Most of us think about that at first. I thought about it, too, but I discovered I hadn t the courage. 3. Take on the role of Helmer in Act Three. Instead of letting Nora slam the door and leave, verbalize your sudden hope as she refers to the greatest miracle. Theatrical Device T-ChartTo focus on the theatrical devices such as costumes, sounds, and props, ask students to keep a record of the devices used in A Doll s House and the effects the devices have on the audience. Students write a large capital T on a piece of notebook paper. On top of the horizontal line, students record the act or scene number. To the left of the vertical line,A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House18they write the theatrical device, such as Nora s macaroons. To the right of the vertical line, students write the effect of the device on the audience. An example might read, The macaroons reveal Nora s secret rebellion to the audience. As each scene or act is completed, students can share their devices with small groups or the class as a whole. Advice ColumnTo examine point of view, ask students to write a Dear Abby type response. Advise Nora or Torvald how to repair her his life at the end of the play. Students can post their responses on a bulletin board for all to see and discuss. Character SketchesCharacter sketches are often used in drama classes to encourage actors understanding of the parts they portray. However, character sketches are very useful in literature classes, too, as an examination of a character s history, motivation, and thinking. In the character sketch, students answer simple questions about the character they choose or are assigned. Afterwards, the assignment can be extended when students write their own monologues or deliver a monologue from the text. The Character Sketch asks:1. What does this character look like? How does he she carry himself herself? How does he she dress?2. How does this character speak? Does he she have any identifiable speech patterns?3. Where was this character born? How was he she raised?4. Describe the time period in which this character lives. How do the times affect this character s thinking and actions?5. What is this character s main motivation? Why?6. Describe any redeeming qualities this character may have. 7. Analyze the character s personality flaws.


Describe any redeeming qualities this character may have. 7. Analyze the character s personality flaws. From what do they stem? How do they affect the choices he she makes?8. Choose an object this character holds or would hold dear. Explain the connection.9. Does this character have any secrets? If so, explain.10. Who would be this character s contemporary counterpart? Explain your choice. Closing Arguments SpeechesIn this activity, students take the role of attorneys presenting their closing arguments at the end of a criminal trial. In this case Nora is on trial. Her crime can be varied: forgery, desertion, breach of contract. Ask students to choose whether to defend or prosecute Nora. To prepare their case, they list all the possible arguments from both sides. For example, if they plan to defend Nora, they list not only all the arguments they plan to use but also as many arguments as they can think of that will be used by the prosecution. Then, they ll list possible responses to the opposition s points. In this way, students not only consider both points of view but also illustrate their skills in persuasive writing andA Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House19speaking. Students should be encouraged to incorporate their original thinking but should also be required to cite the play whenever possible to encourage close reading. Prior to preparing their arguments, students might watch a closing argument on video, such as the scene at the end of John Grisham s A Time to Kill. Such a model provides ideas for rhetorical strategies such as repetition, storytelling, and gestures. Students present arguments orally to the class. AFTER READING ACTIVITIESThese activities encourage students to deepen their interpretation of A Doll s House by helping them make connections between themes and issues in the play, in other works, and in the outside world. I. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND ESSAYSNow that students have read the entire play, they can return to the text for a deeper understanding of its significant themes. The following topics and questions can be used for whole class and small group discussion or as essay topics.1. Revisit one of the pre-reading activities such as the walkabout survey, the probable passage, or the circle map. Now that you have completed the play, what further commentary can you add? Do you and your classmates see your topic differently now? Why or why not?2.


Now that you have completed the play, what further commentary can you add? Do you and your classmates see your topic differently now? Why or why not?2. A Doll s House is full of references to dolls, puppets, and playthings. Trace these references throughout the play while summarizing Ibsen s ideas about gender and societal roles.3. When Nora submits to Torvald, telling him, Whatever you do is always right, Torvald replies, Now my little lark s talking like a human being. But later, Nora says Before all else, I m a human being. Compare and contrast Torvald s and Nora s definitions of human being. 4. Ibsen infuses his play with vivid dramatic devices such as the many artificial lights, the letter hitting the mailbox, and the slamming door. How does the dramatic genre help tell the playwright s story in a manner unparalleled by the novel form?5. Consider the character of Torvald Helmer. Is Torvald an antagonist? A misogynist? Or could Torvald be just as much a victim of nineteenth century societal norms as Nora? Discuss.6. Many Ibsen critics argue that A Doll s House is not a feminist play, and is more about asserting self, regardless of gender. Yet Joan Templeton, in her afterword to the Signet Classics edition of Ibsen: Four Major Plays Volume I, disagrees, asserting that Make Nora a man, and the play becomes not only ludicrous, but impossible. What do you think? Is A Doll s House a play about feminism or humanism? Explain.7. Why are there so many references to sickness and fever in A Doll s House? Trace these references throughout the play. What broader concern for society might Ibsen be expressing? A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House208. What is the role of Dr. Rank in A Doll s House? Is he simply a friend and admirer? Or is he more? Explain.9. Mrs. Linde tells Krogstad, I ve learned to be realistic. Life and hard, bitter necessity have taught me that. How is A Doll s House a realistic play? What sets it apart from other nineteenth century dramas we ve read? How does A Doll s House help define the realistic movement in drama?10.


Life and hard, bitter necessity have taught me that. How is A Doll s House a realistic play? What sets it apart from other nineteenth century dramas we ve read? How does A Doll s House help define the realistic movement in drama?10. At the end of the play, Nora slams the door to the doll house and walks away. Yet she leaves Torvald with hope for the greatest miracle. Why did Ibsen write an ambiguous ending? Cite evidence from Nora s and Torvald s closing speeches to indicate what you believe to be the ultimate ending to this drama. II. CONNECTING TO THE WILD DUCK, HEDDA GABLER, aND THE MASTER BUILDERThe following activities can be used for enrichment as Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House is compared to three of his other major plays. Script StudyAs a class, re-read the scene in A Doll s House, Act II, where Nora dances wildly during her tarantella practice. Next, read the last scene in Hedda Gabler, where Hedda plays a wild dance melody on the piano shortly before her tragic exit at the play s end. Discuss with students: Why does Ibsen utilize the dramatic device of dance in both plays? What statement is the playwright making about women in nineteenth century marriages?Title SearchAsk students to examine the intriguing titles of two of Ibsens s plays: A Doll s House and The Wild Duck. For Nora in her house, and for the Ekdals in their sky lighted attic with the wild duck, the titles represent a place of refuge from the real world. Give students the following prompt for a journal response: What is the reality both Nora and the Ekdals avoid? Explain Ibsen s vision of nineteenth century society. After writing, students can share journal responses individually with the teacher, or collectively with the class. Venn DiagramOn the board, draw a Venn diagram two side-by-side, overlapping circles and lead students through a brainstorm activity comparing Torvald in A Doll s House and Solness in The Master Builder. Ask students to list all the ways Torvald has built his achievements by using Nora. Record their answers in the left circle. In the right circle, ask students to provide ways Solness has built his life using women, as well.


Ask students to list all the ways Torvald has built his achievements by using Nora. Record their answers in the left circle. In the right circle, ask students to provide ways Solness has built his life using women, as well. Student responses that apply to both Torvald and Solness should be written in the area where the circles overlap, thus illustrating Ibsen s repetitive themes of male mastery and dominance. To extend the discussion, choose a different color board marker and ask students to consider the closing scenes of both A Doll s House and The Master Builder. Discuss each man s character at play s end. Are there lessons either one or both have learned? Add these responses to the appropriate sections of the Venn diagram. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House21Film Criticism After watching an excerpt or the entirety of one or more of the following films based on Ibsen s works, students write a film critique discussing one or more of the cinematic choices of casting, characterization, special effects, and theme development. If appropriate, critiques should include comparative discussion on watching the film versus reading the script and the effectiveness of those differences. Ask students:1. Several of Ibsen s plays have been set in modern times on film. Describe the setting of this video production. Where and when does it take place? Does the setting seem authentic? Why or why not? What specific direction and production choices add to the atmosphere? Discuss costuming and prop choices.2. Discuss the use of special effects. Consider lighting, music, and sound. How do these elements add to your understanding of the play? What differences exist between the film s interpretation and your own while reading? Do these differences add to or change your analysis of Ibsen s work? Explain.3. Discuss the production s casting. Do the actors provide effective portrayals of Ibsen s characters? Why were these actors cast? Consider the time period in which the film was produced.4. What were the strengths of this film production? Use specific evidence from the film. Were there any weaknesses? If so, discuss specific issues.5. What is your overall impression of this film? Would your impression be different had you not read the play first?A Doll s House. Dir. Patrick Garland. Elkins Productions: 1973.Hedda Gabler. Dir. Paul Willis. Best Ten Dollar Suit Pictures: 2004.The Master Builder. Dir.


Paul Willis. Best Ten Dollar Suit Pictures: 2004.The Master Builder. Dir. Michael Darlow. UK Television: 1988.The Wild Duck. Dir. Henri Safran. Film Bancor of Australia: 1983.III. GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL PROJECTSQAR GridIn order to develop levels of critical questioning, students will create their own questions on A Doll s House. Ask students to create a Question-Answer-Relationship QAR Grid by folding a piece of paper in half and then in half again. When the paper is opened, it should have four equal-sized squares. Ask students to label the squares with the following: Right There:The answer is in the play, usually very easy to find. Think and Search:The answer is in the play, but not directly. You have to put together pieces of information to find it. Playwright and You:The answer is not in the play. You have to think about what you already know, what Ibsen tells you in the play, and how the two fit together. On Your Own:The answer is not in the play. You have to use your own experience and prior knowledge to find it. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House22After creating questions in all four categories, students can trade their QAR grids with each other and answer the questions either individually or in groups. Write a Sequel While The Doll House ends with a slamming door, Nora seems to leave a possible opening for Torvald to learn his lesson. Because Ibsen s ending has spurred controversy among audiences and critics alike, ask students to write a sequel, or additional ending scene, making clear whether Nora eventually returns to Torvald or embarks on a life of her own forever. Students can parody Ibsen s language, illustrating their comprehension of style. And because they choose the ending they believe Ibsen intended based on the evidence he included, students will also be utilizing their skills in research and analysis. To extend this assignment, students might be provided a rubric prior to beginning. The rubric indicates components that will be assessed, such as adherence to Ibsen s style, complexity of character and theme, editing, and effort. Upon completion of the scene, writers can move into peer edit groups and grade two other classmates scenes using the rubric. Editors should make comments on both the scene and the rubric, and discuss their observations with writers.


The rubric indicates components that will be assessed, such as adherence to Ibsen s style, complexity of character and theme, editing, and effort. Upon completion of the scene, writers can move into peer edit groups and grade two other classmates scenes using the rubric. Editors should make comments on both the scene and the rubric, and discuss their observations with writers. In this way, students practice writing to specific audiences and for specific purposes. Later, writers can share their scenes with the rest of the class. Stage a SceneBecause plays are meant to be staged, encourage your students to bring the text alive. For instance, have small groups pick a scene from A Doll s House to act out for the class. Assign extra credit for props and costumes. Assign a director in each group. After the group meets to discuss what themes, emotions, or messages they want their scene to portray, the director helps bring this vision to life, making sure all blocking is planned, practiced, and focused on the intended goal. Remind students to use vocal and facial expression and energy. Learn the TarantellaInterested students might research and learn the steps to the tarantella. Ask them to present the dance, complete with music and costume, in front of the class. Research might include the rich history and motivation behind the dance. Websites of interest include:http: www.virtualitalia.com articles tarantella.shtmlhttp: www.streetswing.com histmain z3tartla.htmPaper DollsTo illustrate characterization and to emphasize Ibsen s doll house theme, ask students to create paper dolls of Nora and Torvald. The character s true identity should be evident in the clothes he she wears closest to the body, and the identities assigned them by others will be illustrated in the doll clothes designed to fit them. For example, the Nora paper doll might wear a t-shirt that reads, in search of identity or I am a human being. But she might have a masquerade dress and mask for the tarantella and an apron and long skirt for daily life, illustrating her masked rebellion and repressed role. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House23Doll HouseAfter revisiting the stage directions and descriptions in the script, ask students to design the set for a production of A Doll s House.


The character s true identity should be evident in the clothes he she wears closest to the body, and the identities assigned them by others will be illustrated in the doll clothes designed to fit them. For example, the Nora paper doll might wear a t-shirt that reads, in search of identity or I am a human being. But she might have a masquerade dress and mask for the tarantella and an apron and long skirt for daily life, illustrating her masked rebellion and repressed role. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House23Doll HouseAfter revisiting the stage directions and descriptions in the script, ask students to design the set for a production of A Doll s House. Using materials as simple as a shoe box or as complicated as wood and nails, students will design a set that highlights the play s time period and themes. Ideally, students will create a model doll house complete with wall paper, furniture, and props. Particular attention should be paid to important devices such as the Christmas tree, the mailbox, and the front door. Trading CardsStudents can create trading cards with the picture of each character on the front, and a physical description, character traits, and other information on back. These cards can serve as a review or can be exchanged with classmates to initiate discussion after reading the play. Production PacketsAssign teams of four students each to create a production pack for a modern film production of A Doll s House. This assignment provides practice in cooperative learning, technical writing, and digital storytelling. Production Teams are responsible for creating a dynamic presentation meant to persuade a producer to produce their film. Groups decide on a concept, such as what time period the film will be set in and whether they plan to use Ibsen s music or create an original soundtrack. Groups then cast the film with modern actors. Next, team members assign themselves the individual roles of director, costume designer, set designer, and sound designer. Each position creates both a written as well as a visual proposal analyzing the following considerations:Director: Supervises the team and pulls together all word processed work into a single document. Also creates a promotional product such as a digital movie trailer or movie poster. Justifies the group s casting choices of specific, contemporary actors. Costume Designer:Creates a portfolio of costumes for major characters. Work can be hand-drawn, computer assisted, or cut from magazines.


Also creates a promotional product such as a digital movie trailer or movie poster. Justifies the group s casting choices of specific, contemporary actors. Costume Designer:Creates a portfolio of costumes for major characters. Work can be hand-drawn, computer assisted, or cut from magazines. Costume styles must align with the team concept, such as Victorian or contemporary, casual or formal. Research is documented and choices are analyzed in writing. Set Designer:Creates a set plan that fits the team concept. If the film is to be shot on location, the plan details the locations and their appropriateness, and includes pictures. If the film is to be shot on an inside set, the plan describes the stage, explains the design, and includes a hand-drawn or computerized drawing. Sound Designer:Creates a sound design that fits the team concept. If an original soundtrack is to be used, creates a CD complete with insert that analyzes choices. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House24Gallery Walk In this cooperative learning activity, divide students into groups of four or five. Assign each group one of the major themes that have been addressed throughout the reading of A Doll s House, such as gender roles, social responsibility, the role of the individual, and complication and deception. In front of large sheets of paper posted around the room, groups meet at their base poster, which is the paper pre-labeled with the name of a theme. Students brainstorm and write down all textual evidence and commentary they can think of to support the role of their theme in the play. When the teacher says, continue your walk, students move to the next base and read what the previous groups have written before adding their own commentary. The gallery walk continues until the groups have seen and contributed to all posters and return to their original place. Four CornersFour Corners is a kinesthetic strategy for practicing point-of-view and argumentation techniques. Assign each corner of the classroom a different opinion, topic, or answer to a question. For example, one corner might be assigned, Nora is a wife and mother above all else, and she shouldn t have left. Other corners may assert, Nora is a human and can leave if and when she chooses; Nora can leave for a while, but needs to come back when she s found herself; and I am undecided. Present the topic or question to the students, allowing them time to choose and move to a corner that matches their opinions.


The gallery walk continues until the groups have seen and contributed to all posters and return to their original place. Four CornersFour Corners is a kinesthetic strategy for practicing point-of-view and argumentation techniques. Assign each corner of the classroom a different opinion, topic, or answer to a question. For example, one corner might be assigned, Nora is a wife and mother above all else, and she shouldn t have left. Other corners may assert, Nora is a human and can leave if and when she chooses; Nora can leave for a while, but needs to come back when she s found herself; and I am undecided. Present the topic or question to the students, allowing them time to choose and move to a corner that matches their opinions. Allow groups to talk amongst themselves to generate support for their opinion, and prompt them to give a summary statement. Now allow students to change corners after hearing each other s explanations. Students should explain why they moved. Final CountdownTo provide students with a visual framework for reflection and evaluation, provide them with a large triangle divided into six blocks, one box on the row closest to the point, two on the middle row, and three on the base row of the triangle. Ask them to reflect individually on what they have learned about The Doll House and record their responses on the rocket-shaped triangle. On the base row, ask students to write the three most important things they have learned about the play. On the middle row, ask students to write two questions they still have. And on the top row, have students write one statement that reflects their new learning. Vanity Plates and Bumper StickersTo help students summarize their learning creatively, invite them to create vanity plates or bumper stickers for cars. Students pretend they are one of the play s characters, and they design an appropriate vanity plate or bumper sticker for that character s car. For instance, Nora might choose a vanity plate that reads I4G , and Torvald s bumper sticker might say Appearance is Everything. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House25Extended ReadingAsk students to read one short story or poem, one play or novel, and watch one film that depicts a character s journey from playing a part to asserting identity. Students can make a comparison chart depicting the similarities and differences between the main character and Nora Helmer. Students can consider the following questions as they read view:1.


Students pretend they are one of the play s characters, and they design an appropriate vanity plate or bumper sticker for that character s car. For instance, Nora might choose a vanity plate that reads I4G , and Torvald s bumper sticker might say Appearance is Everything. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House25Extended ReadingAsk students to read one short story or poem, one play or novel, and watch one film that depicts a character s journey from playing a part to asserting identity. Students can make a comparison chart depicting the similarities and differences between the main character and Nora Helmer. Students can consider the following questions as they read view:1. What character traits and dramatic elements depict the protagonist as being on a journey to identity?2. Does this character illustrate a moral or social code of behavior? If so, describe it.3. What is the character s greatest desire? 4. What ultimate price is the protagonist willing to pay to reach his her objective?5. Detail the outcome of the protagonist s journey.6. Does the protagonist regret his her decision? How do you know?7. Is the protagonist ultimately redeemed or condemned for his her choices?The following titles focus on themes of identity, social responsibility, gender roles, and marriage, and are excellent for both independent reading or literature circles where each group of students reads a different work on the same theme. Ask students for their own additions to the list. IdentityCisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. NY: Knopf, 1984.Dead Poets Society. Dir. Peter Weir. Touchstone Pictures, 1989.Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Self-Reliance. 1841.Lowry, Lois. The Giver. NY: Random, 2002.Sachar, Louis. Holes. NY: Random, 2000.Tennyson, Lord Alfred. The Lady of Shallot. 1833, 1842.Whitman, Walt. Song of Myself. 1855.Wright, Richard. Black Boy. HarperCollins, 2008.Social ResponsibilityGreen, John. Looking for Alaska. NY: Penguin, 2006.Hobbs, Will. Downriver. NY: Random, 1995.Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. NY: Grand Central, 1988.Le Guin, Ursula. A Wizard of Earthsea.


To Kill a Mockingbird. NY: Grand Central, 1988.Le Guin, Ursula. A Wizard of Earthsea. NY: Bantam, 2004.Miller, Arthur. The Crucible. NY: Penguin, 2003.Shaw, George Bernard. Major Barbara. NY: Penguin, 2001.Twain, Mark. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. NY: Norton, 1998.Zusak, Markus. I am the Messenger. NY: Random, 2006. Gender Roles and MarriageAusten, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. NY: Penguin, 2005.Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. NY: Bantam, 2003.Edwards, Kim. The Memory Keeper s Daughter. NY: Viking Penguin, 2006.Levin, Ira. The Stepford Wives. NY: Harper, 2002. A Teacher s Guide to the Signet Classics Edition of Henrik Ibsen s A Doll s House26Please Don t Eat the Daisies. Dir. Charles Walters, Euterpe, 1960.Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. NY: Signet Classics, 1998.Spinelli, Jerry. Crash. NY: Random, 1997.Williams, Tennessee. A Streetcar Named Desire. NY: Penguin, 1986.ABOUT THE AUTHOR OF THIS GUIDELaura Reis Mayer is a High School Literacy Coach and a Support Provider for National Board Certified Teachers in Asheville, North Carolina. She taught middle, high school, and college English for sixteen years and has facilitated at state and regional conferences on Senior Project, National Board Certification, literacy strategies, and technology in the English classroom. She is also the author of A Teacher s Guide to The Signet Classics Edition of George Bernard Shaw s Pygmalion and My Fair Lady and A Teacher s Guide to The Signet Classics Edition of Christopher Marlowe s Dr. Faustus. About the Editors of this GuideJeanne M. McGlinn, Professor in the Department of Education at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, teaches Children s and Adolescent Literature and directs the field experiences of 9-12 English licensure candidates. She is a Board member of NC English Teachers Association and the Children s Literature and Reading SIG of the IRA.


Faustus. About the Editors of this GuideJeanne M. McGlinn, Professor in the Department of Education at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, teaches Children s and Adolescent Literature and directs the field experiences of 9-12 English licensure candidates. She is a Board member of NC English Teachers Association and the Children s Literature and Reading SIG of the IRA. She has written extensively in the area of adolescent literature, including a critical book on the historical fiction of adolescent writer Ann Rinaldi for Scarecrow Press Young Adult Writers series. James E. McGlinn, Professor of Education at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, teaches methods of teaching and reading courses. He has taught high school English, and he is Past-President of the College Professors of Reading Special Interest Council of the NC Reading Association. His research interests include study strategies for online text and increasing the reading achievement of students in high school and college. Teacher s Guides for the Signet Classic Shakespeare SeriesAntony and CleopatraAs You Like ItHamletHenry IV Part IHenry VJulius CaesarKing LearMacbethMeasure for MeasureA Midsummer Night s DreamThe Merchant of VeniceMuch Ado About NothingOthelloRichard IIIRomeo and JulietThe Taming of the ShrewThe TempestTwelfth Night New TitlesTeacher s Guides Adventures of Huckleberry FinnAnimal FarmAnthemBeowulfThe Call of the WildCannery RowCity of GodThe Country of the Pointed Firs and Other StoriesThe CrucibleDeath of a SalesmanDoctor Faustus A Doll s HouseDr. Jekyll and Mr.


1 AGRICULTURE FORM III NOTES 17.0.0 Livestock Production Selecting and Breeding 12 Lessons 18.0.0 Livestock Production Livestock Rearing 10 Lessons 19.0.0 Farm Structures 18 Lessons 20.0.0 Agricultural Economics II Land Tenure and Land Reform 20 Lessons 21.0.0 Soil and Water Conservation 19 Lessons 22.0.0 Weeds and Weed Control 15 Lessons 23.0.0 Crop Pests and Diseases 14 Lessons 24.0.0 Crop Productivity VI Field Practices II 17 Lessons 25.0.0 Forage Crops 9 Lessons 26.0.0 Livestock Health III Diseases 20 Lessons Livestock Production III Selection and Breeding Introduction The breeding of animals is under human control, and the breeders decide which individuals shall produce the next generation. The breeder makes a choice. The breeding of animals is based upon the fact that certain qualities are genetic ,hence valuable qualities are passed on from parents to off -springs. The qualities can be maintained or improved in the next generation. The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors; Genetic potential The environment, which includes: Feeding, Health, Care The ecological conditions. The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents. In selection and breeding animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowed to mate. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 2 In the process they transmit the superior characteristics to their offspring. When this is done over a long period of time, it results in livestock improvement. Reproduction and Reproductive Systems Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced. All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction. It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female. The embryo zygote formed develops inside body of mother, fed and protected until end of gestation period.


It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 4 Ovaries and fallopian tubes oviduct Two ovaries located in abdomen, left and right. Produce ova eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle. Oestrogen produced by graafian follicle inside ovary induces oestrus ie. Heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat After every 21 days the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. The ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time, fertilization will take place. The fertilized egg implants itself onto the endometrium walls of uterus and develops into foetus. Fallopian tubes: Fertilization takes place here. Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the uterus. The uterus: Embryo develops here. The cervix: Closes the uterus. The vagina and Vulva: Vulva is the external opening of female reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the vagina. The foetus and urine are removed through the vulva. Pregnancy Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 5 Also called gestation period. In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days. Ends with the birth of a calf. The reproductive tract undergoes a period of rest during which it is repaired and returns to normal. During pregnancy, hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain the foetus in the uterus. Parturition giving birth Act of giving birth called parturition. This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal. When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;- Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums. Swollen vulva producing thick mucus. Loose and slackened pelvic girdle. Visible pin bones. General restlessness.


Loose and slackened pelvic girdle. Visible pin bones. General restlessness. Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after this signs. The correct presentation is with the front feet first ,and the head outstretched and resting in between the fee. Any other presentation called mal-presentation or breech presentation and requires assistance. Reproduction in Poultry The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. Cock has testes within the body. The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg. Fertilization occurs internally. During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the cock fit into each other and then semen is poured into the cloaca ,then sucked to the oviducts. The Reproductive System of a Hen For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 Ovary Hen has two ovaries but one functional. Ova formed in ovaries. 3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle. Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle. It moves into oviduct received by the funnel. Funnel infundibulum Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk. Time here is 15 minutes. It is 11.6cm long. Magnum Thick albumen is added. Stays for 3hrs.its 33cm long. Isthmus Its 10.6cm long. Shell membranes added. Determines shape of egg. Water, mineral salts and vitamins added. Takes 15 minutes. Uterus shell gland Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 7 Pigments added. Addition of albumin finished. Stays here for 18-22hours. Vagina Short, 6.9cm long. For temporal storage of egg before laying Cloaca Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent. The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking. NB; Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation takes 24-26hours. The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body.


NB; Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation takes 24-26hours. The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body. Selection of a Breeding Stock Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. A breeding stock is a group of males and females which act as parents of future generations. Selection is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations while culling others. Culling is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired level, from the herd. The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more. Selected animals make up the breeding stock. The breeding stock should pass the good qualities to their offsprings for better performance, to improve the livestock. Selection process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of desirable qualities in an animal. Genetically termed as gene frequency occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics. Selection increases occurrence of desirable genes and decreases occurance of undesirable genes. During selection, the characteristics to be selected for are first studied closely to ascertain that it is not influenced by the environment, but mainly by the genetic makeup. Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable. Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring and they are strongly inherited. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable, i.e. it is weakly inherited and a bigger percentage of the character is affected by the environment. The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following factors; The heritability of the character The intensity with which the selection is done The interval between generations and kind of selection being practiced. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 8 Factors To Consider When Selecting A Breeding Stock. Age Level of performance Physical Fitness Health Body Conformation Temperament or Behaviour Quality of products Mothering Ability Adaptability Proliferation Age Young animals, Those that have not parturated for more than 3-times, should be selected. They have a longer productive life. Old animals are poor breeders and low producers. Production and breeding efficiency decline with age. Level of performance Animals with highest production level selected. Performance best indicated by records.


Production and breeding efficiency decline with age. Level of performance Animals with highest production level selected. Performance best indicated by records. Good performance of animal indicated by; High milk, wool and egg production, Good mothering ability High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their offsprings. The animals with poor performance should be culled. Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose. Physical Fitness Animals selected should be free from any physical defect e.g. mono-eyed, limping, irregular number of teats, scrotal hernia, defective and weak backline Health Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep. Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their offsprings Body Conformation For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 9 Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body conformation. A dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs, long neck. Temperament or Behaviour Animals with bad behaviors should be culled.eg Cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness, kicking Quality of products Select animals that give products of high quality. Mothering Ability Animals selected should have a good mothering ability, That is animals with good natural instinct towards their young ones. This will enable them to rear the young ones up to weaning. Adaptability Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition in the area. Prolificacy Animals selected should be highly prolific. That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many offsprings at a time larger litter . This is a quality that should be considered when selecting pigs and rabbits. Selection in cattle, and sheep, Selection in cattle Consider the following; Level Of Performance Which Include; Milk Yield Buter Content. Length Of Lactation Period. Calving Intervals.


Selection in cattle, and sheep, Selection in cattle Consider the following; Level Of Performance Which Include; Milk Yield Buter Content. Length Of Lactation Period. Calving Intervals. Age Of The Animal, Fertility, Physical Fitness, Health Of The Animal, Body Conformation, Suitability Of The Enterprise-Milk Or Beef Selection in sheep Consider the following; Level of performance which includes; Mothering ability Growth rate Wool quality For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 10 Carcass quality Twining rate Age Suitability to the enterprise-wool or mutton Flocking instinct Health of the animal Physical fitness Inheritable defects Fertility Inheritable defects. Fertility. Selection in Goats Consider the following: Fertility. Mothering ability. Growth rate. Twining rate Carcass quality dressing percentage. Growth rate. Suitability to the enterprise - milk or mutton. Health of the animal. Age. Selection in Pigs Consider the following: Carcass quality dressing percentage. Suitability to the enterprise bacon or pork Growth rate. Health of the animal. Mothering ability. Prolificacy. Number of teats. Temperament. Body formation. Age. Heredity defects Selection in Camels Health of the animal. Age. Temperament. Foraging ability. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 11 Fertility. Level of performance-milk, meat, fur and transport. Method of Selection These include: Mass selection - Animals with superior characteristics are selected from a herd and then allowed to mate among each other. Progeny testing - assessing on the breeding value of an animal on the basis of performance of its offsprings. Contemporary comparison -comparison of performance between heifers of the same age and sexual maturity. Breeding Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with the desired characteristics. Reasons: To expand the inherited potential of the animal. To improve production. To overcome production problems created by the environment. To satisfy consumers taste. For economic reasons.


To overcome production problems created by the environment. To satisfy consumers taste. For economic reasons. Terms Used in Breeding Inheritance Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offsprings. The mechanism of inheritance is carried by the sex cells gametes and is controlled by genes found in the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular characteristics, such as colour, body shape and amount of milk production. Chromosomes are genetic materials which carry genes. They exist in pairs paternal and maternal in the nucleus f the body cells. They are always constant in number. Dominant and Recessive Characteristics A dominant gene is one that suppresses the other. It produces a dominant characteristic. A recessive gene is one that is suppressed by the other. It produces a recessive characteristic. Hybrid and Hybrid Vigour A hybrid is an animal which is the product of crossing animals of two different breeds. Hybrid vigour or heterosis is increased vigour and performance resulting from crossing two superior breeds. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 12 Epistasis This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic, that is situated on different locus. Breeding Systems Inbreeding Mating of animals which are related. Reasons: To increase genetic uniformity in a herd. Used to fix the required characteristics in new breeds. To increase phenotypic uniformity. To get proven sires. Limitations It can bring about loss of hybrid vigour. It may lead to decline in fertility. It may lead to high rate of pre-natal mortality. Systems of Inbreeding Close Breeding: mating between very closely related animals, for example sibmating and parents sib-mating. Line Breeding: mating of distantly related animals that had a common ancestor for example cousins. Outbreeding Mating of animals which are not related. Reasons: To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd. To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds. To develop a new breed or a grade animal. Limitations Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding. Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation. Systems of Outbreeding Cross-breeding Mating of animals from two different pure breeds.


Limitations Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding. Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation. Systems of Outbreeding Cross-breeding Mating of animals from two different pure breeds. Out-Crossing Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed. Upgrading Grading up Mating where the female of a cow grade stock locals is mated with a pure breed sire. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 13 The resultant animal is referred to as a high grade. Mating in Livestock Mating in Cattle Heat signs occur every 21 days. The heat period last for 18-30 hours on average 24 hours. Cow should be served 12-18 hours after showing the first heat signs. Heat Signs Restlessness. Mounting on others and when mounted on she stands still. Rise in body temperature. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. Vulva swells and becomes reddish. Clear or slimy mucus from the vulva. Bellowing or mooing frequently. Mating in Pigs Heat signs in pigs occur after every 21 days. The heat lasts about 72 hours. Sows or gilts should be served in 18- 36 hours of the heat period. Signs of Heat Restlessness. Frequent urination. Swelling and reddening of the vulva. Clear or slimy discharge from the vulva. Frequent mounting on others. It responds very well to the 'riding test'. Mating in Rabbits Does are ready for mating 6-7 months of age. Heat signs occur every 14 days. The doe should be taken to the buck and not vice versa. Signs of Heat Restlessness. Frequent urination. Swollen vulva. The doe throws herself on the side. The doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object. The doe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peeping. Methods of Service in Livestock For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 14 Natural Mating Advantages: It is more accurate. It is less laborious. Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected.


Methods of Service in Livestock For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 14 Natural Mating Advantages: It is more accurate. It is less laborious. Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected. Disadvantages Inbreeding is not easily controlled. Transmission of breeding diseases. Extra feed for the male is required. Large males can injure small females. Wastage of semen. It is cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull to remote areas. Artificial insemination Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means. Advantages There is economical use of semen. It controls transmission of breeding diseases. Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can produce semen to serve cows. It prevents large bulls from injuring small cows. It reduces the expenses of keeping a male animal. A small scale farmer who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served at a low cost. Semen can be stored for long. It helps to control inbreeding. It eliminates the threat of keeping dangerous bulls from the farm. It makes research work easier. Disadvantages Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offsprings. It requires skilled labour. Low chance of conception due to death of semen during storage. It is laborious: Embryo Transplant It is the implantation of an embryo fertilized ova from a high quality female donor in the uterus of a low grade female recipient . Advantages Faster multiplication of an animal with superior characteristics . It is easier to transport embryos than the whole animal. Embryos can be stored for a long period awaiting the availability by recipient females. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 15 It stimulates milk production in a female recipient that was not ready to produce milk. Low grade animals can be used in production and rearing of high quality animals. Offsprings of a superior female can spread quickly in an area. Disadvantages It is expensive. It requires skilled personnel. It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos. Signs of Parturition in Livestock Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals.


It requires skilled personnel. It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos. Signs of Parturition in Livestock Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals. Parturition in Cattle The gestation period in cattle is 270-285 days averaging 280days. Signs of Parturition Restlessness Enlarged or swollen vulva. Clear mucus discharge from the vulva. Slackening of the pelvic muscles. Full and distended udder. Thick milky fluid from the teats. A water bag appears and bursts just before calving. Parturition in Pigs The gestation period in pigs is about 4 months or 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days. Signs of Parturition Restlessness. The vulva turns red and swells. The udder becomes full with a milky fluid the sow starts to prepare a nest by collecting some beddings at one comer of the pen. Parturition in Rabbits The gestation period in rabbits is 28-32 days. Signs of Parturition Preparing a nest by plucking off hair from her belly. Goes off feeding Restlessness. The udder distends. Livestock Production IV Livestock Rearing Practice For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 16 Introduction In the management of livestock there are many activities that are carried out on animals to enhance production. They require care in feeding, health, breeding. Specific management also important in bee and fish farming. Routing livestock rearing practices. A routine is a fixed regular way of doing something. Done repeatedly after a certain period of time Feeding Practice Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements. These are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs. These include: Flushing The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time. In sheep it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping. In pigs it is done 3-4 weeks before service. Importance of Flushing It increases conception rates. It enhances implantation of the zygote. In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20 .


Facilitate easy mating in adult life. Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces. Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation. Methods of Docking tailing Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 18 Use of elastrator and rubber ring. Dipping and Spraying These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external parasites. Dusting It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites. It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry. Breeding Practices These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding. Crutching and Ringing Crutching - cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep. Ringing - trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate mating. Tupping and Serving Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats. Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs. Raddling This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours during mating to identify mated ewes and to indicate the active rams hence help in culling of the weak rams. Identification The practice of putting identification marks on animal. Branding - burning marks on the animals skin. Ear tagging - placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears. Ear notching - cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes. Tattooing - use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin. Neck strap or chain - Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap. Importance purpose of Identification record keeping Setting disputes in case animals get mixed up in the pasture. Debeaking Cutting about 1 3 of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron. Importance Control egg eating. Control cannibalism. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 19 Tooth Clipping The removal clipping of the needle canine teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth. Culling Removal of undesirable animals from a herd. Dehorning Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal.


Parturition in Cattle It is referred to as calving. Gestation period lasts 270-285 days after conception. When the signs of parturition are observed the cow should be separated from the rest of the herd. Normal calving should take 2 hours and the normal presentation is the muzzle, face or fore head on top of the forelegs first. In case of other presentations the mother should be assisted. Provide the mother with plenty of water and feed after parturition. If the after birth does not come out within 48 hours a veterinarian should be called to remove it. Parturition in Sheep It is referred to as lambing. Gestation lasts 21 weeks 150 days after conception. The ewe lamb naturally without any problem. If complications arise the ewes should be assisted. Signs of Parturition in Sheep Udder becomes full. Teats are bright red in colour. Restlessness and bleating. Slackening of the hip muscles. After these signs 'are seen the ewes should be separated from the others. The normal presentation is forelegs and head first. After birth the mother should be allowed to lick the lamb to ensure the coat is dry. Parturition in Goats It is referred to as kidding. It takes place 150 days after conception. Nannies carrying twins, kid a few days earlier. Kidding nannies should be kept in a clean dry place which should be well sheltered. Signs of parturition are similar to those of ewes. Kidding nannies should be kept with another female for company. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 21 Parturition in Pigs It is referred to as farrowing. Gestation period 113-117 days 4 months . Signs of Farrowing The sow becomes restless. There is enlargement of the vulva . Muscles on each side of the tail slacken. There is loss of appetite. The udder and the teats become enlarged. The sow collects bedding material in one comer to build a nest. Milk present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing. After the signs are seen; Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal condition. An attendant should be there to assist the mother and piglets.


Milk present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing. After the signs are seen; Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal condition. An attendant should be there to assist the mother and piglets. Ensure the removal of the after birth to prevent the sow from eating it. The sow should be fed well and given plenty of clean water. Parturition in Rabbits It is referred to as kindling. It takes place 28-32 days after conception. Provide a nesting box and plenty of dry soft beddings in the hutch towards the fourth week of gestation . Signs of Parturition The doe plucks off the fur from her body. Uses the fur to build a nest about 3-10 days earlier. Bee Keeping Apiculture Bees are insects which live in very well organised colonies. Each colony consists of: Queens - fertile females that breed to ensure the continuity of the species. Drones - fertile males that mate with the queen for reproduction process. Workers - non-fertile or sterile females that maintain the colony. Duties of Workers They rear and nurse the brood eggs, larvae and pupae , queen and drones. They collect nectar and make honey. They make the honey combs. They protect the hives. They clean the hive. Importance of Bees Collect nectar from flowers. Make honey - a nutritious product used by man as food. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 22 Helps in crops pollination of plants. Bees produce wax used to make candles. They make propolis - a bee product which is medicinal. Routine Management Siting locating of an Apiary Factors to consider; Nearness or accessibility to nectar or flower-producing vegetation. Areas with shade. Bees are sensitive to the sun's heat and require some shade to protect them. Safe distance from human residence and other livestock. Bees are stinging insects and can be a hazard to humans or other animals. Nearness to a source of water for use in their nutrition. A good distance from source of noise and other disturbances. Safety from predators for example honey badgers, ants safari ants , birds and other parasites such as wax moths.


Nearness to a source of water for use in their nutrition. A good distance from source of noise and other disturbances. Safety from predators for example honey badgers, ants safari ants , birds and other parasites such as wax moths. Feeding Normally bees are self-sufficient in providing their food from the honey they make. However, during the dry season, their feeding should be supplemented by providing a solution syrup of sugar water or giving molasses. This should be placed strategically so that it is easily accessible to the bees. Parasites Ants Wax moths Bee louse Honey badger Control of Parasites Use of physical barriers such as Vaseline grease to control ants. Smoke the hive to control bee louse. Suspend the hive to control honey badgers. Burn infected combs to control wax moths. Diseases and Control African bees are seldom attacked by diseases. Harvesting Honey Factors to consider; Stage of ripening: Honey must be harvested when it is fully mature. Season of the year: Harvested at the end of the rainy season. Procedure Blow light smoke through the hole. This makes bees suck honey and become engorged and docile. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 23 Lower the hive to the ground. Open the hive to expose honey combs. Brush the bees off the honey combs. Cut the honey combs, leaving a small margin on the bars and keep them in a closed container. Honey Processing Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey. Crushing and straining. Using a centrifugal extractor. Precautions When Handling Bees Avoid excessive smoking. This kills the brood and lowers quality of the honey. Use protective clothing to avoid sting. Protect the hive from rain water. Use clean equipment and containers to avoid contamination of the honey. Use recommended method of extracting honey. Use recommended type of hive such as Kenya top bar hive. Fish Keeping Aquaculture Introduction The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in specially prepared ponds. A good fish-pond should have the following features: Site should be on a fairly level ground with a permanent supply or source of water.


Planting grass where necessary. Removing un desirable vegetation. Removing the silt. Fish Preservation Practices before preservation: Clean the fish to remove mud and any worms. Removing scales and slime. Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines referred to as gutting. . Cleaning the abdominal cavity thoroughly. Keeping fish in open containers. Methods of Preservation Freezing Salting Sun drying Smoking Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Management Physical beating should be avoided. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 25 Structures which help in restraining animals should be used whenever applicable. The correct methods of securing and casting animals should be used. Use as little force as possible. Equipment such as ropes, halters, lead stick and bull rings are used to handle animals appropriately. Farm Structures Introduction Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in production. Construction of Farm Structures Involves: Planning for farm structures ; Consider; Farm activities. Size of the enterprise. Future of the enterprise. Accessibility. Soil type. Siting farm structures; Consider: The location of the homestead. Accessibility. Security. Drainage topography. Wind direction. Relationship between the structures. Proximity to social amenities. Farmer's taste and preference. Materials for Construction Structural Materials and Use Factors which determine the type of materials to use are; durability, strength, labour, availability, For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 26 workability, serviceability, cost sanitation. Stones and Bricks Advantages Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay and are easily available. Disadvantages They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them. Plastic and Synthetic Materials These include; glass, asbestos fibre polythene materials. Advantages Light, cheep depending on quality, easy to disinfect, can be moulded into any shape, are durable, cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus are water-proof. Disadvantages Are easily destroyed, fragile, very expensive require skilled labour.


Plastic and Synthetic Materials These include; glass, asbestos fibre polythene materials. Advantages Light, cheep depending on quality, easy to disinfect, can be moulded into any shape, are durable, cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus are water-proof. Disadvantages Are easily destroyed, fragile, very expensive require skilled labour. Wood Timber Advantages They are workable, cheap, can be re-used For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 27 are fairly strong. Disadvantages They can catch fire easily, decay if exposed to water are affected by fungus and insects. Concrete Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts aggregate. Uses Making posts for fencing. Making walls and floor of buildings. Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion. Making water troughs. Advantages These materials are; durable, workable, easy to disinfect, cheap to maintain, fire resistant Disadvantages These materials are ; expensive, require skilled labour, bulky, cannot be reused Animal handling structures The crush used when doing following activities; Spraying livestock to control ticks, milking, examining sick animals, artificial insemination, treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination, dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks, The spray race-used in the control of ticks by spraying livestock with acaricides The dip- machakos type, and the pludge dip. This is used in the control of ticks by dipping livestock Farm Buildings Factors to be considered in site selection; Security For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 28 Nearness to a source of water Topography Direction of the prevailing wind Direction of the sun Personal whims tastes and preference Nearness to means of communication. Types of farm buildings Houses for farm animals. Stores for farm produce. Stores for equipment, tools and supplies. Buildings for growing crops e.g green house. Building for processing plant e.g milk plant.


Stores for equipment, tools and supplies. Buildings for growing crops e.g green house. Building for processing plant e.g milk plant. Parts of a building The foundation, The walls, The roof Include; kingpost, rafters, struts, tie beam, rafter batten For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 29 Include; concrete floor, foundation wall, PVC sheet damp-proof course the compacted fill hard core . Fences Importance of Fence in a Farm Keep out intruders to the farm, Define the boundary lines of the farm. Paddocking of fields to make rotational grazing possible. Live fences serve as windbreaks. Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. Damage by livestock. Fences add aesthetic values to the farm. It is easy to control breeding. It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd. Types of Fences For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 30 Dead fences. Barbed wire fences. Electric fence. Concrete fence. Chicken wire fence mesh wire fence . Woven wire fence chain link . Wooden fence. Fencing Practice Materials include; wires, staples, nails, posts, droppers concrete materials. Size of posts: General purpose 2.5m by 25cm in diameter Strainer units and corner posts 3m by 30cm in diameter: Distance between the posts: 3m between posts, 10m if droppers are to be used. 200m between strainer units. Depth of holes - 60cm. Gate Posts, Gates and Strainer Units Gates should be hung on posts separate from the fence. Mechanical implements for example tractors require 4.0-4.5m width of gate. Entrance gates for pedestrians can be accommodated within the fence. Steps in Fencing Locate the corners Clear the fencing area. Mark gates, strainers, pass places and standards by pegging. Dig holes to proper depths. Fix the standard posts. Firm around posts or apply concrete. Fix wires on posts. Fix the droppers.


Firm around posts or apply concrete. Fix wires on posts. Fix the droppers. Agricultural Economics II Land Tenure and Land Reforms Introduction For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 31 Land is an important factor of production. Without land it is impossible to practice the agricultural business. However the efficiency of utilization of land is influenced to a large extent by the condition of holding the land. Land Tenure Land tenure is defined as the possession of the legal rights to the use of land. Various kinds of rights to the use of land give rise to different tenure systems. Land Tenure System All land tenure systems fall into two major classes, namely: Collective Tenure Systems This includes: Communal Tenure Systems This involves the possession of rights over land by the whole community. It works quite well under conditions of unlimited, land resources. Advantages of Communal Tenure Landless problem does not exist. Land is not fragmented. Allows for free movement of animals in search of better pastures and water. Promotes community spirit among the members. Disadvantages of Communal Tenure No incentive among the users to conserve the land resources. Everybody strives to maximize returns from the land without the drive to invest, for example, in terms of soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility. There is a tendency of overstocking and continuous cropping; which leads to soil erosion and loss of land productivity. As a result of communal grazing of livestock, it is impossible to improve livestock through; controlled breeding, proper feeding, disease and parasite control. Since there is no title deed, certificate of ownership it is virtually impossible to secure loans to develop the land. Co-operative Tenure System This category includes various collective arrangements under the government or other authorities. Farmers voluntarily group together and buy land which they subsequently operate on cooperative basis. Examples are co-operative ranches. Advantages of Co-operative Tenure No land disputes. Labour is well utilized. Profit is distributed according to the number of shares. Resource use is enhanced for high production. Disadvantages of co-operative tenure. Incase of poor management everybody will loose. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 32 No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans.


Disadvantages of co-operative tenure. Incase of poor management everybody will loose. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 32 No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans. State ownership Land is owned by the whole state and is refered to as government land. Examples in Kenya; Areas not allocated to individuals Land under local county councils cities and towns Land under forest, game reserve and parks, land for infra-structure and public utility Advantages of state ownership Generation of income for the state All the citizens benefit from whatever comes out of the land. Disadvantages Non-competitive in terms of production No individual motivation when working on the land. Individual Tenure system The various forms of individual land tenure are; Owner operator, Plantation and Concestion, Land-lordism Tenancy Owner operator This category includes all persons who operate on land to which they have absolute individual rights. Examples are the majority of individual land owners in areas where demarcation and registration of land has taken place and title deeds issued. Advantages The owner is free to make permanent production plans. The owner can pledge the land title deed to secure loans credit from lending agencies for further development An individual is motivated to work harder than when under communal arrangement Managerial failures usually affect small units of production and are therefore negligible. It is easy for the owner to get agricultural advice. Disadvantages Cost such as machinery for processing may be too high for the individual owner Innovation may be inadequate due to low levels of education. Lack of capital to invest. Plantation and concession In this form of land tenure, the individual is usually a company or a corporation. Most of them engage in the production of only one commodity They are rigid in their production plans and in most cases labour is hired on wage basis. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 33 Example are coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal estates in Kenya. Advantages High production from the land hence high economic gains Allows foreigners to use and develop land No land disputes Create employment for the local people Generate government revenue through taxation. Disadvantages Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped. Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries.


Advantages High production from the land hence high economic gains Allows foreigners to use and develop land No land disputes Create employment for the local people Generate government revenue through taxation. Disadvantages Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped. Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries. Landlordism and tenancy The arrangement here involves the ownership of land by one individual or group of individuals landlord who lease it to another individual tenant . A legal lease specifies the length of time during which the tenure is operative; and that serves as a security of tenure to the tenant. The efficiency of production in this arrangement is greatly affected by the length of lease, its legal backing and rent payable. Advantages A person without land can get a chance to use land. A landlord who cannot operate the land, for any reason, can still earn income by leasing it to a needy tenant. It is a flexible arrangement; that is, it allows room for change of production plans should need arise. Security of tenure gives the tenant incentive to invest depending on the length of tenure. Disadvantages Poor land use and low production if the tenant does not have enough funds to improve on land. Tenants cannot produce long term crops, Landlords can exploit the tenants by overcharging. Lack of incentives to improve land by the tenants since it does not belong to them. Land Reforms Definition Land reform is any organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and land use. Forms of Land Reform Land Consolidation This means bringing or putting together, into one piece; fragmented parcels or pieces of land scattered over a large area. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 34 The objective of land consolidation are : To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another. To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning. To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land. To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, Land Fragmentation and Sub-division This is the subdividing of a large piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land.


To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, Land Fragmentation and Sub-division This is the subdividing of a large piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land. The parent may wish to subdivide and distribute his land among the sons, daughters and other dependants. The government may decide to subdivide large farms in order to settle landless citizens. Land Adjudication and Registration Land adjudication involves; Establishing the legitimate ownership, Measurements to make permanent boundaries Recording of land details. Once land has been adjudicated, and any disputes concerning the same land are settled, It is then registered in the "Register of Land". And the owner is issued with a land title deed or certificate of legal ownership. Importance of land title deed The legal owner of the land has security of tenure and hence an incentive to invest and improve productivity. A farmer can mortgage the land by offering land title certificate as a security to loaning agencies to secure capital to finance development projects. If a farmer who cannot operate the farm, he can still earn income from it by leasing it. Disputes concerning land boundaries and or land ownership no longer arise. Land Settlement and Resettlement Definition Land settlement means the occupation of land which was previously uninhabited. Land resettlement, on the other hand, is the transfer of people from an already densely populated area to a sparsely populated one. Objectives To settle the landless citizens. To relieve population pressure in densely populated areas. To increase or promote agricultural productivity by farming on land that was previously unused or lying idle. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 35 To create self-employment thus improving the living standards. Land reclamation, especially by creating tsetse fly-barriers. Soil and Water Conservation Introduction Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming. They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved.


They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved. Soil Erosion It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion Amount and intensity of rainfall. The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runoff. The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power effect. Type of soil for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than clayey soils. Soil depth; The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with water. Land use: Overstocking leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil. Deforestation - indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high temperatures. Indiscriminate burning of vegetation exposes the soil to erosive agents. Clean weeding leaves the soil bare. Ploughing along the slope. Monoculture or continuous cultivation. Ground cover Trees act as windbreakers. Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together. Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion. Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power. Agents of Erosion Water - moving water has erosive power. Wind - wind carries away soil. Human beings - through man's activities such as cultivation and mining. Animals - through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 36 Types of Erosion Raindrop splash - displacement of the soil caused by raindrops. Sheet - uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas. Rill - removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills. Gulley - removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. Riverbank Erosion - removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction - gravitational flow of soil saturated with water.


Gulley - removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. Riverbank Erosion - removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction - gravitational flow of soil saturated with water. Land slides - mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope, For example; Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance. Debris slide - materials move at a greater speed. Debris fall - movement of materials debris along vertical cliff. Rock fall - movement of rock down a very steep slope. Rock slides - mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a fault face. Soil Erosion Control Measures Soil conservation measures can be classified into: Biological or cultural control Physical or structural control Biological or Cultural Control Measures These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12 . Grass strips filter strips; These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated strips. Cover cropping ; The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to provide it with a cover. Contour farming ; Carrying out all land operations along the contour. Mulching ; Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials. Proper cropping systems such as: Crop rotation Correct spacing Inter-cropping Ridging furrowing Strip cropping Controlled grazing; Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing. Strip cropping; Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as beans which have a good ground cover. Afforestation re-afforestation. Afforestation - growing of trees where non-existed. Re-afforestation - growing of trees where they have been cut down. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 37 Agroforestry - land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with crops and pastures on the same piece of land. Physical or Structural Control Measures These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55 . They include: Trash or stone lines; These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours.


Physical or Structural Control Measures These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55 . They include: Trash or stone lines; These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours. Filter strips; It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by a dense crop to reduce speed of water. This increases infiltration. Terraces; Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus reducing run-off. Bench terraces; Are constructed where the slope is 35-55 . Tree crops are suitable for such areas. Importance of a Bench Terrace: - Reduces slope of the land. Conserves soil moisture. Better retention of soil fertility. Narrow based terraces Cannot allow cultivation by machines. Broad based terraces - Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines. Graded terraces: Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated place. They should be about 100m in length. Level terraces: Have no outlet channels, The aim is to have water infiltrating, Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terrace. Fanya juu: A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill. Fanya chini: In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel. Bunds: heaps of soil earth made along the contour. Cutoff drains: An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the farm drains. Water from the trench should be discharged into; Natural waterways, Artificial waterways, Rocky ground For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 38 Grassland Gabion Porous dams: Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and gullies. Dams and reservoirs ; Dams - barriers built across a river waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks.


Dams and reservoirs ; Dams - barriers built across a river waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks. Ridging - heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water, They retain the water for some time. Water Harvesting Methods Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid wastage. This should be done using the following methods: Roof catchment - trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops. Rock catchment - water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock. Weirs and dams. Dam - a barrier constructed across a river or a dry valley so that it can hold water. Weirs - barriers constructed across a river or a stream to raise the water level and still allow water to flow over it. Ponds - water retention excavations' made to hold excess surface water. Retention ditches level terraces.-These are terraces constructed with blocked ends to retain water. Micro-Catchments A system of harvesting limited rainfall and storing the water in the ground for use by the planted crops. Types of Microcatchments; Triangular V-shaped Negarims; V-shaped bunds measuring 25cm Are built with soil from the excavated planting holes to direct runoff water towards the basin area around the base of each plant Semi-circular bunds; Formed around the growing plant to hold water around the plant. Trapezoidal bunds; Trapezoidal shaped bunds, which enclose a large area where the crops are grown. Contour bunds furrows ; These are furrows made along the contours between the rows of crops where agroforestry trees are intercropped with annual crops. Planting holes pits ; These are extra large planting holes made and filled with dry plant materials before filling in with soil. Use of Micro-Catchments For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 39 Slow down the speed of surface runoff. Used during landscaping of the compound, parks and roadside nest areas. Reclamation of land for food crop in dry areas. Water collected and stored can be used for irrigation Afforestation in dry areas.


Weeds lower the quality of pasture for example: Tickberry Lantana camara Nut grass Cyperus rotundus , Manyatta grass Eleusine jaegeri Some weeds irritate workers thus reducing the efficiency in which they are controlled for example: Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum , Stinging nettle Urtica massaica , Devil's horse whip Achyranthes aspera . Factors Contributing to the Competitive Ability of Weeds For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 40 They produce large quantities of seeds for example pigweed and black jack. Their seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions. They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms. Some weeds propagate by means of elaborate underground storage structures. They are efficient in utilizing little moisture, nutrients and sunlight. Some have short life cycles. They have elaborate root systems for supporting the plant and absorbing nutrients and water. Weed Classification It is based on: Life cycles for example: Annuals - complete their life cycle in only one season. Biennuals - complete their life cycles in two seasons only. Perennials - complete their life cycle in more than two seasons. Morphology - leaf formation such as size, shape and venation. Broad leaved weeds for example black jack, lantana, pig weed, oxalis and others. Narrow leaved weeds for example couch grass, setaria, nut-grass, manyatta grass and others. Habitat - some weeds are terrestrial grow on land while others are aquatic grow on aquatic marine conditions . Weed Identification Weeds are identified by their common individual names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them. Common Name Botanical Name Black Jack Bidens pilosa Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta 0xalislsorrel ..Oxalis spp.


Weed Identification Weeds are identified by their common individual names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them. Common Name Botanical Name Black Jack Bidens pilosa Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta 0xalislsorrel ..Oxalis spp. Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum Thorn apple ..Datura stramonium Couch grass ..Digitaria scalarum Nut grass ..Cyperus rotundus Wandering Jew Commelina bengalensis Sow thistle Sonchus ole race us Devil's horsewhip .Achyranthes aspera Macdonald's eye Gallant soldier. Gallinsoga parviflora Sodom apple .Solanum incanum Black night shade ..Solanum nigrum Chinese lantern . Nicandra physalodes Bracken fern ..Pteridium aquillium For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 41 Love grass Bristly foxtail .Setaria verticillata Cleavers Gallium spurium Stinging Nettle ..Urtica massaica Fat hen Goose foot ...Chenopodium spp. Rape weed Brassica nap us Wild oats ...Avena fatua Lantana Tick berry Lantana camara Water hyacinth .Eichhornia crassipes Striga Witch weed Striga hermontheca Creeping indigo .Indigofera spicata Weed Control Methods The methods of weed control determined by: The weed being controlled. Weather conditions. Capital availability. Effect on environment. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE: Chemical Weed Control The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds.


Capital availability. Effect on environment. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE: Chemical Weed Control The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds. Classification of Herbicides Based on: Formulation - the physical form of the herbicides for example: Liquids Wettable powders Emulsion Dust Time of Application Pre-emergence - applied before the planted crop germinates. Post emergence - applied after the planted crop germinates. Selectivity Selective. Non selective. Mode of Action Contact - herbicides that kill only the parts of the plant which it comes into contact. Translocated systemic herbicides that will kill the whole plant even if it comes into contact with only a small part of it. Methods of Herbicide Application Spraying - application of solutions. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 42 Dusting - application of dusts. Fumigation - application of fumigants into the soil. Safety Measures in the Use of Chemicals Read manufacturer's instructions and follow them. Wear protective clothing such as overalls, breathing mask, gloves and boots. Avoid inhaling the herbicides. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals. Do not blow or such blocked nozzles. Avoid herbicide drift to unintended crops and other plants. Avoid herbicide drift to livestock feed and water. Avoid spilling herbicides in pastures and fodder crops. Dispose off the empty containers properly for example burying them in the soil. Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by animals and human beings. Store chemicals in a safe place. Wash the spraying equipment thoroughly. Sink left over chemicals into the soil after the day's work. Advantages of Chemical Weed Control It is less laborious. Effective in the control of difficult weeds such as couch grass and sedges. It does not disturb crop roots and other underground structures. It makes the control of weeds in certain crop easier. It is efficient in both wet and dry conditions. It does not destroy soil structure. Cheaper in large scale production than the use of manual or mechanical cultivation. Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops.


Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops. It is very expensive. Mechanical Weed Control It involves the following operations: Tillage Cultivation This is the opening and loosening up of the soil. It can be done by hand tools or tractor drawn implements. Advantages Cheap in small scale production. Increases water and air infiltration into the soil. Incorporates crops residues into the soil. The earthing-up done during tillage encourages root growth. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 43 Disadvantages If done repeatedly it destroys soil structure. It is laborious and expensive in large scale production. It may not effectively control weeds. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture. Damage crop roots. Slashing Mowing Mechanical removal of shoots from weeds. It is effective in the control of annual weeds. Uprooting It is done when the crops are too close To allow mechanical cultivation or where weeds are scattered. Cultural Weed Control It involves the following practices: Mulching. Cover cropping. Crop rotation. Timely planting. Use of clean seed planting materials. Proper spacing. Proper seedbed preparation. Flooding. Biological Weed Control The use of living organisms to control weeds. Examples are: Use of livestock to graze and control growth of weeds especially in plantations. Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Use of moths to control cactus. Limitations: the method is not reliable. Legislative Weed Control Quarantine It involves government laws and regulations which prevent the introduction and spread of foreign weeds in a country or an area. Done by KEPHIS. Limitations: Only samples are checked while the bulk of the materials may have some weed seeds. Crop Pests and Diseases For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 44 Introduction Crop pests and diseases lead to high losses in crop production hence efficient control measures are needed. Proper control measures require the farmers to be able to; Identify these organisms, Know their life cycles, feeding habits The damage they cause to crops.


Pests of grains attack the crops when the grains are formed. Field and Storage Pests Some pests attack the crops while in the field. Other pests attack the produce after it has been harvested and stored. Identification of Common Pests Name of Pest Crop Attacked Damage Done Control Measures Armyworms Cereal crops Defoliate the i Early planting Spodoptera Sugar cane whole plant ii Use of effective insecticides exempta iii Grasses Cut worms Young seedlings Cut the seedlings i Early planting Agrotis Spp. At the stem base ii Use of soil applied insecticides fumigants iii Flood irrigation Boll worms Cotton, Eat and destroy i Crop rotation Heliathis migera citrus, maize, the fruits and ii Field hygiene beans, millet, seeds iii Spraying with insecticides For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 45 legumes iv early planting Maize stalk borer Maize sorghum Destruction of the i Early planting Busseola fusca stem and young ii Field hygiene and growing tissues iii Crop rotation Chilo partellus iv Use of stalk borer dust. Loopers Coffee Make windows in i Use of effective Ascotis selena ria crop leaves ii Use of parasitic wasps, and chameleons Leaf Miner Coffee Make mines in Use of parasitic wasps l Leucoptera the leaves enemies meyricki and L. reducing ii Use of effective caffeina photosynthetic area. Stainers Cotton Stain the cotton Use of parasitic tachinid fl Dysdercus spp. Lint reducing Spraying with insecticides. Quality Control alternate hosts. Crop rotation Aphids Several crops i Transmit Natural enemies for Aphis spp. As citrus, maize, viral diseases. Lady birds cotton, beans. Ii Suck out ii Overhead irrigation cabbages and sap leading iii Use of insecticides others to stunted growth. Other Crop Pests Include: Mealy bugs - coffee Thrips - coffee Beetles - field and storage pests. Birds - field pests - cereals and fruits.


Trap cropping: These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop. Crop rotation: It breaks the life cycle of the pest. Planting resistant varieties: These are plants with natural protective mechanisms against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly. Field hygiene: This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour pests from field. Alterations of environmental conditions, such as, creating a microclimate which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee. Crop nutrition: application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and able to escape pest attacks. Destruction of alternate hosts, for example, weeds like mallow which harbour cotton stainers. Use of clean planting materials. This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 47 Proper spacing: if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another. Use of organic manure, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms nematodes . Chemical Control Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating. Classification of Pesticides: Pesticides are classified on the basis of: Mode of Entry Stomach - ingested by the pest together with the crop materials. Contact - absorbed through the body tissues. Fumigants - through the breathing mechanism. Systemic - translocated to all parts. Mode of Action Respiratory poisons - interfere with breathing mechanisms. Coagulants - cause the blood of the pest to coagulate. Neurotoxins - act on the nervous system. Protoplasmic poisons - cause the cells to disintegrate. Target Pests Insecticides - kill insect pests Molluscicides - kill snails and slugs. Rodenticides - kill rodents. Nematocides - kill nematodes. Formulation . Dusts, granules and powders Emulsifiable concentrates. Miscible liquids. Wettable powders. Fumigants. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides Concentration of the pesticides.


Wettable powders. Fumigants. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides Concentration of the pesticides. Weather conditions at the time of application. Timing of application - efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible. Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil. Resistance of the pests. Advantages of Chemical Pest Control Faster Immediate results are achieved. Low labour requirements. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 48 Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control Expensive to buy. Cause pollution to the environment. Require skilled labour to apply. Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators. Some target pests may build up resistance. Mechanical Pest Control Physical This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods. Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops . Example: Flooding irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding. Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot. Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight. Trapping and killing, for example, rats. Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks. Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests. Scaring devices especially in rice plantations to control birds. Use of explosives thrown at breeding places of birds to kill or scare them away. Biological Pest Control It involves the use of living organisms to reduce the pest population. Predator Target Pest Parasitic wasp-------------------White fly in citrus, boll worms, stalk borers Birds--------------------------------- Crickets, locusts, caterpillar llars. Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers Majimoto ants -----------------scales Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets Advantages Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. Disadvantages Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. Integrated Pest Management It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above.


Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers Majimoto ants -----------------scales Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets Advantages Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. Disadvantages Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. Integrated Pest Management It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above. The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the environment. Example, attractant-pheromones are used to attract pests to one place where they are sprayed and eradicated. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 49 Legislative Method Quarantine Legislative mearsures of pest control are effected by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service KEPHIS through seed inspection. Crop Disease And Their Control A disease is any deviation from the normal performance or functions. A plant disease is any harmful physiological disorder in a plant caused by pathogenic agents such as virus, bacteria, fungi. The study of plant disease is called plant pathology. Economic importance of crop diseases They lower crop yield They reduce the quality of the produce thus reducing their market value They cause food poisoning. E.g ergot in wheat, afflatoxin in grain crops by fungus. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant. Classification and identification of plant disease Plant disease are classified according to their causal agents; Fungal diseases; Fungi are non-green plant-like. Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic. Parasitic fungi divided into; Obligate parasites- those that depend on other living organisms for food. Falcultative parasites-those that are able to live on both the living and dead tissues.