The milking utensils and equipment should be seamless and smooth to facilitate thorough cleaning. They should be washed with hot water and detergent. Keeping them in the sun during the day sterilises them. Milk filtration cooling and storage. Milk should be filtered and cooled to 50C after milking. Cooling slows down bacteria multiplication hence improved keeping quality. The milk should then be stored in a cool, dry and dust free room or delivered immediately to the market. Milking materials and equipmentUdder clothes towels. Two towels should be provided for each cow, one for washing and the other for drying. If the animals are many the towels are dipped in hot water or disinfected before they are used on another animal. Filtering pads. They are used for straining milk. Milking jelly. It is smeared on the teats after milking to prevent cracking. It should not be applied before or during milking. Warm water. For washing the udder before milking. It also stimulates the milk let down process. Milking pails bucket. Should be made of materials that are free of copper and iron traces. Strip cup. For detecting mastitis. Milk cans churns. Used to hold milk during storage and transportation. Should also be made of materials that are free of copper or iron on their surfaces. Other equipment. Cooling apparatus, milking stool and weighing scale. The milking procedureMilking can be done either by hand or machine depending on the scale of farming. The following are the stages in milking. Pre-milking procedure. Milking materials and equipment are made available and within reach of the milkman. The cow is restrained in the milking parlour and given food. The udder is washed, dried and mastitis is checked. Milking technique. The proper method or technique should be used to extract as much milk as possible. Procedure of proper milking. In hand milking the teat is grasped tightly at its base between the thumb and the forefinger and the other three fingers are closed in tightly applying the pressure from the top to the bottom forcing the milk to drain out. When the force is applied rhythmically, on the teat muscles, the orifice opens and milk is released. The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent the backflow of milk into the gland cistern. Teats should not be stripped or pulled with fingers. The following rules should be observed.


The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent the backflow of milk into the gland cistern. Teats should not be stripped or pulled with fingers. The following rules should be observed. Milk quickly and evenly. The effect of oxytocin lasts for 5-8 minutes hence milking should be quick and efficient. Milk at regular times. Cows are usually milked twice a day at approximately 12 hours interval. Milking should be done the same time in the morning and evenings. High yielding cows may be milked thrice per day. Avoid use of wet hands. The milkman should dry his hands after cleaning the udder. Complete milking. All the milk should be removed during milking. Incomplete removal of milk leading to the cow drying off too soon and total milk yield per lactation is reduced. Post milking practicesThese include weighing, recording, straining, cooling and storing it, cleaning the utensils and washing the milking parlour. Dry Cow TherapyThis is the administration of antibiotics to an in-calf cow in its late gestation period to control mastitis during the drying off period. The antibiotic penicillin is infused into the under through the teat canal using a syringe. MILK PRODUCTSThey include the following;Homogenized and pasteurized milk. Homogenization is the process by which the fat globules in milk are broken down into smaller particles and are the distributed evenly in the milk. Pasteurization involves heating the milk and the cooling it suddenly. This destroys most of the harmful bacteria in the milk. Homogenized and pasteurized milk is prepared and packed by KCC, Brookside, Tuzo, Delamere Dairies and Egerton Dairies etc. This milk is marketed as whole milk. Ultra Heat Treated UHT Milk. This is milk which has been treated at a temperature between 130 and 1350C for one second and then immediately packed and cooled. This milk has a long shelf life without refrigeration. It is marketed as whole milk. Cream. This is the layer of fat on the surface of the milk. It is separated from the raw milk either mechanically by use of machine separator or by hands. The machine separator spins the milk rapidly so that the centrifugal force that is created separates the fat globules from the rest of the milk. Skim milk. This is milk without cream.


The machine separator spins the milk rapidly so that the centrifugal force that is created separates the fat globules from the rest of the milk. Skim milk. This is milk without cream. It is used in the manufacture of fat free milk powder. Butter. Butter is milk fat lacking non-fat solids and is obtained by churning cream in a churn. Butter contains 80 fat, 16-20 water and 1-1.5 non fat solids. Ghee. It s prepared by either heating cream or butter in order to remove moisture and non fat solids. Ghee contains 100 fat and is mainly used for cooking. Curd. It is prepared by leaving whole or skim milk unprotected to coagulate as a result of bacteria in the environment. Cheese. Cheese is consolidated curd. It obtained by compressing milk curd until the moisture is drained out. Cheese has an elastic texture. Acids, enzymes and salts are added to it. Powdered milk. This is milk prepared by drying the whole milk or skimmed milk and converting it into powder. Yoghurt. This is thickened flavoured milk. It is slightly acidic. The thickening is done by adding certain bacteria and food flavours to the milk. Other milk products include ice-cream and condensed milk. Marketing of MilkMilk in Kenya is mainly carried out through cooperative societies e.g. KCC, Tuzo, Brookside etc. The sale of milk in Kenya is regulated by the Kenya Dairy Board. Pricing is based on the quantity processed. Farmers also sell their fresh milk directly to consumers and other middlemen. Problems facing Dairy Farmers in Marketing MilkMilk is highly perishable and so needs cold storage facilities which most farmers cannot afford. Transportation problems. Certain milk producing areas are in accessible due to poor road network. This may delay milk delivery hence milk spoilage. Special containers are required for handling of milk some of which are expensive. Lack of market information on milk price and other existing marketing opportunities. Price fluctuationsDelayed payments to farmersMarketing of Beef CattleIn Kenya there are three channels through which Kenyan beef farmers can market their products. A Kenya Meat Commission KMC This is a statutory body mandated by the parliament to buy animals from the farmers, process and sell the meat products. The slaughter houses for KMC are located in Athi River, Ngong and Mombasa. B Livestock Marketing Division.


A Kenya Meat Commission KMC This is a statutory body mandated by the parliament to buy animals from the farmers, process and sell the meat products. The slaughter houses for KMC are located in Athi River, Ngong and Mombasa. B Livestock Marketing Division. LMD This is a division in the Ministry of Livestock Development that is involved with the marketing of livestock especially those from arid and semi arid areas. The livestock division has built holding yards for the farmers to bring their animals for auction. C Local Slaughter HousesThese are specially constructed houses with all the slaughter facilities. Butchers buy animals either directly from farmers or from Livestock Marketing Division and take them to the slaughter houses for slaughter after which they sell meat to consumers through their butcheries. Price of meat is majorly dependent on market situations. PRODUCTION ECONOMICSThe country s income can be expressed through the following ways. Gross Domestic ProductGross National IncomePer Capita IncomeGross Domestic Product GNP This is the sum total of all the goods and the services produced by the residents of a country within a period of one year. The residents are either citizens or foreigners who have invested in that country. The foreigners however remit their income to their home countries hence there is income outflow. Gross National Income. GNI This is the sum total of all goods and services in monetary terms produced by the nationals of a given country within a year regardless of their country of operation. The nationals of a given country may invest or seek employment in foreign countries. These nationals remit their interests, profits and income to their home countries. There is therefore income inflow to their country. The difference between income inflow and income outflow added to the GDP gives the GNI Income inflow income outflow GDP GNIPer Capita IncomeThis is the average per head in a country. It is obtained by dividing the gross national income of a country by the country s total population. Per Capita Income GNITotal populationPer capita income is not a good measure of the economic well being of the people in a country due to the uneven distribution of the income. Contribution of Agriculture to National DevelopmentFood supplySource of income and capitalSource of raw materials to industriesMarket for industrial goodsCreation of employmentSource of revenue to governmentForeign exchange earner.


It is obtained by dividing the gross national income of a country by the country s total population. Per Capita Income GNITotal populationPer capita income is not a good measure of the economic well being of the people in a country due to the uneven distribution of the income. Contribution of Agriculture to National DevelopmentFood supplySource of income and capitalSource of raw materials to industriesMarket for industrial goodsCreation of employmentSource of revenue to governmentForeign exchange earner. Factors of ProductionLandSolid part of the earth where capital can be placed. Land is scarce and is valued depending on the followingThe ability to produce crops and livestock. This is based on land productivity and not size. Land productivity is determined by the soil fertility and climatic conditions of an area. Land productivity can be improved by fertilizer application, irrigation, proper tillage, soil and water conservation etc. The space for construction of the farm buildings, agro-industries, urban centres and infrastructure. All these structures are important in agricultural production. Farmers can acquire land through the following methods. InheritanceBuyingLeasing from landlordsAllocation by the government through settlement schemes. Labour. This refers to the human physical and mental services employed in the production process. Labour is considered on the basis of the output of an individual and not on the number of people employed. The work output of labour is expressed in terms of the amount of the work done within a specified period e.g. man hours or man days. Types of labourFamily labourIt consists of the farmer and members of his family. The tasks are assigned according to the age and ability of the family members. Hired labour. Its labour employed outside the family. It can be permanent or casual. Casual labour is normally engaged at labour peaks e.g. during harvesting, planting weeding etc. Permanent labour is normally hired on monthly basis. How to Improve labour ProductivityTraining. Done formally through schools and colleges or informally through field days, agricultural shows, demonstration farms, workshops etc. Farm mechanization. Mechanization makes farm operations to be faster and efficient. Giving incentives and improving the terms and conditions of service. They include provision of housing, medical facilities, rewarding good workers and better remuneration. All these motivate labour to work hard and efficiently. Labour supervision. This improves efficiency and productivity of labour. Assigning tasks based on abilities and promoting specialization.


Labour supervision. This improves efficiency and productivity of labour. Assigning tasks based on abilities and promoting specialization. This helps workers to know clearly their duties and responsibilities making them more efficient and accountable. CapitalThese are the assets that are essential in the production process. In agricultural production, capital includes tools and equipment, farm inputs, farm machines and money. Without capital all other factors of production will be of no importance. Types of CapitalLiquid capital. This is money and can be easily converted into other forms of capitalWorking capital. These are raw materials used for production. They are normally consumed completely in the production process e.g. Fertilizers, pesticides, fuel, feedstuffs etc. Fixed or durable capital. These are assets employed in the production process but are not used up completely in the process. Fixed assets only depreciate in value due to wear and tear and age. They include farm buildings, farm machinery, permanent crops etc. Sources of CapitalCredit facilities. Credit may be obtained from commercial banks, cooperatives, statutory boards eg. AFC, private organisations etc. Self savingsFree grantsInheritanceNB the higher the quality of the capital, the more the production. E.g. 10kg of hybrid seeds produce more yield than 10kg of ordinary seeds. Management. It s the process of planning and decision making in the organization of the other factors of production to minimize costs and maximize profit output. Functions of a managerShort term planningLong term planningInformation gatheringKeeping farm recordsImplementing farm management decisionsFinding ways of overcoming constraintsDetermining the production efficiency of his enterprise. Managerial Guideline QuestionsWhat to produce. This is determined by factors such as market demands, cultural values of thepeople, ecological factors and government policy. How much to produce. Determined by factors such as land, capital, labour force etc. How to produce. Determined by available techniques of production acquired through training andexperience. When to produce. Determined by the season when the crops or livestock perform well or whenthe market is available. For whom to produce. Determined by the demand and the price of the product. Qualities of a Good Farm ManagerFlexible in his decisions to adjust to the dynamic economic trends. Hardworking and time consciousKnowledgeable about agricultural principles such as practical farming skills, marketing and accounting. Responsible, dynamic, competent, ambitious and focused.


Qualities of a Good Farm ManagerFlexible in his decisions to adjust to the dynamic economic trends. Hardworking and time consciousKnowledgeable about agricultural principles such as practical farming skills, marketing and accounting. Responsible, dynamic, competent, ambitious and focused. Ways of Promoting Farm Management SkillsTraining managersCarrying out research on farm managementTeaching agriculture in schools and forming 4k and YFCThe production FunctionThis is the physical relationship between inputs and products. It shows the quantity of output that may be expected from a give combination of inputs. Types of InputsVariable inputsFixed inputs. Variable InputsThey vary with the level of production. They include labour force, fertilizers, seeds, feeds, fuel, pesticides, livestock, drugs etc. Characteristics of variable inputsThey change in quantity required with the level of production. Are added to fixed inputs for productionTheir cost value depends on the kind and quantity used. Are usually allocated to specific enterprisesTheir cost Value is used to calculate the gross margins of various farm inputs. Fixed InputsThese do not vary with the level of production. They include farm machinery, permanent labour etc. Characteristics of Fixed InputsThey have fixed cost i.e. are constantThey do not vary with the level of production. Their costs are not normally allocated to specific enterprises or product. Input Output RelationshipsExample 1A farmer has a land fixed at one hectareSuppose the maize seed is varied from 0kg to 25kgThe maize yield will therefore vary with the respective seed rates as shown belowExample 2Suppose land and maize seed rate inputs are fixed at 1 ha and 25 kg respectively. The nitrogen fertilizer is applied at different rates. The following relationship is realized. Plot the a line graph of CAN input against Maize outputLand and seed rate are fixed at 1 hectare and 25 kg respectively. CAN fertiliser is varied at 20 kg unitsMaize yield increases as shown by the total product curveMarginal product is the additional return realised above the previous total product as a result of the marginal input. E.g. when 100kg of CAN fertiliser are used, the marginal product is 6 bags. I.e. 42-36 6Marginal inputs are additional inputs above the previous input.


When 100kg of CAN fertiliser are used, the marginal product is 6 bags. I.e. 42-36 6Marginal inputs are additional inputs above the previous input. Types of production functionsIncreasing returns production functionConstant returns production functionDecreasing returns production functionIncreasing Returns Production FunctionIn this type of a function, each additional unit of input results in a larger increase in output than the preceding unit of input. This is a rare production in agriculture. It is usually experienced in the initial low levels of inputs application as in fertilizers, seedrate, and animal concentrates etc. ExampleEgg production from individual birds with varying amounts of layers mash. Draw a graph of amount of layers mash input against total egg production output Constant Returns Production FunctionIn this case, the output increases at the same rate for each additional unit of input. The returns are constant to the input factor. This function is very rare in agriculture due to presence of other factors that influence agriculture such as climate, human factors, pests and diseases. It is only common in industries. E.g. Production of loavesDraw a graph of input against output. The PF curve is a straight lineThe slope of the curve remains the sameThe marginal product is constant at 25Decreasing Returns Production FunctionEach additional unit of input results into a smaller increase in output than the preceding unit of input. It is the commonest type of production function in agriculture. It is common in areas like feeding livestock in order to increase their output, fertilizer application in crop production, feeding layers for egg production etc. ExampleMaize production in 90kg bags from varying amounts of NPK fertilizer applicationDraw a graph of input against outputNB Initially each additional unit of inputs leads to a larger increase in output than the preceding one. I.e.0-90 kg of NPK Thereafter, the increase is at a decreasing rate i.e. between 90-210kg of NPK input. At this point the law of diminishing returns starts to operate. Any further application of the NPK fertilizer results in a decline in output. Economic Laws and PrinciplesThey include:The law of diminishing returnsThe principle of substitutionThe principal of equi-marginal returnsThe principle of profit maximization1.


At this point the law of diminishing returns starts to operate. Any further application of the NPK fertilizer results in a decline in output. Economic Laws and PrinciplesThey include:The law of diminishing returnsThe principle of substitutionThe principal of equi-marginal returnsThe principle of profit maximization1. The Law of Diminishing ReturnsIt states that if successive units of one input are added to fixed quantities of other inputs, a point is eventually reached when the additional marginal and average product output per additional unit of input will decline. NB NPK fertilizer is applied in units of 30 kg each. Therefore the average product is obtained by dividing the total product by the units of fertilizer used. Plot graphs of total product marginal product and average product on the same axisZones of a Production Function CurveThe law of diminishing returns helps the farmer to identify the most profitable point at which to produce. If perpendicular lines are drawn through the point where average product equals average product point where the two intersect , and through the point where the marginal curve intersects the horizontal axis MP 0 , the graph is divided into three zones. Zone IIn this zone the producer under utilizes the land resource and NPK fertilizer. Total product increases at an increasing rate until MP reaches the peak. It is not ideal for the farmer to limit production in this zone as the resources can still yield more. The zone is referred to as an irrational zone of productionZone IIThe producer uses the resources to the maximumTotal product increase at a decreasing rateZone stars where MP starts to decline and ends where MP 0. At this point the AP is at its maximum. Therefore AP reaches its maximum when it is equal to the MPIt is economical to produce in this zone. The zone is referred to as rational zone of production. Zone IIIMore application of NPK fertilizer results in the total product declining. Marginal product becomes negativeIt s uneconomical to operate in this zone. The zone is called irrational zone of production. 2. The Principle of SubstitutionThe principle of substitution state that, if the output is constant, it s profitable to substitute one input factor for another as long it is cheaper than the one being substituted. E.g. Milk production can be maintained constant by substituting dairy meal less expensive for dairy cube which are more expensive.


AFC FC YAverage total cost ATC . This is the sum of average variable cost and average fixed costs. ATC AFC AVCMarginal cost MC . This is the extra cost incurred in the production of an additional unit of output. MC VC YWhere changeVC variable costY outputNB All the costs are defined in terms of units of output and not in terms of units of inputs. Ii The concept of Revenue. Revenue is the amount of money realized after the sale of the produce. Types of RevenueTotal Revenue TR . This is the total physical product multiplied by the unit price of the product. R Qy X Py where Q quantity, P price and y output factor. A farmer harvested 1000 90kg bags of wheat, if the price of a 90kg bag of wheat is Ksh 1500,Calculate his total revenue. Net Revenue NR . This is the difference between total revenue and the total costs of production. This is the profit. NR TR TC. Marginal Revenue MR . This is the extra income obtained from the sale of the additional unit of output. Concept of Profit MaximizationWhere the maximum revenue is obtained, then the profit is maximum at that point. In production the maximum profit is obtained where marginal revenue MR is equal to the marginal cost MC . At this point the net revenue is also at its maximum. ExampleIn a maize production project carried out over a period of eight seasons, a farmer used one hectare of land each time and applied various quantities of DSP fertilizer as shown in the table belowDSP fertilizer cost 280 - per 50kg bag. A 90kg bag of maize was selling at 200 -. From the table it is evident that,As more units of fertilizer are applied, the net revenue increases to reach the maximum of Ksh. 12,880 at 4 bags of fertilizer. At the level of 4 bags of fertilizer per hectare, the marginal revenue is almost equal to the marginal cost. This is the point of maximum profit. Farm planningThis involves setting objectives or goals and clearly stating and defining how to achieve them on the farm. The farm manager has to device a working programme that uses the limited resources in the most prudent way in order to maximize profit. Factors to consider in Drawing a Farm PlanSize of the farm.


Farm planningThis involves setting objectives or goals and clearly stating and defining how to achieve them on the farm. The farm manager has to device a working programme that uses the limited resources in the most prudent way in order to maximize profit. Factors to consider in Drawing a Farm PlanSize of the farm. A large farm can hold many enterprises while on a small piece of land only few enterprises can be accommodated. Environmental factors. The climate, soil type and topography should be considered when making a farm plan. These determine the specific enterprise to be established on the farm. Topography determines where various enterprises should be located depending on the required drainage. The current trends in the labour market. This determines the availability of labour. The cost and requirement of the labour should be put into consideration. Farmer s objectives and preferences. The interests of the farmer should be put into consideration. A farmer may decide on what enterprises to keep. Possible production enterprises. Enterprises to be established are determined by environmental factors, size of the farm, market and price trends in the market. Existing market conditions and price trends. If there are no markets for a particular commodity, the farmer s will not produce it. Most farmers try to time their crops to mature when the prices are high. Availability and cost of farm inputs. Farmers prefer enterprises which are easily affordable and whose inputs are readily available. Government regulations and policy. There are certain government regulations which control the establishment of some enterprises. It is also prohibited to cultivate near the river banks. Security. Certain enterprises must be established near the homestead for security reasons. Communication and transport facilities. Some enterprises require good communication network. Steps in Making a Farm PlanDetermining the farm size by surveying and calculating out the acreage. Determining the environmental situation, i.e. Climate, soils and vegetation. This is done to ascertain the possible enterprise on that farm. Determining the farmer s objectives and preferences in order to eliminate undesired production possibilities. Developing a provisional tentative schedule by listing the selected enterprises and analyzing the types and costs of physical resources required. One enterprise or a combination of enterprises should be selected. Determining the technical feasibility practical able to be done of the farm to make it realistic taking into consideration other influences such as government policy. Determining the expected yields and returns of various enterprises. Determining the budget by translating the physical plan into monetary value. Developing a financial flow in order to ensure that it is consistent, workable and desirable. Implementing it.


Determining the budget by translating the physical plan into monetary value. Developing a financial flow in order to ensure that it is consistent, workable and desirable. Implementing it. Observe and evaluate the plan in the course of implementation. NB . After planning is completed, all the factors of production are organized in such a way that the expected results are achieved. Farm BudgetingA farm budget is an estimate of the future expenses and income of a proposed farm plan. Budgeting is the process of estimating the results of a proposed farm plan. It is the translation of a physical plan into financial terms. Importance of BudgetingEnables the farmer to predict future returns hence helping him to plan ahead. Helps the farmer in decision making whereby a good budget helps the farmer to avoid over expenditure and impulse buying. Helps the farmer to avoid incurring losses by investing in less profitable enterprises. It ensures periodic analysis of the farm business. Acts as a record and can be used for future reference. It enables the farmers to secure loans from financial institutions such as A.F.C. and commercial banks. It highlights efficiency or weakness in the farm business. Types of Farm BudgetsPartial BudgetComplete Budget1. Partial BudgetIt is the simplest and shows the financial implications of proposed minor changes in the farm. For example, change in the size of dairy herd, change of size of land under a crop and change of production technique. A partial budget tries to address the following questions. What would happen if a farmer expanded an enterpriseWhat would happen if a farmer replaced one enterprise with anotherWhat would happen if a new technique is introduced on the farm such as changing from hand milking to dairy milking or rotational grazing to zero grazing? In partial budgeting one asks four guiding questions. What extra cost is the farmer going to incur as a result of the proposed change. What revenue is to be foregone as a result of the proposed change? What extra revenue is to be earned from the proposed change? What costs are to be saved if the change is effected? After getting the answers to these questions, the farmer is able to establish whether the proposed change will result in a gain or a loss. If the farmer is to gain the change is worthwhile but if he is to lose, the proposed change is discarded and other options are sought.


What costs are to be saved if the change is effected? After getting the answers to these questions, the farmer is able to establish whether the proposed change will result in a gain or a loss. If the farmer is to gain the change is worthwhile but if he is to lose, the proposed change is discarded and other options are sought. ExampleMr Mrs X has 4 hectares of arable land,1.5 ha is under wheat0.5ha under maize0.3ha under fodder cropThe rest is either under improved grass ley or natural grassThe farmer wishes to know whether replacing 0.3 ha of maize with Irish potatoes the following season will be worthwhile. The fertilizer rate would have to be increased from 2 bags per ha for maize to 2.5 bags per ha for potatoes and an extra 40 man days of casual labour per ha. Average yields of maize and potatoes are 56 and 90 bags respectively. The prices are Ksh 1200 per a bag of maize and Ksh 300 per bag of potatoes. Seeds costs are Ksh 1350 per 10kg of maize seeds and Ksh 200 per 50 kg of potato seeds. D.A.P. fertilizer cost Ksh 1400 per 50 kg bag. Labour is paid at Ksh 150 per man day. He would require 10 bags of potato seeds and 1 bag of maize seeds to cover 0.3 of a hectare. Draw up the partial budget and indicate whether the proposed change is worthwhile. Partial Budget for Mr Mrs X s FarmTherefore extra revenue costs saved extra cost revenue foregone is10,290 18,290 -8,000 -8,000 indicate a loss and therefore the proposed change is not worthwhile. 2. Complete BudgetWhen proposed changes in the farm are major, or a new farm is being planned for, a complete budget is mandatory. Unlike the partial budget which only deals with variable inputs, a complete budget considers both variable and fixed costs. Guidelines to follow when carrying out complete BudgetingFormulation of the farming goals. The farmer states the reasons for setting up the farm business. Taking the farm inventory. Farm buildings, breeding stock, human labour, sources of power machinery and farm equipment are some of the things to include in the inventory i.e. all the assets in the farm. Planning for resources.


Farm buildings, breeding stock, human labour, sources of power machinery and farm equipment are some of the things to include in the inventory i.e. all the assets in the farm. Planning for resources. This shows how the resources such as the land, labour and capital are utilized. Estimating production. From such enterprises such as crops, animals and other activities. Estimating the income and expenditure. Analyzing the input-output relationships that exist on the farmAnalyzing existing production weaknesses in the farm. Making a number of alternative farm plans and choosing one for adoption. Putting the best chosen plan into operation and supervising its implementation. An example of complete Budget for two hectares mixed farm. Gross margins are obtained by deducting the total variable costs from the total revenue of each enterprise. I.e. Gross Margin Total Revenue Total Variable costFixed costsLabour - one regular hired worker p.a.4,800.00Depreciation of poultry house built at 28,000 over 15 years150.00Cost of hand tools and equipment1,000.00Total fixed cost 5,950.00Farm profit Total Gross Margin total Fixed Cost 27,800.00 5,950.00 21,850.00Agricultural Support Services Available to the Farmer1. Extension and Training. This involves giving informal education to the farmers on production techniques. The Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development have extension officers who give these services to the farmers through seminars, short courses, field days, training and visits, demonstrations, chief s barazas etc. BAT Kenya Limited, Kenya Breweries Ltd, Church organizations and other N.G.O s also provide extension services. Artificial Insemination A.I ServicesVeterinary services. Veterinary officers help the farmers in treating and controlling livestock diseases and parasites. Farm input supplies. Some cooperatives and private companies supply farm inputs to the farmers. Kenya Farmers Association is an organisation involved in such activities. Banking. A farmer requires banking services. Farmers can open a current account or a savings account with banks. Current AccountIt s a bank account from which cheques are paid. Money in such an account does not earn interest. A Savings AccountThis account earns interest but cheques cannot be drawn on it. Advantages of using banking servicesThe farmer s money is safer in the bank.


Money in such an account does not earn interest. A Savings AccountThis account earns interest but cheques cannot be drawn on it. Advantages of using banking servicesThe farmer s money is safer in the bank. Cheques can be used as evidence of payment in case of a dispute. Writing a cheque is easier than counting huge sums of money. Farmers with bank accounts can get overdrafts where current account holders are allowed to withdraw more money than what is in the account or loans. The bank gives advice to farmers on how to use the credit given for maximum results. A banker s statement acts as an evidence of a farmer s financial worthiness when he wants to acquire or lease some property. Credit. Since capital is a limited resource, farmers can overcome this limitation by borrowing capital. Borrowed capital is called credit or loan. The farmers pay it back with an interest. The loan is given against such collateral as land title deed, buildings and machinery. Types of CreditShort term Credit. Given as working capital such as seeds, fertilizer and feeds. It s repayable within one year. AFC gives farmers short term credit. Medium term Credit. Repayable within 5 years and is used for farm development projects such as fencing, buying machinery, soil and water conservation and buying livestock. Long term credit. Repayable within a period of 15 years. It s used for improvement of projects such as soil conservation, building and construction, establishing permanent crops etc. Credit can be termed as soft or hard. Hard loan is given against security such as machinery and land while soft is given with little or no security. Sources of Agricultural creditCooperative societies. They give credit to farmers. Their interest rate is lower than that of commercial banks. Crop boards. Some crop boards give credit to farmers and recover their money through deduction made on farmers pay out. E.g. Pyrethrum Board of Kenya and the National Irrigation Board. Commercial banks. They advance short term to medium term loans to farmers which are paid back with an interest that is slightly higher. Agricultural Finance Corporation. They give short term to long term credit to farmers. Their interest rates are low. Settlement Fund Trustees. They lend short term to long term credit to new settlers in settlement schemes. Others. Hire purchase companies, individuals, insurance companies and traders. Agricultural Research. The main objectives of agricultural research are;Improve crop and livestock production techniques. Develop improved varieties of crops and livestock.


Agricultural Research. The main objectives of agricultural research are;Improve crop and livestock production techniques. Develop improved varieties of crops and livestock. Improve pastures and fodder quality. Develop techniques of controlling diseases and parasites. Determine suitable ecological zones for various crops. Coordinate research work being done throughout the country to avoid any duplication. Examples of agricultural research stations in Kenya. Coffee Research Station in Ruiru. -. CoffeeKenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI at Muguga - Agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, forestry etc. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI at Kitale. Maize and pasture crops. National Plant Breeding Station at Njoro. Wheat, barley, sunflower etc. Pyrethrum Research Station at Molo. PyrethrumHorticultural Research Station at Thika. Fruits, cut flowers, pulses etcNational Sugar Research Station at Kibos. Tea Research Foundation at Kericho. Dryland farming Research Station at Katumani in Machakos. Plant breeding pest management, animal nutrition. National Agricultural Laboratories at Kabete entomology and soil testing. Sunflower Research Station at Wanguru near Embu. International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICIPE at Nairobi and Mbita. Western Agricultural Research Station in Kakamega which deals with research of on sweet potatoes, cassava and small ruminants. National Animal Husbandry Research station at Naivasha. -. Livestock breeding and managementVeterinary Research Station at kabete. Coast Agricultural Research Station at Mtwapa which conducts research on maize and sugarcane. Cotton Research Station at Kibos Kisumu. Embu Research Station. Medium altitude maize varieties. International livestock Research Institute ILRI in Nairobi. Marketing. The following are some organizations that market farmers produce. National Cereal and Produce Board. NCPB maize, wheat and pulses e.g groundnuts, beans, green grams etc. Kenya Cooperative Creameries. KCC milkKenya Planters Cooperative Union KPCU - CoffeePyrethrum Board of Kenya. PyrethrumTractor Hire Service. This involves hiring of tractors and implements by farmers who don t have them. The following offer these services. Government Tractor Hire Service. This is under the Ministry of Agriculture. Farmers hire implements and tractor if they do not have them.


Government Tractor Hire Service. This is under the Ministry of Agriculture. Farmers hire implements and tractor if they do not have them. These services are available in almost all districts. The service is relatively cheap but farmers rarely get the services when they need them because of high demand. Private Contractors. These are either individual contractors or companies who offer these services to farmers. They move from one part of the country to another in search of farmers who would need their services. For example in December to March, there are many contractors in Rift Valley. In August and September, they move to short rain areas. These contractors however charge more than the government but they are more readily available. Individual Farmers. Some farmers have tractors for their own personal use. When they have finished ploughing their own land, they let them out for hire. Their charges are negotiable. Others. Some cooperative societies own tractors, which they let out for hire to their members. Cooperatives are cheaper than other hire services. Advantages of Tractor Hire Services. Farmers who can t afford to buy a tractor can get access to tractor services. Farmers don t incur the costs of servicing and maintenance of the tractor and implements. The services are more efficient than hand tools, which is the other alternative. Disadvantages of Tractor Hire Services. They are not available to most farmers when they need it. Private contractors and individual farmers may overcharge farmers. Risks and Uncertainties in FramingUncertainty. It is the imperfect knowledge about future events or outcome due to the uncontrollable variables such as weather changes, pest and disease out breaks and fluctuations in commodity prices. Risk. This is the divergence between the expected and actual outcome. There is always a difference between what a farmer would predict and the actual outcome. Types of risks and UncertaintiesFluctuation in commodity prices. Physical yield uncertainty. The farmer is unsure of what to actually expect. Ownership uncertainty. Farmer may lose the produce through theft, change in government policy, fire, death etc. Disease and pest outbreaks. Sickness and injury uncertainty. The farmer or member of his family or employee is affected and loses the ability to work due to sickness or injury. New production technique uncertainty. The farmer may be uncertain whether new technique is as effective as the previous one. Obsolescence. A farmer may invest in machinery, which may become outdated obsolete within a short time. Natural catastrophies.


Obsolescence. A farmer may invest in machinery, which may become outdated obsolete within a short time. Natural catastrophies. Things like earthquakes, floods, drought, storms and strong winds may destroy crops and kill animals. Ways of Adjusting To Uncertainty. Diversification. This involves having several and different enterprises on the farm so that should one fail, the farmer does not suffer total loss. Flexibility in production methods. Farmers may design their enterprises in such a way that, should there be a need to change from one enterprise to another, they can do so with minimal expenses. For example livestock buildings should be designed in such a way that they can be modified to accommodate any type of animal as need arise. Input rationing. Farmers may apply fewer inputs than the optimum required for an enterprise to reduce more loses in case of any unexpected variable. Additional inputs can be used in enterprises with better chances of giving more returns. Insurance. Insuring the enterprises guarantees farmers compensation in the event of loss. This covers losses due to crop failure, death of livestock, theft, fire, and accidents in farm machinery. Contracting. Farmers may enter into contracts with consumers to supply specified goods for a certain period of time at an agreed price. E.g Tobacco farmers with BAT Kenya Ltd., barley farmers with EABL. Pig farmers with Farmers Choice etc. AdvantagesThis ensures a constant, fixed market for their produce. Should prices fall, the farmer gains as he continues to supply the produce at the contracted price. DisadvantagesContract prices are usually lower than the average market prices hence farmers get lower incomes in the long run. Should market prices rise, the farmer would not benefit as their price is already agreed on. Selecting more certain enterprises. A farmer should try to select an enterprise that earns a steady income though less profitable than choosing one that has a high variation income realization. Adopting modern production methods. They include, irrigation, spraying crops against pests and diseases, vaccinating animals against diseases etc. Government role in minimizing risks and UncertaintyWeather forecasting. This helps farmers to prepare land and plant at the right time. Research and extension. Subsidizing of input prices. Market regulation. This protects the farmer from exploitation. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND ORGANISATIONSMarket and MarketingMarket:Is an institution for exchange of goods and services.


Standardization: Establishing uniformity in quality and quantity of products. Purpose: increase buyers satisfaction, establish criteria for inspection, ensure safety and avoid exploitation of consumers. Packaging: comes after processing. Purposes:Enables handling of produce. Makes marketing more efficient. Prevent physical deterioration, theft, tampering, adulteration and substitution. Offer easy labeling. Measurement. Attachment of sales description and instructions. Promote sales or advertise. Collecting market information or market research:Provide knowledge of supply and demand. Determine where and when to sell. Determine quality of commodity neededDetermine prices in alternative markets. Selling: Presentation of produce to consumers. Involves advertising, displaying of the produce in the market and bargaining for fair prices. Do not overcharge or under charge. Financing: Capital is required from buying raw produce to final sale of finished goods. Bearing of risks uncertainties: Include destruction by fire, theft, physical deterioration in quality, fluctuation of prices and change in tastes e.g. by transferring them to insurance companies. Marketing Organizations and AgenciesDescribe various agents and organizations that are involved in the marketing of coffee 10 mks These are bodies which facilitate the marketing process. Include:Wholesalers; Buy goods from producers , processors or manufacturers in bulk and sell to retailers and other merchants and consumers in relatively large or small lots. Have transport facilities. Have large storage depots. Bear marketing risks. Speculate on goods moved to the market. Arbitrage:- Buy when and where prices are low and sell when where prices are high. Retailers: Buy in bulk from wholesalers or processors and sell to consumers in small quantities. Itinerant traders middlemen: Are middlemen who buy in small bits, assemble, transport and sell to town markets. Packers and Processors: Are industries which change the form of produce e.g. Unga limited, B.A.T, Delmonte and sugar companies. Commission Agents: Are middlemen who act on behalf of the other businessmen for a fee or a commission. Do not own any commodity. Broker Agents: act on behalf of the sellers or do not actually handle the goods but have a good knowledge supplies of the same i.e. requirements and prices. Co-operative societies and unions: Help farmers to market their produce locally and internationally e.g. k.c.c. Reduce market costs for small scale farmers. Marketing Boards: Assists in the production of agricultural commodities.


K.c.c. Reduce market costs for small scale farmers. Marketing Boards: Assists in the production of agricultural commodities. Also store, sell, buy, and collect agricultural commodities. Auctioneers: Concentrate buyers and sellers at a particular place and time where they negotiate on purchases and sales. Take a commission on sales. Special Characteristics of Agricultural ProductsBulky: Occupy large weight and volume. Perishable: Cannot stay long without suffering loss and deterioration in qualityProblems in marketing agricultural productsDescribe the problems encountered by farmers when marketing agricultural produce e.g. tomatoes 10 mks Perishability: e.g. fruits, vegetables, milk, meat etc go bad very quickly. PreventionStore under refrigeration. Sell immediately. Process into other forms. Can or dehydrate e.g. fruits, vegetables. Prevention is expensive hence increase marketing costs. Seasonality: Products are only available in plenty at harvest periods. This affects market prices and creates storage problems. Supply is inelastic due to long waiting periods. There is uncertainty on price expectation. Bulkiness: Products weigh heavily, occupy large space and have low value per unit weight. This poses problems on storage, transportation and increases price of produce beyond buyers ability. Storage: Construction of storage facilities is expensive thus increasing the cost of marketing. Poor transport system: poor roads in rural areas and inadequate means of transport. Farmers fail to take produce to the market. Perishable products get spoiled. Change in market demand: The long time lag between the decision to produce and the actual availability of the product changes the consumers taste and preferences affecting demand and price. Limited elasticity of demand Inelastic demand: Sometimes there is more quantity supplied which may lead to low demand and therefore low price for the produce i.e. excess supply that leads to low demand and low price. Lack of market information: This is due to low state of knowledge. This makes the production not to be in close conformity with market demand. Middlemen exploit them by buying produce at very low prices and sell at high profit margin. Changes of supply Inelastic supply: Sometimes there is overproduction or under production of goods. This leads to fluctuation of market prices. Efficiency in marketing How to increase profitsMinimize total costs of the whole process. Timeliness of the product assembly and delivery. Maintenance of the product quality. Price theoryPrice: Is the amount of money paid in exchange of good or service.


Timeliness of the product assembly and delivery. Maintenance of the product quality. Price theoryPrice: Is the amount of money paid in exchange of good or service. -Is affected by demand, supply and the quality of good or service. The law of demand and supply:Demand: Quantity of goods or services consumers are willing and able to buy at each specific price in a given market at a given time. Demand is low when the price of goods is high and vice versa. Relationship between demand and priceTerms used in demandWant- Desire to have a good. Demand- Ability to purchase that good at a given price. Utility- Property of a product that makes it satisfies a want desire . Effective demand: type of demand which involves payment for the required goods and is determined by one s income. Law of demand: The quantity of a good or service demanded varies inversely with the price, or the higher the price, the less the quantity demanded and the lower the price, the more the quantity demanded. Demand schedule: List of quantities a given population will buy at different prices. Individual demand: A list of quantities or products that a person will purchase at various prices. Total demand: total of individual demands of a product. Demand is mainly determined by price but sometimes it can change if the price is constant due to other factors. Change of demand at a constant price. Factors influencing demand for a commodityPopulation: A change in the number of consumers in a market influences the total demand for goods and services. If population increases, the demand for a given good or service at a given price increases and vice versa. Income: Consumers with a higher income buy more than those with low. As income rise, demand for some foods like meat, butter, rice, grape fruit etc rice. Preference and taste: Demand changes with changes in tastes and preferences by consumers. Prices of related goods: Demand of a commodity increases if there is an increase in the price of a substitute e.g. Margarine demand increases if the price of butter increases. Advertisement: Promotes the sale of a commodity thereby increasing its demand because customers become aware of the existence of the commodity. Beliefs, customs and taboo: Influence total demand for a given good or service e.g. pork among Muslims. Price expectation: If in future the prices of a certain commodity are likely to go up, then the demand of that commodity increases currently or vice versa. Level of taxation: Increase in taxes increases the prices of certain goods and fewer people can afford them.


The number of uses a product can be put to: Commodities with several uses have elastic demand. Time lag: If the use of a commodity can be postponed to another day the it has elastic demand e.g. cement for construction. Time span: There is greater Ed in the long run because adjustments can be made while a smaller Ed in the short run since it is difficult to vary some factors. Proportion: Commodities with large proportions of total expenditures e.g. animal feeds and fertilizers have elastic demand while those with very small proportion have inelastic demand. SupplyIs the quantity of goods or services which producers or sellers are willing to sell at each specified price in a given market and time. Law of supply: As the price of goods and services increase, the corresponding quantity of goods and services offered for sale increases and vice versa. The relationship between price and supplyChange of supply at constant pricesSupply schedule: --Is a list of quantities of an item that will be produced or sold at all probable prices. A supply schedule for meat:Factors influencing supply of a commodityNumber of sellers in the market: Many sellers increase the supply of goods and services. Prices of related goods: Supply is low if the price of a related good is higher e.g. If the bread price increases its supply is higher but supply of cakes decreases. Price expectation: supply is low now if in future the supply is expected to rise. Technology: Lead to increase of production of goods. Weather: Increase in production of goods when the weather is favorable. Government policy taxation : Increases in tax of inputs, increase price of commodities produced, thus the farmers drop the production of the produce. Change in prices: Increase in price lead to increase in supply of the good because of the high profit earned. Cost of production: If the cost of fertilizers and seeds is low, farmers supply more of this, in turn increase the yields. Increase in supply of associated goods: increase the supply of the other good e.g. increase in meat supply increase in hides and skins. Transportation system: Improved and efficient transport system, increase delivery and supply of farm produce. Elasticity of supply E.S Is the degree of responsiveness of supply to changes in price. ES change in quantity supplied change in priceExample: If the price of millet changes from ksh. 10 to ksh. 12 per kg. Resulting to a change of supply from 400kg to 600 kg, calculate the elasticity of supply.


10 to ksh. 12 per kg. Resulting to a change of supply from 400kg to 600 kg, calculate the elasticity of supply. Change in supply 600-400 x100 400 200x100 400 50 change in price 12-10x100 10 2x100 10 20 E.S change in quantity supplied change in price 50 20 2.5Types of E.SElastic if more than 1Inelastic if less than 1Unitary if equal to 1Determination of market priceWhen price is high P2, supply is high Q4 but demand is low Q2. When price is too lowP1, the supply is also lowQ1, but the demand is high Q3. P1 has to be raised for the suppliers to sell more goods and P2 has to lower to satisfy the demand. The resultant price P, where quantity of goods supplied is equal to the quantity of goods demanded is known as equilibrium or market price. No competition of suppliers and consumers. Both parties are satisfied. This situation only exists in a free market. Price control:Government gives subsidies by reducing the cost of production of inputs. Government fixes the prices of related goods. Agricultural OrganisationsAgricultural organization is any body which promotes agricultural activities. Include:Co-operative societies: Is an organization of people who have joined together voluntarily with a common purpose for a mutual economic benefit. Types of co-operative societiesi Farmers or producer: Formed by farmers with limited capital to viably stand by their own. They buy large lands and each farmer is paid dividends per his shares. Ii Consumer: sell farm inputs to farmers. Buy inputs in bulk and sell at lower prices to farmers. Iii Marketing; Formed by small scale farmers to market their produce collectively. This reduces costs. Iv Savings and credit: Give loans to farmers. Formation of co-operatives:Steps followed:A minimum of 10 adults are required. Interested people form an interim committee. Name is decided. Members draw up a constitution. They work with the local co-operative officer. Seek for registration with the commissioner for co-operatives.


Members draw up a constitution. They work with the local co-operative officer. Seek for registration with the commissioner for co-operatives. Principles of co-operatives:Open membership: Joining is voluntary after paying membership fee regardless of race, religion, sex, education and political inclination so long as are adults with a sound mind. Equal rights: one man one vote operates. Principle of share limit; Members buy shares up to a specific maximum limit to avoid domination by one member. Interest on shares: Money accruing capital provides dividends on basis of share contribution. Withdrawal from membership: Members withdraw voluntarily. Loyalty: Members are faithful and loyal to their co-operative e.g. Members must sell their produce through their co-operative. Education: Members are educated to be knowledgeable on relevant skills and conversant with co-operative affairs. Co-operative principle; the co-operatives should join co-operative movements at primary, district, national and international levels. Non-profit motive: Co-operatives are essentially non profit making organizations. This objective improves the living standards of members. Functions of co-operative societies:Marketing or selling farmers produce. Negotiate for fair prices for inputs and produce. Keep records of co-operative activities and inform members accordingly. Pay dividends to members. Give loans credit in kind to members. Educate members on relevant co-operative matters. Provide distribute inputs at subsidized prices. Some process inputs. Provide extension and machinery services. Some provide banking services to members. Some invest money on behalf of farmers. Advice members on new and better methods of production. Agricultural parastatal bodies: Are bodies established by acts of parliament. Include: boards, commissions, authorities and corporations. National irrigation board. Develop and improve irrigation projects e.g. mwea tembere,Ahero, west kano, perkerra etc. National Cereals and Produce Board:FunctionsRegulate and control production and storage of cereals and pulses. Buy and store cereals. Advice the minister on production, importation and exportation of produce. The Kenya sisal boardFunctionsPromote sisal production. Regulate production, grading and marketing. Register sisal producers. License sisal factories. Examine export to ensure and maintain high quality. Re-bale sisal. Coffee Board of Kenya. FunctionsLicense coffee producers and processors. Carry out research on production and processing. Negotiate for fair prices and quotas. Market parchment coffee. Pyrethrum Board of KenyaFunctionsAdvice farmers.


Negotiate for fair prices and quotas. Market parchment coffee. Pyrethrum Board of KenyaFunctionsAdvice farmers. Manage pyrethrum nurseries. Process pyrethrum in factories. Market processed products. Buy pyrethrum from farmers. Research to obtain best cultivars through selection and breeding. Cotton Board of Kenya. FunctionsPlan, monitor, regulate cotton growing and ginning. License and control cotton ginneries. Regulate and control quality of raw cotton. Regulate export and import of cotton lint seed. Regulate and control seed supply and quality. Promote research, production and processing. Provide and co-ordinate training for industry sectors. Kenya Sugar Authority. FunctionsAdvise on development of sugarcane production for manufacture of white sugar. Advise on rules and regulations for development of sugarcane in industries. Formulate and advice on sugarcane prices. Advice on research. Develop and implement cane testing services and quality. Advise on processing. Register producers. Ensure availability of statistics. Advise on utilization of sugarcane produce. Horticultural Crops Development Authority. FunctionsOffer advisory services. Collect produce from farmers. Sort and grade produce. Market produce locally and abroad. Agricultural Finance Corporation. FunctionsProvide credit at reasonable interest rates. Provide technical services to farmers e.g. on borrowed capital. Ensure loan repayment. Agricultural Development Corporation. FunctionsRun and operate state farms.. Raise high quality livestock which are sold as breeding stock. Bulk planting materials. Promote agricultural production. K.Kenya meat Commission. FunctionsBuy cattle from beef farms. Slaughter beef. Grade carcasses. Market beef locally and overseas. Other Farmers organizationsKenya National farmers UnionFunctions:Bargain for fair prices of produce. Ensure supply of farm inputs. Bargain for reasonable and affordable prices of farm inputs. Provide better infrastructure. Provide loan. Control pests and diseases. Market produce locally and abroad. Offer technical services. Represent farmers in international federation of agricultural producers. Publish a monthly magazine Farmers Voice . Agricultural Society of Kenya. Functions:Hold competitive agricultural shows and exhibitions. Encourage breeding and importation of pure breeds. Encourage and assists in official milk recording scheme. Organize the running of YFC. Organize national ploughing contest. Publish Kenya stud book. Publish monthly journal Kenya Farmer. Award bursaries for local and overseas studies tours for its members.


Publish Kenya stud book. Publish monthly journal Kenya Farmer. Award bursaries for local and overseas studies tours for its members. 4-k clubs; kuungana, kufanya, kusaidia, Kenya. For primary school members. FunctionsCarry out practical projects show agriculture is a profitable profession. Expose youth to existing improved agricultural technologies. Develop and enhance leadership qualities among youth. Take part in competitive shows. Involvement in field trips. Young Farmers ClubSecondary school and tertiary education members. FunctionsParticipate in exhibitions and competitions at A.S.K shows. Involvement in agricultural projects at club levels. Participate in YFC annual rallies. Involvement in workshops and seminars. Participate in national tree planting activities. Participate in exchange programmes both locally and abroad. Participate in national ploughing contest. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS IV FARM ACCOUNTS Importance of Keeping Farm AccountsThey help the farmer to:Secure loans. Make sound management decisions. Determine whether the farm is making profit or loss. Evaluate assets and liabilities. Prepare farm budgets. Assess the tax a farmer is to be charged. FINANCIAL DOCUMENTSThey include the following;Invoice. It is commonly used in business when goods are delivered on credit. It is issued to inform the buyer of the goods delivered and debits the buyer. It contains the following details. Date of the transaction. Type and quantities of goods delivered. Price per unit of the goods. Total amount of money involved. Serial number of invoice. Terms of payment. Statements. There are two types of statements, these are;Statements of account. This is a document sent to the buyer by the seller as a reminder to inform him what he owes the seller. Usually it is written at the end of the month. Bank statements. This is a financial document sent by the bank to the farmer on a monthly basis showing the position of the bank account by the end of the month. Receipt. This is issued when cash payment for goods delivered or services rendered is made. It is issued by the seller to the buyer. It contains the following details. People involved in the transaction. Date of payment. Goods or services for which payment is made. Amount of money involved. Signature of person receiving the money. Receipt serial number. Delivery note. This document accompanies goods on delivery. It is evidence that good have been physically delivered from the supplier to the buyer after a credit transaction.


Delivery note. This document accompanies goods on delivery. It is evidence that good have been physically delivered from the supplier to the buyer after a credit transaction. It contains the following details. Date of delivery. Quantity of goods delivered. Method of delivery. Person who receives the goods. Condition in which the goods are received. Delivery note serial number. Purchase order. This is a request to a trading business firm to supply specified goods. It may be accepted or rejected by the supplier of goods. Purchase order specifies the following;Type of goods required. Quantity of the goods. Date of order. Person who orders the goods. Person who authorizes the order. Date within which the order goods should be delivered. Serial number of purchase order. BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS. Ledger. This is the principal or main book used in keeping financial records. It contains the details of all the things in the business owned by the farmer. All accounts are kept in the ledger. An account is a page or a section in the ledger given to a person or a firm on which all the business transactions relating to that person firm are entered. In the ledger page, the account is divided into two parts drawn in the shape of letter T. The name of the heading for the account is written on the top line above the horizontal line . Left hand side of the account is the debit side DR where all the decreases purchases and expenses are recorded. The right hand side is the credit side CR where all the increases Sales and receipts are entered. A Ledger Account page. Use of columnsDate columns. The date affecting the account is recorded here. Particulars column. This is a short description of the entry being made. Folio column. This is a page where a particular account appears in the ledger. Every page in the ledger is numbered and each account should appear on its own page folio . Debit side. The following details are entered here. Date of the transaction in the date column. The item in the particulars side. The folio number of the item in the folio column. Amount of money involved in the amount of column. Credit side. The following details are entered here. The date of the transaction in the date column. Cash at hand in the particulars column. Folio number of cash at hand in folio columnAmount received in the amount column. InventoryThis is a book in which a record of all the assets owned by a business or an individual is kept.


Cash at hand in the particulars column. Folio number of cash at hand in folio columnAmount received in the amount column. InventoryThis is a book in which a record of all the assets owned by a business or an individual is kept. Inventory records are divided into two groups as followsConsumable goods inventory e.g. seeds, feeds, fertilizers, pesticides, fuel etc. Permanent goods inventory e.g. tools and equipment, machineries, buildings etc. Cash BookThis is a book in which all the transactions involving the receiving and paying out of cash are recorded. It consists of the sales and receipts side, and purchases and expenditure side. The following details are entered in a cash book. Date of payment. Receipt number. Person firm from whom money is received. Total amount received. The balancing of the cash book is done at the end of the month. Diagram of a Cash accountJournalThis is a book where all unclassified transactions are entered. Some of the information that may be recorded in journal include;Purchase on credit of a capital equipment i.e. things bought to keep and use and not for resale. Sale on credit of capital equipment. Rectifications of errors for example if errors are made in other books, new entries, correcting or cancelling the old entries are made in the journal. Transfers from one account to another in the ledger. Opening entries in new books, when new books have to be opened etc. The following details are recorded in the journal;Date. Name of the account to be debited. Name of the account to be credited. Amount of money involvedA brief description of the transaction. Subsidiary Books of the JournalPurchase BookAll the details of items bought on credit are entered once. It is known as the creditors account. A creditor is someone to whom the farm business owes money. Sales BookIt is known as the debtor s account. A debtor is a person who owes money to the farm business. All details of goods sold from the farm for which payment has not been received are entered here. FINANCIAL STATEMENTSAIM:Determine profit or income. Evaluate the properties or assets in the farm. Determine the business liability. INCLUDE:Balance sheet: Is a financial statement drawn to show the financial position of a farm business as at a particular period of the year. 2 types;Opening balance sheet: -Drawn at the beginning of an accounting period.


Determine the business liability. INCLUDE:Balance sheet: Is a financial statement drawn to show the financial position of a farm business as at a particular period of the year. 2 types;Opening balance sheet: -Drawn at the beginning of an accounting period. Closing balance sheet: - Drawn at the end of an accounting period. The closing B s of an A c period is the opening B s of the next A c period. A B s has 2 sides:LHS: Shows liabilities. RHS: Shows assets. Liabilities: Are debts e.g. Loans and mortgagesBank overdrafts. Debts payable for goods and services received. Services paid to the business in advance. 2 typesLong term liabilities: Debts repaid in more than one year e.g loans from AFC. Current liabilities: Debts to be cleared or repaid within a period of one year e.g. rent, wages, electricity, water and telephone bills, bank overdrafts and debts payable. Assets: owned property e.g. Cash at hand. Value of farm items e.g. land, store produce, inputs, livestock, growing crops, farm buildings, machinery, equipment etc. Debts receivable-for goods and services rendered. 2 types:Fixed Assets:- Durable properties held in the farm for a long time e.g. farm buildings, equipment, machinery, perennial crops and land. Current assets: - Held for a short period usually less than one year e.g. Cash at hand and in bank, debts receivable, farm produce to be sold, inputs in store etcOrders used when drawing a balance sheetUnder assets:-Order of permanency; -Most permanent assets are written first and the least last. Order of liquidity;- Most liquid assets are written first and most permanent last. Under liabilities: -Permanent order: - Capital appears first followed by long term liabilities and lastly current liabilities. Liquidity order:- Reverse is the case. A format of a balance sheetIf the value of assets exceeds that of liabilities, the business is solvent i.e it can meet all its liabilities and a balance left. The balance left is called the net worth net capital owner s equity . If the value of liabilities exceeds that of assets, the business is insolvent; it cannot meet all what it owes other firms. ExamplesProfit and loss account: Is a financial statement showing whether a business made a profit or a loss.


The balance left is called the net worth net capital owner s equity . If the value of liabilities exceeds that of assets, the business is insolvent; it cannot meet all what it owes other firms. ExamplesProfit and loss account: Is a financial statement showing whether a business made a profit or a loss. It has 2 sidesIncome side;Details entered;Sales and receipts-produce sold and debts receivableClosing valuation-Value of assets in the farm by the end of the financial year. The expenditure side-Details entered;Opening valuation-Are assets in the farm or business by the beginning of a financial year. Purchases and expenses: Items bought and debts payable. A format of a profit and loss account:Examples:If the value of expenditure is more than the value of income, the business has made a loss and if value of income is more than the value of expenditure, the business has made a profit. Thus Closing valuation sales and receipts - opening valuation Purchases and expenses Net profit. Cash Analysis: Is a financial statement drawn up to show the receipts and payment of cash in the business. FormatSales and receipts Purchases and expensesEach sale or purchase is entered twice-once in the total column and once in analysis column-a column for specific enterprises that benefit from the sale or purchase of a particular enterprise. The sum of entries in the total column is equal to the sum of all the entries in all the other columns analysis column Importance:Shows money earned and spent on an enterprise. Shows total sales and receipts and purchases and expenses. Shows the net profit or loss. AGROFORESTRYThis is the growing of trees and crops and keeping of animals on the same piece of land. Forms of AgroforestryAgrosilvicultureCombination of trees or shrubs and crops in agricultural production. It is common in high rainfall areas. SilvopastoralCombination of growing trees or shrubs and keeping of livestock. It is common in the arid and semi arid areas. AgrosilvopastoralCombination of growing trees shrubs with pastures for livestock and crops. Practiced in the high potential areas. Importance of agroforestry in KenyaEncourages afforestation reafforestationSource of wood fuelSource of incomeRaw material e.g.


AgrosilvopastoralCombination of growing trees shrubs with pastures for livestock and crops. Practiced in the high potential areas. Importance of agroforestry in KenyaEncourages afforestation reafforestationSource of wood fuelSource of incomeRaw material e.g. timber for constructionAct as wind breakersAesthetic value beautyControl soil erosionAct as livestock fodder. Improves water catchment areaMark farm boundaries. Characteristics of Good Agroforestry Trees and ShrubsFast growth such as eucalyptus, Grevillea robusta, Calliandra calothyrsus, pines etc. Deep rooted to ensure minimal competition for mineral nutrients and moisture with the crop plant. Examples include; Eucalyptus spp, Grevillea robusta etc. Nitrogen fixing such as; Calliandra calothyrsus, Leucaena spp, Cajanus cajan, Sesbania sesban etc. Good in by product production e.g. timber, fruits and poles. Examples include; Croton macrostachyus, Grevillea robusta, Markhamia lutea etc. NB:Trees such as the eucalyptus should not planted near water sources because they would absorb the water and the source of water may end up drying. Cypress and eucalyptus should not be planted in arable land as their leaves have allelopathic effects on crops i.e. they produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of some crop species. Types of Tree NurseriesDirect Nurseries Bareroot Swaziland bedsSeeds are planted directly on the ground without any containers. Seedlings here have low survival rate after transplanting due to root injury when uprooting. Containerized nurseriesSeeds are sown directly in containers such as pots, polythene bags, tins etc which are filled with soil mixtures. Seed Collection and PreparationAcquiring SeedsGood seeds should be whole, of good size, free from diseases and pests and should be fresh to ensure high viability. Seeds should be collected from mature trees, dried, and threshed before use. Seed TreatmentThis is done for two reasons. To break seed dormancy hence rapid germination. Methods of breaking dormancy includeHot water treatment e.g. in Leucaena, Calliandra and Acacia. Mechanical breaking e.g.


Methods of breaking dormancy includeHot water treatment e.g. in Leucaena, Calliandra and Acacia. Mechanical breaking e.g. in seeds of the croton tree. Light burning e.g. in wattle tree seeds. Seed inoculation to promote nitrogen fixation in leguminous varietiesNursery ManagementThe following practices are carried in the nursery while seedlings are growing. Mulching. Watering. Weed controlPricking out. Shading. Pest and disease control. Root pruning. This is the pruning of the tap root to encourage the development of a short, dense and strong rooting system. Hardening off. TransplantingHoles for planting trees are dug long before transplanting day. Topsoil is kept separate and is used for refilling the hole halfway. Transplanting should be done at the onset of rains. Seedlings should be well watered a day before transplanting. This makes the soil stick onto the roots. It also eases the removal of the polythene sleeves for seedlings raised in sleeves. Seedlings are placed at the center of the hole. A sharp knife is used to cut and remove the polythene sleeve. More soil is added and firmed gently around the plant until the hole is completely full. Seedlings should be planted at the same depth as they were in the nursery. Watering should be done and mulch provided. A temporary shade may be established to conserve moisture. Care and Management of TreesProtectionYoung seedlings should be protected from damage by animals for about one year. This can be done for individual trees or for an entire field. Pruning and TrainingPruning is the removal of extra or unwanted parts of a plant. Trees may be pruned for use as wood fuel or for fodder. Pruning can also be done to train trees to give the required shape or size. Grafting Old TreesWhen an agroforestry tree is old but has good characteristics, a scion can be taken from another tree that is compatible with it and grafted onto it. This is aimed at repairing such a tree. Agroforestry PracticesAlley Cropping. This is the growing of trees and crops together. It is also known as hedgerow or intercropping. Trees are cut regularly and the leaves are used to mulch the crop. The trees used are leguminous so as to fix nitrogen e.g. Leucaena and Calliandra.


Trees are cut regularly and the leaves are used to mulch the crop. The trees used are leguminous so as to fix nitrogen e.g. Leucaena and Calliandra. Fruit trees can also be used. Multi-storey Cropping. In this case the trees are spaced widely and left to grow unchecked. Crops which can tolerate shading are planted. The trees and crops form different levels which look like storeys. Tree species for this system include; Cardia, Casuarina equisetifolia Whistling pine , African black wood, Muhugu and Acacia pp. Woodlots in Farms. These are plots set aside for trees only. They are usually established on parts of the farm that are not productive. Such trees should be fast growing such as Acacia and Eucalyptus spp. Sites for Agroforestry TreesBoundaries. Such trees help to:Protect the farm as fence. Mark the boundary. Form wind breaks. Provide timber and wood fuel. Such trees include: Eucalyptus, Grevillea, and Jacaranda etc. River Banks. Such trees help to reduce the water velocity along the river banks, protecting exposed soil from erosive forces of the flowing water. Terraces. Roots of trees planted on terraces reduce the speed of water run-off and hold the soil particles together reducing soil erosion. Examples of trees here include, Grevillea, Sesbania, Calliandra, avocado, mango, pawpaw etc. Slopes. Trees planted on slopes control soil erosion. Eucalyptus, Grevillea, pines and croton trees are planted. Homestead. Such trees are planted for beauty, fruits and shade. They should not be planted too close to the house. Tree Harvesting MethodsPruningThis is the removal of the branches from the lower part of the tree crown. Pruning is done towards the end of the dry season to avoid damage to other crops. Branches obtained from pruning are used as fuel or wood fuel. LoppingThis is the removal of branches from trees in haphazard manner. It is the most common harvesting technique for fodder trees. PollardingThis is the cutting of all the branches and top part of the tree. It is usually done to provide fuel wood and fodder. It is commonly is trees such as; Croton, Casuarina, Grevillea, Jacaranda, Ficus etc.


PollardingThis is the cutting of all the branches and top part of the tree. It is usually done to provide fuel wood and fodder. It is commonly is trees such as; Croton, Casuarina, Grevillea, Jacaranda, Ficus etc. CoppicingThis is the cutting of the whole tree about 30cm above the ground. This is done to provide fodder, wood fuel and mulching material. The common coppiced tree species include; Calliandra, Eucalyptus, Leucaena and Markhamia. ThinningThis is the cutting down of some trees to avoid overcrowding. Thinning is done where trees have been established by direct seedling or planted very closely. FARM POWER AND MACHINERYFARM POWER---Is the amount of work done per unit timeUSES OF FARM POWEROperate tools and equipmentSlashing mowingCutting treesTilling of landWeedingHarvesting of cropsSOURCES OF POWER IN THE FARMHuman PowerAdvantagesi Work in areas impossible for animals and tractorii Cheapiii AvailableDisadvantagesi Power is limited to very light tasks. Ii Quality of work produced is low variableiii Slowiv Expensive in the long run. V Health of workers influences the work done. B Animal PowerDonkeys, Oxen, CamelUses-Cultivation, Transportation, Planting etc. Advantagesi No skilled workers required. Ii Cheaper to buy and maintain. Iii Work output is higher than in human beings. Iv Can work in areas impossible for tractors sloppy areas. V Work better on small holdings than tractors. Disadvantagesi Need a big portion of land for grazing. Ii Slower than tractors. Iii Cannot work on large land. Iv Animals damage crops when used for weeding. V Get sick reducing work output. Animals are harnessed singly or in pairs using a Yoke. Wind PowerUsesDry grains and fodder. Winnowing crop yields. Pumping water drive wind mills. Generate electricity. Disadvantagesi Unreliable e.g. direction. Ii Strength is unreliable. Iii Sometimes not available. Iv Not easy to control. V Expensive to purchase a wind mill and its accessories.


Iii Sometimes not available. Iv Not easy to control. V Expensive to purchase a wind mill and its accessories. D Water PowerSource Running water. UsesFerrying logs in navigation rivers. Produce hydro-electric power. Operate different types of machines e.g. Maize grinding mills. Driving hydraulic pumps for pumping water for irrigation. Disadvantagesi Some rivers are small and seasonal. Ii Expensive to harness the power. Iii Some farms are not accessible to moving water. Iv Difficult to use since not easy to control. E BiomassSources-Biogas, Wood or charcoal. F Wood or charcoalSources Trees in form of fire wood and charcoalUsesCookingHeatingDehydrating some cropsCuring of tobaccoDisadvantagesExhaustibleNot used directly in some farm operationsLarge quantities requiredIv Bulky hence difficult to transportPollute the environmentii BiogasSourcesIs a product produced when animal dung is fermented in a digester thereby producing a flammable gas methane. Stages of methane productionStage I: Animals digest insoluble organic substances by use of microbes to form waste dung . Stage II Microbes breakdown soluble substances in dung anaerobic ally in the digester. Methane gas is produced. Uses of BiogasCookingLightingProduce electricityHeatingBoiling waterInternal combustion enginesBiogas plantAdvantages of BiogasI Economical for farmers with zero grazing units. Ii The effluent slurry provides fertilizer richer in Nitrogen than manure. Iii Flies cannot breed. Iv Unpleasant oduors are removed. V Minimal environmental pollution. VI Reduced deforestation. Disadvantages of Biogasi Initial capital is high i.e. construction of Biogas digester is expensive. Ii Requires high management skills to produce the gas. Iii Requires a large number of animals to sustain gas production. Iv Only possible where animals are under zero grazing units. V Labour consuming. F Solar RadiationSource: The SunUsesPhotosynthesisDrying of crops prior to storage and processing. Provide electric power that is used for Lighting, pumping water, Cooking and heating. Distillation of clean drinking water.


F Solar RadiationSource: The SunUsesPhotosynthesisDrying of crops prior to storage and processing. Provide electric power that is used for Lighting, pumping water, Cooking and heating. Distillation of clean drinking water. G Electrical PowerSourceGeothermal PowerHydro Power stationNuclear Station Atomic energyStorage batteryUsesRun stationary machines e.g. milling, cooking, grinding and water pumpsSupplies heat and light for operation of broodersCookingOperate milking and welding machinesRun water pumpsDisadvantagesi Cannot be used directly in some farm operations e.g. milking, welding etc. Ii Lacks in rural areasiii Power failures lead to high lossesiv Costly to install and maintain h Fossil FuelNaturally occurring sourcesPetroleum oilsCoalNatural gasUsesPetrol and diesel used in burning internal combustion enginesKerosene used in lighting rural homesNatural gas for cooking and heating in stoves and lighting. Disadvantages e.g of coali Expensive to extractii Low energy valueiii Dirty a lot of smoke soot pollutionBulky hence high transport costTractor PowerSourceTractor engine converts chemical energy fuel into mechanical energy that drives farm machinery. The tractor engine is a four stroke cycle i.e. 4 movements of pistons. Types of Enginesi The Four stroke cycle engineThese cycles are completed in 4 strokes 4 movements of pistons. The crank shaft makes 2 total revolutions. The 4 cycles include:InductionCompressionPower andExhausta Induction stroke Intake strokeStepsi Piston moves down the cylinderii Inlet valve openiii Exhaust valve is closediv Fresh fuel and air gets into the cylinder. B Compression strokeStepsi Piston moves up the cylinderii Inlet and outlet exhaust valves are closediii Fresh fuel mixture is compressed into the combustion chamber.


Iv Delivery pipe: Connects the various devices. Maintenancei Replace the fuel filters. Ii Bleeding in case air is entrapped in the system. Iii Clean regularly the sediment bowl. B Electrical systemConsists of:i Ignition Generator dynamo circuit: Provides electrical current that produces a spark in the Engine. Ii Starter Mortar Circuit: Starts the engine Rotates the fly wheel which rotates the crank shaft. Iii Lighting Circuit: supplies electrical current for the lighting system i.e of the head lamp, brake lights etc. Iv Tractor Battery: stores the electrical energy supplied by the running engine. Also converts the chemical energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy from the running engine driven by the generator, charges the battery. Tractor battery contains 6 cells connected together to supply 12 volts. A battery has 2 sets of plates I.e ve and ve terminals. Care and Maintenance of Tractor Batteryi Top with distilled water the level of electrolyte. Ii Scrap clean and smear with grease corroded terminals. Iii Fix tightly the battery in a box to avoid spillage and damage. Iv Fit correctly the battery in a tractor right place . V Charge the battery regularly and periodically. Vi Empty and keep the battery upside down in case of long storage. Vii The generator fan belt should be functional to ensure the battery is always charged. C Ignition systemConsists of:i ignition coil: Converts or changes the battery voltage from 12v to 6000v required by the spark plugs. Provides a spark at the sparking plugs located in the engine cylinder. Ii The Distributer: Distributes the spark or the high voltage current at each spark plug. Iii Condenser:Absorbs the self induced current in the primary circuit. Stores the current for a short time. Passes the electric current to the distributor. Iv Contact Breaker: Interrupts the normal flow of the current in the primary circuit so as to generate high voltage from the coil. Common Faults of the ignition system1. Sudden stoppingCausesPoor terminal connectionsFaulty ignition system. CorrectionProper tightening of the terminalsProper cleaning and terminal readjustment. Continuous engine runningCausesBroken leadsPoor terminal connection. Faulty contact breakerCorrectionReplace the broken leads. Clean and tighten regularly the broken leads.


Continuous engine runningCausesBroken leadsPoor terminal connection. Faulty contact breakerCorrectionReplace the broken leads. Clean and tighten regularly the broken leads. Maintenance of the ignition systemi Remove carbon coatings on spark plug electrodes. Ii Replace spark plugs with worn out electrodes. Iii Clean contact breaker points. Iv Adjust breaker points to lie between 0.30mm to 0.50mm. V Replace the condenser regularly. Vi Keep the ignition system dry always. Vii Replace ignition wires with poor insulation. D The Cooling systemImportancePrevents the engine from overheating that causes expansion of engine components which would lead to: Leakage, valve burning, loss of engine power, cracking of the cylinder head and piston seizure in the cylinder. Types of cooling systemsa Airb WaterI Air cooled system-Used in light weight farm machines e.g mowers Motor bikes and Land masters. Characteristics of air cooled EnginesSimple in construction. Have fins and fan blade which assists in circulation. Light in weight since they no radiators or water jackets. Limitations of Air cooled EnginesGet hot quickly. Use heavy lubricating oils. Cooling is not adequate especially when carrying heavy loads. Ii Water cooled systemsWater absorbs heat from the engine block at a reasonable rate. Components:Radiator, Water jackets, Water hoses, Water pump, Thermostat, Funning mechanism etc. Cooled water is sucked from the bottom part of the radiator with help of water pump. It is pushed through water jackets and circulates within engine block and cylinder head. A thermostat: Regulates the temperature of water in the engine at 80 to 90 degrees Celsius. Hot water is forced back into the radiator for further cooling. Care and maintenance of water cooling systemi Lubricate water pump regularly. Ii Use clean water in the radiator. Iii Remove trash from the fins. Iv Fit all the pipes tightly to avoid leakage. V Fill the radiator with clean water before starting the days work. Vi Check regularly and adjust fan belt tension. E Lubrication systemSupplies oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur. Importance of lubrication system in tractorsi Increase efficiency of the machine. Ii Reduces tear and wear rate of the machine. Iii Reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces I.e acts as a seal between them.


Importance of lubrication system in tractorsi Increase efficiency of the machine. Ii Reduces tear and wear rate of the machine. Iii Reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces I.e acts as a seal between them. Iv Acts as a cleaning agent ie washes off dust, dirt soot and metal chippings from oil paths to the sump. V Oiling prevents rusting of stationary machines. Types of lubrication systemI Splash feed typeii Force feed typeiii Oil mist type. Types of lubricantsIdentified by their viscosity thickness index as indicated by S.A. E - Society of Automotive Engineers. The lower the SAE number the thinner the oil. I SAE 10 Thin oil . Gives little protection when heated. Ii SAE 50 Thicker oil . Protects bearings. Iii SAE 90 150. Transmission oils. Protects clutch, gear box, wheels, ball bearings. Care and maintenance of lubrication systemi Do not use old and contaminated oil as a lubricant. Ii Drain oil while still hot to avoid sticking on sump walls. Iii Replace oil filters. Iv Use the correct oil type as per manufacturer s instructions. F Power transmission system. Transfers power from tractor Engine to drive shaft, wheel axle P.T.O shaft and Hydraulic system. Consists of:1 The Clutch:Functionsi Connects or disconnects the drive shaft to or from the engine. Ii Enables the tractor to take off gradually and smoothly. Iii Provides power from the engine to P.T.O shaft. The clutch uses friction force to transmit power from the engine. It has three parts: Crank shaft, friction disc and pressure plate. 2 Gear boxFunctionsProvides different forward speeds. Enables the driver to choose any forward or reverse gear to suit the operation. Allow change in speed ratio by altering the gears. Allows the driver to stop the tractor without suddenly stopping the engine or the foot keeping pressed on clutch. 3 The differential. FunctionsChange the direction of drive to right angles so that power is transmitted to the rear wheels. Enables the rear wheels to travel faster or slower than others especially when negotiating corners. Differential lock avoids wheel slip or skidding. 4 Final Drive. -Enables the wheels to propel the tractor machine either forward or backward. Tires allow maximum grip traction i.e.


4 Final Drive. -Enables the wheels to propel the tractor machine either forward or backward. Tires allow maximum grip traction i.e. where the wheels provide large surface area of contact between the tires and the ground. Power transmission mechanismWays power is transmitted from the enginei Propeller Shaft-Connects the gear box to the differential that has axle s which drives the wheels. During forward movement, the tractor pulls or pushes attached implements. Ii The power Take off Shaft P.T.O Shaft-Located at the rear part of the tractor and rotates at the same speed as the crank shaft. It-is connected to the mowers, planters, rotavators, shellers, sprayers and fertilizer spreaders. Iii Hydraulic system-Operated by a lever near the driver s seat .Attached to the 3 point linkage which lowers or raises attached implements e.g. mowers, planters, ploughs, and sprayers. Iv Draw bar-Is at the rear part of the tractor. Does not get power directly from the engine. Attaches trailed implements used for harrowing, transportation and rolling. Tractor ServicingAre practices or operations carried out to keep the tractor in good and efficient working condition thereby increasing its lifespan. REVISION QUESTIONSa i What is agricultural economics? The art and science of organizing limited resources to achieve maximum returnsExplain the meaning of scarcity and choiceProductive resources are scarce in relation to demand i.e goods and services produced are not enough to satisfy human wantsTherefore, a choice has to be made on which goods and services should be produced using the limited resources. Explain how the house hold and firm are both producers and consumers. The household demands goods and services and supplies labour and raw materials to firmsFirms convert the raw materials and supplies finished goods to households. The relationship generates money to both sides therefore both are producers and consumers. What do the following terms mean? I Gross domestic product G.D.P The sum total of goods and services produced by a country within one year. Gross national income GNI Total output from resources owned by the nationals of a country both within and outside the country within a year. Per capita incomeGross national income divided by total populationi What does the term opportunity cost in farming mean? Cost of the foregone alternative when we make a choice. Example is choosing to grow maize instead of wheat.


Per capita incomeGross national income divided by total populationi What does the term opportunity cost in farming mean? Cost of the foregone alternative when we make a choice. Example is choosing to grow maize instead of wheat. Opportunity cost is the value of wheatOpportunity cost only exists where there are alternatives. State the main implications of opportunity cost in farming. Poor decision leads to lossesCorrect decision leads to good profitsWhen is opportunity cost nil or zero? When supply is unlimitedWhen goods are freeWhen there are no alternativesa i What is production? The process of transforming productive resources e.g land, labour and capital into consumption resources e.g potatoes, maize and milk over a period of time. State the factors of production. Land provides space for production Labour human effort Capital man made to assist other factors Management organises other factors i Name the sources of capital for farming. Credit facilitiesPersonal savings and earningsInherited property. Free grantsHow is labour classified? FamilyHired casual permanent State the functions of farm managerPlanning i.e. short and long termGathering informationComparing levels of production with those of neighbouring farmsDetecting weaknesses and constraints and finding ways and means of overcoming themKeeping up to date farm recordsImplementing farm management decisionsTaking responsibilitiesi State the law of diminishing returnsIn a production process, if variable additional units of an input are increased while all other factors are held constant, there will be an increase in additional output until a point is reached when the additional output per additional units of input declines. State agricultural examples of this law. Use of varying units of labour on a fixed unit of landFeeding dairy cattle with varying units of feed for milk productionUsing varying units of fertilizer in the production of a given cropi What is production function? The relationship between the units of input that a farmer employs in production and the corresponding units of outputThe output depends on inputs hence output is a function inputs. Name the types of production function? Increasing returnsConstant returnsDecreasing returnsWhat is a decreasing returns production function? A production function where each additional unit of input results into a smaller increase in output than the proceeding unit of input. Give 4 qualities desirable in a farm manager. State 4 ways of improving labour in the farm. State 4 management guideline questions which assist manager in decision making.


Give 4 qualities desirable in a farm manager. State 4 ways of improving labour in the farm. State 4 management guideline questions which assist manager in decision making. State 4 characteristics of variable inputs. Give two examples of each of the following;Variable inputs. Fixed inputs.


PHYSICS SCHEMES OF WORKFORM TWO 2019TERM IREFERENCES:Secondary Physics KLBComprehensive Secondary PhysicsPrinciples of PhysicsGolden TipsTeacher s BookPHYSICS SCHEMES OF WORKFORM TWOTERM IIREFERENCES:Secondary Physics KLBComprehensive Secondary PhysicsPrinciples of PhysicsGolden TipsTeacher s BookPHYSICS SCHEMES OF WORKFORM TWOTERM IIIREFERENCES:Secondary Physics KLBComprehensive Secondary PhysicsPrinciples of PhysicsGolden TipsTeacher s Book.


A DOLL S HOUSE-SAMPLE EXCERPT QUESTIONSRead the extract below and answer the questions that follow. 25 marks Nora: It s a shame to say that. I do really save all I can. Helmer: laughing That s very true, - all you can. But you can t save anything! Nora: smiling quietly and happily You haven t any idea how many expenses we skylarks and squirrels have, Torvald. Helmer: You are an odd little soul. Very like your father. You always find some new way of wheedling money out of me, and as soon as you have got it, it seems to melt in your hands. You never know where it has gone. Still, one must take you as you are. It is in the blood: for indeed it is true that you can inherit these things, Nora. Nora: Ah, I wish I had inherited many of papa s qualities. Helmer: And I would not wish you to be anything but just what you are, my little skylark. But do you know, it strikes me that you are looking-rather what shall I say- rather uneasy today? Nora: do I? HELMER: You do, really. Look straight at me. Nora : looks at him well? Helmer: wagging his finger at her Hasn t Miss Sweet Tooth been breaking rules in town today? Nora: No; what makes you think that? Helmer: Hasn t she paid a visit to the confectioner s? Nora: No, I assure you, Torvald-Helmer: Not been nibbling sweets? Nora: No, certainly not. Helmer: Not even take a bite at a macaroon or two? Nora: going to the table on the right I shouldn t think of going against your wishes. Helmer: No, I am sure of that: besides, you gave me your word- Going up to her Keep your little Christmas secrets to yourself, my darling. They will be revealed tonight when the Christmas tree is lit, no doubt. Nora: Did you remember to invite Doctor Rank? Helmer: No. But there is no need; as a matter of course, he will come to dinner with us. However, I will ask him when he comes this morning. I have ordered some good wine.