**FORM I**

1.0.0 Introduction to Agriculture (8 Lessons)

2.0.0 Factors Influencing Agriculture (24 Lessons)

3.0.0. Farm Tools And Equipment (7 Lessons)

4.0.0 Crop Production I (Land Preparation) (7 Lessons)

5.0.0 Water Supply, Irrigation And Drainage (10 Lessons)

6.0.0 Soil Fertility I (Organic Manures) (6 Lessons)

7.0.0 Livestock Production I (Common Breeds) (7 Lessons)

8.0.0 Agricultural Economics I (Basic Concepts and Farm Records) (7**Lessons)** **Introduction to Agriculture**

***Definition of Agriculture***

 Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. **As a science,**it involves***experimentation***and***application of scientific***

***knowledge***in such areas as;  Soil analysis,  Control of pests and diseases,  Farm machinery and structures,  Crop and livestock breeding.

***As an art, it involves the use of learned skills in;***

 Tilling the land,  Construction,  Measurement,  Harvesting of crops,  Feeding and handling of livestock  Marketing.

**Branches of Agriculture** ***Crop Farming (Arable Farming)***

 The practice of growing crops on cultivated land. **It is subdivided into:**

***Field crops Cultivation***:

 maize, beans, potatoes, coffee, tea, cotton to name but a few.

***Horticulture:***

 It involves the growing of perishable crops which have high value.  It is further subdivided into:

***Floriculture -***the growing of flowers. ***Olericulture***- the growing of vegetables. ***Pomoculture***- the growing of fruits.

***Livestock Farming***

 This branch deals with the rearing of livestock for various products.

***It is further subdivided into:***

***Pastoralism:***This is the rearing of mammalian livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats,

rabbits, pigs and camels.

***Fish Farming (Aquaculture):***This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic

organisms , in ponds.

***Bee Keeping (Apiculture):***This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as

beehives.

***Poultry Keeping**:*This is the keeping of domesticated birds.

***Agricultural Economics***

It deals with the allocation of scarce resources (land, labour, capital and management) for agricultural production.

***Agricultural Engineering***

 This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery

and structures. ***Large Scale Farming***

 Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares.

 It is used mainly for commercial purposes.

 The system is highly mechanized.

***Advantages***  Results in high yields.  Due to economics of scale high profit is realized.

***Disadvantages***  Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions.  High level of management is required.  Heavy capital investment.  Requires skilled and qualified manpower.

***Small Scale Farming***

 Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares.  Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods.  Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. ***Advantages***  Requires low capital investment.  Possible where land is a limiting factor.  Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. ***Disadvantages***  Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size.  Low production.  Provides limited employment.  Labour intensive.  Difficult to specialize.

***Methods of Farming***

 A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities.  The following are the common methods of farming:

***Mixed Farming***

  ***Advantages***  Mutual benefit between crops and livestock.  Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops.  Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer.  The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year.  There is maximum utilization of the resources.  Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals.  Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year.

It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas.

***Disadvantages***

 High initial capital.  Lack of specialization.  Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised.  Requires high level of management for both enterprises.

 ***Nomadic-Pastoralism***  This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to

another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept. ***Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of:***

  Efficient disease and parasite control measures.   Extension services.

Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding.

Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities.

***Advantages***

 Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya.  Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas.  Source of income to the pastoral communities. ***Disadvantages***

It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities.

 There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation.  Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the

control of good pastures and water.

 Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases.  High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock.  Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling

from one place to another in search of pastures and water.

 High death rates as a result of walking for long distances. ***Shifting Cultivation***

It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline.

 The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left

fallow to regain its fertility.

***Advantages***

 Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility.  No build up of pests and diseases.  Soil structure is restored.  The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used.  Crop produce are chemical free.

***Disadvantages***

 Not practical where land is a limiting factor.  Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is 'not possible.   Lack of soil conservation measures  Not possible to grow perennial crops.  Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods.  Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed.

It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement.

***Organic Farming***

It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agrochemicals. It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock.  Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of  Provides***food***to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man

to engage in other activities of farming.

 Provides***employment***. This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea

plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries.

 Source of***raw materials***for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry.  Provides***foreign exchange***- through exporting agricultural produce.  Provides***market for industrial goods***agriculture is a consumer of the finished

goods from agro-based industries.

 Source of***income***- farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of

agricultural produce and tax payment. ***Cultural practices and religious beliefs:***

 These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural

development. ***Market forces:***

 Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market.

***Biotic Factors***

These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. ***Pests -***Destructive organisms which destroy crops. ***Parasites***- These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. ***Decomposers -***Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form manure. ***Pathogens***- Micro-organisms which cause diseases. ***Predators***- Animals that kill and feed on other animals. ***Pollinators***- They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. ***Nitrogen fixing bacteria***-They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric

nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants.

***Climatic Factors(weather elements).***

 Rainfall,  Temperature,  Wind,  Relative humidity  Light. ***Weather***- Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. ***Climate***- weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years.

***Rainfall***

**Supplies Water:**  Which is necessary for the life process in plants and animals.  Which makes the plant turgid hence provides support.  Acts as a solvent for plant nutrients.  Cools the plant during transpiration.  Which is used as a raw material in photosynthesis.

***When plants lack enough water they respond in different ways as follows:***

 By closing the stomata to restrict water loss.  Hastens maturity.  Some will roll their leaves.

***Other plants have developed permanent adaptation to water stress such as:***

 Growing needle like leaves.  Develop fleshy leaves for water storage.  Develop long roots.  Wilting and death in extreme conditions.

***Important Aspects of Rainfall:***

***Rainfall reliability***;

 This is the dependency on the timing of the onset of the rains.

***Amount of rainfall***;

 Quantity of rain that falls in a given area within a given year.

***Rainfall distribution***;

 The number of wet months in a year.

***Rainfall intensity***;

 Amount of rainfall that falls in an area within a period of 1 hour. ***Temperature***

 This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in degrees Celsius. ***Cardinal range***of temperature is the temperature required by plant to grow and

thrive well.

***Optimum range of temperatures***- the best temperature for the best performance of

plants. ***Light***

 Provide radiant energy harnessed by green plant for photosynthesis.

***Important aspects of light:*** ***Light intensity***;

 The strength with which light is harnessed by chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

***Light duration***;

 The period during which light is available to plants per day.  Plant response to light duration is known as***photoperiodism.*** ***Short-day plants*-**require less than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. ***Long-day plants***- require more than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. ***Day-neutral plants***require 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed.

***Light wavelength;***

 This is the distance between two - successive crests of a wavelength.  It dictates the difference between natural and artificial light.  Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light. **Edaphic Factors Influencing Agriculture**

 These are soil factors.  Soil is the natural material that covers the surface of the earth,  Made of weathered rock particles and decomposed animal and plant tissues, and on

which plants grow.

***Importance of Soil***

 Provides anchorage to the plants by holding their roots firmly.  Provides plants with mineral salts/ nutrients which are necessary for their growth.  Provide the plants with water.  Contains oxygen necessary for respiration of the plants and soil micro-organisms.

***Soil Formation:***

 Soil is formed through weathering process.  Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the

earth to a stable substance.

 Weathering process is a combination of disintegration (breakdown) and synthesis

(build up) process.

 Weathering process is continuous.

***Types of Weathering***

 Physical weathering  Chemical weathering  Biological weathering ***Agents of Weathering*** ***Physical Agents of Weathering***

 ***Wind -***carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. ***Water***- intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. ***Moving ice***- has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. ***Extreme temperature***cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their

Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature.

surface. ***Chemical Weathering***

 Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock.

Involves processes such as ;  Hydrolysis,  Hydration,  Carbonation  Oxidation.

***Hydration;***

 The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand

weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration.

***Hydrolysis;***

 The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it.

***Oxidation**;* *T*he reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily.

***Carbonation**;*

*T*he process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon

dioxide,

 It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate.

***Biological Weathering*** ***This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks.***

***Burrowing animals***, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the

surface exposing them to other agents of weathering.

***Big animals***like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate.

***Earthworms***take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles. ***Man's activities***like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during

excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles.

***Plant roots***force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and

splitting them.

***Humic acids***formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening

them further.

***Plant remains***-decompose adding humus into the soil.  **Factors influencing soil formation**

***Climate-***(rainfall, temperature and wind) ***Biotic factors***- living organisms. ***Parent material***- Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is

formed.

**Time -**length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken place. ***Topography***- influences the movement of disintegrated materials.

It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock.

 These layers are also referred to as***horizons.***  The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour,

texture and structure.

 The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material.

***Organic Matter Region***

 First layer of the soil found on the surface.  Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition.  Some soil organisms may also be found here.

***Top Soil***

 Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus.   ***Sub-Soil***

Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated. It is a zone of maximum leaching (zone of eluviations)

It is compact and less aerated. It is a zone of accumulation of leached material (zone of aluviation) from the top layers.

 Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region.  Hard pans normally form in this layer ***Weathered Rocks***

  Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone.  Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock.

It is also called substratum.

***Parent Rock***

   The water table is on the surface of this rock.

It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered. It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil.

***Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited***

 Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be***in situ**.*  However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its

original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes.

 Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition. ***Soil Formed in Situ*** ***Soil Deposited***

l.Has the colour of the parent rock 1. Has the characteristics of when: it came from.

2. Shallower 2. Deeper

3. Less rich in plant nutrients 3. Richer in plant nutrients

4. Easily eroded 4. Not easily eroded

5. Less silty 5. More silty

6. Have the same chemical composition 6. Differ in chemical composition from the

as that of the underlying parent rock. underlying parent rock. ***Soil Depth***

 This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile.   Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients.  Have a larger surface are for root expansion.  Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration.

It dictates root penetration and growth

***Soil Constituents***

***Organic Matter***- Dead and decaying plants and animal remains ***Living Organisms***- Soil organisms and plant roots.  Micro-organisms (bacteria, protozoa and fungi)  Invertebrates -termites,  Earthworms and molluscs.  Higher animals - rodents and others.

***Inorganic or Mineral Matter***

 Formed from the parent materials.  Supply plant nutrients  Form the skeleton and framework of the soil. ***Air***

 Found in the pore spaces of the soil.  Used for root and organism respiration  Used for germination of seeds.  Helps in decomposition of organic matter.  Regulates soil temperature.  Regulates the movement of water through capillary action.

***Water***

 Dissolves mineral salts  Maintain turgidity in plants.  Used for germination of seeds  Used by soil organisms.  Regulate soil temperature  Dictates the amount of air in the soil.

***Water in the soil exists in three forms namely:***

***Superfluous/Gravitational Water***

 Found in the large spaces (macro-pores) in the soil particles.  Held by gravitation forces.  When the pores are saturated, the soil is said to be waterlogged.  It moves and may cause leaching.

***Hygroscopic Water***

 Water found in thin films on the soil particles.  Held by strong adhesive forces between water and soil particles.  Does not move and hence not available for plant use. ***Capillary Water***

 Occupy micro-pores in the soil particles.  Held by cohesive forces between water molecules.  Moves through capillary action  Available to plants for use.

***Soil Structure***

 This is the arrangement of soil particles in a soil horizon. ***Types of Soil Structure ***  Single-grained  Crumby  Granular  Prismatic  Columnar  Platy  Blocky

***Importance of Soil Structure on Crop Production***

***Soil Structure Influences***  Soil aeration  Soil drainage and water holding capacity.  Plants root penetrability and anchorage.  Microbial activities in the soil.  Circulation of gases in the soil.

***Farming practices which improve the soil structure are:***

 Application of inorganic manure into the soil.      Tilling the land at the right moisture content. Crop rotation. Minimum tillage. Cover cropping. Mulching.

***Soil Texture***

 It refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil.

***Importance of Soil Texture on Crop Production;***

  Affects the organic matter content

Influences soil fertility     Influences the drainage of the soil. Influences soil aeration. Influences water holding capacity. Influences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil.

***Soil Textural Classes*** ***Sandy Soils***

 Made up largely of sand particles.  Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention.  Easy to till (light soils).  Freely draining.  Low fertility due to leaching of minerals.  Easily erodible.

***Clayey Soils***

 Made up largely of clayey particles.  Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention.  Difficult to till (heavy soils).  Poorly 'drained.  Expand when wet, crack when dry.  High capillary.  Rich in plant nutrients.

***Loam Soils***

 About equal amounts of sand and clay.  Moderately good in both moisture and air retention.  Fertile soils.

**Soil Colour**

 This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter

content.

 Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour.  Soils with a lot of silica are white.  Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops. At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants. Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms. ***Garden Tools and Equipment***

 Tools 1 Panga . 2 Jembe/hand hoe . 3 Fork iembe . 4 Rake .

Uses

Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes.

Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches.

Cultivation, digging out roots, harvesting of root crops.

Collecting trash, breaking large clods, levelling, removing stones from a seedbed and spreading organic manure.

5 Spade .

Scooping and carrying of soil, sand, concrete mixture and manure. Measuring weight.

6 Spring balance . 7 Trowel .

Scooping seedlings during transplanting and .digging planting holes for seedlings. Bending tall branches when pruning.

8 Pruning hook . 9 Secateur . 10. Tape measure

Cutting young stems and pruning branches.

Measuring distances.

11. Axe Cutting big trees and roots and splitting logs of wood.

12. Soil auger Making holes for fencing posts.

13. mattock Digging hard soils

14. sprinklers Overhead irrigation.

15. Watering can Watering plants in nursery bed.

16. Wheel barrow Transportation of soil, fertilizers, farm produce, tools and equipment.

17. Levelling board For levelling a nursery bed.

18. Pruning saw Cutting old wood stems and pruning big branches.

19. Hose pipe For conveying water from a tap to where it is need.

20. Knap sack sprayer Applying agro-chemical by spraying.

21. Garden shear Trimming hedges.

22. Pruning knife Removal of small shoots. ***Livestock Production Tools and Equipment***

Tools Uses

1 Drenching gun . 2 Bolus gun/dosing gun . 3 Wool Shears . 4 Hypodermic syringe . 5 Stirrup (bucket) pump . 6 Thermometer . 7 Burdizzo . 8 Halter . 9 Trimming knife . Elastrator

Administering liquid drugs to animals orally.

Administering solid drugs or tablets to animals orally.

Cutting off wool from sheep.

Administering drugs by injection for example in vaccination.

Application of acaricide by hand spraying.

Taking body temperatures of farm animals.

Used in bloodless method of castration.

Rope designed to restrain the animal.

Cutting short the overgrown hooves.

Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking

of lambs.

Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns.

Nose ring Fixed into the nose of a bull to restrain it.

Strip cup Detecting mastitis in milk products.

Trocar and cannula Relieving a bloated animal of gases particularly ruminants.

Hard broom For scrubbing the floor.

Ear notcher Making ear notches in livestock.

 Bucket For holding milk during milking.

Milk chum For holding milk after milking.

Milk strainer/sieve Removing foreign particles from milk for example hairs and sediments. Tying or tethering animals.

Used by the milker to sit on while milking.

Weighing milk after milking.

Removal of canine teeth of piglets soon after birth.

Cutting fodder into small bits.

Cutting grown horns. ***Workshop Tools and Equipment***

Uses

 Tightening and loosening nuts and bolts.

 Cutting small wires and thin metal and gripping firmly.

 Sharpening tools, smoothening or shaping edges of metals,

 Smoothening and shaping of wooden structures.

 Making grooves in wood.

 Cutting and shaping metal.

 Driving screws in or out of wood or metal.

. - Cutting across the grain of wood.

 Cutting along the grain of wood.

 Cutting metals.

 Cutting branches of trees. **Tools**

1 Spanner . 2 Pliers . 3 Files . 4 Rasps . 5 Chisels (wood) . 6 Cold chisel . 7 Screw drivers . 8 Saws . Cross cut saw

 Rip saw

 Hack saw Bow saw

 Tenonlback saw

 Coping saw Compass/keyhole saw

 Cutting Joints on wood and fine sawing. Cutting curves on thin wood. Cutting either along or across the grain of wood especially when cutting key holes. Cutting metal sheets.

9 Tin snip . 1 Braces and bits. 0 1 Drill and bits . 1 1 Hammer . 2 Claw hammer . Ball pein

 Boring holes in wood. ,

 Boring holes in metal work and woodwork. =

 Driving in, removing and straightening nails.

 Driving in nails, rivets and straightening metal. Also used on cold chisel Hammering or hitting wood chisel.

 Fine finishing of wood.

 Smoothening curved surfaces of wood such as handles of jembes, axes. 1 Mallet 3 1 Jack plane . 4 1 Scrappers/spokeshave . 5 . 1 Measuring equipment 6 Metre ruler . Try square

~

 Measuring short length -.

 Measuring length angles and to ascertain squareness.

1 Marking gauge 7 1 Fencing pliers . 8 1 Vice and clamps . 9 . Tools 2 Spirit level 0 .

 Marking parallel lines to the edge of wood.

 Cutting wires, hammering staples when fencing.

 Firmly holding pieces of work together. Melting soldering rods when repairing or fabricating metal

sheets.

Brushing rough surfaces.

Marking and laying out.

Marking the point of drilling.

Applying paint on surfaces.

Ramming hardware, breaking stones.

Tightening wires during fencing.

Fix rivets when joining pieces of metal.

Removing long nails from wood, straining fencing wires and

digging fencing holes. 2 Soldering gun l . 2 Wire brush 2 2 Divider . 3 2 Centre punch . 4 2 Paint brush . 5 2 Sledge hammer . 6 2 Wire strainer . 7 2 Riveting machine . 8 2 Claw bar . 9 .

*Plumbing and Masonry Tools*

Tools Uses

l Pipe wrench . 2 Pipe cutter . 3 Levelling rod . 4 Mason's trowel . 5 Wood float . 6 Mason's square . 7 Plumb bob . 8 Shovel .

Holding, tightening and loosing metallic pipes.

Cutting PVC pipes.

Levelling the floor during construction.

Placing mortar between construction stones and bricks.

Create a level surface on walls and floors.

Ascertain verticalness.

Spreading screed over floors and walls.

Mixing and scooping concrete or mortar, measuring cement. ***Primary Cultivation***  This is the initial breaking of land.

It is done early before the onset of the rains to:  Give time for soil organisms to act on organic matter.  Allow gaseous exchange to take place, thus carbon dioxide diffuses out of the soil

while oxygen enters into the soil.

 Allow other operations to take place in time.

**Reasons for primary cultivation:**

 Remove weeds.  Burry organic matter.  Open up soil for infiltration of water and air.  Expose pests and disease causing organisms.  Soften the soil for easy planting.

***Operations in primary cultivation***

***Hand digging***; ***Use of hand tools ;***  Jembes,  Mattocks,  Fork-jembes.

***Mechanical cultivation***; ***Use of mouldboard ploughs;***

 Disc ploughs,  Chisel ploughs,  Subsoilers  Rippers.

***Use of Ox-Ploughs***; ***Which can be drawn by;***

 Oxen,  Donkeys,  Camels ***Depth of Cultivation***

***Depends on:***

 The type of crop to be planted/size of seed.  The implements available.  The type of soil.

***Choice of Implement***

***Determined by:***

 The condition of land.  The type of tilth required/type of crop.  Depth of cultivation. ***Secondary Tillage***

 These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation.  It is also known as harrowing.

***Reasons for secondary Tillage:***

 To remove the germinating weeds.  To break soil clods to produce required tilth.  To level the seedbed for uniform planting.  To incorporate organic matter/manure into the soil.

***Factors determining number of secondary cultivation:***

 Soil moisture content.  Size of the planting materials.  Condition of the soil after primary cultivation.  Slope of the land. **Tertiary Operations:**

***Ridging ;***

 The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce

a furrow and a bund (ridge).

 It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water

conservation.

***Rolling:***

 It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil

contact and prevents wind erosion.

***Levelling;***

 Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting.

**Subsoiling:**

 This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have

developed.

***It is done for the following reasons:-***  To facilitate drainage.  Bring up leached nutrients to the surface.  Increase aeration of the soil.  To improve root penetration.  The implements used include***chisel plough***and***subsoilers.***  Use of herbicides.  Mulching and cover-cropping.  Timely operations to prevent weed infestation.  Strip cultivation.  Uprooting and slashing of weeds.

***Reasons for Minimum Tillage***

 To reduce cost of cultivation.  To control soil erosion.  To preserve soil moisture.  To prevent root exposure and damage.  To reconstruct destroyed soil structure. **Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage**

**Introduction**

 Water is a very important natural resource.  It is necessary for both crops and livestock.

***Uses of water in the farm;***  Cleaning equipment.   Processing farm produce, for example, coffee.  Drinking by livestock and man.  Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides.  Providing power in water mills to grind grain crops.  Cooling engines.  Construction work.

 Irrigation in dry areas.

***Sources of Water in the Farm*** ***Three major sources of water in the farm:***

***Surface water***: ***Includes water from;***

 Rivers,  Streams  Dams.

***Ground water***: ***Includes water from;***  Springs,  Wells  Boreholes. ***Rain water:*** ***This is water tapped in various ways such as;***

 Rooftops  Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. ***Collection and Storage of Water***

**Dams:**

 These are structures constructed across rivers and channels.  They collect and store water for use during the dry season.

***Weirs:***

 These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy

pumping.

 Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river.

***Water Tanks:***

 These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics.  They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources.  Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. ***Pumps and Pumping of Water***

 Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force.  Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required

for use or storage. ***Types of Water Pumps***

***Used to lift water from its source.***  Centrifugal pumps  Piston or reciprocating pumps  Semi-rotary pumps and  Hydram

***Conveyance of Water***

 This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of

storage to where it will be used or stored.

***Piping***;

 This is where water is moved through pipes.

 The common types of pipes include:

 Metal pipes  Plastic pipes  Hose pipes ***Use of Containers**:*

 In this case water is drawn and put in containers .  drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets .  Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehicles.

***Use of Canals:***

 In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion.

 Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock.

***Water Treatment***

 Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. ***These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely:*** ***Physical impurities***: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and

smell.

***Chemical impurities:***these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical

analysis. ***Biological impurities:***these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses

and algae.

***Importance of Treating Water***

 To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive

in dirty water.

 To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human

beings.

 To remove smells and bad taste.  To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks.

***Methods of Treating Water***

***Aeration:***this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or

bubbling of air.

***Sedimentation:***this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles

such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom.

***Filtration:***this is passing water through fine granular materials to remove solid

particles and biological substances.

***Coagulation:***addition of chemicals which precipitate impurities and help in

softening of hard water.

***Chlorination:***Sterilization to destroy disease causing organisms.

***Irrigation***

It is the artificial application of water to crops in dry areas or where water is not enough. It is one of the methods of land reclamation in case of arid and semi arid areas.

***Factors to Consider in Identifying and Assessing the Potential of Land for Irrigation*** ***Development***

 Topography of the land  Soil type  Type of crop to be grown  Water availability  Human factors such as skill, capital availability and economic activities.

***Types of Irrigation***

***Surface irrigation***:

 This includes flood irrigation and basin irrigation.  It is used in flat areas.  The problem with this method is loss of water through seepage.  It also increases soil salinity.

***Sub-surface Irrigation:***

 This involves the use of porous pipes or perforated pipes.  It is used in slopy areas and where water is inadequate.

***Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation*:**

 It is used in any area which is not steep. ***Drainage***

 This is a method of removing excess water or lowering the water table from a marshy

water-logged land. It is also a method of land reclamation.

***Importance of Drainage as a Method of Land Reclamation***

 To increase soil aeration.  To raise soil temperature.  To increase microbial activities in the soil.  To reduce toxic substances from the soil.  To increase soil volume for exploitation by plant roots.

***Methods of Drainage***  Use of open ditches.  Use of underground drain pipes.  French drains.  Cambered beds.  Pumping out water from the soil.  Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus.

***Water Pollution***

 This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water.  The harmful substance is referred to as a**pollutant.**

***Agricultural practices which pollute water include:***

 Use of inorganic fertilizers.  Use of pesticides.  Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks.  Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. ***Methods of Preventing Water Pollution***

 Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion.  Fencing off the water sources.  Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using non-

chemical techniques.

 Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers.  Proper disposal of empty chemical containers. ***Introduction***

 Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in

their proper proportions.

***Characteristics of a Fertile Soil***

***Good depth***- Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and

provide strong anchorage.

***Good aeration***- for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. ***Good water holding capacity***- ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. ***Proper drainage***- ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. ***Correct soil pH***- different crops have different soil pH requirements. ***Adequate nutrients supply***- it should supply the required nutrients in the correct

amounts and in a form available to plants.

***Free from excessive***infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. ***How soil loses fertility***

***Leaching**:*vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower

horizons of the soil profile.

***Soil erosion***- The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to

another.

***Monocropping***- This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece' of a land

over a long time.

***Continuous cropping -***crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are

never returned.

***Growing crops continuously***without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil

infertile.

***Change in soil pH***- changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well

as the availability of soil nutrients.

***Burning of vegetation***- burning of vegetation cover destroys organic matter. It also

exposes the soil to the agents of soil erosion.

***Accumulation of salts***- soils with a lot of salts are said to be saline. State of having too

much salt in the soil is referred to as soil salinity.

 Salts accumulation cause water deficiency in plants. It may also lead to change in soil

pH.  Contour cultivation,  Strip cropping,  Cut off drains  Planting cover crops.

***Crop Rotation ;***

 Practice of growing different crops on the same field in different seasons in an

orderly sequence. ***Control of Soil pH***:

 Application of liming materials such as***limestone, quicklime, magnesium***

***carbonate and slaked lime if the soil is acidic.***

 Application of acidic fertilizers if the soil is alkaline.  Application of manures.

***Proper drainage;*** ***Done through:***

 Breaking hard pan.  Construction of water channels.  Growing crops on cambered bed  Pumping out water from the soil.

***Weed control:***

 Use of herbicides.  Slashing  Uprooting.  Mulching  Use of proper farming practices such as early planting, correct spacing and cover

crops.

***Intercropping***  Farming practice where different crops species are grown together in the field.

***Minimum Tillage;***  Use of herbicides.  Uprooting of weeds.  Slashing weeds  Mulching  Strip cultivation. ***Use of Inorganic Fertilizer***;

 Chemical compounds manufactured to apply specific plant nutrients for example

calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN).

***Use of Manure;***

 Well decomposed manures release nutrients into the soil and increase its water

holding capacity.

***Organic Manures***

 Manures are derived from plants and animal remains.

 They supply organic matter to the soil which after decomposition releases plant

nutrients.

 The end product of this decomposition is known as humus.  It influences soil chemical properties and soil temperature.  Manures supply a wide range of essential plant nutrients.

***Importance of Organic Matter in the Soil***

   Provides food and shelter for soil micro-organisms.   Buffers soil pH/moderates soil pH.  Reduces the toxicity of plant poisons in the soil.  Moderates soil temperature by its dark colour.

Increases the soil water holding capacity of the soil. Improves soil fertility by releasing a wide range of nutrients into the soil.

Improves the soil structure.

***Limitations in the Use of Manure***

 They are bulky - low nutritive value per unit volume.  Laborious in application and transport.  They spread diseases, pests and weeds.  Loss of nutrients if poorly stored.  If not fully decomposed crops may not benefit from them.

***Types of Organic Manures***

 Green manure.  Farm yard manure.  Compost manure

***Green Manure***

 Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil.

***Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure:***

 Have fast growth rates.  Have high nitrogen content.  Capable of rotting quickly.  Capable of growing in poor conditions.

***Preparation of Green Manure***

 Plant the green manure crop in the field.  Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage.  Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing.  Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks.  Prepare the field for planting the major crop.

***Reasons why green manure is not commonly used/limitations:***

 Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops.  Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture.  Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of

decomposing the green manure.  Planting of the major crop is delayed.

***Farm Yard Manure (FYM)***  Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses.

***Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM***

 The types of the animals used.  Types of food eaten  Types of litter used.  Method of storage.  Age of farmyard manure.  Age of the animals used.

***Preparation of FYM***

 Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals.  Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings.  Animals mix them through trampling.  The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to

decompose.

 After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed.  It can then be used in the farm

***Compost Manure***

 *Is*manure prepared from heaped (composted) organic materials.

***Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure:***

 A well drained place.  Direction of the prevailing wind.  Size of the farm.  Accessibility.

***Preparation of Compost Manure*** ***Two methods:***

***Four heaps method***  ***Indore Method (Pit Method)*** ***Indore Method (Pit Method)*** ***Procedure ;***

 Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field.  Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m.  Place the materials in the following order:  Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to a depth of 30cm as a foundation  A layer of grass, green weeds or leaves and kitchen wastes to 30cm.  A well rotten manure/poultry droppings.  Wood ash and phosphatic fertilizers.  A layer of topsoil to introduce microorganism for the decomposition of organic

remains. ***Note:***Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition

process and regulate temperatures.

***Four heaps method:***

***Procedure***

 Clear the site.  Level the site  Four posts 2m high are fixed 1.2m apart from four corners of the heap.  Fix wood planks on the sides.  Materials are placed in two heaps as in the pit method,  The two heaps make up heap 1.  After 3-4 weeks, the decomposed material from heap 1 is transferred to heap II.  After another 3 - 4 weeks the material is transferred to heap III.  After 3-4 weeks it is ready for use in the farm.

***Indicators of well decomposed manure***

 Absence of bad odour.  Materials are lighter.  Manure is brown in colour.

***Advantages of Compost Manure***

 One does not have to own livestock in order to prepare it.  A lot of manure can be produced within a short time.  A variety of materials can be used in its preparation.  Uses locally available materials thus cheaper than the artificial fertilizers.  Improves the soil structure.

***Limitations of Compost Manure***

  Large quantities of compost manure are required to supply enough plant nutrients.

It releases nutrients slowly into the soil.

Its preparation is labour intensive. ***General characteristics***:  They have no humps.  They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the

Kenya highlands ..

 They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases.  They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity.  They are good producers of both meat and milk.  They cannot walk for long distances.  They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed.

***Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups:***  Dairy cattle breeds.  Beef cattle breeds.  Dual purpose breeds.

***Dairy Cattle Breeds***  They include;  Friesian,  Ayrshire,  Guernsey  Jersey.

***Characteristics of Dairy Cattle***

 Wedge or triangular in shape.  Large stomach.  Docile with mild temperament.  Large, well suspended udders and teats.  Lean bodies.  Lean and smooth neck.  Large and long mammary milk wells and veins.  Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats.  Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder.

***Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds)***

***Origin:***Holland ***Colour:***Black and white ***Size:***Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg.  Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least

butterfat content; 3.5% ***Beef Cattle***

***Examples:***

 Aberdeen Angus,

 Hereford,

 Shorthorns,

 Galloway,

 American Brahman,

 charolais

 Santa Getrudis.

***Characteristics of Beef Cattle***

 Blocky or square conformation.  Have thick muscles or are well fleshed.  Early maturing.  Deep chest and girth and short legs.  Straight top and lower lines.

***AberdeenAngus***

***Origin:***North East Scotland. ***Colour:***Black ***Shape:***Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled.

***Size:***  Mature bulls weigh 900kg.  Mature cows weigh 840kgs.  ***Hereford***

 It is found in Timau area of Kenya

***Origin:***England. ***Colour:***Deep red and white-faced. ***Size:***Average weight of bulls is 1000kg.  Cows weigh 840kgs.  It is found in areas such as Naivasha.

***Shorthorn***

***Origin:***England.  Has easy fleshing ability ***Colour**:*Red, Roan or white ***Shape**:*Cylindrical, compact and deep.  ***Size:***

It is polled.

 Bulls weigh 700-900kg,  cows weigh 545-630kgs.

***Galloway***

***Origin:***Scotland. ***Colour:***Black  Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya.

***Charolais***

***Origin:***France. ***Colour:***Creamy white. ***Size:***Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs.  It is found in ranches in Laikipia District. ***Dual Purpose Breeds*** ***Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental.***

***Sahiwal***

***Origin:***India and Pakistan .. ***Colour**: r*eddish brown. ***Size:***Bulls weigh 650kg, and**cows**400kg.  Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7%.    It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily. It is therefore said to be a difficult milker. It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha.

***Red Poll***

***Origin:***England. ***Colour:***Deep red with a white nose. ***Conformation**:*Polled-deep girth and short legs. *Kept in semi-arid*areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio.

***Simmental***

***Origin:***Switzerland. ***Colour:***Light red and white patches on the head. ***Conformation:***   It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth. It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats.

**Sheep Breeds:** ***Purpose of Keeping Sheep;***  Meat (mutton).  Wool production.

***Exotic Sheep***

***Wool breeds***-for example merino. ***Dual purpose-***for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. ***Mutton breeds***-for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers.

***Merino***

***Origin**:*Spain

***Characteristics:***   Rams have horns which are spiral in shape.

It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour.

It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases. ***Corriedale***

***Origin:***New Zealand.

***Size:***Rams 85 - 90kg. Ewes 60-- 85 kg  This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs.  It is hornless and hardy.

***Romney Marsh***

***Origin:***England. ***Size:***Rams 100 - 115kg.  Ewes 84- 100 kg    It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips. It is average in prolificacy. It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation.

***Hampshire Down***

***Origin:***England. ***Size**:*Rams 125kg.  Ewes 80-100 kg   Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres.  Lambing percentage is 125-140.

It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific.

***Dorper***   Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep. It is mutton breed.

***Dorset Horn***

 Dual purpose breed of sheep.  Indigenous Breeds of Sheep  Their bodies are covered with hair.  Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different

tribes. ***Characteristics;***  Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa.  Fat tailed such as Maasai sheep.  Fat rumped sheep.

***Maasai Sheep***

 Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania.  Size: Ram 38kg,  Ewe 20-30kg.  Colour: Red and brown.  These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns.

**Black Head Persian Sheep**

***Origin:***South Africa ***Colour:***White with black head and neck.  It is polled with a big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail..

***Goats*** ***Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the following*** ***characteristics:***

 They feed on a wide range of vegetation.  They require very little amount of water.  They are tolerant to high temperatures.  They are fairly resistant to diseases.  They can walk long distances without losing weight. ***Exotic Breeds*** ***Boer goat***

***Origin:***South Africa ***Colour:***White  Has long ears and long hair on their bodies.

***Anglo-Nubian***

***Origin:***North East Africa ***Breeds*** ***Large White***

***Origin:***Britain _Kept for bacon and pork production.  Long, large and white in colour.  Ears straight and erect.  Has dished face and snout.  Most prolific and with good mothering ability.  Fairly hardy.

***Landrace***

***Origin:***Denmark  White and longer than large white._  Ears drooping.  Good for bacon production.  Very prolific with good mothering ability._  Requires high level of management.

***Wessex Saddle***

***Back Origin**:*England ***Colour:***Black with white forelegs and shoulders.  Straight snout and drooping ears._  Good for bacon and pork.  Good for keeping outdoors.  Excellent mothering instincts.

**Other pig breeds include**:

 Berkshire,

 Middle-white

 Duroc Jersey pig.

***Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses.***

***Advantages of Crosses***

  Early maturing. _Increase in body length. _High proportion of lean meat to fat.

Increased litter size._ ***Poultry Breeds*** ***There are three types of chicken breeds:***

 The light breeds kept for egg production.  The heavy breeds kept for meat production.  Dual purpose breeds - kept for both eggs and meat production.

***Characteristics of Light Breeds***

 Never go broody hence poor sitters.  Excellent layers (over 220 eggs per year).  Poor meat producers (hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs)  Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism.  Hen's comb is large and bent over one eye and cock's comb is large with 5 - 6

serrations.

***Examples:***

 Leghorns,  Anconas,  Silkies,  Minorcas.

***Characteristics of Heavy Breeds***

 Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers.  Can go broody.  Heavier and bigger in size.  Grow fast.

***Examples:***

 Light Sussex,  Cornish Dark  White.

***Characteristics of Dual-Purpose Breeds***

 Go broody.  Have good meat.  Disease resistant (do not require high standard of management).  Rarely exhibit cannibalism. ***Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius)***

***Origin:***Arabia and Syria  Are single humped, have light body  Good for racing and rapid transport.

***Bacterian (Camelus bacterianus)***

***Origin:***Central Asia  Has double humps, heavier and has shorter legs.  Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation.  Capable of shedding the coat during spring.

Terms used to describe livestock in different age, sex and use.

*Livestock* *Species* *Adult* *Female* *Replacement Stock* *Female* *Male* *Young* *One*

*Users)*

*Male*

Dairy - milk Beef-meat Mutton - meat Wool sheep -wool

Cattle Bull Cow Bullock Heifer Calf

Sheep Ram Ewe Ram Hogget Lamb

Goat Buck or Doe or Buck Doe Kid Dairy - milk

Billy Nanny Mutton - meat Pigs Boar Piglet

Pork - meat Bacon -cured Broilers - meat Layers - eggs Meat

Poultry Cock Chick

Rabbits Buck Doe Kindling

Camel Bull Cow Calf

Pack, trained for riding, racing milk, meat, fur

**Agricultural Economics I** **(Basic Concepts and Farm Records)**

**Introduction**

 Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society. It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources

**Example;**

 food,  clothing  shelter

 Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of time.

**These are;**  land,  capital,  labour  management

***Basic economic Principles***

***Scarcity***

 Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand.  This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to

satisfy all his need or desires

***Choice/Preference***

 Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited.  Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the

resources available.

 Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first.  This is called**scale of preference.** ***Opportunity Cost***

 Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative.   Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero.  Opportunity cost helps in decision making.

 It exists only where there are alternatives.

**Farm Records**

 Farm records are documents kept in the farm  They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time  Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it. ***Uses of Farm Records***

 Show the history of the farm  Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss.  Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm.  Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets.  Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation.  Used as a guide in planning and budgeting.  Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm.  Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships.  Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will.  Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker.

***Type of Farm Records***

**Production Records**- Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise.

**Inventory Records**- A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm.

***Consumable Goods Inventory***

*Date*

*Commodity* *Item*

*Quantity* *Date* *Issued to* *Quantity*

*balallce* *Stock* **Field Operation Records**- Show in details all field practices carried out together

with the input used for all the crop enterprises.

**Breeding Records**

 Show all the breeding activities in the farm.  From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the

infertile ones.

**Feeding Records** A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their

quantities.

**Health Records**

 Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm.

***From these records it is possible to:*** Agriculture: General

agrarian reform agricultural subsidies agriculture agronomy animal husbandry aquaculture aquaponics

        baler  binder  black earth  bog lime  bone meal catch crop  calcareous soil  chernozem  clearcutting  colter  combine  commune  compost  collective farm  cover crop  creamery  cultivation  cultivator   dairying  dip  disk plow  drainage  dry farming  ensilage      Good Agricultural Practices  Green Revolution grain  guano   harrow  harvester  hay baler  hoe  humus  hydroponics

fallow land farming fertilizer forestry incubator  irrigation  kibbutz  kolkhoz  lariat  lasso  land reform  liming  lister  loam  loess   manure  market gardening  marl  middlebuster  moldboard  mower  mulch  organic farming  pasture  peat  picker  plant breeding  planter  plough  plow  podzol  prairie soil rake  ranch  reaper  reclamation of land  root crop  rotation of crops   Rothamsted              sericulture share sharecropping separator, cream silage silo silviculture soil soiling soilless gardening straw strip cropping superphosphate **Plants & Animals**

 Agriculture and Horticulture  Animals  Biographies  Botany  Microbes, Algae, and Fungi  Plants  Zoology and Veterinary Medicine

*The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,*6th ed. Copyright  2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.