin F-22 Raptor: An Illustrated History. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 9780764305580. OCLC 39910177. == External links == Official website F-22 Demo at 2007 Capital Airshow in Sacramento – with narrative by F-22 pilot Paul "Max" Moga Contracting Strategy for F-22 Modernization - U.S. Department of Defense
Lockheed Martin SR-72	The Lockheed Martin SR-72, commonly referred to as "Son of Blackbird," is an American hypersonic concept intended for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR). Proposed privately in 2013 by Lockheed Martin as a successor to the retired Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, the SR-72 was projected by Lockheed Martin executives in 2018 to have a test vehicle fly by 2025 and potentially enter service in the 2030s. == Background == The SR-71 Blackbird was retired by the United States Air Force in 1998, eliminating a unique and valuable intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capability. Although most fifth-generation jet fighters and planned drones intended for enemy airspace rely on anti-radar stealth technologies, Professor Justin Bronk, a senior research fellow in airpower and technology at the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), argues that the rise of anti-access/area denial tactics and counter-stealth technologies renders speed more promising than stealth for penetrating protected airspace. The first unconfirmed reports about the SR-72 emerged in 2007, when various sources reported that Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Programs (ADP) division, Skunk Works, was developing an aircraft capable of flying at six times the speed of sound, or Mach 6 (4,000 mph; 6,400 km/h; 3,500 kn), for the United States Air Force—about twice as fast as the SR-71. == Design and development == === Early work === Since 2006, Lockheed Martin had been working to develop a suitable engine with Aerojet Rocketdyne. After the HTV-3X (DARPA FALCON Project) was cancelled in 2008, Aerojet Rocketdyne applied its scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) technology to the SR-72's engine design. The SR-72 was envisioned to have an air-breathing propulsion system that could operate at subsonic, transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic speeds. Turbojet engines can function from zero speed and typically perform best up to Mach 2.2. Ramjets, which rely on aerodynamic compression with subsonic combustion, perform poorly below Mach 0.5, are most efficient around Mach 3, and can operate up to about Mach 6. (The SR-71's engines shifted to low-speed ramjets by redirecting airflow around the core and into the afterburner at speeds exceeding Mach 2.5.) Scramjets can cover the high-supersonic-to-hypersonic range. The SR-72 was to employ a turbine-based combined cycle (TBCC) system, with a turbine engine for low speeds and a scramjet for high speeds. The engines would share an inlet and nozzle but have separate airflow paths. At speeds of Mach 5 and above, aerodynamic heating generates temperatures sufficient to melt conventional metallic airframes, prompting engineers to consider making critical components from composites such as the high-performance carbon, ceramic, and metal mixes used in intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and the retired Space Shuttle. === Plans for a prototype === On November 1, 2013, Aviation Week & Space Technology published an article on the SR-72's development. Public interest in the news was so intense that it overwhelmed the magazine's servers. Lockheed Martin officials announced plans to build an optionally piloted scaled demonstrator, about 60 feet (~18 meters) long—comparable in size to a Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor—powered by a single full-scale engine to achieve Mach 6 for several minutes. They projected it would be ready by 2018 for flight testing aligned with the High Speed Strike Weapon timeline. The production version of the SR-72, company officials said, would resemble the SR-71 in size at over 100 ft (30 m) long, share its range, and enter service by 2030. It was intended to follow the U.S. Air Force's hypersonic roadmap, targeting a hypersonic strike weapon by 2020 and a penetrating ISR aircraft by 2030. Lockheed officials noted they had discussed the project with government officials but had not secured funding for the prototype or engine. === The Air Force's thoughts === On November 13, 2013, Air Force Chief of Staff General Mark Welsh expressed the Air Force's interest in hypersonic flight, noting it would shorten an adversary's reaction time to operations. He highlighted it as one of several capabilities that could counter advanced air defenses. Welsh acknowledged the service was pursuing hypersonic technology but lacked the materials to build a full-sized aircraft like the uncrewed SR-72. He also clarified that the Air Force had not engaged with Lockheed Martin regarding the SR-72. By December 2013, the Air Force declined to fund the SR-72 program. Facing budget constraints, the service chose instead to develop the Northrop Grumman RQ-180 stealth UAV—anticipated to be less costly and complex to design and produce—for ISR missions in contested airspace. == Timeline == === 2014 NASA contracts === In December 2014, NASA awarded Lockheed Martin a contract to study the feasibility of developing the SR-72's propulsion system using existing turbine-engine technologies. The $892,292 (~$1.19 million in 2025) contract funded a design study to evaluate the viability of a TBCC propulsion system, integrating one of several current turbine engines with a very-low-Mach-ignition Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ). NASA had previously funded a Lockheed Martin study that determined speeds up to Mach 7 were achievable with a dual-mode engine combining turbine and ramjet technologies. The primary challenge in hypersonic propulsion has been bridging the gap between the top speed of a turbojet (around Mach 2.2) and the minimum operational speed of a scramjet (Mach 4), as typical turbine engines cannot accelerate sufficiently for a scramjet to take over. The NASA-Lockheed Martin study explored options such as a higher-speed turbine engine or a scramjet operable within a turbine's slower flight envelope; the DARPA HTV-3X had demonstrated a low-speed ramjet (DMRJ) functional below Mach 3. Existing turbofan engines from jet fighters and experimental designs were considered for modification. If successful, NASA planned to fund a demonstrator to test the DMRJ in a flight research vehicle. On December 15, 2014, NASA's Glenn Research Center awarded Aerojet Rocketdyne a $1,099,916 (~$1.47 million in 2025) contract to support mode-transition research. The two companies were reportedly collaborating on the TBCC propulsion system, aiming to begin development of the SR-72 hypersonic demonstrator in 2018, with an initial flight targeted for 2023. === 2015 to 2016 === In May 2015, the SR-72 was reported to be envisioned as an ISR and strike platform, though no specific payloads were identified—likely because existing payloads would be inadequate for an aircraft traveling at Mach 6 and up to 80,000 feet (24,400 m) altitude, requiring hundreds of miles to turn. New sensors and weapons would likely need to be developed specifically for such speeds. In March 2016, Lockheed Martin CEO Marillyn Hewson announced that the company was on the verge of a technological breakthrough, enabling the SR-72 to reach Mach 6 and permitting a hypersonic demonstrator—roughly the size of an F-22 stealth fighter—to be constructed for under $1 billion. === 2017 to 2018 === In June 2017, Lockheed Martin announced that the SR-72 would enter development by the early 2020s, with a top speed exceeding Mach 6. Executive Vice President Rob Weiss remarked, "We've been saying hypersonics [are] two years away for the last 20 years, but all I can say is the technology is mature, and we, along with DARPA and the services, are working hard to get that capability into the hands of our warfighters as soon as possible." In January 2018, Lockheed Martin Vice President Jack O'Banion delivered a presentation attributing advancements in additive manufacturing and computer modeling to the SR-72's feasibility, noting that building the aircraft five years earlier would have been impossible and that 3D printing enabled embedding a cooling system in the engine. In February 2018, Orlando Carvalho, executive vice president of aeronautics at Lockheed Martin, refuted reports of the SR-72's development, stating that no such aircraft had been produced. He added that hypersonic research was driving weapons development: "Eventually as that technology is matured, it could ultimately enable the development of a reusable vehicle. Prior to this we may have referred to it as a 'like an SR-72', but now the terminology of choice is 'reusable vehicle'" In November 2018, Lockheed Martin reported that a prototype of the SR-72 was scheduled to fly by 2025 and would be equipped to launch hypersonic missiles. The SR-72 could enter service in the 2030s. == See also == Aurora (aircraft) Boeing X-51 DARPA Falcon Project MD-22 AVIC WZ-8 AVIC Dark Sword Prompt Global Strike Reaction Engines Scimitar Tupolev Tu-360 == References ==
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II	The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is an American family of single-seat, single-engine, supersonic stealth strike fighters. A multirole combat aircraft designed for both air superiority and strike missions, it also has electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. Lockheed Martin is the prime F-35 contractor with principal partners Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems. The aircraft has three main variants: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A, the short take-off and vertical-landing (STOVL) F-35B, and the carrier variant (CV) catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery (CATOBAR) F-35C. The aircraft descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, which in 2001 beat the Boeing X-32 to win the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program intended to replace the F-16 Fighting Falcon, F/A-18 Hornet, and the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II "jump jet", among others. Its development is principally funded by the United States, with additional funding from program partner countries from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and close U.S. allies, including Australia, Canada, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom, and formerly Turkey. Several other countries have also ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft. The program has drawn criticism for its unprecedented size, complexity, ballooning costs, and delayed deliveries. The acquisition strategy of concurrent production of the aircraft while it was still in development and testing led to expensive design changes and retrofits. As of July 2024, the average flyaway costs per plane are: US$82.5 million for the F-35A, $109 million for the F-35B, and $102.1 million for the F-35C. The F-35 first flew in 2006 and entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps F-35B in July 2015, followed by the U.S. Air Force F-35A in August 2016 and the U.S. Navy F-35C in February 2019. The aircraft was first used in combat in 2018 by the Israeli Air Force. The U.S. plans to buy 2,456 F-35s through 2044, which will represent the bulk of the crewed tactical aviation of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps for several decades; the aircraft is planned to be a cornerstone of NATO and U.S.-allied air power and to operate to 2070. == Development == === Program origins === The F-35 was the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, which was the merger of various combat aircraft programs from the 1980s and 1990s. One progenitor program was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) which ran from 1983 to 1994; ASTOVL aimed to develop a Harrier jump jet replacement for the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) and the UK Royal Navy. Under one of ASTOVL's classified programs, the Supersonic STOVL Fighter (SSF), Lockheed's Skunk Works conducted research for a stealthy supersonic STOVL fighter intended for both U.S. Air Force (USAF) and USMC; among key STOVL technologies explored was the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF) system. Lockheed's concept was a single-engine canard delta aircraft weighing about 24,000 lb (11,000 kg) empty. ASTOVL was rechristened as the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) in 1993 and involved Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and Boeing. The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused considerable reductions in Department of Defense (DoD) spending and subsequent restructuring. In 1993, the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program emerged following the cancellation of the USAF's Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and U.S. Navy's (USN) Advanced Attack/Fighter (A/F-X) programs. MRF, a program for a relatively affordable F-16 Fighting Falcon replacement, was scaled back and delayed due to post–Cold War defense posture easing F-16 fleet usage and thus extending its service life as well as increasing budget pressure from the Lockheed Martin F-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program. The A/F-X, initially known as the Advanced-Attack (A-X), began in 1991 as the USN's follow-on to the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) program for an Grumman A-6 Intruder replacement; the ATA's resulting McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II had been canceled due to technical problems and cost overruns in 1991. In the same year, the termination of the Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), a naval development of USAF's ATF program to replace the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, resulted in additional fighter capability being added to A-X, which was then renamed A/F-X. Amid increased budget pressure, the DoD's Bottom-Up Review (BUR) in September 1993 announced MRF's and A/F-X's cancellations, with applicable experience brought to the emerging JAST program. JAST was not meant to develop a new aircraft, but rather to develop requirements, mature technologies, and demonstrate concepts for advanced strike warfare. As JAST progressed, the need for concept demonstrator aircraft by 1996 emerged, which would coincide with the full-scale flight demonstrator phase of ASTOVL/CALF. Because the ASTOVL/CALF concept appeared to align with the JAST charter, the two programs were eventually merged in 1994 under the JAST name, with the program now serving the USAF, USMC, and USN. JAST was subsequently renamed to Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) in 1995, with STOVL submissions by McDonnell Douglas, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. The JSF was expected to eventually replace large numbers of multi-role and strike fighters in the inventories of the US and its allies, including the Harrier, F-16, F/A-18, Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II, and Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk. International participation is a key aspect of the JSF program, starting with United Kingdom participation in the ASTOVL program. Many international partners requiring modernization of their air forces were interested in the JSF. The United Kingdom joined JAST/JSF as a founding member in 1995 and thus became the only Tier 1 partner of the JSF program; Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Canada, Australia, and Turkey joined the program during the Concept Demonstration Phase (CDP), with Italy and the Netherlands being Tier 2 partners and the rest Tier 3. Consequently, the aircraft was developed in cooperation with international partners and available for export. === JSF competition === Boeing and Lockheed Martin were selected in early 1997 for CDP, with their concept demonstrator aircraft designated X-32 and X-35 respectively; the McDonnell Douglas team was eliminated and Northrop Grumman and British Aerospace joined the Lockheed Martin team. Each firm would produce two prototype air vehicles to demonstrate conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL), carrier takeoff and landing (CV), and STOVL. Lockheed Martin's design would make use of the work on the SDLF system conducted under the ASTOVL/CALF program. The key aspect of the X-35 that enabled STOVL operation, the SDLF system consists of the lift fan in the forward center fuselage that could be activated by engaging a clutch that connects the driveshaft to the turbines and thus augmenting the thrust from the engine's swivel nozzle. Research from prior aircraft incorporating similar systems, such as the Convair Model 200, Rockwell XFV-12, and Yakovlev Yak-141, were also taken into consideration. By contrast, Boeing's X-32 employed direct lift system that the augmented turbofan would be reconfigured to when engaging in STOVL operation. Lockheed Martin's commonality strategy was to replace the STOVL variant's SDLF with a fuel tank and the aft swivel nozzle with a two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzle for the CTOL variant. STOVL operation is made possible through a patented shaft-driven LiftFan propulsion system. This would enable identical aerodynamic configuration for the STOVL and CTOL variants, while the CV variant would have an enlarged wing to reduce landing speed for carrier recovery. Due to aerodynamic characteristics and carrier recovery requirements from the JAST merger, the design configuration settled on a conventional tail compared to the canard delta design from the ASTOVL/CALF; notably, the conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk for carrier recovery compared to the ASTOVL/CALF canard configuration, which was designed without carrier compatibility in mind. This enabled greater commonality between all three variants, as the commonality goal was important at this design stage. Lockheed Martin's prototypes would consist of the X-35A for demonstrating CTOL before converting it to the X-35B for STOVL demonstration and the larger-winged X-35C for CV compatibility demonstration. The X-35A first flew on 24 October 2000 and conducted flight tests for subsonic and supersonic flying qualities, handling, range, and maneuver performance. After 28 flights, the aircraft was then converted into the X-35B for STOVL testing, with key changes including the addition of the SDLF, the three-bearing swivel module (3BSM), and roll-control ducts. The X-35B would successfully demonstrate the SDLF system by performing stable hover, vertical landing, and short takeoff in less than 500 ft (150 m). The X-35C first flew on 16 December 2000 and conducted field landing carrier practice tests. On 26 October 2001, Lockheed Martin was declared the winner and was awarded the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) contract; Pratt & Whitney was separately awarded a development contract for the F135 engine for the JSF. The F-35 designation, which was out of sequence with standard DoD numbering, was allegedly determined on the spot by program manager Major General Mike Hough; this came as a surprise even to Lockheed Martin, which had expected the F-24 designation for the JSF. === Design and production === As the JSF program moved into the System Development and Demonstration phase, the X-35 demonstrator design was modified to create the F-35 combat aircraft. The forward fuselage was lengthened by 5 inches (13 cm) to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were moved 2 inches (5.1 cm) aft to retain balance and control. The diverterless supersonic inlet changed from a four-sided to a three-sided cowl shape and was moved 30 inches (76 cm) aft. The fuselage section was fuller, the top surface raised by 1 inch (2.5 cm) along the centerline and the lower surface bulged to accommodate weapons bays. Following the designation of the X-35 prototypes, the three variants were designated F-35A (CTOL), F-35B (STOVL), and F-35C (CV), all with a design service life of 8,000 hours. Prime contractor Lockheed Martin performs overall systems integration and final assembly and checkout (FACO) at Air Force Plant 4 in Fort Worth, Texas, while Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems supply components for mission systems and airframe. Adding the systems of a fighter aircraft added weight. The F-35B gained the most, largely due to a 2003 decision to enlarge the weapons bays for commonality between variants; the total weight growth was reportedly up to 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg), over 8%, causing all STOVL key performance parameter (KPP) thresholds to be missed. In December 2003, the STOVL Weight Attack Team (SWAT) was formed to reduce the weight increase; changes included thinned airframe members, smaller weapons bays and vertical stabilizers, less thrust fed to the roll-post outlets, and redesigning the wing-mate joint, electrical elements, and the airframe immediately aft of the cockpit. The inlet was also revised to accommodate more powerful, greater mass flow engines. Many changes from the SWAT effort were applied to all three variants for commonality. By September 2004, these efforts had reduced the F-35B's weight by over 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg), while the F-35A and F-35C were reduced in weight by 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) and 1,900 pounds (860 kg) respectively. The weight reduction work cost $6.2 billion and caused an 18-month delay. The first F-35A, designated AA-1, was rolled out at Fort Worth on 19 February 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006 with chief test pilot Jon S. Beesley at the controls. In 2006, the F-35 was given the name "Lightning II" after the Lockheed P-38 Lightning of World War II. Some USAF pilots have nicknamed the aircraft "Panther" instead, and other nicknames include "Fat Amy" and "Battle Penguin". The aircraft's software was developed as six releases, or Blocks, for SDD. The first two Blocks, 1A and 1B, readied the F-35 for initial pilot training and multi-level security. Block 2A improved the training capabilities, while 2B was the first combat-ready release planned for the USMC's Initial Operating Capability (IOC). Block 3i retains the capabilities of 2B while having new Technology Refresh 2 (TR-2) hardware and was planned for the USAF's IOC. The final release for SDD, Block 3F, would have full flight envelope and all baseline combat capabilities. Alongside software releases, each block also incorporates avionics hardware updates and air vehicle improvements from flight and structural testing. In what is known as "concurrency", some low rate initial production (LRIP) aircraft lots would be delivered in early Block configurations and eventually upgraded to Block 3F once development is complete. After 17,000 flight test hours, the final flight for the SDD phase was completed in April 2018. Like the F-22, the F-35 has been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft efforts, as well as potential vulnerabilities in the integrity of the supply chain. Testing found several major problems: early F-35B airframes were vulnerable to premature cracking, the F-35C arrestor hook design was unreliable, fuel tanks were too vulnerable to lightning strikes, the helmet display had problems, and more. Software was repeatedly delayed due to its unprecedented scope and complexity. In 2009, the DoD Joint Estimate Team (JET) estimated that the program was 30 months behind the public schedule. In 2011, the program was "re-baselined"; that is, its cost and schedule goals were changed, pushing the IOC from the planned 2010 to July 2015. The decision to simultaneously test, fix defects, and begin production was criticized as inefficient; in 2014, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Frank Kendall called it "acquisition malpractice". The three variants shared just 25% of their parts, far below the anticipated commonality of 70%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns and for the total projected lifetime cost, as well as quality management shortcomings by contractors. As of August 2023, the program was 80% over budget and 10 years late. The JSF program was expected to cost about $200 billion for acquisition in base-year 2002 dollars when SDD was awarded in 2001. As early as 2005, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had identified major program risks in cost and schedule. The costly delays strained the relationship between the Pentagon and contractors. By 2017, delays and cost overruns had pushed the F-35 program's expected acquisition costs to $406.5 billion, with total lifetime cost (i.e., to 2070) to $1.5 trillion in then-year dollars which also includes operations and maintenance. The F-35A's unit cost (not including engine) for LRIP Lot 13 was $79.2 million in base-year 2012 dollars. Delays in development and operational test and evaluation, including integration into the Joint Simulation Environment, pushed full-rate production decision from the end of 2019 to March 2024, although actual production rate had already approached the full rate by 2020; the combined full rate at the Fort Worth, Italy, and Japan FACO plants is 156 aircraft annually. === Upgrades and further development === The F-35 is expected to be continually upgraded over its lifetime. The first combat-capable Block 2B configuration, which had basic air-to-air and strike capabilities, was declared ready by the USMC in July 2015. The Block 3F configuration began operational test and evaluation (OT&E) in December 2018 and its completion in late 2023 concluded SDD in March 2024. The F-35 program is also conducting sustainment and upgrade development, with early aircraft from LRIP lot 2 onwards gradually upgraded to the baseline Block 3F standard by 2021. With Block 3F as the final build for SDD, the first major upgrade program is Block 4 which began development in 2019 and was initially captured under the Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) program. Block 4 is expected to enter service in incremental steps from the late 2020s to early 2030s and integrates additional weapons, including those unique to international customers, improved sensor capabilities including the new AN/APG-85 AESA radar and additional ESM bandwidth, and adds Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) support. C2D2 also places greater emphasis on agile software development to enable quicker releases. The key enabler of Block 4 is Technology Refresh 3 (TR-3) avionics hardware, which consists of new display, core processor, and memory modules to support increased processing requirements, as well as engine upgrade that increases the amount of cooling available to support the additional mission systems. The engine upgrade effort explored both improvements to the F135 as well as significantly more power and efficient adaptive cycle engines. In 2018, General Electric and Pratt & Whitney were awarded contracts to develop adaptive cycle engines for potential application in the F-35, and in 2022, the F-35 Adaptive Engine Replacement program was launched to integrate them. However, in 2023 the USAF chose an improved F135 under the Engine Core Upgrade (ECU) program over an adaptive cycle engine due to cost as well as concerns over risk of integrating the new engine, initially designed for the F-35A, on the B and C. Difficulties with the new TR-3 hardware, including regression testing, have caused delays to Block 4 as well as a halt in aircraft deliveries from July 2023 to July 2024. Defense contractors have offered upgrades to the F-35 outside of official program contracts. In 2013, Northrop Grumman disclosed its development of a directional infrared countermeasures suite, named Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR). The countermeasure system would share the same space as the Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensors and acts as a laser missile jammer to protect against infrared-homing missiles. Israel operates a unique subvariant of the F-35A, designated the F-35I, that is designed to better interface with and incorporate Israeli equipment and weapons. The Israeli Air Force also has their own F-35I test aircraft that provides more access to the core avionics to include their own equipment. === Procurement and international participation === The United States is the primary customer and financial backer, with planned procurement of 1,763 F-35As for the USAF, 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs for the USMC, and 273 F-35Cs for the USN. Additionally, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, Australia, Norway, Denmark and Canada have agreed to contribute US$4.375 billion towards development costs, with the United Kingdom contributing about 10% of the planned development costs as the sole Tier 1 partner. Britain supplies ejector seats, rear fuselage, active interceptor systems, targeting lasers and weapon release cables, mainly through British Aerospace, amounting to 15% of the value of the F-35, and is the largest supplier of spare parts for the jet after the US. The initial plan was that the U.S. and eight major partner countries would acquire over 3,100 F-35s through 2035. The three tiers of international participation generally reflect financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. Alongside program partner countries, Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP). Sales to SCP and non-partner states, including Belgium, Japan, and South Korea, are made through the Pentagon's Foreign Military Sales program. Turkey was removed from the F-35 program in July 2019 over security concerns following its purchase of a Russian S-400 surface-to-air missile system. As of July 2024, the average flyaway costs per plane are: $82.5 million for the F-35A, $109 million for the F-35B, and $102.1 million for the F-35C. == Design == === Overview === The F-35 is a family of single-engine, supersonic, stealth multirole strike fighters. The second fifth-generation fighter to enter US service and the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter, the F-35 emphasizes low observables, advanced avionics and sensor fusion that enable a high level of situational awareness and long range lethality; the USAF considers the aircraft its primary strike fighter for conducting suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) and air interdiction missions, owing to the advanced sensors and mission systems. The F-35 has a wing-tail configuration with two vertical stabilizers canted for stealth. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, rudders, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); leading edge root extensions or chines also run forwards to the inlets. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the F-35A and F-35B is set by the requirement to fit inside USN amphibious assault ship parking areas and elevators; the F-35C's larger wing is more fuel efficient. The fixed diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) use a bumped compression surface and forward-swept cowl to shed the boundary layer of the forebody away from the inlets, which form a Y-duct for the engine. Structurally, the F-35 drew upon lessons from the F-22; composites comprise 35% of airframe weight, with the majority being bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials as well as some carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy in later production lots. The F-35 is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces, with the lightest variant having an empty weight of 29,300 lb (13,300 kg); much of the weight can be attributed to the internal weapons bays and the extensive avionics carried. While lacking the kinematic performance of the larger twin-engine F-22, the F-35 is competitive with fourth-generation fighters such as the F-16 and F/A-18, especially when they carry weapons because the F-35's internal weapons bay eliminates drag from external stores. All variants have a top speed of Mach 1.6 (1,220 mph; 1,960 km/h), attainable with full internal payload. The Pratt & Whitney F135 engine gives good subsonic acceleration and energy, with supersonic dash in afterburner. The F-35, while not a "supercruising" aircraft, can fly at Mach 1.2 (913 mph; 1,470 km/h) for a dash of 150 miles (240 km) with afterburners. This ability can be useful in battlefield situations. The large stabilitors, leading edge extensions and flaps, and canted rudders provide excellent high alpha (angle-of-attack) characteristics, with a trimmed alpha of 50°. Relaxed stability and triplex-redundant fly-by-wire controls provide excellent handling qualities and departure resistance. Having over double the F-16's internal fuel, the F-35 has a considerably greater combat radius, while stealth also enables a more efficient mission flight profile. === Sensors and avionics === The F-35's mission systems are among the most complex aspects of the aircraft. The avionics and sensor fusion are designed to improve the pilot's situational awareness and command-and-control capabilities and facilitate network-centric warfare. Key sensors include the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, BAE Systems AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system, Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/AAQ-37 Electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ-242 Communications, Navigation, and Identification (CNI) suite. The F-35 was designed for its sensors to work together to provide a cohesive image of the local battlespace; for example, the APG-81 radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system. Much of the F-35's software was developed in C and C++ programming languages, while Ada83 code from the F-22 was also used; the Block 3F software has 8.6 million lines of code. The Green Hills Software Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) runs on integrated core processors (ICPs); data networking includes the IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel buses. The avionics use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components when practical to make upgrades cheaper and more flexible; for example, to enable fleet software upgrades for the software-defined radio (SDR) systems. The mission systems software, particularly for sensor fusion, was one of the program's most difficult parts and responsible for substantial program delays. The APG-81 radar uses electronic scanning for rapid beam agility and incorporates passive and active air-to-air modes, strike modes, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capability, with multiple target track-while-scan at ranges in excess of 80 nmi (150 km). The antenna is tilted backwards for stealth. Complementing the radar is the AAQ-37 DAS, which consists of six infrared sensors that provide all-aspect missile launch warning and target tracking; the DAS acts as a situational awareness infrared search-and-track (SAIRST) and gives the pilot spherical infrared and night-vision imagery on the helmet visor. The ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system has ten radio frequency antennas embedded into the edges of the wing and tail for all-aspect radar warning receiver (RWR). It also provides sensor fusion of radio frequency and infrared tracking functions, geolocation threat targeting, and multispectral image countermeasures for self-defense against missiles. The electronic warfare system can detect and jam hostile radars. The AAQ-40 EOTS is mounted behind a faceted low-observable window under the nose and performs laser targeting, forward-looking infrared (FLIR), and long range IRST functions. The ASQ-242 CNI suite uses a half dozen physical links, including the directional Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), for covert CNI functions. Through sensor fusion, information from radio frequency receivers and infrared sensors are combined to form a single tactical picture for the pilot. The all-aspect target direction and identification can be shared via MADL to other platforms without compromising low observability, while Link 16 enables communication with older systems. The F-35 was designed to accept upgrades to its processors, sensors, and software over its lifespan. Technology Refresh 3, which includes a new core processor and a new cockpit display, is planned for Lot 15 aircraft. Lockheed Martin has offered the Advanced EOTS for the Block 4 configuration; the improved sensor fits into the same area as the baseline EOTS with minimal changes. In June 2018, Lockheed Martin picked Raytheon for improved DAS. The USAF has studied the potential for the F-35 to orchestrate attacks by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) via its sensors and communications equipment. A new radar called the AN/APG-85 is planned for Block 4 F-35s. According to the JPO, the new radar will be compatible with all three major F-35 variants. However, it is unclear if older aircraft will be retrofitted with the new radar. === Stealth and signatures === Stealth is a key aspect of the F-35's design, and radar cross-section (RCS) is minimized through careful shaping of the airframe and the use of radar-absorbent materials (RAM); visible measures to reduce RCS include alignment of edges and continuous curvature of surfaces, serration of skin panels, and the masking of the engine face and turbine. Additionally, the F-35's diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) uses a compression bump and forward-swept cowl rather than a splitter gap or bleed system to divert the boundary layer away from the inlet duct, eliminating the diverter cavity and further reducing radar signature. The RCS of the F-35 has been characterized as lower than a metal golf ball at certain frequencies and angles; in some conditions, the F-35 compares favorably to the F-22 in stealth. For maintainability, the F-35's stealth design took lessons from earlier stealth aircraft such as the F-22; the F-35's radar-absorbent fibermat skin is more durable and requires less maintenance than older topcoats. The aircraft also has reduced infrared and visual signatures as well as strict controls of radio frequency emitters to prevent their detection. The F-35's stealth design is primarily focused on high-frequency X-band wavelengths; low-frequency radars can spot stealthy aircraft due to Rayleigh scattering, but such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and lack precision. To disguise its RCS, the aircraft can mount four Luneburg lens reflectors. Noise from the F-35 caused concerns in residential areas near potential bases for the aircraft, and residents near two such bases—Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Eglin Air Force Base (AFB), Florida—requested environmental impact studies in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Although the noise levels, in decibels, were comparable to those of prior fighters such as the F-16, the F-35's sound power is stronger—particularly at lower frequencies. Subsequent surveys and studies have indicated that the noise of the F-35 was not perceptibly different from the F-16 and F/A-18E/F, though the greater low-frequency noise was noticeable for some observers. === Cockpit === The glass cockpit was designed to give the pilot good situational awareness. The main display is a 20-by-8-inch (50 by 20 cm) panoramic touchscreen, which shows flight instruments, stores management, CNI information, and integrated caution and warnings; the pilot can customize the arrangement of the information. Below the main display is a smaller stand-by display. The cockpit has a speech-recognition system developed by Adacel. The F-35 does not have a head-up display; instead, flight and combat information is displayed on the visor of the pilot's helmet in a helmet-mounted display system (HMDS). The one-piece tinted canopy is hinged at the front and has an internal frame for structural strength. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is launched by a twin-catapult system housed on side rails. There is a right-hand side stick and throttle hands-on throttle-and-stick system. For life support, an onboard oxygen-generation system (OBOGS) is fitted and powered by the Integrated Power Package (IPP), with an auxiliary oxygen bottle and backup oxygen system for emergencies. The Vision Systems International helmet display is a key piece of the F-35's human-machine interface. Instead of the head-up display mounted atop the dashboard of earlier fighters, the HMDS puts flight and combat information on the helmet visor, allowing the pilot to see it no matter which way they are facing. Infrared and night vision imagery from the Distributed Aperture System can be displayed directly on the HMDS and enables the pilot to "see through" the aircraft. The HMDS allows an F-35 pilot to fire missiles at targets even when the nose of the aircraft is pointing elsewhere by cuing missile seekers at high angles off-boresight. Each helmet costs $400,000. The HMDS weighs more than traditional helmets, and there is concern that it can endanger lightweight pilots during ejection. Due to the HMDS's vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display problems during development, Lockheed Martin and Elbit issued a draft specification in 2011 for an alternative HMDS based on the AN/AVS-9 night vision goggles as backup, with BAE Systems chosen later that year. A cockpit redesign would be needed to adopt an alternative HMDS. Following progress on the baseline helmet, development on the alternative HMDS was halted in October 2013. In 2016, the Gen 3 helmet with improved night vision camera, new liquid crystal displays, automated alignment and software enhancements was introduced with LRIP lot 7. === Armament === To preserve its stealth shaping, the F-35 has two internal weapons bays each with two weapons stations. The two outboard weapon stations each can carry ordnance up to 2,500 lb (1,100 kg), or 1,500 lb (680 kg) for the F-35B, while the two inboard stations carry air-to-air missiles. Air-to-surface weapons for the outboard station include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser). The station can also carry multiple smaller munitions such as the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB), GBU-53/B StormBreaker and SPEAR 3; up to four SDBs can be carried per station for the F-35A and F-35C, and three for the F-35B. The F-35A achieved certification to carry the B61 Mod 12 nuclear bomb in October 2023. The inboard station can carry the AIM-120 AMRAAM and eventually the AIM-260 JATM. Two compartments behind the weapons bays contain flares, chaff, and towed decoys. The aircraft can use six external weapons stations for missions that do not require stealth. The wingtip pylons each can carry an AIM-9X or AIM-132 ASRAAM and are canted outwards to reduce their radar cross-section. Additionally, each wing has a 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) inboard station and a 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) middle station, or 1,500 lb (680 kg) for F-35B. The external wing stations can carry large air-to-surface weapons that would not fit inside the weapons bays such as the AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) or AGM-158C LRASM cruise missile. An air-to-air missile load of eight AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and external weapons stations; a configuration of six 2,000 lb (910 kg) bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s can also be arranged. The F-35 is armed with a 25 mm GAU-22/A rotary cannon, a lighter four-barrel variant of the GAU-12/U Equalizer. On the F-35A this is mounted internally near the left wing root with 182 rounds carried; the gun is more effective against ground targets than the 20 mm gun carried by other USAF fighters. In 2020, a USAF report noted "unacceptable" accuracy problems with the GAU-22/A on the F-35A. These were due to "misalignments" in the gun's mount, which was also susceptible to cracking. These problems were resolved by 2024. The F-35B and F-35C have no internal gun and instead can use a Terma A/S multi-mission pod (MMP) carrying the GAU-22/A and 220 rounds; the pod is mounted on the centerline of the aircraft and shaped to reduce its radar cross-section. In lieu of the gun, the pod can also be used for different equipment and purposes, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, or rear-facing tactical radar. The pod was not susceptible to the accuracy issues that once plagued the gun on the F-35A variant, though was apparently not problem-free. Lockheed Martin is developing a weapon rack called Sidekick that would enable the internal outboard station to carry two AIM-120s, thus increasing the internal air-to-air payload to six missiles, currently offered for Block 4. Block 4 will also have a rearranged hydraulic line and bracket to allow the F-35B to carry four SDBs per internal outboard station; integration of the MBDA Meteor is also planned. The USAF and USN are planning to integrate the AGM-88G AARGM-ER internally in the F-35A and F-35C. Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F-35; designated Joint Strike Missile (JSM), two missiles can be carried internally with an additional four externally. Both hypersonic missiles and direct energy weapons such as solid-state laser are currently being considered as future upgrades; in 2024, Lockheed Martin disclosed its proposed Mako hypersonic missile, which can be carried internally in the F-35A and C and externally on the B. Additionally, Lockheed Martin is studying integrating a fiber laser that uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules into a single high-power beam, which can be scaled to various levels. The USAF plans for the F-35A to take up the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments; amid criticism that it is not as well suited as a dedicated attack platform, USAF chief of staff Mark Welsh placed a focus on weapons for CAS sorties, including guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and more compact ammunition for higher capacity gun pods. Fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects than cannon shells as each rocket creates a "thousand-round burst", delivering more projectiles than a strafing run. === Engine === The aircraft is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney F135 low-bypass augmented turbofan with rated thrust of 28,000 lbf (125 kN) at military power and 43,000 lbf (191 kN) with afterburner. Derived from the Pratt & Whitney F119 used by the F-22, the F135 has a larger fan and higher bypass ratio to increase subsonic thrust and fuel efficiency, and unlike the F119, is not optimized for supercruise. The engine contributes to the F-35's stealth by having a low-observable augmenter, or afterburner, that incorporates fuel injectors into thick curved vanes; these vanes are covered by ceramic radar-absorbent materials and mask the turbine. The stealthy augmenter had problems with pressure pulsations, or "screech", at low altitude and high speed early in its development. The low-observable axisymmetric nozzle consists of 15 partially overlapping flaps that create a sawtooth pattern at the trailing edge, which reduces radar signature and creates shed vortices that reduce the infrared signature of the exhaust plume. Due to the engine's large dimensions, the U.S. Navy had to modify its underway replenishment system to facilitate at-sea logistics support. The F-35's Integrated Power Package (IPP) performs power and thermal management and integrates environment control, auxiliary power unit, engine starting, and other functions into a single system. The F135-PW-600 variant for the F-35B incorporates the Shaft-Driven Lift Fan (SDLF) to allow STOVL operations. Designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce, the SDLF, also known as the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, consists of the lift fan, drive shaft, two roll posts, and a "three-bearing swivel module" (3BSM). The nozzle features three bearings resembling a short cylinder with nonparallel bases. As the toothed edges are rotated by motors, the nozzle swivels from being linear with the engine to being perpendicular. The thrust vectoring 3BSM nozzle allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft and is moved by a "fueldraulic" actuator that uses pressurized fuel as the working fluid. Unlike the Harrier's Pegasus engine that entirely uses direct engine thrust for lift, the F-35B's system augments the swivel nozzle's thrust with the lift fan; the fan is powered by the low-pressure turbine through a drive shaft when engaged with a clutch and placed near the front of the aircraft to provide a torque countering that of the 3BSM nozzle. Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust nozzles called roll posts. An alternative engine, the General Electric/Allison/Rolls-Royce F136, was being developed in the 1990s and 2000s; originally, F-35 engines from Lot 6 onward were competitively tendered. Using technology from the General Electric YF120, the F136 was claimed to have a greater temperature margin than the F135 due to the higher mass flow design making full use of the inlet. The F136 was canceled in December 2011 due to lack of funding. The F-35 is expected to receive propulsion upgrades over its lifecycle to adapt to emerging threats and enable additional capabilities. In 2016, the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) was launched to develop and test adaptive cycle engines, with one major potential application being the re-engining of the F-35; in 2018, both GE and P&W were awarded contracts to develop 45,000 lbf (200 kN) thrust class demonstrators, with the designations XA100 and XA101 respectively. In addition to potential re-engining, P&W is also developing improvements to the baseline F135; the Engine Core Upgrade (ECU) is an update to the power module, originally called Growth Option 1.0 and then Engine Enhancement Package, that improves engine thrust and fuel burn by 5% and bleed air cooling capacity by 50% to support Block 4. The F135 ECU was selected over AETP engines in 2023 to provide additional power and cooling for the F-35. Although GE had expected that the more revolutionary XA100 could enter service with the F-35A and C by 2027 and could be adapted for the F-35B, the increased cost and risk caused the USAF to choose the F135 ECU instead. === Maintenance and logistics === The F-35 is designed to require less maintenance than prior stealth aircraft. Some 95% of all field-replaceable parts are "one deep"—that is, nothing else needs to be removed to reach the desired part; for instance, the ejection seat can be replaced without removing the canopy. The F-35 has a fibermat radar-absorbent material (RAM) baked into the skin, which is more durable, easier to work with, and faster to cure than older RAM coatings; similar coatings are being considered for application on older stealth aircraft such as the F-22. Skin corrosion on the F-22 led to the F-35 using a less galvanic corrosion-inducing skin gap filler, fewer gaps in the airframe skin needing filler, and better drainage. The flight control system uses electro-hydrostatic actuators rather than traditional hydraulic systems; these controls can be powered by lithium-ion batteries in case of emergency. Commonality between variants led to the USMC's first aircraft maintenance Field Training Detachment, which applied USAF lessons to their F-35 operations. The F-35 was initially supported by a computerized maintenance management system named Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS). In concept, any F-35 can be serviced at any maintenance facility and all parts can be globally tracked and shared as needed. Due to numerous problems, such as unreliable diagnoses, excessive connectivity requirements, and security vulnerabilities, ALIS is being replaced by the cloud-based Operational Data Integrated Network (ODIN). From September 2020, ODIN base kits (OBKs) were running ALIS software, as well as ODIN software, first at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Yuma, Arizona, then at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, in support of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 125 on 16 July 2021, and then Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, in support of the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) on 6 August 2021. In 2022, over a dozen more OBK sites will replace the ALIS's Standard Operating Unit unclassified (SOU-U) servers. OBK performance is double that of ALIS. == Operational history == === Testing === The first F-35A, AA-1, conducted its engine run in September 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006. Unlike all subsequent aircraft, AA-1 did not have the weight optimization from SWAT; consequently, it mainly tested subsystems common to subsequent aircraft, such as the propulsion, electrical system, and cockpit displays. This aircraft was retired from flight testing in December 2009 and was used for live-fire testing at NAS China Lake. The first F-35B, BF-1, flew on 11 June 2008, while the first weight-optimized F-35A and F-35C, AF-1 and CF-1, flew on 14 November 2009 and 6 June 2010 respectively. The F-35B's first hover was on 17 March 2010, followed by its first vertical landing the next day. The F-35 Integrated Test Force (ITF) consisted of 18 aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Patuxent River. Nine aircraft at Edwards, five F-35As, three F-35Bs, and one F-35C, performed flight sciences testing such as F-35A envelope expansion, flight loads, stores separation, as well as mission systems testing. The other nine aircraft at Patuxent River, five F-35Bs and four F-35Cs, were responsible for F-35B and C envelope expansion and STOVL and CV suitability testing. Additional carrier suitability testing was conducted at Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division at Lakehurst, New Jersey. Two non-flying aircraft of each variant were used to test static loads and fatigue. For testing avionics and mission systems, a modified Boeing 737-300 with a duplication of the cockpit, the Lockheed Martin CATBird has been used. Field testing of the F-35's sensors were conducted during Exercise Northern Edge 2009 and 2011, serving as significant risk-reduction steps. Flight tests revealed several serious deficiencies that required costly redesigns, caused delays, and resulted in several fleet-wide groundings. In 2011, the F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire in all eight landing tests; a redesigned tail hook was delivered two years later. By June 2009, many of the initial flight test targets had been accomplished but the program was behind schedule. Software and mission systems were among the biggest sources of delays for the program, with sensor fusion proving especially challenging. In fatigue testing, the F-35B suffered several premature cracks, requiring a redesign of the structure. A third non-flying F-35B is currently planned to test the redesigned structure. The F-35B and C also had problems with the horizontal tails suffering heat damage from prolonged afterburner use. Early flight control laws had problems with "wing drop" and also made the airplane sluggish, with high angles-of-attack tests in 2015 against an F-16 showing a lack of energy. At-sea testing of the F-35B was first conducted aboard USS Wasp. In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials, called Development Test I. The second F-35B sea trials, Development Test II, began in August 2013, with tests including nighttime operations; two aircraft completed 19 nighttime vertical landings using DAS imagery. The first operational testing involving six F-35Bs was done on the Wasp in May 2015. The final Development Test III on USS America involving operations in high sea states was completed in late 2016. A Royal Navy F-35 conducted the first "rolling" landing on board HMS Queen Elizabeth in October 2018. After the redesigned tail hook arrived, the F-35C's carrier-based Development Test I began in November 2014 aboard USS Nimitz and focused on basic day carrier operations and establishing launch and recovery handling procedures. Development Test II, which focused on night operations, weapons loading, and full power launches, took place in October 2015. The final Development Test III was completed in August 2016, and included tests of asymmetric loads and certifying systems for landing qualifications and interoperability. Operational test of the F-35C was conducted in 2018 and the first operational squadron achieved safe-for-flight milestone that December, paving the way for its introduction in 2019. The F-35's reliability and availability have fallen short of requirements, especially in the early years of testing. The ALIS maintenance and logistics system was plagued by excessive connectivity requirements and faulty diagnoses. In late 2017, the GAO reported the time needed to repair an F-35 part averaged 172 days, which was "twice the program's objective", and that shortage of spare parts was degrading readiness. In 2019, while individual F-35 units have achieved mission-capable rates of over the target of 80% for short periods during deployed operations, fleet-wide rates remained below target. The fleet availability goal of 65% was also not met, although the trend shows improvement. Internal gun accuracy of the F-35A was unacceptable until misalignment issues were addressed by 2024. As of 2020, the number of the program's most serious issues have been decreased by half. Operational test and evaluation (OT&E) with Block 3F, the final configuration for SDD, began in December 2018, but its completion was delayed particularly by technical problems in integration with the DOD's Joint Simulation Environment (JSE); the F-35 finally completed all JSE trials in September 2023. === United States === ==== Training ==== The F-35A and F-35B were cleared for basic flight training in early 2012, although there were concerns over safety and performance due to lack of system maturity at the time. During the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase, the three U.S. military services jointly developed tactics and procedures using flight simulators, testing effectiveness, discovering problems and refining design. On 10 September 2012, the USAF began an operational utility evaluation (OUE) of the F-35A, including logistical support, maintenance, personnel training, and pilot execution. The USMC F-35B Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) was initially based at Eglin AFB in 2012 alongside USAF F-35A training units, before moving to MCAS Beaufort in 2014 while another FRS was stood up at MCAS Miramar in 2020. The USAF F-35A basic course is held at Eglin AFB and Luke AFB; in January 2013, training began at Eglin with capacity for 100 pilots and 2,100 maintainers at once. Additionally, the 6th Weapons Squadron of the USAF Weapons School was activated at Nellis AFB in June 2017 for F-35A weapons instructor curriculum while the 65th Aggressor Squadron was reactivated with the F-35A in June 2022 to expand training against adversary stealth aircraft tactics. The USN stood up its F-35C FRS in 2012 with VFA-101 at Eglin AFB, but operations would later be transferred and consolidated under VFA-125 at NAS Lemoore in 2019. The F-35C was introduced to the Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor course, or TOPGUN, in 2020 and the additional capabilities of the aircraft greatly revamped the course syllabus. ==== U.S. Marine Corps ==== On 16 November 2012, the USMC received the first F-35B of VMFA-121 at MCAS Yuma. The USMC declared Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the F-35B in the Block 2B configuration on 31 July 2015 after operational trials, with some limitations in night operations, mission systems, and weapons carriage. USMC F-35Bs participated in their first Red Flag exercise in July 2016 with 67 sorties conducted. The first F-35B deployment occurred in 2017 at MCAS Iwakuni, Japan; combat employment began in July 2018 from the amphibious assault ship USS Essex, with the first combat strike on 27 September 2018 against a Taliban target in Afghanistan. In addition to deploying F-35Bs on amphibious assault ships, the USMC plans to disperse the aircraft among austere forward-deployed bases with shelter and concealment to enhance survivability while remaining close to a battlespace. Known as distributed STOVL operations (DSO), F-35Bs would operate from temporary bases in allied territory within hostile missile engagement zones and displace inside the enemy's 24- to 48-hour targeting cycle; this strategy allows F-35Bs to rapidly respond to operational needs, with mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-FARPs) accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea links of mobile distribution sites. For higher echelons of maintenance, F-35Bs would return from M-FARPs to rear-area friendly bases or ships. Helicopter-portable metal planking is needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35B's exhaust; the USMC are studying lighter heat-resistant options. These operations have become part of the larger USMC Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO) concept. The first USMC F-35C squadron, VMFA-314, achieved Full Operational Capability in July 2021 and was first deployed on board USS Abraham Lincoln as a part of Carrier Air Wing 9 in January 2022. In 2024, Lt. Gen. Sami Sadat of Afghanistan described an operation using F-35Bs from USS Essex which bombed a Taliban position through cloud cover. "The impact [the F-35] left on my soldiers was amazing. Like, whoa, you know, we have this technology", Sadat said. "But also the impact on the Taliban was quite crippling, because they have never seen Afghan forces move in the winter, and they have never seen planes that could bomb through the clouds." On 9 November 2024, Marine F-35Cs carried out strikes on the Houthi movement in Yemen in the context of the Red Sea crisis, making it the first time the F-35C has been used in combat. ==== U.S. Air Force ==== USAF F-35A in the Block 3i configuration achieved IOC with the USAF's 34th Fighter Squadron at Hill Air Force Base, Utah on 2 August 2016. F-35As conducted their first Red Flag exercise in 2017; system maturity had improved and the aircraft scored a kill ratio of 15:1 against an F-16 aggressor squadron in a high-threat environment. The first USAF F-35A deployment occurred on 15 April 2019 to Al Dhafra Air Base, UAE. On 27 April 2019, USAF F-35As were first used in combat in an airstrike on an Islamic State tunnel network in northern Iraq. For European basing, RAF Lakenheath in the UK was chosen as the first installation to station two F-35A squadrons, with 48 aircraft adding to the 48th Fighter Wing's existing F-15C and F-15E squadrons. The first aircraft of the 495th Fighter Squadron arrived on 15 December 2021. The F-35's operating cost is higher than some older USAF tactical aircraft. In fiscal year 2018, the F-35A's cost per flight hour (CPFH) was $44,000, a number that was reduced to $35,000 in 2019. For comparison, in 2015 the CPFH of the A-10 was $17,716; the F-15C, $41,921; and the F-16C, $22,514. Lockheed Martin hopes to reduce it to $25,000 by 2025 through performance-based logistics and other measures. ==== U.S. Navy ==== The USN achieved operational status with the F-35C in Block 3F on 28 February 2019. On 2 August 2021, the F-35C of VFA-147, as well as the CMV-22 Osprey, embarked on their maiden deployments as part of Carrier Air Wing 2 on board USS Carl Vinson. USN F-35Cs operating from the USS Carl Vinson took part the training exercise Pacific Stellar 2025 in February, along with the French and Japanese navies. In April 2025, F-35C's from VFA-97 shot down multiple Houthi drones in the Red Sea, making it the first time the Navy has used the jet in combat. === United Kingdom === The United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and Royal Navy operate the F-35B. Called Lightning in British service, it has replaced the Harrier GR9, retired in 2010, and Tornado GR4, retired in 2019. The F-35 is to be Britain's primary strike aircraft for the next three decades. One of the Royal Navy's requirements was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Landing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight by using wing lift during landing. Like the Italian Navy, British F-35Bs use ski-jumps to fly from their aircraft carriers, HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales. British F-35Bs are not intended to use the Brimstone 2 missile. In July 2013, Chief of the Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that No. 617 Squadron would be the RAF's first operational F-35 squadron. The first British F-35 squadron was No. 17 (Reserve) Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES), which stood up on 12 April 2013 as the aircraft's Operational Evaluation Unit. By June 2013, the RAF had received three F-35s of the 48 on order, initially based at Eglin Air Force Base. In June 2015, the F-35B undertook its first launch from a ski-jump at NAS Patuxent River. On 5 July 2017, it was announced the second UK-based RAF squadron would be No. 207 Squadron, which reformed on 1 August 2019 as the Lightning Operational Conversion Unit. No. 617 Squadron reformed on 18 April 2018 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C., becoming the first RAF front-line squadron to operate the type; receiving its first four F-35Bs on 6 June, flying from MCAS Beaufort to RAF Marham. On 10 January 2019, No. 617 Squadron and its F-35s were declared combat-ready. April 2019 saw the first overseas deployment of a UK F-35 squadron when No. 617 Squadron went to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus. This reportedly led on 25 June 2019 to the first combat use of an RAF F-35B: an armed reconnaissance flight searching for Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria. In October 2019, F-35s of 617 Squadron and No. 17 TES were embarked on HMS Queen Elizabeth for the first time. No. 617 Squadron departed RAF Marham on 22 January 2020 for their first Exercise Red Flag with the Lightning. As of November 2022, 26 F-35Bs were based in the United Kingdom (with 617 and 207 Squadrons) and a further three were permanently based in the United States (with 17 Squadron) for testing and evaluation purposes. The UK's second operational squadron is the Fleet Air Arm's 809 Naval Air Squadron, which stood up in December 2023. === Australia === Australia's first F-35, designated A35-001, was manufactured in 2014, with flight training provided through international Pilot Training Centre (PTC) at Luke Air Force Base in Arizona. The first two F-35s were unveiled to the Australian public on 3 March 2017 at the Avalon Airshow. By 2021, the Royal Australian Air Force had accepted 26 F-35As, with nine in the US and 17 operating at No 3 Squadron and No 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown. With 41 trained RAAF pilots and 225 trained technicians for maintenance, the fleet was declared ready to deploy on operations. It was originally expected that Australia would receive all 72 F-35s by 2023. Its final nine aircraft, which were the TR-3 version, arrived in Australia in December 2024. === Israel === The Israeli Air Force (IAF) declared the F-35 operationally capable on 6 December 2017. According to Kuwaiti newspaper Al Jarida, in July 2018, a test mission of at least three IAF F-35s flew to Iran's capital Tehran and back to Tel Aviv. While publicly unconfirmed, regional leaders acted on the report; Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei reportedly fired the air force chief and commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps over the mission. On 22 May 2018, IAF chief Amikam Norkin said that the service had employed their F-35Is in two attacks on two battle fronts, marking the first combat operation of an F-35 by any country. Norkin said it had been flown "all over the Middle East", and showed photos of an F-35I flying over Beirut in daylight. In July 2019, Israel expanded its strikes against Iranian missile shipments; IAF F-35Is allegedly struck Iranian targets in Iraq twice. In November 2020, the IAF announced the delivery of a unique F-35I testbed aircraft among a delivery of four aircraft received in August, to be used to test and integrate Israeli-produced weapons and electronic systems on F-35s received later. This is the only example of a testbed F-35 delivered to a non-US air force. On 11 May 2021, eight IAF F-35Is took part in an attack on 150 targets in Hamas' rocket array, including 50–70 launch pits in the northern Gaza Strip, as part of Operation Guardian of the Walls. On 6 March 2022, the IDF stated that on 15 March 2021, F-35Is shot down two Iranian drones carrying weapons to the Gaza Strip. This was the first operational shoot down and interception carried out by the F-35. They were also used in the Gaza war. On 2 November 2023, the IDF posted on social media that they used an F-35I to shoot down a Houthi cruise missile over the Red Sea that was fired from Yemen during the Gaza war. The F-35I Adir was used in the 29 September 2024 Israeli attacks on Yemen. F-35Is were also reportedly involved in the October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran. Britain supplies Israel with parts for the F-35 through the global spares pool. Patrick Wintour wrote in The Guardian that, following criticism of Israel's role in the Gaza war, the legality of continuing this supply was questioned. The government in 2025 argued in a court case testing whether the law was broken by supplying Israel with F-35 parts usable to attack Palestinians in Gaza that preserving the British role in the F-35 jet fighter programme overrode UK laws on arms export controls and any UK obligation to prevent genocide in Israel. === Italy === Italy's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 30 November 2018. At the time Italy had taken delivery of 10 F-35As and one F-35B, with 2 F-35As and the one F-35B being stationed in the U.S. for training, the remaining 8 F-35As were stationed in Amendola. Italian Navy F-35Bs have been operating from the Italian aircraft carrier ITS Cavour, where they have also conducted drills in the Philippine Sea with the US in 2024. === Japan === Japan's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 29 March 2019. At the time Japan had taken delivery of 10 F-35As stationed in Misawa Air Base. Japan plans to eventually acquire a total of 147 F-35s, which will include 42 F-35Bs. It plans to use the latter variant to equip Japan's Izumo-class multi-purpose destroyers. === Norway === On 6 November 2019 Norway declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 15 F-35As out of a planned 52 F-35As. On 6 January 2022 Norway's F-35As replaced its older F-16A and B models for the NATO quick reaction alert mission in the high north. In April 2025, the total number of F-35s delivered totaled 49 out of 52. On 22 September 2023, two F-35As from the Royal Norwegian Air Force landed on a motorway near Tervo, Finland, showing, for the first time, that F-35As can operate from paved roads. Unlike the F-35B they cannot land vertically. The fighters were also refueled with their engines running. Commander of the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Major General Rolf Folland, said: "Fighter jets are vulnerable on the ground, so by being able to use small airfields – and now motorways – (this) increases our survivability in war", === Netherlands === On 27 December 2021, the Netherlands declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 24 F-35As that it has received to date from its order for 46 F-35As. In 2022, the Netherlands announced they will order an additional six F-35s, totaling 52 aircraft ordered. As of September 2024, 40 out of the 52 ordered have been delivered, and the Netherlands seeks to order another 6 jets to help completely phase out their F-16 fleet. == Variants == The F-35 was designed with three initial variants – the F-35A, a CTOL land-based version; the F-35B, a STOVL version capable of use either on land or on aircraft carriers; and the F-35C, a CATOBAR carrier-based version. Since then, there has been work on the design of nationally specific versions for Israel and Canada. === F-35A === The F-35A is the conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the USAF and other air forces. It is the smallest, lightest version and capable of 9 g, the highest of all variants. Although the F-35A currently conducts aerial refueling via boom and receptacle method, the aircraft can be modified for probe-and-drogue refueling if needed by the customer. A drag chute pod can be installed on the F-35A, with the Royal Norwegian Air Force being the first operator to adopt it. === F-35B === The F-35B is the short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A variant, the B sacrifices about a third of the A variant's fuel volume to accommodate the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF). This variant is limited to 7 g. Unlike other variants, the F-35B has no landing hook. The "STOVL/HOOK" control instead engages conversion between normal and vertical flight. The F-35B is capable of Mach 1.6 (1,960 km/h; 1,220 mph) and can perform vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL). === F-35C === The F-35C is a carrier-based variant designed for catapult-assisted take-off, barrier arrested recovery operations from aircraft carriers. Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables. The larger wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload. The F-35C is limited to 7.5 g. === F-35I "Adir" === The F-35I Adir (Hebrew: אדיר, meaning "Awesome", or "Mighty One") is an F-35A with unique Israeli modifications. The US initially refused to allow such changes before permitting Israel to integrate its own electronic warfare systems, including sensors and countermeasures. The main computer has a plug-and-play function for add-on systems; proposals include an external jamming pod, and new Israeli air-to-air missiles and guided bombs in the internal weapon bays. A senior IAF official said that the F-35's stealth may be partly overcome within 10 years despite a 30 to 40-year service life, thus Israel's insistence on using their own electronic warfare systems. In 2010, Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) considered a two-seat F-35 concept; an IAI executive noted that there was a "known demand for two seats not only from Israel but from other air forces." In 2008, IAI planned to produce conformal fuel tanks, as well as stealthy external fuel tanks Israel had ordered a total of 75 F-35Is by 2023, with 36 already delivered as of November 2022. === Proposed variants === ==== CF-35 ==== The Canadian CF-35 was a proposed variant that would differ from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute and the potential inclusion of an F-35B/C-style refueling probe. In 2012, it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same boom refueling system as the F-35A. One alternative proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for its probe refueling and lower landing speed; however, the Parliamentary Budget Officer's report cited the F-35C's limited performance and payload as being too high a price to pay. Following the 2015 Federal Election the Liberal Party, whose campaign had included a pledge to cancel the F-35 procurement, formed a new government and commenced an open competition to replace the existing CF-18 Hornet. The CF-35 variant was deemed too expensive to develop, and was never considered. The Canadian government decided to not pursue any other modifications in the Future Fighter Capability Project, and instead focused on the potential procurement of the existing F-35A variant. On 28 March 2022, the Canadian Government began negotiations with Lockheed Martin for 88 F-35As to replace the aging fleet of CF-18 fighters starting in 2025. The aircraft are reported to cost up to CA$19bn total with a life-cycle cost estimated at CA$77bn over the course of the F-35 program. On 9 January 2023, Canada formally confirmed the purchase of 88 aircraft. The initial delivery to the Royal Canadian Air Force in 2026 will be 4 aircraft, followed by 6 aircraft each in 2027–2028, and the rest to be delivered by 2032. The additional characteristics confirmed for the CF-35 included the drag chute pod for landings at short/icy arctic runways, as well as the 'sidekick' system, which allows the CF-35 to carry up to 6 x AIM-120D missiles internally (instead of the typical internal capacity of 4 x AIM-120 missiles on other variants). ==== New export variant ==== In December 2021, it was reported that Lockheed Martin was developing a new variant for an unspecified foreign customer. The Department of Defense released US$49 million in funding for this work. == Operators == Australia Royal Australian Air Force – 72 F-35A delivered as of December 2024. Belgium Belgian Air Component – 8 officially delivered (but none have left the US as of March 2024), 34 F-35A planned as of 2019. Denmark Royal Danish Air Force – 17 F-35As delivered (including 6 stationed at Luke AFB for training) of the 27 planned for the RDAF as of April 2025. Israel Israeli Air Force – 46 delivered as of April 2025 (F-35I "Adir"). Includes one F-35 testbed aircraft for indigenous Israeli weapons, electronics and structural upgrades, designated (AS-15). A total of 75 ordered. Italy Italian Air Force – 24 F-35As and 8 F-35B's delivered as of April 2025 of 75 F-35As and 20 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Air Force. Italian Navy – 6 delivered as of September 2024, out of 20 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Navy. Japan Japan Air Self-Defense Force – 42 F-35As operational as of April 2025 with a total order of 147, including 105 F-35As and 42 F-35Bs. Netherlands Royal Netherlands Air Force – 42 F-35As delivered and operational, of which 8 trainer aircraft based at Luke Air Force Base in the USA. 52 F-35As ordered in total. The RNLAF is the second air force with a 5th gen-only fighter fleet after the retirement of its F-16s. Norway Royal Norwegian Air Force – 52 F-35A delivered. They differ from other F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute. Poland Polish Air Force – 32 F-35A “Husarz” Block 4 jets with "Technology Refresh 3" software update and drogue parachutes were ordered on 31 January 2020. The deliveries are expected to begin in first F-35s manufactured for Poland which rolled off the assembly line in 2024, and conclude in 2030. There are plans for two more squadrons consisting of 16 jets each, for a total of 32 additional F-35s. The first domestic flights of the F-35 by Polish pilots took place in February 2025, signaling the start of the country's use of the aircraft. South Korea Republic of Korea Air Force – 40 F-35As ordered and delivered as of January 2022, with 25 more ordered in September 2023. Republic of Korea Navy – about 20 F-35Bs planned. It has not yet been approved by South Korean parliament. United Kingdom Royal Air Force and Royal Navy (owned by the RAF but jointly operated) – 39 F-35Bs received with 35 in the UK after the loss of one aircraft in November 2021; the other three are in the US where they are used for testing and training. A total of 48 ordered as of 2021; a total of 138 were originally planned, the expectation in 2021 was to eventually reach around 60 or 80. In 2022, it was announced that the UK would acquire 74 F-35Bs, with a decision on whether or not to go beyond that number, including the possibility of reviving the original plan of 138 aircraft, to be made in the mid-2020s. In February 2024, the United Kingdom appeared to signal a reaffirmation of its commitment to procure 138 F-35B aircraft, as per the original plan. United States United States Air Force – 400+ delivered with 1,763 F-35As planned United States Marine Corps – 112 F-35B/C delivered with 280 F-35Bs and 140 F-35Cs planned United States Navy – 110+ delivered with 273 F-35Cs planned === Future operators === Canada Royal Canadian Air Force – 88 F-35As (Block 4) ordered on 9 January 2023. The first four are to be delivered in 2026, six in 2027, another six in 2028, and the rest delivered by 2032. The aircraft are to replace CF-18s delivered in the 1980s. Czech Republic Czech Air Force – On 29 June 2023, the U.S. State Department announced the approval of a possible sale to the Czech Republic of F-35 aircraft, munitions and related equipment worth up to $5.62 billion. On 29 January 2024, the Czech government signed a memorandum of understanding with the U.S. to buy 24 F-35As. In September 2024, the Czech Republic signed a contract for F-35A logistics support. Finland Finnish Air Force – In 2022, ordered 64 F-35A Block 4s via the HX Fighter Program to replace F/A-18 Hornets. Germany German Air Force – In 2022, ordered 35 F-35As for delivery starting in 2026. As of 2024, an order for 10 more was being considered. German F-35s will also replace the older Panavia Tornados in carrying the B61 nuclear bomb. Greece Hellenic Air Force – In 2024, ordered 20 F-35As for delivery in late 2027 to early 2028, with an option to buy 20 more. Romania Romanian Air Force – Romania signed the contract for 32 F-35A worth $6.5 billion on 21 November 2024. The plan is to buy 48 F-35A aircraft in two phases – first phase of 32 and second phase of 16. The first F-35s will arrive after 2030 and will replace the current Romanian F-16 fleet between 2034 and 2040. Singapore Republic of Singapore Air Force – 12 F-35Bs on order as of February 2024 with first 4 to be delivered in 2026; The other 8 are to be delivered in 2028. 8 F-35As have been ordered, and are expected to arrive by 2030. Switzerland Swiss Air Force – 36 F-35A ordered to replace the current F-5E/F Tiger II and F/A-18C/D Hornet. Deliveries will begin in 2027 and conclude in 2030. === Potential sales === India Indian Air Force - In February 2025, U.S. President Donald Trump offered the F-35 to Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India, which as of March 2025, was also mulling a competing offer from Russia's Sukhoi Su-57. === Cancellations === Republic of China Republic of China Air Force – Taiwan has repeatedly expressed interest in buying the F-35 to deter and fight off any Chinese attempt to seize the island by force. It is reportedly most interested in the F-35B STOVL variant, which could enable the Republic of China Air Force to continue operations if China bombed the island's runways. But the U.S. has repeatedly rebuffed this interest—for example, in March 2009, September 2011, early 2017, and March 2018. The usual reason given is to prevent provoking Beijing. But in April 2018, another reason for U.S. reluctance surfaced: concern that Chinese spies within the Taiwanese Armed Forces might gain classified data about the aircraft. In November 2018, it was reported that Taiwanese military leaders had abandoned efforts to buy the F-35, and would instead buy a larger number of F-16V Viper aircraft. The decision was reportedly motivated by concerns about industry independence, cost, and espionage concerns. Thailand Royal Thai Air Force – 8 or 12 planned to replace F-16A/B Block 15 ADF in service. On 12 January 2022, Thailand's cabinet approved a budget for the first four F-35A, estimated at 13.8 billion baht in FY2023. On 22 May 2023, the United States Department of Defense implied it will turn down Thailand's bid to buy F-35 fighters, and instead offer F-16 Block 70/72 Viper and F-15EX Eagle II fighters, a Royal Thai Air Force source said. Turkey Turkish Air Force – 30 were ordered, of up to 100 total planned. Future purchases have been banned by the U.S. with contracts canceled by early 2020, following Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile system from Russia. Six of Turkey's 30 ordered F-35As were completed as of 2019 (they are still kept in a hangar in the United States as of 2023 and so far haven't been transferred to the USAF, despite a modification in the 2020 Fiscal Year defense budget by the U.S. Congress which gives authority to do so if necessary), and two more were at the assembly line in 2020. The first four F-35As were delivered to Luke Air Force Base in 2018 and 2019 for the training of Turkish pilots. On 20 July 2020, the U.S. government had formally approved the seizure of eight F-35As originally bound for Turkey and their transfer to the USAF, together with a contract to modify them to USAF specifications. The U.S. has not refunded the $1.4 billion payment made by Turkey for purchasing the F-35A fighters as of January 2023. On 1 February 2024, the United States expressed willingness to readmit Turkey into the F-35 program if Turkey agrees to give up its S-400 system. After Trump and Erdoğan's phone call in March 2025, news was reported in the press that Trump could approve the sale of F-35s to Türkiye if Türkiye resolves the S-400 issue. United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates Air Force – Up to 50 F-35As planned. But on 27 January 2021, the Biden administration temporarily suspended the F-35 sales to the UAE. After pausing the bill to review the sale, the Biden administration confirmed to move forward with the deal on 13 April 2021. In December 2021 UAE withdrew from purchasing F-35s as they did not agree to the additional terms of the transaction from the US. On 14 September 2024, a senior UAE official said that the United Arab Emirates does not expect to resume talks with the U.S. about the F-35. == Accidents and notable incidents == The F-35 has been described as a relatively safe military aircraft. Still, since 2014, more than a dozen have crashed or otherwise been involved in incidents that have killed or severely injured people or destroyed the aircraft. Some were caused by operator error; others by mechanical problems, some of which set the entire program back. == Specifications (F-35A) == Data from Lockheed Martin: F-35 specifications, Lockheed Martin: F-35 weaponry, Lockheed Martin: F-35 Program Status, F-35 Program brief, FY2019 Select Acquisition Report (SAR), Director of Operational Test & EvaluationGeneral characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 51.4 ft (15.7 m) Wingspan: 35 ft (11 m) Height: 14.4 ft (4.4 m) Wing area: 460 sq ft (43 m2) Aspect ratio: 2.66 Empty weight: 29,300 lb (13,290 kg) Gross weight: 49,540 lb (22,471 kg) Max takeoff weight: 65,918 lb (29,900 kg) Fuel capacity: 18,250 lb (8,278 kg) internal Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney F135-PW-100 afterburning turbofan, 28,000 lbf (120 kN) thrust dry, 43,000 lbf (190 kN) with afterburner Performance Maximum speed: Mach 1.6 at high altitude Mach 1.06, 700 knots (806 mph; 1,296 km/h) at sea level Range: 1,500 nmi (1,700 mi, 2,800 km) Combat range: 669 nmi (770 mi, 1,239 km) interdiction mission (air-to-surface) on internal fuel 760 nmi (870 mi; 1,410 km), air-to-air configuration on internal fuel Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,000 m) g limits: +9.0 Wing loading: 107.7 lb/sq ft (526 kg/m2) at gross weight Thrust/weight: 0.87 at gross weight (1.07 at loaded weight with 50% internal fuel) Armament Guns: 1 × 25 mm GAU-22/A 4-barrel rotary cannon, 180 rounds Hardpoints: 4 × internal stations, 6 × external stations on wings with a capacity of 5,700 pounds (2,600 kg) internal, 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) external, 18,000 pounds (8,200 kg) total weapons payload, with provisions to carry combinations of: Missiles: Air-to-air missiles: AIM-9X Sidewinder AIM-120 AMRAAM AIM-132 ASRAAM AIM-260 JATM (being integrated) MBDA Meteor (Block 4, for F-35B, not before 2027) Air-to-surface missiles: AGM-88G AARGM-ER (Block 4) AGM-158 JASSM AGM-179 JAGM SPEAR 3 (Block 4, in development, integration contracted) Stand-in Attack Weapon (SiAW) Anti-ship missiles: AGM-158C LRASM (being integrated) Joint Strike Missile (being integrated) Bombs: Joint Direct Attack Munition Paveway Precision-guided glide bomb: AGM-154 JSOW GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb GBU-53/B StormBreaker B61 mod 12 nuclear bomb Avionics AN/APG-81 or AN/APG-85 (Lot 17 onwards) AESA radar AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System AN/AAQ-37 Electro-Optical Distributed Aperture System AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare/electronic countermeasures system AN/ASQ-242 CNI suite, which includes Harris Corporation Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) communication system Link 16 data link SINCGARS An IFF interrogator and transponder HAVE QUICK AM, VHF, UHF AM, and UHF FM Radio GUARD survival radio A radar altimeter An instrument landing system A TACAN system Instrument carrier landing system A JPALS TADIL-J JVMF/VMF === Differences between variants === == Appearances in media == == See also == Related development Lockheed Martin X-35 – Concept demonstrator aircraft for Joint Strike Fighter program Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Chengdu J-20 – Chinese fifth-generation fighter aircraft HAL AMCA – Indian fifth-generation fighter under development by Aeronautical Development Agency and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited KAI KF-21 Boramae – Advanced multirole fighter aircraft under development by South Korea and Indonesia Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor – American fifth-generation air superiority fighter Shenyang J-35 – Chinese fifth-generation fighter aircraft Sukhoi Su-57 – Russian fifth-generation fighter aircraft Sukhoi Su-75 Checkmate – Russian single engine fifth-generation fighter under development by Sukhoi TAI TF Kaan – Turkish fifth-generation fighter under development by Turkish Aerospace Industries Related lists List of fighter aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of megaprojects, Aerospace List of military electronics of the United States == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === Hamstra, Jeffrey (2019). Hamstra, Jeffrey W. (ed.). The F-35 Lightning II: From Concept to Cockpit. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/4.105678. ISBN 978-1-62410-566-1. S2CID 212996081. Keijsper, Gerald (2007). Lockheed F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. London: Pen & Sword Aviation. ISBN 978-1-84415-631-3. Lake, Jon. "The West's Great Hope". AirForces Monthly, December 2010. Polmar, Norman (2005). The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-685-8. == Further reading == Borgu, Aldo (2004). A Big Deal: Australia's Future Air Combat Capability. Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute. ISBN 1-920722-25-4. Spick, Mike (2002). The Illustrated Directory of Fighters. London: Salamander. ISBN 1-84065-384-1. Winchester, Jim (2005). Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes, and Experimental Aircraft. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 978-1-59223-480-6. OCLC 636459025. == External links == Official JSF website. Archived 27 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Official F-35 Team website F35 Lightning II \| Northrop Grumman F-35 page on U.S. Naval Air Systems Command site. Archived 7 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. F-35 – Royal Air Force
Skunk Works	Skunk Works is an official pseudonym for Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Programs (ADP), formerly called Lockheed Advanced Development Projects. It is responsible for a number of aircraft designs, highly classified research and development programs, and exotic aircraft platforms. Known locations include United States Air Force Plant 42 (Palmdale, California), United States Air Force Plant 4 (Fort Worth, Texas), and Marietta, Georgia. Skunk Works' history started with the P-38 Lightning in 1939 and the P-80 Shooting Star in 1943. Skunk Works engineers subsequently developed the U-2, SR-71 Blackbird, F-117 Nighthawk, F-22 Raptor, and F-35 Lightning II, the latter being used in the air forces of several countries. The Skunk Works name was taken from the "Skonk Oil" factory in the comic strip Li'l Abner. Derived from the Lockheed use of the term, the designation "skunk works" or "skunkworks" is now widely used in business, engineering, and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given a high degree of autonomy and unhampered by bureaucracy, with the task of working on advanced or secret projects. == History == There are conflicting observations about the birth of Skunk Works. Engineer Ben Rich sets the origin as June 1943 in Burbank, California. Kelly Johnson has made contradictory statements, some agreeing with Rich, and others putting the origin earlier, in 1939. The official Lockheed Skunk Works story states: The Air Tactical Service Command (ATSC) of the Army Air Force met with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation to express its need for a jet fighter. A rapidly growing German jet threat gave Lockheed an opportunity to develop an airframe around the most powerful jet engine that the allied forces had access to, the British Goblin. Lockheed was chosen to develop the jet because of its past interest in jet development and its previous contracts with the Air Force. One month after the ATSC and Lockheed meeting, the young engineer Clarence L. “Kelly” Johnson and other associate engineers hand delivered the initial XP-80 proposal to the ATSC. Two days later the go-ahead was given to Lockheed to start development and the Skunk Works was born, with Kelly Johnson at the helm. The formal contract for the XP-80 did not arrive at Lockheed until October 16, 1943; some four months after work had already begun. This would prove to be a common practice within the Skunk Works. Many times a customer would come to the Skunk Works with a request and on a handshake the project would begin, with no contracts in place, no official submittal process. Kelly Johnson and his Skunk Works team designed and built the XP-80 in only 143 days, seven fewer than was required. Warren M. Bodie, journalist, historian, and Skunk Works engineer from 1977 to 1984, wrote that engineering independence, elitism and secrecy of the Skunk Works variety were demonstrated earlier when Lockheed was asked by Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey (later air force brigadier general) to build for the United States Army Air Corps a high speed, high altitude fighter to compete with German aircraft. In July 1938, while the rest of Lockheed was busy tooling up to build Hudson reconnaissance bombers to fill a British contract, a small group of engineers was assigned to fabricate the first prototype of what would become the P-38 Lightning. Kelly Johnson set them apart from the rest of the factory in a walled-off section of one building, off limits to all but those involved directly. Secretly, a number of advanced features were being incorporated into the new fighter including a significant structural revolution in which the aluminum skin of the aircraft was joggled, fitted and flush-riveted, a design innovation not called for in the army's specification but one that would yield less aerodynamic drag and give greater strength with lower mass. As a result, the XP-38 was the first 400-mph fighter in the world. The Lightning team was temporarily moved to the 3G Distillery, a smelly former bourbon works where the first YP-38 (constructor's number 2202) was built. Moving from the distillery to a larger building, the stench from a nearby plastic factory was so vile that Irv Culver, one of the engineers, began answering the intra-Lockheed "house" phone "Skonk Works, inside man Culver speaking!" In Al Capp's comic strip Li'l Abner, Big Barnsmell's Skonk Works — spelled with an "o" — was where Kickapoo Joy Juice was brewed from skunks, old shoes, kerosene, anvils, and other strange ingredients. When the name leaked out, Lockheed ordered it changed to "Skunk Works" to avoid potential legal trouble over use of a copyrighted term. The term rapidly circulated throughout the aerospace community, and became a common nickname for research and development offices. The once informal nickname is now a registered trademark of Lockheed Martin. In November 1941, Kelsey gave the unofficial nod to Johnson and the P-38 team to engineer a drop tank system to extend range for the fighter, and they completed the initial research and development without a contract. When the Army Air Forces officially asked for a range extension solution it was ready. The range modifications were performed in Lockheed's Building 304, starting with 100 P-38F models on April 15, 1942. Some of the group of independent-minded engineers were later involved with the XP-80 project, the prototype of the P-80 Shooting Star. Mary G. Ross, the first Native American female engineer, began working at Lockheed in 1942 on the mathematics of compressibility in high-speed flight—a problem first seriously encountered in the P-38. In 1952, she was invited to join the Skunk Works team. === 1950s to 1990s === In 1955, the Skunk Works received a contract from the CIA to build a spyplane known as the U-2 with the intention of flying over the Soviet Union and photographing sites of strategic interest. The U-2 was tested at Groom Lake in the Nevada desert, and the Flight Test Engineer in charge was Joseph F. Ware, Jr. The first overflight took place on July 4 1956. The U-2 ceased overflights when Francis Gary Powers was shot down during a mission on May 1, 1960, while over Russia. The Skunk Works had predicted that the U-2 would have a limited operational life over the Soviet Union. The CIA agreed. In late 1959, Skunk Works received a contract to build five A-12 aircraft at a cost of $96 million. Building a Mach 3.0+ aircraft out of titanium posed enormous difficulties, and the first flight did not occur until 1962. (Titanium supply was largely dominated by the Soviet Union, so the CIA used several shell corporations to acquire source material.) Several years later, the U.S. Air Force became interested in the design, and it ordered the SR-71 Blackbird, a two-seater version of the A-12. This aircraft first flew in 1966 and remained in service until 1998. The D-21 drone, similar in design to the Blackbird, was built to overfly the Lop Nur nuclear test facility in China. This drone was launched from the back of a specially modified A-12, known as M-21, of which there were two built. After a fatal mid-air collision on the fourth launch, the drones were re-built as D-21Bs, and launched with a rocket booster from B-52s. Four operational missions were conducted over China, but the camera packages were never successfully recovered. Kelly Johnson headed the Skunk Works until 1975. He was succeeded by Ben Rich. In 1976, the Skunk Works began production on a pair of stealth technology demonstrators for the U.S. Air Force named Have Blue in Building 82 at Burbank. These scaled-down demonstrators, built in only 18 months, were a revolutionary step forward in aviation technology because of their extremely small radar cross-section. After a series of successful test flights beginning in 1977, the Air force awarded Skunk Works the contract to build the F-117 stealth fighter on November 1, 1978. During the entirety of the Cold War, the Skunk Works was located in Burbank, California, on the eastern side of Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport (34.200768°N 118.351826°W / 34.200768; -118.351826). After 1989, Lockheed reorganized its operations and relocated the Skunk Works to Site 10 at U.S. Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, where it remains in operation today. Most of the old Skunk Works buildings in Burbank were demolished in the late 1990s to make room for parking lots. One main building still remains at 2777 Ontario Street in Burbank (near San Fernando Road), now used as an office building for digital film post-production and sound mixing. During the late 1990s when designing Pixar's building, Edwin Catmull and Steve Jobs visited a Skunkworks Building which influenced Jobs' design. In 2009, the Skunk Works was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. == Projects == === 2015 projects === Next generation optionally-manned U-2 aircraft. During September 2015 the proposed aircraft was deemed to have developed into more of a tactical reconnaissance aircraft, instead of strategic reconnaissance. === Aircraft === === Other === High beta fusion reactor Sea Shadow == Term origin == The term "Skunk Works" came from Al Capp's satirical, hillbilly comic strip Li’l Abner, which was immensely popular from 1935 through the 1950s. In the comic, the “Skonk Works" was a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch, in the backwoods of Kentucky. According to the strip, scores of locals were done in yearly by the toxic fumes of the concentrated "skonk oil", which was brewed and barreled daily by "Big Barnsmell" (known as the lonely "inside man" at the Skonk Works), by grinding dead skunks and worn shoes into a smoldering still, for some mysterious, unspecified purpose. In mid-1939 when Lockheed was expanding rapidly, the YP-38 project was moved a few blocks away to the newly purchased 3G Distillery, also known as Three G or GGG Distillery. Lockheed took over the building but the sour smell of bourbon mash lingered, partly because the group of buildings continued to store barrels of aging whiskey. The first YP-38 was built there before the team moved back to Lockheed's main factory a year later. In 1964, Johnson told Look magazine that the bourbon distillery was the first of five Lockheed skunk works locations. During the development of the P-80 Shooting Star, Johnson's engineering team was located adjacent to a malodorous plastics factory. According to Ben Rich’s memoir, an engineer jokingly showed up to work one day wearing a Civil Defense gas mask. To comment on the smell and the secrecy the project entailed, another engineer, Irv Culver, referred to the facility as "Skonk Works". As the development was very secret, the employees were told to be careful even with how they answered phone calls. One day, when the Department of the Navy was trying to reach the Lockheed management for the P-80 project, the call was accidentally transferred to Culver’s desk. Culver answered the phone in his trademark fashion of the time, by picking up the phone and stating "Skonk Works, inside man Culver". "What?" replied the voice at the other end. "Skonk Works", Culver repeated. The name stuck. Culver later said at an interview conducted in 1993 that "when Kelly Johnson heard about the incident, he promptly fired me. It didn’t really matter, since he was firing me about twice a day anyways." At the request of the comic strip copyright holders, Lockheed changed the name of the advanced development company to "Skunk Works" in the 1960s. The name "Skunk Works" and the skunk design are now registered trademarks of the Lockheed Martin Corporation. The company also holds several registrations of it with the United States Patent and Trademark Office. They have filed several challenges against registrants of domain names containing variations on the term under anti-cybersquatting policies, and have lost a case under the .uk domain name dispute resolution service against a company selling cannabis seeds and paraphernalia, which used the word "skunkworks" in its domain name (referring to "Skunk", the pungent smell of the cannabis flower). Lockheed Martin claimed the company registered the domain in order to disrupt its business and that consumer confusion might result. The respondent company argued that Lockheed "used its size, resources and financial position to employ 'bullyboy' tactics against... a very small company." In Australia, the trademark for use of the name "Skunkworks" is held by Perth-based television accessory manufacturer The Novita Group Pty Ltd. Lockheed Martin formally registered opposition to the application in 2006, however the Australian government's intellectual property authority, IP Australia, rejected the opposition, awarding Novita the trademark in 2008. == See also == Advanced Propulsion Physics Laboratory Area 51 Boeing Phantom Works Swamp Works == References == == Bibliography == Bodie, Warren M. (2001). The Lockheed P-38 Lightning: The Definitive Story of Lockheed's P-38 Fighter. Hayesville, North Carolina: Widewing Publications. ISBN 0-9629359-5-6. Miller, Jay (1995). Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works: The Official History. Aerofax. ISBN 1-85780-037-0. Rich, Ben; Leo, Janos (1996). Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 0-316-74300-3. == External links == Official website Wilson, Jim (September 1999). "Skunk Works Magic". Popular Mechanics. "Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works Celebrates Diamond Anniversary" (Press release). Lockheed Martin. June 17, 2003. "75 Years of Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works" (PDF). Aviation Week & Space Technology. June 14, 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2018. Retrieved June 15, 2018. Trimble, Stephen (June 15, 2018). "75 years on, Lockheed's Skunk Works is still innovating". Flightglobal. "Opinion: Johnson's Skunk Works legacy is in safe hands". Flightglobal. June 15, 2018. Trimble, Stephen (June 15, 2018). "Analysis: Does Skunk Works hiring binge indicate secret new programme?". Flightglobal.
Lockheed Martin X-35	The Lockheed Martin X-35 is a concept demonstrator aircraft (CDA) developed by Lockheed Martin for the Joint Strike Fighter program. The X-35 was declared the winner over the competing Boeing X-32 and a developed, armed version went on to enter production in the early 21st century as the F-35 Lightning II. == Development == The Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) evolved out of several requirements for a common fighter to replace existing types, including the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) program, one of the JSF's predecessors. The actual JSF development contract was signed on 16 November 1996. The JSF program was created to replace various aircraft while keeping development, production, and operating costs down. This was pursued by building three variants of one aircraft, with the initial goal of the variants sharing over 70% of their parts. The first is the F-35A, a conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant. It is the smallest and lightest version, and is intended primarily to replace the U.S. Air Force's aging F-16 Fighting Falcons and A-10 Thunderbolt IIs. This is the only version with an internal gun, the GAU-22. The F-35B is the short-takeoff and vertical-landing (STOVL) variant due to replace the U.S. Marine Corps AV-8 Harrier IIs and F/A-18 Hornets, and Royal Air Force/Royal Navy Harrier GR7/GR9s beginning in 2015. The Royal Navy will use this to replace its Harrier GR7s and the RAF replace its Harrier GR9s. The U.S. Marine Corps will use the F-35B to replace both its AV-8B Harrier IIs and F/A-18 Hornets with a design similar in size to the Air Force F-35A, trading fuel volume for vertical flight systems. Like the Harrier, guns will be carried in a pod. Vertical flight is by far the riskiest, and in the end, a decisive factor in design. Lastly, the F-35C, a carrier-based (CV) variant, will replace the "legacy" F/A-18 Hornets and serve as a stealthy complement to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. It will have a larger, folding wing and larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, and stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier landings. The larger wing area provides increased range and payload, achieving much the same goal as the much heavier Super Hornet. The U.S. Navy initially planned to purchase 480 JSF; this number was eventually revised to 260 aircraft, with an additional 80 for the U.S. Marine Corps. The primary customers and financial backers are the United States and the United Kingdom. Eight other nations are also funding the aircraft's development. Total program development costs, less procurement, are estimated at over US$40 billion, of which the bulk has been underwritten by the United States. Production costs are estimated at US$102 million per unit for 2,400 units. There are three levels of international participation. The United Kingdom is the sole 'Level 1' partner, contributing slightly over US$2 billion, about 10% of the development costs. Level 2 partners are Italy, which is contributing US$1 billion, and the Netherlands, US$800 million. At Level 3 are Canada, US$440 million; Turkey, US$175 million; Australia, US$144 million; Norway, US$122 million; and Denmark, US$110 million. The levels generally reflect the financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the priority order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. Israel and Singapore have also joined as Security Cooperative Participants. Due to delays in development and testing, the introduction date of the F-35 was gradually pushed from 2010 to 2015. == Design == Elements of the X-35 design were pioneered by the F-22 Raptor, and portions of the VTOL exhaust duct design were previously used by the Convair Model 200, a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship; in particular, the three-bearing swivel nozzle used in the X-35B was pioneered by the Convair design. Additionally, Lockheed purchased technical data from the canceled Yakovlev Yak-141 in 1991 for examination and analysis of its swivel nozzle. Although helmet-mounted display systems have already been integrated into some fourth-generation fighters such as the JAS 39 Gripen, the F-35 will be the first modern combat aircraft in which helmet-mounted displays will replace a head-up display altogether. During concept definition, two demonstrator airframes for each contractor team would be flight-tested. Lockheed Martin's demonstrator aircraft consisted of the X-35A (which was later converted into the X-35B), and the larger-winged X-35C. Both the X-32 and X-35 power plants were derived from Pratt & Whitney's F119, with the STOVL variant of the latter incorporating a Rolls-Royce Lift Fan module. Because these were proof of concept demonstrators for STOVL risk reduction, the demonstrator aircraft did not need to have the internal structure or most subsystems of the final aircraft as a weapon system. === Shaft-driven lift fan === Instead of lift engines or using a direct lift engine like the Rolls-Royce Pegasus in the Harrier jump jets, the X-35B was powered by the F119-PW-611 which used the new shaft-driven lift fan system, patented by Lockheed Martin engineer Paul Bevilaqua, and developed by Rolls-Royce. In normal wing-borne flight, the F119-PW-611 was configured as a normal medium-bypass reheated turbofan. The turbofan acted somewhat like a turboshaft engine embedded into the fuselage (but with a much smaller percentage of total heat energy being extracted by the turbine stage). A portion of engine power was extracted via a turbine, and used to drive a shaft running forward via a clutch-and-bevel gearbox to a vertically mounted, contra-rotating lift fan. This was located forward of the main engine in the center of the aircraft (this can also be viewed the same as a high-bypass turbofan but with the low-pressure fan stages mounted remotely from the engine core on an extended, clutched shaft, and creating thrust downwards rather than back around the engine core as in a conventional turbofan). Bypass air from the cruise engine medium-bypass turbofan compressor stages exhausted through a pair of roll-post nozzles in the wings on either side of the fuselage, while the thrust from the lift fan balanced the thrust of the hot core stream exhausting through vectored cruise nozzle at the tail. The X-35B powerplant effectively acted as a flow multiplier, much as a turbofan achieves efficiencies by moving unburned air at a lower velocity, and getting the same effect as the Harrier's huge, but supersonically impractical main fan. Like lift engines, this added machinery was dead weight during flight, but the increased lift thrust enhanced take-off payload by even more. The cool fan also reduced the harmful effects of hot, high-velocity air which could harm runway pavement or an aircraft carrier deck. Though risky and complicated, it was made to work to the satisfaction of DoD officials, and flight testing of the X-35 demonstrators reduced risk to Technology Readiness Level 6. == Operational history == === Flight test evaluation === The X-35A first flew on 24 October 2000 and tested air vehicle performance and handling characteristics. After 28 test flights, the aircraft was converted to the X-35B, which added the shaft-drive lift fan, aft swivel nozzle, and roll posts. On 20 July 2001, to demonstrate the X-35's STOVL capability, the X-35B took off in less than 500 feet (150 m), went supersonic, and landed vertically. The X-35C first flew on 16 December 2000 and tested simulated carrier recovery and power approach. In the fly-off between the X-32 and the X-35, the latter was judged to be the winner. As a result, a contract for System Development and Demonstration (SDD) of the F-35 was awarded on 26 October 2001 to Lockheed Martin. === F-35 production === There are a number of differences between the X-35 and F-35, which was designed to be an operational weapon system. The forward fuselage was lengthened by 5 inches (13 cm) to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were correspondingly moved 2 inches (5.1 cm) aft to retain balance and control. The diverterless supersonic inlet cowl shape changed from a four-sided to a three-sided shape and was moved 30 inches (76 cm) aft. To accommodate weapons bays, the fuselage section was fuller with the top surface raised by 1 inch (2.5 cm) along the centerline. Following the designation of the X-35 prototypes, the three variants were designated F-35A (CTOL), F-35B (STOVL), and F-35C (CV). == Aircraft on display == The X-35A was converted into the X-35B for the STOVL part of the competition. It now resides at the National Air and Space Museum Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, near Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia. Following the end of the competition, the X-35C was transferred to the Patuxent River Naval Air Museum in St. Mary's County, Maryland. == Specifications (X-35A) == Data from Air Force Magazine, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Flight International, Aerospace AmericaGeneral characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 50.5 ft (15.4 m) Wingspan: 33 ft (10 m) Height: 13.3 ft (4.1 m) Wing area: 450 sq ft (42 m2) Empty weight: 26,500 lb (12,020 kg) Max takeoff weight: 50,000 lb (22,680 kg) Fuel capacity: 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) internal Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney JSF119-PW-611 augmented turbofan, 25,000 lbf (110 kN) thrust dry, 40,000 lbf (180 kN) with afterburner Performance Maximum speed: Mach 1.5+ at altitude Range: 1,200 nmi (1,400 mi, 2,200 km) or more Combat range: 600 nmi (690 mi, 1,100 km) Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,000 m) === Differences between variants === == Gallery == == See also == Future Offensive Air System Joint Combat Aircraft Related development Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Boeing X-32 British Aerospace P.125 Yakovlev Yak-141 Related lists List of fighter aircraft List of experimental aircraft List of military aircraft of the United States == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === == External links == "Battle of the X-Planes (JSF selection)", Nova, PBS. F-35 JSF news articles, F-16, archived from the original on 9 September 2005. Gallery, LMTAS, archived from the original on 27 October 2005. "program difficulties", The Australian, News, 28 June 2006, archived from the original on 2 March 2006. F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) (data), The Federation of American Scientists.
Lockheed Martin KC-130	The Lockheed Martin (previously Lockheed) KC-130 is a family of the extended-range tanker version of the C-130 Hercules transport aircraft. The KC-130J is the latest variant operated by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), with 48 delivered out of 79 ordered. It replaced older KC-130F, KC-130R, and KC-130T variants for aerial refueling. USMC reserve unit, VMGR-452 operated 12 KC-130T aircraft until May 2021; this was the last USMC reserve unit that operated the legacy KC-130s, completing the Corps' transition to the more advanced Super Hercules. == Development == The KC-130F made its first test flight in January 1960 as the GV-1 under the old Navy designation system. First entering service in 1962, the KC-130F was designed to undertake aerial refueling missions in support of USMC aircraft. It was developed from the Lockheed C-130 Hercules. The newest Hercules, the KC-130J, shares 55 percent of the same airframe as preceding models, but in fact is a greatly improved airplane. It is based on the Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules and provides significant increases in operational capability and performance margins over preceding KC-130F/R/T (legacy) aircraft. Additionally, The KC-130J reduces cost of ownership through system reliability and reduced maintenance man-hours per flight hour. The new HC-130J combat rescue tanker and MC-130J special operations tanker are both derived from a KC-130J baseline. Technological development has led to the incorporation of interior/exterior night vision lighting, night vision goggle head-up displays, global positioning system, and jam-resistant radios. Some KC-130s are also equipped with defensive electronic and infrared countermeasures systems. == Design == The KC-130 is a multi-role, multi-mission tactical tanker/transport which provides the refueling support required by the USMC for its aircraft. This versatile asset provides in-flight refueling to both tactical aircraft and helicopters within a 500-nautical-mile (930 km) operating radius, as well as rapid ground refueling when required. Additional tasks performed are aerial delivery of troops and cargo, emergency resupply into unimproved landing zones within the objective or battle area, emergency medical evacuation, tactical insertion of combat troops and equipment, and evacuation missions. === KC-130J === The KC-130J offers a 27,215 kg (60,000 lb) fuel capacity that it can allocate between its own flight requirements against aerial refueling offload capacity using its wing and external tanks while in the air. When more fuel is needed, an additional 11,064 kg (24,392 lb) of fuel can be offloaded from a specially configured internal fuselage 13,627 L (3,600-gallon) aluminum fuel tank. The system also functions without the fuselage tank, so the cargo compartment can be used for cargo on the same mission, giving the aircraft even greater flexibility. The aircraft is ready to fuel fixed-wing, tilt-rotor, or rotary-wing aircraft using the standard probe and drogue technique. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue refueling pods (made by Sargent Fletcher) can each transfer up to 300 gallons (1,136 L) per minute to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes. The KC-130J also provides for rapid ground refueling of helicopters, vehicles and fuel caches. The aircraft has a unique propeller feathering feature (known as "hotel mode", derived from the term hotel electric power, when a vessel or other means of transport is equipped with a power plant with the sole purpose of generating electric power for lighting, etc., rather than propulsion) which can slow (at 25% rotation speed) the propellers while the turbines continue to run and energize the generator, providing power to the electric fuel pumps. This reduction of the propellers' speed helps to eliminate prop wash behind the KC-130J. This allows ground forces to operate in relative calm while the aircraft offloads up to 2,271 L, 1,823 kg (600 gallons, 4,018 pounds) per minute. The U.S. Marine Corps has chosen the KC-130J to replace its aging KC-130 legacy tanker fleet. The new KC-130J offers increased utility and much needed improvement in mission performance. As a force multiplier, the J-model tanker is capable of refueling both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft as well as conducting rapid ground refueling. The refueling speed envelope has been widened from 100 to 270 knots (500 km/h) indicated airspeed, offering more capability and flexibility. Offload rates per refueling pod can be up to 300 gallons (1,136 L) per minute simultaneously. The KC-130's offload is significantly greater than previous Hercules tankers. As an example, at 1,000 nautical miles (1,852 km), the fuel offload is well over 45,000 pounds (20,412 kg). === Harvest HAWK === With the addition of the Marine Corps's ISR / Weapon Mission Kit, the KC-130J will be able to serve as an overwatch aircraft and can deliver ground support fire in the form of Hellfire or Griffin missiles, precision-guided bombs, and eventually 30mm cannon fire in a later upgrade. This capability, designated as "Harvest HAWK" (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, such as area denial. The AN/AAQ-30 Target Sight System (TSS) integrates an infrared and television camera, and is mounted under the left wing's external fuel tank. It is the same TSS used on the upgraded AH-1Z Viper attack helicopter. The typical loadout is four Hellfire missiles and 10 Griffin GPS guided missiles. The weapons systems operator uses a Fire Control Console mounted on an HCU-6/E pallet in the KC-130J's cargo compartment. The aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed in less than a day if necessary. The USAF MC-130W Dragon Spear program uses a similar concept. The USMC plans to acquire three kits per active-duty KC-130J squadron for a total of nine kits, each costing up to US$22 million. It was first test flown on 29 August 2009 by VX-20, and first deployed in October 2010 with VMGR-352. == Operational history == The KC-130 has supported operations in the Vietnam War, Operation Desert Shield, Operation Desert Storm, Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom and other USMC operations over the last fifty years. It also participated in the Falklands War for Argentina. VMGR-252, Cherry Point, NC, was the first fleet squadron to transition to the KC-130J. Contrary to most military squadrons when they transition to a new aircraft, VMGR-252 did not "stand down" to train and equip for the new airframe. Instead, they continued full-time fleet support with their "legacy" Hercs until fully converted to the J model. This trend was continued by squadrons as they transitioned to the KC-130J. In February 2005, VMGR-252 made the first operational combat deployment of the KC-130J when six aircraft were deployed to Al Asad, Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. During this time VMGR-252 experienced many "firsts" with the new J model conducting aerial refueling, delivery of cargo and passengers, the first combat aerial delivery of supplies by any J model user (the USAF subsequently conducted aerial delivery in Afghanistan with their new J models later that year) and battlefield illumination. VMGR-252 maintained the sole KC-130J presence for a year while VMGR-352 took delivery of and transitioned to the J model. The semi-permissive threat environment and the state of the art defensive systems of the J model permitted it to operate over the battlefield, providing fuel for the jets close to the fight, versus the tanker being far behind the lines in relative sanctuary. On more than one occasion VMGR-252 aircraft came under fire from insurgents, as did VMGR-352 aircraft during subsequent deployments to Iraq. In 2006, VMGR-252 and 352 shared a joint detachment in Iraq and this paradigm continued for a number of years. In the summer of 2006, VMGR-252 provided a two KC-130J detachment in support of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24MEU) to RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus during the Lebanon/Israeli conflict that summer. Also during this time VMGR-252 began extensive operational training and tactics development with the new MV-22 Osprey, refining long range tanker procedures with the new tilt-rotor aircraft. In Spring 2008, VMGR-252 again made KC-130J history by providing the KC-130J aircraft detachment to 24MEU as they reestablished the USMC presence in Kandahar, Afghanistan. This deployment experienced numerous great KC-130J successes conducting all manner of expeditionary type missions routinely landing at austere dirt runways, tactical aerial delivery of goods, and the traditional logistic support and refueling missions that are the hallmark of USMC KC-130 support. Though the USMC KC-130Js have left Iraq, a continuing KC-130J presence has now been maintained in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, with aircraft and crews provided by both VMGR-252 and 352 during different periods. In May 2009, the Okinawa-based "SUMOS" of VMGR-152 provided two aircraft and crews to support the OEF presence. This was VMGR-152's first operational combat deployment since Vietnam, and they have been maintaining a continuing presence in Afghanistan with VMGR-352/252. USMC KC-130J aircraft from VMGR-252 and 352 have additionally been deployed to Djibouti for operations in the Horn of African supporting counter-terrorist operations in the region. After the 2010 Pakistan floods, KC-130Js from USMC VMGR-352 squadron delivered over 90,000 kg (200,000 lbs) of cargo across Pakistan in support of flood relief efforts. The Harvest Hawk weapons system for USMC KC-130J aircraft began its first deployment during October 2010 in Afghanistan with Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 352 (VMGR-352). Its first weapons engagement was on 4 November supporting the 3rd Battalion 5th Marines in Sangin. One Hellfire missile was fired and five enemy insurgents were killed. The battle damage assessment stated there were no civilian casualties or property damage during the fire fight. A KC-130J from the 26th MEU participated in a pilot rescue during Operation Odyssey Dawn. == Variants == KC-130B Six C-130B models were modified into in-flight refueling tankers. 4 currently operating with the Republic of Singapore Air Force (all four to be upgraded to KC-130H standard), 1 with Indonesian Air Force. KC-130F Enhanced KC-130B, 46 built KC-130H Tanker variant of C-130H, 33 built. In addition to these, JASDF has modified several (at least three) of its C-130Hs to have aerial refueling capability and uses them to support its UH-60J rescue helicopters. KC-130R 14 former USAF aircraft transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps. Six had refueling gear removed and were sold to the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force as C-130R aircraft to replace their remaining YS-11M/M-A aircraft for troop and cargo movement, humanitarian efforts, transport of senior leaders, and medical evacuation. Regeneration began in November 2012 and was to be completed by Fall 2013. KC-130T Variant from C-130H, 28 built KC-130T-30 Variant from C-130H-30, 2 built, transferred to the U.S. Navy and converted to C-130T-30s. KC-130J Variant from C-130J == Operators == === Current === Australia Royal Australian Air Force No. 37 Squadron – RAAF Base Richmond operates 12 KC-130J’s with plans for a further 20 scheduled for late 2027 Argentina Argentine Air Force 1st Air Transport Squadron – El Palomar Air Base KC-130H Brazil Brazilian Air Force 1º/1ºGT (1º Esquadrão do 1º Grupo de Transporte) – Galeão Air Force Base, Two KC-130H Chile Chilean Air Force Grupo de Aviación N°10 (Santiago) four KC-130R delivered in 2016. Two in service as 2019. Canada Royal Canadian Air Force 435 Transport and Rescue Squadron operates 3 KC-130H as CC-130H(T) : 32 France French Air Force Two KC-130Js on order and delivery in 2016. Germany German Air Force Three KC-130Js on order. To be operated in a joint Franco-German squadron based at Évreux-Fauville Air Base in France. Indonesia Indonesian Air Force Skadron Udara 32 operated 2 KC-130B (A-1309 & A-1310). One crashed in 2015. Israel Israeli Air Force 103 "Elephants" Squadron at Nevatim KC-130H 131 "Yellow Bird" Squadron at Nevatim KC-130H Italy Italian Air Force 46 Brigata Aerea, 2 Gruppo – Pisa-San Giusto operates 7 C-130J converted to KC-130J, 1 lost to crash Japan Japan Maritime Self Defense Force Air Transport Squadron 61 (Fleet Air Force) operates six C-130R, converted from KC-130R Japan Air Self-Defense Force 1st Tactical Airlift Group operates at least three KC-130H Kuwait Kuwait Air Force 42 Transport Squadron 3 KC-130J in service, with an option to purchase three more Libya Libyan Air Force 7 are on order Malaysia Royal Malaysian Air Force 20 Squadron 4 KC-130T in service Morocco Royal Moroccan Air Force Air Transport Squadron Operates 2 KC-130H aircraft Peru Peruvian Air Force Operates two KC-130H aircraft acquired from Spain in 2020. Saudi Arabia Royal Saudi Air Force 32 Sqn based at Prince Sultan Airbase (KC-130H) : 5 KC-130J on order Singapore Republic of Singapore Air Force 122 Squadron 122 Squadron operates 4 KC-130B and 1 KC-130H. Upgraded by ST Aerospace with a new glass cockpit, avionics suite, and flight management system which makes the aircraft Global air-traffic management (GATM)-compliant. The KC-130Bs will also receive an auxiliary power unit and environmental control systems in common with C-130Hs. Sweden Swedish Air Force The Swedish air force operates 1 KC-130H tanker United States United States Marine Corps VMGR-152 operates 14 KC-130J VMGR-153 operates 5 KC-130J; recently re-activated January 2023 VMGR-252 operates 14 KC-130J VMGR-352 operates 14 KC-130J VMGR-234 operates 10 KC-130J (only reserve unit) VMGR-452 decommissioned December 2022 VMGRT-253 decommissioned September 2006 United States Navy VX-20, a combined USN / USMC squadron, operates 1 KC-130J used for testing and evaluation, and 3 KC-130T for refueling USN and USMC aircraft conducting tests at NAS Patuxent River VX-30 operates 2 KC-130T for refueling USN and USMC aircraft conducting tests on the NAVAIR Point Mugu Range; the KC-130s also conduct range clearing and safety surveillance United States Coast Guard 6 Lockheed HC-130J – 5th Coast Guard District Uruguay Uruguayan Air Force Operates two KC-130H aircraft acquired from Spain in 2020 to replace its two C-130B aircraft. === Former === Spain Spanish Air Force == Specifications (KC-130J) == Data from Lockheed Martin KC-130J Super Tanker fact sheetGeneral characteristics Crew: 4 (two pilots, one crew chief and one loadmaster are minimum crew) Capacity: 42,000 lb (19,051 kg) 92 passengers or 64 airborne troops or 6 pallets or 74 litter patients with 2 medical personnel 2–3 Humvees or an M113 armored personnel carrier Fuel offload capacity 57,000 lb (25,855 kg) Length: 97 ft 9 in (29.79 m) Wingspan: 132 ft 7 in (40.41 m) Height: 38 ft 10 in (11.84 m) Wing area: 1,745 sq ft (162.1 m2) Airfoil: root: NACA 64A318; tip: NACA 64A412 Empty weight: 75,562 lb (34,274 kg) Gross weight: 164,000 lb (74,389 kg) Max takeoff weight: 175,000 lb (79,379 kg) Fuel capacity: 61,364 lb (27,834 kg) (with external tanks) Powerplant: 4 × Allison T56 and Rolls-Royce AE 2100D3 turboprop engines, 4,637 shp (3,458 kW) each Propellers: 6-bladed Dowty R391 constant-speed fully feathering reversible-pitch composite propellers Performance Maximum speed: 362 kn (417 mph, 670 km/h) Cruise speed: 348 kn (400 mph, 644 km/h) Range: 2,835 nmi (3,262 mi, 5,250 km) Service ceiling: 28,000 ft (8,500 m) with 42,000 lb (19,051 kg) payload Take-off run: 3,127 ft (953 m) at 155,000 lb (70,307 kg) == See also == Related development Lockheed AC-130 Lockheed C-130 Hercules Lockheed DC-130 Lockheed EC-130 Lockheed HC-130 Lockheed L-100 Hercules Lockheed LC-130 Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules Lockheed MC-130 Lockheed WC-130 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Airbus A400M Atlas Antonov An-12 Blackburn Beverley Shaanxi Y-8 Short Belfast Transall C-160 Embraer C-390 Millennium Related lists List of accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed C-130 Hercules List of active Canadian military aircraft List of active United Kingdom military aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of aircraft of the Israeli Air Force List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force List of Lockheed aircraft List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962) List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft == References == == External links ==
Lockheed Martin FB-22	The Lockheed Martin FB-22 was a proposed supersonic stealth bomber aircraft for the United States Air Force, derived from the F-22 Raptor air superiority fighter. Lockheed Martin proposed its design in the early 2000s with support from certain Air Force leaders as an interim "regional bomber" to complement the aging U.S. strategic bomber fleet, whose replacement was planned to enter service after 2037. The FB-22 was to leverage much of the design work and components from the F-22 to reduce development costs. Lockheed Martin suspended work on the concept following the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review, which called for a new and much larger strategic Next-Generation Bomber by 2018; this program had morphed into the Long Range Strike Bomber. == Background == In March 1999, the Air Force released a Long Range Bombers white paper in response to a Congressional mandate for the service to update its bomber roadmap. The paper stated that the service's current fleet of strategic bombers consisting of the B-52, B-1, and B-2 would be sufficient until around 2037, when they will need to be replaced by a new "capability" with an acquisition program starting in 2019. However, this target date frustrated members of Congress who hoped to see greater budgetary emphasis on the bomber mission. Furthermore, the subsequent 2001 Department of Defense (DoD) Quadrennial Defense Review identified increasing threats to U.S. power projection, and the Air Force's aging bomber fleet. One of the key threats identified by the review was the increasing prevalence of sophisticated air defense systems which could deny airspace access to any aircraft without stealth capability. In November 2001, the Air Force released an updated white paper on Long Range Strike Aircraft, which acknowledged these challenges and also anticipated a strategic shift from nuclear deterrence to conventional precision bombing and network-centric warfare for global power projection in potentially unexpected conflict zones. Although the updated paper identified the possibility of a replacement "capability" entering service in the 2025 to 2030 timeframe, it cautioned that this was not an in-depth or detailed bomber roadmap. Against this backdrop, some Air Force officials began considering an "interim" strike capability such as "regional bombers" to complement the existing fleet of strategic bombers while the service and the DoD explored ideas and timelines for a longer term replacement program. == Design and development == In 2001, Lockheed Martin began internal studies on the feasibility of the FB-22 as the company sought to leverage the design and capabilities of the F-22 Raptor, the result of the Advanced Tactical Fighter program. The studies primarily focused on the ability to survive and perform bombing missions (i.e. air interdiction) in contested environments, in both day and night, against increasingly capable air defense systems and adversary fighter aircraft. Furthermore, experience gleaned from Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan also demonstrated the value of a bomber that could reach targets quickly and remain in theatre in the absence of surface-to-air missiles. The F-22, while designed as an air superiority fighter, embodied some degree of air-to-ground attack ability through precision strikes with Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), with further strike capability improvements planned with upgrades. Though initially unsolicited, the studies attracted the attention of several Air Force leaders, including Secretary of the Air Force James Roche in 2002. One primary objective of the internal studies was to exploit and further expand upon the F-22's high speed air-to-ground capability while keeping costs to a minimum. To this end, the company devised several concepts that saw significant structural redesigns with respect to the fuselage and wings, while retaining much of the F-22's mission system avionics. With an early design later designated FB-22-1, Lockheed Martin lengthened and widened the fuselage to increase the internal weapons load; another design, the FB-22-2, had a stretched mid-fuselage for increased main bay capacity and featured an enlarged delta wing with greater leading edge sweep angle while the horizontal tails (stabilators) were removed. However, it was later found that doing so would have incurred a cost penalty of 25–30% in weight, materials and development. Instead, the company subsequently focused on leaving the fuselage intact as much as possible while enlarging the diamond-like delta wing with the same sweep angles as the F-22. Several proposals in this vein were investigated. The FB-22-3 used the stock fuselage with enlarged delta wings and no stabilators, while the FB-22-4 was similar to -3 but with maximal wing whose leading edge met with the upper edge of the caret inlet. The FB-22-4's maximal wing, which was around three times that of the F-22, enabled the storage of a much larger quantity of weapons and fuel. In addition, as a stealth bomber, the FB-22 was designed to carry weapons externally while maintaining stealth with the assistance of detachable and faceted pods dubbed "wing weapons bay"; previously, an aircraft could only remain stealthy if it carried its weapons internally. Various figures give the payload of the FB-22 to be 30 to 35 Small Diameter Bombs; this is compared to the F-22's payload of eight of such 250-pound (110 kg) weapons. The main weapon bay doors would also be bulged to allow internal carriage of 2,000-pound (910 kg) bombs in the fuselage. By employing the wing weapons bay, the FB-22 was designed to be able to carry bombs up to 5,000 pounds (2,270 kg) in size such as the GBU-37 GPS-Aided Munition (GAM) or two 2,000-pound bombs in tandem. With stealth, the aircraft's maximum combat load was to have been 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg); without stealth, 30,000 pounds (13,600 kg). Combat radius was almost tripled from 600 nautical miles (690 mi; 1,100 km) to more than 1,600 nautical miles (1,800 mi; 3,000 km), which could have been extended further by the use of external fuel tanks. This range capability placed the aircraft in the category of a regional bomber, comparable to that of the F-111, as it was intended to replace the F-15E Strike Eagle and take over some of the missions of the B-1 and B-2. With the FB-22's greatly increased range and endurance, Lockheed Martin also extended the forward fuselage by 60 inches (1.5 m) to accommodate a second pilot in order to reduce workload and also act as a weapon systems officer (WSO). According to Air Force Magazine, the combination of range and payload of the FB-22 would have given the concept a comparable effectiveness to that of the B-2 armed with 2,000-lb bombs. The design was to still use the Pratt & Whitney F119 engines but modified for more power and optimized for subsonic efficiency rather than supercruise. While some FB-22 concepts featured no tailplanes (using research originally under the X-44 MANTA program), most design proposals incorporated twin tailplanes and likely would have fixed axisymmetric engine nozzles as opposed to the thrust vectoring nozzles on the F-22. Though not designed for supercruise, the FB-22 would be capable of supersonic dash using afterburners. Projected maximum speed varied depending on the variant; faster versions such as the FB-22-2 would have had a top speed of Mach 1.92, while the FB-22-4 with maximal wing area would have topped out at around Mach 1.5. Because the aircraft was to emphasize air-to-ground capability while maintaining stealth characteristics, the FB-22 would have lacked the F-22's dogfighting capability although it could carry AIM-9 Sidewinders and AIM-120 AMRAAMs for self-defense against fighters. One aspect that arose during the early stages of the design process was the consideration that Boeing would be responsible for the final assembly of the aircraft. At the time, Lockheed Martin was making the mid-fuselage at its plant in Fort Worth, Texas, while assembling the F-22 in Marietta, Georgia. However, since Boeing was responsible for the manufacturing of parts of the fuselage and more crucially, the wings—as well as integrating the avionics—it was considered prudent to give final assembly to Boeing in Seattle, Washington. Other than the wings, the aircraft would have retained much of the design of the F-22. This included 80% of the avionics, software, and flight controls. This commonality would have also significantly reduced the costs of software integration. In February 2003, during a session with the House Committee on Armed Services, Air Force Secretary James Roche said that he envisioned a force of 150 FB-22s would equip the service. In 2004, Lockheed Martin officially presented the FB-22 to the Air Force to meet its requirement for a potential strategic bomber as an interim solution to become operational by 2018. Because of the work already done on the F-22, the cost of developing the FB-22 was estimated to be as low as 25% of developing a new bomber, with development expected to be US$5–7 billion (2002 dollars, ~$8.1 billion–11.3 billion in 2023), including the airframe development cost of US$1 billion (2003 dollars, ~$1.59 billion in 2023). It was later revealed that six different versions of the bomber were submitted, as targets, payload and range had yet to be defined. However, the FB-22 in its planned form was canceled in the wake of the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments as the Department of Defense favored a new strategic bomber with much greater range that would enter service in 2018. The Air Force would subsequently embark on the Next-Generation Bomber program to fulfill this goal, although the program was later re-scoped and became the Long Range Strike Bomber program resulting in the B-21 Raider. == Specifications (FB-22-4, proposed) == Data from Lockheed Martin, Aerofax, Air Force AssociationGeneral characteristics Crew: 2 (pilot, co-pilot/weapon systems operator) Length: 64 ft 4 in (19.61 m) Wingspan: 73 ft 8 in (22.45 m) Wing area: 1,757 sq ft (163.2 m2) Airfoil: 4.45% thickness Max takeoff weight: 120,000 lb (54,431 kg) Fuel capacity: 43,745 lb (19,842 kg) internal Powerplant: 2 × modified Pratt & Whitney F119 afterburning turbofan Performance Maximum speed: Mach 1.5+ at altitude Range: 3,600 nmi (4,100 mi, 6,700 km) Combat range: 1,477 nmi (1,700 mi, 2,735 km) (combat radius with 100 nmi supersonic dash) 1,574 nautical miles (1,810 mi; 2,920 km) (combat radius with 50 nmi supersonic dash) 1,800 nautical miles (2,070 mi; 3,330 km) subsonic g limits: +6 g Armament Hardpoints: 8 internal hardpoints in three weapons bays, 4 underwing hardpoints with a capacity of 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) internal and in LO wing weapons bays, 30,000 lb (13,600 kg) total Missiles: Internal loadout: 6 × AIM-120 AMRAAM (2 × AIM-120 when carrying bombs) and 2 × AIM-9 Sidewinder (no AIM-9s when carrying SDBs in side bays) Wing pylons: 4 × AIM-120 AMRAAM and 2 × AGM-154 JSOW or 2 AGM-158 JASSM Bombs: Internal loadout: 12 × GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB) or 2 × GBU-31/32 Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) Wing pylons: 12 x GBU-39 SDBs in LO wing weapons bays or 2 × GBU-31/32 JDAMs or 2 × GBU-37 GPS-Aided Munitions (GAM) == See also == Advanced Tactical Fighter 2037 bomber controversy Related development Lockheed YF-22 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era General Dynamics FB-111 Sukhoi Su-34 Sukhoi T-60S Boeing B-1R Northrop Grumman FB-23 Related lists List of bomber aircraft == References == === Notes === === Citations === == External links == Bolkcom, Christopher (21 March 2005). Air Force FB-22 Bomber Concept (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2022. "FB-22 Fighter Bomber". GlobalSecurity.org. "Experimental technology could be applied to FB-22 bomber variant". Flight International. 25 May 2004.
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy	The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy is a large military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed, and now maintained and upgraded by its successor, Lockheed Martin. It provides the United States Air Force (USAF) with a heavy intercontinental-range strategic airlift capability, one that can carry outsized and oversized loads, including all air-certifiable cargo. The Galaxy has many similarities to the smaller Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and the later Boeing C-17 Globemaster III. The C-5 is among the largest military aircraft in the world. All 52 in-service aircraft have been upgraded to the C-5M Super Galaxy with new engines and modernized avionics designed to extend its service life to 2040 and beyond. The C-5 Galaxy's development was complicated, including significant cost overruns, and Lockheed suffered significant financial difficulties. Shortly after entering service, cracks in the wings of many aircraft were discovered and the C-5 fleet was initially restricted in capability until corrective work was completed. The USAF has operated the C-5 since 1969. In that time, the airlifter supported US military operations in all major conflicts including Vietnam, Iraq, Yugoslavia, and Afghanistan, as well as allied support, such as Israel during the Yom Kippur War and operations in the Gulf War. The Galaxy has also distributed humanitarian aid, provided disaster relief, and supported the US space program. == Development == === CX-4 and Heavy Logistics System === In 1961, several aircraft companies began studying heavy jet transport designs that would replace the Douglas C-133 Cargomaster and complement Lockheed C-141 Starlifters. In addition to higher overall performance, the United States Army wanted a transport aircraft with a larger cargo bay than the C-141, whose interior was too small to carry a variety of their outsized equipment. This need led to the CX-4 requirement of July 1962, for which Lockheed, Boeing, Convair, and Douglas proposed six-engined designs. When the US Army judged the CX-4 specification inadequate for its requirements, by late 1963 the CX-4 specification gave way to the CX-HLC requirement specified an airlifter with four engines, an equipped gross weight of 550,000 pounds (249,000 kg), a maximum payload of 180,000 lb (81,600 kg), and a speed of Mach 0.75 (500 mph or 805 km/h). The cargo compartment was 17.2 ft (5.24 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m) high and 100 ft (30.5 m) long with front and rear access doors. USAF studies showed that high-bypass turbofan engines were needed for thrust and fuel efficiency requirements. The criteria were finalized and an official request for proposal was issued in April 1964 for the "Heavy Logistics System" (CX-HLS) (previously CX-HLC). In May 1964, proposals for aircraft were received from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta. General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney submitted proposals for the engines. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were given one-year study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines. All three of the designs shared a number of features. The cockpit was placed well above the cargo area to allow for cargo loading through a nose door. The Boeing and Douglas designs used a pod on the top of the fuselage containing the cockpit, while the Lockheed design extended the cockpit profile down the length of the fuselage, giving it an egg-shaped cross section. All of the designs had swept wings, as well as front and rear cargo doors, allowing simultaneous loading and unloading. Lockheed's design featured a T-tail, while the designs by Boeing and Douglas had conventional tails. The Air Force considered Boeing's design to be better than that of Lockheed, but Lockheed's proposal was the lowest total-cost bid. Lockheed was selected as the winner in September 1965, then awarded a contract in December 1965. General Electric's TF39 engine was selected in August 1965 to power the new transport plane. At the time, GE's engine concept was revolutionary, as all engines before had a bypass ratio less than two-to-one, while the TF39 promised and would achieve a ratio of eight-to-one, which had the benefits of increased engine thrust and lower fuel consumption. Boeing lost the military contract but went on to develop the successful 747 civilian airliner with over 1,500 aircraft built when manufacturing ended in 2022 after 54 years of production. === Into production === The first C-5A Galaxy (serial number 66-8303) was rolled out of the manufacturing plant in Marietta, Georgia, on 2 March 1968. On 30 June 1968, flight testing of the C-5A began with the first flight, flown by Leo Sullivan, with the call sign "eight-three-oh-three heavy". Flight tests revealed that the aircraft exhibited a higher drag divergence Mach number than predicted by wind tunnel data. The maximum lift coefficient measured in flight with the flaps deflected 40° was higher than predicted (2.60 vs. 2.38), but was lower than predicted with the flaps deflected 25° (2.31 vs. 2.38) and with the flaps retracted (1.45 vs. 1.52). Aircraft weight was a serious issue during design and development. At the time of the first flight, the weight was below the guaranteed weight, but by the time of the delivery of the 9th aircraft, had exceeded guarantees. In July 1969, during a fuselage upbending test, the wing failed at 128% of limit load, which is below the requirement that it sustain 150% of limit load. Changes were made to the wing, but during a test in July 1970, it failed at 125% of limit load. A passive load-reduction system, involving uprigged ailerons, was incorporated, but the maximum allowable payload was reduced from 220,000 to 190,000 lb (100,000 to 86,000 kg). At the time, a 90% probability was predicted that no more than 10% of the fleet of 79 airframes would reach their fatigue life of 19,000 hours without cracking of the wing. Cost overruns and technical problems of the C-5A were the subject of a congressional investigation in 1968 and 1969. The C-5 program has the dubious distinction of being the first development program with a $1‑billion (equivalent to $8.6 billion today) overrun. Due to the C-5's troubled development, the Department of Defense abandoned Total Package Procurement. In 1969, Henry Durham raised concerns about the C-5 production process with Lockheed, his employer. Subsequently, Durham was transferred and subjected to abuse until he resigned. The Government Accountability Office substantiated some of his charges against Lockheed. Later, the American Ethical Union honored Durham with the Elliott-Black Award. The Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Management Systems, Ernest Fitzgerald, was another person whose fostering of public accountability was unwelcome. Upon completion of testing in December 1969, the first C-5A was transferred to the Transitional Training Unit at Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma. Lockheed delivered the first operational Galaxy to the 437th Airlift Wing, Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina, in June 1970. Due to higher than expected development costs, in 1970, public calls were made for the government to split the substantial losses that Lockheed was experiencing. Production was nearly brought to a halt in 1971 as Lockheed went through financial difficulties, due in part to the C-5 Galaxy's development, as well as a civilian jet liner, the Lockheed L-1011. The U.S. government gave loans to Lockheed to keep the company operational. In the early 1970s, NASA considered the C-5 for the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft role, to transport the Space Shuttle to Kennedy Space Center. However, they rejected it in favor of the Boeing 747, in part due to the 747's low-wing design. In contrast, the Soviet Union chose to transport its shuttles using the high-winged An-225, which derived from the An-124, which is similar in design and function to the C-5. During static and fatigue testing, cracks were noticed in the wings of several aircraft, and as a consequence, the C-5A fleet was restricted to 80% of maximum design loads. To reduce wing loading, load alleviation systems were added to the aircraft. By 1980, payloads were restricted to as low as 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) for general cargo during peacetime operations. A $1.5 billion program (equivalent to $8.3 billion today), known as H-Mod, to re-wing the 76 completed C-5As to restore full payload capability and service life began in 1976. After design and testing of the new wing design, the C-5As received their new wings from 1980 to 1987. === Restarted production and development === In 1974, Imperial Iran, having good relations with the United States, offered $160 million (equivalent to $1,020 million today) to restart C-5 production to enable Iran to purchase aircraft for their own air force, in a similar climate as to their acquisition of F-14 Tomcat fighters. However, no C-5s were ordered by Iran, and the prospect was firmly halted by the Iranian Revolution in 1979 when the Imperial State of Iran was replaced by the Islamic State of Iran. As part of President Ronald Reagan's military policy, funding was made available for expansion of the USAF's airlift capability. With the C-17 program still some years from completion, Congress approved funding for a new version of the C-5, the C-5B, in July 1982, to expand airlift capacity. The first C-5B was delivered to Altus Air Force Base in January 1986. In April 1989, the last of 50 C-5B aircraft was added to the 77 C-5As in the Air Force's airlift force structure. The C-5B includes all C-5A improvements and numerous additional system modifications to improve reliability and maintainability. In 1998, the Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) began upgrading the C-5's avionics to include a glass cockpit, navigation equipment, and a new autopilot system. Another part of the C-5 modernization effort is the Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program (RERP). The program replaced the engines with newer, more powerful ones. A total of 52 C-5s were contracted to be modernized, consisting of 49 B-, two C- and one A-model aircraft through the RERP. The program featured over 70 changes and upgrades, including the newer General Electric engines. Three C-5s underwent RERP for testing purposes. Low-rate initial production started in August 2009 with Lockheed reaching full production in May 2011; 22 C-5M Super Galaxies have been completed as of August 2014. RERP upgrades were completed on 25 July 2018. The Air Force received the last modified aircraft on 1 August 2018. In 2014 Lockheed investigated drag reduction by plasma-heating of turbulent transonic airflow in critical points, saving overall weight by reducing fuel consumption. The Air Force Research Laboratory looked into shape-memory alloy for speed-dependent vortex generators. == Design == The C-5 is a large, high-wing cargo aircraft with a distinctive high T-tail fin (vertical) stabilizer, with four TF39 turbofan engines mounted on pylons beneath wings that are swept 25°. (The C-5M uses newer GE CF6 engines.) Similar in layout to its smaller predecessor, the C-141 Starlifter, the C-5 has 12 internal wing tanks and is equipped for aerial refueling. Above the plane-length cargo deck is an upper deck for flight operations and for seating 80 passengers in rear facing seats (unlike most commercial airplanes) and the embarked loadmaster crew in forward facing seats. Bay doors at both nose and tail open to enable "drive-through" loading and unloading of cargo. The cargo hold of the C-5 is one foot (30 cm) longer than the entire length of the first powered flight by the Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. For its voracious consumption of fuel and its maintenance and reliability issues the Galaxy's aircrews have nicknamed it "FRED", for Fucking Ridiculous Economic/Environmental Disaster. Takeoff and landing distance requirements for the plane at maximum-load gross weight are 8,300 ft (2,500 m) and 4,900 ft (1,500 m), respectively. Its high-flotation main landing gear provides 28 wheels to distribute gross weight on paved or earth surfaces. The rear main landing gear can be made to caster to make a smaller turning radius, and rotates 90° after takeoff before being retracted. "Kneeling" landing gear permits lowering the aircraft when parked, thereby presenting the cargo deck at truck-bed height to facilitate loading and unloading operations. The C-5 features a malfunction detection analysis and recording system to identify errors throughout the aircraft. The cargo compartment is 121 ft (37 m) long, 13.5 ft (4.1 m) high, and 19 ft (5.8 m) wide, or just over 31,000 cu ft (880 m3). It can accommodate up to 36 463L master pallets or a mix of palletized cargo and vehicles. The nose and aft cargo-bay doors open the full width and height of the cargo bay to maximize efficient loading of oversized equipment. Full-width ramps enable loading double rows of vehicles from either end of the cargo hold. The C-5 Galaxy is capable of moving nearly every type of military combat equipment, including such bulky items as the Army armored vehicle launched bridge, at 74 short tons (67 t), from the United States to any location on the globe; and of accommodating up to six Boeing AH-64 Apache helicopters or five Bradley Fighting Vehicles at one time. == Operational history == The first C-5A was delivered to the USAF on 17 December 1969. Wings were built up in the early 1970s at Altus AFB, Oklahoma; Charleston AFB, South Carolina; Dover AFB, Delaware; and Travis AFB, California. The C-5's first mission was on 9 July 1970, in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. C-5s were used to transport equipment and troops, including Army tanks and even some small aircraft, throughout the later years of the US action in Vietnam. In the final weeks of the war, prior to the Fall of Saigon, several C-5s were involved in evacuation efforts. During one such mission, a C-5A crashed while transporting a large number of orphans, with over 140 killed. C-5s have also been used to deliver support and reinforce various US allies over the years. During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, multiple C-5s and C-141 Starlifters delivered critical supplies of ammunition, replacement weaponry and other forms of aid to Israel, the US effort was named as Operation Nickel Grass. The C-5 Galaxy's performance in Israel was such that the Pentagon began to consider further purchases. The C-5 was regularly made available to support American allies, such as the British-led peacekeeper initiative in Zimbabwe in 1979. On 24 October 1974, the Space and Missile Systems Organization successfully conducted an air-launched ballistic missile test, where a C-5A Galaxy aircraft air dropped an 86,000-pound (39,000 kg) Minuteman ICBM from 20,000 feet (6,100 m) over the Pacific Ocean. The missile descended to 8,000 feet (2,400 m) before its rocket engine fired. The 10-second engine burn carried the missile to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) again before it dropped into the ocean. The test proved the feasibility of launching an intercontinental ballistic missile from the air. Operational deployment was discarded due to engineering and security difficulties, though the capability was used as a negotiating point in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Aircraft 69–0014, "Zero-One-Four" used in the test was retired to the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base. The C-5 has been used for several unusual functions. During the development of the secretive stealth aircraft, the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, Galaxies were often used to carry partly disassembled aircraft, leaving no exterior signs as to their cargo. The C-5 remains the largest aircraft to operate in the Antarctic, capable of operating from Williams Field near McMurdo Station. The C-5 Galaxy was a major supply asset in the international coalition operations in 1990–91 against Iraq in the Gulf War. C-5s have routinely delivered relief aid and humanitarian supplies to areas afflicted with natural disasters or crisis; multiple flights were made over Rwanda in 1994. The C-5 is also used to transport Marine One. The wings on the C-5As were replaced during the 1980s to restore full design capability. The USAF took delivery of the first C-5B on 28 December 1985 and the final one in April 1989. The reliability of the C-5 fleet has been a continued issue throughout its lifetime, however the C-5M upgrade program seeks in part to address this issue. Their strategic airlift capacity has been a key logistical component of U.S. military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Following an incident during Operation Iraqi Freedom where one C-5 was damaged by a projectile, the installation of defensive systems has become a stated priority. === Upgrades to C-5M Super Galaxy === Following a study showing that 80% of the C-5 airframe's service life was remaining, Air Mobility Command (AMC) began an aggressive program to modernize all remaining C-5Bs and C-5Cs and many of the C-5As. The C-5 Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) began in 1998 and includes upgrading the avionics to comply with Global Air Traffic Management standards, improving communications, fitting new flat-panel displays, improving navigation and safety equipment, and installing a new autopilot system. The first flight of a C-5 with AMP (85-0004) occurred on 21 December 2002. The Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program (RERP) began in 2006. It includes fitting new General Electric F138-GE-100 (CF6-80C2) engines, pylons and auxiliary power units, and upgrades to aircraft skin and frame, landing gear, cockpit and pressurization systems. Each CF6 engine produces 22% more thrust (50,000 lbf or 220 kN), providing a 30% shorter takeoff, a 38% higher climb rate to initial altitude, an increased cargo load and a longer range. Upgrades to all fifty C-5Bs and both C-5Cs were completed by August 2018. These aircraft are now designated C-5M Super Galaxy. The C-5 AMP and RERP modernization programs plan to raise mission-capable rate to a minimum goal of 75%. Over the next 40 years, the U.S. Air Force estimates the C-5M will save over $20 billion. The first C-5M conversion was completed on 16 May 2006 and C-5Ms began test flights at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in June 2006. In 2008, the USAF decided to convert remaining C-5Bs and C-5Cs into C-5Ms with avionics upgrades and re-engining. The C-5As will receive only the avionics upgrades. The last of 52 C-5Ms was delivered to Air Mobility Command in August 2018. In response to Air Force plans to retire older C-5 aircraft, Congress implemented legislation that set limits on retirement plans for C-5As in 2003. As of November 2013, 45 C-5As have been retired, 11 have been scrapped, parts of one (A/C 66-8306) are now a cargo load trainer at Lackland AFB, Texas, and one was sent to the Warner Robins Air Logistics Center (WR-ALC) for tear down and inspection to evaluate structural integrity and estimate the remaining life for the fleet. The U.S. Air Force began to receive refitted C-5M aircraft in December 2008. Full production of C-5Ms began in the summer of 2009. In 2009, the Congressional ban on the retirement of C-5s was overturned. The Air Force seeks to retire one C-5A for every 10 new C-17s ordered. In October 2011, the 445th Airlift Wing based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base replaced all remaining C-5s with C-17s. The C-5M reached initial operating capability (IOC) on 24 February 2014 with 16 aircraft delivered. On 13 September 2009, a C-5M set 41 new records and flight data was submitted to the National Aeronautic Association for formal recognition. The C-5M had carried a payload of 176,610 lb (80,110 kg) to over 41,100 ft (12,500 m) in 23 minutes, 59 seconds. Additionally, 33 time to climb records at various payload classes were set, and the world record for greatest payload to 6,562 ft (2,000 m) was broken. The aircraft was in the category of 551,200 to 661,400 lb (250,000 to 300,000 kg) with a takeoff weight of 649,680 lb (294,690 kg) including payload, fuel, and other equipment. On 18 July 2017, C-5s based at Dover were ordered to stand down so maintenance crews could determine the cause for some nose landing gear failing. The last TF39-powered C-5 flew in late 2017. == Variants == === C-5A === The C-5A is the original version of the C-5. From 1969 to 1973, 81 C-5As were delivered to the Military Airlift Command of the U.S. Air Force. Due to cracks found in the wings in the mid-1970s, the cargo weight was restricted. To restore the C-5's full capability, the wing structure was redesigned. A program to install new strengthened wings on 77 C-5As was conducted from 1981 to 1987. The redesigned wing made use of a new aluminum alloy that did not exist during the original production. As of August 2016, there were ten A-models in service flown by the Air Force Reserve Command's 433d Airlift Wing at Lackland AFB / Kelly Field, Texas, and 439th Airlift Wing at Westover ARB, Massachusetts. The last operational C-5A was retired on 7 September 2017. === C-5B === The C-5B is an improved version of the C-5A. It incorporated all modifications and improvements made to the C-5A with improved wings, simplified landing gear, upgraded TF-39-GE-1C turbofan engines and updated avionics. Fifty examples of the new variant were delivered to the U.S. Air Force from 1986 to 1989. === C-5C === The C-5C is a specially modified variant for transporting large cargo. Two C-5As (68-0213 and 68-0216) were modified following major accidents to have a larger internal cargo capacity to accommodate large payloads, such as satellites. The major modifications were the removal of the rear passenger compartment floor, splitting the rear cargo door in the middle, and installing a new movable aft bulkhead further to the rear. The official C-5 technical manual refers to the version as C-5A(SCM) Space Cargo Modified. Modifications also included adding a second inlet for ground power, which can feed any power-dependent equipment that may form part of the cargo. The two C-5Cs are operated by U.S. Air Force crews for DOD spacecraft programs and NASA, and are stationed at Travis AFB, California. === C-5D === Proposed during the 1990s Non-Developmental Airlift Aircraft (NDAA) program as an alternative to further purchases of the McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III as well as a replacement for older C-5As. The C-5D was to have General Electric F138-GE-100 (CF6-80C2) engines, improved avionics and significantly improved reliability and maintainability, although it could not use austere runways or conduct airdrop operations and had a higher expected operating cost. The plan was canceled in favor of the purchase of more C-17s. The specifications of the C-5D were later used in the C-5M upgrade program. === L-500 === Lockheed also planned a civilian version of the C-5 Galaxy, the L-500, the company designation also used for the C-5 itself. Both passenger and cargo versions of the L-500 were designed. The all-passenger version would have been able to carry up to 1,000 travelers, while the all-cargo version was predicted to be able to carry typical C-5 volume for as little as 2 cents per ton-mile (in 1967 dollars). Although some interest was expressed by carriers, no orders were placed for either L-500 version, due to operational costs caused by low fuel efficiency, a significant concern for a profit-making carrier, even before the oil crisis of the 1970s, keen competition from Boeing's 747, and high costs incurred by Lockheed in developing the C-5, and later the L-1011, which led to the governmental rescue of the company. === C-5 Shuttle Carrier === Lockheed proposed a twin body C-5 as a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft to counter the Conroy Virtus, but the design was turned down in favor of the Boeing 747. == Operators == United States United States Air Force – 52 C-5Ms in service as of August 2018 Air Mobility Command 60th Air Mobility Wing – Travis Air Force Base, California 22nd Airlift Squadron, 1972–present 436th Airlift Wing – Dover Air Force Base, Delaware 9th Airlift Squadron, 1971–present Air Force Reserve Command 349th Air Mobility Wing (Associate) – Travis Air Force Base, California 312th Airlift Squadron, 1973–present 413th Flight Test Group – Robins AFB, Georgia 339th Flight Test Squadron, 1998–present 433d Airlift Wing – Kelly Field Annex, Texas 68th Airlift Squadron, 1985–present 356th Airlift Squadron, 2007–present 439th Airlift Wing – Westover Air Reserve Base, Massachusetts 337th Airlift Squadron, 1987–present 512th Airlift Wing (Associate) – Dover Air Force Base, Delaware 709th Airlift Squadron, 1973–present === Former operators === Military Airlift Command/Air Mobility Command 60th Military Airlift Wing/Air Mobility Wing – Travis Air Force Base, California 21st Airlift Squadron, 1993–2006 75th Military Airlift Squadron, 1970–1992 436th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing – Dover Air Force Base, Delaware 3d Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 1973–2007 31st Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 1989–1994 437th Military Airlift Wing – Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina 3d Military Airlift Squadron, 1970–1973 443d Military Airlift Wing – Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma 56th Military Airlift Squadron, 1969–1992 97th Air Mobility Wing – Altus AFB, Oklahoma 56th Military Airlift/56th Airlift Squadron, 1992–2007 Air Force Reserve 349th Military Airlift Wing/Air Mobility Wing (Associate) – Travis Air Force Base, California 301st Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 1973–2006 445th Military Airlift Wing/445th Airlift Wing – Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 89th Airlift Squadron, 2006–2012 512th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing(Associate) – Dover Air Force Base, Delaware 326th Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 1973–2007 Air National Guard 105th Military Airlift Group/Military Airlift Wing/105th Airlift Wing – Stewart ANGB, New York 137th Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 1985–2012 164th Military Airlift Wing/Airlift Wing – Memphis, Tennessee 155th Military Airlift Squadron/Airlift Squadron, 2004–2013 167th Military Airlift Wing/167th Airlift Wing – Martinsburg, West Virginia 167th Military Airlift/167th Airlift Squadron, 2006–2015 == Incidents and accidents == Three C-5 Galaxy aircraft have been lost in crashes along with two class-A losses resulting from ground fire, with a combined total of 169 fatalities. At least two other C-5 crashes have resulted in major airframe damage, but the aircraft were repaired and returned to service. === Notable accidents === On 27 May 1970, C-5A AF Serial No. 67-0172 was destroyed during a ground fire at Palmdale, California, after an Air Turbine Motor started backwards and quickly overheated, setting the hydraulic system on fire and consuming the aircraft. The engines were not running at the time of the fire. Five crew escaped, and seven firefighters suffered minor injuries fighting the blaze. On 17 October 1970, C-5A AF Serial No. 66-8303 was destroyed during a ground fire at the Lockheed Aircraft plant at Dobbins AFB in Marietta, Georgia. The fire started during maintenance in one of the aircraft's 12 fuel cells. One worker was killed and another injured. This was the first C-5 aircraft produced. On 27 September 1974, C-5A Serial No. 68-0227 crashed after over-running the runway at Clinton, Oklahoma, Municipal Airport during an emergency landing following a serious landing gear fire. The crew mistakenly aligned the aircraft for the visual approach into the wrong airport, landing at Clinton Municipal Airport, which has a 4,400 ft (1,300 m) runway, instead of the airfield at Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark (former Clinton-Sherman Air Force Base), which has a 13,500 ft (4,100 m) runway. This was the first operational loss of a C-5 Galaxy. On 4 April 1975, C-5A Serial No.68-0218 crashed while carrying orphans out of Vietnam during Operation Babylift. This accident is one of the most notorious C-5 accidents to date. The crash occurred while trying to make an emergency landing at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon, following a rear pressure door lock failure in flight. 144 people (including 78 children) were killed out of the 313 aboard (243 children, 44 escorts, 16 flight crew and 10 medical crew). Use of the C-5 was heavily restricted for several months following the high-profile accident. On 31 July 1983, C-5A Serial No. 70-0446 crashed while landing at the former Shemya Air Force Base on Shemya Island in Alaska. The C-5 approached below the glide slope in heavy fog, hit landing light poles and an embankment short of the runway, stopping at the 5,000-foot mark on the runway with the nose gear at the side of the runway embankment. Structural damage was extensive and the two aft main landing gear bogies were sheared from the aircraft. There were no fatalities. A joint USAF–Lockheed team made repairs, enabling a ferry flight from Shemya to the Lockheed plant in Marietta, Georgia, later that year. There, the aircraft was dubbed Phoenix II and permanent repair efforts got under way. In addition to the structural repairs, the aircraft also received an improved landing gear system (common to the then-new C-5B), wing modification, and a color weather radar upgrade. The aircraft was returned to service. In July 1983, C-5A Serial No. 68-0216 landed gear up at Travis Air Force Base, California. There were no injuries. The accident occurred while the crew was performing touch-and-go landings, and did not lower the landing gear during the final approach of the day. The aircraft received significant damage to the lower fuselage, ramp, clamshell doors, and main landing gear pods. The C-5A was later flown to Marietta for repairs. While there, the aircraft was selected to be the first C-5A converted to the C-5C configuration. On 29 August 1990, C-5A Serial No. 68-0228 crashed following an engine failure shortly after take-off. The aircraft took off from Ramstein Air Base in Germany in support of Operation Desert Shield. It was flown by a nine-member reserve crew from the 68th Airlift Squadron, 433d Airlift Wing based at Kelly AFB, Texas. As the aircraft started to climb off the runway, one of the thrust reversers suddenly deployed. This resulted in loss of control of the aircraft and the subsequent crash. Of the 17 people on board, only four survived the crash. All four were in the rear troop compartment. The sole crew member to survive, Staff Sgt. Lorenzo Galvan Jr., was awarded the Airman's Medal for his actions in evacuating the survivors from the wreckage. On 3 April 2006, C-5B Serial No. 84-0059 crashed following a cockpit indication that the thrust reverser on No. 2 engine was not locked. The crew shut down No. 2 engine as a safeguard. The C-5B assigned to the 436th Airlift Wing and flown by a reserve crew from the 709th Airlift Squadron, 512th Airlift Wing crashed about 2,000 ft (610 m) short of the runway while attempting a heavyweight emergency landing at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware. The aircraft had taken off from Dover 21 minutes earlier and reported an in-flight emergency ten minutes into the flight. All 17 people aboard survived, but two sustained serious injuries. The Air Force's accident investigation board report concluded the cause to be human error, in particular the crew had been manipulating the throttle of the (dead) number-two engine as if it were still running while keeping the (live) number-three engine at idle. The situation was further worsened by the crew's decision to use a high flap setting that increased drag beyond normal two-engine capabilities. The aircraft was one of the first to receive the new avionics and glass flight displays for C-5 Avionics Modernization Program (AMP). This accident led to a redesign of the cockpit engine displays, particularly the visual indicators of a non-active engine. The aircraft was declared a total hull-loss and the airframe was scrapped, but the forward fuselage became a C-5 AMP test bed. == Aircraft on display == C-5A, AF Ser. No. 70-0451, has been delivered to the Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center at Travis Air Force Base for future display. This is the penultimate operational C-5A, with the last operational C-5A delivered to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base for spare parts. However, as display space could not be found, it was decided to scrap the aircraft which is currently being conducted. C-5A, AF Ser. No. 69-0014, is on display at the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware. This is the first C-5 aircraft to go on museum display. == Specifications (C-5M) == Data from Quest for Performance, International Directory of Military Aircraft, and USAF fact sheetGeneral characteristics Crew: 7 typical (Aircraft Commander, First Pilot, 2 Flight Engineers, 3 Loadmasters); 4 minimum (pilot, copilot, two flight engineers) 8 when augmented (Aircraft Commander, 2 First Pilots, 2 Flight Engineers, 3 Loadmasters) Capacity: 36 master pallets 463L, 281,000 lb (127,459 kg) Length: 247 ft 1 in (75.31 m) Wingspan: 222 ft 9 in (67.89 m) Height: 65 ft 1 in (19.84 m) Wing area: 6,200 sq ft (580 m2) Airfoil: root: NACA 0012.41 mod; tip: NACA 0011 mod Empty weight: 380,000 lb (172,365 kg) Max takeoff weight: 840,000 lb (381,018 kg) Fuel capacity: 341,446 lb (154,880 kg); 51,150 US gal (42,590 imp gal; 193,600 L) Powerplant: 4 × General Electric F138-100 turbofan engines, 51,000 lbf (230 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 462 kn (532 mph, 856 km/h) Maximum speed: Mach 0.79 Cruise speed: 450 kn (520 mph, 830 km/h) / Mach 0.77 Range: 4,800 nmi (5,500 mi, 8,900 km) with a 120,000 lb (54,431 kg) payload, 2,300 nmi (4,260 km; 2,647 mi) at maximum cargo capacity Ferry range: 7,000 nmi (8,100 mi, 13,000 km) with no cargo on board. Service ceiling: 41,000 ft (12,000 m) at 750,000 lb (340,194 kg) Rate of climb: 2,100 ft/min (11 m/s) Thrust/weight: 0.26 Take-off run: 5,400 ft (1,600 m) Landing run: 3,600 ft (1,100 m) == See also == Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Antonov An-124 Ruslan – Soviet large military transport aircraft Antonov An-225 Mriya – Soviet/Ukrainian heavy strategic cargo aircraft Boeing C-17 Globemaster III – American four engine military transport aircraft Boeing 747 – American wide-body long-range commercial jet aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of Lockheed aircraft == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == C-5 A/B/C Galaxy and C-5M Super Galaxy U.S. Air Force fact sheet C-5M page on LockheedMartin.com "Fatigue and Related Human Factors in the Near Crash of a Large Military Aircraft". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, Volume 77, Number 9, September 2006, pp. 963–970. C5 wing vortex study (NASA video)
Lockheed Martin Polecat	The Lockheed Martin Polecat (company designation P-175) was an unmanned aerial vehicle by Lockheed Martin. It was developed by the company's Advanced Development Programs division in Palmdale, California. == Design and development == Designated P-175, the Polecat was funded internally by Lockheed Martin (as opposed to using United States Government funds) at the beginning of 2005. The prototype was unveiled at the 2006 Farnborough Airshow. It was developed over a period of 18 months. On December 18, 2006, the aircraft crashed due to an "irreversible unintentional failure in the flight termination ground equipment, which caused the aircraft's automatic fail-safe flight termination mode to activate." == Specifications == General characteristics Crew: 0 Capacity: 1,000 lb (450 kg) of weapons or sensors Wingspan: 90 ft 0 in (27.44 m) Gross weight: 9,000 lb (4,082 kg) Powerplant: 2 × Williams FJ44-3E turbofan engines, 3,010 lbf (13.38 kN) thrust each Performance Endurance: 4 hours Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (20,000 m) == References ==
A-10 Thunderbolt II	The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, also infamously known under the nickname A-10 Warthog, is a single-seat, twin-turbofan, straight-wing, subsonic attack aircraft developed by Fairchild Republic for the United States Air Force (USAF). In service since 1977, it is named after the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt strike-fighter of World War II, but is instead commonly referred to as the "Warthog" (sometimes simply "Hog"). The A-10 was designed to provide close air support (CAS) to ground troops by attacking enemy armored vehicles, tanks, and other ground forces; it is the only production-built aircraft designed solely for CAS to have served with the U.S. Air Force. Its secondary mission is to direct other aircraft in attacks on ground targets, a role called forward air controller (FAC)-airborne; aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA-10. The A-10 was intended to improve on the performance and firepower of the Douglas A-1 Skyraider. The Thunderbolt II's airframe was designed around the high-power 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger rotary autocannon. The airframe was designed for durability, with measures such as 1,200 pounds (540 kg) of titanium armor to protect the cockpit and aircraft systems, enabling it to absorb damage and continue flying. Its ability to take off and land from relatively short and/or unpaved runways permits operation from airstrips close to the front lines, and its simple design enables maintenance with minimal facilities. It served in the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm), the American-led intervention against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, where the aircraft distinguished itself. The A-10 also participated in other conflicts such as the Balkans, Afghanistan, the Iraq War, and against the Islamic State in the Middle East. The A-10A single-seat variant was the only version produced, though one pre-production airframe was modified into the YA-10B twin-seat prototype to test an all-weather night-capable version. In 2005, a program was started to upgrade the remaining A-10A aircraft to the A-10C configuration, with modern avionics for use with precision weaponry. The U.S. Air Force had stated the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II would replace the A-10 as it entered service, but this remains highly contentious within the USAF and in political circles. The USAF gained congressional permission to start retiring A-10s in 2023, but further retirements were paused until the USAF can demonstrate that the A-10's close-air-support capabilities can be replaced. == Development == === Background === The development of conventionally armed attack aircraft in the United States stagnated after World War II, as design efforts for tactical aircraft focused on the delivery of nuclear weapons using high-speed designs such as the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo and Republic F-105 Thunderchief. As the U.S. military entered the Vietnam War, its main ground-attack aircraft was the Korean War-era Douglas A-1 Skyraider. A capable aircraft for its era, with a relatively large payload and long loiter time, the propeller-driven design had become relatively slow, vulnerable, particularly to ground fire, and incapable of providing adequate firepower. The U.S. Air Force and Navy lost some 266 A-1s in action in Vietnam, largely from small-arms fire. The lack of modern conventional attack capability prompted calls for a specialized attack aircraft. On 7 June 1961, the Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara ordered the USAF to develop two tactical aircraft, one for the long-range strike and interdictor role, and the other focusing on the fighter-bomber mission. The former was the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) intended to be a common design for the USAF and the US Navy, which emerged as the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, while the second was filled by a version of the U.S. Navy's McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. While the Phantom went on to be one of the most successful fighter designs of the 1960s and proved to be a capable fighter-bomber, its short loiter time was a major problem, as was its poor low-speed performance, albeit to a lesser extent. It was also expensive to buy and operate, with a flyaway cost of $2 million in FY1965 ($20 million today), and operational costs over $900 per hour ($9,000 per hour today). After a broad review of its tactical force structure, the USAF decided to adopt a low-cost aircraft to supplement the F-4 and F-111. It first focused on the Northrop F-5, which had air-to-air capability. A 1965 cost-effectiveness study shifted the focus from the F-5 to the less expensive A-7D variant of the LTV A-7 Corsair II, and a contract was awarded. However, this aircraft doubled in cost with demands for an upgraded engine and new avionics. === Army helicopter competition === During this period, the United States Army had been introducing the Bell UH-1 Iroquois into service. First used in its intended role as a transport, it was soon modified in the field to carry more machine guns in what became known as the helicopter gunship role. This proved effective against the lightly armed enemy, and new gun and rocket pods were added. Soon the Bell AH-1 Cobra was introduced. This was an attack helicopter armed with long-range BGM-71 TOW missiles able to destroy tanks from outside the range of defensive fire. The helicopter was effective and prompted the U.S. military to change its defensive strategy in Europe into blunting any Warsaw Pact advance with anti-tank helicopters instead of the tactical nuclear weapons that had been the basis for NATO's battle plans since the 1950s. The Cobra was a quickly-made helicopter based on the UH-1 Iroquois and was introduced in the mid-1960s as an interim design until the U.S. Army's "Advanced Aerial Fire Support System" helicopter could be delivered. The Army selected the Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne, a more capable attack aircraft with greater speed for initial production. The development of the anti-tank helicopter concerned the USAF; a 1966 USAF study of existing close air support (CAS) capabilities revealed gaps in the escort and fire suppression roles that the Cheyenne could fill. The study concluded that the service should acquire a simple, inexpensive, dedicated CAS aircraft at least as capable as the A-1, and that it should develop doctrine, tactics, and procedures for such aircraft to accomplish the missions for which the attack helicopters were provided. === A-X program === On 8 September 1966, General John P. McConnell, Chief of Staff of the USAF, ordered that a specialized CAS aircraft be designed, developed, and obtained. On 22 December, a Requirements Action Directive was issued for the A-X CAS airplane, and the Attack Experimental (A-X) program office was formed. On 6 March 1967, the USAF released a request for information to 21 defense contractors for the A-X. In May 1970, the USAF issued a modified, more detailed request for proposals for the aircraft. The threat of Soviet armored forces and all-weather attack operations had become more serious. The requirements now included that the aircraft would be designed specifically for the 30 mm rotary cannon. The RFP also specified a maximum speed of 460 mph (400 kn; 740 km/h), takeoff distance of 4,000 feet (1,200 m), external load of 16,000 pounds (7,300 kg), 285-mile (460 km) mission radius, and a unit cost of US$1.4 million ($11.3 million today). The A-X would be the first USAF aircraft designed exclusively for CAS. During this time, a separate RFP was released for A-X's 30 mm cannon with requirements for a high rate of fire (4,000 rounds per minute) and a high muzzle velocity. Six companies submitted aircraft proposals, with Northrop and Fairchild Republic in Germantown, Maryland, selected to build prototypes: the YA-9A and YA-10A, respectively. General Electric and Philco-Ford were selected to build and test GAU-8 cannon prototypes. Two YA-10 prototypes were built in the Republic factory in Farmingdale, New York, and first flown on 10 May 1972 by pilot Howard "Sam" Nelson. Production A-10s were built by Fairchild in Hagerstown, Maryland. After trials and a fly-off against the YA-9, on 18 January 1973, the USAF announced the YA-10's selection for production. General Electric was selected to build the GAU-8 cannon in June 1973. The YA-10 had an additional fly-off in 1974 against the Ling-Temco-Vought A-7D Corsair II, the principal USAF attack aircraft at the time, to prove the need for a new attack aircraft. The first production A-10 flew in October 1975, and deliveries commenced in March 1976. One experimental two-seat A-10 Night Adverse Weather (N/AW) version was built by Fairchild by converting the first Demonstration Testing and Evaluation (DT&E) A-10A for consideration by the USAF. It included a second seat for a weapon systems officer responsible for electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation and target acquisition. The N/AW version did not interest the USAF or export customers. The two-seat trainer version was ordered by the USAF in 1981, but funding was canceled by U.S. Congress and was not produced. The only two-seat A-10 resides at Edwards Air Force Base's Flight Test Center Museum. === Production === On 10 February 1976, Deputy Secretary of Defense Bill Clements authorized full-rate production while the first A-10 was accepted by the USAF Tactical Air Command on 30 March 1976. Production continued and reached a peak rate of 13 aircraft per month. By 1984, 715 airplanes, including two prototypes and six development aircraft, had been delivered. When full-rate production was first authorized, the A-10's planned service life was 6,000 hours. A small design reinforcement was quickly adopted when initial fatigue testing failed at 80% of testing; the A-10 passed fatigue tests with the fix. 8,000-flight-hour service lives were becoming common at the time, so fatigue testing of the A-10 continued with a new 8,000-hour target. This new target quickly discovered serious cracks at Wing Station 23 (WS23) where the outboard portions of the wings are joined to the fuselage. The first production change was to address this problem by adding cold working at WS23. Soon after, the USAF found that the real-world A-10 fleet fatigue was harsher than estimated, forcing a change to fatigue testing and introduced "spectrum 3" equivalent flight-hour testing. Spectrum 3 fatigue testing started in 1979. This round of testing quickly determined that more drastic reinforcement would be needed. The second change in production, starting with aircraft No. 442, was to increase the thickness of the lower skin on the outer wing panels. A tech order was issued to retrofit the "thick skin" to the whole fleet, but the tech order was rescinded after roughly 242 planes, leaving about 200 planes with the original "thin skin". Starting with aircraft No. 530, cold working at WS0 was performed, and this retrofit was performed on earlier aircraft. A fourth, even more drastic change was initiated with aircraft No. 582, again to address the problems discovered with spectrum 3 testing. This change increased the thickness of the lower skin on the center wing panel, but it required modifications to the lower spar caps to accommodate the thicker skin. The USAF found it economically unfeasible to retrofit earlier planes with this modification. === Upgrades === The A-10 has received many upgrades since entering service. In 1978, it received the Pave Penny laser receiver pod, mounted on a pylon attached below the right side of the cockpit, which receives reflected laser radiation from laser designators to allow the aircraft to deliver laser-guided munitions. In 1980, the A-10 began receiving an inertial navigation system. In the early 1990s, the A-10 began to receive the Low-Altitude Safety and Targeting Enhancement (LASTE) upgrade, which provided computerized weapon-aiming equipment, an autopilot, and a ground-collision warning system. In 1999, aircraft began receiving Global Positioning System navigation systems and a multi-function display. The LASTE system was upgraded with an Integrated Flight & Fire Control Computer (IFFCC). Proposed further upgrades included integrated combat search and rescue locator systems and improved early warning and anti-jam self-protection systems, and the USAF recognized that the A-10's engine power was sub-optimal and had planned to replace them with more powerful engines since at least 2001 at an estimated cost of $2 billion. ==== HOG UP and Wing Replacement Program ==== In 1987, Grumman Aerospace took over support for the A-10 program. In 1993, Grumman updated the damage tolerance assessment and Force Structural Maintenance Plan and Damage Threat Assessment. Over the next few years, problems with wing structure fatigue, first noticed in production years earlier, began to come to the fore. Implementation of the maintenance plan was greatly delayed by the base realignment and closure commission (BRAC), which led to 80% of the original workforce being let go. During inspections in 1995 and 1996, cracks at the WS23 location were found on many A-10s; while many were in line with updated predictions from 1993, two of these were classified as "near-critical" size, well beyond predictions. In August 1998, Grumman produced a new plan to address these issues and increase life span to 16,000 hours. This led to the "HOG UP" program, which commenced in 1999. Additional aspects were added to HOG UP over time, including new fuel bladders, flight control system changes, and engine nacelle inspections. In 2001, the cracks were reclassified as "critical", which meant they were considered repairs and not upgrades, which allowed bypassing normal acquisition channels for more rapid implementation. An independent review of the HOG UP program, presented in September 2003, concluded that the data on which the wing upgrade relied could no longer be trusted. Shortly thereafter, fatigue testing on a test wing failed prematurely and also mounting problems with wings failing in-service inspections at an increasing rate became apparent. The USAF estimated that they would run out of wings by 2011. Of the plans explored, replacing the wings with new ones was the least expensive, at an initial cost of $741 million and a total cost of $1.72 billion over the program's life. In 2005, a business case was produced with three options to extend the fleet's life. The first two options involved expanding the service life extension program (SLEP) at a cost of $4.6 billion and $3.16 billion, respectively. The third option, worth $1.72 billion, was to build 242 new wings and avoid the need to expand the SLEP. In 2006, option 3 was chosen and Boeing won the contract. The base contract is for 117 wings with options for 125 additional wings. In 2013, the USAF exercised a portion of the option to add 56 wings, putting 173 wings on order with options remaining for 69 additional wings. In November 2011, two A-10s flew with the new wings fitted. The new wings improved mission readiness, decreased maintenance costs, and allowed the A-10 to be operated up to 2035 if necessary. Re-winging work was organized under the Thick-skin Urgent Spares Kitting (TUSK) Program. In 2014, as part of plans to retire the A-10, the USAF considered halting the wing replacement program to save an additional $500 million; however, by May 2015 the re-winging program was too advanced to be financially efficient to cancel. Boeing stated in February 2016 that the A-10 could operate to 2040 with the new TUSK wings. ==== Modernization (A-10C) ==== From 2005 to June 2011, the entire fleet of 356 A-10s and OA-10s were modernized in the Precision Engagement program and redesignated A-10C. Upgrades included all-weather combat capability, an improved fire-control system (FCS), electronic countermeasures (ECM), smart bomb targeting, a modern communications suite including a Link 16 radio and Satcom, and cockpit upgrades comprising two multifunction displays and HOTAS configuration mixing the F-16's flight stick with the F-15's throttle. The Government Accountability Office in 2007 estimated the cost of upgrading, refurbishing, and service life extension plans to total $2.25 billion through 2013. In July 2010, the USAF issued Raytheon a contract to integrate a Helmet Mounted Integrated Targeting (HMIT) system into the A-10C. The LASTE system was replaced with the integrated flight and fire control computer (IFFCC) included in the PE upgrade. Throughout its life, multiple software upgrades have been made. While this work was to be stopped under plans to retire the A-10 in February 2014, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James ordered that the latest upgrade, designated Suite 8, continue in response to congressional pressure. Suite 8 software includes IFF Mode 5, which modernizes the ability to identify the A-10 to friendly units. Additionally, the Pave Penny pods and pylons were removed as their receive-only capability has been replaced by the AN/AAQ-28(V)4 LITENING AT targeting pods or Sniper XR targeting pod, which both have laser designators and laser rangefinders. In 2012, Air Combat Command requested the testing of a 600-US-gallon (2,300 L; 500 imp gal) external fuel tank which would extend the A-10's loitering time by 45–60 minutes; flight testing of such a tank had been conducted in 1997 but did not involve combat evaluation. Over 30 flight tests were conducted by the 40th Flight Test Squadron to gather data on the aircraft's handling characteristics and performance across different load configurations. It was reported that the tank slightly reduced stability in the yaw axis, but there was no decrease in aircraft tracking performance. == Design == === Overview === The A-10 has a cantilever low-wing monoplane wing with a wide chord. It has superior maneuverability at low speeds and altitude due to its large wing area, high wing aspect ratio, and large ailerons. The wing also allows short takeoffs and landings, permitting operations from austere forward airfields near front lines. The A-10 can loiter for extended periods and operate under 1,000-foot (300 m) ceilings with 1.5-mile (2.4 km) visibility. It typically flies at a relatively low speed of 300 knots (350 mph; 560 km/h), which makes it a better platform for the ground-attack role than fast fighter-bombers, which often have difficulty targeting small, slow-moving targets. The leading edge of the wing has a honeycomb structure panel construction, providing strength with minimal weight; similar panels cover the flap shrouds, elevators, rudders and sections of the fins. The skin panels are integral with the stringers and are fabricated using computer-controlled machining, reducing production time and cost. Combat experience has shown that this type of panel is more resistant to damage. The skin is not load-bearing, so damaged skin sections can be easily replaced in the field, with makeshift materials if necessary. The ailerons are at the far ends of the wings for greater rolling moment and have two distinguishing features: The ailerons are larger than is typical, almost 50 percent of the wingspan, providing improved control even at slow speeds; the aileron is also split, making it a deceleron. The A-10 is designed to be refueled, rearmed, and serviced with minimal equipment. Its simple design enables maintenance at forward bases with limited facilities. An unusual feature is that many of the aircraft's parts are interchangeable between the left and right sides, including the engines, main landing gear, and vertical stabilizers. The sturdy landing gear, low-pressure tires and large, straight wings allow operation from short rough strips even with a heavy aircraft ordnance load, allowing the aircraft to operate from damaged airbases, flying from taxiways, or even straight roadway sections. The front landing gear is offset to the aircraft's right to allow placement of the 30 mm cannon with its firing barrel along the centerline of the aircraft. During ground taxi, the offset front landing gear causes the A-10 to have dissimilar turning radii; turning to the right on the ground takes less distance than turning left. The wheels of the main landing gear partially protrude from their nacelles when retracted, making gear-up belly landings easier to control and less damaging. All landing gears retract forward; if hydraulic power is lost, a combination of gravity and aerodynamic drag can lower and lock the gear in place. === Survivability === The A-10 is able to survive direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23 mm. It has double-redundant hydraulic flight systems, and a mechanical system as a backup if hydraulics are lost. Flight without hydraulic power uses the manual reversion control system; pitch and yaw control engages automatically, and roll control is pilot-selected. In manual reversion mode, the A-10 is sufficiently controllable under favorable conditions to return to base, though control forces are greater than normal. It is designed to be able to fly with one engine, half of the tail, one elevator, and half of a wing missing. As the A-10 operates close to enemy positions, making it an easy target for man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS), surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), and enemy aircraft, it carries both flares and chaff cartridges. The cockpit and parts of the flight-control systems are protected by 1,200 lb (540 kg) of titanium aircraft armor, referred to as a "bathtub". The armor has been tested to withstand strikes from 23 mm (0.91 in) cannon fire and some indirect hits from 57 mm (2.2 in) shell fragments. It is made up of titanium plates with thicknesses varying from 0.5 to 1.5 inches (13 to 38 mm) determined by a study of likely trajectories and deflection angles. The armor makes up almost six percent of the A-10's empty weight. Any interior surface of the tub directly exposed to the pilot is covered by a multi-layer nylon spall shield to protect against shell fragmentation. The front windscreen and canopy are resistant to small arms fire. Its durability was demonstrated on 7 April 2003 when Captain Kim Campbell, while flying over Baghdad during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, suffered extensive flak damage that damaged one engine and crippled the hydraulic system, requiring the stabilizer and flight controls to be operated via manual reversion mode. Despite this, Campbell's A-10 flew for nearly an hour and landed safely. The A-10 was intended to fly from forward air bases and semi-prepared runways where foreign object damage to an aircraft's engines is normally a high risk. The unusual location of the General Electric TF34-GE-100 turbofan engines decreases ingestion risk and also allows the engines to run while the aircraft is serviced and rearmed by ground crews, reducing turn-around time. The wings are also mounted closer to the ground, simplifying servicing and rearming operations. The heavy engines require strong support: four bolts connect the engine pylons to the airframe. The engines' high 6:1 bypass ratio (BPR) ±contributes to a relatively small infrared signature, and their position directs exhaust over the tailplanes further shielding it from detection by infrared homing surface-to-air missiles (SAM). To reduce the likelihood of damage to the fuel system, all four fuel tanks are located near the aircraft's center and are separated from the fuselage; projectiles would need to penetrate the aircraft's skin before reaching a fuel tank's outer skin. Compromised fuel transfer lines self-seal; if damage exceeds a tank's self-sealing capabilities, check valves to prevent fuel from flowing into a compromised tank. Most fuel system components are inside the tanks so component failure will not lead to fuel loss. The refueling system is also purged after use. Reticulated polyurethane foam lines both the inner and outer sides of the fuel tanks, retaining debris and restricting fuel spillage in the event of damage. The engines are shielded from the rest of the airframe by firewalls and fire extinguishing equipment. If all four main tanks were lost, two self-sealing sump tanks contain fuel for 230 miles (370 km) of flight. === Weapons === The A-10's primary built-in weapon is the 30×173 mm GAU-8/A Avenger autocannon. One of the most powerful aircraft cannons ever flown, the GAU-8 is a hydraulically driven seven-barrel rotary cannon designed for the anti-tank role with a high rate of fire. The original design could be switched by the pilot to 2,100 or 4,200 depleted uranium armor-piercing shells per minute; this was later changed to a fixed rate of 3,900 rounds per minute. The cannon takes about a half second to spin up to its maximum rate of fire, firing 50 rounds during the first second, and 65 or 70 rounds per second thereafter. It is accurate enough to place 80 percent of its shots within a 40-foot (12.4 m) diameter circle from 4,000 feet (1,220 m) while in flight. The GAU-8 is optimized for a slant range of 4,000 feet (1,220 m) with the A-10 in a 30-degree dive. The aircraft's fuselage was designed around the cannon. The GAU-8 is mounted slightly to the port side; the barrel in the firing location is on the starboard side so it is aligned with the aircraft's centerline. The gun's 5-foot, 11.5-inch (1.816 m) ammunition drum can hold up to 1,350 rounds of 30 mm ammunition, but generally holds 1,174 rounds. To protect the rounds from enemy fire, armor plates of differing thicknesses between the aircraft skin and the drum are designed to detonate incoming shells. The A-10 commonly carries the AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile. Targeted via electro-optical (TV-guided) or infrared systems, the Maverick can hit targets much farther away than the cannon, and thus incur less risk from anti-aircraft systems. During Desert Storm, in the absence of dedicated forward-looking infrared (FLIR) cameras for night vision, the Maverick's infrared camera was used for night missions as a "poor man's FLIR". Other weapons include cluster bombs and Hydra 70 rocket pods. The A-10 is equipped to carry GPS- and laser-guided bombs, such as the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb, Paveway series bombs, Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser and AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon glide bombs. A-10s usually fly with an ALQ-131 Electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod under one wing and two AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles for self-defense under the other wing. === Colors and markings === Aircraft camouflage is used to make the A-10 more difficult to see as it flies low to the ground at subsonic speeds. Many types of paint schemes have been tried. These have included a "peanut scheme" of sand, yellow, and field drab; black and white colors for winter operations; and a tan, green, and brown mixed pattern. The most common Cold War-era scheme was the European I woodland camouflage, whose dark green, medium green, and dark gray was meant to blend in with the typical European forest terrain. It reflected the assumption that the threat from hostile fighter aircraft outweighed that from ground fire. After the 1991 Gulf War, the threat from ground fire was deemed more pressing than the air-to-air threat, leading to the "Compass Ghost" scheme with darker gray on top and a lighter gray on the underside of the aircraft. Many A-10s also had a false canopy painted in dark gray on the underside of the aircraft, just behind the gun. This form of automimicry is an attempt to confuse the enemy as to aircraft attitude and maneuver direction. Many A-10s feature nose art, such as shark mouth or warthog head features. == Operational history == === Service entry === The first unit to receive the A-10 was the 355th Tactical Training Wing, based at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, in March 1976. The first unit to achieve initial operating capability was the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina, in October 1977. A-10 deployments followed at bases both at home and abroad, including England AFB, Louisiana; Eielson AFB, Alaska; Osan Air Base, South Korea; and RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge, England. The 81st TFW of RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge operated rotating detachments of A-10s at four bases in Germany known as Forward Operating Locations (FOLs): Leipheim, Sembach Air Base, Nörvenich Air Base, and RAF Ahlhorn. A-10s were initially an unwelcome addition to many in the USAF; most pilots did not want to switch to it as fighter pilots traditionally favored speed and appearance. In 1987, many A-10s were shifted to the forward air control (FAC) role and redesignated OA-10. In the FAC role, the OA-10 is typically equipped with up to six pods of 2.75 inch (70 mm) Hydra rockets, usually with smoke or white phosphorus warheads used for target marking. OA-10s are physically unchanged and remain fully combat capable despite the redesignation. The 23rd TFW's A-10s were deployed to Bridgetown, Barbados during Operation Urgent Fury, the 1983 American Invasion of Grenada. They provided air cover for the U.S. Marine Corps landings on the island of Carriacou in late October 1983, but did not fire weapons as no resistance was met. === Gulf War and Balkans === The A-10 was used in combat for the first time during the Gulf War in 1991, with 132 being deployed. A-10s shot down two Iraqi helicopters with the GAU-8 cannon. The first of these was shot down by Captain Robert Swain over Kuwait on 6 February 1991 for the A-10's first air-to-air victory. Four A-10s were shot down during the war by surface-to-air missiles and eleven A-10s were hit by anti-air artillery rounds. Another two battle-damaged A-10s and OA-10As returned to base and were written off. Some sustained additional damage in crash landings. At the beginning of the war, A-10s flew missions against the Iraqi Republican Guard, but due to heavy attrition, from 15 February they were restricted to within 20 nautical miles (37 km) of the southern border. A-10s also flew missions hunting Iraqi Scud missiles. The A-10 had a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties, and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles fired in the conflict. Shortly after the Gulf War, the USAF abandoned the idea of replacing the A-10 with a CAS version of the F-16. A-10s fired approximately 10,000 30 mm rounds in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994–95. Following the seizure of heavy weapons by Bosnian Serbs from a warehouse in Ilidža, multiple sorties were launched to locate and destroy the captured equipment. On 5 August 1994, two A-10s located and strafed an anti-tank vehicle. Afterward, the Serbs agreed to return the remaining heavy weapons. In August 1995, NATO launched an offensive called Operation Deliberate Force. A-10s flew CAS missions, attacking Bosnian Serb artillery and positions. In late September, A-10s began flying patrols again. A-10s returned to the Balkan region as part of Operation Allied Force in Kosovo beginning in March 1999. In March 1999, A-10s escorted and supported search and rescue helicopters in finding a downed F-117 pilot. The A-10s were deployed to support search and rescue missions, but gradually received more ground attack missions. The A-10's first successful attack in Operation Allied Force happened on 6 April 1999; A-10s remained in action until the end of combat in June 1999. === Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and recent deployments === During the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, A-10s did not initially take part. Beginning in March 2002, A-10 squadrons were deployed to Pakistan and Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan for the campaign against Taliban and Al-Qaeda, known as Operation Anaconda. Afterward, they remained in-country, fighting Taliban and Al Qaeda remnants. Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March 2003. Sixty OA-10/A-10s took part in early combat. United States Air Forces Central Command issued Operation Iraqi Freedom: By the Numbers, a declassified report about the aerial campaign in the conflict on 30 April 2003. During the initial invasion of Iraq, A-10s had a mission capable rate of 85 percent and fired 311,597 rounds of 30 mm ammunition. The type also flew 32 missions to airdrop propaganda leaflets. A single A-10 was shot down near Baghdad International Airport by Iraqi fire late in the campaign. In September 2007, the A-10C with the Precision Engagement Upgrade reached initial operating capability. The A-10C first deployed to Iraq in 2007 with the 104th Fighter Squadron of the Maryland Air National Guard. The A-10C's digital avionics and communications systems greatly reduced the time to acquire and attack CAS targets. A-10s flew 32 percent of combat sorties in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. These sorties ranged from 27,800 to 34,500 annually between 2009 and 2012. In the first half of 2013, they flew 11,189 sorties in Afghanistan. From the start of 2006 to October 2013, A-10s conducted 19 percent of CAS missions in Iraq and Afghanistan, more than the F-15E Strike Eagle and B-1B Lancer, but less than the 33 percent flown by F-16s. In March 2011, six A-10s were deployed as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn, the coalition intervention in Libya. They participated in attacks on Libyan ground forces there. The USAF 122nd Fighter Wing revealed it would deploy to the Middle East in October 2014 with 12 A-10s. Although the deployment had been planned a year in advance in a support role, the timing coincided with the ongoing Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL militants. From mid-November, U.S. commanders began sending A-10s to hit IS targets in central and northwestern Iraq on an almost daily basis. Over a two–month period, A-10s flew 11 percent of all USAF sorties since the start of operations in August 2014. On 15 November 2015, two days after the ISIL attacks in Paris, A-10s and AC-130s destroyed a convoy of over 100 ISIL-operated oil tanker trucks in Syria as part of an intensification of the U.S.-led intervention against ISIL called Operation Tidal Wave II (named after Operation Tidal Wave during World War II, a failed attempt to raid German oil fields) in an attempt to stop oil smuggling as a source of funds for the group. The A-10 was involved in the killing of 35 Afghan civilians from 2010 to 2015, more than any other U.S. military aircraft and also involved in killing ten U.S. troops in friendly fire over four incidents between 2001 and 2015. These incidents have been assessed as "inconclusive and statistically insignificant" in terms of the plane's capability. On 19 January 2018, 12 A-10s from the 303d Expeditionary Fighter Squadron were deployed to Kandahar Airfield, Afghanistan, to provide CAS, marking the first time in more than three years A-10s had been deployed to Afghanistan. On 29 November and 3 December 2024, USAF A-10s were used against targets in Syria to defend US forces in eastern Syria as part of the ongoing Syrian civil war. The USAF said the strikes destroyed vehicles, mortars, and a T-64 tank. Concurrent with the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December, A-10s participated alongside B-52s and F-15Es in what the USAF said were "dozens" of airstrikes against over 75 ISIS targets. The strikes were intended to prevent ISIS from benefitting from the political upheaval in Syria. On 29 March 2025, "several" A-10s from the 124th Fighter Wing were deployed to the Middle East as part of the continued conflict with Houthi forces in Yemen. === Future === The A-10's future remains a subject of debate. In 2007, the USAF expected it to remain in service until 2028 and possibly later, when it would likely be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. Director of the Straus Military Reform Project of the Project On Government Oversight Winslow Wheeler, a critic of this plan, said that replacing the A-10 with the F-35 would be a "giant leap backwards" given the A-10's performance and the F-35's high costs. In 2012, the USAF considered the F-35B STOVL variant as a replacement CAS aircraft, but concluded that it could not generate sufficient sorties. In August 2013, Congress and the USAF examined various proposals, including the F-35 and the MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle filling the A-10's role. Proponents state that the A-10's armor and cannon are superior to aircraft such as the F-35 for ground attack, that guided munitions could be jammed, and that ground commanders commonly request A-10 support. In the USAF's FY 2015 budget, the service considered retiring the A-10 and other single-mission aircraft, prioritizing multi-mission aircraft; cutting a whole fleet and its infrastructure was seen as the only method for major savings. The U.S. Army had expressed interest in obtaining some A-10s were the USAF to retire them, but later stated there was "no chance" of that happening. The USAF stated that retirement would save $3.7 billion from 2015 to 2019. Guided munitions allow more aircraft to perform CAS duties and reduce the need for specialized aircraft; since 2001, multirole aircraft and bombers have performed 80 percent of operational CAS missions. The USAF also said that the A-10 was increasingly vulnerable to modern anti-aircraft weapons, but the Army replied that it had proved invaluable due to its versatile weapons loads, psychological impact, and limited logistics needs. In January 2015, USAF officials told lawmakers that it would take 15 years to fully develop a new attack aircraft to replace the A-10; that year General Herbert J. Carlisle, the head of Air Combat Command, stated that a follow-on weapon system for the A-10 may need development. It planned for F-16s and F-15Es to initially take up CAS sorties, and later by the F-35A once sufficient numbers become operationally available over the next decade. In July 2015, Boeing held initial discussions on the prospects of selling retired or stored A-10s in near-flyaway condition to international customers. However, the USAF stated that it would not permit any to be sold. Plans to develop a replacement aircraft were announced by the US Air Combat Command in August 2015. In 2016, the USAF began studying future CAS aircraft to succeed the A-10 in low-intensity "permissive conflicts" like counterterrorism and regional stability operations, noting the F-35 to be too expensive to operate in day-to-day roles. Various platforms were considered, including low-end AT-6 Wolverine and A-29 Super Tucano turboprops and the Textron AirLand Scorpion as more basic off-the-shelf options to more sophisticated clean-sheet attack aircraft or "AT-X" derivatives of the T-X next-generation trainer as wholly new attack platforms. In January 2016, the USAF was "indefinitely freezing" plans to retire the A-10. Beyond congressional opposition, its use in anti-ISIS operations, deployments to Eastern Europe as a response to Russia's military intervention in Ukraine, and reevaluation of F-35 numbers necessitated its retention. In February 2016, the USAF deferred the final retirement date until 2022 after F-35s replace it on a squadron-by-squadron basis. In October 2016, the USAF Materiel Command brought the depot maintenance line back to full capacity in preparation for re-winging the fleet. In June 2017, it was announced that the A-10 is retained indefinitely. The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine led to some observers pushing for A-10s to be loaned to Ukraine while critics noted the diplomatic and tactical complications involved. In an interview in December 2022, Ukrainian Defense Minister Oleksii Reznikov said that in late March he asked the US Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin for 100 surplus A-10s, noting their value against Russian tank columns. However, Austin reportedly told Minister Reznikov that the plan was "impossible", and that the "old-fashioned and slow" A-10 would be a "squeaky target" for Russian air defenses. Due to opposition from Congress, the USAF has failed to retire the A-10 for many years. However, the Air Force's plan to divest 21 A-10s gained congressional approval in the 2023 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). The retired A-10s at Fort Wayne will be replaced by an equal number of F-16s. The 2024 NDAA is expected to retire an additional 42 aircraft, with Air Force Chief of Staff Charles Brown expecting all A-10s to be retired by 2028 or 2029. However, Congress would pause further cuts unless the Air Force demonstrates how other aircraft can fulfill the Close Air Support missions currently undertaken by the A-10. According to Dan Grazier from Project on Government Oversight, the Air Force is ill-prepared for this transition because it requires no Close Air Support training for its F-35 pilots, despite the F-35 being advertised as the main replacement for the A-10. === Other uses === On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend comprising a 1:1 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel. On 28 June 2012, the A-10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known as ATJ (Alcohol-to-Jet), the fuel is cellulosic-based and can be produced using wood, paper, grass, or any cellulose-based material, which are fermented into alcohols before being hydro-processed into aviation fuel. ATJ is the third alternative fuel to be evaluated by the USAF as a replacement for the petroleum-derived JP-8 fuel. Previous types were synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from coal and natural gas and a bio-mass fuel derived from plant oils and animal fats known as Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet. In 2011, the National Science Foundation granted $11 million to modify an A-10 for weather research for CIRPAS at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School and in collaboration with scientists from the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology (SDSM&T), replacing SDSM&T's retired North American T-28 Trojan. In 2018, this plan was found to be too risky due to the costly modifications required, thus the program was canceled. == Variants == YA-10A Pre-production variant. 12 were built. A-10A Single-seat close air support, ground-attack production version. OA-10A A-10As used for airborne forward air control. YA-10B Night/Adverse Weather (N/AW) Two-seat experimental prototype, for work at night and in bad weather. The one YA-10B prototype was converted from an A-10A. A-10C A-10As updated under the incremental Precision Engagement (PE) program. A-10PCAS Proposed unmanned version developed by Raytheon and Aurora Flight Sciences as part of DARPA's Persistent Close Air Support program. The PCAS program eventually dropped the idea of using an optionally manned A-10. SPA-10 Proposed by the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology to replace its North American T-28 Trojan thunderstorm penetration aircraft. The A-10 would have its military engines, avionics, and oxygen system replaced by civilian versions. The engines and airframe would receive protection from hail, and the GAU-8 Avenger would be replaced with ballast or scientific instruments. Project canceled after partial modification of a single A-10C. == Operators == The A-10 has been flown exclusively by the United States Air Force and its Air Reserve components, the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). As of 2017, 282 A-10C aircraft are reported as operational, divided as follows: 141 USAF, 55 AFRC, 86 ANG. United States United States Air Force (USAF) Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) 514th Flight Test Squadron (Hill AFB, Utah) (1993–present) 23rd Wing 74th Fighter Squadron (Moody AFB, Georgia) (1980–1992, 1996–present) 75th Fighter Squadron (Moody AFB, Georgia) (1980–1991, 1992–present) 51st Fighter Wing 25th Fighter Squadron (Osan AFB, South Korea) (1982–1989, 1993–present) 53rd Wing 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron (Nellis AFB, Nevada) (1977–present) 85th Test and Evaluation Squadron (Eglin AFB, Florida) (1977–present) 57th Wing 66th Weapons Squadron (Nellis AFB, Nevada) (1977–1981, 2003–present) 96th Test Wing 40th Flight Test Squadron (Eglin AFB, Florida) (1982–present) 124th Fighter Wing (Idaho ANG) 190th Fighter Squadron (Gowen Field ANGB, Idaho) (1996–present) 127th Wing (Michigan ANG) 107th Fighter Squadron (Selfridge ANGB, Michigan) (2008–present) 175th Wing (Maryland ANG) 104th Fighter Squadron (Warfield ANGB, Maryland) (1979–present) 355th Fighter Wing 357th Fighter Squadron (Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona) (1979–present) 442nd Fighter Wing (AFRC) 303d Fighter Squadron (Whiteman AFB, Missouri) (1982–present) 476th Fighter Group (AFRC) 76th Fighter Squadron (Moody AFB, Georgia) (1981–1992, 2009–present) 495th Fighter Group 358th Fighter Squadron (Whiteman AFB, Missouri) (1979–2014, 2015–present) 924th Fighter Group (AFRC) 45th Fighter Squadron (Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona) (1981–1994, 2009–present) 47th Fighter Squadron (Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona) (1980–present) === Former squadrons === 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1982–1991) 23rd Tactical Air Support Squadron (1987–1991) (OA-10 unit) 55th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1994–1996) 70th Fighter Squadron (1995–2000) 78th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1979–1992) 81st Fighter Squadron (1994–2013) 91st Tactical Fighter Squadron (1978–1992) 92nd Tactical Fighter Squadron (1978–1993) 103rd Fighter Squadron (Pennsylvania ANG) (1988–2011) (OA-10 unit) 118th Fighter Squadron (Connecticut ANG) (1979–2008) 131st Fighter Squadron (Massachusetts ANG) (1979–2007) 138th Fighter Squadron (New York ANG) (1979–1989) 163rd Fighter Squadron (Indiana ANG) (2010–2023) 172nd Fighter Squadron (Michigan ANG) (1991–2009) 176th Tactical Fighter Squadron (Wisconsin ANG) (1981–1993) 184th Fighter Squadron (Arkansas ANG) (2007–2014) 353rd Tactical Fighter Squadron (1978–1992) 354th Fighter Squadron (Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona) (1979–1982, 1991–2024) 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1978–1992, 1993–2007) 356th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1977–1992) 509th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1979–1992) 510th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1979–1994) 511th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1980–1992) 706th Fighter Squadron (1982–1992, 1997–2007) == Notable incidents == On 8 December 1988, an A-10A of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe crashed into a residential area in the city of Remscheid, West Germany. The aircraft crashed into the upper floor of an apartment complex. The pilot and six other people were killed. Fifty others were injured, many of them seriously. The cause of the accident was attributed to spatial disorientation, after both the mishap aircraft and its flight lead encountered difficult and adverse weather conditions for visual flying. The number of cancer cases in the vicinity of the accident rose disproportionately in the years after, raising the possibility that the aircraft may have been loaded with ammunition containing depleted uranium, contrary to U.S. statements. On 2 April 1997, a U.S. Air Force A-10 from Davis-Monthan Air Force Base piloted by Captain Craig D. Button inexplicably flew hundreds of miles off-course without radio contact. The pilot appeared to maneuver purposefully and did not attempt to eject before the crash. His death is regarded as a suicide because no other hypothesis explains the events. The incident caused widespread public speculation about Button's intentions and whereabouts until the crash site was found three weeks later. The aircraft carried live bombs which have not been recovered. On 28 March 2003, British Lance-Corporal of Horse Matty Hull was killed by U.S. A-10 Thunderbolt II ground attack aircraft as well as five others wounded in the 190th Fighter Squadron, Blues and Royals friendly fire incident. == Aircraft on display == === Germany === A-10A 77-0264 – Spangdahlem AB, Bitburg === South Korea === A-10A 76-0515 – Osan AB === United Kingdom === A-10A 77-0259 – American Air Museum at Imperial War Museum Duxford 80-0219 – Bentwaters Cold War Museum === United States === YA-10A 71-1370 – Joint Base Langley–Eustis (Langley AFB), Hampton, Virginia YA-10B 73-1664 – Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards AFB, California A-10A 73-1666 – Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB, Utah 73-1667 – Flying Tiger Heritage Park at the former England AFB, Louisiana (repainted as 73–3667) 75-0263 – Empire State Aerosciences Museum, Glenville, New York 75-0270 – McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB, Washington 75-0293 – Wings of Eagles Discovery Center, Elmira, New York 75-0288 – Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida. 75-0289 – Heritage Park, Eielson AFB, Alaska 75-0298 – Pima Air & Space Museum (adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB), Tucson, Arizona 75-0305 – Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia 75-0308 – Moody Heritage Park, Moody AFB, Valdosta, Georgia 75-0309 – Shaw AFB, Sumter, South Carolina. Marked as AF Ser. No. 81-0964 assigned to the 55 FS from 1994 to 1996. The represented aircraft was credited with downing an Iraqi Mi-8 Hip helicopter on 15 February 1991 while assigned to the 511 TFS. 76-0516 – Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum at the former NAS Willow Grove, Horsham, Pennsylvania 76-0530 – Whiteman AFB, Missouri 76-0535 – Cradle of Aviation, Garden City, New York 76-0540 – Aerospace Museum of California, McClellan Airport (former McClellan AFB), Sacramento, California 77-0199 – Stafford Air & Space Museum, Weatherford, Oklahoma 77-0205 – USAF Academy collection, Colorado Springs, Colorado 77-0228 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom ARB (former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana 77-0244 – Wisconsin Air National Guard Museum, Volk Field ANGB, Wisconsin 77-0252 – Cradle of Aviation, Garden City, New York (nose section only) 78-0681 – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio 78-0687 – Don F. Pratt Memorial Museum, Fort Campbell, Kentucky 79-0097 – Warbird Park, former Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina 79-0100 – Barnes Air National Guard Base, Westfield, Massachusetts 79-0103 – Bradley Air National Guard Base, Windsor Locks, Connecticut 79-0116 – Warrior Park, Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, Arizona 79-0173 – New England Air Museum, Windsor Locks, Connecticut 79-0195 – Russell Military Museum Zion, Illinois 80-0168 – Fort Wayne Air National Guard Base, Fort Wayne, Indiana 80-0247 – American Airpower Museum, Republic Airport, Farmingdale, New York 80-0708 – Selfridge Military Air Museum, Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Harrison Township, Michigan 81-0987 – Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, Goldsboro, North Carolina == Specifications (A-10C) == Data from The Great Book of Modern Warplanes, Fairchild-Republic A/OA-10, USAFGeneral characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m) Wingspan: 57 ft 6 in (17.53 m) Height: 14 ft 8 in (4.47 m) Wing area: 506 sq ft (47.0 m2) Airfoil: NACA 6716 root, NACA 6713 tip Empty weight: 24,959 lb (11,321 kg) Gross weight: 30,384 lb (13,782 kg) Close air support (CAS) mission: 47,094 lb (21,361 kg) Anti-armor mission: 42,071 lb (19,083 kg) Max takeoff weight: 46,000 lb (20,865 kg) Fuel capacity: 11,000 lb (4,990 kg) internal Powerplant: 2 × General Electric TF34-GE-100A turbofans, 9,065 lbf (40.32 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 381 kn (439 mph, 706 km/h) at sea level, clean Cruise speed: 300 kn (340 mph, 560 km/h) Stall speed: 120 kn (138 mph, 220 km/h) at 30,000 lb (14,000 kg) Never exceed speed: 450 kn (518 mph, 833 km/h) at 5,000 ft (1,500 m) with 18 Mark 82 bombs Combat range: 250 nmi (288 mi, 463 km) CAS mission: 250 nmi (290 mi; 460 km) representing a 1 hour 53 minute of loiter time at 5,000 ft (1,500 m), and 10 minutes of combat Anti-armor mission: 252 nmi (290 mi; 467 km) with sea-level penetration and exit, 30 min combat Ferry range: 2,240 nmi (2,580 mi, 4,150 km) with 50 knots (58 mph; 26 m/s) headwinds, 20 minutes reserve Service ceiling: 45,000 ft (13,700 m) Rate of climb: 6,000 ft/min (30 m/s) Wing loading: 99 lb/sq ft (482 kg/m2) Thrust/weight: 0.47 Armament Guns: 1× 30 mm (1.18 in) GAU-8/A Avenger rotary cannon with 1,174 rounds Hardpoints: 11 (8× under-wing and 3× under-fuselage pylon stations) with a capacity of 16,000 lb (7,260 kg), with provisions to carry combinations of: Rockets: 4× LAU-61/LAU-68 rocket pods (each with 19×/7× Hydra 70 mm/APKWS rockets, respectively) 6× LAU-131 rocket pods (each with 7× Hydra 70 rockets) Missiles: 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles for self-defense 6× AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missiles Bombs: Mark 80 series of unguided 'iron' bombs or Mk 77 incendiary bombs or BLU-1, BLU-27/B, CBU-20 Rockeye II, BL755 and CBU-52/58/71/87/89/97 cluster bombs or Paveway series of Laser-guided bombs or Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) (A-10C) or Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser Other: SUU-42A/A Flares/infrared decoys and chaff dispenser pod or 2× 600 US gal (2,300 L) Sargent Fletcher drop tanks for increased range/loiter time. Avionics Targeting pods: AN/AAQ-28(V)4 LITENING or AN/AAQ-33(V)1/2 Sniper Countermeasures: AN/ALQ-131 or AN/ALQ-184(V)-11/12 ECM pods == Notable appearances in media == == Nicknames == The A-10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname "Warthog" from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who flew and maintained it. The A-10 is the last of Republic's jet attack aircraft to serve with the USAF. The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was nicknamed the "Hog", F-84F Thunderstreak nicknamed "Superhog", and the Republic F-105 Thunderchief tagged "Ultra Hog". The saying Go Ugly Early has been associated with the aircraft for calling in the A-10 early to support troops in ground combat. == See also == Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Ilyushin Il-102 – (Soviet Union, Russia) Northrop YA-9 – (United States) Sukhoi Su-25 – (Soviet Union, Russia, Georgia) Nanchang Q-5 – (China) Related lists List of attack aircraft List of active United States military aircraft List of military electronics of the United States == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == Republic A-10A page, A-10 Construction, and Night/Adverse Weather A-10 pages on National Museum of the United States Air Force site TO 1A-10A-1 Flight Manual USAF Series A-10A Aircraft Serno 75-00258 and Subsequent (1988)
ACAC consortium	The AVIC I Commercial Aircraft Company (ACAC consortium; Chinese: 中航商用飞机有限公司) was a subsidiary of China Aviation Industry Corporation I (AVIC I), formed in 2002 by various Chinese aviation companies, including: Shanghai Aircraft Design and Research Institute 602nd Aircraft Design Institute Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group Shanghai Aircraft Manufacturing Factory Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Xi'an Aircraft Industrial Corporation In 2009 it became part of Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China. == Products == The joint venture has developed the ARJ21 regional jet. == References == == External links ==
AH-64	The Hughes/McDonell Douglas/Boeing AH-64 Apache ( ə-PATCH-ee) is an American twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear and a tandem cockpit for a crew of two. Nose-mounted sensors help acquire targets and provide night vision. It carries a 30 mm (1.18 in) M230 chain gun under its forward fuselage and four hardpoints on stub-wing pylons for armament and stores, typically AGM-114 Hellfire missiles and Hydra 70 rocket pods. Redundant systems help it survive combat damage. The Apache began as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Army's Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra. The prototype YAH-64 first flew on 30 September 1975. The U.S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later approved full production in 1982. After acquiring Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986. The advanced AH-64D Apache Longbow was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security. As of March 2024, over 5,000 Apaches have been delivered to the U.S. Army and 18 international partners and allies. Primarily operated by the U.S. Army, the AH-64 has also become the primary attack helicopter of multiple nations, including Greece, Japan, Israel, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates. It has been built under license in the United Kingdom as the AgustaWestland Apache. American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel uses the Apache to fight in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip. British and Dutch Apaches were deployed to wars in Afghanistan and Iraq beginning in 2001 and 2003. == Development == === Advanced Attack Helicopter === After the AH-56 Cheyenne was cancelled in 1972 in favor of projects like the U.S. Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Marine Corps AV-8A Harrier, the United States Army sought an aircraft to fill an anti-armor attack role that would still be under Army command. The 1948 Key West Agreement forbade the Army from owning combat fixed-wing aircraft. The Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance, and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth (NoE) flying. To this end, the U.S. Army issued a Request For Proposals (RFP) for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) program on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of this project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the "Big Five", with the AAH included. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, and Sikorsky. In July 1973, the U.S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircraft's Toolco Aircraft Division (later Hughes Helicopters). This began the phase 1 of the competition. Each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes' Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bell's Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975. After evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes' YAH-64A over Bell's YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor and the instability of the YAH-63's tricycle landing gear arrangement. The AH-64A then entered phase 2 of the AAH program under which three pre-production AH-64s would be built, additionally, the two YAH-64A flight prototypes and the ground test unit were upgraded to the same standard. Weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. Development of the Hellfire missile had begun in 1974, originally known by the name of Helicopter Launched, Fire and Forget Missile ('Hellfire' being a shortened acronym), for the purpose of arming helicopter platforms with an effective anti-tank missile. === Into production === In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U.S. Army for Operational Test II. The Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at 1,690 shp (1,260 kW). The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, after the Apache tribe, following the tradition of naming Army helicopters after Native American tribes. It was approved for full-scale production in 1982. In 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopter's facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984 (equivalent to $1,422,000,000 in 2024). The helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997. In 1986, the incremental or flyaway cost for the AH-64A was $7M and the average unit cost was approximately $13.9M based on total costs. A 1985 Department of Defense engineering analysis by the inspector general's office reported that significant design deficiencies still needed to be addressed by the contractor. The Army project manager Col. William H. Forster published a list of 101 action items. In 1986, the four 22-foot-long main rotor blades, each made from steel and composite material glued together to maximize strength and minimize weight by the Composite Structures Division of Alcoa Composites, were added to the list. The steel-composite rotors could not meet the Army specification for a life of 1500 flight hours, and needed replacement after just 146 hours. After six changes to the design, the rotor blade life was extended to 1400 hours by early 1991. As of 2024, the AH-64E is being produced at an economical rate of 82 aircraft a year. Boeing states that the minimum sustainment rate for the aircraft is 48 per year while current tooling and space allows for up to 98 aircraft to be manufactured per year. The U.S. Army states that with additional investment and labor, production could be raised to 144 aircraft per year. === Further development === During the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas studied an AH-64B, featuring an updated cockpit, new fire control system and other upgrades. In 1988, funding was approved for a multi-stage upgrade program to improve sensor and weapon systems. Technological advance led to the program's cancellation in favor of more ambitious changes. In August 1990, development of the AH-64D Apache Longbow was approved by the Defense Acquisition Board. The first AH-64D prototype flew on 15 April 1992. Prototype testing ended in April 1995. During testing, six AH-64D helicopters were pitted against a bigger group of AH-64As. The results demonstrated the AH-64D to have a sevenfold increase in survivability and fourfold increase in lethality compared to the AH-64A. On 13 October 1995, full-scale production was approved; a $1.9-billion five-year contract was signed in August 1996 to upgrade 232 AH-64As into AH-64Ds. On 17 March 1997, the first production AH-64D flew. It was delivered on 31 March. Portions of the Apache are produced by other aerospace firms. AgustaWestland has produced a number of components for the Apache both for the international market and for the British Army's AgustaWestland Apache. Since 2004, Korea Aerospace Industries has been the sole manufacturer of the Apache's fuselage. Fuselage production had previously been performed by Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical. The transfer of fuselage production led to a prolonged legal dispute between Teledyne Ryan and Boeing. The AH-64D program cost a total of $11 billion (~$15.6 billion in 2023) through 2007. In April 2006, Boeing was awarded a $67.6 million (~$98.3 million in 2023) fixed-price contract for the remanufacture of several existing U.S. AH-64As to the AH-64D configuration. Between May 2009 and July 2011, a further five contracts were issued to remanufacture batches of AH-64As into AH-64Ds. Since 2008, nations operating the older Apaches have been urged to undertake modernization programs as support for the AH-64A is withdrawn. By May 2019, Boeing tested in a wind tunnel a compound Apache scale model with a pusher propeller, a small wing to increase range and speed, and a counter-torque tail rotor like the cancelled Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne of the 1960s. It competed for the U.S. Army's Future Long Range Assault Aircraft (FLRAA) unveiled in April, developed from the Future Vertical Lift Capability Set 3 (medium rotorcraft) without the attack requirement, while the U.S. Army's FARA should replace the retired Bell OH-58 Kiowa scout and up to half of the AH-64 fleet. == Design == === Overview === The AH-64 Apache has a four-blade main rotor and a four-blade tail rotor. The crew sits in tandem, with the pilot sitting behind and above the co-pilot/gunner. Both crew members are capable of flying the aircraft and performing methods of weapon engagements independently. The AH-64 is powered by two General Electric T700 turboshaft engines with high-mounted exhausts on either side of the fuselage. Various models of engines have been used on the Apache; those in British service use engines from Rolls-Royce. In 2004, General Electric Aviation began producing more powerful T700-GE-701D engines, rated at 2,000 shp (1,500 kW) for AH-64Ds. The crew compartment and rotor blades are designed to sustain a hit from 23 mm (0.91 in) rounds. The airframe includes some 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of protection and has a self-sealing fuel system to protect against ballistic projectiles. The crew compartment also incorporates a transparent blast shield between the pilot and gunner seats so that at least one crew member can survive in the event of a direct hit, but the canopy and windows are otherwise unrated against ballistic threats. The aircraft was designed to meet the crashworthiness requirements of MIL-STD-1290, which specifies minimum requirement for crash impact energy attenuation to minimize crew injuries and fatalities. This was achieved through incorporation of increased structural strength, crashworthy landing gear, seats and fuel system. On a standard day, when temperatures are 59 °F (15 °C), the AH-64 has a vertical rate of climb of 1,775 feet per minute (541 m/min), and a service ceiling of 21,000 feet (6,400 m). However, on a hot day, when temperatures are 70 °F (21 °C), its vertical rate of climb is reduced to 1,595 fpm (486 m/min), and service ceiling is reduced to 19,400 feet (5,900 m) due to less dense air. === Avionics and targeting === One of the revolutionary features of the Apache was its helmet mounted display, the Integrated Helmet and Display Sighting System (IHADSS); among its capabilities, either the pilot or gunner can slave the helicopter's 30 mm automatic M230 Chain Gun to their helmet, making the gun track head movements to point where they look. The M230E1 can be alternatively fixed to a locked forward firing position, or controlled via the Target Acquisition and Designation System (TADS). On more modern AH-64s, the TADS/PNVS has been replaced by Lockheed Martin's Arrowhead (MTADS) targeting system. U.S. Army engagement training is performed under the Aerial Weapons Scoring System Integration with Longbow Apache Tactical Engagement Simulation System (AWSS-LBA TESS), using live 30 mm and rocket ammunition as well as simulated Hellfire missiles. The Smart Onboard Data Interface Module (SMODIM) transmits Apache data to an AWSS ground station for gunnery evaluation. The AH-64's standard of performance for aerial gunnery is to achieve at least 1 hit for every 30 shots fired at a wheeled vehicle at a range of 800–1,200 m (870–1,310 yd). The AH-64 was designed to perform in front-line environments, and to operate at night or day and during adverse weather conditions, thanks to systems including the Target Acquisition and Designation System, Pilot Night Vision System (TADS/PNVS), passive infrared countermeasures, GPS, and the IHADSS. Longbow-equipped Apaches can locate up to 256 targets simultaneously within 50 km (31 mi). In August 2012, 24 U.S. Army AH-64Ds were equipped with the Ground Fire Acquisition System (GFAS), which detects and targets ground-based weapons fire sources in all-light conditions and with a 120° visual field. The GFAS consists of two sensor pods working with the AH-64's other sensors, and a thermographic camera that precisely locates muzzle flashes. In 2014, it was announced that new targeting and surveillance sensors were under development to provide high-resolution color imagery to crews, replacing older low definition black-and-white imaging systems. Lockheed received the first contract in January 2016, upgrading the Arrowhead turret to provide higher-resolution color imaging with longer ranges and a wider field of view. In 2014, the U.S. Army was adapting its Apaches for increased maritime performance as part of the Pentagon's rebalance to the Pacific. Additional avionics and sensor improvements includes an extended-range radar capable of detecting small ships in littoral environments, software adaptions to handle maritime targets, and adding Link 16 data-links for better communications with friendly assets. === Armament and configurations === The AH-64 is adaptable to numerous different roles within its context as Close Combat Attack (CCA). In addition to the 30 mm M230E1 Chain Gun, the Apache carries a range of external stores and weapons on its stub-wing pylons, typically a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire anti-tank missiles, and Hydra 70 general-purpose unguided 70 mm (2.756 in) rockets. The Hellfire is designed to defeat stationary or moving tanks as far away as 6,500 meters. Since 2005, the Hellfire missile outfitted with a thermobaric warhead is designated AGM-114N; this missile version is intended for use against ground forces and urban warfare operations. In October 2015, the U.S. Army ordered its first batch of Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) guided 70 mm rockets for the Apache. Starting in the 1980s, the Stinger and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles and the AGM-122 Sidearm anti-radiation missile were evaluated for use upon the AH-64. The Stinger was initially selected; the U.S. Army was also considering the Starstreak air-to-air missile. External fuel tanks can also be carried on the stub wings to increase range and mission time. The stub-wing pylons have mounting points for maintenance access; these mountings can also be used to secure personnel externally for emergency transport. Stinger missiles are often used on non-U.S. Apaches, as foreign forces do not have as many air superiority aircraft to control the skies. The AH-64E initially lacked the ability to use the Stinger to make room for self-defense equipment, but the capability was added back following a South Korean demand. The AH-64E is able to control unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), used by the U.S. Army to perform aerial scouting missions previously performed by the OH-58 Kiowa. Apaches can request to take control of an RQ-7 Shadow or MQ-1C Grey Eagle from ground control stations to safely scout via datalink communications. There are four levels of UAV interoperability (LOI): LOI 1 indirectly receives payload data; LOI 2 receives payload data through direct communication; LOI 3 deploys the UAV's armaments; and LOI 4 takes over flight control. UAVs can search for enemies and, if equipped with a laser designator, target them for the Apache or other friendly aircraft. Boeing has suggested that the AH-64 could be fitted with a directed energy weapon. The company has developed a small laser weapon, initially designed to engage small UAVs, that uses a high-resolution telescope to direct a 2–10 kW beam with the diameter of a penny out to a range of 5.4 nmi (10.0 km; 6.2 mi). On the Apache, the laser could be used to destroy enemy communications or radio equipment. On 26 June 2017, the Army and Raytheon announced they had successfully completed the first-ever helicopter-based flight demonstration of a high energy laser system from an AH-64. On 14 July 2016, it was reported that the AH-64 had successfully completed testing of the MBDA Brimstone anti-armor missile. In January 2020, the U.S. Army announced it was fielding the Spike NLOS missile on AH-64E Apaches as an interim solution to acquire new munitions that provide greater stand-off capabilities. == Operational history == === United States === ==== Twentieth century ==== In January 1984, the U.S. Army formally accepted its first production AH-64A and training of the first pilots began later that year. The first operational Apache unit, 7th Battalion, 17th Cavalry Brigade, began training on the AH-64A in April 1986 at Fort Hood, Texas. Two operational units with 68 AH-64s first deployed to Europe in September 1987 and took part in large military exercises there. Upon fielding the Apache, capabilities such as the FLIR's use in extensive night operations made it clear that it was capable of operating beyond the forward line of own troops (FLOT) to which previous attack helicopters were normally restricted. It was discovered that the Apache was coincidentally fitted with the Have Quick UHF radio system used by the U.S. Air Force, allowing inter-service coordination and joint operations such as the joint air attack teams (JAAT). The Apache has operated extensively with close air support (CAS) aircraft, such as the USAF's Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the USMC's McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II, often acting as a target designator to conserve the Apache's own munitions. The Apache was first used in combat in 1989, during Operation Just Cause, the invasion of Panama. It participated in over 240 combat hours, attacking various targets, mostly at night. General Carl Stiner, the commander of the operation, stated: "You could fire that Hellfire missile through a window from four miles away at night." Nearly half of all U.S. Apaches were deployed to Saudi Arabia following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. During Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991, eight AH-64As guided by four MH-53 Pave Low IIIs destroyed part of Iraq's radar network in the operation's first attack, allowing the attack aircraft to evade detection. Each Apache carried an asymmetric load of Hydra 70 rockets, Hellfires, and one auxiliary fuel tank. During the 100-hour ground war, a total of 277 AH-64s took part, destroying 278 tanks, numerous armored personnel carriers and other Iraqi vehicles, for a total of over 500 kills. One AH-64 was lost in the war, crashing after a close range rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) hit; the crew survived. While effective in combat, the AH-64 presented serious logistical difficulties. Findings reported in 1990 stated "maintenance units could not keep up with the Apache's unexpectedly high work load..." To provide spare parts for combat operations, the U.S. Army unofficially grounded all other AH-64s worldwide; Apaches in the theater flew only one-fifth of planned flight-hours. Such problems were evident before the Gulf War. The AH-64 played roles in the Balkans during separate conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s. During Task Force Hawk, 24 Apaches were deployed to a land base in Albania in 1999 for combat in Kosovo. These required 26,000 tons of equipment to be transported over 550 C-17 flights, at a cost of US$480 million. During these deployments, the AH-64 encountered problems, such as deficiencies in training, night vision equipment, fuel tanks, and survivability. In 2000, Major General Dick Cody, 101st Airborne's commanding officer, wrote a strongly worded memo to the Chief of Staff about training and equipment failures. Almost no pilots were qualified to fly with night vision goggles, preventing nighttime operations. The Washington Post printed a front-page article on the failures, commenting: "The vaunted helicopters came to symbolise everything wrong with the Army as it enters the 21st century: Its inability to move quickly, its resistance to change, its obsession with casualties, its post-Cold War identity crisis". Although no Apache combat missions took place, two were lost in training exercises. An effective network of Yugoslav air defenses stopped Apaches from being deployed on combat missions in Kosovo. ==== 21st century ==== U.S. Apaches served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001. It was the only Army platform capable of providing accurate CAS duties for Operation Anaconda, often taking fire and quickly repaired during the intense early fighting. Apaches often flew in small teams with little autonomy to react to threats and opportunities, requiring lengthy dialogue with centrally micromanaged command structures. U.S. AH-64Ds typically flew in Afghanistan and Iraq without the Longbow Radar in the absence of armored threats. On 21 December 2009, a pair of U.S. Apaches attacked a British-held base in a friendly fire incident, killing one British soldier. In 2003, the AH-64 participated in the invasion of Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. On 24 March 2003, 31 Apaches were damaged; one was shot down in an unsuccessful attack on an Iraqi Republican Guard armored brigade near Karbala. Iraqi tank crews had set up a "flak trap" among terrain and effectively employed their guns. Iraqi officials claimed a farmer with a Brno rifle shot down the Apache, but the farmer denied involvement. The AH-64 came down intact and the crew were captured; it was destroyed via air strike the following day. This incident had significant consequences for the AH-64 helicopter because it revealed an important vulnerability. Despite being considered by army aviators as flying tanks at the time, it became clear that the AH-64 was actually highly susceptible to rifle fire. As a result, the army quietly disclosed in early 2006 that AH-64s would no longer have a major role in carrying out attacks deep inside enemy lines. By the end of U.S. military operations in Iraq in December 2011, several Apaches had been shot down by enemy fire and lost in accidents. In 2006, an Apache was downed by a Soviet-made Strela 2 (SA-7) in Iraq, despite it being typically able to avoid such missiles. In 2007, four Apaches were destroyed on the ground by insurgent mortar fire using web-published geotagged photographs taken by soldiers. Several AH-64s were lost to accidents in Afghanistan. Most Apaches that took heavy damage were able to continue their missions and return safely. By 2011, the U.S. Army Apache fleet had accumulated more than 3 million flight hours since the first prototype flew in 1975. A DOD audit released in May 2011 found that Boeing had frequently overcharged the U.S. Army for routine spare parts in helicopters like the Apache, ranging from 33.3 percent to 177,475 percent. On 21 February 2013, the 1st Battalion (Attack), 229th Aviation Regiment at Joint Base Lewis–McChord became the first U.S. Army unit to field the AH-64E Apache Guardian; a total of 24 AH-64E were received by mid-2013. On 27 November 2013, the AH-64E achieved initial operating capability (IOC). In March 2014, the 1st–229th Attack Reconnaissance Battalion deployed 24 AH-64Es to Afghanistan in the type's first combat deployment. From April through September 2014, AH-64Es in combat maintained an 88 percent readiness rate. The unit's deployment ended in November 2014, with the AH-64E accumulating 11,000 flight hours, each helicopter averaging 66 hours per month. The AH-64E flies 20 mph (32 km/h) faster than the AH-64D, cutting response time by 57 percent, and has better fuel efficiency, increasing time on station from 2.5–3 hours to 3–3.5 hours; Taliban forces were reportedly surprised by the AH-64E attacking sooner and for longer periods. AH-64Es also worked with medium and large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to find targets and maintain positive ID, conducting 60 percent of the unit's direct-fire engagements in conjunction with UAVs; Guardian pilots often controlled UAVs and accessed their video feeds to use their greater altitudes and endurance to see the battlespace from standoff ranges. In 2014, the Army began implementing a plan to move all Apaches from the Army Reserve and National Guard to the active Army to serve as scout helicopters to replace the OH-58 Kiowa. Using the AH-64 to scout would be less expensive than Kiowa upgrades or purchasing a new scout helicopter. AH-64Es can control UAVs like the MQ-1C Grey Eagle to perform aerial scouting missions; a 2010 study found the teaming of Apaches and UAVs was the most cost-effective alternative to a new helicopter and would meet 80 percent of reconnaissance requirements, compared to 20 percent with existing OH-58s and 50 percent with upgraded OH-58s. National Guard units, who would lose their attack helicopters, criticized the proposal. In March 2015, the first heavy attack reconnaissance unit was formed with 24 Apaches and 12 Shadow UAVs. In July 2014, the Pentagon announced that Apaches had been dispatched to Baghdad to protect embassy personnel from Islamic State militant attacks. On 4 October 2014, Apaches began performing missions in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State ground forces. In October 2014, U.S. Army AH-64s and Air Force fighters participated in four air strikes on Islamic State units northeast of Fallujah. In June 2016, Apaches were used in support of the Iraqi Army's Mosul offensive and provided support during the Battle of Mosul, sometimes flying night missions supporting Iraqi operations. In December 2019, two Apaches provided overwatch for U.S. Marines to secure the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, Iraq after armed militants, supported by Iran, attempted to storm the facility. In March 2024, two Apache crashes within two days increased scrutiny. === Israel === The Israeli Air Force (IAF) first received AH-64As in 1990, for a fleet of 42 by 2000. The IAF's choice to buy Apaches over upgrading its AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters was controversial. In 2000, Israel was interested in acquiring up to 48 AH-64Ds, but U.S. reluctance to share the source code complicated the prospect. In April 2005, Boeing delivered the IAF's first AH-64D. In 2001, the U.S. government was allegedly investigating misuse of the Apache and other U.S.-supplied military equipment against Palestinians. In 2009, the sale of six AH-64Ds was reportedly blocked by the Obama Administration, pending interagency review, over concerns they may pose a threat to civilian Palestinians in Gaza. In IAF service, the AH-64A was named Peten (Hebrew: פתן, for Cobra), while the AH-64D was named Saraph (Hebrew: שרף, for venomous/fiery winged serpent). During the 1990s, Israeli AH-64As frequently attacked Hezbollah outposts in Lebanon. On 13 April 1996, during Operation Grapes of Wrath, an Apache fired two Hellfire missiles at an ambulance in Lebanon, killing six civilians. During the al-Aqsa Intifada in the 2000s, AH-64s were used to kill senior Hamas figures, such as Ahmed Yassin, Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, and Adnan al-Ghoul. Human Rights Watch documented instances of IAF Apaches attacking civilian homes during the 2002 Jenin operation, killing one civilian. Consequently, HRW urged the US government to seek written assurances from Israel that Apaches would not be used to violate humanitarian law in the future. In 2004, Israeli AH-64s carried out the assassination of Ahmed Yassin and also killed 7 bystanders. Ahmed Yassin was the spiritual leader of Hamas; given that he was also blind, paraplegic and in a wheelchair, Palestinians saw the killing as "a cowardly execution of a frail old man in a wheelchair who did not attempt to hide". The attack also killed 7 bystanders, and was internationally condemned. IAF Apaches played a prominent role in the 2006 Lebanon War, launching strikes into Lebanon targeting Hezbollah forces. IAF Apaches also attacked civilian targets, killing many, including women and children. During this war, two AH-64As collided, killing one pilot and critically wounding three. In another incident in the conflict, an IAF AH-64D crashed due to a main rotor malfunction, killing the two crew. In late 2007, the IAF put further purchases and deliveries of AH-64Ds on hold while its performance envelope was investigated. Israeli officials praised the Apache for its role in Operation Cast Lead in 2008, against Hamas in Gaza. IAF Apaches have often patrolled the skies over Gaza; strikes against insurgents by these helicopters has become a frequent occurrence. In the 2010s, the IAF pursued upgrades to its AH-64A fleet as new AH-64D orders had been blocked. In June 2010, Israel decided not to upgrade all AH-64As to AH-64Ds due to funding constraints and lack of U.S. cooperation. In December 2010, the IAF was examining the adoption of a new missile system as a cheaper and lightweight complement to the Hellfire missile, either the American Hydra 70 or the Canadian CRV7. By 2013, IAF AH-64As were receiving a comprehensive upgrade of their avionics and electrical systems. The AH-64As are being upgraded to the AH-64Ai configuration, which is near the AH-64D standard. IAF Apaches can carry Spike anti-tank missiles instead of the Hellfire. The latest AH-64D-I integrates Israeli systems such as Elta communications suite, Elbit mission management system, Rafael Combat Net system and Elisra self-protection suite. IAF AH-64s occasionally saw use in the air-to-air role. The first operational air-to-air kill took place on 24 May 2001, when an IAF shot down a Lebanese civilian Cessna 152 aircraft. Israeli and Lebanese officials presented differing versions: Lebanon said Israel first intercepted the aircraft over Lebanese airspace and its pilot, flying without his instructor, mistakenly entered Israeli airspace, while Israel says the aircraft was already in Israeli airspace when it was intercepted and repeatedly refused to answer or comply with air traffic control (ATC) warnings. The second air-to-air kill occurred on 10 February 2018, after an Iranian UAV entered Israeli airspace from Syria, an AH-64 destroyed it with a missile. === United Kingdom === The UK previously operated a modified version of the AH-64D Block I Apache Longbow; initially called the Westland WAH-64 Apache, it is designated the Apache AH1 by the British Army. Westland built 67 WAH-64 Apaches under license from Boeing, following a competition between the Eurocopter Tiger and the Apache for the British Army's new Attack Helicopter in 1995. Important deviations made by AgustaWestland from the U.S. Apache variants include changing to more powerful Rolls-Royce engines, and the addition of a folding blade assembly for use on naval ships. On 11 July 2016, the Ministry of Defence confirmed a U.S. Foreign Military Sale (FMS) worth $2.3 billion (~$2.86 billion in 2023) for 50 AH-64Es to be built in Mesa, Arizona. Leonardo Helicopters in the UK will maintain the current fleet of Apaches until 2023–2024, with a long-term plan for Leonardo and other UK companies to "do most of the work" on the new fleet. The deal included an initial support contract for maintenance, spare parts, and training simulators; components from the older WAH-64s "will be reused and incorporated into the new helicopters where possible." The type entered service with the British Army in 2022. Approval for the re-manufacture of fifty of the UK's WAH-64 Mk 1 fleet to AH-64E Apache Guardian standard was given by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency in August 2015. They utilize the General Electric T700 engine rather than the Turbomeca RTM322 of the WAH-64; the first off-the-shelf purchase of a GE engine by the Ministry of Defence. The first two AH-64Es were delivered to the British Army on 26 November 2020. The older AH1 (WAH-64) were retired by 2024 in favour of the AH-64E models. === Netherlands === The Dutch government initially showed an interest in acquiring Apache helicopters in the late 1980s, when it stated that it may purchase as many as 52. A competition held in 1994 against the Eurocopter Tiger and the Bell AH-1 SuperCobra led to the Royal Netherlands Air Force ordering 30 AH-64D Apaches in 1995. Deliveries began in 1998 and ended in 2002. The RNLAF Apaches are equipped with the Apache Modular Aircraft Survivability Equipment (AMASE) self-protection system to counter infrared (IR) missile threats. The RNLAF Apaches' first deployment was in 2001 to Djibouti, Africa. They were also deployed alongside U.S. AH-64s in support of NATO peacekeeping forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2004, six Dutch AH-64s were deployed as part of the Netherlands contribution to the Multinational force in Iraq to support the Dutch ground forces. The Apaches performed close combat support and display of force missions, along with providing reconnaissance information to ground forces. In February 2006, the Netherlands' contribution to NATO forces in Afghanistan was increased from 600 to 1,400 troops and 6 AH-64s were sent in support. Shortly after Apaches were deployed to Hamid Karzai International Airport, as part of the Dutch contribution to ISAF, on 10 April 2004, a pair of Dutch Apaches came under light gunfire close to Kabul. On 17 December 2007, an RNLAF Apache flew into power lines during a night flying exercise in the Netherlands, forcing an emergency landing and causing a lengthy blackout in the region. On 17 March 2015, a RNLAF Apache crashed during a training mission in Mali. Both pilots died. The Ministry of Defence opened an investigation into the cause of the crash. In February 2018, the Netherlands decided to upgrade all their AH-64Ds to the latest AH-64E standard via a FMS contract with the US, along with 17 APG-78 fire control radar units. In November 2021, the process to upgrade AH-64Ds began and RNLAF is to receive the upgraded AH-64Es between 2023 and 2025. === Saudi Arabia === Following the 1991 Gulf War, during which many U.S. Apaches operated from bases within Saudi territory, Saudi Arabia purchased twelve AH-64As for the Royal Saudi Land Force. It has been speculated that the Saudi purchase motivated Israel to also procure Apaches. In August 2006, Saudi Arabia began negotiations for Apache upgrades worth up to $400M (~$582 million in 2023), possibly remanufacturing their AH-64As to the AH-64D configuration. In September 2008, the U.S. Government approved a Saudi Arabian request to buy 12 AH-64Ds. In October 2010, Saudi Arabia requested a further 70 AH-64Ds as part of a possible massive arms deal. In November 2009, the Royal Saudi Land Force, as part of a military effort against insurgent border intrusions, launched Operation Scorched Earth; this involved Apaches launching air strikes against Houthi rebels operating inside neighboring Yemen. In January 2010 the rebels claimed to have shot down an Apache; this was denied by the Saudi military. In late January 2010, the leader of the Shiite rebels announced their withdrawal from Saudi territory, this announcement followed a key battle on 12 January when Saudi forces reportedly took control of the border village of Al Jabiri. As an escalation of the Yemeni Civil War, starting on 26 March 2015, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and several other regional allies started a military operation in Yemen. Both the Saudi Army Aviation and the United Arab Emirates Air Force used their AH-64s in combat against an alliance between elements of the Yemeni Army loyal to the former president Saleh and the Houthis. The Apaches were mostly involved in border patrol and strikes in Northwestern Yemen. Over the years, several Saudi and an Emirati Apaches were lost to incidents and enemy fire, although exact numbers have not been independently confirmed. On 17 March 2017, an Apache reportedly attacked a Somali refugee boat, killing 42 refugees. Saudi Arabia denied involvement, though it and the United Arab Emirates are the only militaries using Apaches during the conflict. === United Arab Emirates === The United Arab Emirates purchased 30 AH-64As between 1991 and 1994, and began upgrading to AH-64D specification in 2008. In December 2016, the U.S. State Department approved a proposed sale of another 37 AH-64Es and Congress was notified; this consisted of 28 re-manufactured and nine new-build helicopters. A UAE AH-64 was reportedly lost on 17 October 2017; a replacement was approved by the US in 2019. === Egypt === In 1995, the Egyptian Air Force placed an order for 36 AH-64As. These Apaches were delivered with the same avionics as the U.S. fleet at that time, except for indigenous radio equipment. In 2000, Boeing announced an order to remanufacture Egypt's Apache fleet to the AH-64D configuration, except for Longbow radar, which had been excluded by the U.S. government. In 2009, Egypt requested a further 12 AH-64D Block IIs with Longbow radars through a FMS. In August 2012, the Egyptian Armed Forces undertook a large-scale military operation to regain control of the Sinai Peninsula from armed militants. Air cover throughout the operation was provided by the Egyptian Air Force's Apaches, which reportedly destroyed three vehicles and killed at least 20 militants. Up to five Egyptian Apaches were temporarily stationed in the Sinai following an agreement between Egypt and Israel. In September 2015, an Egyptian Apache attacked a group of foreign tourists in the Western Desert, killing 12 people and injuring 10. The AH-64s fired at the civilians with rockets and 30mm machine guns for several hours, even though survivors said they waved the white flag. The Egyptian Interior Ministry stated that the group, whom were mistaken for militants, were in a restricted area. The tourists were reportedly accompanied by Egyptian police, and their vehicles were marked with logos of the tourist company. In November 2018, the U.S. Department of State approved the sale of ten AH-64Es and associated equipment to Egypt, valued at US$1 billion, pending the sale clearing Congress. The Apache entered service with Egyptian Armed Services, and in the 2020s was being further upgraded. === India === ==== Indian Air Force ==== In 2008, the Indian Air Force (IAF) released a tender for 22 attack helicopters; there were six contending submissions: Sikorsky's UH-60 Black Hawk, the AH-64D, Bell's AH-1 Super Cobra, Eurocopter's Tiger, Mil's Mi-28 and AgustaWestland's A129 Mangusta. In October 2008, Boeing and Bell withdrew. In 2009, the competition was restarted. In December 2010, India requested the sale of 22 Apaches and associated equipment. On 5 October 2012, IAF Chief NAK Browne confirmed the Apache's selection. The IAF sought control of the 22 Apaches for air combat missions, while the Army Aviation Corps argued that they would be better used in army operations. In April 2013, the Indian Ministry of Defence decided that the 22 AH-64s would go to the IAF. India ordered the 22 AH-64Es in 2015. On 11 May 2019, the IAF received its first AH-64E in a ceremony at Boeing's Mesa, Arizona facility. On 3 September 2019, 8 AH-64Es were inducted into the IAF's 125 Helicopter Squadron at Pathankot Air Base, Punjab. On 3 April 2024, an Apache helicopter of the Indian Air Force made a precautionary landing in Ladakh region during an operational training sortie. The aircraft was damaged during the incident due to the rugged terrain and high altitude conditions. Both the pilots were safe. This marked the first such incident involving an Apache in India. By September, the assembly parts of the helicopter, based in Pathankot Air Force Station, was transported from the landing site North of Khardung La to Leh via road on a truck for further airlift. The aircraft would be repaired either in its home base or a Base Repair Depot in IAF. On 6 June 2025, another Apache helicopter conducted a precautionary landing during a routine training sortie in Saharanpur after taking off from Sarsawa Air Force Station. However, both the pilots were safe and the helicopter returned to the airbase after the technical problem was solved. ==== Indian Army ==== On 12 June 2018, the U.S. Department of State approved a possible Foreign Military Sales (FMS) to India for six more AH-64Es and associated equipment in an estimated $930 million deal. The U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress for approval. In February 2020, another six for the Indian Army were ordered, including weapons, equipment, and training; deliveries are planned to begin in 2023. These attack helicopters are often interlinked with squadrons of indigenous HAL Prachand attack helicopters. On 1 January 2024, senior Army officials told India Today that the Indian Army Aviation Corps is expected to induct the first batch of Apache helicopters in February–March of this year. This is to enable the army to protect its tanks on the battlefield when the Indian Air Force is unavailable. They will be deployed to Jodhpur, near the India–Pakistan border, enhancing the security of the area against Pakistani tanks. On 15 March 2024, Army Aviation Corps raised an 451 Army Aviation squadron at Jodhpur which will operate Apache. The induction of first batch of three Apache was scheduled in May 2024 and the rest by July 2024. As of August 2024, no Apaches were delivered to the Army. Citing delays due to supply chain issues, as of September 2024, the first batch of three Apache helicopters are to delivered by the following December–January followed by the next 3 within another few months. === Other users === Greece received 20 AH-64As by 1995; another 12 AH-64Ds were ordered in September 2003. Singapore purchased 20 AH-64Ds in two batches between 1999 and 2001. In October 2010, training was suspended following the forced crash-landing of an Apache. In 2005, Kuwait purchased 16 AH-64Ds. On 26 August 2013, Indonesia and the U.S. finalized a contract for eight AH-64E Apaches worth $500 million (~$645 million in 2023). The first was displayed on 5 October 2017 as part of a military exercise in Indonesia, to mark the 72nd anniversary of its armed forces. The first batch of AH-64s for the Indonesian Army arrived in Indonesia on 18 December 2017. Japan ordered 50 AH-64Ds, which were built under license by Fuji Heavy Industries, designated "AH-64DJP". The first helicopter was delivered to the JGSDF in early 2006. The order was halted after 13 aircraft were delivered due to cost. In 2017, it was announced that the targeting systems of the 13 aircraft would be upgraded. One was destroyed in a crash in February 2018 with the deaths of both crew. In June 2011, Taiwan (Republic of China) agreed to the purchase of 30 AH-64Es with weapons and associated equipment. On 5 November 2013, Taiwan received the first six AH-64s. On 25 April 2014, a Taiwanese AH-64E crashed into a three-story building during a training flight in bad weather conditions, the first AH-64E airframe loss. An investigation ruled out mechanical failure and concluded that the pilots had rapidly descended through clouds at low altitude without checking flight instruments to maintain adequate height; the Army expanded simulator training in response. In October 2014, Taiwan's fifth and final batch of AH-64Es was delivered. In 2009, South Korea showed interest in the Apache, potentially related to plans to withdraw many U.S. Apaches from the country. On 21 September 2012, the U.S. Congress was notified of the possible purchase of 36 AH-64E, along with associated equipment and armament. It competed against the Bell AH-1Z Viper and the TAI/AgustaWestland T-129; in April 2013, South Korea announced plans to buy 36 AH-64Es. The first four AH-64Es were delivered in May 2016, and all 36 were deployed by January 2017. === Future and possible users === Iraq requested the sale of 24 AH-64s in April 2013; In January 2014, a sale, including the helicopters, associated parts, maintenance, and training, was cleared by the U.S. Congress. However, the proposal was not accepted by the Iraqi government and expired in August 2014. In July 2012, Qatar requested the sale of 24 AH-64Es with associated equipment and support. The sale was approved on 27 March 2014. In March 2019, Qatar received the first of 24 AH-64Es ordered. In July 2016, the UK placed an order for 50 AH-64Es through the U.S. FMS program instead of upgrading their Westland-built WAH-64s. In July 2019, Australia issued a request for information for Project Land 4503 to replace the Army's Eurocopter Tiger ARH helicopters. On 15 January 2021, the Australian Minister for Defence Linda Reynolds announced that the AH-64E had been selected to replace the Tiger ARH. A fleet of 29 AH-64Es will be acquired with a planned initial operational capability of 12 helicopters in 2026 and full operational capability in 2028. In October 2019, the Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) was offered two types of attack helicopters and selected the AH-64, pending government approval. However, due to the Apache's high costs, the BAF choose the competing Russian Mi-28NE Night Hunter. In November 2019, the U.S. State Department approved a FMS to Morocco of 24 AH-64Es (with an option for a further 12), this allows Morocco to negotiate an order. On 30 April 2020, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency announced it had received U.S. State Department approval and notified Congress of a possible sale to the Philippines of either six AH-1Z attack helicopters and related equipment for an estimated cost of $450 million or six AH-64Es and related equipment for an estimated cost of $1.5 billion. On 21 April 2022, Polish Ministry of National Defence shortlisted two models in competition for the "Kruk" (Raven) Program aimed at modernizing the Polish Land Forces' fleet of attack helicopters, with the competitors being the AH-64E and Bell's AH-1Z Viper. On 8 September 2022, Polish Minister of Defence Mariusz Błaszczak announced that the AH-64E has won and set out to procure 96 helicopters to form six squadrons. The contract includes a logistics package and a training package along with a stock of ammunition and spare parts. == Variants == === AH-64A === The AH-64A is the original production attack helicopter. The crew sit in tandem in an armored compartment. It is powered by two GE T700 turboshaft engines. The A-model was equipped with the −701 engine version until 1990 when the engines were switched to the more powerful −701C version. U.S. Army AH-64As are being converted to AH-64Ds. The service's last AH-64A was taken out of service in July 2012 before conversion at Boeing's facility in Mesa, Arizona. On 25 September 2012, Boeing received a $136.8M contract to remanufacture the last 16 AH-64As into the AH-64D Block II version and this was planned to be completed by December 2013. === AH-64B === In 1991, after Operation Desert Storm, the AH-64B was a proposed upgrade to 254 AH-64As. The upgrade would have included new rotor blades, a Global Positioning System (GPS), improved navigation systems and new radios. U.S. Congress approved $82M to begin the Apache B upgrade. The B program was canceled in 1992. The radio, navigation, and GPS modifications were later installed on most AH-64As via other upgrades. === AH-64C === Additional funding from Congress in late 1991 resulted in a program to upgrade AH-64As to an AH-64B+ version. More funding changed the plan to upgrade to AH-64C, which would include all of the changes to be included in the AH-64D except for mast-mounted radar and newer −700C engine versions. However, the C designation was dropped after 1993. With AH-64As receiving the newer engine from 1990, the only difference between the AH-64C and the AH-64D was the radar, which could be moved from one aircraft to another; thus, the decision was made to simply designate both versions as AH-64D. === AH-64D === The AH-64D Apache Longbow is equipped with a glass cockpit and advanced sensors, the most noticeable of which being the AN/APG-78 Longbow millimeter-wave fire-control radar (FCR) target acquisition system and the Radar Frequency Interferometer (RFI), housed in a dome located above the main rotor. The radome's raised position enables target detection while the helicopter is behind obstacles (e.g. terrain, trees or buildings). The AN/APG-78 is capable of simultaneously tracking up to 128 targets and engaging up to 16 at once; an attack can be initiated within 30 seconds. A radio modem integrated with the sensor suite allows data to be shared with ground units and other Apaches, allowing them to fire on targets detected by a single helicopter. The aircraft is powered by a pair of uprated T700-GE-701C engines. The forward fuselage was expanded to accommodate new systems to improve survivability, navigation, and 'tactical internet' communications capabilities. In February 2003, the first Block II Apache was delivered to the U.S. Army, featuring digital communications upgrades. The Japanese Apache AH-64DJP variant is based on the AH-64D; it can be equipped with the AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles for self-defense. === AH-64E === Formerly known as AH-64D Block III, in 2012, it was redesignated as AH-64E Guardian. It has improved digital connectivity, the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System, more powerful T700-GE-701D engines with upgraded face gear transmission to handle more power, capability to control unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), full IFR capability, and improved landing gear. New composite rotor blades, which completed testing in 2004, increase cruise speed, climb rate, and payload capacity. Deliveries began in November 2011. Full-rate production was approved on 24 October 2012. The total Army Acquisition Objective for both new build and remanufactured AH-64Es is 812. Changes in production lots 4 through 6 include a cognitive decision aiding system and new self-diagnostic abilities. The updated Longbow radar has an oversea capacity, potentially enabling naval strikes; an AESA radar is under consideration. It will have a L-3 Communications MUMT-X datalink in place of two older counterparts, communicating on C, D, L, and Ku frequency bands to transmit and receive data and video with all Army UAVs. Lots 5 and 6 will have Link 16 data links. The AH-64E is to be fit for maritime use. The U.S. Army expressed interest in extended-range fuel tanks for greater endurance. As of April 2020, 500 AH-64Es have been delivered. Work on a further upgraded AH-64E, version 6.5 was initiated by the U.S. Army in 2021, and first flew in 2023. The AH-64E is reported to have had problems with its electrical generation systems causing increased scrutiny. === AH-64F === In 2014, Boeing conceptualized an Apache upgrade prior to the introduction of the U.S. Army's anticipated attack version of the Future Vertical Lift (FVL) aircraft, forecast to replace the Apache by 2040. The conceptual AH-64F would have greater speed via a new 3,000 shp turboshaft engine from the Improved Turbine Engine Program, retractable landing gear, stub wings to offload lift from the main rotor during cruise, and a tail rotor that can articulate 90 degrees to provide forward thrust. In October 2016, the Army revealed they would not pursue another Apache upgrade to focus on funding FVL; the Army will continue buying the Apache through the 2020s until Boeing's production line ends in 2026, then FVL is slated to come online in 2030. === Piasecki Speed Apache === In the late 1990s, Piasecki conceived a proposal for an Apache with a tail–mounted ducted pusher rotor to enhance speed. However, the Speed Apache was not proceeded with. This appears to be similar to the Piasecki X-49 SpeedHawk. === Compound Apache === In October 2018, Boeing began testing the AH-64E Block 2 Compound, a compound helicopter design which added a larger fixed wing and a pusher propeller to the Apache airframe to provide additional lift and thrust, respectively. In addition, the engine exhaust was redirected downwards. Collectively, the modifications were anticipated to improve speed to 185 kn (343 km/h; 213 mph), range to 460 nmi (850 km; 530 mi), payload to 5,900 lb (2,700 kg), and fuel economy. A 30% scale model completed wind tunnel testing in January 2019. The Compound Apache has been pitched as an interim replacement for the Apache before its replacement under the Future Vertical Lift program. === Sea Apache === During the 1980s naval versions of the AH-64A for the United States Marine Corps and Navy were examined. Multiple concepts were studied with altered landing gear arrangements, improved avionics and weapons. The USMC conducted a two-week evaluation of the Apache in September 1981, including shipboard operation tests. Funding for a naval version was not provided; the USMC continued to use the AH-1. The Canadian Forces Maritime Command also examined naval Apaches. In 2004, British Army AgustaWestland Apaches were deployed upon the Royal Navy's HMS Ocean, a Landing Platform Helicopter, for suitability testing; there was U.S. interest in the trials. During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the British Army extensively used Apaches from HMS Ocean. In 2013, US AH-64Ds were tested on several U.S. Navy ships. === Export Apaches === Several models have been derived from the AH-64A, AH-64D and AH-64E for export. The British-built AgustaWestland Apache (assembled from kits purchased from Boeing) is based on the AH-64D Block I with several different systems, including more powerful engines, folding rotor blades, and other modifications for operation from Royal Navy vessels. === Block modification === While a major change in design or role will cause the type designator suffix to change, for example from AH-64D to AH-64E, the helicopters are also subject to block modification. Block modification is the combining of equipment changes into blocks of modification work orders, the modifications in the block (sometimes called a block package) are all done to the helicopter at the same time. == Operators == The AH-64 has had some modest success on the export market. It has been popular in the middle east, where its role the Gulf War established a bit of reputation. Its main user continues to be the U.S. Army, and the largest user in Europe will be Poland. Australia Australian Army – 29 AH-64Es on order Egypt Egyptian Air Force – 46 AH-64Ds Greece Hellenic Army – 28 AH-64A/Ds India Indian Air Force – 22 AH-64Es in inventory as of July 2020 Indian Army – 6 AH-64Es on order Indonesia Indonesian Army 8 AH-64Es Israel Israeli Air Force – 48 AH-64A/Ds Japan Japan Ground Self-Defense Force – 12 AH-64Ds Kuwait Kuwait Air Force – 24 AH-64Ds Morocco Royal Moroccan Air Force – 36 AH-64Es on order, with 6 delivered as of March 2025 Netherlands Royal Netherlands Air Force – 28 AH-64Es Poland Polish Land Forces – 96 AH-64Es on order, 8 AH-64Ds leased Qatar Qatar Emiri Air Force – 24 AH-64Es Saudi Arabia Royal Saudi Land Forces – 47 AH-64A/D/Es Saudi Arabia National Guard – 12 AH-64Es Singapore Republic of Singapore Air Force – 19 AH-64Ds South Korea Republic of Korea Army – 36 AH-64Es An additional 36 AH-64Es were approved in a $3.5 billion deal. Taiwan (Republic of China) Republic of China Army – 29 AH-64Es United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates Air Force – 28 AH-64D/Es United Kingdom British Army – 50 AH-64Es United States United States Army – 750 total; estimated 160 AH-64Ds and 590 AH-64Es as of January 2025: 37 == Specifications (AH-64A/D) == Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 2000–2001, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 2010–2011, Apache AH-64 Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) 1976–2005General characteristics Crew: 2 (pilot, and co-pilot/gunner) Length: 58 ft 2 in (17.73 m) Fuselage length: 49 ft 5 in (15.06 m) Height: 12 ft 8 in (3.87 m) Empty weight: 11,387 lb (5,165 kg) Gross weight: 17,650 lb (8,006 kg) Max takeoff weight: 23,000 lb (10,433 kg) Powerplant: 2 × General Electric T700-GE-701 turboshaft engines, 1,690 shp (1,260 kW) each (upgraded to 1,890 shp (1,409 kW) T700-GE-701C for AH-64A/D from 1990) Main rotor diameter: 48 ft 0 in (14.63 m) Main rotor area: 1,908.5 sq ft (177.31 m2) 4-bladed main-rotor and 4-bladed tail-rotor in non-orthogonal alignment Blade section: root: HH-02; tip: NACA 64A006 Performance Maximum speed: 158 kn (182 mph, 293 km/h) Cruise speed: 143 kn (165 mph, 265 km/h) Never exceed speed: 197 kn (227 mph, 365 km/h) Range: 257 nmi (296 mi, 476 km) with Longbow radar mast Combat range: 260 nmi (300 mi, 480 km) Ferry range: 1,024 nmi (1,178 mi, 1,896 km) Service ceiling: 20,000 ft (6,100 m) Disk loading: 9.8 lb/sq ft (48 kg/m2) Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (0.30 kW/kg) Armament Guns: 1× 30 mm (1.18 in) M230 Chain Gun with 1,200 rounds as part of the Area Weapon Subsystem Hardpoints: Four pylon stations on the stub wings. Longbows also have a station on each wingtip for an AIM-92 Stinger twin missile pack. Rockets: Hydra 70 70 mm, CRV7 70 mm, and APKWS 70 mm air-to-ground rockets Missiles: Typically AGM-114 Hellfire variants; Air-to-Air Stinger (ATAS); AGM-65 Maverick and Spike missiles may also be carried. Avionics Lockheed Martin/Northrop Grumman AN/APG-78 Longbow fire-control radar (Note: can only be mounted on the AH-64D/E) == Notable appearances in media == == See also == Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center United States Army Aviation and Missile Command Related development AgustaWestland Apache Bell YAH-63 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Agusta A129 Mangusta Bell AH-1 SuperCobra Bell AH-1Z Viper CAIC Z-10 Denel Rooivalk Eurocopter Tiger HAL Prachand Harbin WZ-19 IAIO Toufan Kamov Ka-50 Mil Mi-24 Mil Mi-28 Panha 2091 TAI/AgustaWestland T129 Related lists List of active United States military aircraft List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War List of rotorcraft List of military electronics of the United States == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == Official website AH-64 Apache U.S. Army fact file (archived from the original on 2011-05-01) Apache overview with supporting images on HowStuffWorks.com Top 10: Helicopters – AH-64D Apache. Discovery Channel, 8 May 2007. AH-64E U.S. Army video describing Apache Block III technologies Apache Helicopter Acoustic Analysis "Boeing eyes X-49A technology for Apache attack helicopter". US Army overview of the Apache Longbow Block III
Abbas ibn Firnas	Abū al-Qāsim ʿAbbās ibn Firnās ibn Wardūs al-Tākurnī (Arabic: أبو القاسم عباس بن فرناس بن ورداس التاكرني; c. 809/810 – 887 CE), known as ʿAbbās ibn Firnās (Arabic: عباس ابن فرناس) was an Andalusi polymath: an inventor, astronomer, physician, chemist, engineer, Andalusi musician, and Arabic-language poet. He was reported to have experimented with unpowered flight. Ibn Firnas made various contributions in the field of astronomy and engineering. He constructed a device which indicated the motion of the planets and stars in the Universe. In addition, Ibn Firnas came up with a procedure to manufacture colourless glass and made magnifying lenses for reading, which were known as reading stones. == Origin == Abbas ibn Firnas was born in Ronda, in the Takurunna province and lived in Córdoba. His ancestors participated in the Muslim conquest of Spain. His full name was "Abu al-Qasim Abbas ibn Firnas ibn Wirdas al-Takurini", although he is better known as Abbas ibn Firnas. There is very little biographical information on him. While the majority of sources describe him as a Umayyad mawlā (client) of Berber origin, some sources describe him as Arab or as native muladí. == Work == Abbas ibn Firnas devised a means of manufacturing colourless glass, invented various glass planispheres, made corrective lenses ("reading stones"), devised an apparatus consisting of a chain of objects that could be used to simulate the motions of the planets and stars, and developed a process for cutting rock crystal that allowed Al-Andalus to cease exporting quartz to Egypt to be cut. He introduced the Sindhind to Al-Andalus, which had important influence on astronomy in Europe. He also designed the al-Maqata, a water clock, and a prototype for a kind of metronome. == Aviation == Some seven centuries after the death of Firnas, the Algerian historian Ahmad al-Maqqari (d. 1632) wrote a description of Ibn Firnas that included the following: Among other very curious experiments which he made, one is his trying to fly. He covered himself with feathers for the purpose, attached a couple of wings to his body, and, getting on an eminence, flung himself down into the air, when according to the testimony of several trustworthy writers who witnessed the performance, he flew a considerable distance, as if he had been a bird, but, in alighting again on the place whence he had started, his back was very much hurt, for not knowing that birds when they alight come down upon their tails, he forgot to provide himself with one. Al-Maqqari is said to have used in his history works "many early sources no longer extant", but in the case of Ibn Firnas, he does not cite his sources for the details of the reputed flight, though he does claim that one verse in a ninth-century Arab poem is actually an allusion to Ibn Firnas's flight. The poem was written by Mu'min ibn Said, a court poet of Córdoba under Muhammad I (d. 886), amir of the Emirate of Córdoba, who was acquainted with and usually critical of Ibn Firnas. The pertinent verse runs: "He flew faster than the phoenix in his flight when he dressed his body in the feathers of a vulture." No other surviving sources refer to the event. It has been suggested that Ibn Firnas's attempt at glider flight might have inspired the attempt by Eilmer of Malmesbury between 1000 and 1010 in England, but there is no evidence supporting this hypothesis. == Armen Firman == According to some secondary sources, about 20 years before Ibn Firnas attempted to fly he witnessed a man named Armen Firman wrap himself in a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts and jump from a tower in Córdoba, intending to use the garment as wings on which he could glide. The alleged attempt at flight was unsuccessful, but the garment slowed his fall enough that he sustained only minor injuries. However, other secondary sources that deal exhaustively with Ibn Firnas' flight attempt make no reference at all to Armen Firman. Al-Maqqari's account of Ibn Firnas, being the sole primary source of the flight story, makes no mention of Firman. Since Firman's jump is said to have been Ibn Firnas' source of inspiration, the lack of any mention of Firman in Al-Maqqari's account may point to synthesis—the tower jump later confused with Ibn Firnas' gliding attempt in secondary writings. In fact, it is likely that Armen Firman is simply the Latinized name of Abbas ibn Firnas. == Legacy == In 1973, a statue of Ibn Firnas by the sculptor Badri al-Samarrai was installed at the Baghdad International Airport in Iraq. In 1976, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) approved of naming a crater on the moon after him as Ibn Firnas. In 2011, one of the bridges going over the Guadalquivir river in Córdoba, Spain, was named the "Abbas ibn Firnás Bridge". A British one-plane airline, Firnas Airways, was also named after him. == See also == Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi History of aviation Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari Lagâri Hasan Çelebi List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world == References == == Sources == J. Vernet, Abbas Ibn Firnas. Dictionary of Scientific Biography (C.C. Gilespie, ed.) Vol. I, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980. pg. 5. Lynn Townsend White Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97–111 [100f.], doi:10.2307/3101411. Salim T.S. Al-Hassani (ed.), Elisabeth Woodcock (au.), and Rabah Saoud (au.). 2006. 1001 Inventions. Muslim Heritage in Our World. Manchester: Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation. See pages 308–313. (ISBN 978-0-9555035-0-4) == Further reading == Zaheer, Syed Iqbal (2010). An Educational Encyclopedia of Islam. Iqra Welfare Trust. p. 1280. ISBN 9786039000440.
Accessibility (transport)	In transport planning, accessibility refers to a measure of the ease of reaching (and interacting with) destinations or activities distributed in space, e.g. around a city or country. Accessibility is generally associated with a place (or places) of origin. A place with "high accessibility" is one from which many destinations can be reached or destinations can be reached with relative ease. "Low accessibility" implies that relatively few destinations can be reached for a given amount of time/effort/cost or that reaching destinations is more difficult or costly from that place. The concept can also be defined in the other direction, and we can speak of a place having accessibility from some set of surrounding places. For example, one could measure the accessibility of a store to customers as well as the accessibility of a potential customer to some set of stores. In time geography, accessibility has also been defined as "person based" rather than "place based", where one would consider a person's access to some type of amenity through the course of their day as they move through space. For example, a person might live in a food desert but have easy access to a grocery store from their place of work. Accessibility is often calculated separately for different modes of transport. == Mathematical definition == In general, accessibility A {\displaystyle A} is defined as: A i = ∑ j W j × f ( C i j ) {\displaystyle A_{i}=\sum _{j}{W_{j}}\times f\left({C_{ij}}\right)} where: i {\displaystyle i} = index of origin locations j {\displaystyle j} = index of destination locations W j {\displaystyle W_{j}} = a set of weights associated with destinations e.g. the number of jobs in a traffic analysis zone C i j {\displaystyle C_{ij}} is a cost of travel from i {\displaystyle i} to j {\displaystyle j} and f ( C i j ) {\displaystyle f\left({C_{ij}}\right)} is an impedance function on the travel cost giving the utility of a destination. === Cost metrics === Travel cost metrics ( C i j {\displaystyle C_{ij}} in the equation above) can take a variety of forms such as: Euclidean Distance Network distance Travel time Monetary cost or fare Comfort or subjective ease of travel Internal and/or external costs Cost metrics may also be defined using any combination of these or other metrics. For a non-motorized mode of transport, such as walking or cycling, the generalized travel cost may include additional factors such as safety or gradient. The essential idea is to define a function that describes the ease of travelling from any origin i {\displaystyle i} to any destination j {\displaystyle j} . A large compendium of such cost metrics used in practice was developed in 2012, under the framework of Cost Action TU1002, and is available online. === Impedance functions === The function on the travel cost f ( C i j ) {\displaystyle f\left({C_{ij}}\right)} determines how accessible a destination is based on the travel cost associated with reaching that destination. Two common impedance functions are "cumulative opportunities" and a negative exponential function. Cumulative opportunities is a binary function yielding 1 if an opportunity can be reached within some threshold and 0 otherwise. It is defined as: f ( C i j ) = { 1 if C i j ≤ θ 0 if C i j > θ {\displaystyle f(C_{ij})={\begin{cases}1~~{\text{if}}&C_{ij}\leq \theta \\0~~{\text{if}}&C_{ij}>\theta \end{cases}}} where θ {\displaystyle \theta } is the threshold parameter. A negative exponential impedance function can be defined as: f ( C i j ) = e − β C i j {\displaystyle f(C_{ij})=e^{-\beta C_{ij}}} where β {\displaystyle \beta } is a parameter defining how quickly the function decays with distance. == Relation to land use == Accessibility has long been associated with land-use; as accessibility increases in a given place, the utility of developing the land increases. This association is often used in integrated transport and landuse forecasting models. At the same time, the accessibility of a place can not only be changed through a modification of the transport infrastructure, but also as a consequence of a changed spatial structure / distribution of destinations. == In practice == === Transport agencies === Transport for London utilize a calculated approach known as Public Transport Accessibility Level (PTAL) that uses the distance from any point to the nearest public transport stops, and service frequency at those stops, to assess the accessibility of a site to public transport services. Destination-based accessibility measures are an alternate approach that can be more sophisticated to calculate. These measures consider not just access to public transport services (or any other form of travel), but the resulting access to opportunities that arises from it. For example, using origin-based accessibility (PTAL) we can understand how many buses one may be able to be access. Using destination-based measures we can calculate how many schools, hospitals, jobs, restaurants (etc..) can be accessed. === In urban planning === Accessibility-based planning is a spatial planning methodology that centralises goals of people and businesses and defines accessibility policy as enhancing people and business opportunities. Traditionally, urban transportation planning has mainly focused on the efficiency of the transport system itself and is often responding to plans made by spatial planners. Such an approach neglects the influence of interventions in the transport system on broader and often conflicting economic, social and environmental goals. Accessibility based planning defines accessibility as the amount of services and jobs people can access within a certain travel time, considering one or more modes of transport such as walking, cycling, driving or public transport. Using this definition accessibility does not only relate to the qualities of the transport system (e.g. travel speed, time or costs), but also to the qualities of the land use system (e.g. densities and mixes of opportunities). It thus provides planners with the possibility to understand interdependencies between transport and land use development. Accessibility planning opens the floor to a more normative approach to transportation planning involving different actors. For politicians, citizens and firms it might be easier to discuss the quality of access to education, services and markets than it is to discuss the inefficiencies of the transport system itself. Accessibility is also defined as "the potential for interaction". Despite the high potential of accessibility in integrating the different components of urban planning, such as land use and transportation and the large number of accessibility instruments available in the research literature, the latter are not widely used to support urban planning practices yet. By keeping the accessibility language out of the practice level, older paradigms resist the more informed and people-centred approaches. The existence of accessibility instruments is fairly acknowledged, but practitioners do not appear to have found them useful or usable enough for addressing the tasks of sustainable urban management. == See also == Availability – Term in reliability engineering Co-benefits of climate change mitigation – Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and adaptation measures Exurb – Area of lower population density than suburbs Forced rider – Someone required to pay for something they don't want Isochrone map – Map that depicts the area accessible from a point within a time threshold Mobility aid – Device that helps people with mobility impairments Suburbanization – Population shift from central urban areas into suburbs Transit desert – Area lacking in transit Transport divide – Unequal access to transport Urban resilience – Ability of a city to function after a crisis Urban vitality – Intensity of use of an urban area == References ==
Ader Avion III	The Avion III (sometimes referred to as the Aquilon or the Éole III) was a steam-powered aircraft built by Clément Ader between 1892 and 1897, financed by the French War Office. Retaining the same bat-like configuration of the Éole, the Avion III was equipped with two engines driving two propellers. While the earlier aircraft had no means of directional control at all, this one was equipped with a rudder. Trials began at the Satory army base near Versailles on 12 October 1897, with the aircraft taxiing along a circular track. On 14 October 1897, it left the track, turned halfway around, and then stopped, but did not take flight. Later in his life, Ader claimed that there had been a flight of 100 m (328 ft) on this day, and said he had two witnesses to confirm it. Regardless, the French military was unimpressed with the demonstration and cancelled any further funding. The machine is preserved at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris. It underwent extensive restoration in the 1980s. == Specifications (Avion III) == Data from General characteristics Crew: 1 Wingspan: 16 m (52 ft 6 in) Wing area: 56 m2 (600 sq ft) Empty weight: 400 kg (882 lb) Powerplant: 2 × Ader steam engines , 15 kW (20 hp) each Propellers: 4-bladed sail type propellers Performance Wing loading: 7 kg/m2 (1.4 lb/sq ft) Power/mass: 0.08 kW/kg (0.049 hp/lb) == Gallery == == See also == == References ==
Ader Éole	The Ader Éole, also called Avion (French for aeroplane), was an early steam-powered aircraft developed by Clément Ader in the 1890s and named after the Greco-Roman wind god Aeolus. == Design and development == Unlike many early flying machines, the Éole did not attempt to fly by flapping its wings, but relied on the lift generated by its wings in forward motion. With wings resembling mechanical copies of bat wings, its steam engine was an unusually light-weight design driving a propeller at the front of the aircraft, but lacking any means for the pilot to control the direction of flight. According to late 1907 claims made by Clément Ader, on October 9th, 1890, the machine achieved a short flight of around 50 m (164 ft) at the Chateau d'Armainvilliers in Brie. It reached a height of around 20 cm (8 in). The poor power-to-weight ratio of the steam engine and bad weather were felt to limit the flying height achieved. Ader later claimed to have flown the Éole again in September 1891, this time to a distance of 100 m (328 ft), but this claim is less substantiated. Some consider the Éole to have been the first true aeroplane, given that it left the ground under its own power and carried a person through the air for a short distance, and that the event of 8 October 1890 was the first successful flight. However, the lack of directional control, and the fact that steam-powered aircraft proved to be a dead end, both weigh against these claims. Ader's proponents have claimed that the Wrights' early airplanes required a catapult to take off; however, the Wrights did not use a catapult for their first flights in 1903, though they did for many flights in 1904 and later. Modern attempts to recreate and evaluate the craft have met with mixed results. A full-size replica built in 1990 at the École Centrale Paris crashed on its first flight, injuring its pilot and leading to the termination of the experiment. Scale models, however, have been successfully flown. == Specifications (Éole) == General characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 6.5 m (21 ft 4 in) Wingspan: 14 m (45 ft 11 in) Wing area: 28 m2 (300 sq ft) Empty weight: 226 kg (498 lb) Gross weight: 330 kg (728 lb) Powerplant: 1 × Ader alcohol-burning steam engine, 15 kW (20 hp) Performance Maximum speed: 58 km/h (36 mph, 31 kn)164 ft Wing loading: 8 kg/m2 (1.6 lb/sq ft) Power/mass: 0.05 kW/kg (0.03 hp/lb) == See also == Alexander Mozhaysky, a Russian inventor who also designed a steam-powered plane. == Notes == == References ==
Aerial photography	Aerial photography (or airborne imagery) is the taking of photographs from an aircraft or other airborne platforms. When taking motion pictures, it is also known as aerial videography. Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or "drones"), balloons, blimps and dirigibles, rockets, pigeons, kites, or using action cameras while skydiving or wingsuiting. Handheld cameras may be manually operated by the photographer, while mounted cameras are usually remotely operated or triggered automatically. Aerial photography typically refers specifically to bird's-eye view images that focus on landscapes and surface objects, and should not be confused with air-to-air photography, where one or more aircraft are used as chase planes that "chase" and photograph other aircraft in flight. Elevated photography can also produce bird's-eye images closely resembling aerial photography (despite not actually being aerial shots) when telephotoing from a high vantage structures, suspended on cables (e.g. Skycam) or on top of very tall poles that are either handheld (e.g. monopods and selfie sticks), fixed firmly to ground (e.g. surveillance cameras and crane shots) or mounted above vehicles. == History == === Early === Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, known as "Nadar", in 1858 over Paris, France. However, the photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled 'Boston, as the Eagle and the Wild Goose See It.' Taken by James Wallace Black and Samuel Archer King on October 13, 1860, it depicts Boston from a height of 630m. Kite aerial photography was pioneered by British meteorologist E.D. Archibald in 1882. He used an explosive charge on a timer to take photographs from the air. The same year, Cecil Shadbolt devised a method of taking photographs from the basket of a gas balloon, including shots looking vertically downwards. One of his images, taken from 2,000 feet (610 m) over Stamford Hill, is the earliest extant aerial photograph taken in the British Isles. A print of the same image, An Instantaneous Map Photograph taken from the Car of a Balloon, 2,000 feet high, was shown at the 1882 Photographic Society exhibition. Frenchman Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, and wrote a book on his methods in 1890. Samuel Franklin Cody developed his advanced 'Man-lifter War Kite' and succeeded in interesting the British War Office with its capabilities. In 1908, Albert Samama Chikly filmed the first ever aerial views using a balloon between Hammam-Lif and Grombalia. The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to a heavier-than-air aircraft took place on April 24, 1909, over Rome in the 3:28 silent film short, Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine. === World War I === The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the war, as reconnaissance aircraft were equipped with cameras to record enemy movements and defenses. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, with reconnaissance being accomplished with map sketching from the air. Germany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz, in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time. Frederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (later No. 1 Squadron RAF), taking photographs from the British dirigible Beta. He discovered that vertical photos taken with a 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus creating a perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. In 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. The first purpose-built and practical aerial camera was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles. By the end of the war, aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No. 1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles (1,620 km2) area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. This was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Lieutenants Leonard Taplin, Allan Runciman Brown, H. L. Fraser, Edward Patrick Kenny, and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines 32 miles (51 km) deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with a fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and Martinsyde airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also had to contend with 65 mph (105 km/h) winds, antiaircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task. === Commercial === The first commercial aerial photography company in the UK was Aerofilms Ltd, founded by World War I veterans Francis Wills and Claude Graham White in 1919. The company soon expanded into a business with major contracts in Africa and Asia as well as in the UK. Operations began from the Stag Lane Aerodrome at Edgware, using the aircraft of the London Flying School. Subsequently, the Aircraft Manufacturing Company (later the De Havilland Aircraft Company), hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham. From 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes. During the 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs), with the Ordnance Survey amongst the company's clients. In 1920, the Australian Milton Kent started using a half-plate oblique aero camera purchased from Carl Zeiss AG in his aerial photographic business. Another successful pioneer of the commercial use of aerial photography was the American Sherman Fairchild who started his own aircraft firm Fairchild Aircraft to develop and build specialized aircraft for high altitude aerial survey missions. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten-inch lens and took photos from 23,000 feet. Each photo covered two hundred and twenty-five square miles. One of its first government contracts was an aerial survey of New Mexico to study soil erosion. A year later, Fairchild introduced a better high altitude camera with nine-lens in one unit that could take a photo of 600 square miles with each exposure from 30,000 feet. === World War II === In 1939 Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of the RAF were among the first to suggest that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to fast, small aircraft which would use their speed and high service ceiling to avoid detection and interception. Although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and cameras. This led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants. Spitfires proved to be extremely successful in their reconnaissance role and there were many variants built specifically for that purpose. They served initially with what later became No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). In 1928, the RAF developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing. Based at RAF Medmenham, the collection and interpretation of such photographs became a considerable enterprise. Cotton's aerial photographs were far ahead of their time. Together with other members of the 1 PRU, he pioneered the techniques of high-altitude, high-speed stereoscopic photography that were instrumental in revealing the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. According to R.V. Jones, photographs were used to establish the size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket. Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At the peak, the British flew over 100 reconnaissance flights a day, yielding 50,000 images per day to interpret. Similar efforts were taken by other countries. == Uses == Vertical aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often the basis for topographic maps), land-use planning, aerial archaeology. Oblique aerial photography is used for movie production, environmental studies, power line inspection, surveillance, construction progress, commercial advertising, conveyancing, and artistic projects. An example of how aerial photography is used in the field of archaeology is the mapping project done at the site Angkor Borei in Cambodia from 1995 to 1996. Using aerial photography, archaeologists were able to identify archaeological features, including 112 water features (reservoirs, artificially constructed pools and natural ponds) within the walled site of Angkor Borei. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many Phase I Environmental Site Assessments for property analysis. == Aircraft == In the United States, except when necessary for take-off and landing, full-sized manned aircraft are prohibited from flying at altitudes under 1000 feet over congested areas and not closer than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure over non-congested areas. Certain exceptions are allowed for helicopters, powered parachutes and weight-shift-control aircraft. === Radio-controlled === Advances in radio controlled models have made it possible for model aircraft to conduct low-altitude aerial photography. This had benefited real-estate advertising, where commercial and residential properties are the photographic subject. In 2014 the US Federal Aviation Administration banned the use of drones for photographs in real estate advertisements. The ban has been lifted and commercial aerial photography using drones of UAS is regulated under the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018. Commercial pilots have to complete the requirements for a Part 107 license, while amateur and non-commercial use is restricted by the FAA. Small scale model aircraft offer increased photographic access to these previously restricted areas. Miniature vehicles do not replace full-size aircraft, as full-size aircraft are capable of longer flight times, higher altitudes, and greater equipment payloads. They are, however, useful in any situation in which a full-scale aircraft would be dangerous to operate. Examples would include the inspection of transformers atop power transmission lines and slow, low-level flight over agricultural fields, both of which can be accomplished by a large-scale radio-controlled helicopter. Professional-grade, gyroscopically stabilized camera platforms are available for use under such a model; a large model helicopter with a 26cc gasoline engine can hoist a payload of approximately seven kilograms (15 pounds). One example is the radio controlled Nitrohawk helicopter developed by Robert Channon between 1988 and 1998. In addition to gyroscopically stabilized footage, the use of RC copters as reliable aerial photography tools increased with the integration of FPV (first-person-view) technology. Many radio-controlled aircraft, in particular drones, are now capable of utilizing Wi-Fi to stream live video from the aircraft's camera back to the pilot's or pilot in command's (PIC) ground station. == Regulations == === Australia === In Australia, Civil Aviation Safety Regulation Part 101 (CASR Part 101) allows for commercial use of unmanned and remotely piloted aircraft. Under these regulations, unmanned remotely piloted aircraft for commercial are referred to as Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), whereas radio-controlled aircraft for recreational purposes are referred to as model aircraft. Under CASR Part 101, businesses/persons operating remotely piloted aircraft commercially are required to hold an operator certificate, just like manned aircraft operators. Pilots of remotely piloted aircraft operating commercially are also required to be licensed by the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA). Whilst a small RPAS and model aircraft may actually be identical, unlike model aircraft, a RPAS may enter controlled airspace with approval, and operate close to an aerodrome. Due to a number of illegal operators in Australia making false claims of being approved, CASA maintains and publishes a list of approved remote operator's certificate (ReOC) holders. However, CASA has modified the regulations and from September 29, 2016, drones under 2 kg (4.4 lb) may be operated for commercial purposes. === United States === 2006 FAA regulations grounding all commercial RC model flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before permission is granted to fly at any altitude in the US. June 25, 2014, The FAA, in ruling 14 CFR Part 91 [Docket No. FAA–2014–0396] "Interpretation of the Special Rule for Model Aircraft", banned the commercial use of unmanned aircraft over U.S. airspace. On September 26, 2014, the FAA began granting the right to use drones in aerial filmmaking. Operators are required to be licensed pilots and must keep the drone in view at all times. Drones cannot be used to film in areas where people might be put at risk. The FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 established, in Section 336, a special rule for model aircraft. In Section 336, Congress confirmed the FAA's long-standing position that model aircraft are aircraft. Under the terms of the Act, a model aircraft is defined as "an unmanned aircraft" that is "(1) capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere; (2) flown within visual line of sight of the person operating the aircraft; and (3) flown for hobby or recreational purposes." Because anything capable of being viewed from a public space is considered outside the realm of privacy in the United States, aerial photography may legally document features and occurrences on private property. The FAA can pursue enforcement action against persons operating model aircraft who endanger the safety of the national airspace system. Public Law 112–95, section 336(b). June 21, 2016, the FAA released its summary of small unmanned aircraft rules (Part 107). The rules established guidelines for small UAS operators including operating only during the daytime, a 400 ft (120 m). ceiling and pilots must keep the UAS in visual range. April 7, 2017, the FAA announced special security instructions under 14 CFR § 99.7. Effective April 14, 2017, all UAS flights within 400 feet of the lateral boundaries of U.S. military installations are prohibited unless a special permit is secured from the base and/or the FAA. === United Kingdom === Aerial photography in the UK has tight regulations as to where a drone is able to fly. Aerial Photography on Light aircraft under 20 kg (44 lb). Basic Rules for non commercial flying Of a SUA (Small Unmanned Aircraft). Article 241 Endangering safety of any person or property. A person must not recklessly or negligently cause or permit an aircraft to endanger any person or property. Article 94 small unmanned aircraft A person must not cause or permit any article or animal (whether or not attached to a parachute) to be dropped from a small unmanned aircraft so as to endanger persons or property. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft may only fly the aircraft if reasonably satisfied that the flight can safely be made. The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft must maintain direct, unaided visual contact with the aircraft sufficient to monitor its flight path in relation to other aircraft, persons, vehicles, vessels and structures for the purpose of avoiding collisions. (500 m (1,600 ft)) The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft which has a mass of more than 7 kg (15 lb) excluding its fuel but including any articles or equipment installed in or attached to the aircraft at the commencement of its flight, must not fly the aircraft: In Class A, C, D or E airspace unless the permission of the appropriate air traffic control unit has been obtained; Within an aerodrome traffic zone during the notified hours of watch of the air traffic control unit (if any) at that aerodrome unless the permission of any such air traffic control unit has been obtained; At a height of more than 400 feet above the surface The person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft must not fly the aircraft for the purposes of commercial operations except in accordance with a permission granted by the CAA. Article 95 small unmanned surveillance aircraft You Must not fly your aircraft over or within 150 metres of any congested Area. Over or within 150 m (490 ft) of an organised open-air assembly of more than 1,000 persons. Within 50 m (160 ft) of any vessel, vehicle or structure which is not under the control of the person in charge of the aircraft. Within 50 m of any person, during take-off or landing, a small unmanned surveillance aircraft must not be flown within 30 m (98 ft) of any person. This does not apply to the person in charge of the small unmanned surveillance aircraft or a person under the control of the person in charge of the aircraft. Model aircraft with a mass of more than 20 kg are termed 'Large Model Aircraft' – within the UK, large model aircraft may only be flown in accordance with an exemption from the ANO, which must be issued by the CAA. == Types == === Oblique === Photographs taken at an angle are called oblique photographs. If they are taken from a low angle relative to the earth's surface, they are called low oblique and photographs taken from a high angle are called high or steep oblique. === Vertical (Nadir) === Vertical photographs are taken straight down. They are mainly used in photogrammetry and image interpretation. Pictures that will be used in photogrammetry are traditionally taken with special large format cameras with calibrated and documented geometric properties. === Combined === Aerial photographs are often combined. Depending on their purpose it can be done in several ways, of which a few are listed below. Panoramas can be made by stitching several photographs taken in different angles from one spot (e.g. with a hand held camera) or from different spots at the same angle (e.g. from a plane). Stereo photography techniques allow for the creation of 3D-images from several photographs of the same area taken from different spots. In pictometry five rigidly mounted cameras provide one vertical and four low oblique pictures that can be used together. In some digital cameras for aerial photogrammetry images from several imaging elements, sometimes with separate lenses, are geometrically corrected and combined to one image in the camera. === Orthophotomap === Vertical photographs are often used to create orthophotos, alternatively known as orthophotomaps, photographs which have been geometrically "corrected" so as to be usable as a map. In other words, an orthophoto is a simulation of a photograph taken from an infinite distance, looking straight down to nadir. Perspective must obviously be removed, but variations in terrain should also be corrected for. Multiple geometric transformations are applied to the image, depending on the perspective and terrain corrections required on a particular part of the image. Orthophotos are commonly used in geographic information systems, such as are used by mapping agencies (e.g. Ordnance Survey) to create maps. Once the images have been aligned, or "registered", with known real-world coordinates, they can be widely deployed. Large sets of orthophotos, typically derived from multiple sources and divided into "tiles" (each typically 256 x 256 pixels in size), are widely used in online map systems such as Google Maps. OpenStreetMap offers the use of similar orthophotos for deriving new map data. Google Earth overlays orthophotos or satellite imagery onto a digital elevation model to simulate 3D landscapes. === Leaf-off or leaf-on === Aerial photography may be labeled as either "leaf-off" or on "leaf-on" to indicate whether deciduous foliage is in the photograph. Leaf-off photographs show less foliage or no foliage at all, and are used to see the ground and things on the ground more closely. Leaf-on photographs are used to measure crop health and yield. For forestry purposes, some species of trees are easier to distinguish from other kinds of trees with leaf-off photography, while other species are easier to distinguish with leaf-on photography. == Video == With advancements in video technology, aerial video is becoming more popular. Orthogonal video is shot from aircraft mapping pipelines, crop fields, and other points of interest. Using GPS, video may be embedded with meta data and later synced with a video mapping program. This "Spatial Multimedia" is the timely union of digital media including still photography, motion video, stereo, panoramic imagery sets, immersive media constructs, audio, and other data with location and date-time information from the GPS and other location designs. Aerial videos are emerging Spatial Multimedia which can be used for scene understanding and object tracking. The input video is captured by low flying aerial platforms and typically consists of strong parallax from non-ground-plane structures. The integration of digital video, global positioning systems (GPS) and automated image processing will improve the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of data collection and reduction. Several different aerial platforms are under investigation for the data collection. In film production, it is common to use a unmanned aerial vehicle with a mounted cine camera. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone is used for low aerial shots in big blockbuster movies. == See also == Concepts and methods Equipment and technology Individuals, organizations, and history == References == == Further reading == Price, Alfred (2003). Targeting the Reich: Allied Photographic Reconnaissance over Europe, 1939–1945. [S.l.]: Military Book Club. N.B.: First published 2003 by Greenhill Books, London. ISBN 0-7394-3496-9 == External links == Aerial Photography: An Overview on YouTube, from the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
Aerial reconnaissance	Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. The role of reconnaissance can fulfil a variety of requirements including artillery spotting, the collection of imagery intelligence, and the observation of enemy maneuvers. == History == === Early developments === After the French Revolution, the new rulers became interested in using the balloon to observe enemy manoeuvres and appointed scientist Charles Coutelle to conduct studies using the balloon L'Entreprenant, the first military reconnaissance aircraft. The balloon found its first use in the 1794 conflict with Austria, where in the Battle of Fleurus they gathered information. Moreover, the presence of the balloon had a demoralizing effect on the Austrian troops, which improved the likelihood of victory for the French troops. To operate such balloons, a new unit of the French military, the French Aerostatic Corps, was established; this organisation has been recognised as being the world's first air force. After the invention of photography, primitive aerial photographs were made of the ground from manned and unmanned balloons, starting in the 1860s, and from tethered kites from the 1880s onwards. An example was Arthur Batut's kite-borne camera photographs of Labruguière starting from 1889. In the early 20th century, Julius Neubronner experimented with pigeon photography. These pigeons carried small cameras that incorporated timers. Ludwig Rahrmann in 1891 patented a means of attaching a camera to a large calibre artillery projectile or rocket, and this inspired Alfred Maul to develop his Maul Camera Rockets starting in 1903. Alfred Nobel in 1896 had already built the first rocket carrying a camera, which took photographs of the Swedish landscape during its flights. Maul improved his camera rockets and the Austrian Army even tested them in the Turkish-Bulgarian War in 1912 and 1913, but by then and from that time on camera-carrying aircraft were found to be superior. The first use of airplanes in combat missions was by the Italian Air Force during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912. On 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capt. Carlo Piazza, flew over the Turkish lines in Libya to conduct an aerial reconnaissance mission; Another aviation first occurred on November 1 with the first ever dropping of an aerial bomb, performed by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft. The first reconnaissance flight in Europe took place in Greece, over Thessaly, on 18 October 1912 (5 October by the Julian calendar) over the Ottoman army. The pilot also dropped some hand-grenades over the Turkish Army barracks, although without success. This was the first day of the Balkan wars, and during the same day a similar mission was flown by German mercenaries in Ottoman service in the Thrace front against the Bulgarians. The Greek and the Ottoman mission flown during the same day are the first military aviation combat missions in a conventional war. A few days later, on 16 October 1912, a Bulgarian Albatros aircraft performed one of Europe's first reconnaissance flight in combat conditions, against the Turkish lines on the Balkan peninsula, during the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. === Maturation during the First World War === The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the First World War, as aircraft used for reconnaissance purposes were outfitted with cameras to record enemy movements and defences. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, with reconnaissance being accomplished with map sketching from the air. Frederick Charles Victor Laws started experiments in aerial photography in 1912 with No. 1 Squadron RAF using the British dirigible Beta. He discovered that vertical photos taken with 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus creating a perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The dirigibles were eventually allocated to the Royal Navy, so Laws formed the first aerial reconnaissance unit of fixed-wing aircraft; this became No. 3 Squadron RAF. Germany was one of the first countries to adopt the use of a camera for aerial reconnaissance, opting for a Görz, in 1913. French Military Aviation began the war with several squadrons of Bleriot observation planes, equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time. The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915 the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. The first purpose-built and practical aerial camera was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Empire made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. By the end of the war, aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No. 1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624-square-mile (1,620 km2) area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. This was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Lieutenants Leonard Taplin, Allan Runciman Brown, H. L. Fraser, Edward Patrick Kenny, and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines 32 miles (51 km) deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with a fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and Martinsyde airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also bucked 65 mile-per-hour winds, anti-aircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task circa 19 January 1918. === Second World War === ==== High-speed reconnaissance aircraft ==== During 1928, the Royal Air Force (RAF) developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera; this innovation allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing. In 1939, Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of the RAF suggested that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to fast, small aircraft which would use their speed and high service ceiling to avoid detection and interception. Although this may perhaps seem obvious today with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. Cotton and Longbottom proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and cameras. This concept led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants. With their armaments removed, these planes could attain a maximum speed of 396 mph while flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet, and were used for photo-reconnaissance missions. The Spitfire PR was fitted with five cameras, which were heated to ensure good results (while the cockpit was not). In the reconnaissance role, the Spitfire proved to be extremely successful, resulting in numerous Spitfire variants being built specifically for that purpose. These served initially with what later became No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). Other fighters were also adapted for photo-reconnaissance, including the British Mosquito and the American P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang. Such aircraft were painted in PRU Blue or Pink camouflage colours to make them difficult to spot in the air, and often were stripped of weapons or had engines modified for better performance at high altitudes (over 40,000 ft (12,000 m)). The American F-4, a factory modification of the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, replaced the nose-mounted four machine guns and cannon with four high-quality K-17 cameras. Approximately 120 F-4 and F-4As were hurriedly made available by March 1942, reaching the 8th Photographic Squadron in Australia by April (the first P-38s to see action). The F-4 had an early advantage of long range and high speed combined with ability to fly at high altitude; a potent combination for reconnaissance. In the last half of 1942 Lockheed would produce 96 F-5As, based on the P-38G with all later P-38 photo-reconnaissance variants designated F-5. In its reconnaissance role, the Lightning was so effective that over 1,200 F-4 and F-5 variants were delivered by Lockheed, and it was the United States Army Air Forces's (USAAF) primary photo-reconnaissance type used throughout the war in all combat theatres. The Mustang F-6 arrived later in the conflict and, by spring 1945, became the dominant reconnaissance type flown by the USAAF in the European theatre. American photo-reconnaissance operations in Europe were centred at RAF Mount Farm, with the resulting photographs transferred to Medmenham for interpretation. Approximately 15,000 Fairchild K-20 aerial cameras were manufactured for use in Allied reconnaissance aircraft between 1941 and 1945. The British de Havilland Mosquito excelled in the photo-reconnaissance role; the converted bomber was fitted with three cameras installed in what had been the bomb bay. It had a cruising speed of 255 mph, maximum speed of 362 mph and a maximum altitude of 35,000 feet. The first converted PRU (Photo-Reconnaissance Unit) Mosquito was delivered to RAF Benson in July 1941 by Geoffrey de Havilland himself. The PR Mk XVI and later variants had pressurized cockpits and also pressurized central and inner wing tanks to reduce fuel vaporization at high altitude. The Mosquito was faster than most enemy fighters at 35,000 ft, and could roam almost anywhere. Colonel Roy M. Stanley II of United States Air Force (USAF) stated of the aircraft: "I consider the Mosquito the best photo-reconnaissance aircraft of the war". The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) designation for the photo-reconnaissance Mosquito was F-8. Apart from (for example) the Mosquito, most World War II bombers were not as fast as fighters, although they were effective for aerial reconnaissance due to their long range, inherent stability in flight and capacity to carry large camera payloads. American bombers with top speeds of less than 300 mph used for reconnaissance include the B-24 Liberator (photo-reconnaissance variant designated F-7), B-25 Mitchell (F-10) and B-17 Flying Fortress (F-9). The revolutionary B-29 Superfortress was the world's largest combat-operational bomber when it appeared in 1944, with a top speed of over 350 mph which at that time was outstanding for such a large and heavy aircraft; the B-29 also had a pressurized cabin for high altitude flight. The photographic reconnaissance version of the B-29 was designated F-13 and carried a camera suite of three K-17B, two K-22 and one K-18 with provisions for others; it also retained the standard B-29 defensive armament of a dozen .50 caliber machine guns. In November 1944 an F-13 conducted the first flight by an Allied aircraft over Tokyo since the Doolittle Raid of April 1942. The Consolidated B-32 Dominator was also used for reconnaissance over Japan in August 1945. The Japanese Army Mitsubishi Ki-46, a twin-engined aircraft designed expressly for the reconnaissance role with defensive armament of 1 light machine gun, entered service in 1941. Codenamed "Dinah" this aircraft was fast, elusive and proved difficult for Allied fighters to destroy. More than 1,500 Ki-46s were built and its performance was upgraded later in the war with the Ki-46-III variant. Another purpose-designed reconnaissance aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was the carrier-based, single-engine Nakajima C6N Saiun ("Iridescent Cloud"). Codenamed "Myrt" by the Allies, the Nakajima C6N first flew in 1943 and was also highly elusive to American aircraft due to its excellent performance and speed of almost 400 mph. As fate would have it on 15 August 1945, a C6N1 was the last aircraft to be shot down in World War II. Japan also developed the high-altitude Tachikawa Ki-74 reconnaissance bomber, which was in a similar class of performance as the Mosquito, but only 16 were built and did not see operational service. The Luftwaffe began deploying jet aircraft in combat in 1944, and the twin-jet Arado Ar 234 Blitz ("Lightning") reconnaissance bomber was the world's first operational jet-powered bomber. The Ar 234B-1 was equipped with two Rb 50/30 or Rb 75/30 cameras, and its top speed of 460 mph allowed it to outrun the fastest non-jet Allied fighters of the time. The twin piston-engined Junkers Ju 388 high-altitude bomber was an ultimate evolution of the Ju 88 by way of the Ju 188. The photographic reconnaissance Ju 388L variant had a pressurized cockpit from the Ju 388's original multi-role conception as not only a bomber but also a night fighter and bomber destroyer, due to RLM's perceived threat of the U.S.'s high-altitude B-29 (which ended up not being deployed in Europe). Approximately 50 Ju 388Ls were produced under rapidly deteriorating conditions at the end of the war. As with other high performance weapons introduced by Nazi Germany, too many circumstances in the war's logistics had changed by late 1944 for such aircraft to have any impact. The DFS 228 was a rocket-powered high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft under development in the latter part of World War II. It was designed by Felix Kracht at the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (German Institute for Sailplane Flight) and in concept is an interesting precursor to the post-war American U-2, being essentially a powered long-wingspan glider intended solely for the high-altitude aerial reconnaissance role. Advanced features of the DFS 228 design included a pressurized escape capsule for the pilot. The aircraft never flew under rocket power with only unpowered glider prototypes flown prior to May 1945. ==== Imagery analysis ==== The collection and interpretation of aerial reconnaissance intelligence became a considerable enterprise during the war. Beginning in 1941, RAF Medmenham was the main interpretation centre for photographic reconnaissance operations in the European and Mediterranean theatres. The Central Interpretation Unit (CIU) was later amalgamated with the Bomber Command Damage Assessment Section and the Night Photographic Interpretation Section of No 3 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit, RAF Oakington, in 1942. During 1942 and 1943, the CIU gradually expanded and was involved in the planning stages of practically every operation of the war, and in every aspect of intelligence. In 1945, daily intake of material averaged 25,000 negatives and 60,000 prints. Thirty-six million prints were made during the war. By VE-day, the print library, which documented and stored worldwide cover, held 5,000,000 prints from which 40,000 reports had been produced. American personnel had for some time formed an increasing part of the CIU and on 1 May 1944 this was finally recognised by changing the title of the unit to the Allied Central Interpretation Unit (ACIU). There were then over 1,700 personnel on the unit's strength. A large number of photographic interpreters were recruited from the Hollywood Film Studios including Xavier Atencio. Two renowned archaeologists also worked there as interpreters: Dorothy Garrod, the first woman to hold an Oxbridge Chair, and Glyn Daniel, who went on to gain popular acclaim as the host of the television game show Animal, Vegetable or Mineral?. Sidney Cotton's aerial photographs were far ahead of their time. Together with other members of his reconnaissance squadron, he pioneered the technique of high-altitude, high-speed photography that was instrumental in revealing the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At its peak, British reconnaissance flights yielded 50,000 images per day to interpret. Of particular significance in the success of the work of Medmenham was the use of stereoscopic images, using a between plate overlap of exactly 60%. Despite initial scepticism about the possibility of German rocket development, stereoscopic analysis proved its existence and major operations, including the 1943 offensives against the V-2 rocket development plant at Peenemünde, were made possible by work carried out at Medmenham. Later offensives were also made against potential launch sites at Wizernes and 96 other launch sites in northern France. Particularly important sites were measured, from the images, using Swiss stereoautograph machines made by Wild (Heerbrugg) and physical models made to facilitate understanding of what was there or what it was for. It is claimed that Medmanham's greatest operational success was Operation Crossbow which, from 23 December 1943, destroyed the V-1 infrastructure in northern France. According to R.V. Jones, photographs were used to establish the size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket. === Cold War === Immediately after the Second World War, the long range aerial reconnaissance role was quickly taken up by adapted jet bombers, such as the English Electric Canberra and its American development the Martin B-57, that were capable of flying higher or faster than enemy aircraft or defenses. Shortly after the Korean War, the United States begun to use RB-47 aircraft; these were at first were converted B-47 bombers, but later purposely built as RB-47 reconnaissance aircraft that had no bombing capability. Large cameras were mounted in the plane's belly and a truncated bomb bay was used for carrying photoflash bombs. Later versions of the RB-47, such as the RB-47H, were extensively modified for signals intelligence (ELINT), with additional equipment operator crew stations in the bomb bay; unarmed weather reconnaissance WB-47s with cameras and meteorological instruments also served the United States Air Force (USAF) during the 1960s. The onset of the Cold War led to development of several highly specialized and clandestine strategic reconnaissance aircraft, or spy planes, such as the Lockheed U-2 and its successor the SR-71 Blackbird (both from the United States). Flying these aircraft became an exceptionally demanding task, with crews specially selected and trained due to the aircraft's extreme performance characteristics in addition to risk of being captured as spies. The American U-2 shot down in Soviet airspace and capture of its pilot caused political turmoil at the height of the Cold War. Beginning in the early 1960s, United States aerial and satellite reconnaissance was coordinated by the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). Risks such as loss or capture of reconnaissance aircraft crewmembers also contributed to U.S. development of the Ryan Model 147 RPV (Remotely Piloted Vehicle) unmanned drone aircraft which were partly funded by the NRO during the 1960s. During the 1960s, the United States Navy opted to convert many of its supersonic carrier-based nuclear bomber, the North American A-5 Vigilante, into the capable RA-5C Vigilante reconnaissance aircraft. Beginning in the early 1980s, the U.S. Navy outfitted and deployed Grumman F-14 Tomcat aircraft in one squadron aboard an aircraft carrier with a system called Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS), which provided naval aerial reconnaissance capability until the Tomcat's retirement in 2006. === Post Cold War === Since the 1980s, there has been an increasing tendency for militaries to rely upon assets other than manned aircraft to perform aerial reconnaissance. Alternative platforms include the use of surveillance satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), such as the armed MQ-9 Reaper. By 2005, such UAVs could reportedly be equipped with compact cameras capable of identifying an object the size of a milk carton from altitudes of 60,000 feet. The U-2 has repeatedly been considered for retirement in favour of drones. In 2011, the USAF revealed plans to replace the U-2 with the RQ-4 Global Hawk, a UAV, within four years; however, in January 2012, it was instead decided to extend the U-2's service life. Critics have pointed out that the RQ-4's cameras and sensors are less capable and lack all-weather operating capability; however, some of the U-2's sensors could be installed on the RQ-4. In late 2014, Lockheed Martin proposed converting the manned U-2 fleet into UAVs, which would substantially bolster its payload capability; however, the USAF declined to provide funding for such an extensive conversion. During the 2010s, American defense conglomerate Lockheed Martin promoted its proposal to develop a hypersonic UAV, which it referred to the SR-72 in allusion to its function as a spiritual successor to the retired SR-71 Blackbird. The company has also developed several other reconnaissance UAVs, such as the Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel. == Technologies == === Miniature UAVs === Due to the low cost of miniature UAVs, this technology brings aerial reconnaissance into the hands of soldiers on the ground. The soldier on the ground can both control the UAV and see its output, yielding great benefit over a disconnected approach. With small systems being man packable, operators are now able to deploy air assets quickly and directly. The low cost and ease of operation of these miniature UAVs has enabled forces such as the Libyan Rebels to use miniature UAVs. AeroVironment Wasp III (airplane – electric propulsion) Aeryon Scout/Aeryon SkyRanger (VTOL Rotorcraft) – Some UAVs are small enough to carry in a backpack with similar functionality to larger ones EMT Aladin (aircraft – electric – Made in Germany) Bramor C4EYE (aircraft – electric – Made in Slovenia) Bayraktar Mini UAV (aircraft – electric – Made in Turkey) RQ-84Z Areohawk (aircraft – electric – Made in New Zealand) Low cost miniature UAVs demand increasingly miniature imaging payloads. Developments in miniature electronics have fueled the development of increasingly capable surveillance payloads, allowing miniature UAVs to provide high levels of capability in never before seen packages. === Reconnaissance pods === Reconnaissance pods can be carried by fighter-bomber aircraft. Examples include the British Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod (DJRP); Chinese KZ900; UK RAPTOR; and the US Navy's F-14 Tomcat Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS). Some aircraft made for non-military applications also have reconnaissance pods, i.e. the Qinetiq Mercator. == See also == Aerial photography Aerorozvidka Air observation post Forward air control Imagery intelligence National Collection of Aerial Photography Surveillance aircraft United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union List of United States Air Force reconnaissance aircraft == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === Bowman, Martin. de Havilland Mosquito (Crowood Aviation series). Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005. ISBN 1-86126-736-3. Lewis, Peter. British Racing and Record Breaking Aircraft. London: Putnam, 1970. ISBN 0-370-00067-6. Natola, Mark. "Boeing B-47 Stratojet." Schiffer Publishing Ltd, 2002. ISBN 0-76431-670-2. Pedlow, Gregory W. & Donald E Welzenbach. The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and Oxcart Programs, 1954–1974. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 1992. ISBN 0-7881-8326-5. Polmar, Norman. Spyplane: The U-2 History Declassified. London: Zenith Imprint, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-0957-4. Stanley, Colonel Roy M. II, USAF (Ret). V-Weapons Hunt: Defeating German Secret Weapons. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84884-259-5. == External links == National Collection of Aerial Photography The official archive of British Government declassified aerial photography.
Aerial warfare	Aerial warfare is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines in warfare. Aerial warfare includes bombers attacking enemy installations or a concentration of enemy troops or strategic targets; fighter aircraft battling for control of airspace; attack aircraft engaging in close air support against ground targets; naval aviation flying against sea and nearby land targets; gliders, helicopters and other aircraft to carry airborne forces such as paratroopers; aerial refueling tankers to extend operation time or range; and military transport aircraft to move cargo and personnel. Historically, military aircraft have included lighter-than-air balloons carrying artillery observers; lighter-than-air airships for bombing cities; various sorts of reconnaissance, surveillance, and early warning aircraft carrying observers, cameras, and radar equipment; torpedo bombers to attack enemy vessels; and military air-sea rescue aircraft for saving downed airmen. Modern aerial warfare includes missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles. Surface forces are likely to respond to enemy air activity with anti-aircraft warfare. == History == The history of aerial warfare began in ancient times, with the use of man-carrying kites in Ancient China. In the third century it progressed to balloon warfare. Airships (notably zeppelins) served in military use in the early years of the 20th century. Heavier-than-air airplanes first went to war in the Italo-Turkish War in 1911, initially for aerial reconnaissance, and then for aerial combat to shoot down enemy reconnaissance planes. Aircraft continued to carry out these roles during World War I (1914-1918), where the use of planes and zeppelins for strategic bombing also emerged. The rise of fighter aircraft and of air-to-air combat led to a realisation of the desirability of achieving air superiority. Closer integration of attacking aircraft with ground operations ("battlefield support") also developed during World War I. During World War II (1939-1945), the use of strategic bombing increased, while airborne forces, missiles, and early precision-guided munitions were introduced. Aircraft carriers gained particular importance in the trans-oceanic projection of air power. Ballistic missiles became of key importance during the Cold War, were armed with nuclear warheads, and were stockpiled by the United States and the Soviet Union to deter each other from using them. Drone warfare using relatively cheap unmanned equipment proliferated in the 21st century, particularly after the start of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020. == Aerial reconnaissance == Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of imagery intelligence, observation of enemy maneuvers and artillery spotting. == Air combat manoeuvring == Air combat manoeuvring (also known as ACM or dogfighting) is the tactical art of moving, turning and situating a fighter aircraft in order to attain a position from which an attack can be made on another aircraft. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvring (BFM) to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent. == Airborne forces == Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry, set up to be moved by aircraft and "dropped" into battle, typically by parachute. Thus, they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning. The formations are limited only by the number and size of their aircraft, so given enough capacity a huge force can appear "out of nowhere" in minutes, an action referred to as vertical envelopment. Conversely, airborne forces typically lack the supplies and equipment for prolonged combat operations, and are therefore more suited for airhead operations than for long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. Advances in helicopter technology since World War II have brought increased flexibility to the scope of airborne operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely replaced combat glider operations. == Airstrike == An airstrike or air strike is an offensive operation carried out by attack aircraft. Air strikes are mostly delivered from aircraft such as fighters, bombers, ground attack aircraft, and attack helicopters. The official definition includes all sorts of targets, including enemy air targets, but in popular use the term is usually narrowed to a tactical (small-scale) attack on a ground or naval objective. Weapons used in an airstrike can range from machine gun bullets and missiles to various types of bombs. It is also commonly referred to as an air raid. In close air support, air strikes are usually controlled by trained observers for coordination with friendly ground troops in a manner derived from artillery tactics. == Strategic bombing == Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying their morale or their economic ability to produce and transport materiel to the theatres of military operations, or both. It is a systematically organized and executed attack from the air which can utilize strategic bombers, long- or medium-range missiles, or nuclear-armed fighter-bomber aircraft to attack targets deemed vital to the enemy's war-making capability. == Anti-aircraft warfare == Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons). It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be 'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight. == Missiles == In modern usage, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket (although these too can also be guided). Missiles have four system components: targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine, and warhead. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes: surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles (ballistic, cruise, anti-ship, anti-tank, etc.), surface-to-air missiles (and anti-ballistic), air-to-air missiles, and anti-satellite weapons. All known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are generally referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is "any thrown object", such as objects thrown at players by rowdy spectators at a sporting event. == UAVs == The advent of the unmanned aerial vehicle has dramatically revolutionised aerial warfare with multiple nations developing and/or purchasing UAV fleets. Several benchmarks have already occurred, including a UAV-fighter jet dogfight, probes of adversary air defense with UAVs, replacement of an operational flight wing's aircraft with UAVs, control of UAVs qualifying the operator for 'combat' status, UAV-control from the other side of the world, jamming and/or data-hijacking of UAVs in flight, as well as proposals to transfer fire authority to AI aboard a UAV. UAVs have quickly evolved from surveillance to combat roles. The growing capability of UAVs has thrown into question the survivability and capability of manned fighter jets. == See also == Aerial bombing of cities Air force Airlift Airstrike Dogfight Loss of Strength Gradient Timeline of military aviation == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === Boyne, Walter J. (2003). The Influence of Air Power upon History. Pelican (www.pelicanpub.com). ISBN 1-58980-034-6. Buckley, John (1999). Air Power in the Age of Total War. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33557-4. Budiansky, Stephen. Air Power: The Men, Machines, and Ideas That Revolutionized War, from Kitty Hawk to Iraq (2005) global coverage by journalist Collier, Basil (1974). A History of Air Power. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Cooksley, Peter G.; Bruce Robertson (1997). The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Conflict: Air Warfare. Arms and Armour. ISBN 1-85409-223-5. Corum, James S.; Johnson, Wray R. (2003). Airpower in Small Wars – Fighting Insurgents and Terrorists. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1240-8. Glines, Carroll V. (1963). Compact History of the United States Air Force. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc. ISBN 0-405-12169-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Gross, Charles J. (2002). American Military Aviation: The Indispensable Arm. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-215-1. Higham, Robin (2004). 100 Years of Air Power & Aviation. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-241-0. Lockee, Garette E. (April 1969), PIRAZ, United States Naval Institute Proceedings Olsen, John Andreas, ed. A History of Air Warfare (2010) 506 pp; 16 essays by experts provide global coverage Overy, Richard. Why the Allies Won (1997), ch 3, on bombing in World War II. Overy, Richard. The Air War – 1939–1945 (1980), global coverage of combat, strategy, technology and production Web == External links == Middle Eastern Air Power 2009 Aerial Warfare Quotations Jones, Johnny R.: Air power, Air & Space Power Journal Historic films showing aerial warfare during World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu
Aero Engine Corporation of China	Aero Engine Corporation of China (AECC) is a Chinese state-owned aerospace manufacturer focused on the design and development of aeroengine and related technology, comprising 46 affiliated companies including engine manufacturers, institutions and aero-engine factories. The company was established on August 28, 2016. At launch, AECC was to be capitalized with US$7.5 billion by Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) and Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China, Ltd. (COMAC), China's two main state aerospace companies. == U.S. sanctions == In November 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump issued an executive order prohibiting U.S. companies and individuals owning shares in companies that the United States Department of Defense believe have links to the People's Liberation Army. The list produced by the United States Department of Defense as being linked to the People's Liberation Army includes AECC. == See also == List of Chinese aircraft engines Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China (COMAC) == References == == External links == Official website (in Chinese)
Aeronautics	Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight-capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. While the term originally referred solely to operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business, and other aspects related to aircraft. The term "aviation" is sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while "aviation" technically does not. A significant part of aeronautical science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. == History == === Early ideas === Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings and jumping from a tower with crippling or lethal results. Wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. Medieval Islamic Golden Age scientists such as Abbas ibn Firnas also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, both began their investigations with studies of bird flight. Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the Italian explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current. The Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. An early European to provide any scientific discussion of flight was Roger Bacon, who described principles of operation for the lighter-than-air balloon and the flapping-wing ornithopter, which he envisaged would be constructed in the future. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an "aether" whose composition he did not know. In the late fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci followed up his study of birds with designs for some of the earliest flying machines, including the flapping-wing ornithopter and the rotating-wing helicopter. Although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws. He did at least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object." (Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.) His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, and his later designs included a mechanical power source such as a spring. Da Vinci's work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. === Balloon flight === The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileo's experiments in which he showed that air has weight. Around 1650 Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy novels in which he described the principle of ascent using a substance (dew) he supposed to be lighter than air, and descending by releasing a controlled amount of the substance. Francesco Lana de Terzi measured the pressure of air at sea level and in 1670 proposed the first scientifically credible lifting medium in the form of hollow metal spheres from which all the air had been pumped out. These would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, and by venting the lifting containers to lose height. In practice de Terzi's spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons. Their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke for a kind of steam, they began filling their balloons with hot smoky air which they called "electric smoke" and, despite not fully understanding the principles at work, made some successful launches and in 1783 were invited to give a demonstration to the French Académie des Sciences. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c. 1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, though practical demonstration awaited a gas-tight balloon material. On hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers' invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a gas-tight material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process. The Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their free flight, De Rozier and d'Arlandes took buckets of water and sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern. As a result of these exploits, the hot air balloon became known as the Montgolfière type and the gas balloon the Charlière. Charles and the Robert brothers' next balloon, La Caroline, was a Charlière that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier's proposals for an elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an outer envelope with the gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September 1784, it completed the first flight of over 100 kilometres (62 mi), between Paris and Beuvry, despite the man-powered propulsive devices proving useless. In an attempt the next year to provide both endurance and controllability, de Rozier developed a balloon having both hot air and hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as the Rozière. The principle was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift and to navigate vertically by heating and allowing to cool the hot air section, in order to catch the most favourable wind at whatever altitude it was blowing. The balloon envelope was made of goldbeater's skin. The first flight ended in disaster and the approach has seldom been used since. === Cayley and the foundation of modern aeronautics === Sir George Cayley (1773–1857) is widely acknowledged as the founder of modern aeronautics. He was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846 and Henson called him the "father of aerial navigation." He was the first true scientific aerial investigator to publish his work, which included for the first time the underlying principles and forces of flight. In 1809 he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810). In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air." He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He developed the modern conventional form of the fixed-wing aeroplane having a stabilising tail with both horizontal and vertical surfaces, flying gliders both unmanned and manned. He introduced the use of the whirling arm test rig to investigate the aerodynamics of flight, using it to discover the benefits of the curved or cambered aerofoil over the flat wing he had used for his first glider. He also identified and described the importance of dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes. Another significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised in order to create a light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage. === The 19th century: Otto Lilienthal and the first human flights === During the 19th century Cayley's ideas were refined, proved and expanded on, culminating in the works of Otto Lilienthal. Lilienthal was a German engineer and businessman who became known as the "flying man". He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders, therefore making the idea of "heavier than air" a reality. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favourably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical. His work led to the development of the modern wing. His flight attempts in Berlin in the year 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and the "Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat" is considered to be the first air plane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal in Berlin the first air plane production company in the world. Otto Lilienthal is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". Other important investigators included Horatio Phillips. == Branches == Aeronautics may be divided into three main branches, Aviation, Aeronautical science and Aeronautical engineering. === Aviation === Aviation is the art or practice of aeronautics. Historically aviation meant only heavier-than-air flight, but nowadays it includes flying in balloons and airships. === Aeronautical engineering === Aeronautical engineering covers the design and construction of aircraft, including how they are powered, how they are used and how they are controlled for safe operation. A major part of aeronautical engineering is aerodynamics, the science of passing through the air. With the increasing activity in space flight, nowadays aeronautics and astronautics are often combined as aerospace engineering. ==== Aerodynamics ==== The science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. The study of aerodynamics falls broadly into three areas: Incompressible flow occurs where the air simply moves to avoid objects, typically at subsonic speeds below that of sound (Mach 1). Compressible flow occurs where shock waves appear at points where the air becomes compressed, typically at speeds above Mach 1. Transonic flow occurs in the intermediate speed range around Mach 1, where the airflow over an object may be locally subsonic at one point and locally supersonic at another. === Rocketry === A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th-century China. Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology of the Space Age, including setting foot on the Moon. Rockets are used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Chemical rockets are the most common type of rocket and they typically create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks. == See also == == References == === Citations === === Sources === == External links == === Aeronautics === Aviation Terminology Jeppesen The AVIATION DICTIONARY for pilots and aviation technicians DTIC ADA032206: Chinese-English Aviation and Space Dictionary Media related to Aeronautics at Wikimedia Commons === Courses === "How Things Fly". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. A companion to the physical exhibition "Aeronautics and Astronautics". MIT OpenCourseWare. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Ilan Kroo. "Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis". Stanford. Archived from the original on 2001-02-23. "Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics". Glenn Research Center. NASA. === Research === "Home page". American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. "Aeronautical Research & Technology Areas". European Aeronautics Science Network. Archived from the original on 2019-10-25. Retrieved 2009-02-09. Hierarchical taxonomy "Ideas in Aeronautics & Air Transport". Wiki. Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe.
Aerostat	An aerostat (from Ancient Greek ἀήρ (aḗr) 'air' and στατός (statós) 'standing', via French) or lighter-than-air aircraft is an aircraft that relies on buoyancy to maintain flight. Aerostats include unpowered balloons (free-flying or tethered) and powered airships. The relative density of an aerostat as a whole is lower than that of the surrounding atmospheric air (hence the name "lighter-than-air"). Its main component is one or more gas capsules made of lightweight skins, containing a lifting gas (hot air, or any gas with lower density than air, typically hydrogen or helium) that displaces a large volume of air to generate enough buoyancy to overcome its own weight. Payload (passengers and cargo) can then be carried on attached components such as a basket, a gondola, a cabin or various hardpoints. With airships, which need to be able to fly against wind, the lifting gas capsules are often protected by a more rigid outer envelope or an airframe, with other gasbags such as ballonets to help modulate buoyancy. Aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic buoyant force that does not require any forward movement through the surrounding air mass, resulting in the inherent ability to levitate and perform vertical takeoff and landing. This contrasts with the heavier-than-air aerodynes that primarily use aerodynamic lift, which must have consistent airflow over an aerofoil (wing) surface to stay airborne. The term has also been used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically tethered balloon in contrast to the free-flying airship. This article uses the term in its broader sense. == Terminology == In conventional usage, the term aerostat refers to any aircraft that remains aloft primarily using aerostatic buoyancy. Historically, all aerostats were called balloons. Powered types capable of horizontal flight were referred to as dirigible balloons or simply dirigibles (from the French dirigeable, meaning "steerable"). These powered aerostats later came to be called airships, with the term "balloon" reserved for unpowered types, whether tethered (which means attached to the ground) or free-floating. More recently, the US Government Accountability Office has used the term "aerostat" in a different sense, to distinguish the statically tethered balloon from the free-flying airship. == Types == === Balloons === A balloon is an unpowered aerostat which has no means of propulsion and must be either tethered on a long cable or allowed to drift freely with the wind. Although a free balloon travels at the speed of the wind, it is travelling with the wind so to a passenger the air feels calm and windless. To change its altitude above ground it must either adjust the amount of lift or discard ballast weight. Notable uses of free-flying balloons include meteorological balloons and sport balloons. A tethered balloon is held down by one or more mooring lines or tethers. It has sufficient lift to hold the line taut and its altitude is controlled by winching the line in or out. A tethered balloon does feel the wind. A round balloon is unstable and bobs about in strong winds, so the kite balloon was developed with an aerodynamic shape similar to a non-rigid airship. Both kite balloons and non-rigid airships are sometimes called "blimps". Notable uses of tethered balloons include observation balloons and barrage balloons and notable uses of untethered balloons include espionage balloons and fire balloons. === Airships === An airship is a powered, free-flying aerostat that can be steered. Airships divide into rigid, semi-rigid and non-rigid types, with these last often known as blimps. A rigid airship has an outer framework or skin surrounding the lifting gas bags inside it, The outer envelope keeps its shape even if the gasbags are deflated. The great zeppelin airships of the twentieth century were rigid types. A non-rigid airship or blimp deflates like a balloon as it loses gas. The Goodyear blimps are still a common sight in the USA. A semi-rigid airship has a deflatable gas bag like a non-rigid but with a supporting structure to help it hold its shape while aloft. The first practical airship, the Santos-Dumont No. 6 was a semi-rigid. Some airships obtain additional lift aerodynamically as they travel through the air, using the shape of their envelope or through the addition of fins or even small wings. Types designed to exploit this lifting effect in normal cruise are called hybrid airships. === Hybrid aerostats === A hybrid type uses both static buoyancy and dynamic airflow to provide lift. The dynamic movement may be created either using propulsive power as a hybrid airship or by tethering in the wind like a kite, as a Helikite or kytoon. The Allsopp Helikite is a combination of a helium balloon and a kite to form a single, aerodynamically sound tethered aircraft, that exploits both wind and helium for its lift. Helikites are semi-rigid. Helikites are considered the most stable, energy and cost-efficient aerostats available. This gives Helikites various advantages over traditional aerostats. Traditional aerostats need to use relatively low-lift helium gas to combat high winds, which means they need to have a lot of gas to cope and so are very large, unwieldy and expensive. Helikites exploit wind lift so they only need to be a fraction of the size of traditional aerostats in order to operate in high winds. Helikites fly many times higher altitude than traditional aerostats of the same size. Being smaller, with fewer construction seams, means Helikites have minimal problems with gas leakage compared to traditional aerostats, so Helikites use far less helium. Helikites do not need ballonets and so are simpler in construction than traditional aerostats and Helikites do not need constant electrical power to keep them airborne. Helikites are also extremely stable and so are good aerial platforms for cameras or scientific instruments. Tiny Helikites will fly in all weathers, so these sizes are popular as they are very reliable but still easy to handle and do not require large expensive winches. Helikites can be small enough to fit fully inflated in a car but they can also be made large if heavy payloads are required to be flown to high altitudes. Helikites are one of the most popular aerostat designs and are widely used by the scientific community, military, photographers, geographers, police, first responders. Helikites are used by telecoms companies to lift 4G and 5G base stations for areas without cellphone coverage. Helikites range in size from 1 metre (gas volume 0.13 m3) with a pure helium lift of 30g, up to 14 metres (gas volume 250m3) able to lift 117 kg. Small Helikites can fly up to altitudes of 1,000 ft, and medium-sized Helikites up to altitudes of 3,000 ft, while large Helikites can achieve 7,000 ft. Piasecki Helicopter developed the Piasecki PA-97 Helistat using the rotor systems from four obsolete helicopters and a surplus Navy blimp, in order to provide a capability to lift heavier loads than a single helicopter could provide. The aircraft suffered a fatal accident during a test flight. In 2008, Boeing and SkyHook International resurrected the concept and announced a proposed design of the SkyHook JHL-40. == Lifting gases == In order to provide buoyancy, any lifting gas must be less dense than the surrounding air. A hot air balloon is open at the bottom to allow hot air to enter, while the gas balloon is closed to stop the (cold) lifting gas from escaping. Common lifting gases have included hydrogen, coal gas and helium. === Hot air === When heated, air expands. This lowers its density and creates lift. Small hot air balloons or lanterns have been flown in China since ancient times. The first modern man-lifting aerostat, made by the Montgolfier brothers, was a hot air balloon. Most early balloons however were gas balloons. Interest in the sport of hot air ballooning reawoke in the second half of the twentieth century and even some hot-air airships have been flown. === Hydrogen === Hydrogen is the lightest of all gases and a manned hydrogen balloon was flown soon after the Montgolfier brothers. There is no need to burn fuel, so a gas balloon can stay aloft far longer than a hot-air balloon. Hydrogen soon became the most common lifting gas for both balloons and, later, airships. But hydrogen itself is flammable and, following several major disasters in the 1930s, including the Hindenburg Disaster, it fell out of use. === Coal gas === Coal gas comprises a mix of methane and other gases, and typically has about half the lifting power of hydrogen. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries municipal gas works became common and provided a cheap source of lifting gas. Some works were able to produce a special mix for ballooning events, incorporating a higher proportion of hydrogen and less carbon monoxide, to improve its lifting power. === Helium === Helium is the only lifting gas which is both non-flammable and non-toxic, and it has almost as much (about 92%) lifting power as hydrogen. It was not discovered in quantity until early in the twentieth century, and for many years only the United States had enough to use in airships. Almost all gas balloons and airships now use helium. === Low-pressure gases === Although not currently practical, it may be possible to construct a rigid, lighter-than-air structure which, rather than being inflated with air, is at a vacuum relative to the surrounding air. This would allow the object to float above the ground without any heat or special lifting gas, but the structural challenges of building a rigid vacuum chamber lighter than air are quite significant. Even so, it may be possible to improve the performance of more conventional aerostats by trading gas weight for structural weight, combining the lifting properties of the gas with vacuum and possibly heat for enhanced lift. == Buoyancy control == The buoyancy control of an aerostat relies on the principles of buoyant force and the manipulation of the gas inside its envelope. Aerostats use lighter-than-air gases, such as helium or hydrogen, which provide lift because they are less dense than the surrounding air. The amount of buoyant force generated depends on the volume of the gas, its density, and the density of the outside atmosphere. By controlling these variables, an aerostat can be made to rise, descend, or maintain a stable altitude. The basic mechanism involves adjusting the volume and pressure of the gas within the aerostat’s envelope, often through a system of valves and compartments. To ascend, the aerostat releases ballast, which typically consists of sandbags or other weights, reducing its overall weight and making it lighter than the air it displaces. Alternatively, it may adjust the temperature of the gas (if using hot air) or expand the volume of gas within its envelope. As the gas volume increases, the aerostat becomes less dense and rises. This is controlled either through heating (in the case of hot air balloons) or by adjusting the valves that manage the flow of gas between different compartments or the outside atmosphere. Helium-based aerostats, such as blimps, rely on maintaining the integrity and volume of the helium within their envelope to achieve a stable lift. When descending, the aerostat must reduce its buoyancy, which can be done by venting some of the gas or by taking on additional ballast. Venting gas allows the envelope to lose volume, making the aerostat denser than the surrounding air and causing it to descend. However, venting must be done cautiously, especially with helium, as it is a limited resource and cannot be replenished easily during flight. Alternatively, an aerostat might use a reversible system where it can compress the gas into smaller compartments within the envelope, reducing lift without permanently losing the gas. By managing these compartments or adjusting the flow of gas, the aerostat’s buoyancy can be precisely controlled. To maintain altitude, an aerostat achieves a balance where the lift force generated by the gas equals the weight of the aerostat. This equilibrium is achieved through small adjustments in ballast or the gas volume. Sophisticated systems might use automatic valves and sensors to monitor atmospheric pressure, gas volume, and temperature, ensuring that the aerostat remains stable without manual intervention. This constant regulation allows aerostats to hover at a fixed altitude for extended periods, making them useful for applications such as surveillance, communication relays, or scientific observations, where maintaining a consistent position in the atmosphere is crucial. == See also == Aerodyne – Vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air Aerostatics – Study of gases that are not in motion Airborne wind turbine#Aerostat variety – High-altitude flying turbine for generating electricity Buoyancy – Upward force that opposes the weight of an object immersed in fluid Cloud nine – Proposed airborne habitats Lifting gas – Gas used to create buoyancy in a balloon or aerostat Square–cube law – Relation between surface area and volume as size increases == References == https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/805773_eba4ea45e5824133ad520da3a14b5b15.pdf == External links == DJ's Zeppelin page "Illustrations of the Five Major Types of Lighter-Than-Air-Aircraft" Popular Mechanics, June 1930 The principle of a balloon flight – Video – YouTube
Air & Space/Smithsonian	Air & Space/Smithsonian was a quarterly magazine published by the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., United States. Its first publication was in April 1986. Articles in the magazine involve topics related to historical and present aviation and space travel. It also covers military aviation and aeronautical technology. == References == == External links == Official website
Air charter	Air charter is the business of renting an entire aircraft (i.e., chartering) as opposed to individual aircraft seats (i.e., purchasing a ticket through a traditional airline). == Regulation == Charter – also called air taxi or ad hoc – flights require certification from the associated country's civil aviation authority. The regulations are differentiated from typical commercial/passenger service by offering a non-scheduled service. Analogous regulations generally also apply to air ambulance and cargo operators, which are often also ad hoc for-hire services. === United States === In the United States, these flights are regulated under FAA Part 135. There are some cases where a charter operator can sell scheduled flights, but only in limited quantities. As of 2021, the FAA had made it a priority to crack down on unauthorised charter flights, according to industry experts. == Types of service == There are several business models which offer air charter services from the traditional charter operator to brokers and jet card programs: Charter operators – certified by their associated government body, such as the FAA for US carriers, have legal authority to advertise and conduct flights for hire. Air charter broker – Charter brokers arrange flights on behalf of their clients, acting as "authorized agents". Jet card – Programs offered by both brokers and operators where a customer is offered a fixed hourly rate for a specific jet category and the broker or operator sources a jet from the available charter fleet. Online marketplace – Online booking platform where the client can choose and book the desired aircraft directly with the operator. == Aircraft categories == Charter aircraft categories include: Seaplanes – examples: DHC-2 Beaver, DHC-3 Otter Turbo props – examples: Pilatus PC-12, King Air 350, Piaggio P-180 Avanti Light jets – examples: Phenom 300, Citation CJ3 Mid-cabin jets – examples: Learjet 60, Hawker 800XP Super mid-cabin jets – examples: Citation X, Challenger 300 Large jets – examples: Bombardier Challenger 605, Falcon 900 Ultra long-range jets – examples: Gulfstream V, Gulfstream G650, Dassault Falcon 7X VIP airliners – examples: Boeing Business Jet, Airbus Corporate Jets There are an estimated 15,000 business jets available for charter in the world. The US market is the largest, followed by the European market with growing activity in the Middle East, Asia, and Central America. Some charter airlines have employed other types of jets, including Airbus, Boeing, and McDonnell Douglas mainline airliners such as the Douglas DC-10 and Boeing 747. Arrow Air of the United States was such an airline. Among other aircraft, it employed a fleet of 6 DC-10 aircraft from 1983. == See also == Air taxi Commercial aviation List of charter airlines == References == == External links == Media related to Charter airlines at Wikimedia Commons
Air show	An air show (or airshow, air fair, air tattoo) is a public event where aircraft are exhibited. They often include aerobatics demonstrations, without which they are called "static air shows" with aircraft parked on the ground. The largest air show measured by number of exhibitors and size of exhibit space is Le Bourget, followed by Farnborough, with the Dubai Airshow and Singapore Airshow both claiming third place. The largest air show or fly-in by number of participating aircraft is EAA AirVenture Oshkosh, with approximately 10,000 aircraft participating annually. The biggest military airshow in the world is the Royal International Air Tattoo, at RAF Fairford in England. On the other hand, FIDAE in II Air Brigade of the FACH, next to the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport in Santiago, Chile, is the largest aerospace fair in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere. == Outline == Some airshows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities. Military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military. Air "seasons" vary around the world. The United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons. In Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Air Self-Defense Force bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October. The Middle East, Australia, and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for many acts, the "off-season" does not mean a period of inactivity; pilots and performers use this time for maintenance and practice. The type of displays seen at shows are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather and visibility. Most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions. Most exhibitors will plan "full", "rolling" and "flat" display for varying weather and airspace conditions. The types of shows vary greatly. Some are large scale military events with large flying displays and ground exhibitions while others held at small local airstrips can often feature just one or two hours of flying with just a few stalls on the ground. Air displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Air shows often, but do not always, take place over airfields; some have been held over the grounds of stately homes or castles and over the sea at coastal resorts. The first public international airshow, at which many types of aircraft were displayed and flown, was the Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne, held Aug. 22–29, 1909 in Reims. This had been preceded by what may have been the first ever gathering of enthusiasts, June 28 – July 19 of the same year at the airfield at La Brayelle, near Douai. == Attractions == Before World War II, air shows were associated with long-distance air races, often lasting many days and covering thousands of miles. While the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration. Most air shows feature warbirds, aerobatics, and demonstrations of modern military aircraft, and many air shows offer a variety of other aeronautical attractions as well, such as wing-walking, radio-controlled aircraft, water/slurry drops from firefighting aircraft, simulated helicopter rescues and sky diving. Specialist aerobatic aircraft have powerful piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates and accelerations. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end and perform manoeuvres during loops. Larger airshows can be headlined by military jet demonstration teams, such as the United States Navy Blue Angels, United States Air Force Thunderbirds, Royal Canadian Air Force Snowbirds, Royal Air Force Red Arrows, and Swiss Air Force Patrouille Suisse, among many others. Solo military demos, also known as tactical demos, feature one aircraft. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of modern military aircraft. The display will usually demonstrate the aircraft's very short (and often very loud) rolls, fast speeds, slow approach speeds, as well as their ability to quickly make tight turns, to climb quickly, and their ability to be precisely controlled at a large range of speeds. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a high-speed pass, double Immelmans, and touch-and-gos. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect. Aircraft with special characteristics that give them unique capabilities will often display those in their demos; For example, Russian fighters with thrust vectoring may be used to perform the cobra maneuver or the Kulbit, while VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier may display such vertical capabilities or perform complex maneuvers with them. Some military air shows also feature demonstrations of aircraft ordnance in airstrikes and close air support, using either blanks or live munitions. == Safety == Air shows may present some risk to spectators and aviators. Accidents have occurred, sometimes with a large loss of life, such as the 1988 Ramstein air show disaster (70 deaths) in Germany and the 2002 Sknyliv air show disaster (77 deaths) in Ukraine. Because of these accidents, the various aviation authorities around the world have set rules and guidance for those running and participating in air displays. For example, after the breakup of an aircraft at 1952 Farnborough air show (31 deaths), the separation between display and spectators was increased. Air displays are often monitored by aviation authorities to ensure safe procedures. In the United Kingdom, local authorities will first need to approve any application for an event to which the public is admitted. The first priority must be to arrange insurance cover and details can be obtained from local authorities. An added complication is a whole raft of legislation concerning health & safety, in particular corporate manslaughter, which can involve the event organiser being charged with a criminal offence if any of the insurances and risk assessments are not fully completed well in advance of the event. Rules govern the distance from the crowds that aircraft must fly. These vary according to the rating of the pilot/crew, the type of aircraft and the way the aircraft is being flown. For instance, slower, lighter aircraft are usually allowed closer and lower to the crowd than larger, faster types. Also, a fighter jet flying straight and level will be able to do so closer to the crowd and lower than if it were performing a roll or a loop. Pilots can get authorizations for differing types of displays (e.g., limbo flying, basic aerobatics to unlimited aerobatics) and to differing minimum base heights above the ground. To gain such authorisations, the pilots will have to demonstrate to an examiner that they can perform to those limits without endangering themselves, ground crew or spectators. Despite display rules and guidances, accidents have continued to happen. However, air show accidents are rare and where there is proper supervision air shows have impressive safety records. Each year, organizations such as International Council of Air Shows and European Airshow Council meet and discuss various subjects including air show safety where accidents are discussed and lessons learned. == See also == Fly-in Flypast Barnstorming List of airshow accidents List of air shows Teardrop turn Whifferdill turn Bessie Coleman == References == == Further reading == Brett Holman, "The militarisation of aerial theatre: air displays and airmindedness in Britain and Australia between the world wars", Contemporary British History, vol. 33, no. 4 (2019), pp. 483–506. Air Show Accidents: "Reviewing the Notams Before the Show to Avoid Accidents" == External links == Airshow Display International Council of Air Shows Experimental Aircraft Association Calendar Royal Aero Club Events Flightglobal's Upcoming air shows USAF Thunderbirds Archived 2019-10-20 at the Wayback Machine Canadian Forces Snowbirds
Air traffic control	Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organise and expedite the flow of traffic in the air, and provide information and other support for pilots. Personnel of air traffic control monitor aircraft location in their assigned airspace by radar and communicate with the pilots by radio. To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of 'empty space' around it at all times. It is also common for ATC to provide services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace; not just civilian aircraft. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries) that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. The pilot in command of an aircraft always retains final authority for its safe operation, and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of the aircraft. == Language == Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are conducted either in the English language, or the local language used by the station on the ground. In practice, the native language for a region is used; however, English must be used upon request. == History == In 1920, Croydon Airport near London, England, was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control. The 'aerodrome control tower' was a wooden hut 15 feet (5 metres) high with windows on all four sides. It was commissioned on 25 February 1920, and provided basic traffic, weather, and location information to pilots. In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions. The first of several air mail radio stations (AMRS) was created in 1922, after World War I, when the U.S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the U.S. Army to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance aircraft. Over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Today's flight service stations do not issue control instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where flight service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures, and surface movement of aircraft in the US at a specific airport, opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach- and departure-control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air route traffic control center (ARTCC), which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination, was opened in Newark in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland. After the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, killing all 128 on board, the FAA was given the air-traffic responsibility in the United States in 1958, and this was followed by other countries. In 1960, Britain, France, Germany, and the Benelux countries set up Eurocontrol, intending to merge their airspaces. The first and only attempt to pool controllers between countries is the Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre (MUAC), founded in 1972 by Eurocontrol, and covering Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and north-western Germany. In 2001, the European Union (EU) aimed to create a 'Single European Sky', hoping to boost efficiency and gain economies of scale. In the USSR, the first air traffic control service was organized in 1929 on the Moscow - Irkutsk air route; in 1930, control areas were defined along all existing air routes. == Airport traffic control tower == The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower. The tower is typically a tall, windowed structure, located within the airport grounds. The air traffic controllers, usually abbreviated 'controller', are responsible for separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 19 kilometres; 6 to 12 miles), depending on the airport procedures. A controller must carry out the job using the precise and effective application of rules and procedures; however, they need flexible adjustments according to differing circumstances, often under time pressure. In a study that compared stress in the general population and this kind of system markedly showed more stress level for controllers. This variation can be explained, at least in part, by the characteristics of the job. Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system based on air traffic controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower, and still able to provide air traffic control services. === Ground control === Ground control (sometimes known as ground movement control, GMC) is responsible for the airport movement areas. Some busier airports have surface movement radar (SMR). === Air control or local control === Air control (known to pilots as tower or tower control) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. === Flight data and clearance delivery === Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxiing. These clearances contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. == Approach and terminal control == In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by a three-digit alphanumeric code. For example, the Chicago TRACON is designated C90. == Area control centre / en-route centre == === General characteristics === === Radar coverage === Some air navigation service providers (e.g., Airservices Australia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Nav Canada, etc.) have implemented automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveillance capability. This newer technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar 'finding' a target by interrogating the transponder, the ADS-B equipped aircraft 'broadcasts' a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. ADS-C is another mode of automatic dependent surveillance, however ADS-C operates in the 'contract' mode, where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested, except in emergency situations. ADS-C is significant, because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g., over water). Computerised radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS-C inputs as part of their display. A radar archive system (RAS) keeps an electronic record of all radar information, preserving it for a few weeks. This information can be useful for search and rescue. When an aircraft has 'disappeared' from radar screens, a controller can review the last radar returns from the aircraft to determine its likely position. For an example, see the crash report in the following citation. === Flight traffic mapping === == Problems == === Traffic === Air traffic control errors occur when the separation (either vertical or horizontal) between airborne aircraft falls below the minimum prescribed separation set (for the domestic United States) by the US Federal Aviation Administration. Separation minimums for terminal control areas (TCAs) around airports are lower than en-route standards. Errors generally occur during periods following times of intense activity, when controllers tend to relax and overlook the presence of traffic and conditions that lead to loss of minimum separation. === Weather === According to the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), weather significantly impacts global aviation, with more than 70% of air traffic delays being attributed to adverse weather conditions. These disruptions cause widespread delays, rerouting by ATC, and cancellations across continents. In 2024, Europe experienced a 40% increase in weather-related en-route delays compared to 2023. As climate change intensifies the frequency and severity of these events, CANSO urges collaboration and real-time solutions among global aviation stakeholders to mitigate the increased effects of weather on flight operations. === Infrastructure === Global ATC infrastructure is a complex network that varies significantly by region, with many countries facing challenges related to outdated technology, staffing shortages, and increasing traffic demand. While some regions, like parts of Europe and the U.S., have implemented modernization programs such as SESAR and NextGen, many others, especially in developing nations, still rely on legacy radar systems and voice-based communication, which limit efficiency and safety. These disparities contribute to delays and reduce the overall resilience of global air traffic management. According to the ICAO, coordinating ATC systems and accelerating digitalization is essential for meeting future aviation demands. Similarly, a 2024 report from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) emphasizes the urgency of investing in scalable, data-driven infrastructure to handle post-pandemic growth and ensure sustainability across the network. === Congestion === Constrained control capacity and growing traffic lead to flight cancellation and delays. In America, delays caused by ATC grew by 69% between 2012 and 2017. ATC staffing issues were a major factor in congestion. By then the market for air-traffic services was worth $14bn. More efficient ATC could save 5-10% of aviation fuel by avoiding holding patterns and indirect airways. The military takes 80% of Chinese airspace, congesting the thin corridors open to airliners. The United Kingdom closes its military airspace only during military exercises. == Call signs == A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by ICAO on request, usually to scheduled flights, and some air forces and other military services for military flights. There are written call signs with a two or three letter combination followed by the flight number such as AAL872 or VLG1011. As such, they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or radio-telephony call signs used on the radio contact between pilots and air traffic control. These are not always identical to their written counterparts. An example of an audio call sign would be 'Speedbird 832', instead of the written 'BAW832'. This is used to reduce the chance of confusion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the call sign for any other flight is the registration number (or tail number in US parlance) of the aircraft, such as 'N12345', 'C-GABC', or 'EC-IZD'. The short radio-telephony call signs for these tail numbers is the last three letters using the NATO phonetic alphabet (e.g. ABC, spoken alpha-bravo-charlie for C-GABC), or the last three numbers (e.g. three-four-five for N12345). In the United States, the prefix may be an aircraft type, model, or manufacturer in place of the first registration character, for example, 'N11842' could become 'Cessna 842'. == Technology == The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a fully automated system is still yet to be achieved. In 2002, the United Kingdom commissioned a new area control centre into service at the London Area Control Centre (LACC) at Swanwick in Hampshire, relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton in Middlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software from Lockheed-Martin predominates at the London Area Control Centre. However, the centre was initially troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns. Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further: Flight data processing systems: this is the system (usually one per centre) that processes all the information related to the flight (the flight plan), typically in the time horizon from gate to gate (airport departure / arrival gates). It uses such processed information to invoke other flight plan related tools (such as e.g. Medium Term Conflict Detection (MTCD). Short-term conflict alert (STCA) that checks possible conflicting trajectories in a time horizon of about two or three minutes (or even less in approach context; 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres). Center TRACON automation system (CTAS): a suite of human centred decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: traffic management advisor (TMA), passive final approach spacing tool (pFAST), collaborative arrival planning (CAP), direct-to (D2), en route descent advisor (EDA), and multi-center TMA. The software is running on Linux. MTCD and URET: In Europe, several MTCD tools are available: iFACTS (National Air Traffic Services), VAFORIT (Deutsche Flugsicherung), new FDPS (Maastricht Upper Area Control). The Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR). The Nav Canada system known as EXCDS. Screen content recording: hardware or software based recording function which is part of most modern automation system, and that captures the screen content shown to the ATCO. Such recordings are used for a later replay together with audio recording for investigations and post event analysis. Communication navigation surveillance / air traffic management (CNS / ATM) systems are communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies, including satellite systems, together with various levels of automation, applied in support of a seamless global air traffic management system. == Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and air traffic service providers (ATSPs) == Spain – AENA now AENA S.A. (Spanish Airports) and ENAIRE (ATC & ATSP) Vietnam – Vietnam Air Traffic Management Corporation (VATM) Zambia – Zambia Civil Aviation Authority (ZCAA) Zimbabwe – Zimbabwe Civil Aviation Authority == Proposed changes == In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined: Free flight is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralised control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft. In Europe, the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) programme plans to develop new methods, technologies, procedures, and systems to accommodate future (2020 and beyond) air traffic needs. In October 2018, European controller unions dismissed setting targets to improve ATC as "a waste of time and effort", as new technology could cut costs for users but threaten their jobs. In April 2019, the EU called for a 'Digital European Sky', focusing on cutting costs by including a common digitisation standard, and allowing controllers to move to where they are needed instead of merging national ATCs, as it would not solve all problems. Single air-traffic control services in continent-sized America and China does not alleviate congestion. Eurocontrol tries to reduce delays by diverting flights to less busy routes: flight paths across Europe were redesigned to accommodate the new airport in Istanbul, which opened in April, but the extra capacity will be absorbed by rising demand for air travel. Well-paid jobs in western Europe could move east with cheaper labour. The average Spanish controller earn over €200,000 a year, over seven times the country average salary, more than pilots, and at least ten controllers were paid over €810,000 ($1.1m) a year in 2010. French controllers spent a cumulative nine months on strike between 2004 and 2016. === Privatisation === Many countries have also privatised or corporatised their air navigation service providers. There are several models that can be used for ATC service providers. The first is to have the ATC services be part of a government agency as is currently the case in the United States. The problem with this model is that funding can be inconsistent, and can disrupt the development and operation of services. Sometimes funding can disappear when lawmakers cannot approve budgets in time. Both proponents and opponents of privatisation recognise that stable funding is one of the major factors for successful upgrades of ATC infrastructure. Some of the funding issues include sequestration and politicisation of projects. Proponents argue that moving ATC services to a private corporation could stabilise funding over the long term which will result in more predictable planning and rollout of new technology as well as training of personnel. As of November 2024, The United States had 265 contractor towers that are staffed by private companies but administered by FAA through its FAA Contract Tower Program, which was established in 1982. These contract control towers cover 51% of all the Federal air traffic control towers in the U.S. Another model is to have ATC services provided by a government corporation. This model is used in Germany, where funding is obtained through user fees. Yet another model is to have a for-profit corporation operate ATC services. This is the model used in the United Kingdom, but there have been several issues with the system there, including a large-scale failure in December 2014 which caused delays and cancellations and has been attributed to cost-cutting measures put in place by this corporation. In fact, earlier that year, the corporation owned by the German government won the bid to provide ATC services for Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. The last model, which is often the suggested model for the United States to transition to is to have a non-profit organisation that would handle ATC services as is used in Canada. The Canadian system is the one most often used as a model by proponents of privatisation. Air traffic control privatisation has been successful in Canada with the creation of Nav Canada, a private non-profit organisation which has reduced costs, and has allowed new technologies to be deployed faster due to the elimination of much of the bureaucratic red tape. This has resulted in shorter flights and less fuel usage. It has also resulted in flights being safer due to new technology. Nav Canada is funded from fees that are collected from the airlines based on the weight of the aircraft and the distance flown. Air traffic control is operated by national governments with few exceptions: in the European Union, only Italy has private shareholders. Privatisation does not guarantee lower prices: the profit margin of MUAC was 70% in 2017, as there is no competition, but governments could offer fixed terms concessions. == ATC regulations in the United States == The United States airspace is divided into 21 zones (centres), and each zone is divided into sectors. Also within each zone are portions of airspace, about 50 miles (80 kilometres) in diameter, called TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) airspaces. Within each TRACON airspace are a number of airports, each of which has its own airspace with a 5 miles (8.0 kilometres) radius. FAA control tower operators (CTO) / air traffic controllers use FAA Order 7110.65 as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic. == See also == == References == == External links == The short film A Traveler Meets Air Traffic Control (1963) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. NASA video of US air traffic Radar antennas in air traffic management (YouTube-video, part of a video series about radar basics)
Air traffic control tower	Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organise and expedite the flow of traffic in the air, and provide information and other support for pilots. Personnel of air traffic control monitor aircraft location in their assigned airspace by radar and communicate with the pilots by radio. To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of 'empty space' around it at all times. It is also common for ATC to provide services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace; not just civilian aircraft. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries) that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. The pilot in command of an aircraft always retains final authority for its safe operation, and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of the aircraft. == Language == Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are conducted either in the English language, or the local language used by the station on the ground. In practice, the native language for a region is used; however, English must be used upon request. == History == In 1920, Croydon Airport near London, England, was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control. The 'aerodrome control tower' was a wooden hut 15 feet (5 metres) high with windows on all four sides. It was commissioned on 25 February 1920, and provided basic traffic, weather, and location information to pilots. In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions. The first of several air mail radio stations (AMRS) was created in 1922, after World War I, when the U.S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the U.S. Army to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance aircraft. Over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Today's flight service stations do not issue control instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where flight service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures, and surface movement of aircraft in the US at a specific airport, opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach- and departure-control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air route traffic control center (ARTCC), which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination, was opened in Newark in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland. After the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, killing all 128 on board, the FAA was given the air-traffic responsibility in the United States in 1958, and this was followed by other countries. In 1960, Britain, France, Germany, and the Benelux countries set up Eurocontrol, intending to merge their airspaces. The first and only attempt to pool controllers between countries is the Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre (MUAC), founded in 1972 by Eurocontrol, and covering Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and north-western Germany. In 2001, the European Union (EU) aimed to create a 'Single European Sky', hoping to boost efficiency and gain economies of scale. In the USSR, the first air traffic control service was organized in 1929 on the Moscow - Irkutsk air route; in 1930, control areas were defined along all existing air routes. == Airport traffic control tower == The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower. The tower is typically a tall, windowed structure, located within the airport grounds. The air traffic controllers, usually abbreviated 'controller', are responsible for separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 19 kilometres; 6 to 12 miles), depending on the airport procedures. A controller must carry out the job using the precise and effective application of rules and procedures; however, they need flexible adjustments according to differing circumstances, often under time pressure. In a study that compared stress in the general population and this kind of system markedly showed more stress level for controllers. This variation can be explained, at least in part, by the characteristics of the job. Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system based on air traffic controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower, and still able to provide air traffic control services. === Ground control === Ground control (sometimes known as ground movement control, GMC) is responsible for the airport movement areas. Some busier airports have surface movement radar (SMR). === Air control or local control === Air control (known to pilots as tower or tower control) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. === Flight data and clearance delivery === Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxiing. These clearances contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. == Approach and terminal control == In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by a three-digit alphanumeric code. For example, the Chicago TRACON is designated C90. == Area control centre / en-route centre == === General characteristics === === Radar coverage === Some air navigation service providers (e.g., Airservices Australia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Nav Canada, etc.) have implemented automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveillance capability. This newer technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar 'finding' a target by interrogating the transponder, the ADS-B equipped aircraft 'broadcasts' a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. ADS-C is another mode of automatic dependent surveillance, however ADS-C operates in the 'contract' mode, where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested, except in emergency situations. ADS-C is significant, because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g., over water). Computerised radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS-C inputs as part of their display. A radar archive system (RAS) keeps an electronic record of all radar information, preserving it for a few weeks. This information can be useful for search and rescue. When an aircraft has 'disappeared' from radar screens, a controller can review the last radar returns from the aircraft to determine its likely position. For an example, see the crash report in the following citation. === Flight traffic mapping === == Problems == === Traffic === Air traffic control errors occur when the separation (either vertical or horizontal) between airborne aircraft falls below the minimum prescribed separation set (for the domestic United States) by the US Federal Aviation Administration. Separation minimums for terminal control areas (TCAs) around airports are lower than en-route standards. Errors generally occur during periods following times of intense activity, when controllers tend to relax and overlook the presence of traffic and conditions that lead to loss of minimum separation. === Weather === According to the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), weather significantly impacts global aviation, with more than 70% of air traffic delays being attributed to adverse weather conditions. These disruptions cause widespread delays, rerouting by ATC, and cancellations across continents. In 2024, Europe experienced a 40% increase in weather-related en-route delays compared to 2023. As climate change intensifies the frequency and severity of these events, CANSO urges collaboration and real-time solutions among global aviation stakeholders to mitigate the increased effects of weather on flight operations. === Infrastructure === Global ATC infrastructure is a complex network that varies significantly by region, with many countries facing challenges related to outdated technology, staffing shortages, and increasing traffic demand. While some regions, like parts of Europe and the U.S., have implemented modernization programs such as SESAR and NextGen, many others, especially in developing nations, still rely on legacy radar systems and voice-based communication, which limit efficiency and safety. These disparities contribute to delays and reduce the overall resilience of global air traffic management. According to the ICAO, coordinating ATC systems and accelerating digitalization is essential for meeting future aviation demands. Similarly, a 2024 report from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) emphasizes the urgency of investing in scalable, data-driven infrastructure to handle post-pandemic growth and ensure sustainability across the network. === Congestion === Constrained control capacity and growing traffic lead to flight cancellation and delays. In America, delays caused by ATC grew by 69% between 2012 and 2017. ATC staffing issues were a major factor in congestion. By then the market for air-traffic services was worth $14bn. More efficient ATC could save 5-10% of aviation fuel by avoiding holding patterns and indirect airways. The military takes 80% of Chinese airspace, congesting the thin corridors open to airliners. The United Kingdom closes its military airspace only during military exercises. == Call signs == A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by ICAO on request, usually to scheduled flights, and some air forces and other military services for military flights. There are written call signs with a two or three letter combination followed by the flight number such as AAL872 or VLG1011. As such, they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or radio-telephony call signs used on the radio contact between pilots and air traffic control. These are not always identical to their written counterparts. An example of an audio call sign would be 'Speedbird 832', instead of the written 'BAW832'. This is used to reduce the chance of confusion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the call sign for any other flight is the registration number (or tail number in US parlance) of the aircraft, such as 'N12345', 'C-GABC', or 'EC-IZD'. The short radio-telephony call signs for these tail numbers is the last three letters using the NATO phonetic alphabet (e.g. ABC, spoken alpha-bravo-charlie for C-GABC), or the last three numbers (e.g. three-four-five for N12345). In the United States, the prefix may be an aircraft type, model, or manufacturer in place of the first registration character, for example, 'N11842' could become 'Cessna 842'. == Technology == The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a fully automated system is still yet to be achieved. In 2002, the United Kingdom commissioned a new area control centre into service at the London Area Control Centre (LACC) at Swanwick in Hampshire, relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton in Middlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software from Lockheed-Martin predominates at the London Area Control Centre. However, the centre was initially troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns. Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further: Flight data processing systems: this is the system (usually one per centre) that processes all the information related to the flight (the flight plan), typically in the time horizon from gate to gate (airport departure / arrival gates). It uses such processed information to invoke other flight plan related tools (such as e.g. Medium Term Conflict Detection (MTCD). Short-term conflict alert (STCA) that checks possible conflicting trajectories in a time horizon of about two or three minutes (or even less in approach context; 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres). Center TRACON automation system (CTAS): a suite of human centred decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: traffic management advisor (TMA), passive final approach spacing tool (pFAST), collaborative arrival planning (CAP), direct-to (D2), en route descent advisor (EDA), and multi-center TMA. The software is running on Linux. MTCD and URET: In Europe, several MTCD tools are available: iFACTS (National Air Traffic Services), VAFORIT (Deutsche Flugsicherung), new FDPS (Maastricht Upper Area Control). The Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR). The Nav Canada system known as EXCDS. Screen content recording: hardware or software based recording function which is part of most modern automation system, and that captures the screen content shown to the ATCO. Such recordings are used for a later replay together with audio recording for investigations and post event analysis. Communication navigation surveillance / air traffic management (CNS / ATM) systems are communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies, including satellite systems, together with various levels of automation, applied in support of a seamless global air traffic management system. == Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and air traffic service providers (ATSPs) == Spain – AENA now AENA S.A. (Spanish Airports) and ENAIRE (ATC & ATSP) Vietnam – Vietnam Air Traffic Management Corporation (VATM) Zambia – Zambia Civil Aviation Authority (ZCAA) Zimbabwe – Zimbabwe Civil Aviation Authority == Proposed changes == In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined: Free flight is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralised control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft. In Europe, the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) programme plans to develop new methods, technologies, procedures, and systems to accommodate future (2020 and beyond) air traffic needs. In October 2018, European controller unions dismissed setting targets to improve ATC as "a waste of time and effort", as new technology could cut costs for users but threaten their jobs. In April 2019, the EU called for a 'Digital European Sky', focusing on cutting costs by including a common digitisation standard, and allowing controllers to move to where they are needed instead of merging national ATCs, as it would not solve all problems. Single air-traffic control services in continent-sized America and China does not alleviate congestion. Eurocontrol tries to reduce delays by diverting flights to less busy routes: flight paths across Europe were redesigned to accommodate the new airport in Istanbul, which opened in April, but the extra capacity will be absorbed by rising demand for air travel. Well-paid jobs in western Europe could move east with cheaper labour. The average Spanish controller earn over €200,000 a year, over seven times the country average salary, more than pilots, and at least ten controllers were paid over €810,000 ($1.1m) a year in 2010. French controllers spent a cumulative nine months on strike between 2004 and 2016. === Privatisation === Many countries have also privatised or corporatised their air navigation service providers. There are several models that can be used for ATC service providers. The first is to have the ATC services be part of a government agency as is currently the case in the United States. The problem with this model is that funding can be inconsistent, and can disrupt the development and operation of services. Sometimes funding can disappear when lawmakers cannot approve budgets in time. Both proponents and opponents of privatisation recognise that stable funding is one of the major factors for successful upgrades of ATC infrastructure. Some of the funding issues include sequestration and politicisation of projects. Proponents argue that moving ATC services to a private corporation could stabilise funding over the long term which will result in more predictable planning and rollout of new technology as well as training of personnel. As of November 2024, The United States had 265 contractor towers that are staffed by private companies but administered by FAA through its FAA Contract Tower Program, which was established in 1982. These contract control towers cover 51% of all the Federal air traffic control towers in the U.S. Another model is to have ATC services provided by a government corporation. This model is used in Germany, where funding is obtained through user fees. Yet another model is to have a for-profit corporation operate ATC services. This is the model used in the United Kingdom, but there have been several issues with the system there, including a large-scale failure in December 2014 which caused delays and cancellations and has been attributed to cost-cutting measures put in place by this corporation. In fact, earlier that year, the corporation owned by the German government won the bid to provide ATC services for Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. The last model, which is often the suggested model for the United States to transition to is to have a non-profit organisation that would handle ATC services as is used in Canada. The Canadian system is the one most often used as a model by proponents of privatisation. Air traffic control privatisation has been successful in Canada with the creation of Nav Canada, a private non-profit organisation which has reduced costs, and has allowed new technologies to be deployed faster due to the elimination of much of the bureaucratic red tape. This has resulted in shorter flights and less fuel usage. It has also resulted in flights being safer due to new technology. Nav Canada is funded from fees that are collected from the airlines based on the weight of the aircraft and the distance flown. Air traffic control is operated by national governments with few exceptions: in the European Union, only Italy has private shareholders. Privatisation does not guarantee lower prices: the profit margin of MUAC was 70% in 2017, as there is no competition, but governments could offer fixed terms concessions. == ATC regulations in the United States == The United States airspace is divided into 21 zones (centres), and each zone is divided into sectors. Also within each zone are portions of airspace, about 50 miles (80 kilometres) in diameter, called TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) airspaces. Within each TRACON airspace are a number of airports, each of which has its own airspace with a 5 miles (8.0 kilometres) radius. FAA control tower operators (CTO) / air traffic controllers use FAA Order 7110.65 as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic. == See also == == References == == External links == The short film A Traveler Meets Air Traffic Control (1963) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. NASA video of US air traffic Radar antennas in air traffic management (YouTube-video, part of a video series about radar basics)
Air traffic controller	An Air traffic controller (ATC) is a person responsible for the coordination of traffic in their assigned airspace. Typically stationed in area control centers or control towers, they monitor the position, speed, and altitude of aircraft and communicate with the pilots via radio. In addition, controllers ensure safe distances between the different aircraft. The profession is considered to be highly demanding and stressful due to the need for constant reorganization of cognitive processes, flexible adjustments and continuous decision-making, also often while under time pressure. Factors such as unfavorable work schedules, high responsibility and the reliability of equipment further influence workload and stress levels. Despite these challenges, the role offers competitive salaries and strong job security, which are often cited as key benefits. == History == === Origins === Air traffic controlling dates to the early 1920s in the United Kingdom (UK); the first control tower was established in 1920 at Croydon Airport. Jimmy Jeffs was issued the first Air Traffic Control License. Before 1922 air traffic controllers only provided information to the pilots on the ground. In the United States (US), Archie League is regarded as the first air traffic controller and was hired by the city of St. Louis in 1929 to prevent collisions. The first ATCs used basic visual communication methods such as flags to communicate with pilots. === Introduction of radar and radio communication === In 1930 Cleveland Airport opened the first tower using two-way radio communication and in 1946 Indianapolis International Airport (then Weir-Cook airport) became the first civilian airport to have radar installed. This allowed controllers to monitor aircraft positions in real-time, even in poor visibility conditions. Together with radio communication with the pilots, this laid the foundation for Ground Control Approaches and later Instrument landing system (ILS). These innovations fundamentally changed the profession of air traffic controllers from guidance and ground controlling to actively guiding planes that are already in the air and making sure they land safely. === Developments until today === Since the introduction of radar in the 1950s, the field of air traffic control is still undergoing major innovations; Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) technology is being expanded world wide providing even more accurate position information to the controller providing them with more advanced assistance systems. === Future prospects === With new technologies such as artificial intelligence emerging, efforts to automate certain tasks of ATCs began. The focus of the industry is on the development of assisting and predicting artificial intelligence tools as well as the automation of repetitive tasks rather than attempts to replace the controllers. There is a consensus among developers and airport operators that, in the foreseeable future, air traffic controllers will tend to be more of a system manager overseeing decisions made by automated systems and intervening to resolve unexpected situations, which is currently one of the most difficult tasks for artificial intelligence, making full replacement unlikely. One challenge with partially automated workflows is the potential for skill and knowledge disintegration due to reduced daily practice. One possible solution is the use of computer-based training or simulation technologies to maintain continuous learning and proficiency. Another approach to modernization is the construction of fully digital remote and virtual towers that can be accessed from anywhere in the world allowing for controllers to work remotely. Developments are already advanced, with the first remote-controlled tower having opened in Sweden in 2015. Another concern is the acceptance or willingness by the controllers to use such technology. In a study with 500 air traffic controllers Bekier et al. found that as soon as the focus of decision-making shifts away from the air traffic controller, support for the technology dramatically decreases. == Roles == === Area controllers === Area controllers (also called "en route" or in the US "center controllers") oversee aircraft at higher altitudes, in the en-route phase of their flight surrounding busier airports and airspace. In contrast to tower controllers, their job is dominated by the discovery of conflicts. Area controllers may also handle aircraft at lower altitudes as well as air traffic around small airports that do not have their own towers or approach controllers. Area controllers are responsible for specific sectors of 3D blocks of airspace with defined dimensions. Each sector is managed by at least one area controller, known as an "R-side" (Radar) controller that handles radio communications. During busier times of traffic, there may also be a second area controller, known as a "D-side" (Data), assigned to the same area in order to assist the R-side Area controller. This can be done with or without the use of radar: radar allows a sector to handle much more traffic; however, procedural control is used in many areas where traffic levels do not justify radar or the installation of radar is not feasible, such as over oceans. Area controllers operate within area control centers, also known as centers or en-route centers. where they are controlling high-level en-route aircraft. In the United States, these facilities are specifically referred to as Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs). Area controllers can also work in terminal control centers, which control aircraft climbing from or descending to major groups of airports. === Aerodrome or tower === Aerodrome or Tower controllers control aircraft within the immediate vicinity of the airport and use visual observation from the airport tower. The tower's airspace is often a 5-nautical-mile (9.3 km) radius around the airport, but can vary greatly in size and shape depending on traffic configuration and volume. The tower positions are typically split into many different positions such as Flight Data/Clearance Delivery, Ground Control, and Local Control (known as Tower by the pilots); at busier facilities, a limited radar approach control position may be needed. The roles of the positions are: Flight Data/Clearance Delivery: Issues IFR flight plan clearances, obtains squawk codes for VFR aircraft, helps with coordination for GC/LC, and cuts the ATIS (weather). FD/CD is commonly known in the profession as the secretary of the tower. Ground: Issues taxi instructions and authorizes aircraft/vehicle movements on the airport except the active runway(s); controllers are not responsible for aircraft movement on ramps or other designated non-movement areas. Local (Tower): Issues takeoff and landing instructions/clearances and authorizes aircraft/vehicle movements on or across runways. Approach: Issues instructions to aircraft who are intending to land at the airport. This involves vectoring aircraft in a safe, orderly, and expeditious manner and, if needed, stacking the aircraft at different holding altitudes. === Civilian/military === Civilian ATCs handle commercial and general aviation such as airliners and private jets while military controllers usually oversee airspace or airports of armed forces. Some civilian airports are part of military airports and therefore serviced by military controllers also known as joint-use. In some countries all air traffic controlling is handled by the military and all controllers are soldiers. === Public/private === Historically, controllers were civil servants in most countries. While many countries still have public ATC services countries like Canada already have implemented mixed or fully privatized models Globally, the trend toward privatization varies. While some countries have fully privatized their ATC services, others maintain public control or adopt hybrid models. == Skills and abilities == As air traffic controllers carry a high responsibility, they are typically required to meet high requirements and possess distinct skills. These include strong situational awareness, organizational skills, and the ability to manage multiple tasks simultaneously as well as always being thorough and paying attention to detail. Controllers must be able to make quick decisions, particularly in dynamic or high-stress situations. Communication is a critical aspect of the job; controllers are expected to possess excellent verbal communication skills to exchange precise information with pilots and other controllers as clarity and accuracy are essential to maintaining safety. Although local languages are sometimes used in ATC communications, the default language of aviation worldwide is Aviation English. Controllers who do not speak English as a first language are expected to show a certain minimum level of competency. == Working conditions == === Work patterns === Typically, controllers work for 90 to 120 minutes followed by a 30-minute break. Except at quieter airports, air traffic control operates 24/7, 365 days a year, requiring controllers to work rotating shifts that include nights, weekends, and public holidays. Shift schedules are usually set 28 days in advance. In many countries, the structure of controllers' shift patterns is regulated to allow for adequate time off. The shift pattern often varies depending on country, facility and its location. In the US the FAA regulates the hours that an air traffic controller may work. Controllers may not work more than 10 straight hours during a shift, which includes required breaks, and must have 9 hours of rest before their next shift. In the US air traffic controllers usually work a relatively unique rotating shift schedule, called the 2-2-1. Working the 2-2-1 means rotating between two afternoon shifts, two morning shifts and a midnight shift over the course of a week. === Stress === Many countries regulate work hours to ensure that controllers are able to remain focused and effective. Research suggests, that after prolonged periods of continuous work for more than two hours without a break, performance can deteriorate rapidly, even at low traffic levels. The International Civil Aviation Organization therefore recommends breaks at least every two hours. Sylvia Noble Tesh documented the stresses and challenges faced by air traffic controllers in her 1984 study "The politics of stress: the case of air traffic control." published in the International journal of health services. In a study which compared stress in the general population and in this kind of systems markedly showed more stress level for controllers. This variation can be explained, at least in part, by the characteristics of the job. == Training and qualifications == === Requirements === Air traffic controllers are subject to some of the strictest physical and mental health requirements for any profession, reflecting the high responsibility. In Europe and parts of Asia, controllers must hold a Class 3 medical certificate which involves evaluations of vision, hearing, physical and mental health. While in the United States there is no required certificate, candidates undergo similar assessments by the FAA; for example, air traffic controllers are required to pass a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) before being allowed to work in the profession. Certain health conditions such as diabetes, epilepsy, heart disease, and many psychiatric disorders (e.g., clinical depression, ADHD, bipolar disorder, personality disorders, a history of drug abuse, etc.) may lead to automatic disqualification or require explicit testing and waivers signed by the overseeing medical authority, demonstrating that the disorder does not impact the individuals' ability to do the job. Other conditions such as hypertension (high blood pressure), while not automatically disqualifying, are taken seriously and must be monitored by certified doctors. Controllers must take precautions to remain healthy. Additionally controllers must report all medications they are taking, even over-the-counter drugs to the responsible medical authority. In the US numerous drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are either banned or require an air traffic controller to apply for a Special Consideration Medical Certificate and undergo continuous monitoring of the underlying medical condition. Additionally excellent verbal communication skills are required, as controllers must be able to clearly communicate and listen to pilots’ requests, even under high-stress conditions. All of these rigorous standards ensure that air traffic controllers perform their duties safely and effectively. === Education === In the United States trainee controllers begin work in their twenties and retire in their fifties almost universally. This is due to an FAA requirement that trainees begin their training at the academy no later than their 31st birthday, and face mandatory retirement at the last day of the month they turn 56. At the discretion of the Secretary of Transportation, the retirement age can be extended to 61. However, already experienced controllers, such as retired military air traffic controllers may qualify for appointment before 35 years of age. These controllers also may work longer than age 56 in order to be able to receive their pension. While other countries have different regulations, a similar concept is used in many countries, such as a maximal age to start training of 24 in Germany. Civilian Air Traffic Controllers' licensing is standardized by international agreement through the ICAO. Many countries have Air Traffic Control schools, which are often operated by the provider of air traffic services in that country or sometimes privately. These institutions provide training to individuals without any prior air traffic control experience. At the completion of academic training, the graduating student will be granted an Air Traffic Control license, which will include one or more Ratings. These are sub-qualifications denoting the air traffic control discipline or disciplines in which the person has been trained. The ICAO defines five such ratings: Area (procedural) Area Radar Approach (procedural) Approach Radar Aerodrome In the United States, controllers may train in several similar specialties: Tower Ground-Controlled Approach (GCA) Terminal Radar Control En route Control (both radar and non-radar) This phase of training takes about 3–5 months. Whenever an air traffic controller is posted to a new unit or starts work on a new sector within a particular unit, they must undergo a period of training regarding the procedures peculiar to that particular unit and/or sector. The majority of this training is done in a live position controlling real aircraft and is referred to as On the Job Training (OJT). In this phase trainees are always with a fully qualified and trained mentor or an On the Job Training Instructor (OJTI), who will also be 'plugged into' the position to give guidance and is ready to immediately take over should it become necessary. The length of this phase of training usually varies between one and three years, depending on the complexity of the sector. Only once a person has passed all training stages they will be allowed to control a position alone. == See also == Air traffic controllers' strike of 1981 (United States) Aviation safety Flight planning The Guild of Air Traffic Control Officers National Air Traffic Controllers Association == References == == External links == Air Traffic Control Association Unique Aviation Career as an Air Traffic Controller Archived 2021-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, by James Wynbrandt, Flying (magazine) ATSA Test Air Traffic Control management
Air traffic management	Air traffic management (ATM) aims at ensuring the safe and efficient flow of air traffic. It encompasses three types of services: air traffic services (ATS) including air traffic control (ATC), air traffic advisory services, flight information services and alerting services, airspace management (ASM), the purpose of which is to allocate air routes, zones, flight levels to different airspace users and the airspace structure, and air traffic flow and capacity management (ATFCM) (or Air Traffic Flow Management, ATFM) consisting in regulating the flow of aircraft as efficiently as possible in order to avoid congestion in airspace and airports. The Chicago Convention 1944 (52 signatory states) required each state to provide air navigation services for their own state and early air navigation service providers (ANSPs) were state-controlled monopolies. En-route navigation is still offered by state-run monopolies although in Europe since 1997 they were under a performance review framework and since 2009 and 2013, under performance and risk-sharing charging regulations. In the UK ATM legislation is provided under the Air Traffic Management and Unmanned Aircraft Act 2021. In Europe, the organisation of ATM is highly fragmented, with each member state having its own ANSPs operating airport towers and centres under various ownership models. The 37 European ANSPs operate 60 control centres in 10.8 million km2. Apart from five largest ANSPs (DFS in Germany, DSNA in France, ENAIRE in Spain, ENAV in Italy and NATS in the UK) bearing 60% of total European gate-to-gate service provision costs and operating 54% of European traffic, the remaining 40% of gate-to-gate traffic (airport towers and approach services) costs are borne by 32 smaller ANSPs. Such fragmentation leads to delays and costs EUR 4 bn a year. The Single European Sky programme was due to be delivered in 2020 but despite extensive collaboration (such as Functional Airspace Blocks transcending national borders) and research, this has not yet been successful. ATM encompasses both airspace and ground airport operations. Since the rise of computer sciences, risk management and decision-making are software-assisted. Recent system developments balance interests of airspace and runways on one side, and capacity overloads for taxiway network and terminals on the other. == References ==
Air transport	Aviation includes the activities surrounding mechanical flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft include fixed-wing and rotary-wing types, morphable wings, wing-less lifting bodies, as well as lighter-than-air aircraft such as hot air balloons and airships. Aviation began in the 18th century with the development of the hot air balloon, an apparatus capable of atmospheric displacement through buoyancy. Clément Ader built the "Ader Éole" in France and made an uncontrolled, powered hop in 1890. This was the first powered aircraft, although it did not achieve controlled flight. Some of the most significant advancements in aviation technology came with the controlled gliding flying of Otto Lilienthal in 1896. A major leap followed with the construction of the Wright Flyer, the first powered airplane by the Wright brothers in the early 1900s. Since that time, aviation has been technologically revolutionized by the introduction of the jet engine which enabled aviation to become a major form of transport throughout the world. == Etymology == The word aviation was coined by the French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863. He originally derived the term from the verb avier (an unsuccessful neologism for "to fly"), itself derived from the Latin word avis ("bird") and the suffix -ation. == History == === Early beginnings === There are early legends of human flight such as the stories of Icarus in Greek myth, Jamshid and Shah Kay Kāvus in Persian myth, and the flying automaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC). Later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human flights appear, such as the winged flights of Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887, recorded in the 17th century), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century, recorded in the 12th century), and the hot-air Passarola of Bartholomeu Lourenço de Gusmão (1685–1724). === Lighter than air === The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21, 1783, of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. The usefulness of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required. Jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances. The best-known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin. It flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles, was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on May 6, 1937. That year the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed that the coating used in the material covering the frame was highly flammable and allowed static electricity to build up in the airship. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. There had been previous airship accidents that were more fatal, for instance, a British R38 on 23 August 1921, but the Hindenburg was the first to be captured on newsreel. === Heavier than air === In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Otto Lilienthal was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders, therefore making the idea of "heavier than air" a reality. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favorably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical. Lilienthal's work led him to develop the concept of the modern wing. His flight attempts in Berlin in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and the "Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat" is considered to be the first airplane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal in Berlin the first air plane production company in the world. Lilienthal is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion (Henri Giffard, 1852), rigid frames (David Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability (Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901) There are many competing claims for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight. The first recorded powered flight was carried out by Clément Ader on October 9, 1890, in his bat-winged, fully self-propelled fixed-wing aircraft, the Ader Éole. It was reportedly the first manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance (50 m (160 ft)) but insignificant altitude from level ground. Seven years later, on October 14, 1897, Ader's Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry. The report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906, Ader claimed to have made a successful flight on October 14, 1897, achieving an "uninterrupted flight" of around 300 metres (980 feet). Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited. The Wright brothers made the first successful powered, controlled and sustained airplane flight on December 17, 1903, a feat made possible by their invention of three-axis control and in-house development of an engine with a sufficient power-to-weight ratio. Only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14, 1908. During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made in the field of aviation, including the first transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh's solo transatlantic flight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford Smith's transpacific flight the following year. One of the most successful designs of this period was the Douglas DC-3, which became the first airliner to be profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. During World War II one of the first jet engines was developed by Hans von Ohain, and accomplished the world's first jet-powered flight in 1939. The war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. After World War II, especially in North America, there was a boom in general aviation, both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market. By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the de Havilland Comet, though the first widely used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was much more economical than other aircraft at that time. At the same time, turboprop propulsion started to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather conditions. Since the 1960s composite material airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have become available, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for more than two decades. However, the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and control. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Positioning System, satellite communications, and increasingly small and powerful computers and LED displays, have dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic vision, even at night or in low visibility. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded aircraft to make a spaceflight, opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's atmosphere. Meanwhile, the need to decarbonize the aviation industry to face the climate crisis has increased research into aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol, electricity, hydrogen, and even solar energy, with flying prototypes becoming more common. == Operations of aircraft == === Civil aviation === Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled air transport. ==== Air transport ==== There are seven major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order): Airbus, based in Europe Antonov, based in Ukraine Boeing, based in the United States Bombardier, based in Canada Comac, based in China Embraer, based in Brazil United Aircraft Corporation, based in Russia, with its subsidiaries Ilyushin, Tupolev, Yakovlev and Sukhoi Boeing, Airbus, Ilyushin and Tupolev concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners, while Bombardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional airliners. Large networks of specialized parts suppliers from around the world support these manufacturers, who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own plants. The Chinese ACAC consortium has also recently entered the civil transport market with its Comac ARJ21 regional jet. Until the 1970s, most major airlines were flag carriers, sponsored by their governments and heavily protected from competition. Since then, open skies agreements have resulted in increased competition and choice for consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, and crises such as the September 11 attacks and the SARS pandemic have driven many older airlines to government-bailouts, bankruptcy or mergers. At the same time, low-cost carriers such as Ryanair, Southwest and WestJet have flourished. ==== General aviation ==== General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private and commercial. General aviation may include business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight training, ballooning, paragliding, parachuting, gliding, hang gliding, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting. Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under different regulations depending on whether it is private or commercial and on the type of equipment involved. Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private aviation and flight training. The most important recent developments for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA fleet) have been the introduction of advanced avionics (including GPS) that were formerly found only in large airliners, and the introduction of composite materials to make small aircraft lighter and faster. Ultralight and homebuilt aircraft have also become increasingly popular for recreational use, since in most countries that allow private aviation, they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated than certified aircraft. === Military aviation === Simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the 18th century. Over the years, military aircraft have been built to meet ever increasing capability requirements. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply their government's arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and the speed of production. ==== Types of military aviation ==== Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft. (e.g. F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, F-15, MiG-29, Su-27, and F-22). Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets. (e.g. Panavia Tornado, A-10, Il-2, J-22 Orao, AH-64 and Su-25). Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories and oil fields. (e.g. B-2, Tu-95, Mirage IV, and B-52). Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel. (e.g. C-17 Globemaster III, C-130 Hercules and Mil Mi-26). Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy forces. (e.g. RC-135, E-8, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R). Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-wing aircraft, though many also carry payloads (e.g. MQ-9, RQ-4, and MQ-1C Gray Eagle). Cargo aircraft are in development. Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives. === Air safety === Aviation safety means the state of an aviation system or organization in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in direct support of the operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable level. It encompasses the theory, practice, investigation, and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education, and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. === Aviation MRO === A maintenance, repair, and overhaul organization (MRO) is a firm that ensures airworthiness or air transport. According to a 2024 article, "maintenance (M) involves inspecting, cleaning, oiling, and changing aircraft parts after a certain number of flight hours. Repair (R) is restoring the original function of parts and components. Overhaul (O) refers to extensive maintenance, the complete refurbishment of the aircraft, and upgrades in avionics, which can take several weeks to complete." Airlines are legally obligated to certify airworthiness, meaning that a civil aviation authority must approve an aircraft suitable for safe flight operations. MRO firms are responsible for this process, thoroughly checking and documenting all components' repairs while tracking mechanical, propulsion, and electronic parts. Aviation regulators oversee maintenance practices in the country of aircraft registration, manufacture, or current location. All aircraft maintenance activities must adhere to international regulations that mandate standards. == Aviation accidents and incidents == An aviation accident is defined by the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible. An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in which the plane is destroyed, is called a hull loss accident. The first fatal aviation accident occurred in a Wright Model A aircraft at Fort Myer, Virginia, US, on September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot, Orville Wright, and death of the passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge. The worst aviation accident in history was the Tenerife airport disaster on March 27, 1977, when 583 people died when two Boeing 747 jumbo jets, operated by Pan Am and KLM collided on a runway in Los Rodeos airport, now known as Tenerife North. An aviation incident is defined as an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations. == Air traffic control == Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain separation – that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as the United States) they may use radar to see aircraft positions. Becoming an air traffic controller in the United States typically requires an associate or bachelor's degree from the Air Traffic Collegiate Training Initiative. The FAA also requires extensive training, along with medical examinations and background checks. Some controllers are required to work weekend, night, and holiday shifts. There are generally four different types of ATC: Center controllers, who control aircraft en route between airports Control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other services), which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10–15 km horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport. Oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between continents, generally without radar service. Terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50–80 km) around busy airports ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), when they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under visual flight rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC. In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload. ATC do not control all flights. The majority of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) flights in North America are not required to contact ATC (unless they are passing through a busy terminal area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern Canada and low altitude in northern Scotland, air traffic control services are not available even for IFR flights at lower altitudes. == Environmental impact == Like all activities involving combustion, operating powered aircraft (from airliners to hot air balloons) releases soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to aviation: for instance, Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit aerosols and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus cloud formation – cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation. Clouds can have both a cooling and warming effect. They reflect some of the sun's rays back into space, but also block some of the heat radiated by Earth's surface. On average, both thin natural cirrus clouds and contrails have a net warming effect. Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations. Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded mogas, and turbine engines and diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are appearing on some newer light aircraft. Another environmental impact of aviation is noise pollution, mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing. Sonic booms were a problem with supersonic aircraft such as the Concorde. == Innovation and development == Air transportation is a mode of travel and commerce, involving the movement of people, goods, and animals through the atmosphere using aircraft such as airplanes and helicopters. It is a major mode for the overall transportation system, because of its speed and the ability to cover long distances quickly, connecting remote regions and major economic hubs. It plays a significant role in global trade and passenger mobility, influencing economic development and international relations. However, its share of CO2 emissions is significant, accounting for 2% of global CO2 emissions in 2023, having grown faster between 2000 and 2019 than rail, road or shipping. Even under the High Ambition scenario, where total emissions are reduced significantly, aviation emissions will still be a major concern. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has highlighted the need for ambitious policies in order to achieve significant reductions in aviation emissions, projecting that CO2 emissions from aviation could be cut by up to 50% by 2050 with the right measures in place. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) also emphasizes the potential of accelerating the transition to sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) and implementing efficiency technologies for both commercial and cargo aircraft to achieve significant emission reductions. These commitments reflect a concerted effort by global organizations to address the climate impact of the aviation sector. Two significant megatrends are observed in terms of air transport innovation, sustainability and digitalization. A report published by WIPO in 2025 show a steady increase of patents publication in air transportation, the majority of which being related to communication and security, followed by sustainable propulsion. Sustainable Propulsion technologies such as efficient aircraft turbines (to improve fuel efficiency, reduce emissions and lower noise levels), sustainable aviation fuels (reduction in CO2 emissions compared to traditional jet fuel), battery-based electric and/or hybrid aircraft (for short-haul and regional flights) and hydrogen-powered aircraft (for long-haul flights and heavy-duty applications) are being developed to reduce emissions and improve environmental sustainability. Automation and Circularity technologies are promoting efficient material use, smart production and robotics, and enhanced recycling practices. Communication and Security technologies are revolutionizing air transportation by improving operational efficiency, safety and customer experience. They include navigation technologies such as advanced air traffic management (ATM) systems, device-to-device technology, cloud computing, low-latency internet, and cybersecurity. McKinsey's analysis points out that the rise in digital technologies has made aviation systems more vulnerable to cyberattacks, emphasizing the need for robust cybersecurity measures. Advanced Human– Machine Interfaces, such as extended reality technologies, speech recognition technology, facial recognition technology, touch displays and data gloves, and head-up displays, are making interactions more intuitive, secure, and responsive, thereby improving operational efficiency and user experience. The air transportation sector is undergoing a surge in patenting activity, with annual Air transport-related patent families increasing from under 1,100 in 2000 to over 12,800 in 2023 – a growth of 11%. China, the South Korea, and Japan stand out for their high patent volumes and significant growth rates, although they exhibit a relatively low Relative Specialization Index, reflecting a broad approach to innovation at the country-level across various sectors. In contrast, France, the United States and Canada demonstrate a high degree of specialization in Air transportation technologies reflecting a concentrated focus on advancing specific innovations in aviation. Leading aviation companies such as RTX, General Electric, Safran, Boeing, Rolls-Royce Holdings, and Honeywell International dominate the patent filings. The Aero Engine Corporation of China leads in recent growth with a compound annual growth rate of 81.1%. Generally Chinese patent owners exhibit strong recent growth in air transport patent, in contrast to the other top patentees. Mitsubushi Electric in Japan emerges as the only non-Chinese entity among the fastest-growing patent owners, highlighting its strategic emphasis on Air transportation research and innovation. The diverse landscape underscores the dynamic interplay of high-volume patenting and strategic specialization across different regions, driven by both established aviation multinationals and emerging players. == See also == Aeronautics Environmental impact of aviation Index of aviation articles Timeline of aviation == Notes == == Bibliography == Berliner, Don (1996). Aviation: Reaching for the Sky. The Oliver Press, Inc. ISBN 1-881508-33-1. Cassard, Jean-Christophe (2008). Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne (in French). Morlaix: Skol Vreizh. ISBN 978-2-915623-45-1. De Angelis, Gina (2001). The Hindenburg. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-5272-9. This article incorporates text by Wirths, Oliver; Tóth,Zsófia; Diaz Ruiz, Carlos available under the CC BY 4.0 license. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. Text taken from WIPO Technology Trends: Future of Transportation, WIPO. == External links == Flying travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Aviation at Wikimedia Commons Learning materials related to Aviation at Wikiversity The dictionary definition of aviation at Wiktionary Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms
Air transport (disambiguation)	Air transport usually refers to aviation. Air transport may also refer to: Air Transport Services Group, an American aviation holding company Air Transport International, an American charter airline Aero Trasporti Italiani, a defunct Italian airline
Aircraft	An aircraft (pl. aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, in a few cases, direct downward thrust from its engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, rotorcraft (including helicopters), airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons. Part 1 (Definitions and Abbreviations) of Subchapter A of Chapter I of Title 14 of the U. S. Code of Federal Regulations states that aircraft "means a device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air." The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called aeronautics. Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion (if any), usage and others. == History == The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight in powered, heavier-than-air jet aircraft. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight. In the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci created flying machine designs incorporating aeronautical concepts, but they were unworkable due to the limitations of contemporary knowledge. In the late 18th century, the Montgolfier brothers invented the hot-air balloon which soon led to manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of hydrogen gas led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon. Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period, such as fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the development of modern aerodynamics; most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with France establishing balloon companies during the French Revolution. In the 19th century, especially the second half, experiments with gliders provided the basis for learning the dynamics of winged aircraft; most notably by Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, and Octave Chanute. By the early 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered, manned heavier-than-air flight possible for the first time. In 1903, following their pioneering research and experiments with wing design and aircraft control, the Wright brothers successfully incorporated all of the required elements to create and fly the first airplane. In 1906 Charles Frederick Page was granted the first U.S. patent for an aircraft. The basic configuration with its characteristic cruciform tail was established by 1909, followed by rapid design and performance improvements aided by the development of more powerful engines. The first vessels of the air were the rigid steerable balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin that became synonymous with airships and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular for trans-oceanic routes. After World War II, the flying boats were in turn replaced by airplanes operating from land, made far more capable first by improved propeller engines, then by jet engines, which revolutionized both civilian air travel and military aviation. In the latter half of the 20th century, the development of digital electronics led to major advances in flight instrumentation and "fly-by-wire" systems. The 21st century has seen the widespread use of pilotless drones for military, commercial, and recreational purposes. With computerized controls, inherently unstable aircraft designs, such as flying wings, have also become practical. == Methods of lift == === Lighter-than-air === Lighter-than-air aircraft or aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a lifting gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. Other gases lighter than air also theoretically work, however, such gases also needs to be same for human use (non-flammable, non-toxic). Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, although they also had military purposes. They, along with kites, were two forms of unmanned aircraft that originated from China. Kites were also used in the military, but unlike sky lanterns, their flight is caused by the differences of air pressure beneath and above the kite. A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing. In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships". === Heavier-than-air === Heavier-than-air aircraft or aerodynes are denser than air and thus must find some way to obtain enough lift that can overcome the aircraft's weight. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift by having air flowing past an aerofoil (such dynamic interaction of aerofoils with air is the origin of the term "aerodyne"), or powered lift in the form of reactional lift from downward engine thrust. Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, and can be achieved via two methods. Fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes and gliders) achieve airflow past the wings by having the entire aircraft moving forward through the air, while rotorcraft (helicopters and autogyros) do so by having mobile, elongated wings spinning rapidly around a mast in an assembly known as the rotor. ==== Fixed-wing Aircraft ==== Gliders were one of the first forms of a fixed wing aircraft. They are a special type of aircraft that doesn't require an engine. The first person to successfully build a human-carrying glider was George Cayley, who also was the first to discover the four major aerodynamic forces. The first powered aircraft (Airplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright. ==== Rotorcraft ==== A rotary-wing aircraft, rotorwing aircraft or rotorcraft is a heavier-than-air aircraft with rotary wings that spin around a vertical mast to generate lift. The assembly of several rotor blades mounted on a single mast is referred to as a rotor. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines a rotorcraft as "supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors". Rotorcraft generally include aircraft where one or more rotors provide lift throughout the entire flight, such as helicopters, gyroplanes, autogyros, and gyrodynes Compound rotorcraft augment the rotor with additional thrust engines, propellers, or static lifting surfaces. Some types, such as helicopters, are capable of vertical takeoff and landing. An aircraft which uses rotor lift for vertical flight but changes to solely fixed-wing lift in horizontal flight is not a rotorcraft but a convertiplane. ==== Other methods of lift ==== A lifting body is an aircraft which produces lift through the shape of its body, rather than its wings or rotors, like conventional aircraft. Lifting bodies were first experimented by NASA in the 1960s-70s, but the idea was already conceived in the 1950s. A powered lift aircraft is one which has the capability of vertical takeoff and landing. These aircraft must transition from vertical to lateral movement, which is considered the most dangerous phases of a flight. Classes of powered lift types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump jet) and tiltrotors, such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, among others. An ornithopter is an aircraft that produces lift through the movement of its wings, akin to how a bird flies. == Size and speed extremes == === Size === The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg). The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016, was the Antonov An-225 Mriya. That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s was 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn). The aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport), and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb). The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260 ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78 ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect. The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of the Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)), and the double-decker Airbus A380 "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner). === Speeds === The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or 17,500 mph (28,200 km/h) The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A Pegasus, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or 6,755 mph (10,870 km/h) on 16 November 2004. Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967. The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached 3,530 km/h (2,193 mph) on 28 July 1976. == Propulsion and steering == === Unpowered aircraft === The main feature of unpowered aircraft is the inability to directly provide thrust through its engines. This means that all unpowered aircraft rely on the environment for sustained flight. Gliders, for example, take advantage of their aerodynamic properties to enable them to travel long distances. Techniques such as thermal circling, where gliders fly into warm air which allows them to rise, prolongs flight time. Due to the lack of an engine, initial propulsion assistance is usually necessary to ensure flight. A common glider launching method is aerotowing, where another aircraft tows the glider to an altitude from which sustained flight is possible. Steering for a glider is also rudimentary, while more complex gliders like sailplanes usually have joysticks for steering, more basic aircraft like hang gliders rely on the pilot's physical coordination to change the centre of gravity. === Powered aircraft === A powered aircraft is an aircraft with a source of mechanical power, used to produce thrust. Such sources are generally engines, as is the case with airplanes, but can be human-powered in more extreme cases. ==== Propeller aircraft ==== Propeller aircraft, as their name suggests, rely on propellers to produce thrust for the airplane. ==== Jet aircraft ==== Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency. ==== Rotorcraft ==== == Design and construction == The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories: The structure ("airframe") comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls. The propulsion system ("powerplant") (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above. The avionics comprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems. === Structure === ==== Aerostats ==== An aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft relies on buoyancy to maintain flight. Aerostats include unpowered balloons (free-flying or tethered) and powered airships. The relative density of an aerostat as a whole is lower than that of the surrounding atmospheric air (hence the name "lighter-than-air"). Its main component is one or more gas capsules made of lightweight skins, containing a lifting gas (hot air, or any gas with lower density than air, typically hydrogen or helium) that displaces a large volume of air to generate enough buoyancy to overcome its own weight. Payload (passengers and cargo) can then be carried on attached components such as a basket, a gondola, a cabin or various hardpoints. With airships, which need to be able to fly against wind, the lifting gas capsules are often protected by a more rigid outer envelope or an airframe, with other gasbags such as ballonets to help modulate buoyancy. Aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic buoyant force that does not require any forward movement through the surrounding air mass, resulting in the inherent ability to levitate and perform vertical takeoff and landing. This contrasts with the heavier-than-air aerodynes that primarily use aerodynamic lift, which must have consistent airflow over an aerofoil (wing) surface to stay airborne. The term has also been used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically tethered balloon in contrast to the free-flying airship. This article uses the term in its broader sense. ==== Aerodynes ==== === Power === The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the powerplant, and includes engine or motor, propeller or rotor, (if any), jet nozzles and thrust reversers (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: starter, ignition system, intake system, exhaust system, fuel system, lubrication system, engine cooling system, and engine controls). Powered aircraft are typically powered by internal combustion engines (piston or turbine) burning fossil fuels—typically gasoline (avgas) or jet fuel. A very few are powered by rocket power, ramjet propulsion, or by electric motors, or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by human muscle energy (e.g.: Gossamer Condor). === Avionics === The avionics comprise any electronic aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including electronic cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communications systems. == Flight characteristics == === Flight envelope === The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed, load factor and altitude. === Range === The maximal total range is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing. Powered aircraft range is limited by the aviation fuel energy storage capacity (chemical or electrical) considering both weight and volume limits. Unpowered aircraft range depends on factors such as cross-country speed and environmental conditions. The range can be seen as the cross-country ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air. The fuel time limit for powered aircraft is fixed by the available fuel (considering reserve fuel requirements) and rate of consumption. The Airbus A350-900ULR is among the longest range airliners. Some aircraft can gain energy while airborne through the environment (e.g. collecting solar energy or through rising air currents from mechanical or thermal lifting) or from in-flight refueling. These aircraft could theoretically have an infinite range. Ferry range means the maximum range that an aircraft engaged in ferry flying can achieve. This usually means maximum fuel load, optionally with extra fuel tanks and minimum equipment. It refers to the transport of aircraft without any passengers or cargo. Combat radius is a related measure based on the maximum distance a warplane can travel from its base of operations, accomplish some objective, and return to its original airfield with minimal reserves. === Flight dynamics === Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle's center of gravity (cg), known as pitch, roll and yaw. These are collectively known as aircraft attitude, often principally relative to the atmospheric frame in normal flight, but also relative to terrain during takeoff or landing, or when operating at low elevation. The concept of attitude is not specific to fixed-wing aircraft, but also extends to rotary aircraft such as helicopters, and dirigibles, where the flight dynamics involved in establishing and controlling attitude are entirely different. Control systems adjust the orientation of a vehicle about its cg. A control system includes control surfaces which, when deflected, generate a moment (or couple from ailerons) about the cg which rotates the aircraft in pitch, roll, and yaw. For example, a pitching moment comes from a force applied at a distance forward or aft of the cg, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. A fixed-wing aircraft increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose up or down by increasing or decreasing the angle of attack (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce drag making it advantageous to keep the sideslip angle near zero, though an aircraft may be deliberately "sideslipped" to increase drag and descent rate during landing, to keep aircraft heading same as runway heading during cross-wind landings and during flight with asymmetric power. ==== Stability ==== A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers, which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow. These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw. ==== Control ==== == Environmental impact == Aircraft engines produce gases, noise, and particulates from fossil fuel combustion, raising environmental concerns over their global effects and on local air quality. Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide (CO2), the best understood greenhouse gas, and, with less scientific understanding, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.4 that of CO2 alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of CO2 emissions. Jet airliners have become more fuel efficient and CO2 emissions per revenue ton-kilometer (RTK) in 2018 were 47% of those in 1990. In 2018, CO2 emissions averaged 88 grams of CO2 per revenue passenger per km. While the aviation industry is more fuel efficient, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050. Aircraft noise pollution disrupts sleep, children's education and could increase cardiovascular risk. Airports can generate water pollution due to their extensive handling of jet fuel and deicing chemicals if not contained, contaminating nearby water bodies. Aviation activities emit ozone and ultrafine particles, both of which are health hazards. Piston engines used in general aviation burn Avgas, releasing toxic lead. Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better fuel economy in aircraft, or air traffic control and flight routes can be optimized to lower non-CO2 effects on climate from NOx, particulates or contrails. Aviation biofuel, emissions trading and carbon offsetting, part of the ICAO's CORSIA, can lower CO2 emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and aviation taxation and subsidies. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or by hydrogen-powered aircraft. Since 2021, the IATA members plan net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, followed by the ICAO in 2022. == Uses for aircraft == === Military === A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Combat aircraft are typically developed and procured only by military forces. Non-combat aircraft, such as transports and tankers, are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry weapons for self-defense. These mainly operate in support roles, and may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations. === Civil === Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military and non-state aviation, which can be both private and commercial. Most countries in the world are members of the International Civil Aviation Organization and work together to establish common Standards and Recommended Practices for civil aviation through that agency. Civil aviation includes three major categories: Commercial air transport, including scheduled and non-scheduled passenger and cargo flights Aerial work, in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, photography, surveying, search and rescue, etc. General aviation (GA), including all other civil flights, private or commercial Although scheduled air transport is the larger operation in terms of passenger numbers, GA is larger in the number of flights (and flight hours, in the U.S.) In the U.S., GA carries 166 million passengers each year, more than any individual airline, though less than all the airlines combined. Since 2004, the U.S. airlines combined have carried over 600 million passengers each year, and in 2014, they carried a combined 662,819,232 passengers. Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based on whether aircraft are flown for hire, like: Commercial aviation includes most or all flying done for hire, particularly scheduled service on airlines; and Private aviation includes pilots flying for their own purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) without receiving any kind of remuneration. All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general aviation can be either commercial or private. Normally, the pilot, aircraft, and operator must all be authorized to perform commercial operations through separate commercial licensing, registration, and operation certificates. === Experimental === An experimental aircraft is an aircraft intended for testing new aerospace technologies and design concepts. The term research aircraft or testbed aircraft, by contrast, generally denotes aircraft modified to perform scientific studies, such as weather research or geophysical surveying, similar to a research vessel. The term "experimental aircraft" also has specific legal meaning in Australia, the United States and some other countries; usually used to refer to aircraft flown with an experimental certificate. In the United States, this also includes most homebuilt aircraft, many of which are based on conventional designs and hence are experimental only in name because of certain restrictions in operation. === Model === == See also == === Lists === Early flying machines Flight altitude record List of aircraft List of civil aircraft List of fighter aircraft List of individual aircraft List of large aircraft List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms === Topics === Aircraft hijacking Aircraft spotting Air traffic control Airport Flying car Personal air vehicle Powered parachute Spacecraft Spaceplane == References == Gunston, Bill (1987). Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987. London, England: Jane's Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-7106-0365-4. == External links == === History === The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA) Archived 27 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine Virtual Museum Smithsonian Air and Space Museum – online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft Amazing Early Flying Machines Archived 13 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine slideshow by Life magazine === Information === Airliners.net Aviation Dictionary – free aviation terms, phrases and jargons New Scientist's aviation page
Airline	An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers or freight (cargo). Airlines use aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements, in which they both offer and operate the same flight. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body. Airlines may be scheduled or charter operators. The first airline was the German airship company DELAG, founded on November 16, 1909. The four oldest non-airship airlines that still exist are the Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1920) and the Russian Aeroflot (1923). Airline ownership has seen a shift from mostly personal ownership until the 1930s to government-ownership of major airlines from the 1940s to 1980s and back to large-scale privatization following the mid-1980s. Since the 1980s, there has been a trend of major airline mergers and the formation of airline alliances. The largest alliances are Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld. Airline alliances coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). == History == === The first airlines === DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft I was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909, with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed-wing scheduled airline was started on January 1, 1914. The flight was piloted by Tony Jannus and flew from St. Petersburg, Florida, to Tampa, Florida, operated by the St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line. === Europe === ==== Beginnings ==== The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916; via a series of takeovers and mergers, this company is an ancestor of modern-day British Airways. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent, Belgium. On July 15, 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris – Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger. On August 25, 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Paris's Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather, and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. Other British competitors were quick to follow – Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 12 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service. The first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland. The Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a "Royal" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services. In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on 12 September 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on 14 March 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on 20 March 1924, one week later. In the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot. Early European airlines tended to favor comfort – the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors – over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace. ==== Rationalization ==== By the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport, to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route. Two French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 17 May 1933. Germany's Deutsche Lufthansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Lufthansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time. ==== Expansion ==== In 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and were extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong. France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France. Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 6 May 1937. In 1938, a weekly air service from Berlin to Kabul, Afghanistan, started operating. From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939, Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. By the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104. ==== Deregulation ==== Deregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines. There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, suffered – particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008. === United States === ==== Early development ==== Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on January 1, 1914, for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 feet (15 m) above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. Following World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Post Office Department won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Post Office had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplement this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines. Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network. At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan Am, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s. With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II. ==== Since 1945 ==== World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload. In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport. On 4 October 1958, British Overseas Airways Corporation started transatlantic flights between London Heathrow and New York Idlewild with a Comet 4, and Pan Am followed on 26 October with a Boeing 707 service between New York and Paris. The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training. ==== Deregulation ==== The 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid-off staff from other airlines. Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long-distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak. By the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide. Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called "legacy airlines", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations. Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private-equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations. Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Among the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated: "Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake." ==== Bailout ==== Congress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L. 107–42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001, as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. In recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. As of May 2018 the four largest major carriers controlled 70% of the U.S. passenger market. === Asia === Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on 3 December 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on 15 March 1941, with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. In Japan, Japan Air Transport was established in 1928 as the national flag carrier. Upon the completion of Haneda Airport in 1931, it became the airline's hub. The airline initially operated domestic routes such as Tokyo–Osaka and Osaka–Fukuoka. In September 1929, it opened its first overseas route, which connected Fukuoka to Dalian in the Kwantung Leased Territory via Seoul and Pyongyang in Japanese Korea. After Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, the airline opened routes to major cities within this territory. The company was reorganised as Japan Airways in 1938. During the Second World War, it operated routes to various Japanese-occupied territories and Thailand. The company was dissolved immediately after the war, as civil aviation was prohibited by the Allied Occupation Forces. Civil aviation in Japan did not resume until the founding of Japan Airlines in 1951. Cathay Pacific was one of the first airlines to be launched among the other Asian countries in 1946. The license to operate as an airliner was granted by the federal government body after reviewing the necessity at the national assembly. The Hanjin occupies the largest ownership of Korean Air as well as few low-budget airlines as of now. Korean Air is one of the four founders of SkyTeam, which was established in 2000. Asiana Airlines, launched in 1988, joined Star Alliance in 2003. Korean Air and Asiana Airlines comprise one of the largest combined airline miles and number of passenger served at the regional market of Asian airline industry India was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first Asian airline companies was Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946, under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. On 31 July 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines. During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Thai Airways in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947. === Latin America and Caribbean === Among the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America and the Caribbean were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca (the first airline established in the Americas), Argentina with Aerolíneas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LATAM Airlines), Brazil with Varig, the Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, Puerto Rico with Puertorriquena; and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II. Puerto Rican commercial airlines such as Prinair, Oceanair, Fina Air and Vieques Air Link came much after the second world war, as did several others from other countries like Mexico's Interjet and Volaris, Venezuela's Aserca Airlines and others. The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicated in 2011 that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region. These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. Only four airline groups – Avianca, Panama's Copa, Mexico's Volaris, and LATAM Airlines – have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Argentina and formerly with some operations in the Dominican Republic. The Avianca group has its main operation in Colombia based around the hub in Bogotá, Colombia, as well as subsidiaries in various Latin American countries with hubs in San Salvador, El Salvador, as well as Lima, Peru, with a smaller operation in Ecuador. Copa has subsidiaries Copa Airlines Colombia and Wingo, both in Colombia, while Volaris of Mexico has Volaris Costa Rica and Volaris El Salvador, and the Irelandia group formerly included Viva Aerobus of Mexico, Viva Colombia and Viva Air Peru. == Regulation == === National === Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to much government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants. In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. === International === Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas. In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. == Economy == In 2017, 4.1 billion passengers have been carried by airlines in 41.9 million commercial scheduled flights (an average payload of 98 passengers), for 7.75 trillion passenger kilometres (an average trip of 1890 km) over 45,091 airline routes served globally. In 2016, air transport generated $704.4 billion of revenue in 2016, employed 10.2 million workers, supported 65.5 million jobs and $2.7 trillion of economic activity: 3.6% of the global GDP. In July 2016, the total weekly airline capacity was 181.1 billion Available Seat Kilometers (+6.9% compared to July 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacific, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin America and 5.4bn in Africa. === Costs === Airlines have substantial fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country. Analysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2–3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10–13%, handling companies 11–14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. There has been continuing cost competition from low cost airlines. Many companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects. The lines between full-service and low-cost airlines have become blurred – e.g., with most "full service" airlines introducing baggage check fees despite Southwest not doing so. Many airlines in the U.S. and elsewhere have experienced business difficulty. U.S. airlines that have declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy since 1990 have included American Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), Delta Air Lines, Northwest Airlines, Pan Am, United Airlines and US Airways (twice). Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or "hub") for its scheduled flights. Fuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs. Operating costs for US major airlines are primarily aircraft operating expense including jet fuel, aircraft maintenance, depreciation and aircrew for 44%, servicing expense for 29% (traffic 11%, passenger 11% and aircraft 7%), 14% for reservations and sales and 13% for overheads (administration 6% and advertising 2%). An average US major Boeing 757-200 flies 1,252 miles (2,015 km) stages 11.3 block hours per day and costs $2,550 per block hour: $923 of ownership, $590 of maintenance, $548 of fuel and $489 of crew; or $13.34 per 186 seats per block hour. For a Boeing 737-500, a low-cost carrier like Southwest have lower operating costs at $1,526 than a full service one like United at $2,974, and higher productivity with 399,746 ASM per day against 264,284, resulting in a unit cost of 0.38 $cts/ASM against 1.13 $cts/ASM. McKinsey observes that "newer technology, larger aircraft, and increasingly efficient operations continually drive down the cost of running an airline", from nearly 40 US cents per ASK at the beginning of the jet age, to just above 10 cents since 2000. Those improvements were passed onto the customer due to high competition: fares have been falling throughout the history of airlines. === Revenue === Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems. Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments. Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily. The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world. The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in "legacy" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately. Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for "no-shows", but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. Over January/February 2018, the cheapest airline surveyed by price comparator rome2rio was now-defunct Tigerair Australia with $0.06/km followed by AirAsia X with $0.07/km, while the most expensive was Charterlines, Inc. with $1.26/km followed by Buddha Air with $1.18/km. For the IATA, the global airline industry revenue was $754 billion in 2017 for a $38.4 billion collective profit, and should rise by 10.7% to $834 billion in 2018 for a $33.8 billion profit forecast, down by 12% due to rising jet fuel and labor costs. The demand for air transport will be less elastic for longer flights than for shorter flights, and more elastic for leisure travel than for business travel. Airlines often have a strong seasonality, with traffic low in winter and peaking in summer. In Europe the most extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August having more than ten times the winter traffic, as Jet2 is the most seasonal among low-cost carriers with July having seven times the January traffic, whereas legacy carriers are much less with only 85/115% variability. === Assets and financing === Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain; comparably Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs. A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period. In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long-distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways. === Airline alliances === The first airline alliance was formed in the 1930s when Pan Am and its subsidiary, Panair do Brasil, agreed to codeshare routes in Latin America when they overlapped with each other. Codesharing involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam (for example), and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales. A more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. The largest are Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld, and these accounted for over 60% of global commercial air traffic as of 2015. Alliances of airlines coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004. Often the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. === Largest airlines === The world's largest airlines can be defined in several ways. As of 2019, American Airlines Group was the largest by fleet size, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile. Delta Air Lines was the largest by revenue, assets value and market capitalization. Lufthansa Group was the largest by number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometres, Turkish Airlines by number of countries served and UPS Airlines by number of destinations served (though United Airlines was the largest passenger airline by number of destinations served). === State support === Historically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history. One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit. In December 1991, the collapse of Pan Am, an airline often credited for shaping the international airline industry, highlighted the financial complexities faced by major airline companies. Following the 1978 deregulation, U.S. carriers did not manage to make an aggregate profit for 12 years in 31, including four years where combined losses amounted to $10 billion, but rebounded with eight consecutive years of profits since 2010, including its four with over $10 billion profits. They drop loss-making routes, avoid fare wars and market share battles, limit capacity growth, add hub feed with regional jets to increase their profitability. They change schedules to create more connections, buy used aircraft, reduce international frequencies and leverage partnerships to optimize capacities and benefit from overseas connectivity. == Environment == Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming. Growth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions. Domestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from "green activists", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. Despite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. CO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world. Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009. There are projects on electric aircraft, and some of which are fully operational as of 2013. == Call signs == Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of one of its predecessors, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax. == Personnel == The various types of airline personnel include flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include: pilots (captain and first officer: some older aircraft also required a flight engineer and/or a navigator); flight attendants (led by a purser on larger aircraft); In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al) Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports, include Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance; Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance; Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance; Airframe and powerplant technicians; Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems; Flight dispatchers; Baggage handlers; Ramp Agents; Remote centralized weight and balancing; Gate agents; Ticket agents; Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees); Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport; Crew schedulers. Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations (including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks. == Trends == The pattern of ownership has been privatized since the mid-1980s, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. Many major airlines operating between the 1940s and 1980s were government-owned or government-established. However, most airlines from the earliest days of air travel in the 1920s and 1930s were personal businesses. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a deregulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2–3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett in 1999 said "the money that had been made since the dawn of aviation by all of this country's airline companies was zero. Absolutely zero." As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since the Airline Deregulation Act in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency. == Types == There are several types of passenger airlines, mainly: Mainline airlines operate flights by the airline's main operating unit, rather than by regional affiliates or subsidiaries. Regional airlines, non-"mainline" airlines that operate regional aircraft; regionals typically operate over shorter non-intercontinental distances, often as feeder services for legacy mainline networks. Low-cost carriers, giving a "basic", "no-frills" and perceived inexpensive service. Business class airline, an airline aimed at the business traveler, featuring all business class seating and amenities. Charter airlines, operating outside regular schedule intervals. Flag carriers, the historically nationally owned airlines that were considered representative of the country overseas. Legacy carriers, US carriers that predate the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. Major airlines of the United States, airlines with at least $1 billion in revenues. In addition, there are several cargo-only airlines. == See also == === Related lists === == References == == Bibliography == "A history of the world's airlines", R.E.G. Davies, Oxford U.P, 1964 "The airline encyclopedia, 1909–2000.” Myron J. Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002 "Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines," 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002. "The Airline Business in the 21st Century." Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001. == External links == "Chasing the Sun". PBS. Archived from the original on August 9, 2013. History of commercial aviation "Global Aviation Markets - Analysis" (PDF). Zinnov LLC. January 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2007. "Airline Cost Performance" (PDF). IATA. July 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 26, 2015. Retrieved January 15, 2019. "Airline industry". Encyclopedia.com. 2005.
Airliner	An airliner is a type of airplane for transporting passengers and air cargo. Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines. The modern and most common variant of the airliner is a long, tube shaped, and jet powered aircraft. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are also called twin-aisle because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single-aisle. These are generally used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts. Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops. These airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, and flag carriers, and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of a hub-and-spoke air transport model. The lightest aircraft are short-haul regional feeder airliner type aircraft that carry a small number of passengers are called commuter aircraft, commuterliners, feederliners, and air taxis, depending on their size, engines, how they are marketed, region of the world, and seating configurations. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats. == History == === Emergence === When the Wright brothers made the world's first sustained heavier-than-air flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight, performed in the Wright Flyer during 1903, was just 11 years before what is often defined as the world's first airliner. By the 1960s, airliners had expanded capabilities, making a significant impact on global society, economics, and politics. During 1913, Igor Sikorsky developed the first large multi-engine airplane, the Russky Vityaz. This aircraft was subsequently refined into the more practical Ilya Muromets, being furnished with dual controls for a pilot and copilot and a comfortable cabin with a lavatory, cabin heating and lighting. This large four-engine biplane was further adapted into an early bomber aircraft, preceding subsequent transport and bomber aircraft. It first flew on 10 December 1913 and took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard on 25 February 1914. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of the First World War which led to military applications being prioritised. === Interwar period === In 1919, shortly after the end of the First World War, large numbers of ex-military aircraft flooded the market. One such aircraft was the French Farman F.60 Goliath, which had originally been designed as a long-range heavy bomber; a number were converted for commercial use into passenger airliners starting in 1919, being able to accommodate a maximum of 14 seated passengers. and around 60 were built. Initially, several publicity flights were made, including one on 8 February 1919, when the Goliath flew 12 passengers from Toussus-le-Noble to RAF Kenley, near Croydon, despite having no permission from the British authorities to land. Dozens of early airlines subsequently procured the type. One high-profile flight, made on 11 August 1919, involved an F.60 flying eight passengers and a ton of supplies from Paris via Casablanca and Mogador to Koufa, 180 km (110 mi) north of Saint-Louis, Senegal, flying more than 4,500 km (2,800 mi). Another important airliner built in 1919 was the Airco DH.16; a redesigned Airco DH.9A with a wider fuselage to accommodate an enclosed cabin seating four passengers, plus pilot in an open cockpit. In March 1919, the prototype first flew at Hendon Aerodrome. Nine aircraft were built, all but one being delivered to the nascent airline, Aircraft Transport and Travel, which used the first aircraft for pleasure flying, and on 25 August 1919, it inaugurated the first scheduled international airline service from London to Paris. One aircraft was sold to the River Plate Aviation Company in Argentina, to operate a cross-river service between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Meanwhile, the competing Vickers converted its successful First World War era bomber, the Vickers Vimy, into a civilian version, the Vimy Commercial. It was redesigned with a larger-diameter fuselage (largely of spruce plywood), and first flew from the Joyce Green airfield in Kent on 13 April 1919. The world's first all-metal transport aircraft was the Junkers F.13, which also made its first flight in 1919. Junkers marketed the aircraft towards business travellers and commercial operators, and European entrepreneurs bought examples for their private use and business trips. Over 300 Junkers F 13s were built between 1919 and 1932. The Dutch Fokker company produced the Fokker F.II, then the enlarged F.III. These were used by the Dutch airline KLM, including on its Amsterdam-London service in 1921. A relatively reliable aircraft for the era, the Fokkers were flying to destinations across Europe, including Bremen, Brussels, Hamburg, and Paris. The Handley Page company in Britain produced the Handley Page Type W, its first civil transport aircraft. It housed two crew in an open cockpit and 15 passengers in an enclosed cabin. Powered by two 450 hp (340 kW) Napier Lion engines, the prototype first flew on 4 December 1919, shortly after it was displayed at the 1919 Paris Air Show at Le Bourget. It was ordered by the Belgian firm Sabena, a further ten Type Ws were produced under license in Belgium by SABCA. In 1921 the Air Ministry ordered three aircraft, built as the W.8b, for use by Handley Page Transport, and later by Imperial Airways, on services to Paris and Brussels. In France, the Bleriot-SPAD S.33 was introduced during the early 1920s. It was commercially successful, initially serving the Paris-London route, and later on continental routes. The enclosed cabin could carry four passengers with an extra seat in the cockpit. It was further developed into the Blériot-SPAD S.46. Throughout the 1920s, companies in Britain and France were at the forefront of the civil airliner industry. By 1921, the capacity of airliners needed to be increased to achieve more favourable economics. The English company de Havilland, built the 10-passenger DH.29 monoplane, while starting work on the design of the DH.32, an eight-seater biplane with a more economical but less powerful Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. For more capacity, DH.32 development was replaced by the DH.34 biplane, accommodating 10 passengers. A commercially successful aircraft, Daimler Airway ordered a batch of nine. The Ford Trimotor had two engines mounted on the wings and one in the nose, and a slabsided body, it carried eight passengers and was produced from 1925 to 1933. It was an important early airliner in America. It was used by the predecessor to Trans World Airlines, and by other airlines long after production ceased. The Trimotor helped to popularise numerous aspects of modern aviation infrastructure, including paved runways, passenger terminals, hangars, airmail, and radio navigation. Pan Am opened up transoceanic service in the late 1920s and early 1930s, based on a series of large seaplanes – the Sikorsky S-38 through Sikorsky S-42. By the 1930s, the airliner industry had matured and large consolidated national airlines were established with regular international services that spanned the globe, including Imperial Airways in Britain, Lufthansa in Germany, KLM in the Netherlands, and United Airlines in America. Multi-engined aircraft were now capable of transporting dozens of passengers in comfort. During the 1930s, the British de Havilland Dragon emerged as a short-haul, low-capacity airliner. Its relatively simple design could carry six passengers, each with 45 lb (20 kg) of luggage, on the London-Paris route on a fuel consumption of 13 gal (49 L) per hour. The DH.84 Dragon entered worldwide service. During early August 1934, one performed the first non-stop flight between the Canadian mainland and Britain in 30 hours 55 minutes, although the intended destination had originally been Baghdad in Iraq. British production of the Dragon ended in favour of the de Havilland Dragon Rapide, a faster and more comfortable successor. By November 1934, series production of the Dragon Rapide had commenced. De Havilland invested into advanced features including elongated rear windows, cabin heating, thickened wing tips, and a strengthened airframe for a higher gross weight of 5,500 lb (2,500 kg). Later aircraft were amongst the first airliners to be fitted with flaps for improved landing performance, along with downwards-facing recognition light and metal propellers, which were often retrofitted to older aircraft. It was also used in military roles; civil Dragon Rapides were impressed into military service during the Second World War. Metal airliners came into service in the 1930s. In the United States, the Boeing 247, and the 14-passenger Douglas DC-2, flew during the first half of the decade, while the more powerful, faster, 21–32 passenger Douglas DC-3 first appeared in 1935. DC-3s were produced in quantity for the Second World War and were sold as surplus afterward, becoming widespread within the commercial sector. It was one of first airliners to be profitable without the support of postal or government subsidies. Long-haul flights were expanded during the 1930s as Pan American Airways and Imperial Airways competed on transatlantic travel using fleets of flying boats, such as the British Short Empire and the American Boeing 314. Imperial Airways' order for 28 Empire flying boats was viewed by some as a bold gamble. At the time, flying boats were the only practical means of building aircraft of such size and weight as land-based aircraft would have unfeasibly poor field performance. One Boeing 314, registration NC18602, became the first commercial plane to circumnavigate the globe during December 1941 and January 1942. === The postwar era === ==== United Kingdom ==== In the United Kingdom, the Brabazon Committee was formed in 1942 under John Moore-Brabazon, 1st Baron Brabazon of Tara to forecast advances in aviation technology and the air transport needs of the postwar British Empire (in South Asia, Africa, and the Near and Far East) and Commonwealth (Australia, Canada, New Zealand). For British use, multi-engine aircraft types were allegedly split between the US for military transport aircraft and the UK for heavy bombers. That such a policy was suggested or implemented have been disputed, at least by Sir Peter Masefield. British aircraft manufacturers were tied up to fulfill military requirements, and had no free capacity to address other matters though the war. The committee final report pushed four designs for the state-owned airlines British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and later British European Airways (BEA): three piston-powered aircraft of varying sizes, and a jet-powered 100-seat design at the request of Geoffrey de Havilland, involved in the first jet fighters development. After a brief contest, the Type I design was given to the Bristol Aeroplane Company, building on a "100 ton bomber" submission. This evolved into the Bristol Brabazon but this project folded in 1951 as BOAC lost interest and the first aircraft needed a costly wing re-design to accommodate the Bristol Proteus engine. The Type II was split between the de Havilland Dove and Airspeed Ambassador conventional piston designs, and the Vickers model powered by newly developed turboprops: first flown in 1948, the VC.2 Viceroy was the first turboprop design to enter service; a commercial success with 445 Viscounts built. The Type III requirement led to the conventional Avro Tudor and the more ambitious Bristol Britannia, although both aircraft suffered protracted developments, with the latter entering service with BOAC in February 1957, over seven years following its order. The jet-powered Type IV became the de Havilland Comet in 1949. It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines buried in the wings, a pressurised fuselage, and large square windows. On 2 May 1952, the Comet took off on the world's first jetliner flight carrying fare-paying passengers and simultaneously inaugurated scheduled service between London and Johannesburg. However, roughly one year after introduction, three Comets broke up mid-flight due to airframe metal fatigue, not well understood at the time. The Comet was grounded and tested to discover the cause, while rival manufacturers heeded the lessons learned while developing their own aircraft. The improved Comet 2 and the prototype Comet 3 culminated in the redesigned Comet 4 series which debuted in 1958 and had a productive career over 30 years, but sales never fully recovered. By the 1960s, the UK had lost the airliner market to the US due to the Comet disaster and a smaller domestic market, not regained by later designs like the BAC 1-11, Vickers VC10, and Hawker Siddeley Trident. The STAC committee was formed to consider supersonic designs and worked with Bristol to create the Bristol 223, a 100-passenger transatlantic airliner. The effort was later merged with similar efforts in France to create the Concorde supersonic airliner to share the cost. ==== United States ==== The first batch of the Douglas DC-4s went to the U.S. Army and Air Forces, and was named the C-54 Skymaster. Some ex-military DC-6s were later converted into airliners, with both passenger and cargo versions flooding the market shortly after the war's end. Douglas also developed a pressurized version of the DC-4, which it designated the Douglas DC-6. Rival company Lockheed produced the Constellation, a triple-tailed aircraft with a wider fuselage than the DC-4. The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was based on the C-97 Stratofreighter military transport, it had a double deck and a pressurized fuselage. Convair produced the Convair 240, a 40-person pressurized airplane; 566 examples flew. Convair later developed the Convair 340, which was slightly larger and could accommodate between 44 and 52 passengers, of which 311 were produced. The firm also commenced work on the Convair 37, a relatively large double-deck airliner that would have served transcontinental routes; however, the project was abandoned due to a lack of customer demand and its high development costs. Rival planes include the Martin 2-0-2 and Martin 4-0-4, but the 2-0-2 had safety concerns and was unpressurized, while the 4-0-4 only sold around 100 units. During the postwar years, engines became much larger and more powerful, and safety features such as deicing, navigation, and weather information were added to the planes. American planes were allegedly more comfortable and had superior flight decks than those produced in Europe. ==== France ==== In 1936, the French Air Ministry requested transatlantic flying boats that could hold at least 40 passengers, leading to three Latécoère 631s introduced by Air France in July 1947. However, two crashed and the third was removed from service over safety concerns. The SNCASE Languedoc was the first French post-war airliner. Accommodating up to 44 seats, 40 aircraft were completed for Air France between October 1945 and April 1948. Air France withdrew the last Languedoc from its domestic routes in 1954, being replaced by later designs. First flying in February 1949, the four-engined Breguet Deux-Ponts was a double-decker transport for passengers and cargo. Air France used it on its busiest routes, including from Paris to the Mediterranean area and to London. The Sud-Aviation Caravelle was developed during the late 1950s as the first short range jet airliner. The nose and cockpit layout were licensed from the de Havilland Comet, along with some fuselage elements. Entering service in mid 1959, 172 Caravelles had been sold within four years and six versions were in production by 1963. Sud Aviation then focused its design team on a Caravelle successor. The Super-Caravelle was a supersonic transport project of similar size and range to the Caravelle. It was merged with the similar Bristol Aeroplane Company project into the Anglo-French Concorde. The Concorde entered service in January 1967 as the second and last commercial supersonic transport, after large overruns and delays, costing £1.3 billion. All subsequent French airliner efforts were part of the Airbus pan-European initiative. ==== USSR ==== Soon after the war, most of the Soviet fleet of airliners consisted of DC-3s or Lisunov Li-2s. These planes were in desperate need of replacement, and in 1946, the Ilyushin Il-12 made its first flight. The Il-12 was very similar in design to American Convair 240, except was unpressurized. In 1953, the Ilyushin Il-14 made its first flight, and this version was equipped with much more powerful engines. The main contribution that the Soviets made in regards to airliners was the Antonov An-2. This plane is a biplane, unlike most of the other airliners, and sold more units than any other transport plane. == Types == === Narrow-body airliners === The most common airliners are the narrow-body aircraft, or single-aisles. The earliest jet airliners were narrowbodies: the initial de Havilland Comet, the Boeing 707 and its competitor the Douglas DC-8. They were followed by smaller models : the Douglas DC-9 and its MD-80/MD-90/Boeing 717 derivatives; the Boeing 727, 737 and 757 using the 707 cabin cross-section; or the Tupolev Tu-154, Ilyushin Il-18, and the Ilyushin Il-62. Currently produced narrow-body airliners include the Airbus A220, A320 family, Boeing 737, Embraer E-Jet family and Comac C919, generally used for medium-haul flights with 100 to 240 passengers. They could be joined by the in-development Irkut MC-21. === Wide-body airliners === The larger wide-body aircraft, or twin-aisle as they have two separate aisles in the cabin, are used for long-haul flights. The first was the Boeing 747 quadjet, followed by the trijets: the Lockheed L-1011 and the Douglas DC-10, then its MD-11 stretch. Then other quadjets were introduced: the Ilyushin Il-86 and Il-96, the Airbus A340 and the double-deck A380. Twinjets were also put into service: the Airbus A300/A310, A330 and A350; the 767, 777 and 787. === Regional aircraft === Regional airliners seat fewer than 100 passengers. These smaller aircraft are often used to feed traffic at large airline hubs to larger aircraft operated by the major mainline carriers, legacy carriers, or flag carriers; often sharing the same livery. Regional jets include the Bombardier CRJ100/200 and Bombardier CRJ700 series, or the Embraer ERJ family. Currently produced turboprop regional airliners include the Dash-8 series, and the ATR 42/72. === Commuter aircraft === Light aircraft can be used as small commuter airliners, or as air taxis. Twin turboprops carrying up to 19 passengers include the Beechcraft 1900, Fairchild Metro, Jetstream 31, DHC-6 Twin Otter and Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante. Smaller airliners include the single-engined turboprops like the Cessna Caravan and Pilatus PC-12; or twin piston-powered aircraft made by Cessna, Piper, Britten-Norman, and Beechcraft. They often lack lavatories, stand-up cabins, pressurization, galleys, overhead storage bins, reclining seats, or a flight attendant. == Engines == Until the beginning of the Jet Age, piston engines were common on propliners such as the Douglas DC-3. Nearly all modern airliners are now powered by turbine engines, either turbofans or turboprops. Gas turbine engines operate efficiently at much higher altitudes, are more reliable than piston engines, and produce less vibration and noise. The use of a common fuel type – kerosene-based jet fuel – is another advantage. == Airliner variants == Some variants of airliners have been developed for carrying freight or for luxury corporate use. Many airliners have also been modified for government use as VIP transports and for military functions such as airborne tankers (for example, the Vickers VC10, Lockheed L-1011, Boeing 707), air ambulance (USAF/USN McDonnell Douglas DC-9), reconnaissance (Embraer ERJ 145, Saab 340, and Boeing 737), as well as for troop-carrying roles. == Configuration == Modern jetliners are usually low-wing designs with two engines mounted underneath the swept wings, while turboprop aircraft are slow enough to use straight wings. Smaller airliners sometimes have their engines mounted on either side of the rear fuselage. Numerous advantages and disadvantages exist due to this arrangement. Perhaps the most important advantage to mounting the engines under the wings is that the total aircraft weight is more evenly distributed across the wingspan, which imposes less bending moment on the wings and allows for a lighter wing structure. This factor becomes more important as aircraft weight increases, and no in-production airliners have both a maximum takeoff weight more than 50 tons and engines mounted on the fuselage. The Antonov An-148 is the only in-production jetliner with high-mounted wings (usually seen in military transport aircraft), which reduces the risk of damage from unpaved runways. Except for a few experimental or military designs, all aircraft built to date have had all of their weight lifted off the ground by airflow across the wings. In terms of aerodynamics, the fuselage has been a mere burden. NASA and Boeing are currently developing a blended wing body design in which the entire airframe, from wingtip to wingtip, contributes lift. This promises a significant gain in fuel efficiency. == Current manufacturers == The major manufacturers with large aircraft airliners currently in production include: Airbus (France/Germany/Spain/United Kingdom/Canada) Antonov (Ukraine) ATR Aircraft (France/Italy) Boeing (United States) Britten-Norman (United Kingdom) Comac (China) De Havilland Canada (Canada) Embraer (Brazil) Irkut Corporation (UAC, Russia, includes Sukhoi) Let Kunovice (Czech Republic) Xi'an Aircraft Industrial Corporation (China) The narrow-body and wide-body airliner market is dominated by Airbus and Boeing, and the regional airliner market is shared between ATR Aircraft, De Havilland Canada, and Embraer. Setting up a reliable customer support network, ensuring uptime, availability and support 24/7 and anywhere, is critical for the success of airliner manufacturers. Boeing and Airbus are ranked 1 and 2 in customer satisfaction for aftermarket support by a survey by Inside MRO and Air Transport World, and this is a reason why Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation purchased the Bombardier CRJ program. It is an entry barrier for new entrants like the Xian MA700 and Comac C919, with no credible previous experience with the MA60, or the Irkut MC-21 after the Sukhoi Superjet 100. == Notable airliners == Boeing 247 – the first modern airliner, with all-metal construction and retractable landing gear Douglas DC-3 – very widespread, still serving Boeing 307 Stratoliner – the first with a pressurized cabin Boeing 377 Stratocruiser - popularized multiple passenger decks Vickers Viscount – the first turboprop airliner Lockheed Constellation – popularized the pressurized cabin Antonov An-2 – a single engine biplane, a widespread large utility aircraft De Havilland Comet – the first operational jetliner, grounded by early crashes Tupolev Tu-104 – the first twinjet, developed into the first turbofan-powered airliner, the Tupolev Tu-124 Boeing 707 – the most successful early jetliner, along the less widespread Douglas DC-8 Sud Aviation Caravelle – the first jetliner with rear podded engines, the configuration of the more widespread Douglas DC-9 Boeing 737 – the most successful jet airliner by deliveries as of 2022 Tupolev Tu-144 – the first operational supersonic transport in 1975, with passenger service 1977-78 Concorde – the first supersonic airliner in passenger service, operating from 1976 to 2003; the first airliner with fly-by-wire flight controls Boeing 747 – the first wide-body aircraft and first high-bypass turbofan-powered airliner, the largest passenger airliner until the A380 McDonnell Douglas DC-10 – the first trijet wide-body, along the later Lockheed L-1011 TriStar Airbus A300 – the first twinjet wide-body, followed by the Boeing 767 Airbus A320 – the first airliner with digital fly-by-wire flight controls, the most ordered jet airliner as of November 2019 Boeing 777 – the largest twinjet Airbus A380 – full double-deck aircraft, the largest passenger airliner Boeing 787 – the first airliner mostly constructed with composite materials == In production aircraft == == Fleet == The airliner fleet went from 13,500 in 2000 to 25,700 in 2017: 16% to 30.7% in Asia/Pacific (2,158 to 7,915), 34.7% to 23.6% in USA (4,686 to 6,069) and 24% to 20.5% in Europe (3,234 to 5,272). In 2018, there were 29,398 airliners in service: 26,935 passenger transports and 2,463 freighters, while 2,754 others were stored. The largest fleet was in Asia-Pacific with 8,808 (5% stored), followed by 8,572 in North America (10% stored), 7,254 in Europe (9% stored), 2,027 in Latin America, 1,510 in Middle East and 1,347 in Africa. Narrowbody are dominant with 16,235, followed by 5,581 Widebodies, 3,743 Turboprops, 3,565 Regional jets and 399 Others. By the end of 2018, there were 1,826 parked or in storage jetliners out of 29,824 in service (6.1%): 1,434 narrowbodies and 392 widebodies, down from 9.8% of the fleet at the end of 2012 and 11.3% at the end of 2001. == Market == Since it began, the jet airliner market had a recurring pattern of seven years of growth followed by three years of deliveries falling 30–40%, except a steady growth from 2004 due to the economic rise of China going from 3% of world market in 2001 to 22% in 2015, expensive jet fuel till 2014 stimulating old jets replacement allowed by low interest rates since 2008, and strong airline passenger demand since. In 2004, 718 Airbus and Boeings were delivered, worth $39.3 billion; 1,466 are expected in 2017, worth $104.4 billion: a growth by 3.5 from 2004 to 2020 is unprecedented and highly unusual for any mature market. In 2016, the deliveries went for 38% in Asia-Pacific, 25% in Europe, 22% in North America, 7% in Middle East, 6% in South America and 2% in Africa. 1,020 narrowbodies were delivered and their backlog reach 10891: 4,991 A320neo, 644 A320ceo; 3,593 737 Max, 835 737NG, 348 CSeries, 305 C919 and 175 MC-21; while 398 widebodies were delivered : 137 Dreamliners and 99 B777 for Boeing (65%) against 63 A330 and 49 A350 for Airbus, more than 2,400 widebodies were in backlog, led by the A350 with 753 (31%) then the Boeing 787 with 694 (28%). The most important driver of orders is airline profitability, itself driven mainly by world GDP growth but also supply and demand balance and oil prices, while new programmes by Airbus and Boeing help to stimulate aircraft demand. In 2016, 38% of the 25 years old airliners had been retired, 50% of the 28 years old : there will be 523 aircraft reaching 25 years old in 2017, 1,127 in 2026 and 1,628 in 2041. Deliveries rose by 80% from 2004 to 2016, they represented 4.9% of the fleet in 2004 and 5.9% in 2016, down from 8% previously. Oil prices and airshow orders are trending together. In 2020, deliveries were down by more than 50% compared to 2019 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, after 10 years of growth. == Storage, scrapping and recycling == Storage can be an adjustment variable for the airliner fleet: as Jan–Apr 2018 RPKs are up by 7% over a year and FTKs up by 5.1%, the IATA reports 81 net aircraft went back from storage (132 recalled and 51 stored) in April. It is the second month of storage contraction after eight of expansion and the largest in four years, while new aircraft deliveries fell slightly to 448 from 454 due to supply-chain issues and in-service issues grounding others. Retirements were down by 8% and utilization up by 2%, according to Canaccord Genuity, driving used aircraft and engines values up while MRO shops have unexpected demand for legacy products like the PW4000 and GE CF6. == Cabin configurations and features == An airliner will usually have several classes of seating: first class, business class, and/or economy class (which may be referred to as coach class or tourist class, and sometimes has a separate "premium" economy section with more legroom and amenities). The seats in more expensive classes are wider, more comfortable, and have more amenities such as "lie flat" seats for more comfortable sleeping on long flights. Generally, the more expensive the class, the better the beverage and meal service. Domestic flights generally have a two-class configuration, usually first or business class and coach class, although many airlines instead offer all-economy seating. International flights generally have either a two-class configuration or a three-class configuration, depending on the airline, route and aircraft type. Many airliners offer movies or audio/video on demand (this is standard in first and business class on many international flights and may be available on economy). Cabins of all classes have lavatory facilities, reading lights, and air vents. Some larger airliners have a rest compartment reserved for crew use during breaks. === Seats === The types of seats that are provided and how much legroom is given to each passenger are decisions made by the individual airlines, not the aircraft manufacturers. Seats are mounted in "tracks" on the floor of the cabin and can be moved back and forth by the maintenance staff or removed altogether. One driver of airline profitability is how many passengers can be seated in economy class cabins, meaning that airline companies have an incentive to place seats close together to fit as many passengers in as possible. In contrast, ‘premium class’ seat configurations provide more space for travelers. Passengers seated in an exit row (the row of seats adjacent to an emergency exit) usually have substantially more legroom than those seated in the remainder of the cabin, while the seats directly in front of the exit row may have less legroom and may not even recline (for evacuation safety reasons). However, passengers seated in an exit row may be required to assist cabin crew during an emergency evacuation of the aircraft opening the emergency exit and assisting fellow passengers to the exit. As a precaution, many airlines prohibit young people under the age of 15 from being seated in the exit row. The seats are designed to withstand strong forces so as not to break or come loose from their floor tracks during turbulence or accidents. The backs of seats are often equipped with a fold-down tray for eating, writing, or as a place to set up a portable computer, or a music or video player. Seats without another row of seats in front of them have a tray that is either folded into the armrest or that clips into brackets on the underside of the armrests. However, seats in premium cabins generally have trays in the armrests or clip-on trays, regardless of whether there is another row of seats in front of them. Seatbacks now often feature small colour LCD screens for videos, television and video games. Controls for this display as well as an outlet to plug in audio headsets are normally found in the armrest of each seat. === Overhead bins === The overhead bins, also known as overhead lockers or pivot bins, are used for stowing carry-on baggage and other items. While the airliner manufacturer will normally specify a standard version of the product to supply, airlines can choose to have bins of differing size, shape, or color installed. Over time, overhead bins evolved out of what were originally overhead shelves that were used for little more than coat and briefcase storage. As concerns about falling debris during turbulence or in accidents increased, enclosed bins became the norm. Bins have increased in size to accommodate the larger carry-on baggage passengers can bring onto the aircraft. Newer bin designs have included a handrail, useful when moving through the cabin. === Passenger service units === Above the passenger seats are Passenger Service Units (PSU). These typically contain reading lights, air vents, and a flight attendant call light. On most narrowbody aircraft (and some Airbus A300s and A310s), the flight attendant call button and the buttons to control the reading lights are located directly on the PSU, while on most widebody aircraft, the flight attendant call button and the reading light control buttons are usually part of the in-flight entertainment system. The units frequently have small "Fasten Seat Belt" and "No Smoking" illuminated signage and may also contain a speaker for the cabin public address system. On some newer aircraft, a "Turn off electronic devices" sign is used instead of the "No Smoking" sign, as smoking isn't permitted on board the aircraft anyway. The PSU will also normally contain the drop-down oxygen masks which are activated if there is a sudden drop in cabin pressure. These are supplied with oxygen by means of a chemical oxygen generator. By using a chemical reaction rather than a connection to an oxygen tank, these devices supply breathing oxygen for long enough for the airliner to descend to thicker, more breathable air. Oxygen generators do generate considerable heat in the process. Because of this, the oxygen generators are thermally shielded and are only allowed in commercial airliners when properly installed – they are not permitted to be loaded as freight on passenger-carrying flights. ValuJet Flight 592 crashed on May 11, 1996, as a result of improperly loaded chemical oxygen generators. === Cabin pressurization === Airliners developed since the 1940s have had pressurized cabins (or, more accurately, pressurized hulls including baggage holds) to enable them to carry passengers safely at high altitudes where low oxygen levels and air pressure would otherwise cause sickness or death. High altitude flight enabled airliners to fly above most weather systems that cause turbulent or dangerous flying conditions, and also to fly faster and further as there is less drag due to the lower air density. Pressurization is applied using compressed air, in most cases bled from the engines, and is managed by an environmental control system which draws in clean air, and vents stale air out through a valve. Pressurization presents design and construction challenges to maintain the structural integrity and sealing of the cabin and hull and to prevent rapid decompression. Some of the consequences include small round windows, doors that open inwards and are larger than the door hole, and an emergency oxygen system. To maintain a pressure in the cabin equivalent to an altitude close to sea level would, at a cruising altitude around 10,000 m (33,000 ft), create a pressure difference between inside the aircraft and outside the aircraft that would require greater hull strength and weight. Most people do not suffer ill effects up to an altitude of 1,800–2,500 m (5,900–8,200 ft), and maintaining cabin pressure at this equivalent altitude significantly reduces the pressure difference and therefore the required hull strength and weight. A side effect is that passengers experience some discomfort as the cabin pressure changes during ascent and descent to the majority of airports, which are at low altitudes. === Cabin climate control === The air bled from the engines is hot and requires cooling by air conditioning units. It is also extremely dry at cruising altitude, and this causes sore eyes, dry skin and mucosa on long flights. Although humidification technology could raise its relative humidity to comfortable middle levels, this is not done since humidity promotes corrosion to the inside of the hull and risks condensation which could short electrical systems, so for safety reasons it is deliberately kept to a low value, around 10%. Another problem of the air coming from the ventilation (unto which the oil lubrication system of the engines is hooked up) is that fumes from components in the synthetic oils can sometimes travel along, causing passengers, pilots and crew to be intoxicated. The illness it causes is called aerotoxic syndrome. == Baggage holds == Airliners must have space on board to store "checked" baggage – that which will not safely fit in the passenger cabin. Designed to hold baggage as well as freight, these compartments are called "cargo bins", "baggage holds", "luggage holds", or occasionally "pits". Occasionally baggage holds may be referred to as cargo decks on the largest of aircraft. These compartments can be accessed through doors on the outside of the aircraft. Depending on the aircraft, baggage holds are normally inside the hull and are therefore pressurized just like the passenger cabin although they may not be heated. While lighting is normally installed for use by the loading crew, typically the compartment is unlit when the door is closed. Baggage holds on modern airliners are equipped with fire detection equipment and larger aircraft have automated or remotely activated fire-fighting devices installed. === Narrow-body airliners === Most "narrow-body" airliners with more than 100 seats have space below the cabin floor, while smaller aircraft often have a special compartment separate from the passenger area but on the same level. Baggage is normally stacked within the bin by hand, sorted by destination category. Netting that fits across the width of the bin is secured to limit movement of the bags. Airliners often carry items of freight and mail. These may be loaded separately from the baggage or mixed in if they are bound for the same destination. For securing bulky items "hold down" rings are provided to tie items into place. === Wide-body airliners === "Wide-body" airliners frequently have a compartment like the ones described above, typically called a "bulk bin". It is normally used for late arriving luggage or bags which may have been checked at the gate. However, most baggage and loose freight items are loaded into containers called Unit Load Devices (ULDs), often referred to as "cans". ULDs come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but the most common model is the LD3. This particular container has approximately the same height as the cargo compartment and fits across half of its width. ULDs are loaded with baggage and are transported to the aircraft on dolly carts and loaded into the baggage hold by a loader designed for the task. By means of belts and rollers an operator can maneuver the ULD from the dolly cart, up to the aircraft baggage hold door, and into the aircraft. Inside the hold, the floor is also equipped with drive wheels and rollers that an operator inside can use to move the ULD properly into place. Locks in the floor are used to hold the ULD in place during flight. For consolidated freight loads, like a pallet of boxes or an item too oddly shaped to fit into a container, flat metal pallets that resemble large baking sheets that are compatible with the loading equipment are used. == See also == === Lists === Regional jets List of civil aircraft List of regional airliners List of airliners by maximum takeoff weight === Topics === Aircraft design process Aircraft spotting Aviation and the environment Aviation safety Flight length Flight planning == References == === Bibliography === == Further reading == Newhouse, John (1982). The Sporty Game: The High-Risk Competitive Business of Making and Selling Commercial Airliners. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-51447-5. Jim Winchester (15–21 November 2016). "World Airliner Directory". Flight International. "An Overview of Commercial Aircraft 2017 - 2018" (PDF). DVB Bank. October 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
Airplane	An airplane (American English), or aeroplane (Commonwealth English), informally plane, is a fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller, or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometers of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled such as drones. The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight". They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, when he set forth the concept of the modern airplane (and later built and flew models and successful passenger-carrying gliders) and the work of German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal, who, between 1867 and 1896, also studied heavier-than-air flight. Lilienthal's flight attempts in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft technology continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939. The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 60 years, from 1958 to 2019. == Etymology and usage == First attested in English in the late 19th century (prior to the first sustained powered flight), the word airplane, like aeroplane, derives from the French aéroplane, which comes from the Greek ἀήρ (aēr), "air" and either Latin planus, "level", or Greek πλάνος (planos), "wandering". "Aéroplane" originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air. In an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the term "airplane" is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and Ireland and most of the Commonwealth, the term "aeroplane" () is usually applied to these aircraft. == History == === Antecedents === Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and the Vimana in ancient Indian epics. Around 400 BC in Greece, Archytas was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have flown some 200 m (660 ft). This machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century Andalusian and Arabic-language poet Abbas ibn Firnas and the 11th-century English monk Eilmer of Malmesbury; both experiments injured their pilots. Leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds (1502), noting for the first time the distinction between the center of mass and the center of pressure of flying birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, and he built a successful passenger-carrying glider in 1853. In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. Then the Russian Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs. In 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34 m) wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270 kW) steam engines driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The craft was uncontrollable and it is presumed that Maxim realized this because he subsequently abandoned work on it. Between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal developed heavier-than-air flight. He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful gliding flights. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing, his flight attempts in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight, the "Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat" is considered to be the first airplane in series production and his work heavily inspired the Wright brothers. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed a box kite that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft. === Early powered flights === The Frenchman Clement Ader constructed his first of three flying machines in 1886, the Éole. It was a bat-like design run by a lightweight steam engine of his own invention, with four cylinders developing 20 horsepower (15 kW), driving a four-blade propeller. The engine weighed no more than 4 kilograms per kilowatt (6.6 lb/hp). The wings had a span of 14 m (46 ft). All-up weight was 300 kilograms (660 lb). On 9 October 1890, Ader attempted to fly the Éole. Aviation historians give credit to this effort as a powered take-off and uncontrolled hop of approximately 50 m (160 ft) at a height of approximately 200 mm (7.9 in). Ader's two subsequent machines were not documented to have achieved flight. The American Wright brothers's flights in 1903 are recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the standard-setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight". By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major inspiration for their decision to pursue manned flight. In 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made what was claimed to be the first airplane flight unassisted by catapult and set the first world record recognized by the Aéro-Club de France by flying 220 meters (720 ft) in less than 22 seconds. This flight was also certified by the FAI. An early aircraft design that brought together the modern monoplane tractor configuration was the Blériot VIII design of 1908. It had movable tail surfaces controlling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing warping or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with a joystick and rudder bar. It was an important predecessor of his later Blériot XI Channel-crossing aircraft of the summer of 1909. World War I served as a testbed for the use of the airplane as a weapon. Airplanes demonstrated their potential as mobile observation platforms, then proved themselves to be machines of war capable of causing casualties to the enemy. The earliest known aerial victory with a synchronized machine gun-armed fighter aircraft occurred in 1915, by German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens. Fighter aces appeared; the greatest (by number of Aerial Combat victories) was Manfred von Richthofen, also known as the Red Baron. Following WWI, aircraft technology continued to develop. Alcock and Brown crossed the Atlantic non-stop for the first time in 1919. The first international commercial flights took place between the United States and Canada in 1919. Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. They were an essential component of the military strategies of the period, such as the German Blitzkrieg, The Battle of Britain, and the American and Japanese aircraft carrier campaigns of the Pacific War. === Development of jet aircraft === The first practical jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178, which was tested in 1939. In 1943, the Messerschmitt Me 262, the first operational jet fighter aircraft, went into service in the German Luftwaffe. The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. The Boeing 747 was the world's biggest passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed by the Airbus A380 in 2005. Supersonic airliner flights, including those of the Concorde, have been limited to over-water flight at supersonic speed because of their sonic boom, which is prohibited over most populated land areas. The high cost of operation per passenger-mile and a deadly crash in 2000 induced the operators of the Concorde to remove it from service. == Propulsion == === Propeller === An aircraft propeller, or airscrew, converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source, into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached two or more radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. Three types of aviation engines used to power propellers include reciprocating engines (or piston engines), gas turbines, and electric motors. The amount of thrust a propeller creates is determined, in part, by its disk area—the area through which the blades rotate. The limitation on blade speed is the speed of sound; as when the blade tip exceeds the speed of sound, shock waves decrease propeller efficiency. The rpm required to generate a given tip speed is inversely proportional to the diameter of the propeller. The upper design speed limit for propeller-driven aircraft is Mach 0.6. Aircraft designed to go faster than that employ jet engines. ==== Reciprocating engine ==== Reciprocating engines in aircraft have three main variants, radial, in-line and flat or horizontally opposed engine. The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant. An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders. ==== Gas turbine ==== A turboprop gas turbine engine consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle, which provide power from a shaft through a reduction gearing to the propeller. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. ==== Electric motor ==== An electric aircraft runs on electric motors with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors, power beaming, or batteries. Currently, flying electric aircraft are mostly experimental prototypes, including manned and unmanned aerial vehicles, but there are some production models on the market. === Jet === Jet aircraft are propelled by jet engines, which are used because the aerodynamic limitations of propellers do not apply to jet propulsion. These engines are much more powerful than a reciprocating engine for a given size or weight and are comparatively quiet and work well at higher altitude. Variants of the jet engine include the ramjet and the scramjet, which rely on high airspeed and intake geometry to compress the combustion air, prior to the introduction and ignition of fuel. Rocket motors provide thrust by burning a fuel with an oxidizer and expelling gas through a nozzle. ==== Turbofan ==== Most jet aircraft use turbofan jet engines, which employ a gas turbine to drive a ducted fan, which accelerates air around the turbine to provide thrust in addition to that which is accelerated through the turbine. The ratio of air passing around the turbine to that passing through is called the by-pass ratio. They represent a compromise between turbojet (with no bypass) and turboprop forms of aircraft propulsion (primarily powered with bypass air). Subsonic aircraft, such as airliners, employ high by-pass jet engines for fuel efficiency. Supersonic aircraft, such as jet fighters, use low-bypass turbofans. However at supersonic speeds, the air entering the engine must be decelerated to a subsonic speed and then re-accelerated back to supersonic speeds after combustion. An afterburner may be used on combat aircraft to increase power for short periods of time by injecting fuel directly into the hot exhaust gases. Many jet aircraft also use thrust reversers to slow down after landing. ==== Ramjet ==== A ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high-speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they can generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of propulsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed. The Lockheed D-21 was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was launched from a parent aircraft. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to force air through the engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is added and ignited, which heats and expands the air to provide thrust. ==== Scramjet ==== A scramjet is a specialized ramjet that uses internal supersonic airflow to compress, combine with fuel, combust and accelerate the exhaust to provide thrust. The engine operates at supersonic speeds only. The NASA X-43, an experimental unmanned scramjet, set a world speed record in 2004 for a jet-powered aircraft with a speed of Mach 9.7, nearly 12,100 kilometers per hour (7,500 mph). ==== Rocket ==== Whereas jet aircraft use the atmosphere both as a source of oxidant and of mass to accelerate reactively behind the aircraft, rocket aircraft carry the oxidizer on board and accelerate the burned fuel and oxidizer backwards as the sole source of mass for reaction. Liquid fuel and oxidizer may be pumped into a combustion chamber or a solid fuel with oxidizer may burn in the fuel chamber. Whether liquid or solid-fueled, the hot gas is accelerated through a nozzle. In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft. The first plane to break the sound barrier in level flight was a rocket plane – the Bell X-1 in 1948. The North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude records in the 1960s and pioneered engineering concepts for later aircraft and spacecraft. Military transport aircraft may employ rocket-assisted take offs for short-field situations. Otherwise, rocket aircraft include spaceplanes, like SpaceShipTwo, for travel beyond the Earth's atmosphere and sport aircraft developed for the short-lived Rocket Racing League. == Design and manufacture == Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing them in quantity for customers. The design and planning process, including safety tests, can last up to four years for small turboprops or longer for larger planes. During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft are established. First the construction company uses drawings and equations, simulations, wind tunnel tests and experience to predict the behavior of the aircraft. Computers are used by companies to draw, plan and do initial simulations of the aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of the plane are then tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics. When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a limited number of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from an aviation governing agency often make a first flight. The flight tests continue until the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements. Then, the governing public agency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin production. In the United States, this agency is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In the European Union, European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA); in the United Kingdom it is the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). In Canada, the public agency in charge and authorizing the mass production of aircraft is Transport Canada's Civil Aviation Authority. When a part or component needs to be joined together by welding for virtually any aerospace or defense application, it must meet the most stringent and specific safety regulations and standards. Nadcap, or the National Aerospace and Defense Contractors Accreditation Program sets global requirements for quality, quality management and quality assurance for aerospace engineering. In the case of international sales, a license from the public agency of aviation or transport of the country where the aircraft is to be used is also necessary. For example, airplanes made by the European company, Airbus, need to be certified by the FAA to be flown in the United States, and airplanes made by U.S.-based Boeing need to be approved by the EASA to be flown in the European Union. Regulations have resulted in reduced noise from aircraft engines in response to increased noise pollution from growth in air traffic over urban areas near airports. Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other homebuilt aircraft can be assembled using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can be assembled into a basic plane and must then be completed by the builder. Few companies produce planes on a large scale. However, the production of a plane for one company is a process that actually involves dozens, or even hundreds, of other companies and plants, that produce the parts that go into the plane. For example, one company can be responsible for the production of the landing gear, while another one is responsible for the radar. The production of such parts is not limited to the same city or country; in the case of large plane manufacturing companies, such parts can come from all over the world. The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the production line is located. In the case of large planes, production lines dedicated to the assembly of certain parts of the plane can exist, especially the wings and the fuselage. When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and defects. After approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of flight tests to assure that all systems are working correctly and that the plane handles properly. To meet a particular customer need, the airplane may be customised using components or packages of components provided by the manufacturer or the customer. == Characteristics == === Airframe === The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts present can vary according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were usually made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became available for powered flight around a hundred years ago, their mounts were made of metal. Then as speeds increased more and more parts became metal until by the end of WWII all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times, increasing use of composite materials has been made. Typical structural parts include: One or more large horizontal wings, often with an airfoil cross-section shape. The wing deflects air downward as the aircraft moves forward, generating lifting force to support it in flight. The wing also provides stability in roll to stop the aircraft from rolling to the left or right in steady flight. A fuselage, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage joins the other parts of the airframe and usually contains important things such as the pilot, payload and flight systems. A vertical stabilizer or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rear of the plane and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane's yaw (turn left or right) and mounts the rudder, which controls its rotation along that axis. A horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, usually mounted at the tail near the vertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's pitch (tilt up or down) and mounts the elevators, which provide pitch control. Landing gear, a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it is on the surface. On seaplanes, the bottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons) support it while on the water. On some planes the landing gear retracts during flight to reduce drag. === Wings === The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings, which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a bird's wing. ==== Wing structure ==== Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength. Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their shape and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge. Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important. Also, early airfoil sections were very thin, and could not have a strong frame installed within. So, until the 1930s, most wings were too lightweight to have enough strength, and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s, wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was not needed any more. This type of unbraced wing is called a cantilever wing. ==== Wing configuration ==== The number and shape of the wings varies widely on different types. A given wing plane may be full-span or divided by a central fuselage into port (left) and starboard (right) wings. Occasionally, even more wings have been used, with the three-winged triplane achieving some fame in WWI. The four-winged quadruplane and other multiplane designs have had little success. A monoplane has a single wing plane, a biplane has two stacked one above the other, a tandem wing has two placed one behind the other. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s and bracing was no longer needed, the unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form of powered type. The wing planform is the shape when seen from above. To be aerodynamically efficient, a wing should be straight with a long span from side to side but have a short chord (high aspect ratio). But to be structurally efficient, and hence light weight, a wing must have a short span but still enough area to provide lift (low aspect ratio). At transonic speeds (near the speed of sound), it helps to sweep the wing backwards or forwards to reduce drag from supersonic shock waves as they begin to form. The swept wing is just a straight wing swept backwards or forwards. The delta wing is a triangle shape that may be used for several reasons. As a flexible Rogallo wing, it allows a stable shape under aerodynamic forces and so is often used for ultralight aircraft and even kites. As a supersonic wing, it combines high strength with low drag and so is often used for fast jets. A variable geometry wing can be changed in flight to a different shape. The variable-sweep wing transforms between an efficient straight configuration for takeoff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other forms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the research stage. === Fuselage === A fuselage is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage may contain the flight crew, passengers, cargo or payload, fuel and engines. The pilots of manned aircraft operate them from a cockpit located at the front or top of the fuselage and equipped with controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may have more than one fuselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail located between the booms to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be useful for a variety of purposes. === Wings vs. bodies === ==== Flying wing ==== A flying wing is a tailless aircraft which has no definite fuselage. Most of the crew, payload and equipment are housed inside the main wing structure. The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, notably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman in the United States, and Alexander Lippisch and the Horten brothers in Germany. After the war, several experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept, but the known difficulties remained intractable. Some general interest continued until the early 1950s but designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range and presented several technical problems, leading to the adoption of "conventional" solutions like the Convair B-36 and the B-52 Stratofortress. Due to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a tactical airlifter design. Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low radar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft - a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves. This approach eventually led to the Northrop B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In this case, the aerodynamic advantages of the flying wing are not the primary needs. However, modern computer-controlled fly-by-wire systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks of the flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-range bomber. ==== Blended wing body ==== Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body. Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy. ==== Lifting body ==== A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces lift. In contrast to a flying wing, which is a wing with minimal or no conventional fuselage, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at subsonic speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flight, or, spacecraft re-entry. All of these flight regimes pose challenges for proper flight stability. Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 70s as a means to build a small and lightweight crewed spacecraft. The US built several famous lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launched re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as the US Air Force lost interest in the crewed mission, and major development ended during the Space Shuttle design process when it became clear that the highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage. === Empennage and foreplane === The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control. Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently, electronic artificial stability. To achieve stability and control, most fixed-wing types have an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane and elevator which act vertically. These control surfaces can typically be trimmed to relieve control forces for various stages of flight. This is so common that it is known as the conventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced out along the tailplane. Some types have a horizontal "canard" foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it. This foreplane may contribute to the lift, the trim, or control of the aircraft, or to several of these. === Controls and instruments === Airplanes have complex flight control systems. The main controls allow the pilot to direct the aircraft in the air by controlling the attitude (roll, pitch and yaw) and engine thrust. On manned aircraft, cockpit instruments provide information to the pilots, including flight data, engine output, navigation, communications and other aircraft systems that may be installed. == Safety == When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approximately 10 times safer than travel by bus or rail. However, when using the deaths per journey statistic, air travel is significantly more dangerous than car, rail, or bus travel. Air travel insurance is relatively expensive for this reason—insurers generally use the deaths per journey statistic. There is a significant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private planes, with the per-mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer than smaller planes. == Environmental impact == Like all activities involving combustion, fossil-fuel-powered aircraft release soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to airplanes: for instance, Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit aerosols and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus cloud formation – cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation. Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations. Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded mogas and turbine engines and diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are used on some newer light aircraft. Some non-polluting light electric aircraft are already in production. Another environmental impact of airplanes is noise pollution, mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing. == See also == Aircraft flight mechanics Aviation Fuel efficiency List of altitude records reached by different aircraft types Rotorcraft == References == == Bibliography == Blatner, David. The Flying Book: Everything You've Ever Wondered About Flying On Airplanes. ISBN 0-8027-7691-4 == External links == The Aeroplane centre Airliners.net Aerospaceweb.org How Airplanes Work – Howstuffworks.com
Airship	An airship, dirigible balloon or dirigible is a type of aerostat (lighter-than-air) aircraft that can navigate through the air flying under its own power. Aerostats use buoyancy from a lifting gas that is less dense than the surrounding air to achieve the lift needed to stay airborne. In early dirigibles, the lifting gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity and ready availability, but the inherent flammability led to several fatal accidents that rendered hydrogen airships obsolete. The alternative lifting gas, helium gas is not flammable, but is rare and relatively expensive. Significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only available for airship usage in North America. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air. The envelope of an airship may form the gasbag, or it may contain a number of gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, typically housed in one or more gondolas suspended below the envelope. The main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid and rigid airships. Non-rigid airships, often called "blimps", rely solely on internal gas pressure to maintain the envelope shape. Semi-rigid airships maintain their shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have an outer structural framework that maintains the shape and carries all structural loads, while the lifting gas is contained in one or more internal gasbags or cells. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin. As a result, rigid airships are often called zeppelins. Airships were the first aircraft capable of controlled powered flight, and were most commonly used before the 1940s; their use decreased as their capabilities were surpassed by those of aeroplanes. Their decline was accelerated by a series of high-profile accidents, including the 1930 crash and burning of the British R101 in France, the 1933 and 1935 storm-related crashes of the twin airborne aircraft carrier U.S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, and the 1937 burning of the German hydrogen-filled Hindenburg. From the 1960s, helium airships have been used where the ability to hover for a long time outweighs the need for speed and manoeuvrability, such as advertising, tourism, camera platforms, geological surveys and aerial observation. == Terminology == === Airship === During the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as "airship", "air-ship", "air ship" and "ship of the air" meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air", with smaller passenger types as "air yachts". In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships". Nowadays the term "airship" is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, with sub-types being classified as rigid, semi-rigid or non-rigid. Semi-rigid architecture is the more recent, following advances in deformable structures and the exigency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a minimal structure that keeps the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. === Aerostat === An aerostat is an aircraft that remains aloft using buoyancy or static lift, as opposed to the aerodyne, which obtains lift by moving through the air. Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also been used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. Aerostats today are capable of lifting a payload of 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) to an altitude of more than 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) above sea level. They can also stay in the air for extended periods of time, particularly when powered by an on-board generator or if the tether contains electrical conductors. Due to this capability, aerostats can be used as platforms for telecommunication services. For instance, Platform Wireless International Corporation announced in 2001 that it would use a tethered 1,250 pounds (570 kg) airborne payload to deliver cellular phone service to a 140 miles (230 km) region in Brazil. The European Union's ABSOLUTE project was also reportedly exploring the use of tethered aerostat stations to provide telecommunications during disaster response. === Blimp === A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including barrage balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape and stabilising tail fins. Some blimps may be powered dirigibles, as in early versions of the Goodyear Blimp. Later Goodyear dirigibles, though technically semi-rigid airships, have still been called "blimps" by the company. === Zeppelin === The term zeppelin originally referred to airships manufactured by the German Zeppelin Company, which built and operated the first rigid airships in the early years of the twentieth century. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin (German for "Zeppelin airship"), usually prefixed their craft's serial identifiers. Streamlined rigid (or semi-rigid) airships are often referred to as "Zeppelins", because of the fame that this company acquired due to the number of airships it produced, although its early rival was the Parseval semi-rigid design. === Hybrid airship === Hybrid airships fly with a positive aerostatic contribution, usually equal to the empty weight of the system, and the variable payload is sustained by propulsion or aerodynamic contribution. == Classification == Airships are classified according to their method of construction into rigid, semi-rigid and non-rigid types. === Rigid === A rigid airship has a rigid framework covered by an outer skin or envelope. The interior contains one or more gasbags, cells or balloons to provide lift. Rigid airships are typically unpressurised and can be made to virtually any size. Most, but not all, of the German Zeppelin airships have been of this type. === Semi-rigid === A semi-rigid airship has some kind of supporting structure but the main envelope is held in shape by the internal pressure of the lifting gas. Typically the airship has an extended, usually articulated keel running along the bottom of the envelope to stop it kinking in the middle by distributing suspension loads into the envelope, while also allowing lower envelope pressures. === Non-rigid === Non-rigid airships are often called "blimps". Most, but not all, of the American Goodyear airships have been blimps. A non-rigid airship relies entirely on internal gas pressure to retain its shape during flight. Unlike the rigid design, the non-rigid airship's gas envelope has no compartments. However, it still typically has smaller internal bags containing air (ballonets). As altitude is increased, the lifting gas expands and air from the ballonets is expelled through valves to maintain the hull's shape. To return to sea level, the process is reversed: air is forced back into the ballonets by scooping air from the engine exhaust and using auxiliary blowers. == Construction == === Envelope === The envelope is the structure which contains the buoyant gas. Envelopes in the early 19th century were made from goldbeater's skin, selected for its low weight, relatively high strength, and impermeability compared to paper or linen. By the 1920s, natural rubber treated with cotton became the predominant elastomer used in envelope construction. The natural rubber was succeeded by neoprene in the 1930s and Nylon and PET in the 1950s. A few airships have been metal-clad. The most successful of which is the Detroit ZMC-2, which logged 2265 hours of flight time from 1929 to 1941 before being scrapped, as it was considered too small for operational use on anti-submarine patrols. The problem of the exact determination of the pressure on an airship envelope is still problematic and has fascinated major scientists such as Theodor Von Karman. The envelope may contain ballonets (see below), allowing adjustment of the density of the buoyant gas by adding or subtracting envelope volume. === Ballonet === A ballonet is an air bag inside the outer envelope of an airship which, when inflated, reduces the volume available for the lifting gas, making it more dense. Because air is also denser than the lifting gas, inflating the ballonet reduces the overall lift, while deflating it increases lift. In this way, the ballonet can be used to adjust the lift as required by controlling the buoyancy. By inflating or deflating ballonets strategically, the pilot can control the airship's altitude and attitude. Ballonets may typically be used in non-rigid or semi-rigid airships, commonly with multiple ballonets located both fore and aft to maintain balance and to control the pitch of the airship. === Lifting gas === Lifting gas is generally hydrogen, helium or hot air. Hydrogen gives the highest lift 1.1 kg/m3 (0.069 lb/cu ft) and is inexpensive and easily obtained, but is highly flammable and can detonate if mixed with air. Helium is completely non flammable, but gives lower performance-1.02 kg/m3 (0.064 lb/cu ft) and is a rare element and much more expensive. Thermal airships use a heated lifting gas, usually air, in a fashion similar to hot air balloons. The first to do so was flown in 1973 by the British company Cameron Balloons. === Gondola === === Propulsion and control === Small airships carry their engine(s) in their gondola. Where there were multiple engines on larger airships, these were placed in separate nacelles, termed power cars or engine cars. To allow asymmetric thrust to be applied for maneuvering, these power cars were mounted towards the sides of the envelope, away from the centre line gondola. This also raised them above the ground, reducing the risk of a propeller strike when landing. Widely spaced power cars were also termed wing cars, from the use of "wing" to mean being on the side of something, as in a theater, rather than the aerodynamic device. These engine cars carried a crew during flight who maintained the engines as needed, but who also worked the engine controls, throttle etc., mounted directly on the engine. Instructions were relayed to them from the pilot's station by a telegraph system, as on a ship. If fuel is burnt for propulsion, then progressive reduction in the airship's overall weight occurs. In hydrogen airships, this is usually dealt with by simply venting cheap hydrogen lifting gas. In helium airships water is often condensed from the exhaust and stored as ballast. === Fins and rudders === To control the airship's direction and stability, it is equipped with fins and rudders. Fins are typically located on the tail section and provide stability and resistance to rolling. Rudders are movable surfaces on the tail that allow the pilot to steer the airship left or right. === Empennage === The empennage refers to the tail section of the airship, which includes the fins, rudders, and other aerodynamic surfaces. It plays a crucial role in maintaining stability and controlling the airship's attitude. === Fuel and power systems === Airships require a source of power to operate their propulsion systems. This includes engines, generators, or batteries, depending on the type of airship and its design. Fuel tanks or batteries are typically located within the envelope or gondola. === Navigation and communication equipment === To navigate safely and communicate with ground control or other aircraft, airships are equipped with a range of instruments, including GPS systems, radios, radar, and navigation lights. === Landing gear === Some airships have landing gear that allows them to land on runways or other surfaces. This landing gear may include wheels, skids, or landing pads. == Performance == === Efficiency === The main advantage of airships with respect to any other vehicle is that they require less energy to remain in flight, compared to other air vehicles. The proposed Varialift airship, powered by a mixture of solar-powered engines and conventional jet engines, would use only an estimated 8 percent of the fuel required by jet aircraft. Furthermore, utilizing the jet stream could allow for a faster and more energy-efficient cargo transport alternative to maritime shipping. This is one of the reasons why China has embraced their use recently. == History == === Early pioneers === ==== 17th–18th century ==== In 1670, the Jesuit Father Francesco Lana de Terzi, sometimes referred to as the "Father of Aeronautics", published a description of an "Aerial Ship" supported by four copper spheres from which the air was evacuated. Although the basic principle is sound, such a craft was unrealizable then and remains so to the present day, since external air pressure would cause the spheres to collapse unless their thickness was such as to make them too heavy to be buoyant. A hypothetical craft constructed using this principle is known as a vacuum airship. In 1709, the Brazilian-Portuguese Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão made a hot air balloon, the Passarola, ascend to the skies, before an astonished Portuguese court. It would have been on August 8, 1709, when Father Bartolomeu de Gusmão held, in the courtyard of the Casa da Índia, in the city of Lisbon, the first Passarola demonstration. The balloon caught fire without leaving the ground, but, in a second demonstration, it rose to 95 meters in height. It was a small balloon of thick brown paper, filled with hot air, produced by the "fire of material contained in a clay bowl embedded in the base of a waxed wooden tray". The event was witnessed by King John V of Portugal and the future Pope Innocent XIII. A more practical dirigible airship was described by Lieutenant Jean Baptiste Marie Meusnier in a paper entitled "Mémoire sur l'équilibre des machines aérostatiques" (Memorandum on the equilibrium of aerostatic machines) presented to the French Academy on 3 December 1783. The 16 water-color drawings published the following year depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift: this was attached to a long carriage that could be used as a boat if the vehicle was forced to land in water. The airship was designed to be driven by three propellers and steered with a sail-like aft rudder. In 1784, Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft. In 1785, he crossed the English Channel in a balloon equipped with flapping wings for propulsion and a birdlike tail for steering. ==== 19th century ==== The 19th century saw continued attempts to add methods of propulsion to balloons. Rufus Porter built and flew scale models of his "Aerial Locomotive", but never a successful full-size implementation. The Australian William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine driving twin propellers suspended underneath. The lift of the balloon was estimated as 5 tons and the car with the fuel as weighing 3.5 tons, giving a payload of 1.5 tons. Bland believed that the machine could be driven at 80 km/h (50 mph) and could fly from Sydney to London in less than a week. In 1852, Henri Giffard became the first person to make an engine-powered flight when he flew 27 km (17 mi) in a steam-powered airship. Airships would develop considerably over the next two decades. In 1863, Solomon Andrews flew his aereon design, an unpowered, controllable dirigible in Perth Amboy, New Jersey and offered the device to the U.S. Military during the Civil War. He flew a later design in 1866 around New York City and as far as Oyster Bay, New York. This concept used changes in lift to provide propulsive force, and did not need a powerplant. In 1872, the French naval architect Dupuy de Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by eight men. It was developed during the Franco-Prussian war and was intended as an improvement to the balloons used for communications between Paris and the countryside during the siege of Paris, but was completed only after the end of the war. In 1872, Paul Haenlein flew an airship with an internal combustion engine running on the coal gas used to inflate the envelope, the first use of such an engine to power an aircraft. Charles F. Ritchel made a public demonstration flight in 1878 of his hand-powered one-man rigid airship, and went on to build and sell five of his aircraft. In 1874, Micajah Clark Dyer filed U.S. Patent 154,654 "Apparatus for Navigating the Air". It is believed successful trial flights were made between 1872 and 1874, but detailed dates are not available. The apparatus used a combination of wings and paddle wheels for navigation and propulsion. In operating the machinery the wings receive an upward and downward motion, in the manner of the wings of a bird, the outer ends yielding as they are raised, but opening out and then remaining rigid while being depressed. The wings, if desired, may be set at an angle so as to propel forward as well as to raise the machine in the air. The paddle-wheels are intended to be used for propelling the machine, in the same way that a vessel is propelled in water. An instrument answering to a rudder is attached for guiding the machine. A balloon is to be used for elevating the flying ship, after which it is to be guided and controlled at the pleasure of its occupants. More details can be found in the book about his life. In 1883, the first electric-powered flight was made by Gaston Tissandier, who fitted a 1.5 hp (1.1 kW) Siemens electric motor to an airship. The first fully controllable free flight was made in 1884 by Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs in the French Army airship La France. La France made the first flight of an airship that landed where it took off; the 170 ft (52 m) long, 66,000 cu ft (1,900 m3) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with the aid of an 8.5 hp (6.3 kW) electric motor, and a 435 kg (959 lb) battery. It made seven flights in 1884 and 1885. In 1888, the design of the Campbell Air Ship, designed by Professor Peter C. Campbell, was built by the Novelty Air Ship Company. It was lost at sea in 1889 while being flown by Professor Hogan during an exhibition flight. From 1888 to 1897, Friedrich Wölfert built three airships powered by Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft-built petrol engines, the last of which, Deutschland, caught fire in flight and killed both occupants in 1897. The 1888 version used a 2 hp (1.5 kW) single cylinder Daimler engine and flew 10 km (6 mi) from Canstatt to Kornwestheim. In 1897, an airship with an aluminum envelope was built by the Hungarian-Croatian engineer David Schwarz. It made its first flight at Tempelhof field in Berlin after Schwarz had died. His widow, Melanie Schwarz, was paid 15,000 marks by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin to release the industrialist Carl Berg from his exclusive contract to supply Schwartz with aluminium. From 1897 to 1899, Konstantin Danilewsky, medical doctor and inventor from Kharkov, built four muscle-powered airships, of gas volume 150–180 m3 (5,300–6,400 cu ft). About 200 ascents were made within a framework of experimental flight program, at two locations, with no significant incidents. === Early 20th century === In July 1900, the Luftschiff Zeppelin LZ1 made its first flight. This led to the most successful airships of all time: the Zeppelins, named after Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin who began working on rigid airship designs in the 1890s, leading to the flawed LZ1 in 1900 and the more successful LZ2 in 1906. The Zeppelin airships had a framework composed of triangular lattice girders covered with fabric that contained separate gas cells. At first multiplane tail surfaces were used for control and stability: later designs had simpler cruciform tail surfaces. The engines and crew were accommodated in "gondolas" hung beneath the hull driving propellers attached to the sides of the frame by means of long drive shafts. Additionally, there was a passenger compartment (later a bomb bay) located halfway between the two engine compartments. Alberto Santos-Dumont was a wealthy young Brazilian who lived in France and had a passion for flying. He designed 18 balloons and dirigibles before turning his attention to fixed-winged aircraft. On 19 October 1901 he flew his airship Number 6, from the Parc Saint Cloud to and around the Eiffel Tower and back in under thirty minutes. This feat earned him the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize of 100,000 francs. Many inventors were inspired by Santos-Dumont's small airships. Many airship pioneers, such as the American Thomas Scott Baldwin, financed their activities through passenger flights and public demonstration flights. Stanley Spencer built the first British airship with funds from advertising baby food on the sides of the envelope. Others, such as Walter Wellman and Melvin Vaniman, set their sights on loftier goals, attempting two polar flights in 1907 and 1909, and two trans-Atlantic flights in 1910 and 1912. In 1902 the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo published details of an innovative airship design in Spain and France titled "Perfectionnements aux aerostats dirigibles" ("Improvements in dirigible aerostats"). With a non-rigid body and internal bracing wires, it overcame the flaws of these types of aircraft as regards both rigid structure (zeppelin type) and flexibility, providing the airships with more stability during flight, and the capability of using heavier engines and a greater passenger load. A system called "auto-rigid". In 1905, helped by Captain A. Kindelán, he built the airship "Torres Quevedo" at the Guadalajara military base. In 1909 he patented an improved design that he offered to the French Astra company, who started mass-producing it in 1911 as the Astra-Torres airship. This type of envelope was employed in the United Kingdom in the Coastal, C Star, and North Sea airships. The distinctive three-lobed design was widely used during the Great War by the Entente powers for diverse tasks, principally convoy protection and anti-submarine warfare. The success during the war even drew the attention of the Imperial Japanese Navy, who acquired a model in 1922. Torres also drew up designs of a 'docking station' and made alterations to airship designs, to find a resolution to the slew of problems faced by airship engineers to dock dirigibles. In 1910, he proposed the idea of attaching an airships nose to a mooring mast and allowing the airship to weathervane with changes of wind direction. The use of a metal column erected on the ground, the top of which the bow or stem would be directly attached to (by a cable) would allow a dirigible to be moored at any time, in the open, regardless of wind speeds. Additionally, Torres' design called for the improvement and accessibility of temporary landing sites, where airships were to be moored for the purpose of disembarkation of passengers. The final patent was presented in February 1911 in Belgium, and later to France and the United Kingdom in 1912, under the title "Improvements in Mooring Arrangements for Airships". Other airship builders were also active before the war: from 1902 the French company Lebaudy Frères specialized in semirigid airships such as the Patrie and the République, designed by their engineer Henri Julliot, who later worked for the American company Goodrich; the German firm Schütte-Lanz built the wooden-framed SL series from 1911, introducing important technical innovations; another German firm Luft-Fahrzeug-Gesellschaft built the Parseval-Luftschiff (PL) series from 1909, and Italian Enrico Forlanini's firm had built and flown the first two Forlanini airships. On May 12, 1902, the inventor and Brazilian aeronaut Augusto Severo de Albuquerque Maranhao and his French mechanic, Georges Saché, died when they were flying over Paris in the airship called Pax. A marble plaque at number 81 of the Avenue du Maine in Paris, commemorates the location of Augusto Severo accident. The Catastrophe of the Balloon "Le Pax" is a 1902 short silent film recreation of the catastrophe, directed by Georges Méliès. In Britain, the Army built their first dirigible, the Nulli Secundus, in 1907. The Navy ordered the construction of an experimental rigid in 1908. Officially known as His Majesty's Airship No. 1 and nicknamed the Mayfly, it broke its back in 1911 before making a single flight. Work on a successor did not start until 1913. German airship passenger service known as DELAG (Deutsche-Luftschiffahrts AG) was established in 1910. In 1910 Walter Wellman unsuccessfully attempted an aerial crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the airship America. === World War I === The prospect of airships as bombers had been recognized in Europe well before the airships were up to the task. H. G. Wells' The War in the Air (1908) described the obliteration of entire fleets and cities by airship attack. The Italian forces became the first to use dirigibles for a military purpose during the Italo–Turkish War, the first bombing mission being flown on 10 March 1912. World War I marked the airship's real debut as a weapon. The Germans, French, and Italians all used airships for scouting and tactical bombing roles early in the war, and all learned that the airship was too vulnerable for operations over the front. The decision to end operations in direct support of armies was made by all in 1917. Many in the German military believed they had found the ideal weapon with which to counteract British naval superiority and strike at Britain itself, while more realistic airship advocates believed the zeppelin's value was as a long range scout/attack craft for naval operations. Raids on England began in January 1915 and peaked in 1916: following losses to the British defenses only a few raids were made in 1917–18, the last in August 1918. Zeppelins proved to be terrifying but inaccurate weapons. Navigation, target selection and bomb-aiming proved to be difficult under the best of conditions, and the cloud cover that was frequently encountered by the airships reduced accuracy even further. The physical damage done by airships over the course of the war was insignificant, and the deaths that they caused amounted to a few hundred. Nevertheless, the raid caused a significant diversion of British resources to defense efforts. The airships were initially immune to attack by aircraft and anti-aircraft guns: as the pressure in their envelopes was only just higher than ambient air, holes had little effect. But following the introduction of a combination of incendiary and explosive ammunition in 1916, their flammable hydrogen lifting gas made them vulnerable to the defending aeroplanes. Several were shot down in flames by British defenders, and many others destroyed in accidents. New designs capable of reaching greater altitude were developed, but although this made them immune from attack it made their bombing accuracy even worse. Countermeasures by the British included sound detection equipment, searchlights and anti-aircraft artillery, followed by night fighters in 1915. One tactic used early in the war, when their limited range meant the airships had to fly from forward bases and the only zeppelin production facilities were in Friedrichshafen, was the bombing of airship sheds by the British Royal Naval Air Service. Later in the war, the development of the aircraft carrier led to the first successful carrier-based air strike in history: on the morning of 19 July 1918, seven Sopwith 2F.1 Camels were launched from HMS Furious and struck the airship base at Tønder, destroying zeppelins L 54 and L 60. The British Army had abandoned airship development in favour of aeroplanes before the start of the war, but the Royal Navy had recognized the need for small airships to counteract the submarine and mine threat in coastal waters. Beginning in February 1915, they began to develop the SS (Sea Scout) class of blimp. These had a small envelope of 1,699–1,982 m3 (60,000–70,000 cu ft) and at first used aircraft fuselages without the wing and tail surfaces as control cars. Later, more advanced blimps with purpose-built gondolas were used. The NS class (North Sea) were the largest and most effective non-rigid airships in British service, with a gas capacity of 10,200 m3 (360,000 cu ft), a crew of 10 and an endurance of 24 hours. Six 230 lb (100 kg) bombs were carried, as well as three to five machine guns. British blimps were used for scouting, mine clearance, and convoy patrol duties. During the war, the British operated over 200 non-rigid airships. Several were sold to Russia, France, the United States, and Italy. The large number of trained crews, low attrition rate and constant experimentation in handling techniques meant that at the war's end Britain was the world leader in non-rigid airship technology. The Royal Navy continued development of rigid airships until the end of the war. Eight rigid airships had been completed by the armistice, (No. 9r, four 23 Class, two R23X Class and one R31 Class), although several more were in an advanced state of completion by the war's end. Both France and Italy continued to use airships throughout the war. France preferred the non-rigid type, whereas Italy flew 49 semi-rigid airships in both the scouting and bombing roles. Aeroplanes had almost entirely replaced airships as bombers by the end of the war, and Germany's remaining zeppelins were destroyed by their crews, scrapped or handed over to the Allied powers as war reparations. The British rigid airship program, which had mainly been a reaction to the potential threat of the German airships, was wound down. === The interwar period === Britain, the United States and Germany built rigid airships between the two world wars. Italy and France made limited use of Zeppelins handed over as war reparations. Italy, the Soviet Union, the United States and Japan mainly operated semi-rigid airships. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed to build airships of greater capacity than a million cubic feet. Two small passenger airships, LZ 120 Bodensee and its sister ship LZ 121 Nordstern, were built immediately after the war but were confiscated following the sabotage of the wartime Zeppelins that were to have been handed over as war reparations: Bodensee was given to Italy and Nordstern to France. On May 12, 1926, the Italian built semi-rigid airship Norge was the first aircraft to fly over the North Pole. The British R33 and R34 were near-identical copies of the German L 33, which had come down almost intact in Yorkshire on 24 September 1916. Despite being almost three years out of date by the time they were launched in 1919, they became two of the most successful airships in British service. The creation of the Royal Air Force (RAF) in early 1918 created a hybrid British airship program. The RAF was not interested in airships while the Admiralty was, so a deal was made where the Admiralty would design any future military airships and the RAF would handle manpower, facilities and operations. On 2 July 1919, R34 began the first double crossing of the Atlantic by an aircraft. It landed at Mineola, Long Island on 6 July after 108 hours in the air; the return crossing began on 8 July and took 75 hours. This feat failed to generate enthusiasm for continued airship development, and the British airship program was rapidly wound down. During World War I, the U.S. Navy acquired its first airship, the DH-1, but it was destroyed while being inflated shortly after delivery to the Navy. After the war, the U.S. Navy contracted to buy the R 38, which was being built in Britain, but before it was handed over it was destroyed because of a structural failure during a test flight. America then started constructing the USS Shenandoah, designed by the Bureau of Aeronautics and based on the Zeppelin L 49. Assembled in Hangar No. 1 and first flown on 4 September 1923 at Lakehurst, New Jersey, it was the first airship to be inflated with the noble gas helium, which was then so scarce that the Shenandoah contained most of the world's supply. A second airship, USS Los Angeles, was built by the Zeppelin company as compensation for the airships that should have been handed over as war reparations according to the terms of the Versailles Treaty but had been sabotaged by their crews. This construction order saved the Zeppelin works from the threat of closure. The success of the Los Angeles, which was flown successfully for eight years, encouraged the U.S. Navy to invest in its own, larger airships. When the Los Angeles was delivered, the two airships had to share the limited supply of helium, and thus alternated operating and overhauls. In 1922, Sir Dennistoun Burney suggested a plan for a subsidised air service throughout the British Empire using airships (the Burney Scheme). Following the coming to power of Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government in 1924, the scheme was transformed into the Imperial Airship Scheme, under which two airships were built, one by a private company and the other by the Royal Airship Works under Air Ministry control. The two designs were radically different. The "capitalist" ship, the R100, was more conventional, while the "socialist" ship, the R101, had many innovative design features. Construction of both took longer than expected, and the airships did not fly until 1929. Neither airship was capable of the service intended, though the R100 did complete a proving flight to Canada and back in 1930. On 5 October 1930, the R101, which had not been thoroughly tested after major modifications, crashed on its maiden voyage to India at Beauvais in France killing 48 of the 54 people aboard. Among the dead were the craft's chief designer and the Secretary of State for Air. The disaster ended British interest in airships. In 1925 the Zeppelin company started construction of the Graf Zeppelin (LZ 127), the largest airship that could be built in the company's existing shed, and intended to stimulate interest in passenger airships. The Graf Zeppelin burned blau gas, similar to propane, stored in large gas bags below the hydrogen cells, as fuel. Since its density was similar to that of air, it avoided the weight change as fuel was used, and thus the need to valve hydrogen. The Graf Zeppelin had an impressive safety record, flying over 1,600,000 km (990,000 mi) (including the first circumnavigation of the globe by airship) without a single passenger injury. The U.S. Navy experimented with the use of airships as airborne aircraft carriers, developing an idea pioneered by the British. The USS Los Angeles was used for initial experiments, and the USS Akron and Macon, the world's largest at the time, were used to test the principle in naval operations. Each carried four F9C Sparrowhawk fighters in its hangar, and could carry a fifth on the trapeze. The idea had mixed results. By the time the Navy started to develop a sound doctrine for using the ZRS-type airships, the last of the two built, USS Macon, had been wrecked. Meanwhile, the seaplane had become more capable, and was considered a better investment. Eventually, the U.S. Navy lost all three U.S.-built rigid airships to accidents. USS Shenandoah flew into a severe thunderstorm over Noble County, Ohio while on a poorly planned publicity flight on 3 September 1925. It broke into pieces, killing 14 of its crew. USS Akron was caught in a severe storm and flown into the surface of the sea off the shore of New Jersey on 3 April 1933. It carried no life boats and few life vests, so 73 of its crew of 76 died from drowning or hypothermia. USS Macon was lost after suffering a structural failure offshore near Point Sur Lighthouse on 12 February 1935. The failure caused a loss of gas, which was made much worse when the aircraft was driven over pressure height causing it to lose too much helium to maintain flight. Only two of its crew of 83 died in the crash thanks to the inclusion of life jackets and inflatable rafts after the Akron disaster. The Empire State Building was completed in 1931 with a dirigible mast, in anticipation of future passenger airship service, but no airship ever used the mast. Various entrepreneurs experimented with commuting and shipping freight via airship. In the 1930s, the German Zeppelins successfully competed with other means of transport. They could carry significantly more passengers than other contemporary aircraft while providing amenities similar to those on ocean liners, such as private cabins, observation decks, and dining rooms. Less importantly, the technology was potentially more energy-efficient than heavier-than-air designs. Zeppelins were also faster than ocean liners. On the other hand, operating airships was quite involved. Often the crew would outnumber passengers, and on the ground large teams were necessary to assist mooring and very large hangars were required at airports. By the mid-1930s, only Germany still pursued airship development. The Zeppelin company continued to operate the Graf Zeppelin on passenger service between Frankfurt and Recife in Brazil, taking 68 hours. Even with the small Graf Zeppelin, the operation was almost profitable. In the mid-1930s, work began on an airship designed specifically to operate a passenger service across the Atlantic. The Hindenburg (LZ 129) completed a successful 1936 season, carrying passengers between Lakehurst, New Jersey and Germany. The year 1937 started with the most spectacular and widely remembered airship accident. Approaching the Lakehurst mooring mast minutes before landing on 6 May 1937, the Hindenburg suddenly burst into flames and crashed to the ground. Of the 97 people aboard, 35 died: 13 passengers, 22 aircrew, along with one American ground-crewman. The disaster happened before a large crowd, was filmed and a radio news reporter was recording the arrival. This was a disaster that theater goers could see and hear in newsreels. The Hindenburg disaster shattered public confidence in airships, and brought a definitive end to their "golden age". The day after the Hindenburg disaster, the Graf Zeppelin landed safely in Germany after its return flight from Brazil. This was the last international passenger airship flight. Hindenburg's identical sister ship, the Graf Zeppelin II (LZ 130), could not carry commercial passengers without helium, which the United States refused to sell to Germany. The Graf Zeppelin made several test flights and conducted some electronic espionage until 1939 when it was grounded due to the beginning of the war. The two Graf Zeppelins were scrapped in April, 1940. Development of airships continued only in the United States, and to a lesser extent, the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had several semi-rigid and non-rigid airships. The semi-rigid dirigible SSSR-V6 OSOAVIAKhIM was among the largest of these craft, and it set the longest endurance flight at the time of over 130 hours. It crashed into a mountain in 1938, killing 13 of the 19 people on board. While this was a severe blow to the Soviet airship program, they continued to operate non-rigid airships until 1950. === World War II === While Germany determined that airships were obsolete for military purposes in the coming war and concentrated on the development of aeroplanes, the United States pursued a program of military airship construction even though it had not developed a clear military doctrine for airship use. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, bringing the United States into World War II, the U.S. Navy had 10 nonrigid airships: 4 K-class: K-2, K-3, K-4 and K-5 designed as patrol ships, all built in 1938. 3 L-class: L-1, L-2 and L-3 as small training ships, produced in 1938. 1 G-class, built in 1936 for training. 2 TC-class that were older patrol airships designed for land forces, built in 1933. The U.S. Navy acquired both from the United States Army in 1938. Only K- and TC-class airships were suitable for combat and they were quickly pressed into service against Japanese and German submarines, which were then sinking American shipping within visual range of the American coast. U.S. Navy command, remembering airship's anti-submarine success in World War I, immediately requested new modern antisubmarine airships and on 2 January 1942 formed the ZP-12 patrol unit based in Lakehurst from the four K airships. The ZP-32 patrol unit was formed from two TC and two L airships a month later, based at NAS Moffett Field in Sunnyvale, California. An airship training base was created there as well. The status of submarine-hunting Goodyear airships in the early days of World War II has created significant confusion. Although various accounts refer to airships Resolute and Volunteer as operating as "privateers" under a Letter of Marque, Congress never authorized a commission, nor did the President sign one. In the years 1942–44, approximately 1,400 airship pilots and 3,000 support crew members were trained in the military airship crew training program and the airship military personnel grew from 430 to 12,400. The U.S. airships were produced by the Goodyear factory in Akron, Ohio. From 1942 till 1945, 154 airships were built for the U.S. Navy (133 K-class, 10 L-class, seven G-class, four M-class) and five L-class for civilian customers (serial numbers L-4 to L-8). The primary airship tasks were patrol and convoy escort near the American coastline. They also served as an organization centre for the convoys to direct ship movements, and were used in naval search and rescue operations. Rarer duties of the airships included aerophoto reconnaissance, naval mine-laying and mine-sweeping, parachute unit transport and deployment, cargo and personnel transportation. They were deemed quite successful in their duties with the highest combat readiness factor in the entire U.S. air force (87%). During the war, some 532 ships without airship escort were sunk near the U.S. coast by enemy submarines. Only one ship, the tanker Persephone, of the 89,000 or so in convoys escorted by blimps was sunk by the enemy. Airships engaged submarines with depth charges and, less frequently, with other on-board weapons. They were excellent at driving submarines down, where their limited speed and range prevented them from attacking convoys. The weapons available to airships were so limited that until the advent of the homing torpedo they had little chance of sinking a submarine. Only one airship was ever destroyed by U-boat: on the night of 18/19 July 1943, the K-74 from ZP-21 division was patrolling the coastline near Florida. Using radar, the airship located a surfaced German submarine. The K-74 made her attack run but the U-boat opened fire first. K-74's depth charges did not release as she crossed the U-boat and the K-74 received serious damage, losing gas pressure and an engine but landing in the water without loss of life. The crew was rescued by patrol boats in the morning, but one crewman, Aviation Machinist's Mate Second Class Isadore Stessel, died from a shark attack. The U-boat, submarine U-134, was slightly damaged and the next day or so was attacked by aircraft, sustaining damage that forced it to return to base. It was finally sunk on 24 August 1943 by a British Vickers Wellington near Vigo, Spain. Fleet Airship Wing One operated from Lakehurst, New Jersey, Glynco, Georgia, Weeksville, North Carolina, South Weymouth NAS Massachusetts, Brunswick NAS and Bar Harbor Maine, Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, and Argentia, Newfoundland. Some Navy blimps saw action in the European war theater. In 1944–45, the U.S. Navy moved an entire squadron of eight Goodyear K class blimps (K-89, K-101, K-109, K-112, K-114, K-123, K-130, & K-134) with flight and maintenance crews from Weeksville Naval Air Station in North Carolina to Naval Air Station Port Lyautey, French Morocco. Their mission was to locate and destroy German U-boats in the relatively shallow waters around the Strait of Gibraltar where magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) was viable. PBY aircraft had been searching these waters but MAD required low altitude flying that was dangerous at night for these aircraft. The blimps were considered a perfect solution to establish a 24/7 MAD barrier (fence) at the Straits of Gibraltar with the PBYs flying the day shift and the blimps flying the night shift. The first two blimps (K-123 & K-130) left South Weymouth NAS on 28 May 1944 and flew to Argentia, Newfoundland, the Azores, and finally to Port Lyautey where they completed the first transatlantic crossing by nonrigid airships on 1 June 1944. The blimps of USN Blimp Squadron ZP-14 (Blimpron 14, aka The Africa Squadron) also conducted mine-spotting and mine-sweeping operations in key Mediterranean ports and various escorts including the convoy carrying United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to the Yalta Conference in 1945. Airships from the ZP-12 unit took part in the sinking of the last U-boat before German capitulation, sinking the U-881 on 6 May 1945 together with destroyers USS Atherton and USS Moberly. Other airships patrolled the Caribbean, Fleet Airship Wing Two, Headquartered at Naval Air Station Richmond, covered the Gulf of Mexico from Richmond and Key West, Florida, Houma, Louisiana, as well as Hitchcock and Brownsville, Texas. FAW 2 also patrolled the northern Caribbean from San Julian, the Isle of Pines (now called Isla de la Juventud) and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba as well as Vernam Field, Jamaica. Navy blimps of Fleet Airship Wing Five, (ZP-51) operated from bases in Trinidad, British Guiana and Paramaribo, Suriname. Fleet Airship Wing Four operated along the coast of Brazil. Two squadrons, VP-41 and VP-42 flew from bases at Amapá, Igarapé-Açu, São Luís Fortaleza, Fernando de Noronha, Recife, Maceió, Ipitanga (near Salvador, Bahia), Caravelas, Vitória and the hangar built for the Graf Zeppelin at Santa Cruz, Rio de Janeiro. Fleet Airship Wing Three operated squadrons, ZP-32 from Moffett Field, ZP-31 at NAS Santa Ana, and ZP-33 at NAS Tillamook, Oregon. Auxiliary fields were at Del Mar, Lompoc, Watsonville and Eureka, California, North Bend and Astoria, Oregon, as well as Shelton and Quillayute in Washington. From 2 January 1942 until the end of war airship operations in the Atlantic, the blimps of the Atlantic fleet made 37,554 flights and flew 378,237 hours. Of the over 70,000 ships in convoys protected by blimps, only one was sunk by a submarine while under blimp escort. The Soviet Union flew a single airship during the war. The USSR-V1 (also known as the SSSR-V1 or the CCCP-B1), originally built in 1932. and rebuilt in 1942 as the USSR-V12. The V12 entered service in 1942 for hydrogen delivery, paratrooper training, and equipment transport. It made 1432 flights with 300 metric tons of cargo until 1945. In 1947, the V12 crashed into shed doors and caught fire. It was re-built and re-commissioned, as the USSR-V12bis Patriot, in the same year. On 1 February 1945, the Soviets commissioned a second airship, Pobyeda (Victory). The Pobyeda was used for mine-sweeping and wreckage clearing in the Black Sea, crashing on 29 January 1947. === Postwar period === Although airships are no longer used for major cargo and passenger transport, they are still used for other purposes such as advertising, sightseeing, surveillance, research and advocacy. There were several studies and proposals for nuclear-powered airships, starting with a 1954 study by F.W. Locke Jr for US Navy. In 1957 Edwin J. Kirschner published the book The Zeppelin in the Atomic Age, which promoted the use of atomic airships. In 1959 Goodyear presented a plan for nuclear-powered airship for both military and commercial use. Several other proposals and papers were published during the next decades. In the 1980s, Per Lindstrand and his team introduced the GA-42 airship, the first airship to use fly-by-wire flight control, which considerably reduced the pilot's workload. An airship was prominently featured in the James Bond film A View to a Kill, released in 1985. The Skyship 500 had the livery of Zorin Industries. The world's largest thermal airship (300,000 cubic feet; 8,500 cubic metres) was constructed by the Per Lindstrand company for French botanists in 1993. The AS-300 carried an underslung raft, which was positioned by the airship on top of tree canopies in the rain forest, allowing the botanists to carry out their treetop research without significant damage to the rainforest. When research was finished at a given location, the airship returned to pick up and relocate the raft. In June 1987, the U.S. Navy awarded a US$168.9 million contract to Westinghouse Electric and Airship Industries of the UK to find out whether an airship could be used as an airborne platform to detect the threat of sea-skimming missiles, such as the Exocet. At 2.5 million cubic feet, the Westinghouse/Airship Industries Sentinel 5000 (Redesignated YEZ-2A by the U.S. Navy) prototype design was to have been the largest blimp ever constructed. Additional funding for the Naval Airship Program was killed in 1995 and development was discontinued. The SVAM CA-80 airship, which was produced in 2000 by Shanghai Vantage Airship Manufacture Co., Ltd., had a successful trial flight in September 2001. This was designed for advertisement and propagation, air-photo, scientific test, tour and surveillance duties. It was certified as a grade-A Hi-Tech introduction program (No. 20000186) in Shanghai. The CAAC authority granted a type design approval and certificate of airworthiness for the airship. In the 1990s the Zeppelin company returned to the airship business. Their new model, designated the Zeppelin NT, made its maiden flight on 18 September 1997. As of 2009 there were four NT aircraft flying, a fifth was completed in March 2009 and an expanded NT-14 (14,000 cubic meters of helium, capable of carrying 19 passengers) was under construction. One was sold to a Japanese company, and was planned to be flown to Japan in the summer of 2004. Due to delays getting permission from the Russian government, the company decided to transport the airship to Japan by sea. One of the four NT craft is in South Africa carrying diamond detection equipment from De Beers, an application at which the very stable low vibration NT platform excels. The project included design adaptations for high temperature operation and desert climate, as well as a separate mooring mast and a very heavy mooring truck. NT-4 belonged to Airship Ventures of Moffett Field, Mountain View in the San Francisco Bay Area, and provided sight-seeing tours. Blimps are used for advertising and as TV camera platforms at major sporting events. The most iconic of these are the Goodyear Blimps. Goodyear operates three blimps in the United States, and The Lightship Group, now The AirSign Airship Group, operates up to 19 advertising blimps around the world. Airship Management Services owns and operates three Skyship 600 blimps. Two operate as advertising and security ships in North America and the Caribbean. Airship Ventures operated a Zeppelin NT for advertising, passenger service and special mission projects. They were the only airship operator in the U.S. authorized to fly commercial passengers, until closing their doors in 2012. Skycruise Switzerland AG owns and operates two Skyship 600 blimps. One operates regularly over Switzerland used on sightseeing tours. The Switzerland-based Skyship 600 has also played other roles over the years. For example, it was flown over Athens during the 2004 Summer Olympics as a security measure. In November 2006, it carried advertising calling it The Spirit of Dubai as it began a publicity tour from London to Dubai, UAE on behalf of The Palm Islands, the world's largest man-made islands created as a residential complex. Los Angeles-based Worldwide Aeros Corp. produces FAA Type Certified Aeros 40D Sky Dragon airships. In May 2006, the U.S. Navy began to fly airships again after a hiatus of nearly 44 years. The program uses a single American Blimp Company A-170 nonrigid airship, with designation MZ-3A. Operations focus on crew training and research, and the platform integrator is Northrop Grumman. The program is directed by the Naval Air Systems Command and is being carried out at NAES Lakehurst, the original centre of U.S. Navy lighter-than-air operations in previous decades. In November 2006 the U.S. Army bought an A380+ airship from American Blimp Corporation through a Systems level contract with Northrop Grumman and Booz Allen Hamilton. The airship started flight tests in late 2007, with a primary goal of carrying 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of payload to an altitude of 15,000 ft (4,600 m) under remote control and autonomous waypoint navigation. The program will also demonstrate carrying 1,000 lb (450 kg) of payload to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) The platform could be used for intelligence collection. In 2008, the CA-150 airship was launched by Vantage Airship. This is an improved modification of model CA-120 and completed manufacturing in 2008. With larger volume and increased passenger capacity, it is the largest manned nonrigid airship in China at present. In late June 2014 the Electronic Frontier Foundation flew the GEFA-FLUG AS 105 GD/4 blimp AE Bates (owned by, and in conjunction with, Greenpeace) over the NSA's Bluffdale Utah Data Center in protest. ==== Postwar projects ==== Hybrid designs such as the Heli-Stat airship/helicopter, the Aereon aerostatic/aerodynamic craft, and the CycloCrane (a hybrid aerostatic/rotorcraft), struggled to take flight. The Cyclocrane was also interesting in that the airship's envelope rotated along its longitudinal axis. In 2005, a short-lived project of the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was Walrus HULA, which explored the potential for using airships as long-distance, heavy lift craft. The primary goal of the research program was to determine the feasibility of building an airship capable of carrying 500 short tons (450 t) of payload a distance of 12,000 mi (19,000 km) and land on an unimproved location without the use of external ballast or ground equipment (such as masts). In 2005, two contractors, Lockheed Martin and US Aeros Airships were each awarded approximately $3 million to do feasibility studies of designs for WALRUS. Congress removed funding for Walrus HULA in 2006. == Modern Airships == === Military === In 2010, the U.S. Army awarded a $517 million (£350.6 million) contract to Northrop Grumman and partner Hybrid Air Vehicles to develop a Long Endurance Multi-Intelligence Vehicle (LEMV) system, in the form of three HAV 304s. The project was cancelled in February 2012 due to it being behind schedule and over budget; also the forthcoming U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan where it was intended to be deployed. Following this the Hybrid Air Vehicles HAV 304 Airlander 10 was repurchased by Hybrid Air Vehicles then modified and reassembled in Bedford, UK, and renamed the Airlander 10. As of 2018, it was being tested in readiness for its UK flight test programme. A-NSE, a French company, manufactures and operates airships and aerostats. For 2 years, A-NSE has been testing its airships for the French Army. Airships and aerostats are operated to provide intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) support. Their airships include many innovative features such as water ballast take-off and landing systems, variable geometry envelopes and thrust–vectoring systems. The U.S. government has funded two major projects in the high altitude arena. The Composite Hull High Altitude Powered Platform (CHHAPP) is sponsored by U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command. This aircraft is also sometimes called HiSentinel High-Altitude Airship. This prototype ship made a five-hour test flight in September 2005. The second project, the high-altitude airship (HAA), is sponsored by DARPA. In 2005, DARPA awarded a contract for nearly $150 million to Lockheed Martin for prototype development. First flight of the HAA was planned for 2008 but suffered programmatic and funding delays. The HAA project evolved into the High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator (HALE-D). The U.S. Army and Lockheed Martin launched the first-of-its kind HALE-D on July 27, 2011. After attaining an altitude of 32,000 ft (9,800 m), due to an anomaly, the company decided to abort the mission. The airship made a controlled descent in an unpopulated area of southwest Pennsylvania. On 31 January 2006 Lockheed Martin made the first flight of their secretly built hybrid airship designated the P-791. The design is very similar to the SkyCat, unsuccessfully promoted for many years by the British company Advanced Technologies Group (ATG). Dirigibles have been used in the War in Afghanistan for reconnaissance purposes, as they allow for constant monitoring of a specific area through cameras mounted on the airships. === Passenger transport === In the 1990s, the successor of the original Zeppelin company in Friedrichshafen, the Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH, reengaged in airship construction. The first experimental craft (later christened Friedrichshafen) of the type "Zeppelin NT" flew in September 1997. Though larger than common blimps, the Neue Technologie (New Technology) zeppelins are much smaller than their giant ancestors and not actually Zeppelin-types in the classical sense. They are sophisticated semirigids. Apart from the greater payload, their main advantages compared to blimps are higher speed and excellent maneuverability. Meanwhile, several Zeppelin NT have been produced and operated profitably in joyrides, research flights and similar applications. In June 2004, a Zeppelin NT was sold for the first time to a Japanese company, Nippon Airship Corporation, for tourism and advertising mainly around Tokyo. It was also given a role at the 2005 Expo in Aichi. The aircraft began a flight from Friedrichshafen to Japan, stopping at Geneva, Paris, Rotterdam, Munich, Berlin, Stockholm and other European cities to carry passengers on short legs of the flight. Russian authorities denied overflight permission, so the airship had to be dismantled and shipped to Japan rather than following the historic Graf Zeppelin flight from Germany to Japan. In 2008, Airship Ventures Inc. began operations from Moffett Federal Airfield near Mountain View, California and until November 2012 offered tours of the San Francisco Bay Area for up to 12 passengers. === Exploration === In November 2005, De Beers, a diamond mining company, launched an airship exploration program over the remote Kalahari Desert. A Zeppelin NT, equipped with a Bell Geospace gravity gradiometer, was used to find potential diamond mines by scanning the local geography for low-density rock formations, known as kimberlite pipes. On 21 September 2007, the airship was severely damaged by a whirlwind while in Botswana. One crew member, who was on watch aboard the moored craft, was slightly injured but released after overnight observation in hospital. === Thermal === Several companies, such as Cameron Balloons in Bristol, United Kingdom, build hot-air airships. These combine the structures of both hot-air balloons and small airships. The envelope is the normal cigar shape, complete with tail fins, but is inflated with hot air instead of helium to provide the lifting force. A small gondola, carrying the pilot and passengers, a small engine, and the burners to provide the hot air are suspended below the envelope, beneath an opening through which the burners protrude. Hot-air airships typically cost less to buy and maintain than modern helium-based blimps, and can be quickly deflated after flights. This makes them easy to carry in trailers or trucks and inexpensive to store. They are usually very slow moving, with a typical top speed of 25–30 km/h (16–19 mph; 6.9–8.3 m/s). They are mainly used for advertising, but at least one has been used in rainforests for wildlife observation, as they can be easily transported to remote areas. === Unmanned remote === Remote-controlled (RC) airships, a type of unmanned aerial system (UAS), are sometimes used for commercial purposes such as advertising and aerial video and photography as well as recreational purposes. They are particularly common as an advertising mechanism at indoor stadiums. While RC airships are sometimes flown outdoors, doing so for commercial purposes is illegal in the US. Commercial use of an unmanned airship must be certified under part 121. === Adventures === In 2008, French adventurer Stephane Rousson attempted to cross the English Channel with a muscular pedal powered airship. Stephane Rousson also flies the Aérosail, a sky sailing yacht. == Current design projects == Today, with large, fast, and more cost-efficient fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, it is unknown whether huge airships can operate profitably in regular passenger transport though, as energy costs rise, attention is once again returning to these lighter-than-air vessels as a possible alternative. At the very least, the idea of comparatively slow, "majestic" cruising at relatively low altitudes and in comfortable atmosphere certainly has retained some appeal. There have been some niches for airships in and after World War II, such as long-duration observations, antisubmarine patrol, platforms for TV camera crews, and advertising; these generally require only small and flexible craft, and have thus generally been better fitted for cheaper (non-passenger) blimps. === Heavy lifting === It has periodically been suggested that airships could be employed for cargo transport, especially delivering extremely heavy loads to areas with poor infrastructure over great distances. This has also been called roadless trucking. Also, airships could be used for heavy lifting over short distances (e.g. on construction sites); this is described as heavy-lift, short-haul. In both cases, the airships are heavy haulers. One recent enterprise of this sort was the Cargolifter project, in which a hybrid (thus not entirely Zeppelin-type) airship even larger than Hindenburg was projected. Around 2000, CargoLifter AG built the world's largest self-supporting hall, measuring 360 m (1,180 ft) long, 210 m (690 ft) wide and 107 m (351 ft) high about 60 km (37 mi) south of Berlin. In May 2002, the project was stopped for financial reasons; the company had to file bankruptcy. The enormous CargoLifter hangar was later converted to house the Tropical Islands Resort. Although no rigid airships are currently used for heavy lifting, hybrid airships are being developed for such purposes. AEREON 26, tested in 1971, was described in John McPhee's The Deltoid Pumpkin Seed. An impediment to the large-scale development of airships as heavy haulers has been figuring out how they can be used in a cost-efficient way. In order to have a significant economic advantage over ocean transport, cargo airships must be able to deliver their payload faster than ocean carriers but more cheaply than airplanes. William Crowder, a fellow at the Logistics Management Institute, has calculated that cargo airships are only economical when they can transport 500 to 1,000 tons, approximately the same as a super-jumbo aircraft. The large initial investment required to build such a large airship has been a hindrance to production, especially given the risk inherent in a new technology. The chief commercial officer of the company hoping to sell the LMH-1, a cargo airship currently being developed by Lockheed Martin, believes that airships can be economical in hard-to-reach locations such as mining operations in northern Canada that currently require ice roads. === Metal-clad airships === A metal-clad airship has a very thin metal envelope, rather than the usual fabric. The shell may be either internally braced or monocoque as in the ZMC-2, which flew many times in the 1920s, the only example ever to do so. The shell may be gas-tight as in a non-rigid blimp, or the design may employ internal gas bags as in a rigid airship. Compared to a fabric envelope the metal cladding is expected to be more durable. === Hybrid airships === A hybrid airship is a general term for an aircraft that combines characteristics of heavier-than-air (aeroplane or helicopter) and lighter-than-air technology. Examples include helicopter/airship hybrids intended for heavy lift applications and dynamic lift airships intended for long-range cruising. Most airships, when fully loaded with cargo and fuel, are usually ballasted to be heavier than air, and thus must use their propulsion system and shape to create aerodynamic lift, necessary to stay aloft. All airships can be operated to be slightly heavier than air at periods during flight (descent). Accordingly, the term "hybrid airship" refers to craft that obtain a significant portion of their lift from aerodynamic lift or other kinetic means. For example, the Aeroscraft is a buoyancy assisted air vehicle that generates lift through a combination of aerodynamics, thrust vectoring and gas buoyancy generation and management, and for much of the time will fly heavier than air. Aeroscraft is Worldwide Aeros Corporation's continuation of DARPA's now cancelled Walrus HULA (Hybrid Ultra Large Aircraft) project. The Patroller P3 hybrid airship developed by Advanced Hybrid Aircraft Ltd, BC, Canada, is a relatively small (85,000 cu ft / 2,400 m3) buoyant craft, manned by the crew of five and with the endurance of up to 72 hours. The flight-tests with the 40% RC scale model proved that such a craft can be launched and landed without a large team of strong ground-handlers. Design features a special "winglet" for aerodynamic lift control. === Airships in space exploration === Airships have been proposed as a potential cheap alternative to surface rocket launches for achieving Earth orbit. JP Aerospace have proposed the Airship to Orbit project, which intends to float a multi-stage airship up to mesospheric altitudes of 55 km (180,000 ft) and then use ion propulsion to accelerate to orbital speed. At these heights, air resistance would not be a significant problem for achieving such speeds. The company has not yet built any of the three stages. NASA has proposed the High Altitude Venus Operational Concept, which comprises a series of five missions including crewed missions to the atmosphere of Venus in airships. Pressures on the surface of the planet are too high for human habitation, but at a specific altitude the pressure is equal to that found on Earth and this makes Venus a potential target for human colonization. Hypothetically, there could be an airship lifted by a vacuum—that is, by material that can contain nothing at all inside but withstand the atmospheric pressure from the outside. It is, at this point, science fiction, although NASA has posited that some kind of vacuum airship could eventually be used to explore the surface of Mars. === Cruiser feeder transport airship === EU FP7 MAAT Project has studied an innovative cruiser/feeder airship system, for the stratosphere with a cruiser remaining airborne for a long time and feeders connecting it to the ground and flying as piloted balloons. === Airships for humanitarian and cargo transport === Google co-founder Sergey Brin founded LTA Research in 2015 to develop airships for humanitarian and cargo transport. The company's 124-meter-long airship Pathfinder 1 received from the FAA a special airworthiness certificate for the helium-filled airship in September 2023. The certificate allowed the largest airship since the ill-fated Hindenburg to begin flight tests at Moffett Field, a joint civil-military airport in Silicon Valley. == Comparison with heavier-than-air aircraft == The advantage of airships over aeroplanes is that static lift sufficient for flight is generated by the lifting gas and requires no engine power. This was an immense advantage before the middle of World War I and remained an advantage for long-distance or long-duration operations until World War II. Modern concepts for high-altitude airships include photovoltaic cells to reduce the need to land to refuel, thus they can remain in the air until consumables expire. This similarly reduces or eliminates the need to consider variable fuel weight in buoyancy calculations. The disadvantages are that an airship has a very large reference area and comparatively large drag coefficient, thus a larger drag force compared to that of aeroplanes and even helicopters. Given the large frontal area and wetted surface of an airship, a practical limit is reached around 130–160 kilometres per hour (80–100 mph), only about one-third the typical airspeed of a modern commercial airplane. Thus, airships are used where speed is not critical. The lift capability of an airship is equal to the buoyant force minus the weight of the airship. This assumes standard air-temperature and pressure conditions. Corrections are usually made for water vapor and impurity of lifting gas, as well as percentage of inflation of the gas cells at liftoff. Based on specific lift (lifting force per unit volume of gas), the greatest static lift is provided by hydrogen (11.15 N/m3 or 71 lbf/1000 cu ft) with helium (10.37 N/m3 or 66 lbf/1000 cu ft) a close second. In addition to static lift, an airship can obtain a certain amount of dynamic lift from its engines. Dynamic lift in past airships has been about 10% of the static lift. Dynamic lift allows an airship to "take off heavy" from a runway similar to fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. This requires additional weight in engines, fuel, and landing gear, negating some of the static lift capacity. The altitude at which an airship can fly largely depends on how much lifting gas it can lose due to expansion before stasis is reached. The ultimate altitude record for a rigid airship was set in 1917 by the L-55 under the command of Hans-Kurt Flemming when he forced the airship to 7,300 m (24,000 ft) attempting to cross France after the "Silent Raid" on London. The L-55 lost lift during the descent to lower altitudes over Germany and crashed due to loss of lift. While such waste of gas was necessary for the survival of airships in the later years of World War I, it was impractical for commercial operations, or operations of helium-filled military airships. The highest flight made by a hydrogen-filled passenger airship was 1,700 m (5,500 ft) on the Graf Zeppelin's around-the-world flight. The greatest disadvantage of the airship is size, which is essential to increasing performance. As size increases, the problems of ground handling increase geometrically. As the German Navy changed from the P class of 1915 with a volume of over 31,000 m3 (1,100,000 cu ft) to the larger Q class of 1916, the R class of 1917, and finally the W class of 1918, at almost 62,000 m3 (2,200,000 cu ft) ground handling problems reduced the number of days the Zeppelins were able to make patrol flights. This availability declined from 34% in 1915, to 24.3% in 1916 and finally 17.5% in 1918. So long as the power-to-weight ratios of aircraft engines remained low and specific fuel consumption high, the airship had an edge for long-range or -duration operations. As those figures changed, the balance shifted rapidly in the aeroplane's favour. By mid-1917, the airship could no longer survive in a combat situation where the threat was aeroplanes. By the late 1930s, the airship barely had an advantage over the aeroplane on intercontinental over-water flights, and that advantage had vanished by the end of World War II. This is in face-to-face tactical situations. Currently, a high-altitude airship project is planned to survey hundreds of kilometres as their operation radius, often much farther than the normal engagement range of a military aeroplane. For example, a radar mounted on a vessel platform 30 m (100 ft) high has radio horizon at 20 km (12 mi) range, while a radar at 18,000 m (59,000 ft) altitude has radio horizon at 480 km (300 mi) range. This is significantly important for detecting low-flying cruise missiles or fighter-bombers. == Safety == The most commonly used lifting gas, helium, is inert and therefore presents no fire risk. A series of vulnerability tests were done by the UK Defence Evaluation and Research Agency DERA on a Skyship 600. Since the internal gas pressure was maintained at only 1–2% above the surrounding air pressure, the vehicle proved highly tolerant to physical damage or to attack by small-arms fire or missiles. Several hundred high-velocity bullets were fired through the hull, and even two hours later the vehicle would have been able to return to base. Ordnance passed through the envelope without causing critical helium loss. The results and related mathematical model have presented in the hypothesis of considering a Zeppelin NT size airship. In all instances of light armament fire evaluated under both test and live conditions, the airship was able to complete its mission and return to base. == Licensing == In the United Kingdom, the basic pilot licence for airships is the PPL(As), or private pilot licence, which requires a minimum of 35 hours instruction on airships. To fly commercially, a Commercial Pilot Licence (Airships) is required. == See also == == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == Should Airships Make a Comeback? – Veritasium YouTube channel
Alberto Santos-Dumont	Alberto Santos-Dumont (self-stylised as Alberto Santos=Dumont; 20 July 1873 – 23 July 1932) was a Brazilian aeronaut, sportsman, inventor, and one of the few people to have contributed significantly to the early development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a wealthy family of coffee producers, he dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris, where he spent most of his adult life. He designed, built, and flew the first powered airships and won the Deutsch prize in 1901, when he flew around the Eiffel Tower in his airship No. 6, becoming one of the most famous people in the world in the early 20th century. Santos-Dumont then progressed to powered heavier-than-air machines and on 23 October 1906 flew about 60 metres at a height of two to three metres with the fixed-wing 14-bis (also dubbed the Oiseau de proie—"bird of prey") at the Bagatelle Gamefield in Paris, taking off unassisted by an external launch system. On 12 November in front of a crowd, he flew 220 metres at a height of six metres. These were the first heavier-than-air flights certified by the Aeroclub of France, the first such flights officially witnessed by an aeronautics recordkeeping body, and the first of their kind recognised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Santos-Dumont is a national hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical aeroplane. Numerous roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports there are dedicated to him, and his name is inscribed on the Tancredo Neves Pantheon of the Fatherland and Freedom. He was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. == Childhood == Alberto Santos-Dumont was the sixth child of Henrique Dumont, an engineer who graduated from the Central School of Arts and Manufactures in Paris, and Francisca de Paula Santos. The couple had eight children, three sons and five daughters: Henrique dos Santos-Dumont, Maria Rosalina Dumont Vilares, Virgínia Dumont Vilares, Luís dos Santos Dumont, Gabriela, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Sofia, and Francisca. In 1873, the family moved to the small town of Cabangu, in the municipality of João Aires,: 305 for Henrique Dumont to work on the construction of the D. Pedro II railroad. The construction work finished when Alberto was 6, and the family moved to São Paulo.: 17 Here he began to show signs of his aeronautical interest; according to his parents, at the age of one he used to puncture rubber balloons to see what was inside. He was baptised in Valença at the Matriz de Santa Teresa on 20 February 1877, by Teodoro Teotônio da Silva Carolina. In 1879, the Dumonts sold their farm in Valença, Rio de Janeiro, and settled in Sítio do Cascavel, in Ribeirão Preto, where they bought the Arindeúva Farm,: 7 of José Bento Junqueira, producing 1200 bushels. Until he was 10, he was taught by his older sister, Virginia.: 29 From 10 to 12 years old he studied at Colégio Culto à Ciência.: 9 : 14 : 29 He then attended Colégio Kopke in São Paulo, Colégio Morton, and Colégio Menezes Vieira in Rio de Janeiro,: 14 and later the School of Engineering from Minas, without finishing the course.: 32 He was not considered an outstanding student, studying only what interested him, and extending his studies independently in his father's library.: 31 By this time he already displayed the refined manners that would later become part of his image in France,: 31 and an introverted personality.: 32 He saw his first human flight in São Paulo at the age of 15, in 1888, when the aeronaut Stanley Spencer ascended in a spherical balloon and parachuted down. After a family trip to Paris in 1891, he became interested in mechanics, especially the internal combustion engine. From then on, he never stopped searching for alternatives, receiving from the City Council of Ribeirão Preto, according to Law no. 100, of 4 November 1903, a million réis subsidy to continue his researches that, three years later, resulted in the creation of his aeroplane. A newspaper of the time stated that Santos-Dumont would only accept if "...that amount was intended for an aircraft contest prize." Santos-Dumont would remember with nostalgia the times spent on his father's farm, where he enjoyed the greatest freedom: I lived a free life there, which was indispensable to form my temperament and taste for adventure. Since childhood I had a great love for mechanical things, and like all those who have or think they have a vocation, I cultivated mine with care and passion. I always played at imagining and building little mechanical devices, which entertained me and earned me high regard in the family. My greatest joy was taking care of my father's mechanical installations. That was my department, which made me very proud. At the age of seven Santos-Dumont was already driving the farm's trains, and at twelve he could operate a locomotive on his own, but the speed achievable on land was not enough for him.: 23 By observing coffee machines he deduced that oscillatory machines wore out more, while those with circular motion were more efficient.: 36 By reading the works of Jules Verne, with whose fictional heroes he was later compared: 45 and who he would meet in adulthood,: 57 Santos-Dumont got the desire to conquer the air.: 98 The submarines, balloons, ocean liners, and vehicles that the novelist envisioned in his works made a deep impression on the boy's mind. Years later, as an adult, he still remembered the adventures lived in imagination: With Captain Nemo and his shipwrecked guests I explored the depths of the sea in that first of all submarines, the Nautilus. With Phileas Fogg I went round the world in eighty days. In "Screw Island" and "The Steam House" my boyish faith leaped out to welcome the ultimate triumphs of an automobilism that in those days had not as yet a name. With Hector Servadoc I navigated the air.: 22 Technology fascinated him. He began building kites and small aeroplanes powered by a propeller driven by twisted rubber springs,: 29 as he says in a commentary on the letter he received the day he won the Deutsch prize, recalling his childhood: "This letter brings back to me the happiest days of my life, when I exercised myself in making light aeroplanes with bits of straw, moved by screw propellers driven by springs of twisted rubber, or ephemeral silk-paper balloons." (Santos-Dumont): 21 Every year, on 24 June he would fill whole fleets of tiny silk balloons over the bonfires of St. John, to watch them climbing into the sky. == Career == === Mountaineering, motorsports and ballooning === In 1891, when he was 18, Santos-Dumont visited Europe. In England he spent a few months practising his English, and in France he climbed Mont Blanc.: 42 : 34 This adventure, at an altitude of almost 5,000 metres, gave him a taste for heights. The following year, his father had a serious accident, and released Alberto from parental care on 12 February 1892,: 15 advising him to focus on learning mechanics, chemistry, and electricity.: 306 : 33 : 36 With that, Alberto left the Ouro Preto Mining Engineering School: 30 and returned to France where he took part in motor racing and cycling.: 42 He also began technical and scientific studies with a professor of Spanish origin named Garcia.: 44 In 1894 Santos-Dumont travelled to the United States, visiting New York, Chicago, and Boston. Around this time he went on to study at Merchant Venturers' Technical College, but never graduated. Agenor Barbosa described Santos-Dumont in this period as a "student of little diligence, or rather, not at all studious for 'theories', but of admirable practical and mechanical talent and, since then, revealing himself in everything, of inventive genius", but who was later described by Agnor as someone focused on aviation from when "...'explosion engines' began to succeed.": 36 In 1897, independent and heir to an immense fortune which he invested in the development of his projects,: 337 applied in the stock market,: 35 allowing him to work without being accountable to any investor.: 226 At 24 years of age, Santos-Dumont left for France, where he hired professional aeronauts to teach him ballooning after reading the book Andrée – Au Pôle Nord en ballon.: 307 On 23 March 1898, he made his first ascent in a Lachambre & Machuron balloon at a cost of 400 francs, later saying that: "I will never forget the genuine pleasure of my first balloon ascent".: 307 That year, even before he was known as a balloonist, he began to be quoted by the media due to his involvement in motor racing.: 239–240 On 30 May 1898 he made his first night ascent,: 15 and the following month he started working as a captain, taking groups of passengers aloft in a hired balloon.: 4 By 1900 he had created nine balloons, of which two became famous: the Brazil and the Amérique. Brazil first flew on 4 July 1898,: 58 and was the smallest aircraft built at the time – inflated with hydrogen, it covered 113 metres in a silk envelope of 6 metres in diameter,: 10 weighing 27.5 kg without the crewman: 307 and made more than 200 flights.: 386 According to biographer Gondin da Fonseca, he was influenced to create his first balloon after racing at the Paris-Amsterdam race on his tricycle,: 42 where he crossed 110 kilometers in two hours, abandoning after an accident. The second balloon, Amérique, held 500m³ of hydrogen and was 10 metres in diameter, and was capable of carrying passengers.: 37 With the second balloon he faced everything from storms to accidents.: 2 In his first experiments he was awarded a prize by the French Aeroclub for his study of atmospheric currents; he reached high altitudes and stayed airborne for more than 22 hours.: 4 Santos-Dumont advocated for government investment in aviation development and the importance of public opinion, something previously noted by Júlio César Ribeiro de Sousa.: 308 === Airships === Airships, powered aerostats, were first demonstrated and patented by the Brazilian priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão in 1709, and were flown by the Montgolfier Brothers in 1783,: 3 but until the late 19th century had yet to be mastered, having been attempted by Henri Giffard,: 360 Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs in a flight with an electric motor in a closed circuit in a project abandoned by the French Army, and by the Brazilian Júlio César Ribeiro de Sousa, without success.: 310 Public demonstrations, such as those performed by Santos-Dumont, were important in the sceptical academic environment. Due to the weight of electric motors, Santos-Dumont chose the internal combustion engine. In initial tests, he hoisted the tricycle he had used in the Paris-Amsterdam race up a tree to check for vibration, which did not occur.: 311 He modified the engine by putting the two cylinders on top of each other,: 228 creating a lightweight 3.5 horsepower unit, which was the first internal combustion engine successfully used in aeronautics.: 38 An article presented in CENDOC 2021, claims that the aeronautical movement in France was sparked by Santos-Dumont's experiments: 24 and Santos-Dumont said he believed his experiences led to the founding of the Aéro-Club de France.: 21 A detail raised by Santos-Dumont refers to the definition of what would be heavier than air: in June 1902 he published an article in the North American Review arguing that his work on airships was about aviation, because hydrogen gas itself was not capable of taking off, and engine power was also needed. He also wrote: "...the flying-machine will be achieved only by the way of evolution, by making the air-ship pass through a series of transformations analogous to the metamorphoses by which the chrysalis becomes the winged butterfly." No. 1 The first airship designed by Santos-Dumont, the No. 1, was 25 metres long with a volume of 186 cubic metres,: 3 made its first takeoff attempt in February 1898, after being inflated in Henri Lachambre's workshops in Vaugirard. Snowy conditions caused the airship to flex and crash. "At a height of five or six metres, over Longchamp, the apparatus suddenly bent and the crash began. Of my entire career, this is the most abominable memory I have in store.": 15 No. 1 was inflated again in the Aclimation Garden in Paris on 18 September 1898, but was damaged before it could fly, due to a misjudgement by the ground crew holding the ropes. Repaired two days later, the aircraft took off and flew. The air pump for the internal balloon, which kept the envelope rigid, did not work properly,: 15 and the airship, at a height of 400 metres, began to flex and descend rapidly.: 3 In an interview, Santos-Dumont told how he escaped death: The descent was at a speed of 4 to 5 m/sec. It would have been fatal if I hadn't had the presence of mind to tell the passersby, spontaneously suspended from the dangling cable like a real human cluster, to pull the cable in the opposite direction to the wind. Thanks to this manoeuvre, the speed of the fall decreased, thus avoiding the greater violence of the shock. I thus varied my amusement: I went up in a balloon and came down in a kite. No. 2 In 1899, Santos-Dumont built a new aircraft, No. 2, with the same length and similar shape, but a larger diameter of 3.8 metres, increasing the volume to 200 cubic metres.: 387 To address the unreliability of the air pump which had almost killed him, he added a small aluminium fan to maintain pressure and rigidity. The first test was scheduled for 11 May 1899. At the time of the flight, rain made the balloon heavy. The demonstration consisted of simple manoeuvres with the aircraft attached by a rope, but ended in the adjacent trees. The airship had folded under the combined action of the contraction of the hydrogen and the force of the wind.: 15 No. 3 In September 1899 Santos-Dumont started the construction of a new elongated airship, the No. 3, inflated with lighting gas, 20 metres long and 7.5 metres in diameter, with a capacity of 500 cubic metres. The basket was the same one used in the two other aircraft.: 89 At 3:30 pm on 13 November Santos-Dumont took off in No. 3 from Vaugirard Aerostation Park and went around the Eiffel Tower for the first time.: 15 From the monument he went to the Parc des Princes then to the Bagatelle Gamefield in the Bois de Boulogne (near the Hippodrome of Longchamp). He landed at the exact spot where No. 1 had crashed, this time under control.: 90–92 From that day on, I no longer had the slightest doubt about the success of my invention. I recognized that I would, for life, be dedicated to aircraft construction. I needed to have my workshop, my aeronautical garage, my hydrogen-generating apparatus, and a plumbing system to connect my installation to the illuminating gas pipelines.: 113 Santos-Dumont had a large hangar built at the Saint-Cloud site, large enough to hold No. 3 when completely filled, as well as the equipment to make the hydrogen gas.: 92 This hangar, completed on 15 June 1900, was 30 metres long, 7 metres wide, and 11 metres high.: 15 It was no longer intended to house No. 3, which had been abandoned, but No. 4, completed on 1 August 1900.: 15 With No. 3 he broke the record of 23 hours in the air.: 93 He tried to fly almost every day, demonstrating the reliability and usefulness of his aircraft.: 240 No. 4 On 24 March 1900, the millionaire oil magnate Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe sent the President of the Aéro-Club de France, which had been founded two years earlier, a letter in which he promised 100,000 francs to anyone who could invent an efficient flying machine:: 15 Desirous of contributing to the solution of the problem of air travel, I undertake to place at the disposal of the Air Club a sum of 100,000 francs, constituting a prize, under the title of the Air Club Prize, to the aeronaut who, leaving the park of Saint Cloud, Longchamps, or any other point situated at an equal distance from the Eiffel Tower, reaches this monument in half an hour, and, surrounding it, returns to the point of departure. (...) If one of the competitors is judged to have fulfilled the program, the prize will be awarded to him by the President of the Club himself, to whom I will immediately put the amount indicated above. If at the end of five years, beginning on April 15 of the current year, 1900, no one has won it, I consider my commitment null and void. The challenge became known as the Deutsch Prize. The regulations stipulated that an aircraft must be able to fly to the Eiffel Tower, round the monument, and return to the place of ascent in no more than thirty minutes, without stops, a total of 11 kilometres, under the eyes of a commission from the Aeroclub de France convened at least one day in advance. This required a minimum average speed of 22 km/h.: 94 The award encouraged Alberto Santos-Dumont to try faster flights with No. 4.: 178 The aircraft was 420 cubic metres in volume, 29 metres long, and 5.6 metres in diameter.: 388 Underneath was a 9.4-metre bamboo keel, in the middle of which were the saddle and pedals of an ordinary bicycle. Astride the saddle, the pilot had under his feet the starting pedals of a 7 hp engine, which powered a front propeller with two 4-metre long silk blades. Next to the pilot were ropes with which he could control the carburettor and valve settings, the rudder, ballast, and displacement weights.: 95–97 Santos-Dumont made almost daily flights in No. 4 from Saint Cloud during August. On 19 September, before members of the International Congress of Aeronauts, he proved the effectiveness of an aerial propeller driven by an oil engine by flying repeatedly against the wind, even with a broken rudder, impressing the scientists present.: 98–99 The general impression was that he would win the Deutsch Prize, and upon going to Nice after falling ill, he began designing No. 5.: 314 No. 5 and No. 6 No. 5 was built to compete for the Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe award: 314 for a flight from the Aero-Club de France airfield in Saint-Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in 30 minutes. It used the extended envelope of No. 4, from which a triangular gondola made of pine was suspended. Other innovations included the use of piano wire to suspend the gondola, reducing drag, and the use of water ballast tanks. It was powered by a 12 hp, 4-cylinder air-cooled engine driving a propeller,: 148–149 On 13 April the Santos-Dumont Prize was created. It was similar to the Deutsch Prize, but had no time limit.: 16 On 13 July 1901, After some experimental outings, Santos-Dumont competed with No. 5 in the Deutsch Award for the first time. It completed the required course, but exceeded the time limit for the race by ten minutes.: 122–124 At that time, he met Princess Imperial Isabel, after an accident.: 16 On 29 July he aborted a flight when he cut his fingers on the guide-rope; around that time French aeronauts started a smear campaign against Santos-Dumont.: 131 On 8 May, trying for the prize again, he crashed his aircraft into the Hotel Trocadero;: 11 the balloon exploded and was completely destroyed, but he escaped unscathed: 134–138 and publicly tested the engine to show its reliability.: 315 The accident was caused by one of the automatic valves having a weakened spring, which allowed the escape of gas.: 4 After offering his own 21 cubic metre balloon which was under construction – and being politely refused – Henri Deutsch said, "I'm afraid the experiments will not be conclusive. Mr Santos-Dumont's balloon will always be at the mercy of the wind, and is therefore not the kind of aircraft we dream of.": 140 Santos-Dumont crashed his No. 6 at the Longchamps racetrack on 19 September 1901.: 59 On 19 October 1901, with the 622-cubic-metre No. 6 balloon powered by a 20 hp engine, he executed the test in 29 minutes and 30 seconds,: 5 but it took about a minute to land, which caused the committee to initially deny the award. This became a matter of controversy, as the public and Deutsch believed that the aviator had won. After some time and the aviator protesting this decision, it was reversed. He became internationally recognised as the world's greatest aviator and the inventor of the airship. The prize was then 100,000 francs plus interest,: 5 that Santos-Dumont distributed among his staff and the unemployed and workers in Paris who for some reason had "pawned their tools of labor" with help from the City Hall of Paris. A month before the event, by announcing this intention, he had obtained "unrestricted support from public opinion". The money was released on 4 November after a vote in which nine members of the Aeroclub opposed and fifteen supported.: 316 This delay served to put public opinion further in Santos-Dumont's favour.: 253 The same afternoon, he sent a letter of resignation to the Aeroclub. Mauricio Pazini Brandão, in The Santos-Dumont legacy to aeronautics, says that this event should be considered as the certification of the airship.: 5 After winning the Deutsch Prize, Santos-Dumont received letters from several countries, congratulating him;: 177 magazines published lavish, richly illustrated editions to reproduce his image and perpetuate the achievement;: 203 an Alexander Graham Bell interview in the New York Herald explored the reasons for Santos-Dumont's success, envy of other inventors, and the experiments that preceded him;: 14 tributes were paid in France, Brazil, England, where the English Aero Club offered a banquet,: 42 and several other countries. The president of Brazil, Campos Sales sent him prize money of 100 million réis following the proposal of Augusto Severo,: 245 as well as a gold medal with his effigy and an allusion to Camões: "Through skies never sailed before";: 202 The Brazilian people were apathetic,: 12 and in January 1902, Albert I, Prince of Monaco invited him to continue his experiments in the Principality. He offered him a new hangar on the beach at La Condamine, and everything else Albert thought necessary for his comfort and safety,: 180 which was accepted;: 17 his success also inspired the creation of several biographies and influenced fictional characters, such as Tom Swift;: 363 That April, Santos-Dumont travelled to the United States, where he visited Thomas Edison's laboratories in New York. They discussed patents. The American asked Santos-Dumont to create the Aero Club of the US; when justifying not charging for demonstration flights in St Louis, Santos-Dumont said: "I am an amateur". After the meeting with Edison, Santos-Dumont told the American press that he did not intend to patent his aircraft.: 43 He was received at the White House in Washington, DC, by President Theodore Roosevelt: 260 and talked to U.S. Navy and Army officials about the possibility of using airships as a defence tool against submarines.: 56 In July 1902, after the creation of the Aeroclub of the US, Santos-Dumont announced a series of flights in American territory. These did not take place, confusing the media and American public opinion.: 247–248 He left New York in late 1902, without having made any flights,: 249 and the American public did not consider his inventions to be practical.: 254 At the beginning of the 20th century, Santos-Dumont was the only person in the world capable of controlled flight.: 364 After his time in the US, he learned of the fatal accident of Augusto Severo and the suicide of his mother;: 247 he returned to England, where he had left No. 6 being prepared for an exhibition at the Crystal Palace, as well as planning to fly into London.: 246 The fabric of the airship was punctured, as confirmed by the balloonist Stanley Spencer.: 247 The initial view was that the balloon had been cut with a knife, with Santos-Dumont stating that "...whole sections were cut and removed" and that he had previously experienced similar. Monaco In Monaco, after accepting Prince Albert's invitation, Santos-Dumont guided the construction of a 55 metre long, 10 metre wide and 15 metre high hangar, with doors he designed which weighed 10 tons,: 245 on the Boulevard de La Condamine by the sea. On testing the guide wire over the sea, he found that it stabilised the aircraft in low-level flight.: 5 Santos-Dumont also demonstrated that overall the aircraft behaved well over water, reaching up to 42 km/h (26 mph).: 317 Its success made clear the potential military use of the aircraft, especially for anti-submarine warfare, but its flights in the principality were interrupted by a crash in the Bay of Monaco on 14 February 1902. The crash was due to the balloon being "imperfectly filled when leaving the garage.": 5–6 After the accident he began to perform a check list before each take-off, but No. 6 was badly damaged.: 6 Nos. 7, 8, 9 and 10 Santos-Dumont started to dedicate himself to the construction of new airship models, two years after he left Paris,: 250 each one with a specific purpose: the No. 7, with 1,257 cubic metres: 389 and 45 hp engine,: 196 designed to be a racing airship, was tested in Neuilly (France) in May 1904. The following month the aircraft was sabotaged in an exhibition organised in St. Louis, United States, when a person who was never identified made four 1-metre cuts in the balloon which, because it was folded, resulted in forty-eight cuts in the envelope,: 264 when it was in New York Customs.: 29 On this trip, he also met the Wright brothers. No. 8 was a copy of No. 6 ordered by Edward Boyce, vice president of the Aeroclub of America,: 319 having made a single flight in New York;: 6 No. 9, with 261 cubic metres and 3 hp, was a travel airship, in which Santos-Dumont made several flights throughout 1903,: 17 including the first night flight of an airship on 24 June, and the last of these came on 14 July,: 304 when it took part in a military parade: 225 in commemoration of the 114th anniversary of the Storming of the Bastille.: 17 As he passed the President of the Republic, he fired 21 revolver shots into the air. The military considered the balloon to be a practical instrument for wartime.: 226 Santos-Dumont placed himself and his flotilla of three aircraft at the disposal of the government in the event of war, provided it was not against the nations of the Americas and that, "in the impossible event of war between France and Brazil," he considered himself obliged to support his motherland.: 56–57 The French military encouraged several industries to develop the technology proposed by Santos-Dumont.: 251 The first woman to fly an aircraft was Aida de Acosta, on 29 June 1903, in No. 9. The 11 August 1905 issue of La Vie au Grand Air describes the organisation of the second Coupe des Femmes Aéronautes: 35 and in the second half of 1906, the magazine Le Sport Universel Illustré reported that three years after the start of the Grand Prix of the Aéro-Club de France, seven countries were already participating in the competition.: 36 No. 10, a 2,010 cubic metre airship with a 60 hp engine, was large enough to carry several people and serve as public transport. It made a few flights in October 1903, but was never completely finished; No. 11 was an unmanned monoplane. No. 12 was a helicopter never completed due to the technological limitations of the time and finally, No. 13, a luxurious double hot air and hydrogen balloon. On his first return to Rio de Janeiro in 1903, a group of climbers put up a banner on Sugarloaf Mountain, beside Guanabara Bay, greeting the aviator on his return by ship from Europe.: 45 On 7 September 1903, he returned as a hero and met the President of Brazil, Rodrigues Alves, at the Catete Palace. When asked why he did not fly in Brazil, Santos-Dumont justified himself that it was because he could not "...count on the help of his mechanics, and much less on a hydrogen production plant like he had in France." He returned to Paris on 12 October. In 1904 he was nominated as a Knight of the Legion of Honour of France, and published the work Dans L'Air, whose translation into Portuguese, Os Meus Balões (My Balloons), was published in Brazil in 1938.: 18 === Heavier-than-air flight === In October 1904, three aviation prizes were founded in France: the Archdeacon Prize, the French Aeroclub Prize, and the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize. The first, promoted by millionaire Ernest Archdeacon, would award 3,500 francs to anyone who flew 25 metres; the second, instituted by the French aeroclub, would award 1,500 francs ($300) to anyone who flew 100 metres; and the third, sponsored by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon, would award 1,500 francs to anyone who flew 1,000 metres.: 281 With the exception of the Deutsch-Archdeacon Award, which prohibited the competing aircraft from using a balloon for launch, the other awards left the question of takeoff open. The flight could take place on flat or uneven terrain, in calm weather or wind – the French Aeroclub's Award required the flight to be into the wind – and the use of an engine was not mandatory. This allowed human-powered gliders and ornithopters to compete. It was required for all prizes that the race took place in France and under the supervision of an aeronautical commission convened no later than the evening of the previous day. Very little of what was required was new. Inventors in other countries had already met or exceeded some of the required goals including 2-axis (pitch and roll) control of gliders. In Germany, Otto Lilienthal had made thousands of glider flights in the early 1890s, often reaching distances far greater than the 25 metres stipulated by the Archdeacon Prize. In the United States, German immigrant Gustave Whitehead had allegedly pioneered powered glide, though claims and eye witness accounts remain controversial. The Wright brothers had simultaneously been making progress in developing surface-control gliders, at first using Lilienthal's foil concepts, then relying on their own wind tunnel data, and finally adding yaw control via a rudder, leading to the first 3-axis surface-controlled aeroplane in 1903. However, because their 12 horsepower engine could only provide two-thirds of the thrust required for takeoff on a rail of practical size, their takeoffs were aided by headwinds near Kitty Hawk and a catapult in Ohio, and without any official observers.: 376 Lilienthal's death due to a stall led the Wright brothers to place the elevator in front, which helped prevent stalls but made stable flight difficult until the Wrights modified the design; the 3-axis surface control (pitch, yaw and roll) pioneered by the Wrights was also adopted by other inventors including Santos-Dumont and remains the standard airplane control configuration. ==== Glider and helicopter ==== Having already accumulated technical knowledge, mainly concerning engines,: 7 in early 1905, Santos-Dumont built a model glider, No. 11, inspired by a self-stabilising prototype made 100 years earlier by English scientist George Cayley, considered to be the first aeroplane in history: the model, 1.5 metres long by 1.2 metres wide, had fixed wings, a cruciform tail and a movable weight to adjust the centre of gravity. Santos-Dumont's glider differed from Cayley's in size, wing profile, and the fact that it had no movable weight. The project was abandoned due to poor stability.: 7 An article by Georges Blanchet published in April 1904 diverges from the description of the No. 11 as a model aeroplane by presenting it as a dirigible balloon capable of carrying five people and a 34-metre-long envelope, being purchased by an American.: 91 The first experiment, conducted on 13 May at the Aeroclub de France, was made by the Dufaux brothers with a prototype helicopter. The model, weighing 17 kilograms and with a 3 hp engine, repeatedly soared to the roof of the air club's porch, raising clouds of dust. It had been demonstrated that heavier, larger aircraft could be lifted by their own means. The second experiment was made on 8 June on the Seine: Gabriel Voisin went up in the hydroplane Archdeacon, towed by a speedboat piloted by Alphonse Tellier, La Rapière. The device barely rose out of the water and the project was abandoned due to poor stability.: 277 Watching tests like this, Santos-Dumont realised that the Antoinette engine from the tugboat could be used in an aeroplane, giving the concept of the 14-bis.: 366 He began to study the two solutions for heavier-than-air flight. On 3 January 1906, he entered the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize, and before that he had begun building a helicopter, the No. 12, but gave up on it on 1 June because it was impossible to create a light, powerful engine.: 277 Between June 12 and August 25, 1905, he tested the No. 14 airship, which flew in two versions (14-a and 14-b): the first was 41 metres long, 3.4 in diameter and 186 cubic metres, with a 14 hp engine, and the second was 20 metres long, 6 in diameter and with a 16 hp engine. ==== Olympic diploma, 1905 ==== On 13 June 1905, represented by the Italian Count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux, Baron Pierre de Coubertin awarded Santos-Dumont the Olympic Diploma No. 3 for "...representing the Olympic ideal..." according to Coubertin, who was also received by Theodore Roosevelt, Fridtjof Nansen and William-Hippolyte Grenfell.: 15 De Coubertin considered aviation a sport; Santos-Dumont was described as a sportsman in FAI Bulletins and the Paris Sport of 15 July 1901 described the Brazilian as "a true sportsman in every sense of the word.: 29 " Santos-Dumont was already famous at that time and already a hero in his country.: 21 Santos' diploma was passed to the Brazilian ambassador in Belgium, who then passed it on to the aviator, according to the 21 June 1905 edition of the Correio Paulistano.: 20 Santos-Dumont was not the only one represented by others at the ceremony: 23 and only William Grenfell received the diploma personally. The FAI was created on 14 October 1905, along the lines of the International Olympic Committee.: 39 ==== 14-bis ==== In 1906 Santos-Dumont built a hybrid machine, the 14-bis or Oiseau de Proie, consolidating his studies of what had been done in aviation until then,: 7 without having had experience with gliders.: 70 By mid-year, within two months of starting,: 13 he completed an aeroplane attached to a hydrogen balloon to assist takeoff. On 18 July, after completing the 14-bis,: 41 Santos-Dumont signed up for a competition and presented the aircraft for the first time the next day.: 18 at Bagatelle, achieving some short hops. Excited, he decided to apply for the Archdeacon and Aeroclub of France awards the following day, his 33rd birthday, but was discouraged by Captain Ferdinand Ferber, another aviation enthusiast. Ferber had attended the demonstrations and did not like the solution presented by Santos-Dumont; he considered the hybrid an impure machine. "Aviation must be solved by aviation!" he declared. ==== Oiseau de Proie I ==== Santos-Dumont decided not to compete for the prizes with the hybrid, but on 20 July signed up for the tests and over the next three days continued to test the plane tethered to the balloon, to practise steering. Throughout the tests he realised that, although the balloon helped take-off, it made flight difficult as the drag generated was too great.: 279–280 The airship was discarded, and the biplane received the name Oiseau de Proie ("Bird of Prey") from the press.: 279–280 The Oiseau de Proie had been inspired by the hydroplane tested by Voisin. Like the water glider, the invention also consisted of a cellular biplane based on the structure created in 1893 by Australian researcher Lawrence Hargrave, which offered good support and rigidity. The plane was 4 metres high, 10 metres long, and had a span of 12 metres,: 391 with a wing area of 50 square metres. Its mass was 205 kilograms. The wings were attached to a beam, in front of which lay the rudder, consisting of a cell identical to those of the wings. At the rear end was the propeller, powered by a 24 hp Levavasseur engine. The landing gear had two wheels, and the pilot stood upright.: 279–280 The 23 September 1906 issue of Le Sport Universel Illustré published the technical details of the 14-bis.: 36 : 51 On 29 July, using a donkey and a system of cables, Santos-Dumont hoisted the Oiseau de Proie to the top of a tower: 279–280 13 metres high (2 metres were stuck in the ground), installed a few days earlier on his property in Neuilly. This frame was very similar to the one Ferber had used at Chalais-Meudon for the May 1905 experiments with the 6-bis. The plane, suspended on a movable hook connected to an inclined steel wire, glided without a propeller 60 metres from the top of the tower to a smaller one, only six metres long, on the Boulevard de la Seine. This allowed Santos-Dumont to get a feel for the aeroplane and to study its centre of gravity.: 8 In August the 14-bis was unsuccessful in trying to take off because the 24-hp engine was not powerful enough. On 13 September, the 14-bis made a 7 to 13-metre test flight with a 50 hp Antoinette engine,: 18 : 29 at 8:40 a.m,: 41 which ended in an accident that damaged the propeller and landing gear,: 74 but that was praised by La Nature magazine.: 322 On 30 September he interrupted the tests of the 14-bis to compete in the Gordon Bennett Cup with the Deux Amériques balloon. He abandoned it after an accident, having flown 134 kilometres in 6 hours and 20 minutes.: 323 The accident occurred while attempting a manoeuvre that caused the engine gear to fracture his arm. ==== Oiseau de Proie II ==== On 23 October, Santos-Dumont presented himself at Bagatelle with the Oiseau de Proie II, a modification of the original model. The plane had been varnished to reduce the porosity of the fabric and increase lift. The rear wheel had been removed. In the morning he limited himself to manoeuvring the aircraft across the field, until the propeller shaft broke. It was repaired in the afternoon, and the plane was moved into position for an official attempt. An expectant crowd was present. At 4:45 pm, Santos-Dumont started the engine. The plane lifted off and flew for 60 metres,: 18 without taking advantage of headwinds, ramps, catapults, slopes, or other devices. The flight had taken place solely by the aircraft's own means, and Europeans at the time believed it was the first such achievement.: 245 The crowd celebrated, ran up to the pilot and carried him off in triumph. The judges had been overcome with emotion and forgot to time and track the flight, and due to this the record was not made official.: 53 Brandão 2018 says that because the Aeroclub Committee was partially present, a new test was scheduled for 12 November.: 8 I struggled at first with the greatest difficulties to achieve complete obedience of the airplane. It was like shooting an arrow with the tail forward. On my first flight, after sixty meters, I lost direction and crashed... I didn't stay in the air any longer, not because of the machine's fault, but exclusively my own. ==== Oiseau de Proie III ==== The aeroplane was still experimental. To compete for the French Aeroclub's prize, Santos-Dumont inserted two octagonal surfaces (rudimentary ailerons) between the wings for better steering control and created the Oiseau de Proie III. Santos-Dumont was a pioneer in implementing ailerons in his aircraft.: 367 Santos-Dumont competed for the award on 12 November 1906,: 284 again in Bagatelle. He did five public flights that day: one at 10 am, of 40 metres; two others at 10:25 am, of 40 and 60 metres, when the axle of the right wheel broke. The damage was repaired during lunch and Santos-Dumont resumed at 4:09 pm. He covered 82.60 metres, surpassing the feat of 23 October and reaching 41.3 km/h.: 14 At 4:45 pm, with the day ending, he took off against the wind and flew 220 metres, for 21 seconds at an average speed of 37.4 km/h,: 14 winning the French Aeroclub Award. These were the first aeroplane flights recorded by a film company, Pathé. The Wright brothers, after learning of the 12 November experiment, sent a letter to Captain Ferdinand Ferber asking for "exact news of the Bagatelle experiments," including "a faithful report of the trials and a description of the flying machine, accompanied by a schematic.": 52–53 Santos-Dumont even adopted the configuration proposed by the Wright brothers and placed the rudder at the front of the 14-bis, which he described as "the same as trying to shoot an arrow forward with the tail...". To test the idea that the rudder at the rear increased the angle of incidence of the wings, Santos-Dumont built a new aircraft, without abandoning the 14-bis,: 324 and tested it in March 1907, without taking off: 325 as the primitive landing gear did not allow it.: 43 ==== Oiseau de Proie IV ==== He returned to the 14-bis having made other changes to the aircraft after 12 November, and on 4 April 1907, at Saint-Cyr, the aircraft flew for 50 metres, oscillated, crashed, and was torn to pieces. The project was abandoned. ==== New aeroplanes ==== He also made the No. 15, a biplane with a rear-mounted rudder, as opposed to the canard format,: 227 the No. 16, a mix of airship and aeroplane, No. 17 and No. 18, a waterslide: 391 used to test the wing shape underwater.: 326 Dissatisfied with numbers 15 to 18, he made a new series, smaller in size and more refined, like the Demoiselle, that was capable of reaching up to 90 kilometres per hour.: 9 It was first tested in November 1907, returning on an abandoned idea from 1905, but soon realised that it "... had serious structural problems" according to Henrique Lins de Barros.: 43 However, on November 17, 1907, he competed for the Deutsch-Archdeacon award, crossing 200 meters at a height of 6 meters, but abandoning before the required 1000 meters due to a breakdown in the aircraft.: 82 In 1909 he presented the Demoiselle No. 20, improved and considered "the first ultralight in history".: 44 This aeroplane was designed for sports competitions and 300 were built in several European countries and in the United States.: 98 His schemes were published in the June–July 1910 issues of Popular Mechanics.: 10 This plane consolidated Santos-Dumont's role in the birth of aviation in the 20th century.: 82 The Demoiselle also featured an engine of original invention by Santos-Dumont and model No. 20, capable of flights of up to 2 kilometres and reaching 96 km/h, Because of the aircraft's low cost and high safety, it was used for pilot training during World War I.: 83 The aircraft is on permanent display at the Musée de l'air et de l'espace near Paris.: 19 In 1908, when the Wright brothers went public, and – according to Mattos – used European technology: 376 and his colleagues were already being rewarded, he already seemed to have moved away from the events.: 326 == Last years == Santos-Dumont began to show symptoms of multiple sclerosis. He aged in appearance and felt too tired to continue competing with new inventors in races. On 22 August 1909 he attended the Great Aviation Week in Reims, where he made his last flights.: 328 After an accident with the Demoiselle on 4 January 1910,: 19 he closed down his workshop and withdrew from social life.: 301–302 He continued to work on popularising aviation. On 12 November 1910 a monument was unveiled in Bagatelle, and on 4 October 1913, the Icarus monument was unveiled, celebrating his winning the Deutsch Prize,: 19 made by sculptor Georges Colin.: 54 On the same day he was promoted to Commander of the Legion of Honour: 329 and soon after these events he returned to Brazil after a 10-year absence, returning to France the following year.: 54 He ordered a new Demoiselle in 1913, but there is no evidence that he ever flew it. In August 1914, World War I began, and Santos-Dumont offered his services to the French Ministry of War.: 19 He went on to enlist as a chauffeur.: 54 Aeroplanes began to be used in warfare, first for observation of enemy troops, and then in aerial combat. The combats became more violent, with the use of machine guns and bombs. Santos-Dumont saw his dream turn into a nightmare.: 44 Santos-Dumont now devoted himself to the study of astronomy, residing in Trouville, near the sea. For this he used several observation devices, with which his neighbours thought he was spying for the Germans. He was arrested on this charge. After the incident was cleared up, the French government apologised. This made him feel depressed, considering that he had offered his help to the military,: 20 and he destroyed all his aeronautical documents. In 1915, his health worsened and he decided to return to Brazil. That year, he took part in the 11th Pan-American Scientific Congress in the United States, dealing with the theme of the use of aeroplanes to improve relationships between the countries of the Americas.: 20 In his speech he showed concern about the efficiency of the aeroplane as a weapon of war, but advocated the creation of a squadron for coastal defence with the words, "Who knows when a European power will threaten an American state?": 330 Because of its pacifism, this position can be viewed in a surprising way. In the afterword to the historical novel O Homem com Asas ("De gevleugelde"), Arthur Japin says that when Santos-Dumont returned to Brazil, he "burned all his diaries, letters and drawings." In 1916, he was the Honorary President of the 1st Pan-American Aronautics Conference in Chile, which aimed to create an Aeronautical Federation with all the Americas, where, while representing the Aeroclub of America, he advocated the peaceful use of the aeroplane. When he returned to Brazil, passing through Paraná, he suggested the creation of the Iguaçu National Park.} In the book O Que Eu Vi, O Que Nós Veremos, Santos-Dumont transcribed his letters of 1917 to the President of the Republic of Brazil, stressing the need to build military airfields for the Army and the Navy. He also pointed out that Brazil was falling behind Europe, the United States and even Argentina and Chile.: 88–91 The book also argues for the need to train people in aeronautics, and to make the country technologically independent.: 9 In 1918 Santos-Dumont bought a small plot of land on the side of a hill in Petrópolis in the Serra Fluminense mountains, and built a small house there filled with mechanical devices, including an alcohol-heated shower of his own design. The hill was chosen because of its steep slope, as proof that ingenuity could make it possible to build a comfortable home in that unlikely location. After he built it in land given by the government, he spent summers there to escape the heat of Rio de Janeiro, calling it "The Enchanted" because of the Rua do Encanto. The steps of the outside stairs are dug alternately to the right and left, to allow people to climb up comfortably. The house is now a museum. In 1918 he wrote his second work, O que eu vi, o que nós veremos in this house. In 1919 he got the United States Minister in Brazil to contact the Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a way to "lobby" for more aeronautical cooperation between Brazil and the US.: 270 In 1920, Santos-Dumont had a tomb erected for his parents and himself in the São João Batista Cemetery in Rio de Janeiro. The tomb is a replica of Saint-Cloud's Icarus.: 334 Also in 1920, he began an international campaign against the warlike use of aircraft, but without success.: 44 In 1922, he decorated Anésia Pinheiro Machado, who, during the commemorations of the centenary of Brazil's independence, made the trip from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo in an aeroplane. On 14 May he made his last balloon ascent.: 20 Also in 1922 he visited friends in France. He spent time in Paris, Petrópolis and Cabangu Farm, in his home town. On 23 April 1923 he went to Portugal to collect his mother's remains.: 20 On 7 June he was awarded the Comendador of Military Order of Saint James of the Sword, in Portugal. On 21 August, he started the construction of his parents' tomb, where a replica of the Icarus of Saint Cloud offered by the French Government was placed, and he carried out the transfer of his parents' remains on 23 October.: 20 Beside his parents' graves, Santos-Dumont personally dug his own. On 6 November 1924, he was elected Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold II.: 20 On 25 January 1925, Santos tried to improve his health with thermal waters containing radium, but was unsuccessful. In March, in a letter, Santos-Dumont described himself as being "extremely thin, like a skeleton." In a letter dated 29 April he complained of noises in his ear. In July, he was hospitalised in Switzerland.: 20 In January 1926, he appealed to the League of Nations, through his friend and ambassador Afrânio de Melo Franco, to stop the use of aeroplanes as weapons of war. He offered ten thousand francs to whoever wrote the best piece against the military use of aeroplanes. Santos-Dumont was the first aeronaut to speak out against the warlike use of the aeroplane.: 15 In the same year he wrote to Senator Paulo de Frontin refusing a third-party proposal to make him a general.: 270 In May 1927, he was invited by the Aeroclub of France to preside over the banquet in honour of Charles Lindbergh for his crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, but he declined due to his health. He spent some time convalescing in Glion, Switzerland, and then returned to France. Researcher Henrique Lins de Barros describes that "around 1925, he gradually enters a state of almost permanent depression.": 333 On 3 December 1928 he returned to Brazil on the ship Capitão Arcona. The city of Rio de Janeiro received him with honour. A seaplane carrying several professors from the Escola Politécnica, from the Condor Syndikat company, baptised with his name, crashed, with no survivors, while flying over Santos-Dumont's ship.: 334 After this event, he locked himself in the Copacabana Palace and only came out to attend the funerals. On 10 June 1930, he was decorated by the Aeroclub of France with the title of Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honour.: 71 His speech was recorded on a sound film.: 334 == Death == On 28 October 1930, Santos-Dumont was hospitalised in France, and on 14 April 1931 he wrote his first will.: 20 In 1931, he was treated in sanatoriums in Biarritz, and Orthez, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, where he attempted suicide by overdosing on medication. Prado Júnior, former mayor of Rio de Janeiro (then the capital of Brazil), had been exiled by the 1930 revolution and had gone to France. He found Santos-Dumont in a delicate state of health due to his worsening multiple sclerosis. Juniór contacted Santos-Dumont's family and asked the aeronaut's nephew Jorge Dumont Vilares to fetch his uncle from France. On 3 June 1931, while returning to Brazil aboard the steamer Lutetia, Santos-Dumont tried to kill himself again, but his nephew intervened. He would never return to France.: 55 On 4 June 1931, he was elected a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters,: 20 even though he had no desire to be elected.: 55 Back in Brazil, they passed through Araxá, in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and finally settled in Grand Hôtel La Plage, in Guarujá, in May 1932. In July 1932, the state of São Paulo rose up in the Constitutionalist revolution against the revolutionary government of Getúlio Vargas. On the 14th, Santos-Dumont wrote a letter in favour of "...constitutional order in the country...": 81 to Governor Pedro de Toledo.: 335 When talking to professor and friend José de Oliveira Orlandi by phone, Santos-Dumont said: "My God! My God! Is there no way to avoid the bloodshed of brothers? Why did I make this invention which, instead of contributing to the love between men, turns into a cursed weapon of war? I am horrified by these airplanes that are constantly passing over Santos".: 335 The conflict continued, and aeroplanes attacked the Campo de Marte in São Paulo on 23 July.: 335 They may have flown over Guarujá, and the sight of planes in combat may have caused deep anguish in Santos-Dumont who, in his nephew's absence, died by suicide at the age of 59. Decree No. 21,668 established three days of mourning.: 20 Coroners Roberto Catunda and Angelo Esmolari, who signed his death certificate, recorded the death as a heart attack. The chambermaids who found the body reported that he had hanged himself with his tie. According to Henrique Lins de Barros, for a long time it was forbidden to say that he had killed himself and that the idea that he committed suicide due to the military use of the aeroplane would be a legend of the getulista period, as the government sought to mythologise him; the suicide could weaken this. The real cause may have been depression and bipolar disorder. The order of the governor Pedro de Toledo, following Santos-Dumont's death, was: "There will be no investigation, Santos Dumont did not commit suicide".: 336 Journalist Edmar Morel publicised the cause of death as suicide in 1944. Santos-Dumont left no suicide note and had no descendants. His body was buried in São João Batista Cemetery, in Rio de Janeiro, on 21 December 1932, during a storm,: 20 : 56 under the replica of the Icarus de Saint Cloud he had built,: 336 after his remains had remained in the São Paulo capital for five months.: 56 Physician Walther Haberfield secretly removed his heart during the embalming process: 336 and preserved it in formaldehyde. After keeping this a secret for twelve years, he wanted to return it to the Santos-Dumont family, who refused it. The doctor then donated the heart to the Brazilian government after a request from Panair do Brasil. The heart is on display at the Air Force Museum in Campo dos Afonsos, Rio de Janeiro,: 46 inside a sphere carried by Icarus, designed by Paulo da Rocha Gomide.: 49 == Legacy and tributes == Several legends were told about our Brazilian friend. They said he had an immense fortune! Well, this fortune was only a remediated situation. But how to explain the gesture of this man who distributed prizes awarded for performances to charitable institutions? In the eyes of the public, these liberalities could only be based on a fabulous fortune. Not at all: Santos Dumont was generosity itself, innate elegance, kindness and righteousness. He gave without counting and without foresight, moved by an irresistible virtue... He left as a legacy nothing but his name engraved in our hearts. Those who knew him could not help but love him. On 25 July 1909, Louis Blériot crossed the English Channel, becoming a hero in France. In a letter, Santos-Dumont congratulated Blériot, his friend, with the following words: "This transformation of geography is a victory of air navigation over sea navigation. One day, perhaps, thanks to you, the airplane will cross the Atlantic". Blériot then replied, "I have done nothing but follow and imitate you. Your name to the aviators is a flag. You are our leader." Blériot's last project was named Santos-Dumont.: 45 Dias 2005 says that the inventor's influence was both in his aeronautical development and in advocating the public and personal use of aeronautics, whether through lighter or heavier-than-air.: 32 During his career, Santos-Dumont's image was printed on products, his Panama hat and collar were copied, his balloons were modelled as toys, and confectioners made cakes shaped like airships.: 15 : 254 The European and American media reappropriated him as a French, presenting him as a "French aeronaut" or emphasizing his French ancestry, while the Brazilian media emphasized his Brazilian roots and nationality.: 259–260 In 1904, renowned French jeweller Louis Cartier debuted the Santos-Dumont, a watch designed for the aviator himself. It was the first wristwatch the Maison made, and the collection retails to this day. The Aéro-Club de France honoured him with two monuments: the first, in 1910, erected on the Bagatelle Gamefield, where he had flown with the Oiseau de Proie, and the second, in 1913, in Saint-Cloud, to commemorate the flight of airship No. 6 in 1901. On the unveiling of the Saint-Cloud monument – a statue of Icarus: 301–302 – one of his long-time friends, the cartoonist Georges Goursat (aka "Sem"), wrote the following for the magazine L'Illustration: This superb genius of athletic forms, with a grave profile, holding open in the tethers of his arms his wings, rudely wielded like two shields, nobly symbolizes the great work of Santos-Dumont: he would evoke in a very inaccurate way the simple, agile, laughing little big man that he is in reality. Dressed in a jacket and very short pants that are always rolled up, covered with a soft hat whose brim is on the other hand always folded back, there is nothing monumental about him. What distinguishes him is his taste for simplification, for geometric shapes, and everything in his appearance denotes this character. He has a passion for precision instruments. Small precision machines are installed on his work table, true jewels of mechanics, which are of no use to him and are only there for the pleasure of having them as knickknacks. There, next to a barometer and a microscope of the latest model, you can see a marine chronometer in its mahogany case. Even on the terrace of his villa stands a splendid telescope, with which he indulges in the fantasy of inspecting the sky. He has a horror of all complication, all ceremony, all pomp. So, what a rude and delicious ordeal for his modesty, this inauguration! I have known him for thirteen years; it was the first time I saw him in top hat and overcoat. And even for this single circumstance – supreme concession to custom – his properly stretched pants covered his astonished boots. Standing at the foot of his own monument, dressed as an official hero, transfixed with embarrassment and clumsiness, he seemed to me like a kind of martyr to glory. On 31 July 1932 state decree No. 10,447 changed the name of the town of Palmira, in Minas Gerais, to Santos-Dumont.: 120 Law No. 218, of 4 July 1936, declared 23 October to be "aviator's day," celebrating the historic flight on this date in 1906, "so that this commemoration will always have a worthy civic, sporting, and cultural celebration, especially in schools, emphasizing the initiative of the remarkable Brazilian Santos-Dumont".: 46 On 16 October 1936 Rio de Janeiro's first airport was named after him.: 121 Law No. 165, dated 5 December 1947, granted him the honorary rank of lieutenant brigadier. Santos-Dumont's birthplace in Cabangu, Minas Gerais, was made into the Cabangu Museum by state decree (MG) No. 5,057, on 18 July 1956. Law No. 3636, of 22 September 1959, made him an honorary air marshal.: 121 In 1976, the International Astronomical Union gave Santos-Dumont's name to a lunar crater (27.7°N 4.8°E). He is the only South American to be so honoured.: 46 : 122 Law 7.243, of 4 November 1984, granted him the title of "Patron of the Brazilian Aeronautics".: 123 On 13 October 1997, the then President of the United States, Bill Clinton, visiting Brazil, gave a speech at the Itamaraty Palace, referring to Santos-Dumont as the "father of aviation". On 18 October 2005, the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) signed an agreement to carry out the Missão Centenário, which took Brazilian astronaut Marcos César Pontes to the International Space Station. The mission is a tribute to the centennial of Santos-Dumont's flight on the 14-bis, on 23 October 1906. The Soyuz TMA-8 spacecraft launched on 30 March 2006, from the Baikonur Launch Centre (Kazakhstan). On 26 July 2006 his name was included in the Steel Book of National Heroes in the Panteão da Pátria, in Brasília, granting him the status of National Hero. == Cultural representations == In 1902 the poet Eduardo das Neves composed the song "A Conquista do Ar" in honour of Santos-Dumont's achievements,: 54 described by Thomas Skidmore as 'a conspicuous example of "ufanism" during the [Brazilian] belle époque', while for Oliveira 2022 the song was "...an effort to insert Afro-Brazilians into cosmopolitan visions of flight.": 262–263 In 1924 Tarsila do Amaral painted "Carnaval em Madureira",: 264 which showed the replica of the Eiffel Tower and the airship built in Madureira for the Carnaval celebrations of that year, alongside Afro-Brazilians attending the event.: 267–268 During the 2004 carnival, the Unidos da Tijuca remembered the aviator, with several scientists – among them Nobel Prize winner Roald Hoffmann – dressed as Santos Dumont.: 273–274 Santos-Dumont's friend Louis Cartier created a wristwatch for him in 1904. Up to that point, only women had wristwatches as they were considered a jewelry or fashion item only suitable for women; men only carried pocket watches. But Santos-Dumont needed both hands for flying and so Cartier created a wristwatch with a leather strap for him and called it the Cartier-Santos-Dumont. After his 1906 exploits, Santos-Dumont's picture was everywhere wearing the watch, and soon after, wristwatches became popular among men, possibly due to the publicity involving the watch Cartier made for his friend. Over a century later, Cartier produced a series of watches named after him, celebrating the partnership between him and the brand. As a publicity piece, an award-winning film was made by France's Quad Productions entitled "L'Odyssée de Cartier". In 1956, the Brazilian Post Office released a series of stamps commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the first flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft. In 1973, they released a series of stamps to celebrate Santos-Dumont's centenary. On 23 October 2006, they launched a commemorative stamp for the centenary of the flight of the 14-bis. In the same month, the Brazilian Central Bank issued a coin commemorating Santos-Dumont's invention. He was depicted on the cruzeiro and cruzeiro novo banknotes. In 2015, author Arthur Japin published the historical novel De gevleugelde (O Homem com Asas, in Brazil), about the aviator's life and death, and the extraction of his heart. During the opening ceremony of the 2016 Summer Olympic Games at the Maracanã Stadium, a replica of Santos-Dumont's 14-bis, was built in the stadium and, with the help of steel cables, flew over the runway, "taking off" for a flight over the city of Rio de Janeiro. Santos-Dumont has been portrayed as a character in film, television, and theatre, played by Denis Manuel in Marcel Camus' Les faucheurs de marguerites (1974); by Cássio Scapin in the miniseries Um Só Coração (2004); by Daniel de Oliveira in the short film 14-bis (2006); by Ricardo Napoleão in Denise Stoklos' play "Mais Pesado que o Ar – Santos Dumont" (1996); and by Henri Lalli in the play Santos-Dumont (since 2003). Fernanda Montenegro played a transsexual descendant of Santos-Dumont in the soap opera Zazá (1997). TV Brasil produced the programme O Teco Teco, with a character named Betinho, depicting Santos-Dumont as a child. On 10 November 2019, HBO released the miniseries Santos-Dumont across Latin America. The production follows the aviator's steps from childhood in his family's coffee fields Minas Gerais and São Paulo (where the family settled), to the sophisticated salons and aeroclubs in Paris, where Santos-Dumont made his historic flight in the 14-bis in 1906. Actor João Pedro Zappa played the inventor. == Personal life == === Sexuality === Santos-Dumont never married and was rather shy, and his sexuality has long been debated, including by his biographers. Researcher Henrique Lins de Barros, from the Brazilian Center for Physics Research, rejects the thesis that the Brazilian inventor was homosexual, arguing that he was just a man concerned with his appearance. According to Barros, "The French refinement sounded like homosexual affectation to American journalists, who described him as effeminate. (...) Hoffman did not understand the customs and values of the time and saw everything with the distorted view that was held at that time in the United States." Also, in his article "Alberto Santos-Dumont: Pioneiro da Aviação," Barros notes that Santos-Dumont had a media-heralded engagement to Edna Powers,: 39 daughter of an American millionaire. Cosme Degenar Drumond, writer of "Alberto Santos-Dumont: Novas Revelações," says that in France Santos-Dumont has "a reputation as a conqueror". Santos-Dumont was listed in the list of the "100 VIP homosexuals of Brazil," formulated by anthropologist Luiz Mott, rekindling the discussion about Santos-Dumont's sexuality. Santos-Dumont's family has denied that he was homosexual. Santos-Dumont allegedly had a homo-affective affair with Georges Goursat in 1901. Yolanda Penteado, in her autobiography Tudo em cor de rosa, says: "(...) I met Alberto Santos-Dumont, a brother of my uncle Henrique. Seu Alberto, as we called him, came every day for dinner and stayed over, saying it was to see the moon come out. In Flamengo the full moon nights were really beautiful. He was a restless person. I thought it was funny that he gave me so much attention. And Aunt Amalia would say: "Alberto, you are getting dizzy dating this girl". Alberto, in fact, used to court me, bring me chocolates, flowers, take me for walks. The people who knew him best said that when he saw me he became electric". In a 1901 letter a friend, Santos-Dumont wrote that he was in love with an American woman: "[M]y heart is already very much with her ... and I don't know what to do, whether to stop the courtship or to continue." === Mental health === Santos-Dumont is traditionally described as having developed multiple sclerosis. However, this diagnosis is disputed by other researchers: Henrique Lins de Barros questions this diagnosis: "I think it difficult to believe in this hypothesis of multiple sclerosis... How could anyone suffering from a degenerative disease like multiple sclerosis ski in Saint Moritz in the 1910s and play tennis in the 1920s, as he did?" Marcos Villares Filho, great-grandnephew of Santos-Dumont, says that he probably had a profound depression. The documentation of the time does not provide a good deal of information to determine that Santos-Dumont suffered from multiple sclerosis.: 208 The original diagnosis came after consulting a doctor due to symptoms such as dizziness and double vision. Later, this diagnosis was challenged by other doctors, who believed that the aviator was already suffering from psychiatric manifestations. The symptoms reported for the original diagnosis would be only two related to multiple sclerosis.: 67 From biographies of Santos-Dumont, Elie Cheniaux of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro concludes that Santos-Dumont likely suffered from bipolar disorder or manic syndrome, with his latest bizarre inventions being able to demonstrate the "loss of critical ability",: 67 and notes several episodes showing bursts of energy outside of his depressive episodes. Santos-Dumont reportedly developed depression in 1910, predating the use of the aeroplane in the war, which, according to Cheniaux, would indicate that his feeling of guilt was a symptom rather than the cause.: 67 A letter written in 1931 by a doctor at the Orthez sanatorium to a friend of Santos-Dumont describes him as 'suffering from anxious melancholy with delusions of self-blame, from imaginary guilt, and awaiting punishment', also identified as neurasthenia, an exhaustion of the central nervous system.: 271 Bipolar disorder is one of the disorders most connected with suicide and Santos-Dumont already had precedents in his family, with his mother having taken her own life: 67 in 1902: 66 and that the aviator already demonstrated at the end of his life a number of epidemiological risk factors for suicide.: 208 It is hard to determine any diagnosis due to the lack of medical documentation. == Publications == Books Articles Translations of his works Non published == See also == == Notes == == References == == Works cited == == Further reading == Barros, Henrique Lins de (2002). Santos Dumont: o homem que voa! (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Contraponto: Petrobras. ISBN 85-85910-33-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) Barros, Henrique Lins de (2004). Santos Dumont e a invenção do vôo (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar. Fonseca, Gondin da (1956). Santos Dumont (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Livraria São José. Hoffman, Paul (2003). Wings of Madness: Alberto Santos-Dumont and the Invention of Flight. Hyperion Books. ISBN 0-7868-8571-8. Musa, João Luis (2001). Alberto Santos Dumont – Eu naveguei pelo ar (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira. Napoleão, Aluízio (1997). Santos Dumont e a conquista do ar (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Ultraleves. Nicolaou, Stéphane (1997). Santos Dumont – Dandy et Génie de l'Aéronautique (in French). Le Bourget: Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace. Nogueira, Salvador (2006). Conexão Wright – Santos Dumont: a verdadeira história da invenção do avião (in Brazilian Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Record. Pquier, Pierre (1952). Santos Dumont – Maître d'action (in Brazilian Portuguese). Paris: Conquistador. Peyrey, François (1909). Les oiseaux artificiels (PDF) (in French). Paris: H. Dunod et E. Pinat. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2021. Polillo, Raul de (1950). Santos Dumont gênio (in Brazilian Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional. == External links == Works by Alberto Santos-Dumont at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Santos-Dumont, My Airships (tr. of Dans l'air) Works by or about Alberto Santos-Dumont at the Internet Archive PBS Nova: Wings of Madness U. S. Centennial of Flight Commission Dumont Alberto Santos Dumont Article by writer Patricia Nell Warren. History of Aviation: Brazil, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Aviation Pioneer Santos-Dumont, Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA). Letter to Brazil, by Neil deGrasse Tyson
Alternatives to car use	Established alternatives to car use include cycling, walking, kick scooters, rollerblading, skateboarding, twikes and (electric or internal combustion) motorcycles. Other alternatives are public transport vehicles (buses, guided buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, monorails, tramways). == History == Prior to the popularity of car use which dominated motorised transport (and consequently urban planning) from around the 1950s onwards, several transportation modes were used. Pedestrianism for both short and long distances was used, but also travel by horse especially for long distances. Trams, especially powered trams, achieved widespread popularity in the 19th century. Carriages, used for centuries, are still used but mainly for tourism. == Public transport == The public transport with the highest modal share worldwide is travelling by bus followed by travelling by rail due to infrastructure cost. A pedestrian form of public transport is a walking bus predominantly used by schools. An attempt to transform private transport by bicycle into public transport has been bicycle sharing schemes. Effectively they are renting access to a fleet. Bicycle-sharing systems have been implemented in over 1000 cities worldwide, and are especially common in many European and Chinese cities of all sizes. Similar programs have been implemented across the United States as well, including large cities like Washington, D.C., and New York City, as well as smaller cities like Buffalo, New York and Fort Collins, Colorado. Personal rapid transit is a scheme that has been discussed, in which small, automated vehicles would run on special elevated tracks spaced within walking distance throughout a city, and could provide direct service to a chosen station without stops. However, despite several concepts existing for decades personal rapid transit has failed to gain significant ground and several prototypes and experimental systems have been dismantled as failures. == Private transport == === Unmotorised === The private transport with the highest modal share, worldwide that is unmotorised, is pedestrianism followed by cycling. === Motorised === Another possibility is forms of personal transport such as the electric skateboard/mountainboard, electric kick scooter, or personal transporters, such as self-balancing unicycles (i.e. Segway PT and others), which could serve as an alternative to cars and bicycles if they prove to be socially accepted. Electric or internal combustion motorcycles (which also include scooters) are also an option. Internal combustion motorcycles do create some degree of local air pollution however. That said, the degree of local air pollution varies considerably depending on which fuel (i.e. gasoline, LPG, CNG/biogas, hydrogen) is injected to the internal combustion engine. This fuel can be freely chosen, and existing motorcycle engine can be converted to run on these. Hydrogen for instance is described as being "near-emissionless" when burned in an internal combustion engine. Also, velomobiles exist (including electric assisted versions), which compared to regular bicycles have the benefit of being enclosed (hence protecting the driver from the weather), and the potential of being motorized, which can allow one to travel greater distances (at a faster speed). == Benefits == All of these alternative modes of transport pollute less than at least the petroleum-powered car and contribute to transport sustainability. They also provide other significant benefits such as reduced traffic-related injuries and fatalities, reduced space requirements, both for parking and driving, reduced resource usage and pollution related to both manufacturing and driving, increased social inclusion, increased economic and social equity, and more livable streets and cities. Some alternative modes of transportation, especially cycling, also provide regular, low-impact exercise, tailored to the needs of human bodies. Public transport is also linked to increased exercise, because they are combined in a multi-modal transport chain that includes walking or cycling. A study which checked the costs and the benefits of introducing Low Traffic Neighbourhood in London found the benefits overpass the costs approximately by 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time. The health benefits are "£4,800 per local adult" but became prominent generally 1-2 years after the scheme is introduced. == See also == == References ==
Amsterdam Airport	Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (IATA: AMS, ICAO: EHAM), known informally as Schiphol Airport (Dutch: Luchthaven Schiphol, pronounced [ˌlʏxtɦaːvə(n) ˈsxɪp(ɦ)ɔl; sxɪpˈɦɔl]), is the main international airport of the Netherlands, and is one of the major hubs for the SkyTeam airline alliance. It is located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi; 4.9 nmi) southwest of Amsterdam, in the municipality of Haarlemmermeer in the province of North Holland. It was the world's third busiest airport by international passenger traffic in 2023. With almost 72 million passengers in 2019, it is the third-busiest airport in Europe in terms of passenger volume and the busiest in Europe in terms of aircraft movements. With an annual cargo tonnage of 1.74 million, it is the 4th busiest in Europe. AMS covers a total area of 6,887 acres (10.761 sq mi; 2,787 ha) of land. The airport is built on the single-terminal concept: one large terminal split into three departure halls. Schiphol is the principal hub for KLM and its regional affiliate KLM Cityhopper as well as for Martinair. The airport also serves as an operating base for Corendon Dutch Airlines, easyJet, Transavia, TUI fly Netherlands, and Vueling. Schiphol opened on 16 September 1916 as a military airbase. The end of the First World War also saw the beginning of civilian use of Schiphol Airport and the airport eventually lost its military role completely. By 1940, Schiphol had four asphalt runways at 45-degree angles. The airport was captured by the German military that same year and renamed Fliegerhorst Schiphol. The airport was destroyed through bombing but at the end of the war, the airfield was soon rebuilt. In 1949, it was decided that Schiphol was to become the primary airport of the Netherlands. Schiphol Airport was voted the Best Airport in Western Europe in 2020. == Etymology == The name Sciphol appears in an official document from 1447. According to the airport's media department, the name of Schiphol might have several origins, all contested: As graveyard of ships. The Haarlemmermeer was a big, wild water mass, where many ships found their demise. As ship-haul, where ships were transferred from one water to another. As name of a coppice in marshy land. In the Gothic language, it indicated an area of low-lying wetland ("hol" or "holl") where wood (scip) could be extracted. However, Gothic has never been spoken in the Netherlands. == Description == Schiphol Airport ranked as Europe's third busiest and the world's eleventh busiest by total passenger traffic in 2017 (12th in 2016, 14th in 2015, 2014 and 2013 and 16th in 2012). It also ranks as the world's fifth busiest by international passenger traffic and the world's sixteenth busiest for cargo tonnage. A record 71,706,999 passengers passed through the airport in 2019. Schiphol's main competitors in terms of passenger traffic and cargo throughput are London Heathrow, Frankfurt, Madrid, Paris–Charles de Gaulle and Istanbul. In 2019, 70.5% of passengers using the airport flew to and from Europe, 10.6% to and from North America and 10.1% to and from Asia; cargo volume was mainly between Schiphol and Asia (46.3%) and North America (17.6%). In 2019, 102 carriers provided a total of 332 destinations on a regular basis. As of 2024, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol handled over 66.8 million passengers annually, reinforcing its status as one of Europe's largest aviation hubs. The airport is built as one large terminal (a single-terminal concept), split into three departure halls, which connect again once airside. The most recent of these was completed in 1994 and expanded in 2007 with a new section, called Terminal 4, although it is not considered a separate building. A new pier is to be opened in 2019 with a terminal extension planned to be operational by 2023. Plans for further terminal and gate expansion exist, including the construction of a separate new terminal between the Zwanenburgbaan and Polderbaan runways that would end the one-terminal concept. Because of intense traffic and high landing fees (due to the limit of 500,000 flights a year), some low-cost carriers decided to move their flights to smaller airports, such as Rotterdam The Hague Airport and Eindhoven Airport. Many low-cost carriers, such as EasyJet and Ryanair, however, continue to operate at Schiphol, using the low-cost H pier. In 2015, Lelystad Airport was allowed to expand, aimed at accommodating some of the low-cost and leisure flights currently operating out of Schiphol, eventually taking up to 45,000 flights a year. To combat complaints from the community in Schiphol, Amsterdam Airport is advocating the prohibition of private jets, with the aim of minimizing noise and environmental pollution. The airport also intends to restrict takeoffs between midnight and 6 a.m. and landings between midnight and 5 a.m. == History == === Early years === Before 1852, the entire polder of Haarlemmermeer in which the airport lies was a large lake with some shallow areas. There are multiple stories of how the place got its name. The most popular story is that in the shallow waters, sudden violent storms could claim many ships. Winds were particularly strong in the Schiphol area since the prevailing wind direction is from the southwest, and Schiphol lies in the northeastern corner of the lake. In English, schiphol translates to 'ship hole', a reference to many ships supposedly lost in the lake. When the lake was reclaimed, however, no shipwrecks were found. Another possible origin of the name is the word scheepshaal. A scheepshaal is a ditch or small canal in which ships would be towed from one lake to another. A third explanation would be that the name is derived from the words schip hol. This is a low-lying area of land (hol) from where wood would be obtained to build ships. After the lake was dredged in the mid-1800s, a fortification named Fort Schiphol was built in the area which was part of the Stelling van Amsterdam defence works. Schiphol opened on 16 September 1916 as a military airbase, with a few barracks and a field serving as platform and runways. When civil aircraft started to use the field (17 December 1920), it was often called Schiphol-les-bains. The Fokker aircraft manufacturer started a factory near Schiphol airport in 1919. The end of the First World War also saw the beginning of civilian use of Schiphol Airport and the airport eventually lost its military role completely. By 1940, Schiphol had four asphalt runways at 45-degree angles, all 1,020 m (3,350 ft) or less. One was extended to become today's runway 04/22; two others crossed that runway at 52.312°N 4.800°E / 52.312; 4.800. The airport was captured by the German military that same year and renamed Fliegerhorst Schiphol. A large number of anti-aircraft defences were installed in the vicinity of the airport and fake decoy airfields were constructed in the vicinity near Bennebroek, Vijfhuizen, and Vogelenzang to try to confuse Allied bombers. A railway connection was also built. Despite these defences, the airfield was still bombed intensively; an exceptionally heavy attack on 13 December 1943 caused so much damage that it rendered the airfield unusable as an active base. After that, it served only as an emergency landing field, until the Germans themselves destroyed the remnants of the airfield at the start of Operation Market Garden. At the end of the war, the airfield was quickly restored: the first aircraft, a Douglas DC-3, landed on 8 July 1945. A new terminal building was completed in 1949 and it was decided that Schiphol was to become the primary airport of the Netherlands. The expansion came at the cost of a small town called Rijk, which was demolished to make room for the growing airport. The name of this town is remembered in the name of the present Schiphol-Rijk industrial estate. In 1967, Schiphol expanded even further with a new terminal area at its current location. Most of the 1967 terminal is still in use today (Departure Halls 1 and 2), as are parts of the original piers (now called C, D, and E). Dutch designer Benno Wissing created signage for Schiphol Airport, well known for its clear writing and thorough colour-coding; to avoid confusion, he prohibited any other signage in the shades of yellow and green used. The new terminal building replaced the older facilities once located on what is now the east side of the airport. The A-pier (now C-pier) of the airport was modified in 1970 to allow Boeing 747 aircraft to use the boarding gates. A new pier (D, now called F) opened in 1977, dedicated to handling wide-body aircraft. The first railway station at the airport followed in 1978. === Development since the 1990s === The construction of a new air traffic control tower was completed in 1991 as the existing tower could no longer oversee all of the airport as it was further expanded. Departure Hall 3 was added to the terminal in 1993, as was another pier, G-pier. New wayfinding signage was designed that year as well by Paul Mijksenaar. A sixth runway was completed at quite some distance west of the rest of airport in 2003 and was nicknamed the Polderbaan, with the connecting taxiway bridge crossing the A5 motorway. The distance of this runway means that taxiing to and from this runway can take between 10 and 20 minutes. It also required the construction of an additional air traffic control tower as the primary tower is too far away to oversee this part of the airfield. On 25 February 2005, a diamond robbery occurred at Schiphol's cargo terminal. The robbers used a stolen KLM van to gain airside access. The estimated value of the stones was around 75 million euros, making it one of the largest diamond robberies ever. Later in 2005, a fire broke out at the airport's detention centre, killing 11 people and injuring 15. The complex was holding 350 people at the time of the incident. Results from the investigation almost one year later showed that fire safety precautions were not in force. A national outrage resulted in the resignation of Justice Minister Piet Hein Donner (CDA) and Mayor Hartog of Haarlemmermeer. Spatial Planning Minister Sybilla Dekker (VVD) resigned as well because she bore responsibility for safety failings cited in the report. In the summer of 2022, the airport suffered the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation. It experienced extraordinarily long delays and a large number of cancelled flights, which led to a recession of air traffic and subsequently to a shortage of security staff and a walkout of baggage handlers. Queues for security check-in were reported to last for 5 hours, and many passengers missed their flights. The CEO of Schiphol Group, Dick Benschop, was forced to resign. In 2024, Schiphol experienced substantial growth, with an 8% increase in passenger traffic and an 8.2% rise in cargo volume compared to 2023. This surge prompted Schiphol Group to announce a €6 billion infrastructure investment plan covering the 2024–2029 period. Key projects include the renovation of Pier C, an overhaul of the baggage handling system, enhancements to climate-control systems, and the construction of additional aircraft stands and taxiways. The airport is also developing a new Pier A, scheduled to open in 2027. == Infrastructure == === Terminal === Schiphol uses a one-terminal concept, where all facilities are located under a single roof, radiating from the central plaza, Schiphol Plaza. The terminal is divided into three sections or halls designated 1, 2 and 3. The piers and concourses of each hall are connected so that it is possible, on both sides of security or border inspection, to walk between piers and halls, although border control separates Schengen from non-Schengen areas. The exception to this is the low-cost pier M: once airside (past security), passengers cannot access any other areas. Schiphol Airport has approximately 223 boarding gates including eighteen double jetway gates used for widebody aircraft. The airport adopted a distinctive design, with the second jetway extending over the aircraft wing hanging from a steel cantilever structure. Gradual refurbishments have seen these jetways replaced with a more conventional layout with the last two taken out of use in November 2024. Two gates feature a third jetway for handling of the Airbus A380. Emirates was the first airline to fly the A380 to Schiphol in August 2012, deploying the aircraft on its double daily Dubai–Amsterdam service. China Southern Airlines also used the A380 on its Beijing–Amsterdam route before removing the type from service at the end of 2022, leaving Emirates as the sole A380 operator at Schiphol Airport as of 2023. Schiphol has large shopping areas, primarily on the ground floor, as a source of revenue and as an additional attraction for passengers. Schiphol Plaza not only connects the three terminal halls but also houses other facilities. This is a large pre-security shopping centre and the Schiphol Airport railway station. These facilities are also attracting general visitors. The 1st floor hosts the luggage check-in lines, many of them automated, as well as various duty-free refund booths. Available seating is limited on this floor. Notable public artworks in the airport include the Schiphol clock by Maarten Baas, in which a man behind a translucent screen appears to paint the minutes of an analog clock by hand. ==== Departure Hall 1 ==== Departure Hall 1 consists of Piers B and C, both of which are dedicated Schengen areas and share D-pier with Departure Hall 2. Pier B has 14 gates and Pier C has 21 gates. ==== Departure Hall 2 ==== Departure Hall 2 consists of Piers D and E. Pier D is the largest pier and has two levels. The lower floor houses non-Schengen flights and the upper floor is used for Schengen flights. By using stairs, the same jetways are used to access the aircraft. Schengen gates are numbered beginning with D-59; non-Schengen gates are numbered from D-1 to D-57. Pier E is a dedicated non-Schengen area and has fourteen gates. It is typically home to SkyTeam hub airlines Delta Air Lines and KLM, along with other members, such as China Airlines and China Southern Airlines. Other Middle Eastern and Asian airlines such as Air Astana, EVA Air, Etihad Airways and Iran Air also typically operate out of Pier E. ==== Departure Hall 3 ==== Departure Hall 3 consists of three piers: F, G, and H/M. Pier F has eight gates and is typically dominated by SkyTeam members such as primary airline KLM, Kenya Airways, China Airlines, China Southern Airlines, and other members. Pier G has thirteen gates. Piers F and G are non-Schengen areas. Piers H and M are physically one concourse consisting of seven shared gates and are home to low-cost airlines. Operating completely separately, H handles non-Schengen flights while M is dedicated to flights within the Schengen area. ==== A380 ==== Gates G9, E18 and E24 (E24 refurbished in 2019) are equipped to handle daily Airbus A380 service by Emirates. China Southern Airlines also operated the type before withdrawing it from service at the end of 2022, leaving Emirates as the only A380 operator at Schiphol as of 2023. ==== General aviation terminal ==== A new general aviation terminal was opened in 2011 on the east side of the airport, operated as the KLM Jet Center. The new terminal building has a floorspace of 6,000 m2 (65,000 sq ft); 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) for the actual terminal and lounges, 4,000 m2 (43,000 sq ft) for office space and 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) for parking. The centre and its activities were sold to the Swiss company Jet Aviation in October 2018 and was rebranded as Jet Aviation Amsterdam. ==== Other facilities ==== The Rijksmuseum operates an annex at the airport, offering a small overview of both classical and contemporary art. Admission to the exhibits is free, but requires a plane ticket as it is situated in the passenger transit zone. In the summer of 2010, Schiphol Airport Library opened alongside the museum, providing passengers access to a collection of 1,200 books (translated into 29 languages) by Dutch authors on subjects relating to the country's history and culture. The 89.9 m2 (968 sq ft) library offers e-books and music by Dutch artists and composers that can be downloaded free of charge to a laptop or mobile device. For aviation enthusiasts, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol has a large rooftop viewing area, called the Panoramaterras. It is not accessible to connecting passengers unless they first exit the airport. Enthusiasts and the public can enter, free of charge, from the airport's landside. Since June 2011, it is the location for a KLM Cityhopper Fokker 100, modified to be a viewing exhibit. Besides the Panoramaterras, Schiphol has other spotting sites, especially along the newest Polderbaan runway and at the McDonald's restaurant at the north side of the airport. Schiphol has its own mortuary, where the dead can be handled and kept before departure or after arrival. Between October 2006 and 2019, people could also hold a wedding ceremony at Schiphol. Schiphol also has a new state-of-the-art cube-shaped Hilton Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with 433 rooms, rounded corners and diamond-shaped windows. The spacious atrium has a 41 m-high (135 ft) ceiling made of glass and is in the heart of the building. A covered walkway connects the hotel directly to the terminal. The hotel was completed in 2015. In line with its sustainability objectives, Schiphol introduced a new fleet of 52 electric shuttle buses in 2024 to reduce emissions and improve passenger transport on the apron. Additionally, a 5,000 square meter expansion of Lounge 1 was completed in November 2024, offering travelers an upgraded space incorporating natural elements and improved amenities. === Future expansions === ==== Pier A ==== In 2012, Schiphol Group announced an expansion of Schiphol, featuring a new pier. Pier A will be part of Departure Hall 1, which already has Pier B (14 gates) and Pier C (21 gates). The new Pier A will have five narrow-body gates and will initially have three wide-body gates, with two more planned for a later phase. The new Pier A is under construction to the southwest of Pier B, in an area formerly used as a freight platform. Pier A is planned to be mainly used for flights within Europe. The expansions were originally supposed to cost about 500 million Euro. The first construction activities were originally expected to start in 2017 with an estimated opening in 2019. However, the construction of the new pier has been delayed several times and due to a conflict between the airport and the construction consortium, the construction was halted in November 2021. Schiphol was disappointed in the construction speed and the rising of the total cost, although insiders announced that a design flaw was made and the entire construction needed to be reinforced. A new tendering procedure was be started to find a new constructor in 2022, once found a new completion date will be announced. ==== Fourth terminal hall ==== To handle future growth in passengers, Schiphol will further expand by building a fourth terminal hall with facilities for both departures and arrivals. From this new building, direct access will be made to Schiphol Plaza, continuing the one-terminal concept. When finished in 2023, Schiphol will be able to handle over 70 million passengers. Due to rapid growth of Schengen passengers during 2016, Schiphol was however forced to rapidly build a temporary departure hall which opened in March 2017. Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic the construction of the fourth terminal hall has been postponed for at least two years. ==== Uniform platform ==== The airport has expanded the number of uniform platforms, and places to stow airplanes, in recent years in two phases. A third phase is planned to expand the number of wide-body platforms to a total of twelve, with planned completion in the period 2022–2026. ==== Public transportation ==== Schiphol, together with the public transport authority Amsterdam, is going to transform its train- and bus station. The train station will be getting more entrances and the bus station will be completely renewed with a planned opening date in 2025. A connection to the Amsterdam Metro network has been a subject of discussion and speculation since at least the 1990s. In preparation for this, a piece of land has been acquired from Chipshol. As of 2022, the project had not moved past the proposal stage. ==== Airlines ==== Schiphol's growth is hampered by slot restrictions from the government. For reasons of safety and noise reduction, Schiphol is allowed to have no more than 500,000 aircraft movements until the end of 2020. A proposal to increase the limit to 540,000 movements from 2021 onwards has been postponed until a new government is formed after the elections in March 2021. As Schiphol nearly approached the limit of 500,000 in the last few years, the slot restrictions have hindered airlines to settle at Schiphol. Among airlines that have expressed interest in flying at Schiphol are Atlantic Airways, Cyprus Airways, Somon Air and SpiceJet. === Tower === The Schiphol air traffic control tower, with a height of 101 m (331 ft), was the tallest in the world when constructed in 1991. Schiphol is geographically one of the world's lowest major commercial airports. The entire airport is below sea level. The lowest point sits at 3.4 m (11 ft) below sea level: 1.4 m (4.5 ft) below the Dutch Normaal Amsterdams Peil (NAP). The runways are around 3 m (9.8 ft) below NAP. It is one of only eleven airports worldwide below sea level, the fifth lowest with scheduled flights, and the third lowest with international flights. === Runways === Schiphol has six runways, one of which is used mainly by general aviation. The airport covers a total area of 6,887 acres (2,787 ha) of land. == Airlines and destinations == === Passenger === The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Amsterdam: === Cargo === === Other users === Other regular users of Schiphol are the Netherlands Coastguard whose aircraft are operated by the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Dienst Luchtvaart Politie and the Dutch Dakota Association. === Operational peaks === Typical peak moments at Schiphol Airport are between 09:00 and 11:00, and between 13:00 and 15:00 for departures, with up to 58 departures between 14:00 and 15:00 on a typical weekday (a departure nearly every minute). The peak moment for arrivals is between 08:00 and 09:00 (with up to 52 arrivals on a weekday). == Statistics == == Other facilities == The TransPort Building on the Schiphol Airport property houses the head offices of Martinair and transavia. Construction of the building, which has 10,800 m2 (116,000 sq ft) of rentable space, began on 17 March 2009. Schiphol Group and the architect firm Paul de Ruiter designed the building, while construction firm De Vries & Verburg constructed the building. The World Trade Center Schiphol Airport houses the head office of SkyTeam, local offices of China Southern Airlines and Iran Air. The head office of Schiphol Group, the airport's operator, is located on the airport property. The original control tower of Schiphol Airport, which the airport authorities had moved slightly from its original location, now houses a restaurant. The area Schiphol-Rijk includes the head office of TUI fly Netherlands. At one time, KLM had its head office briefly on the grounds of Schiphol Airport. Its current head office in nearby Amstelveen had a scheduled completion at the end of 1970. Previously Martinair had its head office in the Schiphol Center (Dutch: Schiphol Centrum) at Schiphol Airport. Formerly, the head office of Transavia was in the Building Triport III at Schiphol Airport. NLM Cityhopper and later KLM Cityhopper previously had their head offices in Schiphol Airport building 70. The Convair Building, with its development beginning after a parcel was earmarked for its development in 1999, houses various KLM offices, including KLM Recruitment Services and the head office of KLM Cityhopper. Nippon Cargo Airlines has its Europe regional headquarters at Schiphol. The National Aerospace Museum Aviodome–Schiphol was previously located at Schiphol. There used to be an aviation museum, but in 2003, it moved to Lelystad Airport and was renamed the "Aviodrome." In early 2025, Schiphol secured a €400 million loan from the European Investment Bank to support its infrastructure and sustainability initiatives, marking one of the largest financial investments in the airport’s recent history. == Ground transport == === Rail === The Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS), the national Dutch train operator, has a major passenger railway station directly underneath the passenger terminal complex that offers transportation 24 hours a day into the four major cities Amsterdam, Utrecht, The Hague and Rotterdam. There are efficient and often direct services to many other cities in the country. There are intercity connections to Almere, Lelystad, Amsterdam Centraal, Utrecht Centraal, both The Hague Centraal and The Hague HS, Rotterdam Centraal, Eindhoven Centraal, 's-Hertogenbosch, Leeuwarden, Groningen, Amersfoort Centraal, Apeldoorn, Deventer, Enschede, Arnhem Centraal, Nijmegen and Venlo. Schiphol is also a stop for the Eurostar international high-speed train (formerly known as Thalys), connecting the airport directly to Antwerp, Brussels and Paris Gare du Nord, as well as to Bourg St Maurice (winter) and Marseille (summer). The Intercity-Brussel (also named the "Beneluxtrein") to Antwerp and Brussels stops at the airport. === Bus === Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is also easily accessible by bus, as many services call or terminate at the bus station located in front of the terminal building. The Taiwanese EVA Air provides private bus services from Schiphol to Belgium for its Belgium-based customers. The service, which departs from and arrives at bus stop C11, goes to Saint-Gilles, Brussels (near the Brussels-South (Midi) railway station) and Berchem, Antwerp (near Antwerp-Berchem bus station). The service is operated by Reizen Lauwers NV on behalf of EVA Air. === Road === Schiphol Airport can easily be reached by car via the A4 and A9 motorways. While most roads leading to the airport are forbidden for bicycles, it is possible to reach the airport by bicycle via bicycle paths. == Accidents and incidents == On 14 November 1946, a Douglas C-47 operated by KLM from London approached Schiphol during bad weather conditions. The first two attempts to land failed. During the third attempt, the pilot realized that the airplane was not lined up properly with the runway. The aircraft made a sharp left turn at low speed, causing the left wing to hit the ground. The airplane crashed and caught fire, killing all 26 people on board. On 4 October 1992, El Al Flight 1862, a Boeing 747-200F cargo jet en route to Tel Aviv, lost both right-wing engines (#3 and #4) just after taking off from Schiphol and crashed into an apartment building in the Bijlmer neighbourhood of Amsterdam while attempting to return to the airport. A total of 47 people were killed, including the plane's crew of three and a non-revenue passenger. In addition to these fatalities, 11 people were seriously injured and 15 people received minor injuries. On 4 April 1994, KLM Cityhopper Flight 433, a Saab 340 to Cardiff, returned to Schiphol after setting the number two engine to flight idle because the crew mistakenly believed that the engine suffered from low oil pressure because of a faulty warning light. On final approach at a height of 90 ft (27 m), the captain decided to go-around and gave full throttle on only the number one engine, leaving the other in flight idle. The airplane rolled to the right, pitched up, stalled and hit the ground at 80 degrees bank. Of the 24 people on board, three were killed, including the captain. Nine others were seriously injured. On 25 February 2009, Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, a Boeing 737-800 from Istanbul crashed on approach, just 1 km (0.6 mi) short of the airport's Polderbaan runway. The plane carried 128 passengers and 7 crew on board. 9 people were killed and a further 86 were injured, including six with serious injuries. Four of the dead were employees of Boeing, involved in an advanced radar deal with Turkey. An initial report from the Dutch Safety Board revealed that the left radio altimeter had failed to provide the correct height above the ground and suddenly reported −8 ft (−2.4 m). As a result of this the autothrottle system closed the thrust levers to idle, as it is programmed to reduce thrust when below 27 ft (8.2 m) radio altitude. This eventually resulted in a dropping airspeed that was not acted upon until it was too late to recover, and the aircraft stalled and crashed in a field. On 23 February 2017, a Bombardier Dash-8 Q400 operated by Flybe suffered a collapse of its right landing gear after landing at the Oostbaan. The plane took off from Edinburgh after a 1.5-hour delay and had to battle storm Doris throughout the flight and during landing. None of the 59 passengers and four crew was injured in the incident, but the aircraft sustained significant damage. On 29 May 2024, an airport worker died after being ingested into the engine of an Embraer 190 operating as KLM Cityhopper Flight 1341. The incident occurred on the airport's apron during pushback as the aircraft was preparing to depart for Billund. Investigators from the Dutch Safety Board determined that the worker intentionally jumped into the running engine to commit suicide. == See also == Hello Goodbye (TV series) List of airports with triple takeoff/landing capability List of busiest airports by passenger traffic List of busiest passenger air routes Transport in the Netherlands == Notes == == References == === Citations === === General and cited reference === == External links == Official website Fire Brigade Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
Amsterdam Schiphol Airport	Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (IATA: AMS, ICAO: EHAM), known informally as Schiphol Airport (Dutch: Luchthaven Schiphol, pronounced [ˌlʏxtɦaːvə(n) ˈsxɪp(ɦ)ɔl; sxɪpˈɦɔl]), is the main international airport of the Netherlands, and is one of the major hubs for the SkyTeam airline alliance. It is located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi; 4.9 nmi) southwest of Amsterdam, in the municipality of Haarlemmermeer in the province of North Holland. It was the world's third busiest airport by international passenger traffic in 2023. With almost 72 million passengers in 2019, it is the third-busiest airport in Europe in terms of passenger volume and the busiest in Europe in terms of aircraft movements. With an annual cargo tonnage of 1.74 million, it is the 4th busiest in Europe. AMS covers a total area of 6,887 acres (10.761 sq mi; 2,787 ha) of land. The airport is built on the single-terminal concept: one large terminal split into three departure halls. Schiphol is the principal hub for KLM and its regional affiliate KLM Cityhopper as well as for Martinair. The airport also serves as an operating base for Corendon Dutch Airlines, easyJet, Transavia, TUI fly Netherlands, and Vueling. Schiphol opened on 16 September 1916 as a military airbase. The end of the First World War also saw the beginning of civilian use of Schiphol Airport and the airport eventually lost its military role completely. By 1940, Schiphol had four asphalt runways at 45-degree angles. The airport was captured by the German military that same year and renamed Fliegerhorst Schiphol. The airport was destroyed through bombing but at the end of the war, the airfield was soon rebuilt. In 1949, it was decided that Schiphol was to become the primary airport of the Netherlands. Schiphol Airport was voted the Best Airport in Western Europe in 2020. == Etymology == The name Sciphol appears in an official document from 1447. According to the airport's media department, the name of Schiphol might have several origins, all contested: As graveyard of ships. The Haarlemmermeer was a big, wild water mass, where many ships found their demise. As ship-haul, where ships were transferred from one water to another. As name of a coppice in marshy land. In the Gothic language, it indicated an area of low-lying wetland ("hol" or "holl") where wood (scip) could be extracted. However, Gothic has never been spoken in the Netherlands. == Description == Schiphol Airport ranked as Europe's third busiest and the world's eleventh busiest by total passenger traffic in 2017 (12th in 2016, 14th in 2015, 2014 and 2013 and 16th in 2012). It also ranks as the world's fifth busiest by international passenger traffic and the world's sixteenth busiest for cargo tonnage. A record 71,706,999 passengers passed through the airport in 2019. Schiphol's main competitors in terms of passenger traffic and cargo throughput are London Heathrow, Frankfurt, Madrid, Paris–Charles de Gaulle and Istanbul. In 2019, 70.5% of passengers using the airport flew to and from Europe, 10.6% to and from North America and 10.1% to and from Asia; cargo volume was mainly between Schiphol and Asia (46.3%) and North America (17.6%). In 2019, 102 carriers provided a total of 332 destinations on a regular basis. As of 2024, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol handled over 66.8 million passengers annually, reinforcing its status as one of Europe's largest aviation hubs. The airport is built as one large terminal (a single-terminal concept), split into three departure halls, which connect again once airside. The most recent of these was completed in 1994 and expanded in 2007 with a new section, called Terminal 4, although it is not considered a separate building. A new pier is to be opened in 2019 with a terminal extension planned to be operational by 2023. Plans for further terminal and gate expansion exist, including the construction of a separate new terminal between the Zwanenburgbaan and Polderbaan runways that would end the one-terminal concept. Because of intense traffic and high landing fees (due to the limit of 500,000 flights a year), some low-cost carriers decided to move their flights to smaller airports, such as Rotterdam The Hague Airport and Eindhoven Airport. Many low-cost carriers, such as EasyJet and Ryanair, however, continue to operate at Schiphol, using the low-cost H pier. In 2015, Lelystad Airport was allowed to expand, aimed at accommodating some of the low-cost and leisure flights currently operating out of Schiphol, eventually taking up to 45,000 flights a year. To combat complaints from the community in Schiphol, Amsterdam Airport is advocating the prohibition of private jets, with the aim of minimizing noise and environmental pollution. The airport also intends to restrict takeoffs between midnight and 6 a.m. and landings between midnight and 5 a.m. == History == === Early years === Before 1852, the entire polder of Haarlemmermeer in which the airport lies was a large lake with some shallow areas. There are multiple stories of how the place got its name. The most popular story is that in the shallow waters, sudden violent storms could claim many ships. Winds were particularly strong in the Schiphol area since the prevailing wind direction is from the southwest, and Schiphol lies in the northeastern corner of the lake. In English, schiphol translates to 'ship hole', a reference to many ships supposedly lost in the lake. When the lake was reclaimed, however, no shipwrecks were found. Another possible origin of the name is the word scheepshaal. A scheepshaal is a ditch or small canal in which ships would be towed from one lake to another. A third explanation would be that the name is derived from the words schip hol. This is a low-lying area of land (hol) from where wood would be obtained to build ships. After the lake was dredged in the mid-1800s, a fortification named Fort Schiphol was built in the area which was part of the Stelling van Amsterdam defence works. Schiphol opened on 16 September 1916 as a military airbase, with a few barracks and a field serving as platform and runways. When civil aircraft started to use the field (17 December 1920), it was often called Schiphol-les-bains. The Fokker aircraft manufacturer started a factory near Schiphol airport in 1919. The end of the First World War also saw the beginning of civilian use of Schiphol Airport and the airport eventually lost its military role completely. By 1940, Schiphol had four asphalt runways at 45-degree angles, all 1,020 m (3,350 ft) or less. One was extended to become today's runway 04/22; two others crossed that runway at 52.312°N 4.800°E / 52.312; 4.800. The airport was captured by the German military that same year and renamed Fliegerhorst Schiphol. A large number of anti-aircraft defences were installed in the vicinity of the airport and fake decoy airfields were constructed in the vicinity near Bennebroek, Vijfhuizen, and Vogelenzang to try to confuse Allied bombers. A railway connection was also built. Despite these defences, the airfield was still bombed intensively; an exceptionally heavy attack on 13 December 1943 caused so much damage that it rendered the airfield unusable as an active base. After that, it served only as an emergency landing field, until the Germans themselves destroyed the remnants of the airfield at the start of Operation Market Garden. At the end of the war, the airfield was quickly restored: the first aircraft, a Douglas DC-3, landed on 8 July 1945. A new terminal building was completed in 1949 and it was decided that Schiphol was to become the primary airport of the Netherlands. The expansion came at the cost of a small town called Rijk, which was demolished to make room for the growing airport. The name of this town is remembered in the name of the present Schiphol-Rijk industrial estate. In 1967, Schiphol expanded even further with a new terminal area at its current location. Most of the 1967 terminal is still in use today (Departure Halls 1 and 2), as are parts of the original piers (now called C, D, and E). Dutch designer Benno Wissing created signage for Schiphol Airport, well known for its clear writing and thorough colour-coding; to avoid confusion, he prohibited any other signage in the shades of yellow and green used. The new terminal building replaced the older facilities once located on what is now the east side of the airport. The A-pier (now C-pier) of the airport was modified in 1970 to allow Boeing 747 aircraft to use the boarding gates. A new pier (D, now called F) opened in 1977, dedicated to handling wide-body aircraft. The first railway station at the airport followed in 1978. === Development since the 1990s === The construction of a new air traffic control tower was completed in 1991 as the existing tower could no longer oversee all of the airport as it was further expanded. Departure Hall 3 was added to the terminal in 1993, as was another pier, G-pier. New wayfinding signage was designed that year as well by Paul Mijksenaar. A sixth runway was completed at quite some distance west of the rest of airport in 2003 and was nicknamed the Polderbaan, with the connecting taxiway bridge crossing the A5 motorway. The distance of this runway means that taxiing to and from this runway can take between 10 and 20 minutes. It also required the construction of an additional air traffic control tower as the primary tower is too far away to oversee this part of the airfield. On 25 February 2005, a diamond robbery occurred at Schiphol's cargo terminal. The robbers used a stolen KLM van to gain airside access. The estimated value of the stones was around 75 million euros, making it one of the largest diamond robberies ever. Later in 2005, a fire broke out at the airport's detention centre, killing 11 people and injuring 15. The complex was holding 350 people at the time of the incident. Results from the investigation almost one year later showed that fire safety precautions were not in force. A national outrage resulted in the resignation of Justice Minister Piet Hein Donner (CDA) and Mayor Hartog of Haarlemmermeer. Spatial Planning Minister Sybilla Dekker (VVD) resigned as well because she bore responsibility for safety failings cited in the report. In the summer of 2022, the airport suffered the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation. It experienced extraordinarily long delays and a large number of cancelled flights, which led to a recession of air traffic and subsequently to a shortage of security staff and a walkout of baggage handlers. Queues for security check-in were reported to last for 5 hours, and many passengers missed their flights. The CEO of Schiphol Group, Dick Benschop, was forced to resign. In 2024, Schiphol experienced substantial growth, with an 8% increase in passenger traffic and an 8.2% rise in cargo volume compared to 2023. This surge prompted Schiphol Group to announce a €6 billion infrastructure investment plan covering the 2024–2029 period. Key projects include the renovation of Pier C, an overhaul of the baggage handling system, enhancements to climate-control systems, and the construction of additional aircraft stands and taxiways. The airport is also developing a new Pier A, scheduled to open in 2027. == Infrastructure == === Terminal === Schiphol uses a one-terminal concept, where all facilities are located under a single roof, radiating from the central plaza, Schiphol Plaza. The terminal is divided into three sections or halls designated 1, 2 and 3. The piers and concourses of each hall are connected so that it is possible, on both sides of security or border inspection, to walk between piers and halls, although border control separates Schengen from non-Schengen areas. The exception to this is the low-cost pier M: once airside (past security), passengers cannot access any other areas. Schiphol Airport has approximately 223 boarding gates including eighteen double jetway gates used for widebody aircraft. The airport adopted a distinctive design, with the second jetway extending over the aircraft wing hanging from a steel cantilever structure. Gradual refurbishments have seen these jetways replaced with a more conventional layout with the last two taken out of use in November 2024. Two gates feature a third jetway for handling of the Airbus A380. Emirates was the first airline to fly the A380 to Schiphol in August 2012, deploying the aircraft on its double daily Dubai–Amsterdam service. China Southern Airlines also used the A380 on its Beijing–Amsterdam route before removing the type from service at the end of 2022, leaving Emirates as the sole A380 operator at Schiphol Airport as of 2023. Schiphol has large shopping areas, primarily on the ground floor, as a source of revenue and as an additional attraction for passengers. Schiphol Plaza not only connects the three terminal halls but also houses other facilities. This is a large pre-security shopping centre and the Schiphol Airport railway station. These facilities are also attracting general visitors. The 1st floor hosts the luggage check-in lines, many of them automated, as well as various duty-free refund booths. Available seating is limited on this floor. Notable public artworks in the airport include the Schiphol clock by Maarten Baas, in which a man behind a translucent screen appears to paint the minutes of an analog clock by hand. ==== Departure Hall 1 ==== Departure Hall 1 consists of Piers B and C, both of which are dedicated Schengen areas and share D-pier with Departure Hall 2. Pier B has 14 gates and Pier C has 21 gates. ==== Departure Hall 2 ==== Departure Hall 2 consists of Piers D and E. Pier D is the largest pier and has two levels. The lower floor houses non-Schengen flights and the upper floor is used for Schengen flights. By using stairs, the same jetways are used to access the aircraft. Schengen gates are numbered beginning with D-59; non-Schengen gates are numbered from D-1 to D-57. Pier E is a dedicated non-Schengen area and has fourteen gates. It is typically home to SkyTeam hub airlines Delta Air Lines and KLM, along with other members, such as China Airlines and China Southern Airlines. Other Middle Eastern and Asian airlines such as Air Astana, EVA Air, Etihad Airways and Iran Air also typically operate out of Pier E. ==== Departure Hall 3 ==== Departure Hall 3 consists of three piers: F, G, and H/M. Pier F has eight gates and is typically dominated by SkyTeam members such as primary airline KLM, Kenya Airways, China Airlines, China Southern Airlines, and other members. Pier G has thirteen gates. Piers F and G are non-Schengen areas. Piers H and M are physically one concourse consisting of seven shared gates and are home to low-cost airlines. Operating completely separately, H handles non-Schengen flights while M is dedicated to flights within the Schengen area. ==== A380 ==== Gates G9, E18 and E24 (E24 refurbished in 2019) are equipped to handle daily Airbus A380 service by Emirates. China Southern Airlines also operated the type before withdrawing it from service at the end of 2022, leaving Emirates as the only A380 operator at Schiphol as of 2023. ==== General aviation terminal ==== A new general aviation terminal was opened in 2011 on the east side of the airport, operated as the KLM Jet Center. The new terminal building has a floorspace of 6,000 m2 (65,000 sq ft); 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) for the actual terminal and lounges, 4,000 m2 (43,000 sq ft) for office space and 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) for parking. The centre and its activities were sold to the Swiss company Jet Aviation in October 2018 and was rebranded as Jet Aviation Amsterdam. ==== Other facilities ==== The Rijksmuseum operates an annex at the airport, offering a small overview of both classical and contemporary art. Admission to the exhibits is free, but requires a plane ticket as it is situated in the passenger transit zone. In the summer of 2010, Schiphol Airport Library opened alongside the museum, providing passengers access to a collection of 1,200 books (translated into 29 languages) by Dutch authors on subjects relating to the country's history and culture. The 89.9 m2 (968 sq ft) library offers e-books and music by Dutch artists and composers that can be downloaded free of charge to a laptop or mobile device. For aviation enthusiasts, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol has a large rooftop viewing area, called the Panoramaterras. It is not accessible to connecting passengers unless they first exit the airport. Enthusiasts and the public can enter, free of charge, from the airport's landside. Since June 2011, it is the location for a KLM Cityhopper Fokker 100, modified to be a viewing exhibit. Besides the Panoramaterras, Schiphol has other spotting sites, especially along the newest Polderbaan runway and at the McDonald's restaurant at the north side of the airport. Schiphol has its own mortuary, where the dead can be handled and kept before departure or after arrival. Between October 2006 and 2019, people could also hold a wedding ceremony at Schiphol. Schiphol also has a new state-of-the-art cube-shaped Hilton Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with 433 rooms, rounded corners and diamond-shaped windows. The spacious atrium has a 41 m-high (135 ft) ceiling made of glass and is in the heart of the building. A covered walkway connects the hotel directly to the terminal. The hotel was completed in 2015. In line with its sustainability objectives, Schiphol introduced a new fleet of 52 electric shuttle buses in 2024 to reduce emissions and improve passenger transport on the apron. Additionally, a 5,000 square meter expansion of Lounge 1 was completed in November 2024, offering travelers an upgraded space incorporating natural elements and improved amenities. === Future expansions === ==== Pier A ==== In 2012, Schiphol Group announced an expansion of Schiphol, featuring a new pier. Pier A will be part of Departure Hall 1, which already has Pier B (14 gates) and Pier C (21 gates). The new Pier A will have five narrow-body gates and will initially have three wide-body gates, with two more planned for a later phase. The new Pier A is under construction to the southwest of Pier B, in an area formerly used as a freight platform. Pier A is planned to be mainly used for flights within Europe. The expansions were originally supposed to cost about 500 million Euro. The first construction activities were originally expected to start in 2017 with an estimated opening in 2019. However, the construction of the new pier has been delayed several times and due to a conflict between the airport and the construction consortium, the construction was halted in November 2021. Schiphol was disappointed in the construction speed and the rising of the total cost, although insiders announced that a design flaw was made and the entire construction needed to be reinforced. A new tendering procedure was be started to find a new constructor in 2022, once found a new completion date will be announced. ==== Fourth terminal hall ==== To handle future growth in passengers, Schiphol will further expand by building a fourth terminal hall with facilities for both departures and arrivals. From this new building, direct access will be made to Schiphol Plaza, continuing the one-terminal concept. When finished in 2023, Schiphol will be able to handle over 70 million passengers. Due to rapid growth of Schengen passengers during 2016, Schiphol was however forced to rapidly build a temporary departure hall which opened in March 2017. Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic the construction of the fourth terminal hall has been postponed for at least two years. ==== Uniform platform ==== The airport has expanded the number of uniform platforms, and places to stow airplanes, in recent years in two phases. A third phase is planned to expand the number of wide-body platforms to a total of twelve, with planned completion in the period 2022–2026. ==== Public transportation ==== Schiphol, together with the public transport authority Amsterdam, is going to transform its train- and bus station. The train station will be getting more entrances and the bus station will be completely renewed with a planned opening date in 2025. A connection to the Amsterdam Metro network has been a subject of discussion and speculation since at least the 1990s. In preparation for this, a piece of land has been acquired from Chipshol. As of 2022, the project had not moved past the proposal stage. ==== Airlines ==== Schiphol's growth is hampered by slot restrictions from the government. For reasons of safety and noise reduction, Schiphol is allowed to have no more than 500,000 aircraft movements until the end of 2020. A proposal to increase the limit to 540,000 movements from 2021 onwards has been postponed until a new government is formed after the elections in March 2021. As Schiphol nearly approached the limit of 500,000 in the last few years, the slot restrictions have hindered airlines to settle at Schiphol. Among airlines that have expressed interest in flying at Schiphol are Atlantic Airways, Cyprus Airways, Somon Air and SpiceJet. === Tower === The Schiphol air traffic control tower, with a height of 101 m (331 ft), was the tallest in the world when constructed in 1991. Schiphol is geographically one of the world's lowest major commercial airports. The entire airport is below sea level. The lowest point sits at 3.4 m (11 ft) below sea level: 1.4 m (4.5 ft) below the Dutch Normaal Amsterdams Peil (NAP). The runways are around 3 m (9.8 ft) below NAP. It is one of only eleven airports worldwide below sea level, the fifth lowest with scheduled flights, and the third lowest with international flights. === Runways === Schiphol has six runways, one of which is used mainly by general aviation. The airport covers a total area of 6,887 acres (2,787 ha) of land. == Airlines and destinations == === Passenger === The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Amsterdam: === Cargo === === Other users === Other regular users of Schiphol are the Netherlands Coastguard whose aircraft are operated by the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Dienst Luchtvaart Politie and the Dutch Dakota Association. === Operational peaks === Typical peak moments at Schiphol Airport are between 09:00 and 11:00, and between 13:00 and 15:00 for departures, with up to 58 departures between 14:00 and 15:00 on a typical weekday (a departure nearly every minute). The peak moment for arrivals is between 08:00 and 09:00 (with up to 52 arrivals on a weekday). == Statistics == == Other facilities == The TransPort Building on the Schiphol Airport property houses the head offices of Martinair and transavia. Construction of the building, which has 10,800 m2 (116,000 sq ft) of rentable space, began on 17 March 2009. Schiphol Group and the architect firm Paul de Ruiter designed the building, while construction firm De Vries & Verburg constructed the building. The World Trade Center Schiphol Airport houses the head office of SkyTeam, local offices of China Southern Airlines and Iran Air. The head office of Schiphol Group, the airport's operator, is located on the airport property. The original control tower of Schiphol Airport, which the airport authorities had moved slightly from its original location, now houses a restaurant. The area Schiphol-Rijk includes the head office of TUI fly Netherlands. At one time, KLM had its head office briefly on the grounds of Schiphol Airport. Its current head office in nearby Amstelveen had a scheduled completion at the end of 1970. Previously Martinair had its head office in the Schiphol Center (Dutch: Schiphol Centrum) at Schiphol Airport. Formerly, the head office of Transavia was in the Building Triport III at Schiphol Airport. NLM Cityhopper and later KLM Cityhopper previously had their head offices in Schiphol Airport building 70. The Convair Building, with its development beginning after a parcel was earmarked for its development in 1999, houses various KLM offices, including KLM Recruitment Services and the head office of KLM Cityhopper. Nippon Cargo Airlines has its Europe regional headquarters at Schiphol. The National Aerospace Museum Aviodome–Schiphol was previously located at Schiphol. There used to be an aviation museum, but in 2003, it moved to Lelystad Airport and was renamed the "Aviodrome." In early 2025, Schiphol secured a €400 million loan from the European Investment Bank to support its infrastructure and sustainability initiatives, marking one of the largest financial investments in the airport’s recent history. == Ground transport == === Rail === The Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS), the national Dutch train operator, has a major passenger railway station directly underneath the passenger terminal complex that offers transportation 24 hours a day into the four major cities Amsterdam, Utrecht, The Hague and Rotterdam. There are efficient and often direct services to many other cities in the country. There are intercity connections to Almere, Lelystad, Amsterdam Centraal, Utrecht Centraal, both The Hague Centraal and The Hague HS, Rotterdam Centraal, Eindhoven Centraal, 's-Hertogenbosch, Leeuwarden, Groningen, Amersfoort Centraal, Apeldoorn, Deventer, Enschede, Arnhem Centraal, Nijmegen and Venlo. Schiphol is also a stop for the Eurostar international high-speed train (formerly known as Thalys), connecting the airport directly to Antwerp, Brussels and Paris Gare du Nord, as well as to Bourg St Maurice (winter) and Marseille (summer). The Intercity-Brussel (also named the "Beneluxtrein") to Antwerp and Brussels stops at the airport. === Bus === Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is also easily accessible by bus, as many services call or terminate at the bus station located in front of the terminal building. The Taiwanese EVA Air provides private bus services from Schiphol to Belgium for its Belgium-based customers. The service, which departs from and arrives at bus stop C11, goes to Saint-Gilles, Brussels (near the Brussels-South (Midi) railway station) and Berchem, Antwerp (near Antwerp-Berchem bus station). The service is operated by Reizen Lauwers NV on behalf of EVA Air. === Road === Schiphol Airport can easily be reached by car via the A4 and A9 motorways. While most roads leading to the airport are forbidden for bicycles, it is possible to reach the airport by bicycle via bicycle paths. == Accidents and incidents == On 14 November 1946, a Douglas C-47 operated by KLM from London approached Schiphol during bad weather conditions. The first two attempts to land failed. During the third attempt, the pilot realized that the airplane was not lined up properly with the runway. The aircraft made a sharp left turn at low speed, causing the left wing to hit the ground. The airplane crashed and caught fire, killing all 26 people on board. On 4 October 1992, El Al Flight 1862, a Boeing 747-200F cargo jet en route to Tel Aviv, lost both right-wing engines (#3 and #4) just after taking off from Schiphol and crashed into an apartment building in the Bijlmer neighbourhood of Amsterdam while attempting to return to the airport. A total of 47 people were killed, including the plane's crew of three and a non-revenue passenger. In addition to these fatalities, 11 people were seriously injured and 15 people received minor injuries. On 4 April 1994, KLM Cityhopper Flight 433, a Saab 340 to Cardiff, returned to Schiphol after setting the number two engine to flight idle because the crew mistakenly believed that the engine suffered from low oil pressure because of a faulty warning light. On final approach at a height of 90 ft (27 m), the captain decided to go-around and gave full throttle on only the number one engine, leaving the other in flight idle. The airplane rolled to the right, pitched up, stalled and hit the ground at 80 degrees bank. Of the 24 people on board, three were killed, including the captain. Nine others were seriously injured. On 25 February 2009, Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, a Boeing 737-800 from Istanbul crashed on approach, just 1 km (0.6 mi) short of the airport's Polderbaan runway. The plane carried 128 passengers and 7 crew on board. 9 people were killed and a further 86 were injured, including six with serious injuries. Four of the dead were employees of Boeing, involved in an advanced radar deal with Turkey. An initial report from the Dutch Safety Board revealed that the left radio altimeter had failed to provide the correct height above the ground and suddenly reported −8 ft (−2.4 m). As a result of this the autothrottle system closed the thrust levers to idle, as it is programmed to reduce thrust when below 27 ft (8.2 m) radio altitude. This eventually resulted in a dropping airspeed that was not acted upon until it was too late to recover, and the aircraft stalled and crashed in a field. On 23 February 2017, a Bombardier Dash-8 Q400 operated by Flybe suffered a collapse of its right landing gear after landing at the Oostbaan. The plane took off from Edinburgh after a 1.5-hour delay and had to battle storm Doris throughout the flight and during landing. None of the 59 passengers and four crew was injured in the incident, but the aircraft sustained significant damage. On 29 May 2024, an airport worker died after being ingested into the engine of an Embraer 190 operating as KLM Cityhopper Flight 1341. The incident occurred on the airport's apron during pushback as the aircraft was preparing to depart for Billund. Investigators from the Dutch Safety Board determined that the worker intentionally jumped into the running engine to commit suicide. == See also == Hello Goodbye (TV series) List of airports with triple takeoff/landing capability List of busiest airports by passenger traffic List of busiest passenger air routes Transport in the Netherlands == Notes == == References == === Citations === === General and cited reference === == External links == Official website Fire Brigade Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
Antonov	Antonov (d/b/a Antonov Company, formerly the Aeronautical Scientific-Technical Complex named after Antonov or Antonov ASTC, and earlier the Antonov Design Bureau, for its chief designer, Oleg Antonov) is a Ukrainian aircraft manufacturing and services company. Antonov's particular expertise is in the fields of very large aeroplanes and aeroplanes using unprepared runways. Antonov (model prefix "An-") has built a total of approximately 22,000 aircraft, and thousands of its planes are operating in the former Soviet Union and in developing countries. Antonov Company is a state-owned commercial company originally established in Novosibirsk, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). In 1952, the company relocated to Kyiv, Ukrainian SSR, then part of the Soviet Union. On 12 May 2015, it was transferred from the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade to the Ukroboronprom (Ukrainian Defense Industry). In June 2016, Ukraine's major state-owned arms manufacturer Ukroboronprom announced the creation of the Ukrainian Aircraft Corporation within its structure, to combine all aircraft manufacturing enterprises in Ukraine. == History == === Soviet era === ==== Foundation and relocation ==== The company was established in 1946 at the Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association as the top-secret Soviet Research and Design Bureau No. 153 (OKB-153). It was headed by Oleg Antonov and specialised in turboprop military transport aircraft. The task was to create an agricultural aircraft CX-1 (An-2), the first flight of which occurred on 31 August 1947. The An-2 biplane was a major achievement of this period, with hundreds of these aircraft still operating as of 2013. In addition to this biplane and its modifications, a small series of gliders A-9 and A-10 were created and built in the pilot production in Novosibirsk. In 1952, the Bureau was relocated to Kyiv, a city with a rich aviation history and an aircraft-manufacturing infrastructure restored after the destruction caused by World War II. ==== First serial aircraft and expansion ==== The 1957 introduction of the An-10/An-12 family of mid-range turboprop aeroplanes began the successful production of thousands of these aircraft. Their use for both heavy combat and civilian purposes around the globe continues to the present; the An-10/An-12 were used most notably in the Vietnam War, the Soviet–Afghan War and the Chernobyl disaster relief megaoperation. In 1959, the bureau began construction of the separate Flight Testing and Improvement Base in suburban Hostomel (now the Antonov Airport). In 1965, the Antonov An-22 heavy military transport entered serial production to supplement the An-12 in major military and humanitarian airlifts by the Soviet Union. The model became the first Soviet wide-body aircraft, and it remains the world's largest turboprop-powered aircraft. Antonov designed and presented a nuclear-powered version of the An-22. It was never flight tested. In 1966, after the major expansion in the Sviatoshyn neighbourhood of the city, the company was renamed to another disguise name: "Kiev Mechanical Plant". Two independent aircraft production and repair facilities, under engineering supervision of the Antonov Bureau, also appeared in Kiev during this period. ==== Prominence and Antonov's retirement ==== In the 1970s and early 1980s, the company established itself as the Soviet Union's main designer of military transport aircraft with dozens of new modifications in development and production. After Oleg Antonov's death in 1984, the company was officially renamed as the Research and Design Bureau named after O.K. Antonov (Russian: Опытно-конструкторское бюро имени О.К. Антонова) while continuing the use of "Kiev Mechanical Plant" alias for some purposes. ==== Late Soviet-era: superlarge projects and first commercialisation ==== In the late 1980s, the Antonov Bureau achieved global prominence after the introduction of its extra large aeroplanes. The An-124 "Ruslan" (1982) became the Soviet Union's mass-produced strategic airlifter under the leadership of Chief Designer Viktor Tolmachev. The Bureau enlarged the "Ruslan" design even more for the Soviet spaceplane programme logistics, creating the An-225 "Mriya" in 1985. "Mriya" was the world's largest and heaviest aeroplane. The end of the Cold War and perestroika allowed the Antonov company's first step to commercialisation and foreign expansion. In 1989, the Antonov Airlines subsidiary was created for its own aircraft maintenance and cargo projects. === Independent Ukraine === Antonov Design Bureau remained a state-owned company after Ukraine achieved its independence in 1991 and is since regarded as a strategic national asset. Since independence, Antonov has certified and marketed both Soviet-era and newly developed models for sale in new markets outside of the former soviet sphere of influence. New models introduced to serial production and delivered to customers include the Antonov An-140, Antonov An-148 and Antonov An-158 regional airliners. Among several modernisation projects, Antonov received orders for upgrading "hundreds" of its An-2 utility planes still in operation in Azerbaijan, Cuba and Russia to the An-2-100 upgrade version. In 2014, following the annexation of the Crimea by Russia, Ukraine cancelled contracts with Russia, leading to a significant income reduction in Ukraine's defense and aviation industries. However Ukraine has been slowly recovering the deficit from breaking ties with Russia by entering new markets such as the Persian Gulf region and expanding its presence in old ones such as India. In July 2018, Antonov was able to secure a deal with Boeing to procure airplane parts which were no longer available due to breakdown of relations with Russia. ==== Production facilities' consolidation ==== During the Soviet period, not all Antonov-designed aircraft were manufactured by the company itself. This was a result of Soviet industrial strategy that split military production between different regions of the Soviet Union to minimise potential war loss risks. As a result, Antonov aeroplanes were often assembled by the specialist contract manufacturers. In 2009, the once-independent "Aviant" aeroplane-assembling plant in Kyiv became part of Antonov, facilitating a full serial manufacturing cycle of the company. However, the old tradition of co-manufacturing with contractors is continued, both with Soviet-time partners and with new licensees like Iran's Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company. In 2014, Antonov produced and delivered only two An-158 airplanes. This trend continued into 2015, producing one An-148 and one An-158. Since 2016, no aircraft have been produced or delivered to clients. In June 2016, Ukraine's major state-owned arms manufacturer Ukroboronprom announced the creation of the Ukrainian Aircraft Corporation within its structure, thereby combining all aircraft manufacturing enterprises, including the assets of Antonov into a single cluster, according to Ukroboronprom's press service. On 19 July 2017, the Ukrainian government approved the liquidation of Antonov's assets. The State Concern "Antonov" (a business group, created in 2005 from the merger of several legally independent companies into a single economic entity under unified management) will be liquidated as a residual corporate entity. Antonov State Company, Kharkiv State Aviation Manufacturing Enterprise and Plant No.410 of Civil Aviation were transferred under the management of another state-owned concern Ukroboronprom in 2015. Antonov State Company continues to function as an enterprise. On 31 March 2017, the first prototype of a new multifunctional cargo plane An-132 – a demonstration plane An-132D – took to the air from the runway of Sviatoshyn airfield. The An-132 development program had been implemented in the framework of a contract with a customer from Saudi Arabia. On 24 February 2022, at the beginning of Russia's full-scale invasion in Ukraine, the first attacks were launched at Kyiv-Antonov-2 airfield, the site of Antonov's test flights and home base of the planes of Antonov Airlines. The planes Аn-225 Mriya, An-26, An-74 and administrative premises were destroyed. The planes Аn-12, Аn-22, Аn-28, Аn-132D and Аn-124-100-150, the hangars and other infrastructure were severely damaged. The Security Service of Ukraine established that the former director general of Antonov Company Serhiy Bychkov had not provided access to the site for the National Guard in January and February 2022 and thus obstructed preparations for defence. The investigators consider that Bychkov's negligence is the direct cause of the loss of Mriya, because the plane could have been sent to Germany long before February 24. In March 2023, Serhiy Bychkov was arrested, in April he faced formal suspicion in connection with the loss of An-225 Mriya and damages to Antonov amounting to ₴8.4 million. == Composition == Antonov Serial Production Plant (formerly Kyiv Aviation Factory "Aviant") – Kyiv Kharkiv Aviation Factory – Kharkiv Civil Aviation Factory 441 – Kyiv === Airfields === Sviatoshyn Airfield, Aviant factory in Kyiv Hostomel Airport, freight airport in Hostomel == Products and activities == Fields of commercial activity of Antonov ASTC include: Aircraft design and manufacturing Cargo air transport (Antonov Airlines) Aircraft maintenance, testing, certification and upgrading Aerospace-related research and engineering "Aerial Launch": a joint Russian-Ukrainian project of midair spacecraft space launch from aboard a modified version of the An-225. Operation of the Hostomel airport (Antonov Airport) Medium-capacity rail transport system RADAN Construction of LT-10A trams (with aluminium body) Construction and manufacturing of Kiev-12 trolley buses (a spin-off, using existing technical expertise). == Major contractors and partners == === Contract and licensee manufacturers === Tashkent Aviation Production Association (formerly Tashkent State Aviation Plant) – Tashkent, Uzbekistan Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company (HESA) – Shahin Shahr, Iran Voronezh Aircraft Production Association (VASO) – Voronezh, Russia == Chief designers == Oleg Antonov: 1946–1984 Petro Balabuiev: 1984–2005 Dmytro Kiva: 2005–2024 == Aircraft == Antonov's primary activity has generally been in developing large military transport aircraft, including the world's largest airplanes, chiefly for the Russian Federation and its predecessor nations. Additionally, Antonov has produced airliners. It has also produced numerous variants of both transports and airliners, for operations ranging from air freight hauling to military reconnaissance, command and control operations. It has also developed various general aviation light aircraft, having originated as a producer of gliders. === Transports, airliners and derivatives === Antonov's aeroplanes (design office prefix An) range from the rugged An-2 biplane through the An-28 reconnaissance aircraft to the massive An-124 Ruslan and An-225 Mriya strategic airlifters (the latter being the world's heaviest aircraft and was the only one in service). Sometimes defunct and sometimes normal, the An-24, An-26, An-30 and An-32 family of twin turboprop, high-winged, passenger-cargo-troop transport aircraft are important for domestic/short-haul air services particularly in parts of the world once led by communist governments. The An-72/An-74 series of small jetliners is slowly replacing that fleet, and a larger An-70 freighter is under certification. The Antonov An-148 is a new regional airliner of twin-turbofan configuration. Over 150 aircraft have been ordered since 2007. A stretched version is in development, the An-158 (from 60–70 to 90–100 passengers). === Gliders === == See also == List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS == Notes == == References == == Further reading == MacFarquhar, Neil. "Aviation Giant Is Nearly Grounded in Ukraine." The New York Times. 12 October 2014. Corrected on 12 October 2014. == External links == Official website Antonov company history
Archytas	Archytas (; Greek: Ἀρχύτας; 435/410–360/350 BC) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, music theorist, statesman, and strategist from the ancient city of Taras (Tarentum) in Southern Italy. He was a scientist and philosopher affiliated with the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder of mathematical mechanics and a friend of Plato. As a Pythagorean, Archytas believed that arithmetic (logistic), rather than geometry, provided the basis for satisfactory proofs, and developed the most famous argument for the infinity of the universe in antiquity. == Life == Archytas was born in Tarentum, a Greek city in the Italian Peninsula that was part of Magna Graecia, and was the son of Hestiaeus. He was presumably taught by Philolaus, and taught mathematics to Eudoxus of Cnidus and to Eudoxus' student, Menaechmus. Politically and militarily, Archytas appears to have been the dominant figure in Tarentum in his generation, somewhat comparable to Pericles in Athens a half-century earlier. The Tarentines elected him strategos ("general") seven years in a row, a step that required them to violate their own rule against successive appointments. Archytas was allegedly undefeated as a general in Tarentine campaigns against their southern Italian neighbors. In his public career, Archytas had a reputation for virtue as well as efficacy. The Seventh Letter, traditionally attributed to Plato, asserts that Archytas attempted to rescue Plato during his difficulties with Dionysius II of Syracuse. Some scholars have argued that Archytas may have served as one model for Plato's philosopher king, and that he influenced Plato's political philosophy as expressed in The Republic and other works. == Works == Archytas is said to be the first ancient Greek to have spoken of the sciences of arithmetic (logistic), geometry, astronomy, and harmonics as kin, which later became the medieval quadrivium. He is thought to have written a great number of works in the sciences, but only four fragments are generally believed to be authentic. According to Eutocius, Archytas was the first to solve the problem of doubling the cube (the so-called Delian problem) with an ingenious geometric construction. Before this, Hippocrates of Chios had reduced this problem to the finding of two mean proportionals, equivalent to the extraction of cube roots. Archytas' demonstration uses lines generated by moving figures to construct the two proportionals between magnitudes and was, according to Diogenes Laërtius, the first in which mechanical motions entered geometry. The topic of proportions, which Archytas seems to have worked on extensively, is treated in Euclid's Elements, where the construction for two proportional means can also be found. Archytas named the harmonic mean, important much later in projective geometry and number theory, though he did not discover it. He proved that supernummerary ratios cannot be divided by a mean proportional – an important result in ancient harmonics. Ptolemy considered Archytas the most sophisticated Pythagorean music theorist, and scholars believe Archytas gave a mathematical account of the musical scales used by practicing musicians of his day. Later tradition regarded Archytas as the founder of mathematical mechanics. Vitruvius includes him in a list of twelve authors who wrote works on mechanics. T.N. Winter presents evidence that the pseudo-Aristotelian Mechanical Problems might have been authored by Archytas and later mis-attributed to Aristotle. Tradition also has it that Archytas built a mechanical flying dove. The sole mention of this from antiquity comes some five centuries after Archytas, when Aulus Gellius discusses a report by his mentor Favorinus: Archytas made a wooden model of a dove with such mechanical ingenuity and art that it flew; so nicely balanced was it, you see, with weights and moved by a current of air enclosed and hidden within it. About so improbable a story I prefer to give Favorinus' own words: "Archytas the Tarentine, being in other lines also a mechanician, made a flying dove out of wood. Whenever it lit, it did not rise again." Aulus Gellius views the reporting of the tradition as problematic, since it spreads implausible beliefs even if accompanied by skepticism. == Notes == == References == == Further reading == von Fritz, Kurt (1970). "Archytas of Tarentum". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 231–233. ISBN 0-684-10114-9. on line Huffman, Carl A. Archytas of Tarentum, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-83746-4 == External links == Huffman, Carl. "Archytas". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Archytas", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews Pseudo-Aristotle, Mechanica – Greek text and English translation Complete fragments (Greek–Spanish bilingual edition) Fragments and Life of Archytas
Armoured fighting vehicle	An armoured fighting vehicle (British English) or armored fighting vehicle (American English) (AFV) is an armed combat vehicle protected by armour, generally combining operational mobility with offensive and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked. Examples of AFVs are tanks, armoured cars, assault guns, self-propelled artilleries, infantry fighting vehicles (IFV), and armoured personnel carriers (APC). Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their characteristics and intended role on the battlefield. The classifications are not absolute; two countries may classify the same vehicle differently, and the criteria change over time. For example, relatively lightly armed armoured personnel carriers were largely superseded by infantry fighting vehicles with much heavier armament in a similar role. Successful designs are often adapted to a wide variety of applications. For example, the MOWAG Piranha, originally designed as an APC, has been adapted to fill numerous roles such as a mortar carrier, infantry fighting vehicle, and assault gun. Armoured fighting vehicles began to appear in use in World War I with the armoured car, the tank, the self-propelled gun, and the personnel carrier seeing use. By World War II, armies had large numbers of AFVs, together with other vehicles to carry troops this permitted highly mobile manoeuvre warfare. == Evolution == The concept of a highly mobile and protected fighting unit has been around for centuries; from Hannibal's war elephants to Leonardo's contraptions, military strategists endeavoured to maximize the mobility and survivability of their soldiers. Armoured fighting vehicles were not possible until internal combustion engines of sufficient power became available at the start of the 20th century. === History === ==== Pre-modern ==== Modern armoured fighting vehicles represent the realization of an ancient concept – that of providing troops with mobile protection and firepower. Armies have deployed war machines and cavalries with rudimentary armour in battle for millennia. Use of these animals and engineering designs sought to achieve a balance between the conflicting needs of mobility, firepower and protection. ===== Siege machine ===== Siege engines, such as battering rams and siege towers, would often be armoured in order to protect their crews from enemy action. Polyidus of Thessaly developed a very large movable siege tower, the helepolis, as early as 340 BC, and Greek forces used such structures in the Siege of Rhodes (305 BC). The idea of a protected fighting vehicle has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-century sketch of a mobile, protected gun-platform; the drawings show a conical, wooden shelter with apertures for cannons around the circumference. The machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage (or "lantern") gears. Leonardo claimed: "I will build armoured wagons which will be safe and invulnerable to enemy attacks. There will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome." Modern replicas have demonstrated that the human crew would have been able to move it over only short distances. ===== War wagon ===== Hussite forces in Bohemia developed war wagons – medieval horse-drawn wagons that doubled as wagon forts – around 1420 during the Hussite Wars. These heavy wagons were given protective sides with firing slits; their heavy firepower came from either a cannon or from a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by light cavalry and infantry using pikes and flails. Heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc. These carried a ball of about 3.5 ounces (100 g). ==== Modern ==== By the end of World War II, most modern armies had vehicles to carry infantry, artillery and anti-aircraft weaponry. Most modern AFVs are superficially similar in design to their World War II counterparts, but with significantly better armour, weapons, engines, electronics, and suspension. The increase in the capacity of transport aircraft makes possible and practicable the transport of AFVs by air. Many armies are replacing some or all of their traditional heavy vehicles with lighter airmobile versions, often with wheels instead of tracks. ===== Armed and armoured car ===== The first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The British inventor F. R. Simms designed and built the Motor Scout in 1898. It was the first armed, petrol-engine powered vehicle ever built. It consisted of a De Dion-Bouton quadracycle with a Maxim machine gun mounted on the front bar. An iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour. The armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle. The first of these was the Simms's Motor War Car, also designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3.3-litre 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a maximum speed of around 9 miles per hour (14 kilometres per hour). The armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse. Another early armoured car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner. Armoured cars were first used in large numbers on both sides during World War I as scouting vehicles. ===== Tank ===== In 1903, H. G. Wells published the short story "The Land Ironclads," positing indomitable war machines that would bring a new age of land warfare, the way steam-powered ironclad warships had ended the age of sail. Wells's literary vision was realized in 1916, when, amidst the pyrrhic standstill of the Great War, the British Landship Committee deployed revolutionary armoured vehicles to break the stalemate. The tank was envisioned as an armoured machine that could cross ground under fire from machine guns and reply with its own mounted machine guns and naval artillery. These first British tanks of World War I moved on caterpillar tracks that had substantially lower ground pressure than wheeled vehicles, enabling them to pass the muddy, pocked terrain and slit trenches of the Battle of the Somme. ===== Troop transport ===== The tank eventually proved highly successful and, as technology improved, it became a weapon that could cross large distances at much higher speeds than supporting infantry and artillery. The need to provide the units that would fight alongside the tank led to the development of a wide range of specialised AFVs, especially during the Second World War (1939–1945). The armoured personnel carrier, designed to transport infantry troops to the frontline, emerged towards the end of World War I. During the first actions with tanks, it had become clear that close contact with infantry was essential in order to secure ground won by the tanks. Troops on foot were vulnerable to enemy fire, but they could not be transported in the tank because of the intense heat and noxious atmosphere. In 1917, Lieutenant G. J. Rackham was ordered to design an armoured vehicle that could fight and carry troops or supplies. The Mark IX tank was built by Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., although just three vehicles had been finished at the time of the Armistice in November 1918, and only 34 were built in total. ===== Tankette ===== Different tank classifications emerged in the interwar period. The tankette was conceived as a mobile, two-man model, mainly intended for reconnaissance. In 1925, Sir John Carden and Vivian Loyd produced the first such design to be adopted – the Carden Loyd tankette. Tankettes saw use in the Royal Italian Army during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935–1936), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Army used tankettes in China for infantry support, reconnaissance and later for jungle warfare. ===== Self-propelled artillery ===== The British Gun Carrier Mark I, the first Self-propelled artillery, was fielded in 1917. It was based on the first tank, the British Mark I, and carried a heavy field-gun. The next major advance was the Birch gun (1925), developed for the British motorised warfare experimental brigade (the Experimental Mechanized Force). This mounted a field gun, capable of the usual artillery trajectories and even anti-aircraft use, on a tank chassis. During World War II, most major military powers developed self-propelled artillery vehicles. These had guns mounted on a tracked chassis (often that of an obsolete or superseded tank) and provided an armoured superstructure to protect the gun and its crew. The first British design, "Bishop", carried the 25 pdr gun-howitzer in an extemporised mounting on a tank chassis that severely limited the gun's performance. It was replaced by the more effective Sexton. The Germans built many lightly armoured self-propelled anti-tank guns using captured French equipment (for example Marder I), their own obsolete light tank chassis (Marder II), or ex-Czech chassis (Marder III). These led to better-protected tank destroyers, built on a medium-tank chassis such as the Jagdpanzer IV or the Jagdpanther. ===== Anti-aircraft vehicle ===== The Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon debuted in WWI. The German 88 mm anti-aircraft gun was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks, and the British QF 3-inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front. Although the Birch gun was a general purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis, it was capable of elevation for anti-aircraft use. Vickers Armstrong developed one of the first SPAAGs based on the chassis of the Mk.E 6-ton light tank/Dragon Medium Mark IV tractor, mounting a Vickers QF-1 "Pom-Pom" gun of 40 mm. The Germans fielded the Sd.Kfz. 10/4 and 6/2, cargo halftracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively) by the start of the war. ===== Self-propelled multiple rocket-launcher ===== Rocket launchers such as the Soviet Katyusha originated in the late 1930s. The Wehrmacht fielded self-propelled rocket artillery in World War II – the Panzerwerfer and Wurfrahmen 40 equipped half-track armoured fighting vehicles. Many modern multiple rocket launchers are self propelled by either truck or tank chassis. === Design === ==== Survivability ==== The level of armour protection between AFVs varies greatly – a main battle tank will normally be designed to take hits from other tank guns and anti-tank missiles, whilst light reconnaissance vehicles are often only armoured "just in case". Whilst heavier armour provides better protection, it makes vehicles less mobile (for a given engine power), limits its air-transportability, increases cost, uses more fuel and may limit the places it can go – for example, many bridges may be unable to support the weight of a main battle tank. A trend toward composite armour is taking the place of steel – composites are stronger for a given weight, allowing the tank to be lighter for the same protection as steel armour, or better protected for the same weight. Armour is being supplemented with active protection systems on a number of vehicles, allowing the AFV to protect itself from incoming projectiles. The level of protection also usually varies considerably throughout the individual vehicle too, depending on the role of the vehicle and the likely direction of attack. For example, a main battle tank will usually have the heaviest armour on the hull front and the turret, lighter armour on the sides of the hull and the thinnest armour on the top and bottom of the tank. Other vehicles – such as the MRAP family – may be primarily armoured against the threat from IEDs and so will have heavy, sloped armour on the bottom of the hull. ==== Firepower ==== Weaponry varies by a very wide degree between AFVs – lighter vehicles for infantry carrying, reconnaissance or specialist roles may have only a autocannon or machine gun (or no armament at all), whereas heavy self-propelled artillery will carry howitzers, mortars or rocket launchers. These weapons may be mounted on a pintle, affixed directly to the vehicle or placed in a turret or cupola. The greater the recoil of the weapon on an AFV, the larger the turret ring needs to be. A larger turret ring necessitates a larger vehicle. To avoid listing to the side, turrets on amphibious vehicles are usually located at the centre of the vehicle. Grenade launchers provide a versatile launch platform for a plethora of munitions including, smoke, phosphorus, tear gas, illumination, anti-personnel, infrared and radar-jamming rounds. Turret stabilization is an important capability because it enables firing on the move and prevents crew fatigue. ==== Maneuverability ==== Modern AFVs have primarily used either petrol (gasoline) or diesel piston engines. More recently, gas turbines have been used. Most early AFVs used petrol engines, as they offer a good power-to-weight ratio. However, they fell out of favour during World War II due to the flammability of the fuel. Most current AFVs are powered by a diesel engine; modern technology, including the use of turbo-charging, helps to overcome the lower power-to-weight ratio of diesel engines compared to petrol. Gas turbine (turboshaft) engines offer a very high power-to-weight ratio and were starting to find favour in the late 20th century – however, they offer very poor fuel consumption and as such some armies are switching from gas turbines back to diesel engines (i.e. the Russian T-80 used a gas turbine engine, whereas the later T-90 does not). The US M1 Abrams is a notable example of a gas turbine powered tank. == Modern classification by type and role == Notable armoured fighting vehicles extending from post-World War I to today. === Tank === The tank is an all terrain AFV incorporating artillery which is designed to fill almost all battlefield roles and to engage enemy forces by the use of direct fire in the frontal assault role. Though several configurations have been tried, particularly in the early experimental "golden days" of tank development, a standard, mature design configuration has since emerged to a generally accepted pattern. This features a main tank gun or artillery gun, mounted in a fully rotating turret atop a tracked automotive hull, with various additional secondary weapon systems throughout. Philosophically, the tank is, by its very nature, an offensive weapon. Being a protective encasement with at least one gun position, it is essentially a pillbox or small fortress (though these are static fortifications of a purely defensive nature) that can move toward the enemy – hence its offensive utility. Psychologically, the tank is a force multiplier that has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival. ==== Tank classifications ==== Tanks were classified either by size or by role. Classification by relative size was common, as this also tended to influence the tanks' role. Light tanks are smaller tanks with thinner armour and lower-powered guns, allowing for better tactical mobility and ease of strategic transport. These are intended for armoured reconnaissance, skirmishing, artillery observation, expeditionary warfare and supplementing airborne or naval landings. Light tanks are typically cheaper to build and maintain, but fare poorly against heavier tanks. They may be held in reserve for exploiting any breakthroughs in enemy lines, with the goal of disrupting communications and supply lines. Medium tanks are mid-sized tanks with adequate armour and guns, and fair mobility, allowing for a balance of fighting abilities, mobility, cost-effectiveness, and transportability. Medium tanks are effective in groups when used against enemy tanks. Heavy tanks are larger tanks with thick armour and more powerful guns, but less mobile and more difficult to transport. They were intended to be more than a match for typical enemy medium tanks, easily penetrating their armour while being much less susceptible to their attacks. Heavy tanks cost more to both build and maintain, and their heavy armour proved most effective when deployed in support infantry assaulting entrenched fortifications. Over time, tanks tended to be designed with heavier armour and weapons, increasing the weight of all tanks, so these classifications are relative to the average for the nation's tanks for any given period. An older tank design might be reclassified over time, such as a tank being first deployed as a medium tank, but in later years relegated to light tank roles. Tanks were also classified by roles that were independent of size, such as cavalry tank, cruiser tank, fast tank, infantry tank, "assault" tank, or "breakthrough" tank. Military theorists initially tended to assign tanks to traditional military infantry, cavalry, and artillery roles, but later developed more specialized roles unique to tanks. In modern use, the heavy tank has fallen out of favour, being supplanted by more heavily armed and armoured descendant of the medium tanks – the universal main battle tank. The light tank has, in many armies, lost favour to cheaper, faster, lighter armoured cars; however, light tanks (or similar vehicles with other names) are still in service with a number of forces as reconnaissance vehicles, most notably the Russian Marines with the PT-76, the British Army with the Scimitar, and the Chinese Army with the Type 63. ==== Main battle tank ==== Modern main battle tanks or "universal tanks" incorporate recent advances in automotive, artillery, armour, and electronic technology to combine the best characteristics of the historic medium and heavy tanks into a single, all-around type. They are also the most expensive to mass-produce. A main battle tank is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era. It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but its heavy dependency on fuel, maintenance, and ammunition makes it logistically demanding. It has the heaviest armour of any AFVs on the battlefield, and carries a powerful precision-guided munition weapon systems that may be able to engage a wide variety of both ground targets and air targets. Despite significant advances in anti-tank warfare, it still remains the most versatile and fearsome land-based weapon-systems of the 21st-century, valued for its shock action and high survivability. ==== Tankette ==== A tankette is a tracked armed and armoured vehicle resembling a small "ultra-light tank" or "super-light tank" roughly the size of a car, mainly intended for light infantry support or scouting. Tankettes were introduced in the mid-1920s as a reconnaissance vehicle and a mobile machine gun position They were one or two-man vehicles armed with a machine gun. Colloquially it may also simply mean a "small tank". Tankettes were designed and built by several nations between the 1920s and 1940s following the British Carden Loyd tankette which was a successful implementation of "one man tank" ideas from Giffard Le Quesne Martel, a British Army engineer. They were very popular with smaller countries. Some saw some combat (with limited success) in World War II. However, the vulnerability of their light armour eventually caused the concept to be abandoned. However, the German Army uses a modern design of air-transportable armoured weapons carriers, the Wiesel AWC, which resembles the concept of a tankette. ==== Super-heavy tank ==== The term "super-heavy tank" has been used to describe armoured fighting vehicles of extreme size, generally over 75 tonnes. Programs have been initiated on several occasions with the aim of creating an invincible siegeworks/breakthrough vehicle for penetrating enemy formations and fortifications without fear of being destroyed in combat. Examples were designed in World War I and World War II (such as the Panzer VIII Maus), along with a few in the Cold War. However, few working prototypes were built and there is no clear evidence any of these vehicles saw combat, as their immense size would have made most designs impractical. ==== Missile tank ==== A missile tank is a tank fulfilling the role of a main battle tank, but using only anti-tank surface-to-surface missiles for main armament. Several nations have experimented with prototypes, notably the Soviet Union during the tenure of Nikita Khrushchev (projects Object 167, Object 137Ml, Object 155Ml, Object 287, Object 775), ==== Flame tank ==== A flame tank is an otherwise-standard tank equipped with a flamethrower, most commonly used to supplement combined arms attacks against fortifications, confined spaces, or other obstacles. The type only reached significant use in the Second World War, during which the United States, Soviet Union, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom (including members of the British Commonwealth) all produced flamethrower-equipped tanks. Usually, the flame projector replaced one of the tank's machineguns, however, some flame projectors replaced the tank's main gun. Fuel for the flame weapon was generally carried inside the tank, although a few designs mounted the fuel externally, such as the armoured trailer used on the Churchill Crocodile. Flame tanks have been superseded by thermobaric weapons such as the Russian TOS-1. ==== Infantry tank ==== The idea for this tank was developed during World War I by British and French. The infantry tank was designed to work in concert with infantry in the assault, moving mostly at a walking pace, and carrying heavy armour to survive defensive fire. Its main purpose was to suppress enemy fire, crush obstacles such as barbed-wire entanglements, and protect the infantry on their advance into and through enemy lines by giving mobile overwatch and cover. The French Renault FT was the first iteration of this concept. The British and French retained the concept between the wars and into the Second World War era. Because infantry tanks did not need to be fast, they could carry heavy armour. One of the best-known infantry tanks was the Matilda II of World War II. Other examples include the French R-35, the British Valentine, and the British Churchill. ==== Cruiser tank ==== A cruiser tank, or cavalry tank, was designed to move fast and exploit penetrations of the enemy front. The idea originated in "Plan 1919", a British plan to break the trench deadlock of World War I in part via the use of high-speed tanks. The first cruiser tank was the British Whippet. Between the wars, this concept was implemented in the "fast tanks" pioneered by J. Walter Christie. These led to the Soviet BT tank series and the British cruiser tank series. During World War II, British cruiser tanks were designed to complement infantry tanks, exploiting gains made by the latter to attack and disrupt the enemy rear areas. In order to give them the required speed, cruiser designs sacrificed armour and armament compared to the infantry tanks. Pure British cruisers were generally replaced by more capable medium tanks such as the US Sherman and, to a lesser extent, the Cromwell by 1943. The Soviet fast tank (bistrokhodniy tank, or BT tank) classification also came out of the infantry/cavalry concept of armoured warfare and formed the basis for the British cruisers after 1936. The T-34 was a development of this line of tanks as well, though their armament, armour, and all-round capability places them firmly in the medium tank category. === Armoured car === The armoured car is a wheeled, often lightly armoured, vehicle adapted as a fighting machine. Its earliest form consisted of a motorised ironside chassis fitted with firing ports. By World War I, this had evolved into a mobile fortress equipped with command equipment, searchlights, and machine guns for self-defence. It was soon proposed that the requirements for the armament and layout of armoured cars be somewhat similar to those on naval craft, resulting in turreted vehicles. The first example carried a single revolving cupola with a Vickers gun; modern armoured cars may boast heavier armament – ranging from twin machine guns to large calibre cannon. Some multi-axled wheeled fighting vehicles can be quite heavy, and superior to older or smaller tanks in terms of armour and armament. Others are often used in military marches and processions, or for the escorting of important figures. Under peacetime conditions, they form an essential part of most standing armies. Armoured car units can move without the assistance of transporters and cover great distances with fewer logistical problems than tracked vehicles. During World War II, armoured cars were used for reconnaissance alongside scout cars. Their guns were suitable for some defence if they encountered enemy armoured fighting vehicles, but they were not intended to engage enemy tanks. Armoured cars have since been used in the offensive role against tanks with varying degrees of success, most notably during the South African Border War, Toyota War, the Invasion of Kuwait, and other lower-intensity conflicts. ==== Aerosledge ==== An aerosledge is a type of propeller-driven snowmobile, running on skis, used for communications, mail deliveries, medical aid, emergency recovery and border patrolling in northern Russia, as well as for recreation. Aerosledges were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II. Some early aerosledges were built by young Igor Sikorsky in 1909–10, before he built multi-engine airplanes and helicopters. They were very light plywood vehicles on skis, propelled by old airplane engines and propellers. ==== Scout car ==== A scout car is a military armoured reconnaissance vehicle, capable of off-road mobility and often carrying mounted weapons such as machine guns for offensive capabilities and crew protection. They often only carry an operational crew aboard, which differentiates them from wheeled armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry mobility vehicles (IMVs), but early scout cars, such as the open-topped US M3 scout car could carry a crew of seven. The term is often used synonymously with the more general term armoured car, which also includes armoured civilian vehicles. They are also differentiated by being designed and built for purpose, as opposed to improvised "technicals" which might serve in the same role. ==== Reconnaissance vehicle ==== A reconnaissance vehicle, also known as a scout vehicle, is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance. Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in service. In some countries, light tanks such as the M551 Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons. Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low profile or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament ranges from a medium machine gun to an autocannon. Modern examples are often fitted with ATGMs and a wide range of sensors. Armoured reconnaissance is the combination of terrestrial reconnaissance with armoured warfare by using tanks and wheeled or tracked armoured reconnaissance vehicles. While the mission of reconnaissance is to gather intelligence about the enemy with the use of reconnaissance vehicles, armoured reconnaissance adds the ability to fight for information, and to have an effect on and to shape the enemy through the performance of traditional armoured tasks. Some armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage Commando double in the reconnaissance role. ==== Internal security vehicle ==== An internal security vehicle (ISV), also known as an armoured security vehicle (ASV), is a combat vehicle used for suppressing civilian unrest. Security vehicles are typically armed with a turreted heavy machine gun and auxiliary medium machine gun. The vehicle is designed to minimize firepower dead space. Non-lethal water cannons and tear gas cannons can provide suppressive fire in lieu of unnecessary deadly fire. The vehicle must be protected against weapons typical of riots. Protection from improvised incendiary devices is achieved though coverage of the air intake and exhaust ports as well as a strong locking mechanism on the fuel opening. Turret and door locks prevent access to the interior of the vehicle by rioters. Vision blocks, ballistic glass and window shutters and outside surveillance cameras allow protected observation from within the vehicle. Wheeled 4x4 and 6x6 configurations are typical of security vehicles. Tracked security vehicles are often cumbersome and leave negative political connotations for being perceived as an imperial invading force. ==== Military light utility vehicle ==== Military light utility vehicles are the lightest weight class of military vehicles. It refers to light 4x4 military vehicles with light or no armour and all-terrain mobility. This type of vehicle originated in the first half of the 20th century when horses and other draft animals were replaced with mechanization. Light utility vehicles such as the Willys Jeep were frequently mounted with .50-calibre machineguns and other small weapons for hit-and-run tactics in World War II, especially by the British Special Air Service who used Jeeps to raid Axis airfields during the North Africa campaign. After the war, vehicles like the Toyota Mega Cruiser and Humvee filled this role. In the 21st century, improvised explosive devices continue to pose threat to mobile infantry resulting in light utility vehicles being made heavier and with more armour. ==== Improvised fighting vehicle ==== An improvised fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle resulting from modifications to a civilian or military non-combat vehicle in order to give it a fighting capability. Such modifications usually consist of the grafting of armour plating and weapon systems. Various militaries have procured such vehicles, ever since the introduction of the first automobiles into military service. During the early days, the absence of a doctrine for the military use of automobiles or of an industry dedicated to producing them, lead to much improvisation in the creation of early armoured cars, and other such vehicles. Later, despite the advent of arms industries in many countries, several armies still resorted to using ad hoc contraptions, often in response to unexpected military situations, or as a result of the development of new tactics for which no available vehicle was suitable. The construction of improvised fighting vehicles may also reflect a lack of means for the force that uses them. This is especially true in underdeveloped countries and even in developing countries, where various armies and guerrilla forces have used them, as they are more affordable than military-grade combat vehicles. Modern examples include military gun truck used by units of regular armies or other official government armed forces, based on a conventional military cargo truck, that is able to carry a large weight of weapons and armour. They have mainly been used by regular armies to escort military convoys in regions subject to ambush by guerrilla forces. "Narco tanks", used by Mexican drug cartels in the Mexican drug war, are built from such trucks, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities. === Troop carriers === Troop-carrying AFVs are divided into three main types – armoured personnel carriers (APCs), infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) and infantry mobility vehicles (IMV). The main difference between the three is their intended role – the APC is designed purely to transport troops and is armed for self-defence only – whereas the IFV is designed to provide close-quarters and anti-armour fire support to the infantry it carries. IMV is a wheeled armoured personnel carrier serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle. ==== Armoured personnel carrier ==== Armoured personnel carriers (APCs) are intended to carry infantry quickly and relatively safely to the point where they are deployed. In the Battle of Amiens, 8 August 1918, the British Mk V* tank (a lengthened Mark V) carried a small number of machine gunners as an experiment, but the men were debilitated by the conditions inside the vehicle. Later that year the first purpose-built APC, the British Mk IX tank (Mark Nine), appeared. In 1944, the Canadian general Guy Simonds ordered the conversion of redundant armoured vehicles to carry troops (generically named "Kangaroos"). This proved highly successful, even without training, and the concept was widely used in the 21st Army Group. Post-war, specialised designs were built, such as the Soviet BTR-60 and US M113. ==== Infantry fighting vehicle ==== An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), also known as a mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. The first example of an IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s. IFVs are similar to armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry carrier vehicles (ICVs), designed to transport a section or squad of infantry (generally between five and ten men) and their equipment. They are differentiated from APCs – which are purely "troop-transport" vehicles armed only for self-defence – because they are designed to give direct fire support to the dismounted infantry and so usually have significantly enhanced armament. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have firing ports (allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted). They are typically armed with an autocannon of 20 to 57 mm calibre, 7.62mm machine guns, anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) and/or surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). IFVs are usually tracked, but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category. IFVs are generally less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks. They sometimes carry anti-tank missiles to protect and support infantry against armoured threats, such as the NATO TOW missile and Soviet Bastion, which offer a significant threat to tanks. Specially equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks. ==== Infantry mobility vehicle ==== An infantry mobility vehicle (IMV) or protected patrol vehicle (PPV) is a wheeled armoured personnel carrier (APC) serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle. Examples include the ATF Dingo, AMZ Dzik, AMZ Tur, Mungo ESK, and Bushmaster IMV. This term also applies to the vehicles currently being fielded as part of the MRAP program. IMVs were developed in response to the threats of modern counterinsurgency warfare, with an emphasis on Ambush Protection and Mine-Resistance. Similar vehicles existed long before the term IMV was coined, such as the French VAB and South African Buffel. The term is coming more into use to differentiate light 4x4 wheeled APCs from the traditional 8x8 wheeled APCs. It is a neologism for what might have been classified in the past as an armoured scout car, such as the BRDM, but the IMV is distinguished by having a requirement to carry dismountable infantry. The up-armoured M1114 Humvee variant can be seen as an adaptation of the unarmoured Humvee to serve in the IMV role. === Amphibious vehicles === Many modern military vehicles, ranging from light wheeled command and reconnaissance, through armoured personnel carriers and tanks, are manufactured with amphibious capabilities. Contemporary wheeled armoured amphibians include the French Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé and Véhicule Blindé Léger. The latter is a small, lightly armoured 4×4 all-terrain vehicle that is fully amphibious and can swim at 5.4 km/h. The VAB (Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé – 'armoured vanguard vehicle') is a fully amphibious armoured personnel carrier powered in the water by two water jets, that entered service in 1976 and produced in numerous configurations, ranging from basic personnel carrier, anti-tank missile platform. During the Cold War the Soviet bloc states developed a number of amphibious APCs, fighting vehicles and tanks, both wheeled and tracked. Most of the vehicles the Soviets designed were amphibious, or could ford deep water. Wheeled examples are the BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 4x4 armoured scout cars, as well as the BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80, BTR-94 and BTR-90 8x8 armoured personnel carriers. During the 1930s and 1940s, Japan produced a number of amphibious tank designs, including prototypes such as the Sumida amphibious armored car (AMP), SR I-Go, SR II Ro-Go, SR III Ha-Go, Type 1 Mi-Sha (a/k/a Type 1 Ka-Mi) and Type 5 To-Ku. Production amphibious tanks during World War II included the Type 2 Ka-Mi, and Type 3 Ka-Chi; production amphibious transports included the F B swamp vehicle and Type 4 Ka-Tsu APC. All production units were for use by the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces in campaigns in the Pacific with amphibious operations. The United States started developing a long line of Landing Vehicle Tracked (LVT) designs from c. 1940. The US Marine Corps currently uses the AAV7-A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, which was to be succeeded by the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle, which was capable of planing on water and can achieve water speeds of 37–46 km/h. The EFV project has been cancelled. A significant number of tracked armoured vehicles that are primarily intended for land-use, have some amphibious capability, tactically useful inland, reducing dependence on bridges. They use their tracks, sometimes with added propeller or water jets for propulsion. As long as the banks have a shallow enough slopes to enter or leave the water they can cross rivers and water obstacles. Some heavy tanks can operate amphibiously with a fabric skirt to add buoyancy. The Sherman DD tank used in the Normandy landings had this setup. When in water the waterproof float screen was raised and propellers deployed. Some modern vehicles use a similar skirt. === Airborne vehicles === Lightweight armoured fighting vehicles designed or modified to be carried by aircraft and delivered by air drop, helicopter lift, glider, or air landing with infantry to provide heavier tactical firepower and mobility. The air-equivalent to amphibious vehicles, the main advantage of airborne forces is their ability to be deployed into combat zones without land passage, as long as the airspace is accessible. Airborne vehicles are limited only by the tonnage capacity of their transport aircraft. Airborne vehicles typically lack the armour and supplies necessary for prolonged combat, so they are utilized for establishing an airhead to bring in larger forces before carrying out other combat objectives. One modern example is the German Wiesel AWC. The USA also created the M22 Locust as a way to aid paratroopers/ being paradropped in as it was very lightly armoured and very small. === Armoured engineering vehicle === Modern engineering AFV's utilize chassis based on main battle tank platforms: these vehicles are as well armoured and protected as tanks, designed to keep up with tanks, breach obstacles to help tanks get to wherever it needs to be, perform utility functions necessary to expedite mission objectives of tanks, and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield. These vehicles go by different names depending upon the country of use or manufacture. In the United States the term "combat engineer vehicle (CEV)" is used, in the United Kingdom the term "Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE)" is used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term "armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)" is used. There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large calibre demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes, or lifting booms. Although the term "armoured engineer vehicle" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank-based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank-based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces. Thus, "armoured engineer vehicle" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on. Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle. ==== Breaching vehicle ==== A breaching vehicle is especially designed to clear pathways for troops and other vehicles through minefields and along roadside bombs and other improvised explosive devices. These vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man-made obstacles. Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, and mine roller vehicles. ==== Armoured bulldozer ==== The armoured bulldozer is a basic tool of combat engineering. These combat engineering vehicles combine the earth moving capabilities of the bulldozer with armour which protects the vehicle and its operator in or near combat. Most are civilian bulldozers modified by addition of vehicle armour/military equipment, but some are tanks stripped of armament and fitted with a dozer blade. Some tanks have bulldozer blades while retaining their armament, but this does not make them armoured bulldozers as such, because combat remains the primary role – earth moving is a secondary task. ==== Armoured recovery vehicle ==== An armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) is a type of vehicle recovery armoured fighting vehicle used to repair battle- or mine-damaged as well as broken-down armoured vehicles during combat, or to tow them out of the danger zone for more extensive repairs. To this end the term armoured repair and recovery vehicle (ARRV) is also used. ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a main battle tank (MBT), but some are also constructed on the basis of other armoured fighting vehicles, mostly armoured personnel carriers (APCs). ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the same class as they are supposed to recover; a tank-based ARV is used to recover tanks, while an APC-based one recovers APCs, but does not have the power to tow a much heavier tank. ==== Armoured vehicle-launched bridge ==== An armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) is a combat support vehicle, sometimes regarded as a subtype of combat engineering vehicle, designed to assist militaries in rapidly deploying tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles across rivers. The AVLB is usually a tracked vehicle converted from a tank chassis to carry a folding metal bridge instead of weapons. The AVLB's job is to allow armoured or infantry units to cross water, when a river too deep for vehicles to wade through is reached, and no bridge is conveniently located (or sufficiently sturdy, a substantial concern when moving 60-ton tanks). The bridge layer unfolds and launches its cargo, providing a ready-made bridge across the obstacle in only minutes. Once the span has been put in place, the AVLB vehicle detaches from the bridge, and moves aside to allow traffic to pass. Once all of the vehicles have crossed, it crosses the bridge itself and reattaches to the bridge on the other side. It then retracts the span ready to move off again. A similar procedure can be employed to allow crossings of small chasms or similar obstructions. AVLBs can carry bridges of 60 feet (18 metres) or greater in length. By using a tank chassis, the bridge layer is able to cover the same terrain as main battle tanks, and the provision of armour allows them to operate even in the face of enemy fire. However, this is not a universal attribute: some exceptionally sturdy 6x6 or 8x8 truck chassis have lent themselves to bridge-layer applications. ==== Combat engineer section carriers ==== Combat engineer section carriers are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with bulldozers' blades and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection. They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes. Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant). === Air defence vehicles === An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability. Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, anti-aircraft autocannons, larger anti-air guns, or surface-to-air-missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles (e.g. the Pantsir-S1). Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as armored personnel carriers and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment. Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. In addition, most anti-aircraft guns can be used in a direct-fire role against surface targets to great effect. In the early 21st century, missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns, though guns have recently shown revived utility against slow, low-flying drones. === Self-propelled artillery === Self-propelled artillery vehicles give mobility to artillery. Within the term are covered self-propelled guns (or howitzers) and rocket artillery. They are highly mobile, usually based on tracked chassis carrying either a large howitzer or other field gun or alternatively a mortar or some form of rocket or missile launcher. They are usually used for long-range indirect bombardment support on the battlefield. In the past, self-propelled artillery has included direct-fire "Gun Motor Carriage" vehicles, such as assault guns and tank destroyers (also known as self-propelled anti-tank guns). These have been heavily armoured vehicles, the former providing danger-close fire-support for infantry and the latter acting as specialized anti-tank vehicles. Modern self-propelled artillery vehicles may superficially resemble tanks, but they are generally lightly armoured, too lightly to survive in direct-fire combat. However, they protect their crews against shrapnel and small arms and are therefore usually included as armoured fighting vehicles. Many are equipped with machine guns for defence against enemy infantry. The key advantage of self-propelled over towed artillery is that it can be brought into action much faster. Before towed artillery can be used, it has to stop, unlimber and the guns set up. To move position, the guns must be limbered up again and brought – usually towed – to the new location. By comparison, self-propelled artillery in combination with modern communications, can stop at a chosen location and begin firing almost immediately, then quickly move on to a new position. This ability is very useful in a mobile conflict and particularly on the advance. Conversely, towed artillery was and remains cheaper to build and maintain. It is also lighter and can be taken to places that self-propelled guns cannot reach, so despite the advantages of the self-propelled artillery, towed guns remain in the arsenals of many modern armies. ==== Assault gun ==== An assault gun is a gun or howitzer mounted on a motor vehicle or armoured chassis, designed for use in the direct fire role in support of infantry when attacking other infantry or fortified positions. Historically, the custom-built fully armoured assault guns usually mounted the gun or howitzer in a fully enclosed casemate on a tank chassis. The use of a casemate instead of a gun turret limited these weapons' field of fire, but allowed a larger gun to be fitted relative to the chassis, more armour to be fitted for the same weight, and provided a cheaper construction. In most cases, these turretless vehicles also presented a lower profile as a target for the enemy. ==== Self-propelled siege gun ==== Self-Propelled siege guns often carry cannons or mortars in excess of 400mm. The carrying platform could be multiple vehicles, built for use on train rails, or a purpose-built chassis. ==== Mortar carrier ==== A mortar carrier, or self-propelled mortar, is a self-propelled artillery vehicle carrying one or more mortar as its primary weapon. Mortar carriers cannot be fired while on the move and some must be dismounted to fire. In U.S. Army doctrine, mortar carriers provide close and immediate indirect fire support for maneuver units while allowing for rapid displacement and quick reaction to the tactical situation. The ability to relocate not only allows fire support to be provided where it is needed faster, but also allows these units to avoid counter-battery fire. Mortar carriers have traditionally avoided direct contact with the enemy. Many units report never using secondary weapons in combat. Prior to the Iraq War, American 120 mm mortar platoons reorganized from six M1064 mortar carriers and two M577 fire direction centres (FDC) to four M1064 and one FDC. The urban environment of Iraq made it difficult to utilize mortars. New technologies such as mortar ballistic computers and communication equipment and are being integrated. Modern era combat is becoming more reliant on direct fire support from mortar carrier machine guns. ==== Multiple rocket launcher ==== A multiple rocket launcher is a type of unguided rocket artillery system. Like other rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers are less accurate and have a much lower (sustained) rate of fire than batteries of traditional artillery guns. However, they have the capability of simultaneously dropping many hundreds of kilograms of explosive, with devastating effect. The Korean Hwacha is an example of an early weapon system with a resemblance to the modern-day multiple rocket launcher. The first self-propelled multiple rocket launchers – and arguably the most famous – were the Soviet BM-13 Katyushas, first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern multiple rocket launchers. The first modern multiple rocket launcher was the German 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41 of the 1930s, a small towed artillery piece. Only later in World War II did the British deploy similar weapons in the form of the Land Mattress.The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create the T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to the Katyusha. ==== Missile vehicle ==== Missile vehicles are trucks or tractor units designed to carry rockets or missiles. The missile vehicle may be a self-propelled unit, or the missile holder/launcher may be on a trailer towed by a prime mover. They are used in the military forces of a number of countries in the world. Long missiles are commonly transported parallel to the ground on these vehicles, but elevated into an inclined or vertical position for launching. A Transporter erector launcher (TEL) is a missile vehicle with an integrated prime mover (tractor unit) that can carry, elevate to firing position and launch one or more missiles. Such vehicles exist for both surface-to-air missiles and surface-to-surface missiles. ==== Tank destroyer ==== Tank destroyers and tank hunters are armed with an anti-tank gun or anti-tank missile launcher, and are designed specifically to engage enemy armoured vehicles. Many have been based on a tracked tank chassis, while others are wheeled. Since World War II, main battle tanks have largely replaced gun-armed tank destroyers; although lightly armoured anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank engagements. In post-Cold War conflict, the resurgence of expeditionary warfare has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called "protected gun systems", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low intensity operations such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These have the advantage of easier deployment, as only the largest air transports can carry a main battle tank, and their smaller size makes them more effective in urban combat. Many forces' IFVs carry anti-tank missiles in every infantry platoon, and attack helicopters have also added anti-tank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated anti-tank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, or intended for airborne use. There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armoured car chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM scout car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Mardar IFVs. === Armoured train === An armoured train is a railway train protected with armour. They are usually equipped with rail cars armed with artillery, autocannons, machine guns, tank turrets and anti-aircraft guns. They were mostly used during the late 19th to mid-20th century, when they offered an innovative way to quickly move large amounts of firepower. Their use was discontinued in most countries when road vehicles became much more powerful and offered more flexibility, and because armoured trains were too vulnerable to track sabotage and attacks from the air. However, the Russian Federation used improvised armoured trains in the Second Chechen War in the late 1990s and 2000s. Armoured trains carrying ballistic missiles have also been used. The rail cars on an armoured train were designed for many tasks, such as carrying artillery and machine guns, infantry units, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns. During World War II, the Germans would sometimes put a Fremdgerät (captured AFVs such as the French Somua S-35 or Czech PzKpfw 38(t)), or obsolescent Panzer II light tanks on a flatbed rail car, which could quickly be offloaded by means of a ramp and used away from the railway line to chase down enemy partisans. Different types of armour were used to protect armoured trains from attack. In addition to various metal plates, concrete and sandbags were used in some cases on armoured trains. Armoured trains were sometimes escorted by a kind of rail-tank called a draisine. One such example was the Italian 'Littorina' armoured trolley, which had a cab in the front and rear, each with a control set so it could be driven down the tracks in either direction. Littorina mounted two dual 7.92mm MG13 machine gun turrets from Panzer I light tanks. A missile vehicle, also known as a missile carrier, missile truck, or (if capable of launching) missile launcher vehicle, is a military vehicle that is purpose-built and designed to carry missiles, either for safe transportation or for launching missiles in combat. Missile vehicles include transporter erector launchers (TEL) and multiple rocket launchers (MRL). == See also == == References == === Sources === Margiotta, Franklin D., ed. (1996). Brassey's encyclopedia of land forces and warfare. Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-087-X. Retrieved 19 February 2011. Gougaud, Alain (1987). L'aube de la gloire: les autos mitrailleuses et les chars français pendant la Grande Guerre, histoire technique et militaire, arme blindée, cavalerie, chars, Musée des blindés (in French). Issy-les-Moulineaux: Société OCEBUR. ISBN 978-2-904255-02-1. Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited. ISBN 0-85112-204-3. Tomczyk, Andrzej (2003). Japanese Armor Vol. 3. AJ Press. ISBN 978-8372371287. Zaloga, Steven J. (2007). Japanese Tanks 1939–45. Osprey Publishing. pp. 7, 8. ISBN 978-1-8460-3091-8. == External links == US Wheeled armoured fighting vehicles

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