Therefore bacterial diseases such as potato scab caused by Aceptomyces scabies are common in high pH soils while fungal diseases such as club root caused by Plasmodiaphora brassicae are common in low pH soils. Influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. REVISION QUESTIONS1.a Describe the production of tomatoes under the following sub headings. I Ecological requirements 3mks ii Nursery establishment 4mks iii Planting 3mks iv Pest control 3mks v Disease control 3mks vi Marketing.4 mks2.Mention four categories of vegetables based on the part used as food. 4mks 3.a Describe the field production of Onions Aleum Cepa under the following sub topics;i Ecological requirements 3mks ii Varieties 2mks iii planting 4mks iv Field management practices 4mks v Harvesting 4mks b Name Three diseases of cabbages 3mks 4Name any 4 management practices done in carrot production. 4 mks 5.Describe the establishment of cabbage seedlings under the following sub-heading:- a Establishment of the nursery 7mks b Management of seedlings in the nursery 6mks c Transplanting of seedlings 7mks 6.Give four reasons for staking tomatoes 4mks 7.Give 4 effects of excess nitrogen in tomatoes. 4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night.


4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night. Altitude 0 2100m above sea level- Soil should be deep- Well drained- PH 5 7.5- Rainfall 760 1300 mm year p.a- Well distributed throughout the growing period 1 2mk for each correct answer x 6 3mks ii Nursery establishment and management. -The nursery should be sited on a gently sloping land. -A nursery of width 1m is prepared and soil raised to 15cm. -The bed should be prepared to a fine tilth-Planting furrows or drills are made at 10 15cm apart using a stick of pencil thickness. -Seeds are planted thinly along the furrows and covered lightly with the soil and firmed. -A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control.


-A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control. -cut wormAmerican bollworm 1mk -The adult moth lay eggs on young tomato fruits-When they hatch the larvae bore into the fruits and feed on themControl-Routine spraying of tomatoes with recommended pesticide eg. Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood.


Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood. -. Leaf vegetables- Root vegetables- Stem vegetables- Pod vegetables- Flower vegetables- Fruit vegetables3.a i Altitude 2,100m above the sea levelRainfall 1,000mm per yearfairly long period for ripeningirrigated during dry spellSoil fertile and well drained - Ph 6.0 7.0 3mks ii Varieties red creoleTropicana hybridWhite creole 2mks iii Planting Can be sown directly or started off in a nursery bed. 250kg Dsp used during plantingRows for direct planting should be 30cm apart. Seeds drilled and covered with light soil or transplanted at 8cm apart within the row. Deep planting should be avoided as it inhibits bulb expansion. 1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days.


1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded.


This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6.


Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth.


5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight.


Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight. 10Fresh market money maker, hot set, super marmande, ponde rosa, marglobe. Processing primabel, cal J, seinz, Kenya beauty. 11.Brunswick, sugar loaf, early jersey, mukuki, Copenhagen market, golden acres, Gloria etc. 12.Encourages forking. 13.-Fresh market chantenary-Canning - NantesFORM THREE AGRICULTURE NOTESCROP PRODUCTION IV FIELD PRACTICES II There are many food crops grown in Kenya. These crops require different environmental conditions and are therefore found in different ecological zones in the country. Crops such as maize, beans and rice are grown as staple food crops. Other like millet, sorghum, cassava and sweet potatoes are mostly grown for food security. Examples of food crops grown in KenyaMAIZE Zea Mays -It is the staple food in most areas in Kenya. Maize is also a livestock food and produces oil and starch when processed in industries. Ecological RequirementsAltitude-2200m above sea levelTemperature-mediumRainfall-mediumMaize is drought tolerant during the early stages of growth but must have enough rain during silking stage. Soil-maize prefers fertile alluvial or loam soils since maize cannot tolerate water logging. Soil pH should be neutral to alkaline. Maize VarietiesFew pure varieties exist because farmers tend to grow the Hybrids and Composites, which are more productive. The Kenya Flat Complex is an example of the few pure varieties. It is however low yielding. Hybrids are bred by crossing two pure lines or varieties under conditions of controlled pollination. Composites are bred by growing a number of varieties together under uncontrolled pollination i.e. there is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g.


There is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g. Kitale Hybrids-614, 622, 625, 626, 627 and 628 are grown in medium to high altitude zones. Embu Hybrids-511 513 are best for medium altitude zones. Katumani Composites- for lower altitude zonesCoast Hybrids- Pwani Hybrid 1and Pwani Hybrid 4 for Coast Province. Others Double cob DH01 DH02Selection and preparation of planting materialsKenya Seed Company contracts specific farmers to grow maize for seeds. The maize is harvested and treated using Thiram-dindane to prevent post attack. Its then sold to farmers as seeds. Farmers should buy fresh seeds every planting season to escape the problem of reduced hybrid vigor. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to allow the previous crop incorporated into the soil to rot. Disc or mould board ploughs are used to plough. Harrowing is done to obtain a fine tilth. Continuous cropping of maize should be avoided. It should be rotated with other crops such as beans, cotton, tobacco, Irish potatoes or groundnuts. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done early so that the crop can utilize the available moisture. Dry planting should be practiced in areas with short rainy seasons. Early planting increases yields and reduces attack by stalk borers. Seeds are planted shallowly in moist soils-2.5cm and deeply in dry soils-10cm. Spacing is 20-30cm x 75-90cm where one or two seeds are placed per hole. However, spacing depends on the ecological conditions and the variety to be planted. Small-scale farmers use hands to plant while tractor drawn planters are used on large scale. B Fertilizer Application. 100-150kg or DSP or DAP per hectare is applied during planting. Top dressing is done when the crop is about 45cm high where 200kg of ASN or CAN is applied per hectare. Top dressing can be done twice i.e. first when 45cm high and second one just before selling. C Weed Control. Weeds should be controlled to reduce competition for moisture and nutrients. Two to three weeding are required during the growing period of the crop. Hand weeding is the commonest herbicides can also be used e.g.


-Proper drying of the grains reduces chances of the grains rotting and minimizes the extent of insect damage. Marketing-Farmers sell their maize grains through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Local trading in green and dry maize is also common. II FINGER MILLET Eleusine coranaca Finger millet has small seeds which dry out quickly and insects cannot fit inside them. It s an important cereal crop in Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements-Rainfall-about 900mm annually. Millet can tolerate drought in the early stages of growth but after the first month it requires a good supply of moisture. -Altitude-0-2400m above sea level. -Soils-should be fertile and well drained. Varieties-Ultra lupin-5.18 OATS. Both are high yielding and resistant to lodging and blast. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Harvested grains are sun dried, threshed, winnowed and then stored for use as seeds-Certified seeds can also be bought from the Kenya seed Company. Land Preparation-Seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to obtain a fine tilth since the seeds are very tiny. -Weed control is also very difficult in millet hence thorough seedbed preparation reduces weed competition. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done as early as possible in the season. The earlier it is sown the higher the yields. -Planting is usually done broadcasting hand. -If planted by rows, the furrows should be 30cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5 cm apart within the rows. B Weed Control. -This is done manually because finger millet is very close and jembe cannot be used. -Thorough seedbed preparation reduces the labour required for weeding-The most common weeds are the Eleusine africana and Eleusine indica wild finger millet . They are difficult to distinguish from the crop in the early stages of growth. C Fertiliser application. -125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them.


-125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them. Ii Diseases-Most serious disease is the head blast caused by a fungus called Pericularia oryzae-The disease is common under hot and humid conditions e.g. in Western Kenya. -The disease cause brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and the stems just below the inflorescence. Control-Planting resistant varieties. Harvesting-Hand knives are used for cutting individual heads. Heads are then dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields-1650kg hectare can be obtained with good management practices. Storage and Marketing-Grains are dried and stored in bags. -Mainly it s grown for subsistence and only a little is sold in local markets. III BULRUSH MILLET Pennisetum typhoides It s one of the small cereal crops cultivated in lower parts of Meru, Kirinyaga and Embu districts. Also cultivated in Kerio valley and parts of Machakos. Ecological RequirementsRainfall-500-600mm p.a. Bulrush millet is drought resistant and takes a short time to mature. Altitude-1200m above sea level hence warm climate. Soils-should be well drained. VarietiesSevere 26 19, 17, 26 9, 6A, 2A and 3A. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to give the soil enough time to settle and form a firm seedbed. A fine seedbed is required since the seeds are tiny. Field Operationsa Planting-Planting is commonly done by broadcasting followed by a shallow cultivation before the onset of the rains. -Spacing should be 60cm x 15cm where rows are used. B WeedingThe field should be maintained weed free until tillering occurs. Hand weeding is commonly done. C Fertiliser Application. Sulphate of Ammonia can be applied at the rate of 200kg hectare when the crop is 30cm high.


-Use of insecticides. -Proper disposal of crop residue remains after harvesting. B DiseasesSorghum is attacked by both leaf and inflorescence diseases. Examples of leaf diseases-Leaf blight Helminthosporium turcicum. -Anthracnose Colletotricum graminicola -Sooty stripe Ramulispora sorghi General control-Growing resistant varieties. Examples of inflorescence diseasesLoose smut Sphacelotheca cruenta Head smut Sphacelotheca reiliana General controlSeed dressing. Harvesting-Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. -Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun dried. -Dried sorghum is then threshed, winnowed and stored. Yields-500-1500kg hectare and up to 3000kg under good husbandry. -Sorghum can be rattooned for one or two seasons. Marketing-Crop is marketed through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Private buyers also purchase sorghum directly from farmers. V BEANS Phaseolus vulgaris -Are used to provide with proteins. They are grown for the dry seeds or for the green pods. Beans can be intercropped with other crops like maize and cassava. -Beans are annual legumes with varying growth habits. E.g. some varieties are determinate bush type non-spreading and others are indeterminate type spreading type -Beans are about 99 self-pollinated. Ecological RequirementsSoil-Should be well drained and rich in organic manure. Beans do not tolerate waterlogged soils. -The soil should be moist. Rainfall-Should be moderate. Heavy rainfall is destructive at the flowering stage. Rain should be present during harvesting time, as this would cause rotting and sprouting of the beans. Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding.


Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding. -Varieties for green pods production. French Beans Long tomSaxaMaster pieceMonel. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Beans are established from seeds. The seeds should be dried before they are planted. Damaged and wrinkled seeds should be discarded during seed selection. Selected seeds should be dressed with appropriate chemicals to control soil borne pests. Seeds should be inoculated with the right strain of Rhizobium. Field OperationsPlanting-Beans should be planted at the onset of rains. 2-3 seeds are placed per hole at a spacing of 30cm x 15cm. DAP fertilizer should be applied at a rate of 200kg hectare along the furrows before planting. The seed rate is 50-60kg ha. B Weeding-The field should be kept weed free by shallow weeding. Weeding should be done before flowering to avoid knocking down the flowers. Weeding is done when it is dry to avoid spreading diseases. C Irrigation. -Beans for green pod production are grown during the dry months. They therefore need about 50mm of water per week. This is supplied through overhead irrigation or furrow system of irrigation. D Pest and Disease control. I Pests-They include aphids, American bollworm, bean fly, spotted borer, golden ring moth etc. ControlSpraying with insecticides such as Dieldrin, Dimethoate, Diazinon, and Formathion etc. Ii Diseases. -They include Bean rust, Anthracnose, Halo blight and angular leaf spot. Bacterial Halo blight. Caused by a bacteria called Pseudomonas phaseolicolaDisease causes brown water soaked lesions on the pods. Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds.


Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds. -Rogueing-Crop rotation-Spraying with copper oxychloride. Anthracnose. Disease is caused by a fungus called Colletotricum lindemuthianum. It causes brown lesions on pods and stems and brown spots on leaves. Control-Growing resistant varieties e.g. K74 and Wairimu. -Use of clean seeds. -Seed dressing with Captan-destroying infected crop residues. -Spraying with Benomyl, Copper fungicide or Mancozeb during the wet season. HarvestingBeans for seeds are harvested by uprooting the dry plants. Uprooted beans are gathered on tarpaulins canvas, mats or sacks to allow them to dry further before threshing. When the plants are dry enough, they are beaten with sticks to remove the seeds from the pods. The stems and the pods are removed before winnowing. Sorting should be done after winnowing to remove damaged seeds. Dry clean seeds are treated with appropriate pesticide and packed in bags. Marketing-Is done through NCPBYields-2600kg ha under good managementFor the green beans French beans , harvesting of the pods starts about 9 weeks after planting and continues for about two months. Pods should be packed immediately after picking to avoid shrivelling. Yields-4-5 tones ha under good management. RICE Oryza sativa -Rice is a cereal crop and is used as a staple food in some parts of Kenya. -It is grown at Mwea Tebere irrigation schemes in Kirinyaga district, Ahero irrigation scheme in Nyando district and Bura irrigation scheme in Tana River district and Yala swamp in Siaya district. -Mwea is the largest rice-growing project in Kenya with over 5,600 hectares. Land Preparation-Rice growing fields are levelled and bunds constructed around them for controlling water. -Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown.


-Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Fertilizer ApplicationSulphate of Ammonia should be applied at a rate of 25kg per each nursery unit measuring 18.5cm x 18.5cm before sowing. DSP fertilizer is broadcasted in the field at a rate of 125kg ha before transplanting and 125kg ha 40 days after transplanting. Weed Control. Flooding easily controls weeds. Uprooting can be done on the few weeds that persist. Herbicides can be used e.g. Butachlor and Propanil. HARVESTING OF VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL CROPSFORAGE CROPSThese are plants, which grow naturally or are planted by man and are used as livestock feed. PASTURESA pasture is the land on which the forage crops are grazed on directly. Aspects of pasturePasture classificationPasture establishmentPasture managementPasture utilization. PASTURE CLASSIFICATIONPasture can be classified in three main ways. According to the pasture standAccording to pasture establishmentAccording to the Ecological zones. I Classification on Basis of Pasture Stands. The pasture may be either pure stand or mixed stand. Pure stand pastures have either grass or legumes on them. In mixed pastures, grasses and legumes are grown together. Ii Classification based on Establishment. Under this category, pastures are classified as Natural and Artificial. Natural pastures. These are grasses and legumes grow naturally and extensively for both domestic and wild animals. Over 80 of Kenyan pastures are natural. They are mainly mixed stand pastures. Artificial pastures. These are pasture grasses and legumes planted by man purposely for livestock feeds. Mostly they are of high quality. Iii Classification on the basis of Altitude zones Under this category, pastures can be classified as:High altitude pastures grasses legumes Medium altitude pasturesLow altitude pastures. High Altitude PasturesThey are found at high altitudes of 25500m above sea level and above.


Green leaf desmodiumDesmodium intortum. SiratroMacroptilium atropurpureumStyloStylosanthes guiyanensisLow Altitude PasturesThese are pastures found in marginal areas of Kenya below 1500m above sea level which receive little rainfall. In such areas, indigenous livestock such as camels, donkeys, cattle, sheep and goats are kept. Examples of grass pastures in this zone include:Common Name Botanical NameAfrican fox tail Cenchrus ciliarisMaasai love grass Eragrostis superbaLikoni guinea Panicum maximumMakarikari grass Panicum coloratumRed oat grass Themeda triandraHyparrhenia thatch grass Hyparrhenia rufaGiant star grass Cynodon plectostadynsBothriochloa Bothriochloa insulpaPara grass Branchiaria muticaAndropogon Andropogon sppCymbogon Digitaria decumbeusExamples of legumes found in this zone. Common Name Botanical NameStylo Stylosanthes searbraGlycine Glycine wightiiCentroCenrosema pubescensOTHER PASTURE CROPSWeed GrassesCommon NameBotanical NameCouch grassDigitaria scalarumNut sedgesCyperus speciesSporobolusSporobolus spp. Fodder shrubsLeucaeniaLeucaenia leucocephalaAtriplexAtriplex spp. PASTURE ESTABLISHMENTPasture can be established by use of seeds, rhizomes or splits. I Selection of Planting Materials. Planting materials selected should be;Of high nutritive value. Adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions. Fast growing in order to give a good ground cover which will help to control soil erosion. Able to give high herbage yield per unit area. Ii Land Preparation. Land should be ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth. Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company.


Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company. And are sold in two lotsHigh quality seeds with 13-25 pure germinating seeds. PGS Standard quality seeds with 12.5 PGS. Legume seed rate depends on the seed size i.e. 2-3kg ha for medium sized seeds e.g. Desmodium and Lucerne and 2kg ha for tiny seeds e.g. clovers. Iv Fertilizer Application. SSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 200kg ha for grasses and legume mixturesFor pure grasses, NPK 20:20:0 at a rate of 200kg ha is recommended. V Legume Seed InoculationThis is the addition of effective Rhizobia to leguminous seeds before planting to promote nitrogen fixation. This is done in areas where soil is deficient of nitrogen. Some Rhizobia strains are naturally found in the soil at pH 5.5-8.0 with adequate calcium, phosphorous, potassium and rainfall. Examples of Rhizobium strains. CropRhizobium SpeciesLucerneRhizobium meliotiCloversRhizobium trifoliBeansRhizobium phaseoli. Vi Sowing. Since most seeds are small, they should be covered lightly after broadcasting. The following are the methods of sowing. Direct sowingUnder sowingOver sowing. Direct Sowing. This is the establishment the pasture in a clean seed bed where no other crops are growingUnder Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture under a cover crop usually maize. Maize is planted and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of the rains. Pasture seeds are broadcasted with the recommended amount of fertilizer. No further weeding is done Maize is harvested early to expose the young seedlings to sunlight. Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha.


Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha. The mixed stand pasture should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. I WeedingWeeds should be controlled as they cause the following;Reduce the lifespan of pastures. Compete with forage crops for nutrients, moisture and sunlight. Reduce the quality of the Herbage yield. Some may be poisonous to the animals e.g. Datura. They interfere with forage fertilization. Weed Control measures on pasturesTimely land preparation which ensures clean seedbed with less subsequent weed problem. Slashing. Application of selective herbicides e.g. 2,4-D. Uprooting the weeds if scattered. Ii Top Dressing. This is the application of plant nutrients after the pasture has established for the following reasons. To add replenish soil nutrients and ensure proper nutrient balance. To increase the herbage yieldTo improve the nutrient value of the crop. To enable the soil micro organisms to breakdown organic residues into available nutrientsTo correct or amend both physical and chemical properties such as soil structure and moisture holding capacity. N B The choice of topdressing fertilizer depends on the crop and soil nutrient status. -Inorganic fertilizers are better for top dressing materials than organic manures because they release their nutrients faster. -Pure grass pastures require large amounts of nitrogen and potassium. -Grass-legume pastures require phosphorous, potassium, calcium and sulphur for nitrogen fixation. Iii Topping. -This is the removal of the stemmy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture grazing. -The removal of such material stimulates fresh growth. -Topping should be done at the onset of the rains and should be followed by topdressing. -Topping is done through slashing, mowing or burning. Iv Reseeding. This is also called gapping and it s done when pasture is partially denuded or bare. Refilling the gaps does it. V Controlled Grazing. Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests.


Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests. The most common pest is the mole which makes underground tunnels destroying roots of pasture crops hence killing them. These are controlled byUse of cats Biological method Rodenticides Chemical control Traps Physical mechanical method D PASTURE UTILIZATIONFORAGE QUALITYThe quality of forage declines with age. I.e. there is gradual decline in the amount of soluble sugars, starch, proteins, organic matter and digestibility with age. Crude fibre is not digestible in the normal enzymatic process but only through the activities of microbes in the rumen. Frequency of Defoliation. Defoliation refers to grazing in pastures and cutting for feed in fodder crops. Frequency of defoliation therefore refers to how often the forage stand is grazed or cut for feed. It s important to determine the proper defoliation frequency for a particular forage. Effects of Very Early Defoliation Less than Four weeks. The forage has very high moisture content 90 The forage has very high protein content on weight basis. Has very low Dry Matter content hence very low DM yield. It has high DM digestibility but low in digestible nutrients. Has low crude protein yield. Frequent early defoliation leads to a gradual weakening of the stand followed by empty patches, weed invasion and an eventual reduction in the productive life of the stand. Effects of Late Defoliation. More than Ten weekThe forage has high DM content hence high DM yieldHas high cellulose content hence it s woody and fibrous. It has high lignin, cutin, tannin and silica content which are all insoluble. It has low crude protein content. It has low leaf: ratioIt has low dry matter digestibilityNB during grazing, it s necessary to do paddocking for the following reasons. To control grazing and ensure sufficient re-growth before grazing is resumed. To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable.


To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable. Carrying Capacity and Stocking RateCarrying capacity is the ability of the forage stand to maintain a particular number of livestock units per unit area. This depends on the herbage yield and the animals daily requirements. Stocking rate refers to the number of the animals maintained per unit area of land. In order to determine the carrying capacity and the proper stocking rate for a particular forage stand, dry matter DM yields per unit area per unit time and live weight of the animals to be fed are considered. ExampleA dairy animal consumes 2.5kg dry matter for every 100kg body weight per day. The amount consumed by a jersey weighing 400kg live weight per year would be2.5X 400 100 X 365 1000 3.65 tons DMA Guernsey weighing 450kg would consume2.5 X 450 100 X 365 1000 4.1 tons DMLikewise, an Ayrshire weighing 500kg live weight would consume,X 500 100 X 365 1000 4.65 tons DM. NB when the stocking rate is above the carrying capacity of the pasture, it is referred to as overstocking. And when it is below the carrying capacity it is referred to as under stocking. Some Recommended Stocking Rates on Different PasturesEffects of overstockingInsufficient regrowth period for the forage hence effects similar to those of very early defoliation. Overgrazing and loss of soil cover leading to soil erosion. Invasion of undesirable plant species especially weeds and shrubs. Intensity of defoliationThis refers to proportion of the herbage removed through grazing and that of the residual forage. Pastures should be grazed until about 70 of the aerial herbage is eaten up i.e. about 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate.


About 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. Advantages of Rotational GrazingLivestock make maximum use of pastureReduces the buildup of parasites and diseases. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all fields paddocks. Pasture area is given time to re-grow before its grazed on again. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservationIts possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pastures are not in useIt facilitates reseeding and weeding. The methods of rotational grazing include paddocking, strip grazing and tethering. A PaddockingA paddock is a fenced portion of a pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing. Paddocking means grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving to another. The size of the paddocks depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture. There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. However, it is very expensive to construct. B Strip Grazing-This is done by allowing livestock to graze on restricted portion of the pasture at a time then moving them to the next. -It s done on very high quality pastures. Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture. -Where animals are not many herding may be done to restrict them to stay within the strips. Temporary fences may also be used instead of the electric fences. -However, the system is quite expensive. C Tethering. -This involves tying the animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area. -The rope may also have a metal ring that slides along a strong wire supported by strong poles. 2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas.


2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. 3 Zero Grazing Stall Feeding -This is the practice of rearing animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as the stall. Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls. -They are also provided with plenty of clean water and mineral licks. AdvantagesThere is quick accumulation of manureAnimals make use of the feeds without wastageAnimals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy. It s easy to control diseases and parasitesIt requires little landIt allows higher stocking rateDisadvantagesHigh initial capital is requiredHigh management skills are neededNeed a lot of labourDiseases can easily spread. FODDER CROPS-These are forage crops which are grown, allowed to mature the cut and given to livestock as feed. Animals are not allowed to graze on them directly because they easily degenerate. -The fodder can also be conserved and sold if produced on large scale. -They include; Napier grass, Guatemala grass, Sorghum, Columbus grass, Sudan grass, Edible Cana, Kales, Kenya white clover, Marigolds Sugar beets , Lucerne, Desmodium and Agro-forestry trees and shrubs. 1.NAPIER GRASS. Penisetum purpereum There are two main varieties of Napier grass i.e. The French Cameroon and Bana Grass. French CameroonIt has thin stems and less hairyBana GrassHas thick stems and its hairy. A Ecological requirements. I Soils-Should be well drained though it does well in a variety of soils. Ii Rainfall- 750 mm p.a which should be well distributed. Iii Altitude. -Preferably 2100m above sea level. Iv Temperature-Optimum 24oC -29oCb Establishment and managementi Land preparation. Should be done early during the dry season. Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied.


Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied. Ii Planting. Planting materials should be selected from desirable varieties of napier grass. Materials should come from healthy and mature plants. Stem cuttings or splits are used. Stem cuttings should have 2-3 nodes. -Stem cuttings should be placed in the furrows in a slopping manner. -NPK 20:20:0: should be applied at rate of 200kg ha. Iii Fertilizer applicationTopdressing with nitrogen and potassium fertilizers should be done about 6-8 weeks after planting. Iv Weed Control. Weeds should be removed as early as possible during the early stages of development. Methods of control include,Use of herbicides e.g. 2,4-DCultivationSlashingUp-rooting. V Defoliation. French Cameroon matures in about 3 months. There after it should be cut every 6-8 weeks. The grass should be about 1.2-1.5m high at the time of harvesting. Bana Grass grows up to 12 months without flowering. Defoliation should be done when there is high yield digestible matter. Vi Utilisation. Stems should be cut 2.5-5.0 cm abo0ve4 the soil surface to facilitate fast re-growth. A panga is used to cut. Excess napier is conserved as silage for future use. Cut forage is chopped into smaller pieces by use off a chaff cutter or a sharp panga. Vii production per unit area. Under good management, Napier grass gives a yield of up to 35 tons of dry matter DM per hectare per year. This contains 8-15 crude protein and this is enough to support 5 milking cows per year. 2. GUATEMALA GRASS Trypsacum laxum . It s a tall hardy, broad leafed grass with a vigorous growth. A Ecological Requirements. I Altitude-Up to 2000m above sea level. Ii Soils-Does well in a variety of soils. Iii Rainfall. -900mm p.a. That should be well distributed.


NPK 20:20:20 is applied at the rate of 200kg ha during planting for proper root growth and development. Iii Fertilizer Application. CAN or ASN is top dressed at the rate of 125kg haiv Weed ControlField should be kept weed free. This is done by hand cultivation, slashing or use of selective herbicides. V Utilisation. Grass lasts in the field for 18 months. During this period, the grass is harvested several times. It regenerates after every cutting. Columbus grass should be left to dry for two days before feeding to the animals to avoid Prussic and Hydro cyanic acid poisoning. This poison is found in wet grass. Production Per Unit Area-20 tons per hectare of dry matter DM per year under in good management. 4.KALES Brassica spp They supply succulent nutritious stems and leaves for feeding livestock. A Ecological RequirementSoils should be loam or clayRainfall 1000mmAltitude prefer high altitude. B Establishment and Management. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land should be prepared to a fine tilth. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1mx0.3m. Transplanting is done at the onset of rains. DSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 150kg ha when transplanting. The field should be kept weed free. C UtilisationLeafy stems are cut, chopped and given to livestock. Kales should be fed to milking cows together with dry roughages since they are succulent. About 15kg of kale is needed by animal per day. It should be given to the milking cows after milking to avoid tainting the milk. D Production per unit areaKales produce 35-50 tons fresh weight per hectares per year. Kales are quite rich in protein. 5. EDIBLE CANNA. Cana edulis It s a fodder crop with broad shinny leaves which are used to feed livestock. A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m.


A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m. Farmyard manure is mixed thoroughly in holes before planting. Rhizomes are planted at the onset of rains. Early weeding is done. Crop is top dressed 4 weeks after planting with nitrogenous fertilizer at the rate of 100kgN ha. C UtilisationEdible canna is cut and fed to livestock when fresh. Each lactating cow should be given 4-7kg of canna per day during the dry seasons. D Production per unit areaEdible canna produces about 100tons DM ha year6. SUGAR BEETS MARIGOLDS Beta vulgaris These are root fodder crops that are quite nutritious. A Ecological Requirements. Rainfall-more than 1000mmAltitude- should be highSoils should be well drained. B Establishment and ManagementThey are established through seeds. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land is cleared, ploughed, and then harrowed to a medium tilth. Holes are dug 1.0m x 0.3m. DSP is applied at the rate of 150kg ha at planting time. The field should be kept weed free through cultivation, uprooting, slashing or by use of appropriate herbicides. Topdressing is done using CAN or ASN at the rate of 100kg ha. C Utilization. They are used for feeding livestock during the dry season at the rate of 22-27kg cow day. They are chopped into small pieces. They should be wilted first because their fresh leaves have oxalic acid which can be poisonous. D Production per unit area. Marigold produces between 30-40tons ha of herbage under good management. 7. KENYA WHITE CLOVER Trifolium semipilosum. It has slender spreading stems which produce roots and underground rhizomes.


Leaves and branches are cut and given to the animals directly. Cutting should not be done until the shrubs are 3-4m in height. Shrubs are cut back to a height of 0.5m above the ground once per year and at the beginning of the rains. Green seeds pods produced are removed and fed to animals, as they are very rich in proteins. Other importances of shrubsImprove the soil through nitrogen fixation e.g. leucaenia and calliandraTheir roots hold soil particles together thus controlling soil erosion. Their fallen leaves decay adding organic matter into the soil. Some provide with wood fuel especially the tree speciesd Production. Under good management, the shrubs give a considerable herbage yield for the livestock especially the browsers. FORAGE CONSERVATIONIn Kenya, there is always excess forage during the long and short rains April to June and November to December and a shortage during the dry months of January to March and September to October. There is therefore the need to conserve the excess forage as its often wasted or not fully utilized. Reasons for conserving forage. To distribute available forage for animals throughout the year. To provide feed for the dry season. To ensure better and full utilization of available land. On a large scale, conserved forage can be sold as hay etcMethods of conservationHay-this is dried forage mainly pasture grasses and legumes e.g. desmodium and Rhodes grass. Silage-This is an-aerobically fermented forage mainly applicable to succulent fodders such as Napier grass, maize and sorghums. Standing forage- Growing forage can be set aside for dry season feed and applicable for both pasture and fodders. A HAY MAKINGHay refers to forage which has been dehydrated to about 15-20 moisture content. The forage should be cut when about 50 of plants have flowered. Steps followed in hay makingi The crop is cut when about 50 of the plants have floweredii The crop is spread out evenly on the ground to dry for 2-3 days. It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine.


It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine. NB Rapid drying is recommended to ensure high quality hay. Slow drying results in oxidation of soluble carbohydrates hence poor quality. Prolonged exposure to sun results in the breakdown of chlorophyll and carotene. Factors determining the quality of hay. Forage species used. Stage of harvesting hence stem: leaf ratio. Length of the drying periodWeather condition during the drying processCondition of the storage structureB SILAGE MAKINGSilage is a fodder crop harvested while green and kept succulent by partial fermentation in a silo. A silo is the structure used for fermenting. The process of silage making is called ensiling. The objective of ensiling green forage is to preserve the material with minimum loss of nutrients. Advantages of silage makingMore nutrients are preservedIt has few field lossesIt is less dependent o n weather conditionsIt can be preserved for prolonged periods with minimum loss of nutrients. Once ensiled, there are no storage problems. It can be fed directly without liquid additives. Disadvantages of silage makingRequires skills and much attention. Labour intensive hence expensiveBulky to store and handleSusceptible to ensiling lossesMust be fed soon after removalMost farmers cannot spare sufficient forage for ensiling. Types of Silosi Trench SiloIt is the most popular and applicable to small-scale farmers. It s a rectangular trench on a slightly slopping ground to ensure proper drainage. Ii Clamp siloIt s constructed above the ground level in form of a trough with slanted sides for ease of compaction. Each side of the silo is made of a pair of timber walls. There is a gap between each pair of timber walls. Soil is put and compacted in these gaps. Between the two pairs of walls is the part where ensiling is done. A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling.


A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling. Steps followed in silage makingSilo is prepared before harvesting crop. The shape and size of the silo depends on the amount of forage to be ensiled. The crop is cut at the appropriate stage and wilted for 6-12 hours to about 65-75 moisture content. The crop is chopped up and put into the silo compacting it every 10-12cm layer. Silo should be filled as rapidly as possible. The ensiled material should have a Ridge or humped in appearance when ensiling is completed. Temp in the silo should be checked regularly during the ensiling period. If the temperature is higher than 32.2oc water should be added and compaction reduced. If temperature is below 32.20c, compaction should be increased and dry materials or molasses added. The ensiled material is covered with a polythene sheet or a layer of dry grass to protect it from water and air. The silo is covered with a thick layer of soil maintaining the ridge appearance. A trench is then dug all round the silo to drain off rainwater. Principles of ConservationRapid ensiling and compaction reduces aerobic respiration in the ensiled material. When the silo is finally sealed, the oxygen is cut off and aerobic respiration gradually gives way to fermentation. This allows lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus spp to increase very rapidly within the first three to four days after silo sealing. Lactic acid bacteria act on the readily available carbohydrates to produce lactic acid and some amounts of Acetic, Propionic, Formic and Succinic acids. Lactic acid reduces the pH of forage from 4 to 2 or below. Low pH inhibits further bacterial growth and preserves the silage. The ensiling process is complete in 2-3 weeks depending on the quantity of ensiled material and may be preserved for many years provided the silo is water and airtight. USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g.


USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g. Napier grass and other grasses have low amounts of carbohydrates and often give poor quality silage. They therefore need additives of,Crushed grains at a rate of 100kg per ton of silage orMolasses at 20-40kg per ton of silage evenly distributed at the time of ensiling. Silage QualityThe relative proportions of organic acids in the silage is an indication of its quality. In good quality silage, the order of predominance should be; lactic, acetic, succinic and formic acids. Poor silage compaction leads to low temperature which results in excessive production of Butyric acid instead of Lactic acid. Good quality silage should be,Be from high quality forage cut at the proper stage of growth. Have 5-9 lactic acidHave a pH of 4.2 or below. Be free from moulds and bad odour such as ammonia and butyric acid. Be greenish to yellow in colour not brown or blackHave a fine texture with no sliminess. Silage lossesSurface spillage- up to 20 loss due to exposure and contact with soil. Seepage losses- extent of this loss increases with increase in herbage moisture. It can be up to 50 in very young and succulent forage. Gaseous losses- extended respiration results in loss of carbohydrates in form of carbon dioxide. The silo should be airtight. How to Calculate Silage Requirement in Dry MatterA cow requires 3kg of DM for every 100kg of body weight per day. Therefore a cow weighing 400kg will require 400 100 x 3 12kg of DM per day Since Silage has 40 DMThen for the cow to have 12kg DM it needs 12 40 x 100 30kg of silage per day. However, a cow should only get 50 of its daily Dm requirements from the silage. It should get the other 50 from pastures and other feeds. It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g.


It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g. from January to March there are 90 days. Therefore, silage required for one cow for 90 days will be;90days x 15kg day 1350kg of silage 1.35 tons One hectare of Napier produces about 80 tonnes of forage harvested in five cuttings in the year. One cutting therefore yields80tons 5 cuttings 16 tonnes of forage. If 1ha produces 16 tonnes of forageThen x hectares produces 1.35 tonnes of silage1 ha-------------16 tonnesX ha-------------1.35 tonnesX 13.5 16 0.084 hectares 840m2 , approximately a space of 30mx30mSilage density is about 500kg m3. If a farmer has two cows, the amount needed is2cows x 15kg x 90 days 2700kgThe volume of the silo to accommodate 2700kg would be approximately 6m3The silo would therefore have the following dimensions. 2.7m length x 1.5m width x 1.5m depth or3m x 2m x 1m or4m x 1.5m x 1mC STANDING FORAGEThis is the cheapest, easiest and most commonly used method of fodder conservation. This implies deferring cutting of the forage for the dry season feed. It however produces herbage of low quality but it can be supplemented by addition of additives. The fodder or the legume should be cut, weeded, and top dressed in early November after which cutting is deferred until it is required. LIVESTOCK HEALTH IIIIntroduction. A disease is any alteration in the state of the animal or its organs which interferes with the proper performance of its functions. The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit.


The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit. AppetiteLevel of productionMicro-organisms such a protozoa, bacteria, virus and fungi, cause diseases. Poor nutrition, physical injuries, chemical poisoning and parasite infestation cause other diseases. Organisms such as ticks and tsetse fly only help in spreading disease-causing organisms and are referred to as vectors. Disease predisposing factorsThese are conditions inside or outside the animals body, which lead to the animal contracting a disease or injury. They include:Age of the animalSex of the animalColour of the animalChange of climate environmentHeredityEnvironmentOvercrowdingPhysiological conditions such as fatigue, weakness, pregnancy etc. Animals encountering sick animals. Terms used in livestock diseasesIncubation periodIt s the duration between the time of infection and the time the first symptoms show up. 2 MortalityThis is the likelihood of death occurring in case of a disease outbreak. It s expressed as a of the affected animals and those which die. 3 TreatmentIt s the application of physical and chemical means to an animal to help it recover from a disease or preventing it from getting a disease. There are two types of treatment. Preventive treatmentCurative treatmentPreventive treatmentThis involves administration of drugs to prevent the occurrence of a disease. This can be done through vaccination and administration of prophylactic drugs such as coccidiostats to prevent coccidiosis. The creation of immunity and resistance to diseases is under the preventive treatment. Curative treatmentA curative treatment tries to restore a sick animal to good health. This can be done through:Good feedingProvision of clean environmentNeutralizing the ill effects of the diseaseInducing repair to damaged tissuesRelieving discomfort or injury to the animalPreventing further spread of the disease. 4 ImmunityThis is the ability of an animal to resist the infection of a disease. There are two types of immunity natural and artificial immunities. A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two.


A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two. Actively acquired immunity. This immunity is acquired when an animal suffers from a disease. Such an animal is able to defend itself from the same disease in future. Passively acquired immunity- this is passed through the mothers blood to the foetus or through milk colostrums. B Artificial immunityIt can also be divided into active and passiveCLASSIFICATION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASESLivestock diseases are classified into four major groups. Protozoan diseasesBacterial diseasesViral diseasesNutritional diseases1. PROTOZOAN DISEASESDiseases in this category include:East coast fever ECF AnaplasmosisCoccidiosisTrypanosomiasis Nagana i East Coast FeverAnimals attacked- mainly cattleCausal organism-Theirelia parva- a protozoan transmitted by the brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus . The disease is also called Theireliosis its incubation period is 15 days. SymptomsSwollen lymph nodesHigh temp-feverExcess salivationLachrimation-a lot of tear productionDifficulties in breathing due to fluid accumulation in the lungs. CoughingSight impairmentHaemorrhages in the vulva and the mouth. Control and TreatmentTicks should be controlled through dipping, spraying or hand dressing regularly. Farm should be fenced to keep out strange animals and also to confine animals within. Treatment using appropriate drugs. Ii Anasplasmosis Gall sickness Animals attacked cattle, sheep, goats,Causal organism-Anaplasma marginale, a protozoan transmitted by the blue tick Boophilus decolaratus It can also be transmitted through contaminated surgical equipments, bleeding and hypodermic needles. The incubation period is 3-4 weeksSymptomsFeverConstipation-hard dungPaleness in the gums, eyes and lips. An indication of anaemia. Milk flow into the udder ceases. Control and TreatmentTick controlControl of biting insects e.g. mosquitoesInjection using antibioticsIron injection.


Separate udder clothes should be used for each animal. Sharp objects should be removed from grazing and milking areas to prevent teat injuries. Open wounds on the teats should be treated immediately. Ii Fowl typhoidAnimals affected- poultryCausal organism- Bacterium called Salmonella gallinarumSymptomsBirds are depressedRespiratory distress and birds are dullDrooping wingsCombs and wattles become pale and shrunken due to anaemia. Greenish yellow diarrhoeaSudden deathControl and TreatmentAll infected birds should be killed and properly disposedPoultry house should be clean, dry and well ventilated. Regular vaccinationEggs for hatching and chicks should be obtained from reliable sources. Sulphur drugs mixed with water or mash are used for treatment. NB Furazolidone at the rate of 0.04 in mash for ten days treats the disease effectively. Iii Foot rot Foul - in- the - Foot Animals affected- all cloven animals e.g. cattle, goats, sheep most Serious . Causal organism- caused by the following bacteria-Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosusPredisposing factorsFilthy surroundings e.g. wet and muddy areas. Cracking of the hooves due to overgrowth. SymptomsAnimals foot become swollenPus and rotten smell come out of the hoofKneeling when grazing if front feet are affectedAnimals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affectedEmaciation due to lack of feeding. Control and treatmentProvide clean environment i.e. avoid dampness and muddy conditionsPractice regular foot examination and hoof trimmingPractice a regular walk through a copper sulphate Blue vitriol footbath at 5-10 solution or Formalin at 2-5 solution. Wounds on the feet should be treated with antisepticsHealthy sheep should be moved to dry clean areas. Separate healthy animals from sick ones. Iv Contagious abortionIts also called Brucellosis or Bang s disease . NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis.


NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis. Goats and sheep- Brucella malitensisMilk from an infected animal should not be drunk. SymptomsAbortion or a pre-mature birth of the youngDuring later stages of pregnancy if abortion occurs, placenta is retained. The cow may become barren while bulls have low libido and have inflamed testes. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after abortion. ControlCulling infected animalsVaccination against the diseaseThe attendant should avoid contaminating his hands with the aborted foetusCleanliness to be observedA blood test should be carried out for all the breeding animals in order to detect the infected ones. Use of artificial insemination. NB There is no effective treatment. V ScoursAnimals affected- young one of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. Causal organism-A bacterium called Escherichia coli. Predisposing causesUnhygienic conditions in the house of the young onesOverfeeding the calf with milk or feeding it with very cold milkLack of colostrumsFeeding young ones at irregular intervalsAbsence of green fodder in the mothers diet which causes lack of vit ASymptomsWhite or yellowish diarrhoea in calvesFaeces have a pungent smellHigh tempAnimal becomes restlessLoss of appetiteSunken eyesUndigested milk and mucus with blood spots in faecesSudden death if no treatmentvi Black quarterThis is an acute disease, which is contagious. Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole.


Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole. Vaccination using black quarter vaccineThe carcass should be buried deep or burnt completely. Vii AnthraxThis is an acute infectious and notifiable disease. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, man, and wild animals. Causal organismBacteria called Bacillus anthracis. Animals get anthrax throughGrazing in infected pastures as the bacteria is found in the soil. Bites by insectsOpen woundsBone meal from infected animals. The bacterium is capable of forming spores outside the animal body. SymptomsExtensive bloating of the stomach after death. FeverBlood stains in the faeces and milkIn pigs the throat swells and this may cause death due to suffocationCarcasses of an anthrax attack lack rigor mortis i.e. the carcass is not stiff as in other animals. In the dead animal, a tar-like watery blood comes off the orifices e.g. nose, anus and mouth. Blood does not clot quickly. ControlTreatment of wounds. Giving large doses of anti-anthrax serum for curative treatmentThe carcass must not be openedVaccination using Blanthax in areas where the disease is prevalentImposing quarantine in case of disease outbreak. Dead animal must be disposed off properly by burning or deep burying. Viii PneumoniaThis is an infectious lung fever. Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease.


Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease. Predisposing causesPoor ventilationLack of enough oxygenOvercrowdingAge- young animals are more prone to the diseaseEffects of diarrhoea and other illnessesDampness and chilliness. SymptomsThe animal becomes dull and reluctant to moveLoss of appetiteThere is a rough hair coatEmaciationAnimal breathes rapidlyAbnormal lung sounds i.e. bubblingIf the chest is pressed the animal starts coughingFluctuating temperaturesNasal mucous discharge. Control and treatmentYoung animals should be kept in warm pens. Use of antibioticsIsolating the infected animalsProper sanitation3. VIRAL DISEASESi RinderpestThis is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It s notifiable. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and wild animals with cloven hoofs. Causal organism-VirusIncubation period- 3-8 daysSymptomsHigh temperatureStaring coatDischarges in the mouth and noseDiarrhoea and dysenteryMucous membranes of the mouth and nose become red and they develop ulcers. EmaciationGrinding of the teethDeath in 2-10 days after incubation. ControlVaccination annuallyCulling the infected animalsNotify the authorities in case of an outbreakQuarantine in case of the diseaseSeparate sick animals from healthy ones. Ii Foot and Mouth DiseaseIt is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It is notifiable. Animals affected- cattle sheep, goats, some wild animals. Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed.


Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed. This makes eating difficultLameness due to lesions between the skin and hoofThere is profuse salivationVesicles may appear on teats and uddersThe animal becomes weak and thin very fastThere is drop in milk productionControlVaccination every six monthsQuarantine in case of outbreakCullingUse of disinfectants on wounds. Iii Newcastle DiseaseIt s a notifiable disease, very contagious and highly infectious disease. Animals affected- poultry especially three months to one year. Causal organismVirusSymptomsBirds have difficulty in breathingBeaks remain wide open and the necks are strainedThe bird is dullThe bird stands with eyes closed all the timeLoss of appetiteNasal discharges, which force the birds to shake heads to clear. Birds stagger in motionWatery yellow diarrhoeaThe birds have their beaks and wings downControlQuarantineCullingCleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stockVaccination during the first six weeks and two to three months lateriv Fowl poxAnimals affected- all poultryCausal organismVirusPredisposing factorsPresence of woundsPresence of mosquitoes, ticks, lice and other biting insects that spread the disease. SymptomsLesions on the combs and wattlesLesions on legs, vent, feet and under the wings. Lose of appetite hence emaciation and deathDifficulty in breathing and swallowing. A watery discharge from the eyes in the early stages of the diseaseThe bird become dullControlRemove all infected birds and kill themVaccinate remaining healthy birds. 4. NUTRITIONAL DISEASESi Milk FeverThis is a non infectious disease. Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood.


Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood. SymptomsDullnessMuscular twitching causing the animal to trembleStaggering as the animal movesAnimal falls down and becomes unconsciousThe animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffensBody functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stop. Sudden death if the animal is not treated immediatelyStomach contents are drawn into the mouthComplete loss of appetiteControli TreatmentIntravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium borogluconate 60gms. Dissolved in 500cc of water that is boiled and cooledii Nursing careThe sick animal should be kept in a comfortable position. Fresh water should be given. Mechanical removal of urine speeds up recovery. PreventionPartial milking of cows with past cases of milk fever is done for the first ten daysProviding sufficient amounts of calcium and phosphorous in the dietHigh doses of vit D and parathyroid extractionsNB the animal suffering from milk fever should never be given medicine through the mouth because,It will not be able to swallow the medicineThe medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever speeding up death. Ii BloatAnimals affected- mainly cattle and sheep. Goats may also be affectedCauses-Accumulation of gases as a result of food fermentation in the rumen. This is caused by:Obstruction of the oesophagus due to bulky food particles such as potatoes, carrots etcAbnormal pressure exerted on the oesophagus by a swelling in the wall of the chestIndigestion caused by accumulation of gases due to paralysis of the rumen and the valve at its entrance. This may be due to the animal eating poisonous herbs or due to sudden change of feeds especially soft green forage, which is taken in large quantities. E.g. Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season.


Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season. TreatmentThis involves the release of accumulated gases through. Manual means. -. Exercising the animal and rubbing its abdomen with both handsSurgical means- this is though piercing the abdominal wall directly over the blown up part of the rumen using trocar and cannula. A stomach pump can also be used to eject the excess gases through the oesophagus. Chemical this can be done through,Drenching of the animal using suitable oils such as turpentine oil mixed with vegetable oilAdministering Epsom salt to clear the rumen contents. Drenching does this. Administration of methyl silicone as an injection directly into the rumen. This prevents the frothy type of bloat. Parturition in Goats kidding Gestation period is 150 days or 143-153 days. Nannies carrying twins kid a few days earlier. Put nannies in a dry place under a shade or shelter to prevent kids from wet, cold and exposure to intensive heat that can cause death of kids.. Keep nanny and another female to avoid nervousness at kidding time. Do not disturb the animal. Seek for professional help if mulpresentation occurs or kidding delays for 3 hours. If placenta is retained, move the goat out with the others for physical exercise. This activates expulsion. Kidding SignsUnder firms and teats enlarge. The muscles at either side of the tail slacken or relax. Restlessness; pawing the ground, rise up, lie down frequently. Separate itself from the rest of the flock. A clear discharge from the vulva. Parturition in Pigs farrowing Gestation period is 4 months or 113-117 days. Clear and disinfect the farrowing pen. Introduce dry warm beddings with a farrowing crate 7-10 days prior to farrowing. Drench the pig to control internal parasites. Clean the skin with soap and water to remove external parasites, remove oil exudates from their skin which reduce effectiveness of acaricides and to remove mud and dirt. Bring the sow to the farrowing pen 3 days to the expected date.


More active in search of food and water and hive protection. Fairly resistant to diseases e.g. Acarive and American foul brood disease.. Vicious if manhandled. 2. European BeeCharacteristicsMore gentle and larger than African bee. Less active and vicious. Susceptible to bee diseases. The Bee ColonyA bee is a social insect that lives in a colonyThere are three types of bees in a colony. I.e. the queen, Drone and worker bee. The QueenOne queen in a colonyFunctions:Lay fertile eggs. Keeping the colony together by production of a pheromone queen substance for identification. The DroneAbout 300 in number in a colony. Functions:Fertilize the queen. Control temperature or cool the hive. I.e. by flapping their wide wings at a very high speed. N.B The drones are killed by worker bees after fertilizing the queen. C The worker bees-About 60,000 in number in a colony. Smallest and normally female bees. Functions;Feed queen, drones, and brood 9 young bees . Protect hive from intruders. Collect nectar, pollen, tree resins, gums and water. Build combs and seal the cracks and crevices in the hive. Make honey and bee wax. Life cycle of a beeFertilized queen move from one cell to another laying an egg in each. Eggs hatch after three days into larvae due to the warmth and temperature generated by the worker bees. Larvae are fed by the nurse bees on special honey. Each larva spins a cocoon and after 2 days moults into a pupa. Pupa become young bees after 10 days and emerges from the cocoon. Eggs, larvae and pupa form the brood. Siting the ApiaryApiary: Is a place where bees are kept. Factors considered on siting an Apiary:Availability of water: where water is not within 3 km radius, sugar solution or syrup is placed close to the hives. Availability of flowers: To provide nectar and pollen. A sheltered place: e.g. a forest to protect bees from sun and wind. Quiet place: Free from noise and other disturbances. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e.


Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Types of bee hivesLog Hive; Made of log. Log is split into 2-the larger part is made into a trough- shaped structure. The smaller part floor board is removed after suspension during harvesting without damaging the combs and brood. DiagramBox hive: sown timber cut to a length of 1m. Diagram. The Langstroth hive; Like a box hive but separated into chambers for the brood and the honey. To separate brood and honey chambers, a queen excluder is placed between the two chambers. The top board acts as the roof and the bottom board as the floor. Kenya top Bar Hive KTBH ; moveable frame hive. Bees attach their combs on the top bars which can be removed for examination. Advantages of KTBHTop bar can be removed for inspection of combs and replaced. Honey combs can be removed without damaging the brood. Honey is of high quality since it is harvested without the brood. More wax is harvested as honey combs are not returned to the hive. The hive is easy to construct and repair. Hive is cheap to build and no expensive equipment is required to extract honey. A queen excluder is used in the centre of the hive to separate honey from the brood so as to further increase the honey quality. LIVECTOCK PRODUCTION III SELECTION AND BREEDING Reproduction and reproductive systemReproduction is the process by which off springs are reproduced. Sexual reproduction involves the union of the female and male gametes. Female gametes and the male gametes fuse to form the zygote. Fertilization takes place in the body of the female. Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system.


Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system. The male reproductive systemIt s composed of the following:TestesEpididymisSperm ductsAccessory glands seminal vesicles and the prostate glands PenisTestesThey produce sperms and they hang outside loosely between the hind legs. Each testis is enclosed in a loose skin called scrotum. Scrotum regulates the temperature of the sperms so that they don t die. EpididymisThese are coiled tubes that store the spermsSperm ductsThey carry sperms to the urethra. Urethra also forms a part of he urinary system. Urethra expels the sperms through the penis. Urine and semen cannot be expelled at the same time due to presence of sphincter muscles which contract allowing either urine or sperms to pass. Accessory glandsProstate gland produces some fluid that neutralizes the acidic effects of the urine in the urethra hence preventing the death of the sperms. Seminal vesicles produce clear sticky fluid called semen. Semen carries the sperms out of the penis in fluid form. One ejaculation of sperms has many sperms but only one is required for fertilizationPenisIn bull, its long and muscular structure carried on the underside. It s surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of the skin. Penis introduces sperms into the vagina of the cow during mating. At the time of mating the penis protrudes outside the sheath. Female Reproductive systemIt s composed of:OvariesFallopian tubesUterusVagina and vulvaOvariesAre two located in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys, one on the right and one on the left... ovaries produce ova which is the female gamete. They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary.


They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary. Oestrogen induces Oestrus which is the heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat. After every 21 days, the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. Fallopian Tubes oviduct Ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time fertilization occurs. UterusThis is where fertilization takes place. The fertilized egg implants itself on to the walls of the uterus and develops into the foetus. Vagina and VulvaVulva is the external opening of the cow s reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that the sperms are deposited into the vagina. The vagina acts as the birth canal-Pregnancy Gestation PeriodThis is the normal period between fertilization and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. The gestation period varies with different animals.e.gDuring pregnancy a hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain pregnancy. After birth, the reproductive tract undergoes a period of healing Rest during which it s repaired and returns to normal. Parturition BirthThis is the act of giving birth. This is the time when the foetus is expelled through the birth canal. The following signs are expressed by a cow that is about to give birth. Distended udder which produces a thick milky fluid Colostrums Swollen vulva producing a thick mucus like dischargeGeneral restlessnessLoose and slackened pelvic girdleVisible pin bonesA water bag appears and bursts just before calvingAfter these signs are seen the animal parturates normally within 2-3 hours. The correct presentation is with the front feet first and the head resting between the feet. Any other presentation is called Malpresentation or Breech Presentation especially when the hind legs come out first. Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg.


Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg. Fertilization takes place internally. During mating the hens cloaca vent protrudes so that the vent of the cock fits into it. The vent of a hen sucks the sperms which flow to the uterus through the oviduct of a hen. Reproductive system of the hen consists of the following. OvaryFunnel infundibulum MagnumUterusVaginaCloacaOvaryA hen has two ovaries and only the left one is functional. Eggs or ova are formed in the ovary. A hen has 3,500-4,000 ova. Each ovum is contained in a follicle. When the ovum or yolk is mature, its released from the ovary by the rupture of the follicle. It moves into the oviduct where its received by the funnel. FunnelIts 11.6cm long and fertilization takes place here. Chalazae are added to hold the yolkOvum stays here for about hourMagnumIt s 33cm long. Yolk moves down the magnum where thick albumen is added. It stays here for 3 hours. IsthmusIt s 10.6 cm long. Shell membranes are added. Water mineral salts and vitamins are also added. The egg takes about hour to move from this region. Uterus shell gland The region has calcium depositsShell is added round the eggEgg stays here for about 18-22Vagina 6.9 cm Egg is temporarily stored before it s laidCloacaThe egg moves out of the cloaca through the vent. Cloaca extends out to prevent the egg from breaking. NB whether fertilization takes place or not the egg will have to be formed. Fertilization doesn t take place the egg cannot hatch. The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen.


The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen. SELECTIONSelection is a process of allowing certain animals to be the parents of the future generations while culling others. The animals retained in the herd have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more. The selected animals males and females make up the Breeding stock. Breeding stock is used to produce offspring s with the same qualities or better than their parents. Breeding stock should therefore pass the good traits of quality to their offspring for better performance thus improving the livestock. Selection process repeated for many generations increases the Gene Frequency i.e. occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics. Selection therefore increases the occurrences of desirable genes and reduces the undesirable genes. HeritabilityThis refers to the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring. E.g. in dairy cattle the characteristics which are highly heritable include butter fat content, growth rate, and mortality rate at birth. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable. Such a character is environmental i.e. weakly inherited and selection will not improve it. The degree to selection affects a character depends on the following factors;heritability of the characterintensity within which selection is doneinterval between generations and kind of selection being practicedFactors to Consider When Selecting a Breeding StockAge - young animals should be selected because such animals have a longer productive life. Very old animals are low producers and poor breeders. Level of performance - only animals with the highest production level should be selected.. Performance is best determined by use of records. Performance of the relatives such as ancestors should be checked to ascertain whether the animal belongs to a high producing family. The ability of the parents to pass good qualities to their offspring s ii referred to as prepotency. Physical fitness animas selected should be free from ay physical defects such as limping, irregular number of teats, mono eyed and weak back line etc. Health Animals selected should be healthy. Sick animals do not breed well and those falling sick often are expensive to keep. Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g.


Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g. cannibalism in poultry and aggressiveness in dairy cattle should be culled. Quality of Products animals that give products of high quality should be selected. E.g. in wool production breeds that produce fine, long elastic and pure white wool should be selected. Mothering ability Animals selected should have a natural instinct towards their young ones. This enables them to rear the young ones up to weaning. Adaptability Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions in the area. Prolificacy Animals selected should be highly prolific. I.e. have the ability to give birth to many off springs at a time. Methods of SelectionMass selectionThis is the choosing of animals for breeding on the basis of their own performance and the mating them at random. Offsprings of these animals are expected to show higher performance than the previous herd. This is because mass selection increases the occurrence of the desirable genes in a population. Progeny testingProgeny is the offspring resulting from selected parents. In this method a group of progenies are used to as an aid to increase the accuracy in the selection of the breeding stock. It s used when the character is expressed by one sex only. Progeny testing takes a long time for the results to be realized. E.g. it may take a bull 8-9 years before the progeny testing results are out. Contemporary comparisonThis method involves the comparison of the average production of the daughters of each bull with that of the other heifer referred to as Contemporaries in the herd. The method assumes that the differences between the herds of the same breed are non-genetic in origin. AdvantagesIt s possible to compare animals of different age groupsAccurate due to presence of comparisonEliminates differences brought about by environment since average performance of the herd is used. It s possible to make direct comparison of the bulls at different A.I Centers. BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics.


BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics. Reasons for Breedingto expand the inherited potential of the animalTo introduce new genes to improve animals productivity. To produce animals those are resistant to diseases and other environmental hazards. To satisfy consumers taste e.g. tender meat, fast growth rate etc. Economic reasons; breeding animals with high growth rate means that these animals acquire market weight very fast. NB Genetic factors play a big role and therefore proper methods should be adopted. These genetic factors include;InheritanceThis is the genetic transmission of traits from the parents to the offsprings. These traits are carried by the male and female gametes. An animal s body has two types of cells, sex cells called the gametes and the somatic cells called the body cells. Sex cells have chromosomes that contain genes. ChromosomesThey carry gene which determine the specific characteristics in an individual animal. They exist in pairs in the nucleus of the body cells and are always constant in number. In the sex cells the genes are found in single units. I.e. GenesThese are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular traits found in animals e.g. Body shape, disease resistance, prolificacy, colour etc. They are found in specific points in chromosomes called the gene loci locus . They look like beads on a string. DiagramGenes occurs in pairs on the chromosome called alleles. Alleles form allelomorphic genes. If the members of an allele have the same effect or quality, the character is said to be homozygous. If these genes have different effect that carries different qualities the resulting character will be heterozygous. Cell DivisionThe two types in animal multiply themselves through the process of cell division. Body cells somatic cells divide by a process called mitosis. In mitosis each parent cell produces two daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Sex cells- gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. The process results in four daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes as was in the parent cells. During fertilization when the sperm joins with the ovum each having half the number of chromosomes , the full chromosome number is restored.