IlliterateWhen Jusper tells him that he drinks as much as he Tumbo drank off the pocket money he got during his university days, a visibly embarrassed Tumbo attempts to justify his limited education by claiming that though he qualified for university admission, he sold the scholarship since his family was poor pg 41 RolesTumbo contributes significantly to the development of the plot of the play;Being Boss confidant he comes out as a major beneficiary of Boss regime. Towards the end of the play, he confesses that he was trained but given the wrong job. This aspect portrays him as sycophantic. It is through his inefficiency that the plot by Mosese, Jusper and Jere to topple Boss succeeds. Through him, we get to know Jusper s character as daring and outspoken and Regina as trusting. He also highlights the themes of fear, self-preservation and misuse of power. Through him several aspects of style have been effectively used by the writer. They include foreshadow, satire, play within a play and suspense. BOSSHe is the president of Kafira and cousin to Mulili. He plays the role of the chief of staff in the rehearsal. His wife is called Mercedes. Authoritative over-strictBoss leads the country with an iron fist. He wants everything to go his way and cannot stand anyone who appears to block his orders and decisions and he cannot brook dissent. He has signed the death warrants of very many innocent people including Kabito, Adika, Doga and Nina. He warns Jusper against students protests during the rehearsal. He even brags of having given three hundred jobs to expatriates just to prove a point to the protesters. CorruptAccording to Mulili, Boss has acquired a lot of wealth and banked the money in foreign accounts. When Mulili tells him that Kabito was spreading such allegations he shouts, who gave him that information, just how much does Kabito know about me? Pg 59 . This seems to confirm his corrupt nature. He orders that the tender awarded to Kabito be revoked and goven to Mulili. Boss is also notorious for nepotism. He assigns powerful positions to his uneducated and inexperienced kinsmen in order to secure his interests. He also gives jobs to expatriates in return for foreign donations and funding.


Boss is also notorious for nepotism. He assigns powerful positions to his uneducated and inexperienced kinsmen in order to secure his interests. He also gives jobs to expatriates in return for foreign donations and funding. He demands that prisoners stage a play for the guest president in order to portray national unity and the involvement of prisoners in national matters. He does this to make an impression that would attract funding. Through Mulili we get to learn that he has stashed huge amounts of money in foreign accounts which has brought down the economy of Kafira. Temperamental impatient cruel brutalRegina says that boss is reported to have a short temper. Tumbo says that Boss is known to make hasty decisions and stand by them. When instructing Mulili to get rid of Kabito, he impatiently orders Mulili out of the palace. Tumbo says that when Boss is angry he does not differentiate between a human being and a rat. He also refers to him as an animal. Proud conceitedHe says that students do not understand what truth and justice is. He says that their protest against foreign expatriates led to the death of a student leader and the imprisonment of a lecturer. To put them in their place, he brings in three hundred more expatriate personnel just to prove his point. He says that five of them are his own personal appointments. Immoral amorousHe has a ridiculous weakness for women according to Tumbo. He also attempts to rape Regina who is forced to escape by jumping a ten foot high window. Incompetent inefficientHe relies on hearsay and propaganda to run the affairs of the state. He admits that Kabito has been one of his loyal servants. He allows prisoners to handle fire arms during the rehearsal which they use to stage the palace coup. Vengeful VindictiveHe is averse to criticism. He orders the killing of Kabito since it is alleged that he Kabito raised serious allegations about his integrity. He tells Jusper that since the university students questioned his appointment of expatriate personnel, just to put them in their place, he orders three hundred more expatriate personnel. GullibleHe falls for Mosese, Jere, and Jusper s trick and orders the guards to surrender their guns to be used as props.


He orders the killing of Kabito since it is alleged that he Kabito raised serious allegations about his integrity. He tells Jusper that since the university students questioned his appointment of expatriate personnel, just to put them in their place, he orders three hundred more expatriate personnel. GullibleHe falls for Mosese, Jere, and Jusper s trick and orders the guards to surrender their guns to be used as props. SuspiciousHe has deliberately put Mulili on the entertainment committee to report directly to him if something should seem to be going wrong. He suspects Tumbo of being behind Kabito s action to discredit him. Tumbo must have a hand in this pg 59 ROLESBoss is the architect of the misrule in Kafira. He has allowed his advisers such as Mulili to unleash terror to innocent civilians. He is a central character since the events in the story centre around his misrule. He brings out the character of Mulili as vindictive when Mulili convinces him on the need to eliminate Kabito. He also helps brings out the character of Tumbo as sycophantic. Though him several themes are highlighted such as misuse of power, betrayal, and social injustice. He enhances several stylistic devices such as play within a play, suspense, satire and symbolism. ASKARIHe is a prison warder and is mandated to keep watch over Jere and Mosese. Cruel intimidatingEven though Jere was once a soldier like him, he threatens to teach him a lesson or two if Jere calls him his friend again. He also warns Jere that he has once killed a man in that very cellHypocriticalHe tells Jere that they are giving consideration to his future despite his contribution to the national headache. He pretends to be doing Jere a favour and says he should be filling in forms for his rehabilitation. He says that experts have to be called in to give meaning to data collected in the various research centres that the government has put up and which show that rehabilitation of prisoners is invaluable. He goes ahead to say that this is not the type of work any of these local pretenders would handle. Pg 17 MOSESEHe is a former university lecturer who is later imprisoned for criticizing the ruling elite. Friendly sociableHe easily makes friends with Jere in prison. He also shares his views with Jere .


He goes ahead to say that this is not the type of work any of these local pretenders would handle. Pg 17 MOSESEHe is a former university lecturer who is later imprisoned for criticizing the ruling elite. Friendly sociableHe easily makes friends with Jere in prison. He also shares his views with Jere . For example, when Jere tells him that he was a soldier before he came to face to face with reality, Mosese tells him that fire has always been there. Pg 22 He explains to Jere the reason he had changed his name an illegal drug was planted on him by a man bearing the same name as him Nicodemus leading to his imprisonment. Intelligent observantHe was a university lecturer. He is also able to see through the scheme that the authorities have. They intend to use prisoners to act a play to entertain a visiting Head of state to symbolize national unity and therefore build confidence in the visitor to encourage him to invest more in Kafira. Together with Jere and Jusper, he intelligently carries out a palace coup. PrincipledInitially, he refuses to participate in a play to be performed for the visiting head of state. I will not bend so low. Pg 26 . I cannot do it. Among my friends, that would be equivalent to kneeling in front of Boss and pleading for mercy. Pg 27 His change of name was influenced by Boss decision to change his. He changed his name since the man who planted a drug on him to implicate him shared a name with him Nicodemus pg 25 SelflessEven though he is not related to Adika who is just one among his many students, he protests his killing and fights injustice but the reward for his effort was imprisonment. DaringTogether with Jusper and Jere he agrees to take part in a potentially dangerous plot to bring down Boss through a play meant for entertaining the visiting head of state. The plan may not work hence they may be labelled traitors. Sceptical Hopeless pessimisticAfter being sent to prison on trumped up charges, he loses faith in the freedom of Kafira. When told that the release of six hundred prisoners will depend on his participation in the play to entertain the visiting head of state, it only makes him feel like he is betraying what he believes in.


The plan may not work hence they may be labelled traitors. Sceptical Hopeless pessimisticAfter being sent to prison on trumped up charges, he loses faith in the freedom of Kafira. When told that the release of six hundred prisoners will depend on his participation in the play to entertain the visiting head of state, it only makes him feel like he is betraying what he believes in. He feels it would be like kneeling down in front of Boss and pleading for mercy for something he has not done. Pg 28 He does not believe in the Bible teachings that Jere seems to believe in. For example, he says, That is why I don t believe in such crap as the last shall be first, and blessed are the poor for they shall inherit the kingdom of heaven!..... Pg 28 When Jere tells him that things will change, he says, ......that is why I prefer to wait and see. I will stay here and remain loyal to my principles. Pg 28 RolesMosese helps highlight the plight of the educated elite in Kafira. Boss regime seems to deliberately persecute university lectures like Mosese and university student s whom he perceives as his most potent critics. Mosese is arrested and imprisoned for protesting the mistreatment of the family of his late student Adika during the funeral, weeping in public is made illegal for the academic staff. Through him, the character of Askari is brought out as brutal and inhuman. He helps develop among other themes the themes of selflessness and misuse of power. He also highlights play within a play, satire and suspense among other stylistic devices. REGINAShe is sister of Mosese and Jusper Wendo s girlfriend. Her concern for her brother and boyfriend is responsible for her confrontational nature. She pleads with Jusper as well as Mosese to co-opertate with the authorities. Fearful cowardlyShe is so afraid of the laid down rules that she demands that Jusper removes the red gown as it makes him appear dangerous. She fears that he might be killed for being a red guard She pleads with Jusper not to talk of revenge for the death of his parents and brother. She says, Jusper, you promised. You promised to be a good boy.


She fears that he might be killed for being a red guard She pleads with Jusper not to talk of revenge for the death of his parents and brother. She says, Jusper, you promised. You promised to be a good boy. Do you now talk of revenge? Pg 33 Jusper tells her that she seems to have lost her fighting spirit like everyone else in the street. PrincipledShe refuses to succumb to Boss compromising demands and escapes by jumping from a ten foot high window. TrustingShe believes that Tumbo will speak to Boss on her behalf. She is convinced that boss will replace the political prisoners to mark the visit of foreign head of state. When Jusper asks her, do you think he means it? She responds, he does. He says he will be in charge of the whole thing himself. And don t forget he is Boss right hand man. Pg 37 ROLESRegina highlights major problems affecting Kafira, which is a disillusioned citizenry. She berates her boyfriend Jusper for being critical of Boss, According to her, nothing good will come out of Jusper s continued antagonism towards the government. She is willing to allow the status quo to remain out of fear for the well-being of her loved ones. She pleads with Jusper to stop his agitation, pointing out that Jusper and her brother Mosese are the only people she has in this world, but Mosese was in and that left Jusper to either build or destroy her. Pg 32 She brings the character of as traitorous. Out pd good will she agrees to meet him only for Boss to try to rape her. She also brings put the portrayal of Jusper as principled and selfless. Through her, the author successfully brings out the themes of betrayal, sexual immorality and misuse of power. The author s effective use of stylistic devices such as satire and humour can also be attributed to her. DOGAHe is Nina s husband and father to Jusper and the later Adika. SuspiciousDoga believes that the individual responsible for the death of their son Adika lives among them. His suspicion is raised by evidence on Adika s grave.


DOGAHe is Nina s husband and father to Jusper and the later Adika. SuspiciousDoga believes that the individual responsible for the death of their son Adika lives among them. His suspicion is raised by evidence on Adika s grave. Pg 1 Forthright open candidHe tells his wife to calm down when she acts nervous about the violation of their late son s grave and says, What sort of a mother are you? He also disagrees with his wife about informing the sub-chief about the crack on the grave. He can t imagine informing the sub-chief because it is his brother who killed his son. He would rather cheat the ancestors than follow protocol of a wicked government. He also curse Mulili when he proves adamant about allowing them to carry on with the shaving ceremony. He tells him, May you die the way Adika did. Pg 10 OptimisticHe believes that Jusper is Okay where he is. Jusper is alright where he is. Pg 2 PerceptiveHe is able to identify Jere as Kaleka s son despite the later wearing a cap. Pg 9 DishonestHe is determined to cover up any evil on his son s grave by filling the crack on the grave with soil so that the shaving ceremony can go on. Stubborn determinedHe is determined to have his late son s shaving ceremony go on despite the pleas from his wife that people might boycott the ceremony if they knew about the crack in the grave. Grateful appreciativeHe is grateful to Jere for informing them about the whereabouts of Jusper. As a form of gratitude he offers him a pocket bible. Kaleka s son, I have nothing to give you, handing him a pocket bible take this. Pg 12 Rational realisticHe tells his wife that they need not to cry since tears are for the young and their own wells are dry. Devoted religiousHis devotion id depicted by the song he sings with his wife and the prayer he says with her. Later on, he gives Jere a bible. NINAShe is Doga s wife and mother to Jusper and the late Adika. Motherly concernedShe mourns the death of her son and wonders why people would kill him. She is heart broken by the people who come to interfere with his grave and she cannot stand it.


NINAShe is Doga s wife and mother to Jusper and the late Adika. Motherly concernedShe mourns the death of her son and wonders why people would kill him. She is heart broken by the people who come to interfere with his grave and she cannot stand it. The death of her son sends her into mourning. She begs Mulili to allow them to allow them to carry on with the shaving ceremony. She is concerned about the whereabouts of Jusper when she finds that he is not guarding the grave. EmotionalShe weeps besides her son s graveDetermined daringWhen Mulili refuses to allow her to carry out the shaving ceremony, she threatens to strip naked and cause him blindness. HonestShe feels that the evil done to her son;s grave should not be hidden. According to her, one cannot outwit their ancestors. She suggests to her husband that they report the evil to the sub-chief. It would be wrong for us to sit on this evil. Pg 3 ReligiousShe tells her husband that they need to commit the day on God s hands. They sing and later she invokes a prayer. FearfulShe is concerned about her son Jusper s safety when they fail to find him at Adika s grave. But where is he now? Doga, my heart fails me. Pg 2 STYLE AND LANGUAGESATIRESatire is a form of writing where an individual or society is ridiculed or where the foolishness of an idea, practice or custom is shown. It s a form of criticism of vices through or by use of humour. The writer portrays the evils of the society in a rather humorous way. From the beginning of the play, he depicts the government as insensitive to the needs of its own people. Adika is shot dead by the sub-chief s brother for leading a demonstration against the employment of many expatriates. Chagaga is jailed and later released because he shot Adika in self-defence other than listen to the protest of the people and consider their demands; the government executes those who oppose its ideas. Government officials such as Askari and Mulili are satirised for their cruelty. They have little regard for human life. Askari mistreats prisoners under his watch such as Jere. He repeatedly threatens Jere and even informs him that he has killed a man in the very cell Jere is in.


They have little regard for human life. Askari mistreats prisoners under his watch such as Jere. He repeatedly threatens Jere and even informs him that he has killed a man in the very cell Jere is in. Mulili has no qualms taking away human life. Mulili and Boss have been satirized for being traitorous. Boss betrays the trust bestowed on him by his subjects. Instead of being a servant leader, he has become a tyrant. A peaceful demonstration by university students is violently dispersed leading to the death of a student; Adika. Instead of securing jobs for the citizens of his country he has resorted to importation of expatriates. His leadership is also characterized by intimidation, assassination and corruption. Mulili is a beneficiary of Boss misrule. Ironically, when tables are turned on Boss by Jere, Jusper and Mosese, he betrays Boss and blames him for the ills in Kafira as well as for killing Kabito. He urges Jere to Kill Boss. Tumbo a government official sinefficiency is satirized. He uses his position to benefit himself. He claims that the reason he never got proper education is that his parents were poor and so he sold his scholarship. He fails in his duty to set up a writing competition, feigns ignorance that it took place and gives the opportunity to Jusper who grabs it to turn against the president and his cronies. When he visits Regina, Tumbo sends Jusper for beer claiming that it is tough being a government official. When we do not quite see what is tough in his line of duty. Tumbo is happy when Jusper highlights in the play the influx of expatriate is a sign of potential progress. Mulili is satirised for being insensitive to the rights of children. He suggests that during the head of state s visit, all children and adults should line up on the road to welcome the visitor despite the fact that it s the final term and most of the children will be sitting for exams. IRONYSITUATIONAL IRONYAfter the death of Adika, Jusper went wild singing songs of vengeance and as a result he is taken away by agents of the government to be cooled down. He was said to be dangerous to peace loving people. It is ironical that when he was brought back after three months, he has instead worsened and people said he was mad.


IRONYSITUATIONAL IRONYAfter the death of Adika, Jusper went wild singing songs of vengeance and as a result he is taken away by agents of the government to be cooled down. He was said to be dangerous to peace loving people. It is ironical that when he was brought back after three months, he has instead worsened and people said he was mad. Pg 4-5 In prison, one is not allowed to talk too much. It doesn t pay to talk a lot. It is ironical that askari takes great exception to Mosese s silence and tries to force him to talk. Due to the fact that the prison authorities know Mosese as being talkative they will not allow him to keep quiet and demand that he explains what he is keeping quiet about. It is ironical that though while in prison one is expected to show consistency of character and a market improvement, one cannot afford to stick to one s principle s otherwise he will never leave jail. According to Jere, the character in the Pilate story his fellow inmate did not want to be Pilate and instead insisted on being Jesus. The said character did not know that being Jesus meant receiving canes and when Jere caned him, he wailed and Jere was subsequently punished it was an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth pg 23 It is ironical that it will take a state visitor to have political prisoners released in Kafira. Jere tells askari that innocence can be an offence. This statement is given credence by the fact that Jere and Mosese are in prison, not because of committing an offence but standing for the truth. Tumbo says that a sum of money has been allocated for a play-writing competition and adds that the democratic part of it is that anyone has to participate yet in actual sense, there is no competition. He goes ahead to pronounce Jusper as the winner of the non-existence competition. News of Jusper s wim will be in the papers the following week. It s ironical that Tumbo will not accept the suggestion that the visiting head of state visits the upcountry to see the progress in agriculture despite the fact that the head of state offered technicians for the said progress. Kabito s attack on the government that Mulili and his likes choke Kafira is ironical since he is a major beneficiary of the system. His appointment to the entertainment committee is reward for his loyalty to Boss.


It s ironical that Tumbo will not accept the suggestion that the visiting head of state visits the upcountry to see the progress in agriculture despite the fact that the head of state offered technicians for the said progress. Kabito s attack on the government that Mulili and his likes choke Kafira is ironical since he is a major beneficiary of the system. His appointment to the entertainment committee is reward for his loyalty to Boss. It is also ironical that by pointing out the truth, he is accused of sowing seeds of discord among the other people. According to Boss, grey hair symbolizes wisdom. It is therefore ironic that he is determined to remove all strands of grey hair, claiming that a leader should have grey hair. Pg 58 DRAMATIC IRONYAs Jusper enters, Doga hides behind the bush. The audience as well as Nina is awake of Doga s whereabouts but Jusper is not. Jusper asks Tumbo if he had come to see his Jusper s cousin, The readers as well as Jusper know that Regina is the girlfriend to Jusper and not his cousin but Tumbo doesn t. Mulili is not aware that Tumbo and Nicodemo are already aware of Kabito s death. Tumbo tells Nicodemo, Here he comes. Remember we know nothing. Enter Mulili pg 62 Boss, Tumbo and Mulili are not aware of the plot by Mosese, Jere, and Jusper to topple Boss who is duped into ordering the guards to surrender their guns to be used during the final rehearsal of the play. The readers on the other hand are awake of the plot by the three. IMAGERYThe writer has employed the use of figurative language in the play. Metaphors and similes have been used as follows;I.Similes He was slaughtered like a goat. This show how Adika was killed mercilessly. While referring to this co-actor in the Pilate story, Jere says of him. He wailed like a woman in a death home pg 23 This is a pointer of the cowardice of the individual.


Metaphors and similes have been used as follows;I.Similes He was slaughtered like a goat. This show how Adika was killed mercilessly. While referring to this co-actor in the Pilate story, Jere says of him. He wailed like a woman in a death home pg 23 This is a pointer of the cowardice of the individual. While referring to the terror inflicted on the citizens by Boss and his henchmen, Jusper tells Regina, they come quietly when you are least expecting and before you realize it, they have pounced on you like hungry leopards. Pg 32 Jusper goes on to say, I defended his remains like a man. Pg34 This shows his determination and bravery in ensuring that his brother s grave was not desecrated. II.MetaphorMulili tells Jere, Big coward Jere, you a woman pg 10 The implication here is that Jere is a coward for sympathising with Nina and Doga. Jusper tells Regina, Adika died for the truth......he was killed for asking whether or not we were on the right train pg 34 . Jusper here is adverting that Adika died for questioning how the country was being governed. Tumbo tells Jusper that there is a good potato in the work they are about to do in reference to money. Mulili refers to Jere as chicken hearted pg 44 ALLUSIONAllusion refers to reference to something or someone else without the context of a given text. The writer makes several allusions in reference to the Bible. When Jere canes his cell mate as they act out the part of Jesus Christ and Pilate, he finds himself in trouble when the cell mate cries out. He is stripped naked and caned. He tells them it was a case of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. This is a verse in the Bible. The above story is an allusion to the Biblical crucification of Jesus. Many citizens of Kafira have been crucified innocently just like Jesus and many others are the pilates that beat up Christ. Doga, Nina and Kabito are among those who die needless deaths. The pilates are exemplified by the likes of Boss and Mulili.


Many citizens of Kafira have been crucified innocently just like Jesus and many others are the pilates that beat up Christ. Doga, Nina and Kabito are among those who die needless deaths. The pilates are exemplified by the likes of Boss and Mulili. Mosese alludes to the biblical inheritance of the Kingdom of heaven in reference to their high expectations after independence. When they are told that their kingdom independence has come, it turns out to be an allusion. Mosese also alluded to the bible when he says ......the last shall be first and blessed are the poor for they shall inherit the kingdom of heaven. Pg 27 Mosese questions the validity of this bible verse by pointing out the disappointment of the masses. He is disillusioned that people had placed their hope in Boss regime, only to be disappointed by the turn of events. Boss tells Jusper that when he was acting, he used to be given bad roles. He would die for mistakes that were not his. Jusper tells him, I would say it s sacrifice A kind of death for a future. The sort of role Christ played pg 66 While referring to this mother, Mosese tells Jere, once every year she slaughtered a cock to mark the birth of Christ pg 28 Christmas is alluded here. SYMBOLISMAfter Adika s burial following his killing Nina says that his death has made them blind and left them in blindness. This words blind and blindness symbolize the state of hopelessness or disillusionment of Doga and Nina. Reference is made to the word potato . Nicodemo asks Kabito did you get the potato? Potato refers to the university tender. Kabito insists on knowing their terms of service and Nicodemo proceeds to ask the size of potato per hour they are entitled to pg 53 This is in reference to allowanced due to them. Potato symbolizes corruption that is rampant in Kafira. Boss orders an Askari to untie the hands of Mosese and Jere pg 70 The act of untying the two symbolizes their freedom and by extension salvation or the citizens of Kafira. Askari is a symbol of oppression. Political prisoners like Jere and Mosese are mistreated while in prison.


Boss orders an Askari to untie the hands of Mosese and Jere pg 70 The act of untying the two symbolizes their freedom and by extension salvation or the citizens of Kafira. Askari is a symbol of oppression. Political prisoners like Jere and Mosese are mistreated while in prison. The brutality of the regime is evident when askari says of Mosese ......when they brought him in last night , he was all questions. We calculated that two mature strokes would ease the tension pg 19 He informs Jere that he has once killed a man in that very cell. Pg 30 sThe gun is a symbol of power. The moment the askaris surrender their guns to Jere, Mosese and Jusper, power shifts from Boss to the three. Mulili, Boss and Tumbo are at the mercy of the three. The reappearance od Doga and Nina at the end of theplay after the killing of Mulili is a symbol of change in Kafira, their reappearance at the graveside which now is for Mulili shows that the social order of injustice and misrule exemplified by poor advisors like Mulili has been done away with and now they expect a new Kafira with better leadership and justice. HUMOURThe writer has employed humour in his play. He portrays Mulili humorously. His broken English and barely comprehensible talks ease the tense moments that keep building in the play. Some of the funny statements he makes include;The green grass in the snake instead of the green snake in the grass to refer to hypocrites. Sometimes I wonder why you possession that thing between your legsYou must apology to me this, now pg 57 You plays with fire you goat! Mulili s attempt to communicate in English is laughable. Who you call child eeh? Jere you tell him. Tell him what I does with stubborn old mens pg 8 Big coward. Why you doesn t let her get on with it. How many I have seen and I am still Mulili with my two eyes, natural? Look, no goggles pg 9 Mulili s disjointed English is a pointer to his limited education. This is an indication of Boss leadership which regards individuals not on the basis of their qualifications but on the basis of blood relationship and perceived loyalty.


How many I have seen and I am still Mulili with my two eyes, natural? Look, no goggles pg 9 Mulili s disjointed English is a pointer to his limited education. This is an indication of Boss leadership which regards individuals not on the basis of their qualifications but on the basis of blood relationship and perceived loyalty. Mosese says he has no front when asked by Askari, What do you think you are doing showing us your back? Pg 18 While responding to Tumbo s question whether Jusper drinks, Regina replies, there is no brand of beer he hasn t tasted. Pg 41 In a bid to cover up the heinous crime he has committed Mulili says, I also ask that, people say his breath smelled full of spirits. That hard stuff pg 63 When cornered by Nicodemo he says, Who said breath, I said his body smelled whiskies. Humour here is used to portray the wicked and cruel nature of Mulili and clearly points out his direct involvement in the killing of Kabito. On realizing that tables have been turned in his cousin Boss and the guns are now in the hands of Jere and Mosese, Mulili says, I go for short call pg 72 Jusper refers to Regina as girlfriend number one pg 6 . Here humour is used to relieve the tension building up following the desecration of Adika s grave. It is ridiculously funny how Tumbo confuses Wole Soyinka a renowned writer, for a Prime minister and a politician. PROVERBSProverbs are pithy statements that are mainly employed to give advice or to caution. Several instances of proverbs are evident in the text. The writer has used proverbs to illustrate the wisdom of Doga and his realistic nature. He says, a mouse does not share a bowl with a cat. Pg 3 which implies that they cannot share mutual relationship with the sub-chief whose brother, Chagaga, is responsible for the death of AdikaWhen Nina suggests that they should report to the sub-chief what has just happened to the grave, Doga uses a proverb to explain her failure to see the futility of her actions.


Several instances of proverbs are evident in the text. The writer has used proverbs to illustrate the wisdom of Doga and his realistic nature. He says, a mouse does not share a bowl with a cat. Pg 3 which implies that they cannot share mutual relationship with the sub-chief whose brother, Chagaga, is responsible for the death of AdikaWhen Nina suggests that they should report to the sub-chief what has just happened to the grave, Doga uses a proverb to explain her failure to see the futility of her actions. Thus he says, ....when dry thunder tears the sky before our eyes, do we forget the storm of yesterday? Pg 3 Doga insists that the shaving ceremony must go on regardless of the obstacles that they face. He uses a proverb. A cloudy sky does not always cry rain pg 3 Kabito tells Nicodemo, the tree climber begins from the bottom, not top pg 53 . Through this proverb, Kabito wishes to be informed the terms of service of the committee before their meeting. The potrayal of Kabito is that of a materialistic, greedy and self-centred individual. FORESHADOWA foreshadow is a premonition that something is going to happen. Authors use words, signs or events to prepare readers for something that is just to occur. Doga foreshadows Mulili s death when he says Empty words will be your downfall. May you die the way Adika did pg 10 His words come to pass when Jusper shoots Mulili. After his parents are murdered in exchange for his release, Jusper says, I will get my revenge someday, even if it means going alone pg 33 His words are fulfilled when he shoots Mulili dead. While reacting to Tumbo s insistence that she must personally see Boss to secure her brother s release , Regina says, I have this funny feeling that something will go wrong pg 45 Her fears are justified when later on Boss forcefully tries to get her and she is only able to escape by jumping out of a ten foot high window.


May you die the way Adika did pg 10 His words come to pass when Jusper shoots Mulili. After his parents are murdered in exchange for his release, Jusper says, I will get my revenge someday, even if it means going alone pg 33 His words are fulfilled when he shoots Mulili dead. While reacting to Tumbo s insistence that she must personally see Boss to secure her brother s release , Regina says, I have this funny feeling that something will go wrong pg 45 Her fears are justified when later on Boss forcefully tries to get her and she is only able to escape by jumping out of a ten foot high window. Mulili foreshadows the arrest and imprisonment of Jere when he threatens him; Hey you.....you shall pay for it pg 15 Boss foreshadows his near death when he says, just before the rehearsal; In four out of five cases I had to die for little, mistakes that were not my own..... pg 66 The reappearance od Doga and Nina at the end of theplay after the killing of Mulili foreshadows the change in Kafira, their reappearance at the graveside which now is for Mulili shows that the social order of injustice and misrule exemplified by poor advisors like Mulili has been done away with and now they expect a new Kafira with better leadership and justice. PLAY WITHIN A PLAYThe play written by Jusper is entitled Betrayal in the City and captures the event of the palace coup so aptly, In this play prisoners stage a palace coup and exposes the villains in the government who are finally gotten rid of. Tumbo, the inefficient government official is ordered out of the centre of power and Mulili, the embodiment of evil is killed. Boss life is spared even when he offers himself to be shot- as a sign that there is hope for change in Kafira. USE OF SONGThe writer has used a song on pg 8;When we walk with the LordIn the light of his way... ......But trust and obey. This song and the subsequent prayer indicate that the couple can only turn to God for solace after all else has failed. Generally, it is their hope in life because under the Kafira government, they can only trust and obey. It portrays them as religious despite the challenges they are facing.


This song and the subsequent prayer indicate that the couple can only turn to God for solace after all else has failed. Generally, it is their hope in life because under the Kafira government, they can only trust and obey. It portrays them as religious despite the challenges they are facing. They are seeking for answers through divine intervention. The song and the prayer summarize their total sense of loss and their deep religious devotionCROSS PURPOSEThis style is used in reference to individuals talking about different things in the course of their conversation without realizing it. The first incident of cross purpose is when Doga, Nina and Jusper appear not to communicate and their statements overlap. When Jusper is at cross purpose with Doga and Nina. Jusper appears not to communicate with his parents and their statements overlap. When Jusper is referring to a murder he committed at night, his mother thinks that he imagines killing his father. Doga tells Nina not to detain Jusper and instead allow him to go for he is a nuisance. Jusper responds, he can t go he is dead pg 6 Jusper is referring to Adika;s murderer Chagaga while his mother means that Doga is dead. Jusper and Nina also speak in cross purpose on pg 7 when Jusper asks ...shall I go and confess idid it? To which Nina answers yes my son, go and put on a clean shirt and then you can confess Nina thinks Jusper is talking about the ceremony whereas Jusper is talking about confessing that he had killed Chagaga. Mosese and Jere talk at cross purpose. Pg 30-31 While Mosese in his reverie, seems to be talking to imaginary persons. Jere s questions punctuate his reverie. In his attempt to understand Mosese s talk, he finally concludes,When the madness of an entire nation disturbs a solitary mind, it is not enough to say the man is mad. Pg 33 BETRAYAL IN THE CITY ESSAY QUESTIONSThe Elites play a major role in salvaging countries marred by poor governance. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityThe government of Kafira is a dictatorial regime that doesn t mind the suffering of the masses.


In his attempt to understand Mosese s talk, he finally concludes,When the madness of an entire nation disturbs a solitary mind, it is not enough to say the man is mad. Pg 33 BETRAYAL IN THE CITY ESSAY QUESTIONSThe Elites play a major role in salvaging countries marred by poor governance. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityThe government of Kafira is a dictatorial regime that doesn t mind the suffering of the masses. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityRevenge is a vicious cycle that needs to be stopped since it hinders development. Explain the veracity of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityKafira is an epitome of corruption in the developing countries. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityDeceit reigns in situations of poor governance and with them comes conflict. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityA state can be brought down if its leadership thrives on cronism and poor advisors. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityKafira s woes can be attributed to the inefficiency of its leadership. Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityBetrayal in the city is a perfect satire of the ills in third world countries. . Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityBad governance creates room for economic opportunism. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaMulili is an embodiment of evil attributes. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaMany people in Kafira are traitorous. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaStrikes come with many adverse effects.


Explain the truth of the above assertion with reference to Francis Imbuga s Betrayal in the CityBad governance creates room for economic opportunism. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaMulili is an embodiment of evil attributes. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaMany people in Kafira are traitorous. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaStrikes come with many adverse effects. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaWrite an essay explaining the relevance of the title BETRAYAL IN THE CITY.from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis Imbuga THE OUTSIDE OF THIS CELL MIGHT AS WELL BE THE INSIDE OF ANOTHER from instances in the play write as essay justifying Jere s assertion drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaOppression breeds misery and conflict. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaThe situation in Kafira has bred despondency amongst its citizens. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis ImbugaMany eventsand actions in Betrayal in the City are triggered by the need for revenge. Write an essay in support of this statement drawing illustrations from the play Betrayal in the City by Francis Imbuga.


AGRICULTURE FORM IV NOTES27.0.0 Livestock Production V Poultry 25 Lessons 28.0.0 Livestock Production VI Cattle 16 Lessons 29.0.0 Farm Power and Machinery 18 Lessons 30.0.0 Agricultural Economics III Production Economics 20 Lessons 31.0.0 Agricultural Economics IV Farm Accounts 10 Lessons 32.0.0 Agricultural Economics V Agricultural Marketing and Organisations 10 Lessons 33.0.0 Agroforestry 10 Lessons Livestock Production V Poultry IntroductionPoultry industry in Kenya has developed tremendously due to the use of artificial incubation and brooding and easy availability of hybrid birds, both eggers and broilers. Poultry production has become an easy source of income and food for the rural as well as the urban communities. The term poultry includes domestic birds such as turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, doves and pigeons. Of late ostrich farming has become a lucrative activity. Poultry production starts with incubation of eggs. Parts of an EggShellForms 10-12 of the whole egg content. Made of calcium and phosphorus. Protects the inner egg contents. Shell membraneMade of inner and outer membranes. Lining of the egg shell. Constitutes 1 of the total egg content. Albumen egg white About 55-60 of the total egg content. It is divided into chalaza, thick and thin albumen. Chalaza holds the egg yolk in position. Albumen serves as food for the chick. Yolk30-33 of the total egg content. Supply embryo with nutrients. Germinal disc -The embryo which develops into a chick if fertilized. Vitelline membrane - Gives the yolk its round shape. Air sacKeeps the egg fresh by allowing gaseous exchange. Provides oxygen for the embryo Egg Candling:This is the practice of determining the internal qualities of an egg by examining it against a light source. ProcedureThe egg is placed on a hole made on a .cardboard box. This is called a candling box. A sou rce of light is placed in the box directly under the egg. The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below.


This is called a candling box. A sou rce of light is placed in the box directly under the egg. The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below. Abnormalities on and within the egg can be seen through the translucent shell. IncubationInvolves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development. Selection of Eggs for IncubationShould be fertile. Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight. Should have smooth shell. Should be oval shaped. Should not be cracked. Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open. Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk. . Eggs should not be more than 5 days old. Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week. Internal egg qualities can be determined through the egg candling process. Methods of IncubationNatural IncubationThis involves the use of a broody hen which sits on the eggs to provide them with conditions necessary for hatching. Takes 20-21 days. The hen is given about 10-15 eggs. Signs' of Broodiness in PoultryTendency to sit on an egg after laying. Moulting of the hen. Making some noise at the laying nests. Feathers are raised. It becomes aggressive when disturbed. It stops laying. Preparation and Management of Natural IncubationThe hen is given "China eggs" to sit on to induce broodiness. When broody the hen should be provided with a nesting nest or a saucershaped nest scooped on the ground. The nest shall be lined with soft bedding and fertile eggs provided. The eggs are set in the evening or night. The bird is dusted to control external parasites. The hen is allowed t hour outside to feed and exercise everyday. Broken eggs should be removed immediately. The hen should not be disturbed. Advantages of Natural IncubationIt is cheap. High hatchability. Low risk involved. Useful in small scale production. Less skill is required. Less laborious. Disadvantages of Natural IncubationEgg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation. It is not possible to plan when to incubate. If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed.


Disadvantages of Natural IncubationEgg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation. It is not possible to plan when to incubate. If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed. If the hen deserts the eggs or refuses to sit on them the farmer will incur losses. Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen. Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks. Artificial IncubationThis is the use of artificial device known as an incubator for hatching eggs. Conditions Necessary for Artificial Hatching of EggsTemperature - maintain at 37.5 C-39.4 C throughout to control the rate of embryonic development of the chick. High or low temperatures are lethal. Ventilation - Good air circulation. Carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio maintained at 0.03 :21 . Relative humidity - Maintained at 60 . High humidity leads to marshy chickslow humidity the chick may stick to the shell. Turning of Eggs Done 3-4 times a day to facilitate uniform distribution of heat for uniform development of chick. Turn slowly 180 clockwise along the axis to avoid breaking the blood vessels. Some incubators have automatic turning mechanism. Cleanliness - cleaning and disinfecting the incubator with formaldehyde solution. Advantages of Artificial IncubationIt facilitates large scale production of chicks. Incubators are always ready when needed. Artificial incubation leads to higher egg production because broodiness in the hens is not required, so there is more time for laying eggs. Disadvantages of Artificial IncubationHigh initial capital in buying an incubator. High level of management and attention is required. It is not economical for only a small number of eggs. High risks involved in turning the eggs. Brooding and Rearing of ChicksBrooding is the rearing of day old chicks upto 8 weeks old for the layer chicks and 2 weeks for the broiler chicks. For successful brooding the source of the chicks should be considered. Sources of ChicksThe following factors should be considered:The reputation of the supplier hatchery . Time taken by the chicks in transit. Proper sexing and breed identification. BroodingNatural BroodingA hen is allowed to take care of the chicks. She provides them with warmth and security. She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them.


BroodingNatural BroodingA hen is allowed to take care of the chicks. She provides them with warmth and security. She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them. Advantages It is cheap. Less labour is needed. Suitable for small scale. Disadvantages of Natural BroodingNot possible to produce large numbers of chicks. The hen goes off laying during brooding time. Only possible when a broody hen is available. Artificial BroodingThe chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8 weeks old. Brooder RequirementsTemperature - should be about 35 C in the 15th week and reduced to 21 C by the 8th week. Litter - wood shavings which are capable of absorbing 60 moisture without showing wetness should be used. Space confinement - Done by use of hardboards which are about 25cm high and form a circular space. A space of 1m2 for 25 chicks is required. Feeders and waterers - should be enough for the chicks and evenly distributed in the brooder. Ventilators - windows should be enough to allow proper air circulation but direct draught should be avoided. Types of Heaters in the BrooderElectric heaters - one ordinary bulb 100 watts can raise 30 chicks. One infrared bulb 240 watts can raise 100 chicks. Kerosene burners - Hurricane lamps can raise 100 chicks. Charcoal burners - these are specially made jikos with heat deflectors. Brooder ManagementPreparation Before Chicks ArriveStart 2-3 days before arrival. The brooder house should be cleaned to remove old litter and then disinfected. New litters 5-1Ocm high should be put in and covered with absorbent materials news papers. Equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and tested to make sure that they are working. The brooder is lit about 6 hours before the chicks arrive. Feed and water should be placed into shallow containers. Brooder space should be confined with a hard board to prevent chicks straying far from the source of heat. Management After Arrival of the ChicksChicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder. If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers. In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh.


Management After Arrival of the ChicksChicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder. If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers. In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh. Feed chicks with chick mash which is later mixed with growers mash as the chicks grow. Clean water should be provided and changed regularly. Constant attention should be given to the chicks for the first 2 weeks. Any vices should be checked and controlled. Any dead chicks should be removed as soon as seen. Ventilation should be used to control the temperature and humidity in the brooder. Constant disinfection is required at the entrance to avoid diseases. Brooder space should be increased as the chicks grow. Debeaking should be done at 10 days old. Vaccination against diseases such as Gumboro after 2 weeks, New Castle at 3-4 weeks and fowl typhoid at 7 weeks. Dusting to control external parasites. Growers' mash should be introduced gradually at 7 weeks old. Chicks are removed from the brooder when they are 8 weeks old. On average the chick uses about 1.5kg - 2.2kg of chick mash by the time it is 8 weeks old. Temperature Control in the BrooderIf the brooder temperatures are low the following should be done:Brooder space is reduced. Heaters are increased. Ventilators are closed. If the brooder temperatures are too high the following should be done:Brooder space is increased. Heaters should be reduced. Ventilators should be opened. Management of the GrowersThe growers are birds at the age of 9 weeks to the point of lay that is at 18 weeks. Growers should be fed on growers' mash. By this time the growers should be occupying the main poultry house. Sick birds should be isolated and treated. A foot bath for constant disinfection should be placed at the entrance. Each bird is fed 115 gms per day of growers' mash. Greens and soluble grit should also be provided. Clean water should be provided all the time adilibitum . Drenching against internal parasites should be done by adding a dewormer into the water. Vermins should be controlled. Litter should be kept dry by turning. Vaccination should be done as required. Layer pullets require dimly lit house.


Litter should be kept dry by turning. Vaccination should be done as required. Layer pullets require dimly lit house. Management of the LayersLayers' mash should be introduced at 18 weeks and increased gradually. The birds start laying at 18-21 weeks. The birds should be vaccinated against New Castle and fowl typhoid. Enough floor space roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided. Each hen should be given 120gms per day of layers' mash. Clean water should be provided adlibitum. Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening. Green leaves should be provided to keep the birds busy thus preventing cannibalism and improve the yellow colour of the yolk. Grains should be given in addition to the layers' mash at the rate of 65gms per bird per day. Soluble grit or oyster shells should be provided at all times for efficient digestion and strong shelled eggs. Layers should be fed according to their body weight and the rate of egg production for example a 70kg bag should feed 100 layers for 4-5 days. Enough laying nests should be provided at least 1 per 5 layers. The laying boxes should be dimly lit to reduce egg eating. Debeaking should be done when necessary. Broken eggs and dead birds should be disposed off properly. The non-layers and cannibals should be culled. Management of BroilersBroilers are table birds kept for meat production. They have high growth rates or high feed conversion ratio. The objective is to produce a kilogram of quality poultry meat from less than two kg of broiler feed. The broiler chick requires special broiler feed from day old to 4 weeks of age. Broiler starters' mash or crumbs should be fed. This contains coccidiostat, high level of protein, vitamins and trace elements for early growth. From 4 weeks to 8 weeks they are given broiler follow-on mash or pellets. This feed contains high level of metabolisable energy to ensure a good cover of subcutaneous fat in the finished broiler. From 8 weeks until slaughter finisher pellets should be given to increase the size. Adequate clean water should be provided at all times adlibitum . High level of hygiene should be maintained to reduce mortality rate. Birds should be dusted with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites. Deworming should be done routinely.


The fold does not last long because ofhigh frequency of handling. The return per unit area of land is low. Intensive SystemDeep Litter SystemBirds are confined in a house throughout their life. The floor of the house is made up of litter which accumulates over time. Enough feeders, waterers and laying boxes are provided depending on the number of birds and space available. Movable roosts and perches made of timber frames should be provided in the house. Stress and vices should be watched closely and controlled. Eggs should be collected as frequently as possible to prevent dirt and egg eating. The house should be dimly lit. The floor space requirement should be 1m2 per 2-3 birds. AdvantagesHigh stocking rate per unit area of land. Low labour requirement. Fast accumulation of manure. There is control of feeding, egg production and movement of birds. Safety of the birds is guaranteed from predators. No loss of eggs. Useful method when rearing breeding stock. Regular cleaning of the house is not necessary since the litter absorbs the droppings. Easy collection of eggs. DisadvantagesHigh incidence of cannibalism like egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking. Pests and disease causing organisms accumulate in the litter. Individual records of the birds are not possible. May be difficult to find litter. Eggs become dirty if laid on the floor. Feeders and waterers may be contaminated by the litter. The system encourages broodiness in hens. High infestation of diseases if the management is below standard. If there is a disease outbreak, it can spread very quickly throughout the house due to the communal housing. High cost of building deep litter house. Battery Cage SystemBirds are confined in cages which are placed in the poultry house. The cages are made of wire mesh Each cage contains 1-3 birds. Water and feed troughs together with eggs trays are fitted along the front side of the cages. The floor of the cages should be slanting to allow the eggs to roll out of the cages. Droppings from the cages fall from behind for easy cleaning. AdvantagesRecords are easily kept therefore culling is easy. Birds do not become broody. More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete control of egg eating.


AdvantagesRecords are easily kept therefore culling is easy. Birds do not become broody. More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete control of egg eating. Tender meat is obtained from the culls because the muscles have not been toughened much. Handling is easier than in the other systems and individual attention to hens is given. Stocking rate is very high. Vices are greatly reduced. Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them. The system can easily be mechanised. Birds do not contaminate the food and water. Sick birds can be detected easily and isolated for treatment. Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidiosis. No bullying during feeding. Low labour requirement. DisadvantagesInitial costs for cages, equipment and house are excessively high. Requires high level of management. Higher maintenance costs where automation is used. Birds may get fatigue due to lack of exercises thus lowering productivity. In case of disease outbreak, spreading is very fast. Birds develop bruises on combs, breasts and toes as they stick their necks out-to feed and walk in the cages. Not useful when rearing breeding stock and the rearing of broilers. Cannot be used for brooding young chicks. Stress and Vices in ChickenStress is a condition imposed on the birds making them disturbed and uncomfortable. Stress reduces production and brings about poor performance. Vices are habits developed by animals. These affect production and health of the birds. Usually they are bad habits. Cause of Stress in PoultrySudden changes in routine management. Presence of strangers in the poultry house. Presence of animals and vermins. Too much noise. Constant and poor handling. Sudden weather changes. Disturbance of the pecking order. Overcrowding Poor hygiene. Disease and pest attack. Lack of food and water. Control of StressPoultry house should be kept quiet and constructed away from noise. Poultry house should be insulated to maintain constant temperatures. Parasites and diseases should be controlled. Change in routine management should be gradual. Enough feed and water should be provided. VicesFeather pecking. Cannibalism toe and vent pecking . Egg eating. Pecking and CannibalismSituation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury.


Cannibalism toe and vent pecking . Egg eating. Pecking and CannibalismSituation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury. Effects:Feather and body growth rate IS reduced. Loss of birds due to death may result from cannibalism. Culling rate is increased economic loss . The appearance of the carcass is spoiled thereby reducing its market value. Causes of CannibalismOvercrowding in the house. High temperatures in the poultry house making the birds uncomfortable. Too bright light. External parasite infestation. Inadequate and incorrect feeding. Idleness of the birds. Greediness of the birds. Disturbances of the pecking order. Prolapses of the rectum which occurs once in a while. Bright light in the lying boxes. Preventive MeasuresAmple spacing should be provided on the floor, feeders, waterers and laying boxes. Overheating should be avoided during brooding. The house should be dimly lit for the layers. Laying nests should be darkened and above the ground. Dusting should be done to control external parasites. Provide enough balanced ration. Birds should be kept busy. New strange birds should not be allowed in the house. Egg EatingA vice influenced by the following:Presence of broken or soft shelled eggs. Idleness of the birds. Inadequate laying nests. Mineral deficiencies. Bright light in the laying nests. Greediness of the birds. Preventive MeasuresEggs should be collected regularly. Laying boxes raised above the ground. Laying boxes should be darkened. Birds should be given balanced ration. Debeaking should be done as need be. Birds should be kept busy with greens. Birds should be kept according to age groups. Injured birds should be isolated and treated. Marketing of Poultry ProductsPoultry products include eggs and meat. Marketing of EggsEggs are delicate and perishable foods and have the highest value when fresh. The factors considered when sorting out and grading eggs for the market include:Size weight of the egg - large eggs fetch high prices than small ones. The average weight should be about 57gms. Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end. Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs. Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers.


Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end. Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs. Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers. Candling qualities - candling is done to determine freshness of the eggs and presence of any other egg abnormalities. Shell texture - should be smooth and without cracks. Poultry MeatBroilers are slaughtered at the age of 1-2.5months old with a life weight of 1.5-2kgs. The birds are killed and dressed in a clean way before being wrapped in clean bags ready for sale. The meat is sold in hotels and restaurants. Whole birds can be sold live in local markets. Livestock Production VI Cattle IntroductionCattle production is a widely distributed enterprise in Kenya. Most farming communities choose between the exotic and the' local breeds or their crosses depending on the environmental conditions. Whereas the backbone of beef industry in Kenya is made up of the indigenous animals and their crosses, and based in the somewhat drier areas, the-dairy industry is mainly based on the exotic breeds and their crosses and common in the wetter regions of Kenya. Whatever production undertaken, the returns depend mostly on the management levels provided to these animals. A productive herd starts with good management of the young stock. Raising of Young Stock. The young one of cattle is known as a calf. Feeding Dairy CalvesNewborn calves should be given colostrums within the first 3-5 days of their life. Colostrum is important for the following reasons:It is highly digestible. It contains antibiotics. It is highly nutritious. It serves as a laxative. It is highly palatable. Calves can be fed using natural method direct suckling or artificially bucket feeding. Natural MethodIn this method, calves suckle the mother directly. AdvantagesThe calf takes milk at body temperature. The milk is free from contaminants. Less problems of scouring. DisadvantagesUnderfeeding of the calf may result. Cows may not let down milk in case the calf dies. Difficult to keep accurate production records. Artificial Bucket FeedingThe calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. The calf is trained as follows:Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket. Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf.


Artificial Bucket FeedingThe calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. The calf is trained as follows:Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket. Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf. The head of the calf is lowered slowly into the bucket until the calf starts to drink the milk. The finger is withdrawn slowly as the calf continues to drink from the bucket. The procedure is repeated until the calf gets used to the process. AdvantagesEasy to keep accurate production record milk yields of the cow. Possible to regulate the amount of milk given to the calfThe cow does not need the presence of the calf in order to let down milkEasy to maintain high hygiene standards. DisadvantagesLaboriousCalf may be given cold milkEquipment used and the stockman may be dirty leading to scoursPreparation of artificial colostrumsIngredients usedA fresh egg whipped in 0.86 litres of warm waterLitre of warm waterOne teaspoonful of cod liver oilOne tablespoonful of castor oilNote; colostrums is fed to the calves three times a day for the first 4 days of life and thereafter twice a day. Weaning of calvesEarly weaningCalf is fed on whole milk up to the tenth week then it is weanedCalf is given milk equal to 10 of its body weight up to the 8th weekAfter 8th week, milk is reduced gradually by 1 kg until weaning Calf is given early weaning concentrates and soft forageEarly Weaning GuideLate weaningCalf is fed on whole milk up to the 3rd week, when milk is replaced gradually with skim milk. At the age of 3weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets or pencils and green fodder. The calf is given plenty of clean water. The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when maximum amount of milk is given. Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done. Late weaning guideRearing of replacement stockThe replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to replace the old stock. Management PracticeParasite control-Spraying against external parasites and deworming against internal parasites.


Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done. Late weaning guideRearing of replacement stockThe replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to replace the old stock. Management PracticeParasite control-Spraying against external parasites and deworming against internal parasites. Disease control-Calves are vaccinated routinely against diseases such as;Blackquater-at 4 months old. Anthrax and Blackquater at 6 months oldBrucellosis - 3-8 months old heifers . Castration - for male calves not selected for breeding. Identification - Suitable methods are used. It allows proper record keeping. Removal of Extra Teats ;These teats are known as supernumerary teats which make milking of the animal difficult. They are clipped off with teat clippers. Dehorning Disbudding - The removal of horn buds using suitable methods. Calf HousingRequirement of a Calf Pen;Should be clean and easy to clean. Be warm and dry. Have adequate space to allow exercise and feeding. Should be properly lit and allow sunlight for Vitamin D. Have proper drainage to avoid dampness. Draught free to prevent chilling. Be well ventilated to allow fresh air. Types of PensThese can be;permanentmobile movable. Permanent PensHave a solid floor raised above the ground. The floor should be slanted for drainage. Constructed near the milking parlour. Mobile Movable PensHave an open floor to allow grass into the pen. Easily moved from one place to another to avoid soiling. Kept outdoors in the pastures to allow the calf to nibble on pastures. Single HousingCalves should be housed singly up to the age of 3 weeks, when they are put in group pens. This is to avoid them licking each other and swallowing hairs which form indigestible balls. Milk and MilkingMilk is the white lacteal substance secreted by the mammary glands of the female mammals. Composition of MilkProtein - Casein and whey. Fat - Butter fat. Carbohydrates - LactoseMinerals - mainly calcium and phosphorus. WaterFactors Affecting Milk CompositionAge of the animal. Conditions of the animal. Stage of lactation and pregnancy. Completeness of milking. Type of breed. Season of the year.


Completeness of milking. Type of breed. Season of the year. Type of food eaten. Physiological conditions such as diseases. Milk Secretion and Milk Let-downMilk is secreted by the mammary glands which is an accessory gland of the reproductive system. The mammary gland of a cow is known as an udder. Structure of the UdderThe udder is composed of the following parts:Alveolus cells - synthesize and secrete milk. Lobule - a group of alveolus cells. Lobe - Several lobules grouped together and drained by lactiferous ducts. Gland cistern - space where milk collects from the lobes. Teat cistern - A space where milk collects before emission. Teat -An organ which drains each quarter of the udder. Milk SecretionThe process of milk secretion is known as lactogenesis. The digested food is taken to the udder via blood vessels. In the udder the nutrients are carried into the alveoli cells where metabolic reactions take place to build up these nutrients into milk. A hormone prolactine is secreted by pituitary gland which brings about lactogenesis. The milk secreted is then stored in the upper parts of the udder waiting to be released. Milk Let -DownThe process of milk let-down occurs naturally when the animal is stimulated. Milk secreted moves from alveolar region through the ducts to the gland cistern. Oxytocin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland causes the contraction of the udder muscles forcing the milk down the teats. Oxytocin hormone lasts 7 -10 minutes in the blood stream hence fast milking is important to withdraw the milk. Milk is withdrawn from the teats by gently squeezing them. Factors Influencing Milk Let-DownPresence of the calf. Presence of the milkman milker. Rattling of the milk equipment. Site of the food feeding the animal. Massaging or washing the udder. Sight of the milk parlour. Factors Inhibiting Milk Let-DownBeating the animal inflicting pain to the animal. Presence of strangers and animals for example dogs. Poor milking techniques. Absence of the calf in case the cow is used to it .


Presence of strangers and animals for example dogs. Poor milking techniques. Absence of the calf in case the cow is used to it . Clean Milk ProductionThe following factors are essential for clean milk production:A healthy lactating cow. A healthy and clean milker. Clean and properly constructed milking parlour. Clean and disinfected milking equipment. Proper handling of the milk after milking. Milking ProcedureThe animals are brought near the milking parlour 15-20 minutes before milking to get into the mood of being milked. Milking materials such as equipment, feeds, ropes, stools and salve are collected and placed near the milking parlour. The animals are allowed into the milking stall one by one as the milking proceeds as follows:The animal is restrained in the stall. Feed is weighed and placed into the feed trough. The udder is thoroughly washed, disinfected and dried with a clean cloth. A strip cup is used to test for mastitis on each quarter. Milking proceeds by squeezing the teats with the full hand. If machine milking the teat cups are placed on the teats. For hand milking start with the hindquarters and finish with the forequarters. Fast milking should take about 8 minutes then end with stripping the udder. The milk is weighed and recorded. The animal is then released. Dry Cow TherapyThis is the infusion of antibiotics into the teat canal of a cow that is preparing for drying off. It prevents bacterial infection which leads to mastitis. Milk ProductsPasteurized milk - milk that is heated and cooled immediately. Ultra Heat Treated UHT - milk heated to a temperature of 130-135C, packed and then cooled. Butter - Milk butter fat separated by a process known as churning. Cream -A layer of is: that collects at the top of the milk when left to stand. Cheese - Milk proteins which have been compressed. Ghee - Milk fat made from heating cream or butter. Skim milk - Milk without butter fat. Marketing of MilkThe Kenya Dairy Board regulates the production and sale of milk and milk products through various Dairy Co-operative Societies. Processors and distributors of milk and milk products include; o KCC, o Brookside Dairies, o Tuzo, o Delamere Dairies o Limuru Dairies.


Skim milk - Milk without butter fat. Marketing of MilkThe Kenya Dairy Board regulates the production and sale of milk and milk products through various Dairy Co-operative Societies. Processors and distributors of milk and milk products include; o KCC, o Brookside Dairies, o Tuzo, o Delamere Dairies o Limuru Dairies. Marketing of BeefDone by the following:Individual fanners through the local slaughter house. Livestock marketing division. Kenya Meat Commission. Farmer's Choice. Farm Power and MachineryIntroductionFarm power is any form of energy used in the farm to do work. . Sources of Farm PowerHuman PowerPerforms light tasks. Quality of work produced is variable. Takes a long time to complete a task. Animal PowerDone by draught animals such as camels, donkeys, horses and elephants. Used in land preparation and transportation. DisadvantagesSlow. Animals are liable to sickness and get tired. Need enough food. Wind PowerTo pump water from boreholes. To winnow crops such as beans, finger millet and rice. Generate electricity. DisadvantagesNot easy to control and may not be available when needed. Water Power Irrigation. Grinding mills to grind maize grains . DisadvantagesDifficult to use in the farm because it is not easy to control. BiomasThis includes: wood or charcoal biogas power. Charcoal Wood Fuel EnergyUsesProvides heat for boiling water and cooking. Dehydrating of some crops. Curing of tobacco. DisadvantagesExhaustible. It cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Large quantities are required. They are bulky hence difficult to transport. BiogasUsesProvides heat and light for cooking, boiling water and lighting. Produces electricity. DisadvantagesOnly possible where there are animals under zero grazing unit. It is labour-consuming. Large quantities of dung are required. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Fossil FuelsThese include:coal, petroleum oils natural gas. UsesPetrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines to produce power. Kerosene is the main source of power to light rural homes. Natural gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting.


UsesPetrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines to produce power. Kerosene is the main source of power to light rural homes. Natural gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting. Electrical PowerIt includes:hydro-electrical power HEP ,geothermal,nuclearpower stored in batteries. Nuclear energy is a potential source of power which has not yet been used in the farms. Uses of Electrical PowerRuns stationary machines such as milling machines, grinding mills, cooling machines and water pumps. Supplies heat and light for operations of brooders. DisadvantagesCannot be used directly in some farm operations. Lack of electricity in the rural areas. Power failures can lead to high losses. It is costly to install and maintain. Solar EnergyEnergy obtained from the sun. UsesProvides heat and light. Used by all the plants in photosynthesis. Dehydrating crops such as vegetables, maize grains, beans and hay. Boils water which drives turbines to produce power for minor uses. DisadvantageLow concentration of energy on cloudy days. Expensive In collecting and concentrating equipment. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Requires skilled labour to install and maintain. TractorThe tractor has an internal combustion engine which burns petrol or diesel to produce power. This power is then passed to the gear box from where it is transmitted in various ways. The common tractor engine is a four stroke cycle engine. The four strokes are:Induction stroke. Compression stroke. Power stroke. Exhaust stroke. Induction StrokePiston moves down. Inlet valve opens. Fuel and air get into the cylinder. Compression StrokeInlet valve is closed. Piston moves up the cylinder. Fuel-air mixture is compressed. Power StrokeA spark is produced at spark plug, igniting the fuel-air mixture. The increased pressure forces the piston down the cylinder. Exhaust Stroke Exhaust valve opens. Piston moves up the cylinder. Burned fuel-air mixture expelled. Advantages of the Four Stroke EnginesProduce high power which can do heavy farm work. Have efficient fuel and oil utilization. Perform a wide range of farm operations. Are effectively cooled with water thus allowing the production of large engine size. Exhaust gasses are effectively expelled from the cylinders.


Perform a wide range of farm operations. Are effectively cooled with water thus allowing the production of large engine size. Exhaust gasses are effectively expelled from the cylinders. DisadvantagesAre expensive to buy and maintainTheir use is limited in some areas;Tractor can only be used on flat or gently sloping areasRequire skilled personnel and support servicesThe Two Stroke EnginesFound in small machines such as mowers, motor bikes, and water pumps which do light jobs in the farm. All the cycles are completed in two strokes of the piston. These strokes are;Induction and compression strokeThe piston is at the bottomPiston moves up uncovering the inlet portFuel-air mixure is drawn inIgnition occurs when the piston reaches the topPiston is forced downward compressing the mixture in the crank. Power and exhaust strokeThe piston is at the topIgnited gases produce pressure which force the piston downwardsThe piston covers the inlet port and traps fresh fuel-air mixture in the crank casePiston moves further down to uncover the exhaust portFuel-air mixture transferred from the crankcase to the combustion chamber. What Advantages of two stroke engine? Cheap to buy and easy to maintainEconomical in fuel consumptionCan be used in a wide range of farmland, including hilly areasCan do small tasks in the farm which would be un-economical to do using the four stroke engine. What disadvantages of two stroke engine? They produce less power hence cannot be used for heavy duties. They are inefficient in burning fuel to produce power. They are air cooled thus limiting the size of the engine. Systems of a TractorThe modern tractor has the following systems:The fuel system. Electrical systemIgnition systemCooling systemPower transmission system. The Fuel SystemSupplies fuel to the engine. Categorized into two types depending on the fuel used. These are:The petrol fuel system. The diesel fuel systemThe Petrol Fuel SystemConsists of:Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel filter - removes foreign particles from the fuel. Carburettor atomises fuel into spray. Introduces fuel-air mixture into the engines. Regulates fuel-air into suitable proportions. Fuel pump - forces fuel into the carburettor. Delivery pipe - connects all the devices. MaintenanceCleaning the carburettor regularly. Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol. Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap.


MaintenanceCleaning the carburettor regularly. Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol. Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap. The Diesel Fuel SystemConsists of:Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel injection pump - pumps diesel through injection nozzles and breaks into fine spray. Fuel filters - remove foreign particles from the fuel. Delivery pipes - connect the various devices. MaintenanceReplacing the fuel filter. Bleeding in case air is trapped in the system. Cleaning the sediment bowl regularly. Structural and Functional Differences Between Petrol and Diesel EnginesbElectrical SystemConsists of the following:BatteryConverts chemical energy into electrical energy. Stores electrical energy produced by the runningIgnition circuit - provide the electrical required by the spark plugs. Current that produces a spark in the engine. Generator circuit - provide the electrical current that starts the engine. Lighting circuit - supply the electrical current required for the lighting system. Starter motor circuit - starts the engine. Care and Maintenance of a Tractor BatteryThe level of electrolyte should be kept just above the plate by topping with distilled water. Corroded terminals should be scrapped clean and smeared with grease. The battery should be tightly fixed in a box to avoid spillage and damage. The battery should be fitted correctly on the tractor. The battery should be charged regularly and periodically. In case of long storage the battery contents should be kept upside down. The generator fan belt should always be functional to ensure the battery is always charged. Ignition SystemConsists of:Ignition - change the low voltage from the battery to high voltage current required by the spark plugs. Condenser - absorbs the self-induced current in the primary circuit. Stores current for a short time. Passes electric current to the distributor. Distributor - distributes the high voltage current to the spark plugs. Contact breaker - Interrupts the normal flow of current in the primary circuit. State the Maintenance practices carried on the Ignition SystemThe carbon deposits on the spark plug electrodes should be removed. The spark plugs whose electrodes are worn out should be replaced. The contact breaker points should be cleaned. The breaker points should be adjusted so that they lie between O.30mm and 0.50mm. The condenser should be replaced regularly. The ignition systems should always be kept dry. Ignition wires with poor insulation should be replaced. Cooling SystemThe cooling system aims at preventing the engine from overheating which would cause piston zeisure in the cylinder.


The ignition systems should always be kept dry. Ignition wires with poor insulation should be replaced. Cooling SystemThe cooling system aims at preventing the engine from overheating which would cause piston zeisure in the cylinder. Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others are cooled by water. State the Characteristics of Air Cooled EnginesThey are simple in construction. They have fins and a fan blade which assists the circulation. They are light in weight for they have no radiators and water jackets. LimitationsThey get hot quickly and use heavy lubricating oil. The cooling is not adequate under all conditions especially when carrying heavy loads. Water Cooled SystemsIt consists of the radiator, water jackets, water hoses, water pump, thermostat and a fanning mechanism. Water is used to absorb heat from the engine block at a reasonable rate. Care and Maintenance of Water Cooling systemThe water pumps should be lubricated regularly. Clean water should be used in the radiator and trash removed from the fins. All pipes should be fitted tightly to avoid blockage. The radiator should be filled with clean water before starting the day's work. Fan belt tension should be checked regularly and if too tight or too loose should be adjusted accordingly. Lubrication SystemThis system is aimed at supplying oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur. Importance of Lubrication systemIt helps to increase the efficiency of the machine and reduces the rate of wear and tear of moving parts. It reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces and acts as a seal between them. It acts as a cleaning agent because it washes off all the dust, dirt, soot and metal chippings from the oil paths to the sump. Types of Lubrication Systems;Splash feed typeForce feed typeOil mist typeTypes of LubricantsSAE 10 - This is thin engine oil which gives little protection when heated. SAE 50 - This is thicker engine oil which is recommended for protecting the bearings. SAE 90 - 100 - These are transmission oils which are recommended for clutch, gear box, wheel lubrication and ball bearings. Note: SAE - Society of Automobile Engines. Care and Maintenance of Lubrication SystemsOld or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication. Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump. The oil filters should be replaced when necessary.


Care and Maintenance of Lubrication SystemsOld or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication. Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump. The oil filters should be replaced when necessary. The correct type of oil should be used as per the manufacturers' instructions. Power Transmission SystemThe function of this system is to transfer power from the tractor engine to the drive shaft, the wheel axle, the power take off shaft and the hydraulic system. The system consists of the clutch, gear box, differential and the final drive. The power transmitted from the engine is made available for use through the following:The propeller shaft - it connects the gear box to the differential. The power take off shaft PTO shaft -It is located at the rear part of the tractor and rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft of the engine. Hydraulic system - it is operated by the use of a lever near the drivers seat. It is connected to the 3-point linkage and helps to lower or raise implements mounted on the 3-point linkages such as ploughs, mowers, planters and sprayers. Draw bar It is a one-point linkage at the rear part of the tractor. It serves for the attachment of trailed implements that can be used during harrowing, transportation or rolling. Tractor ServicingThe aim of tractor servicing is to keep the tractor in good and efficient working conditions. Tractor servicing is either;shortlong term. List the Short Term Tractor ServicingIt includes:Checking the engine oil daily by use of a dip stick. If the oil level is low, it should be added. The fuel level should be checked at the start of every day's work and added if necessary. Water level in the radiator should be checked and if possible topped up. The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily and topped up with distilled water accordingly. Nuts and bolts should be tightened every day. Lost nuts and bolts should be replaced before the day's work. Grease should be applied by use of grease gun through the nipples. Large sediments from the sediments bowl should be removed. The tyre pressure should be checked daily before the day's work. The fan belt tension should be checked to ensure that it deflects between 1.9cm and 2.5cm when pushed. The brake shaft bearing should be greased. The brake fluid level is maintained at the recommended level.


The fan belt tension should be checked to ensure that it deflects between 1.9cm and 2.5cm when pushed. The brake shaft bearing should be greased. The brake fluid level is maintained at the recommended level. Long Term ServicesThe engine oil should be drained completely from the oil sump and replaced with new oil. The gear box oil should be checked and refilled as recommended. The oil in the differential should be replaced as recommended. The linkage and the pulley attachment should be greased. The pulley oil level should be checked and added if need be. The dirty oil should be removed and replaced with clean one. Farm MachineryTractor Drawn ImplementsThese are implements which are attached to the tractor during operation. State the two categories. Tractor Drawn ImplementsOne-point hitch implements ;Are attached to the tractor at only one point that is, the draw bar. They include all trailed implements such as the trailers, heavy harrows, planters and rollers. Three point hitch implements;Are implements attached to the tractor at three points that is, the top linkage point and two lower linkage points. They are operated by the hydraulic system. They include ploughs, most harrows, subsoiler, planters, mower, ridgers, sprayers and rotavators. TrailersThey are one-point hitch implements. They are used for transportation of goods. Small ones have two wheels while big ones have four wheels. MaintenanceAll the moving parts should be lubricated. Tyre pressure should be adjusted to the correct pressure. Worn out tyres should be replaced. Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened, worn-out ones should be replaced. The implements should be kept under a shed during long storage. PloughsThey are primary tillage implements. The common type of ploughs include:Disc ploughs. Mould board ploughs. Disc ploughsIt is made up of heavy steel concave discs of 60-70cm diameter. Parts and Functions of a disc plough The hitchmast:Is an attachment for the three point hitch. Made up of two side links and a top link. These are parts connected to hydraulic system of a tractor for lifting and pulling. The beam: Supports all other parts. It also adds weight for better penetration. Depth wheel:Used when driving on highway, it also controls the depth of ploughing. May not be present in all disc ploughs.


It also adds weight for better penetration. Depth wheel:Used when driving on highway, it also controls the depth of ploughing. May not be present in all disc ploughs. The standard or leg: Connects the discs to the beam. The hub: Allows the discs to rotate smoothly hence does the cutting of furrow slices. The scrapers: Remove the trash and mud or soil which cling to the discs, Disc blades: Cut and invert the furrow slices. Rear furrow wheel: Controls the depth of digging and stabilises the discs. Adjustment . The cutting angle should be adjusted at 35 - 50 from the I ine of travel. Achieved by pivoting the beam or the standard. Depth of digging: This is corrected by changing the height of depth wheel or adjusting hydraulic system and adding weights. Care and Maintenance of Disc PloughCheck for loose nuts and bolts and replace them. Sharpen the disc blades if blunt. Lubricate the rotating parts by use of oil grease to reduce friction. Paint the exposed parts for example the beam framework. Clean the implement at the end of each day's work before storage. Store the implements in a shed. The unpainted parts should be coated with old engine oil to prevent rust. Uses of a Disc PloughUsed in areas with the following conditions:Virgin land with many obstacles. Land with too much trash or tall vegetation. Opening up pasture land. Mouldboard ploughsThis primary tillage implement is suited in areas without obstacles such as stones, tree stumps, and roots. It gives a uniform depth of ploughing. Parts and Functions Mouldboard ploughsShare: This makes the horizontal cut and starts the turning of the furrow slices. Mouldboard: Continues the turning of the furrow slices and pulverizes the soil. Disc coulter: Makes a vertical cut in the soil to separate the furrow slice from the un-ploughed land. Skim coulter: Removes any trash from between the furrow slices. Frog: It is the part where the share, mould board and the landside are attached. Landside: Stabilizes the plough and absorbs the side forces created when furrow is turned. Shin: Leading edge of a mouldboard. Knife coulter: Is a vertical knife which cuts trash and earth ahead of the share.


Landside: Stabilizes the plough and absorbs the side forces created when furrow is turned. Shin: Leading edge of a mouldboard. Knife coulter: Is a vertical knife which cuts trash and earth ahead of the share. Care and MaintenanceLubricate the rolling parts for example wheel bearings and disc coulter bearings. Paint scratched parts of the plough. Sharpen the share or replace if worn out. Check all loose nuts and bolts and replace where necessary. Clean the implement after each day's work to remove soil, mud and trash. For long storage, keep under a shed and apply lubricants. AdjustmentDepth:Controlled by raising or lowering the depth wheel. Controlled by hydraulic control lever setting. Pi tch: controlled by altering the length of the top link. Front furrow width: Controlled by cross shaft adjustment lever or by rotating the cross shaft crank. Lateral levelling: Controlled by tractor lift rod. Operational differences between a disc and a mouldboardHarrowsThey are secondary cultivation implements. There are different types of harrows. The common ones are:disc, Harrowsspring tine Harrows spike tooth harrows. Disc HarrowsIt comprises of a set of gangs with concave discs. UsesMixing the soil particles. Levelling the seedbed by breaking large lumps of soil. Killing weeds. Disk harrows can be classified according to the arrangement of the gangs such a;s tandem, double tandem offset tandem. Depth AdjustmentAdding weights on the harrows. Use of hydraulic force. Use of light or heavy harrows. Use of regulating wheels. Care and MaintenanceCheck for loose nuts and bolts daily. Lubricate the shafts and bearings. Clean and oil before storage. Spring Tine HarrowIs made up of flat and curved tines which act as springs. UsesLevels and smoothens the seedbed. Breaks the soil clods. Mixes trash and soil thus preventing wind erosion. Aerates the soil. A djustmentsDepth is controlled by the horizontal connecting link and depth wheel. For individual tine, use crossbar and loosening the screws. Care and MaintenanceCheck for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them if necessary. Clean after use. Oil the lever mechanism.


Care and MaintenanceCheck for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them if necessary. Clean after use. Oil the lever mechanism. S pike Tooth HarrowsConsists of a metal framework with rigid metal spikes which break up the soil by vigorously hitting large lumps of soils as it is pulled through the soil. UsesIt smoothens and compacts the soil. It breaks big lumps of soil into small particles. Can be used for cultivating small crops if well set. SubsoilersHeavy and require high horse power to pull. Ploughing depth of 51-90cm. F unctionsBreak up compacted soil. Break up the hardpan. Care and MaintenanceClean it after useCheck the point and if worn out, replace it. Oil when not in use. RidgerIt is double mould board plough used to make ridges and furrows. It is used to prevent water logging and draining through furrows for easy harvesting of root crops. RollersThis is an equipment used to compact the soil gently especially where tiny seeds are to be planted. Rotavators: Rotary cultivators Work on the principles of high speed of revolving flail blades which beat and cut the soil together with trash. It is an equipment for both primary and secondary tillage operations. It is driven by the P.T.O. shaft of a tractor. UsesBreaks up large soil particles into small ones. Mixes the vegetation and the soil. Achieves two operations in one pass. AdjustmentsForward speed of the tractor gives a fine tilth of the seedbed done through the gearbox. Depth of work done by control of depth wheel. Slip clutch may break in case the knives come across obstructionsMowersUsesCutting grass for hay or silage making, cutting overgrown grass clearing the field. Reciprocating MowerParts and FunctionsSwath stick: Keeps the cut crop falling correctly. Swath board: To remove the cut crop. Shoe: Has a runner to absorb the weight and wear. Cutter bar: Is a flat bar which guides the fingers. Wear plate: Counteracts downward force and holds the knives. AdjustmentsTo adjust knife register by moving the whole bar away or towards the yoke. Knife lead: The outer shoe should be adjusted to be outer than the inner shoe by 4cm. MaintenanceCheck for loose nuts and bolts and tighten where necessary.


AdjustmentsTo adjust knife register by moving the whole bar away or towards the yoke. Knife lead: The outer shoe should be adjusted to be outer than the inner shoe by 4cm. MaintenanceCheck for loose nuts and bolts and tighten where necessary. Keep knife section sharp. Lubricate the knife parts. Check knife to ledger plate cup for best cutting. Keep all the parts tight. Rotary MowersCutting edge consists of two blades fitted opposite to each other on horizontal disc. The cutting blades swing round at high speed horizontally to the ground hence cutting is effected. Adjustment and MaintenanceBlades should be sharp. Guards to be fitted around the blades to protect the operator from flying objects. Lubricate the P.T.O. shafts. Check the gear-box oil regularly and fill to the right level if necessary. PlantersThey are machines used for sowing seeds. There are two types:Row crop planters. Seed drills. Functions of the PlantersMeter the seed and fertilizers from seed and fertilizer hopper. Open the seed furrow. Deposit the seed in the furrow through the delivery tubes. Cover the seedFunctions of Parts of a Seed PlateFiller plate: gives proper seed depth. False ring: allows the seed to fall from the seed plate into the boot. Knockout pawl: pushes the seeds out of the cell by the roller action. Cut-off pawl: prevents more than one seed remaining in a plate cell. Cells: shaped holes to hold the seed. AdjustmentsAdjust the coulters depth for the right crop. Fix the right seed plate. Place the planter in the level position. All the shafts should be free to turn. Care and MaintenanceCheck all loose nuts, bolts and tighten them. Clean and oil the planter after use. Grease the drive sprockets regularly. SeedersThe grain drill sows grains of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans and alfalfa seeds. Parts that can be adjusted to change the sowing rate;Select the side of the feed wheel recommended on the drill charts for the seed-rate. Change the speed of the wheels by changing the gears or sprockets or both. Change the position of the feed gate in the cup. Use reducers below the feed wheel. Care and MaintenanceKeep seed and fertilizer hoppers dry and clean after each day's work. Check the drive shaft and lubricate them.