Fusarium ii. Yellowing and shedding oxysporum of leaves. Iii. Wilting of the plant. Black arm Cotton i. Small round spots on the i. Field hygiene. Anthomonas cotyledons of young ii. Use of certified seeds. Malvacearum seedlings. Ii. The spots elongate to form black lesions on the stem. Bacterial wilt Tomatoes and Uniform. Wilting of the whole i. Use of certified seeds. Pseudomonas potatoes plant even with enough ii. Crop rotation. Solanacearum water. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 51 Viral Diseases Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful electronic microscope. Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilization Symptoms of Viral Infection Leaf chlorosis. Leaf curling. Mosaic light green or yellow patches . Malformation distortion of plant parts. Rosettes; Development of abnormally short internode. Transmission Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vectors like aphids, mealybugs and leafhoppers. Viral diseases Disease Cause crops Attacked Symptoms of Attack Control Measures Ratton stunting Sugar cane Red discoloration on the vascular Use of clean materials. Bundles. Treatment of seed canes. Maize streak Maize Yellow stripes alternating with Control leaf hopper. Green, parallel to the midrib. Ii. Use if certified seeds. Iii. Field sanitation. Greening Citrus i. Yellow mottling of the leaves. I, Use of clean tools when disease Die back. Budding. Iii. Premature leaf fall. Control of insect vectors. Leaf mosaic Suzgar cane, i. Yellow mottling. Control of aphids. Cassava. Sweet Necrosis of stem. Ii. Use of clean materials. Potatoes. Seed treatment. Tristeza Citrus Dwarfing of i. Stripping affected fruits. Die back. Ii. Use of clean equipment of budding. Other Causes of Crop Diseases Flooding forming ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning effect on leaves. Chemicals: some may be toxic. Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. Control of Crop Diseases Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials.


Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. Control of Crop Diseases Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials. Practicing field hygiene. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 52 Proper seedbed preparation. Proper spacing. Heat treatment of the planting materials for example sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses to 13 M.C. Growing disease resistant varieties. Legislative Method Involves the imposing of regulations and laws especially in case of disease outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases. Chemical Control Used as a last resort. Chemical control measures include: Seed dressing before planting. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases. Spraying: application of fungicides. Crop Production VI Field Practices II Introduction There are many crops cultivated in Kenya. These crops are grown for various uses and require different ecological conditions. Definitions: Hybrids - These are crop varieties developed by crossing two pure lines. Composites - These are crop varieties developed through repeated mass selection. Cultivars - these are varieties of crops which are cultivated in a given area. Maize Main growing areas: Trans-Nzoia, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia districts and others. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Upto 2000m above sea level. Temperature: About 25 C Soils: Freely draining, fertile loam soils. Rainfall: 750-12S0rnm critical at silking and pollination stage. Varieties For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 53 High altitude areas: Hybrids 611, 613 and 614C. Medium altitude areas: 511,512,622 and 632. Marginal rainfall areas: Katumani composite and Makueni composite. Coast regions: Coast composite and Katumani composite. Seedbed Preparation Ploughing should be deep and done during the dry season to eradicate weeds. Require medium tilth. Plant spacing 75-90cm x 20-30cm. Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary.


Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary. Field Maintenance: Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting at a rate of 120kg ha P2O5 Also nitrogenous fertilizers as top dress at the rate of 200kg of ASN or CAN. Control weeds by cultivation, use of appropriate herbicides, uprooting, slashing and mulching. Pest Control Maize Stalk Borer: Nature of damage: Boring the leaves causing windowing effect, boring the stems and cobs. Control: Destruction of previous years crop residue, closed season and apply chemicals Maize Weevils: it is a storage pest. Damage: Bores holes into the maize grains, eating the contents. Control: Proper hygiene and sanitation in the stores. Use of chemicals such as Actellic Super. Disease Control: Rust Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Red or brown pustules on the. Leaves. Control: Plant resistant varieties and crop rotation. Smuts Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Black sooty mass of spores on maize heads or cobs ear . Control: Crop rotation, growing resistant varieties and destruction of affected plant parts. Maize Streak Virus For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 54 Cause: Virus Symptoms: Yellow longitudinal stripes parallel to the midrib. Control: Certified seed, early planting and rogueing. Harvesting Harvest the crop 3-9 months after planting depending on variety. Maize stalks are cut and stocked in the field. Cobs removed by hand. For large scale harvesting, combined harvesters are used. Yields about 3,OOOkg and 4500kg ha. Bulrush Millet Areas where grown: Lower areas of Kirinyaga, Embu, Meru, Parts of Machakos Kerio Valley. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils.


Ecological Requirements Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils. Varieties: Serere 2A, 3A, 6A, 17, 16 9 Seed Bed Preparations Ploughing of land during the dry season. Soil should be of fine tilth since the seeds are small. Planting: Done at the onset of the rains. Planted by broadcasting and row planting at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm. Field Maintenance: Weeding is done until tillering. Top-dressing is done by use of sulphate of ammonia. Pest Control Birds Nature of Damage: Eats the seeds at milky stage. Control: Bird scaring devices. Disease Control Ergot Cause: Fungus. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 55 Symptoms: Heads become sticky. Control: Use of certified seeds, crop rotation and destruction of affected crops. Downy Mildew Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Long, whitish lines on the leaves. Control: Crop rotation and field hygiene. Harvesting Done by cutting off the heads. Drying of the heads. Threshing and winnowing of the grains. Stored under well ventilated dry conditions. Yields about 1000kg ha with good management. Finger Millet Areas where grown: Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2400m above sea level. Rainfall: 900mm, drought resistant in the early stages. Soils: Free draining fertile soils. Varieties: Serere varieties developed at Serere in Uganda. Ultra lupin 5.18 oats. Land Preparations The seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to a fine tilth due to the small size of the seeds. It also helps to control weeds. Field Operations Planting Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows.


Field Operations Planting Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows. Fertilizer Application Sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 125kg ha is recommended for topdressing finger millet. Weed Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 56 Clean seedbed preparation Uprooting Pest Control: Birds are controlled through scaring. Disease Control Head blast: Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and stems below the inflorescence. Control: Use of resistant varieties. Harvesting Individual heads are cut with knives. Heads are dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields 1650kg ha with good management. Sorghum It is grown in Western, northern, Rift Valley, Eastern and some parts of Central Province. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-1500m above sea level. Rainfall: 420-630mm. It is drought resistant. Soils: Fairly fertile and well drained soils. Varieties Dobbs variety. Serena variety. Field Operations Planting Broadcasting the seeds on the firmly prepared seedbed. Intercropped with other crops especially maize and beans. Can be planted in pure stands at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm Fertilizer Application Responds well to farmyard manure FYM . Inorganic fertilizers are not commonly used in growing sorghum. Pest Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 57 Bird pests: They are the most common sorghum pests. They include quelea, aethiopica Sudan Dioch , weaver birds, starling bird bishop's bird. They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene.


They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene. Disease Control Common sorghum diseases include: Leaf blight Anthracnose. Sooty stripe. Loose smut Head smut Smuts are controlled by seed dressing-while the other diseases are controlled by growing resistant varieties. Harvesting Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun-dried, threshed, winnowed and stored. Up to 3000kg hectare can be obtained with good management. Beans Grown in all provinces where maize is grown. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 10.00-2100 metres above sea level. Rainfall: Average of 62Smm per annum. Soils: Well drained loamy soils rich in organic matter. Varieties For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 58 Varieties for dry beans: Rose Coco, Mwezi Moja, Canadian Wonder, Wairimu, Haricot, Mwitemania. Variety for canning: Mexican 142. Varieties for French Beans: Primeur, Long Tom, Saza, Master Piece Monel. Seedbed Preparation Land should be prepared early. Primary and secondary cultivation done to control perennial weeds. Seed Selection and Treatment Select wholesome seeds free from damage and wrinkles. Seeds are dressed against bean fly. Seeds should be inoculated with appropriate bacteria none dressed seeds Planting Planted at the onset of the rains. Spacing 30-45cm x 15cm. Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting time. Plant 2-4 seeds per hole. Field Maintenance Provide sticks for the climbing varieties. Control of weeds through shallow cultivation. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer for example CAN. PestControl Bean-Fly Nature of damage: Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. Control: Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides.


PestControl Bean-Fly Nature of damage: Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. Control: Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides. Bean Bruchid Storage Pest Nature of damage: Make dark circular windows on the grains. Control: Clean stores, fumigation, and seed dressing. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 59 Diseases Control Bean Anthracnose Cause' Fungus Symptoms: Brown or black lesions on the underside of the leaves, pods and stems. Control: Growing resistant varieties, crop rotation, destruction of crop residues and spraying with fungicides. Bean Rust Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Red brown pustules on the leaves. Control: Planting resistant varieties and spraying copper fungicides. Harvesting Done during the dry season for dry beans and when the pods are dry. Threshing and winnowing done. Sorting of rotten, off types and damaged ones. Sold to National Cereals and Produce Board when dry. For French beans, pick the pods when soft and green. Market immediately to avoid shrivelling. Rice Production Areas where grown; Mwea Tabere Irrigation Scheme Ahero Pilot Scheme in Kano plains. Bunyala in Busia. Bura in Tana River. Land Preparation Plots of 0.4 hectare are made with bunds constructed around them. Plots are flooded for four days. Rotavators jembes are used to work the flooded fields on the fifth day. The land is then levelled and allowed to drain. Water Control During land preparation, water level should be about 7.5-10cm. During levelling water level should be 5cm Water is drained off completely for direct sowing. For transplanted rice, water level should be 5cm at transplanting. Water level should be maintained at 1 3 the height of plant until maturity. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination.


Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 60 Fertilizer Application S.A applied in the nursery. Rate of 25kg SA for every nursery unit of 18.5m x 18.5m. Phosphatic fertilizers broadcasted in the field. Rate of 120kg ha DSP before planting. S.A applied in the field in two splits before and after transplanting at a rate of 250kg ha Flooding in Rice Flood water in rice production is important for the following reasons; It provides good conditions for growth such as high humidity. Kills soil organisms. Prevents denitrification. Weed Control Controlled through flooding. Appropriate herbicides such as propanil and butachlor are also used. Harvesting of Industrial Crops cotton, pyrethrum, sugarcane, coffee and tea. Harvesting of Cotton Stage of harvesting Takes 4 months to mature. Harvest when bolls are dry and fully opened. Method and Procedure In Kenya cotton is picked manually. Sort out grade AR safi from grade BR fifi into separate containers. Precautions Harvest during dry conditions to prevent dirtifying the lint. Avoid use of gunny bags to prevent contamination. Avoid picking leaves. Harvest on weekly basis. Harvesting of Pyrethrum Stage of harvesting Takes 3-4 months to mature. Harvest the flowers with disc florets which have assumed a horizontal position. Methods and Procedure Pyrethrum is picked manually. Flowers are picked by twisting the heads so that no stem is attached. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 61 Precaution Clean harvesting should be done. Avoid picking leaves. Flowers are placed in woven baskets. Overblown flowers are picked and thrown off. Pick the flowers when the dew is dry. Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month during the dry season.


Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month during the dry season. Harvesting Sugarcane Stage of harvesting; Take 14-20 months for the plant crop to mature and 12-16 months for the ratoon crop. Sampling of cane is done before harvesting to ascertain the correct sugar content. Methods and Procedures Cut the cane at the ground level to avoid yield loss. The green tops are removed from the canes. Harvesting matchet is used for cutting the cane. Precaution Cane should be harvested immediately at maturity to avoid lowering quality. The green tops should be removed immediately after cutting to avoid reduction of sugar content by enzyme invertase. Burnt cane should be harvested immediately after burning to prevent rapid inversion to monosaccharides. The cane should be processed within 48 hours. Harvesting of Coffee Stage of harvesting; Takes 2-4 years depending on the pruning system. Harvest only ripe berries. Methods and Procedures; Hand picking is done so that ripe berries can be selected. During picking hooked sticks can be used to bend the tall trees. Precautions Only the uniformly ripe berries should be picked. Over-ripe and under-ripe berries should be dried and sold as buni. Ripe cherries should be processed on the same day they are picked. Harvesting Tea For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 62 Stage of harvesting It takes 2-4 years for tea to mature depending on the method of bringing young tea into bearing. Method and Procedures Tea harvesting is known as plucking. Fine plucking - 2 leaves and a bud are removed. Coarse plucking - 3 leaves and a bud are removed. A straight fitto straight stick is used to guide the plucker on the plucking table. Tipping is done by cutting off shoots that appear above the fitto. Precautions Plucked tea is placed in woven well ventilated baskets to prevent fermenting before it reaches the factory. The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. It should be processed within the same day of harvesting.


Precautions Plucked tea is placed in woven well ventilated baskets to prevent fermenting before it reaches the factory. The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. It should be processed within the same day of harvesting. Harvesting is done on a weekly basis under wet conditions and once after every two weeks under dry conditions. Forage Crops Introduction These are plants which either grow naturally or are cultivated by man to be used for feeding livestock. The term forage crops include pasture and fodder crops. Fodder crops are purposely grown for feeding livestock. They are cut or uprooted when ready Pasture is a ground cover of grass or a mixture of grass and legumes grazed directly or cut and fed to livestock. Classification of Pastures According to type of stand. Either pure Mixed stands. According to ecological zones . Low altitude, Medium altitude, High altitude pastures According to the establishment . Natural Artificial pastures. Examples of grasses Napier, Rhodes, Setaria, Molasses, Congo signal, kikuyu, star, Guatemala, Sudan For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 63 Guinea. Examples of legumes; Lucern, Clover, Desmodium, Glycine, Stylo, Centrio, Pasture Establishment Seedbed Preparation This involves clearing the land, primary and secondary cultivation to a fine tilth because the seeds are small. This is done during the dry season. Selection of planting materials Select seeds of high germination percentage, Free from impurities or buy certified seeds. If vegetative materials are used, select from high yielding, vigorous-growing and healthy plants. Treatment of legume seeds Legume seeds are inoculated with the correct strain of bacteria which fix nitrogen for the crop. Planting This is done at the beginning of the rains Methods of sowing are; Direct sowing, Under sowing, Over-sowing Oversowing This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. Undersowing The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. Seeds rate depend; On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand.


Planting This is done at the beginning of the rains Methods of sowing are; Direct sowing, Under sowing, Over-sowing Oversowing This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. Undersowing The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. Seeds rate depend; On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand. Apply phosphatic fertilizer when planting and later top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer. Pasture management Re-seeding or gapping; Re-seeding is done if the grass is completely denudated. But if partially, gapping can be done Control of weeds by slashing, uprooting and mowing Fertilization of pastures-done by use of manures and nitrogenous fertilizer. Topping;This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left behind after grazing. It allows new growth after the rains Control of pests-done by trapping of moles, use of pesticides and biological means. Pasture Utilization Pastures should be utilized at maturity when nutritive value is high. It is utilized through the following methods: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 64 Direct grazing - this can be done through rotational grazing or herding. Zero grazing - this is where the pasture is cut and fed to the animals in the stalls. Common fodder Crops Edible Cana Altitude: 1500 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Young tubers or bulbs are used. Spacing: 1m x 1m. Management: Does well with application of farmyard manure and requires fertile land. Utilization: Tops and tubers are sliced and fed to livestock. Conservation: Bulbs or tubers are sliced and stored. Napier Grass Altitude: 0 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Stem cuttings or splits. Spacing: 1 m x 50cm. Management: Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting time. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizers in split application. Clean weeding when young. Cut when 6-8 weeks or 1m-1.5m in height. Utilization: Cut stem is fed to livestock. Conservation: Ensiled when in plenty.


To have sustained supply of feed for livestock throughout the year. Methods Hay Making This is the dehydration of green pastures to a moisture content of 16-20 per cent: Steps in hay making: Cut the crop when the sun is shining. Dry the materials for 1-2 days. Windrow the dry material to allow for further drying. Bale the dry materials for storage. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 66 Store under shed or shelter. Factors Determining Quality of Hay Stage of growth at which forage is harvested. Leaf content of the forage material. Method of handling and curing the hay. Form in which material is fed to livestock. Species of forage used. Amount of foreign materials in forage. Silage Making This is a feed produced by conserving forage in succulent form through the process of fermentation by anaerobic bacteria. Steps in silage making: Cut the crop and transport it to the silo, Material with a high moisture content is wilted in the sun for 4-48 hours before ensiling . Material is chopped to reasonable size pieces before filling in the silo. Spread the chopped material evenly. Check temperature if below 31 C, needs further filling; if above 31 C compaction is necessary. Filling should be complete by the end of the third or fourth day. The silo is covered with 15cm of straw, sawdust then 15cm of soil to make it air and water tight. A trench is dug round the silo to keep off surface water. Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage Maturity stage of the crop when cut. Type of crop. Moisture content of the material Additives such as molasses. Degree of compaction. Size of pieces ensiled. Amount of foreign materials included in the silage. Amount of leaf of the ensiled material. Standing Forage This is forage left in the field to be used during the dry season. Livestock Health III: Diseases Introduction For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 67 Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows: Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans.


Control Disinfection of chick house. Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings. Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats. Trypanosomiasis Nagana Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species, Vector-tsetse flies. Symptoms Fever. Dullness. Anorexia loss of appetite. Loss of body condition emaciation. Swollen lymph nodes. Lachrimation which leads to blindness. Diarrhoea Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked. Swelling in parts of the belly. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. '. Loss of hair at tail end. Anaemia. Abortion may occur in pregnant females. Control Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs. Effective vector Tsetse flies control Confinement of wild animals in game parks. Bacterial Diseases Fowl typhoid For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 69 Foot rot. Contagious abortion. Scours. Blackquarter. Mastitis. Anthrax. Pneumonia. Fowl Typhoid Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks. Causes: Bacteria Salmonella gallinarum Symptoms Depression appearing very sick. Respiratory distress. Dullness. Drooping wings. Sleepy eyes. Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken combs and wattles. Greenish yellow diarrhoea. Control Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses. Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house. Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated. Obtaining chicks from reliable sources. Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash. For example: application of Furazolidone Furazol at the rate of 0.04 in mash for 10 continuous days treats the disease effectively. Foot Rot It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep.


Foot Rot It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep. Cause: Bacteria Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus . Symptoms Animal's foot becomes swollen. Lameness is observed. Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof. Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected. Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected. Emaciation due to lack of feeding. Control Hygiene in the living places. Regular foot examination and hoof trimming. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 70 Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10 solution or formalin at 2-5 solution. Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics. Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections. Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones. Avoid dampness and muddy conditions. Contagious Abortion Brucellosis Bang's Disease Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. O It also affects man. Cause: Bacteria o Brucella abortus in cattle, o Brucella suis in pigs o Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep. Symptoms Spontaneous abortion or premature birth. Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy. Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the abortion. Control Use of artificial insemination. Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus. A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones. Hygiene in the animals' houses. Scours white Scours Animals atacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids. Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life. Symptoms White or yellowish diarrhoea. Pungent smelling faeces. Fever. Anorexia loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes.


Anorexia loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes. Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces. Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters. Sudden death if no treatment is given. Control Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 71 Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house. Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected. Calving should be carried out in a clean area. Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread. Replacing milk with warm water mixture. Treating affected animals with antibiotics. Black Quarter It is also known as black leg. Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months. Cause: Bacteria Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum Symptoms Lameness. Fever. Fast and heavy breathing. Cracking on the swollen parts if touched. Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back. Dullness. Anorexia. Grunting and grinding of teeth. Animal stops chewing cud. Control Treating with recommended antibiotics. Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax. Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely. Mastitis Is an inflammation of the udder. Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings. Cause: Bacteria Streptococcus spp. Or Staphylococcus spp. Pre-disposing Factors: Incomplete milking. Injuries on the udder and teats. Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk. Symptoms Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted. Swollen udder Control Proper milking techniques. Treatment by use of antibiotics. Culling of animals which are often attacked. Anthrax For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 72 Attacks all domestic animals. Cause: Bacteria Bacillus anthracis Symptoms Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth.


Cause: Bacteria Bacillus anthracis Symptoms Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth. Pneumonia It is an inflammation of the lungs. Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry. Cause: Bacteria Mycoplasma mycoides dust worms in the lungs. Symptoms Dullness. Anorexia loss of appetite. Staring coat. Emaciation. Breathing rapidly. Abnormal lung sounds when breathing. Coughing if the chest is pressed. Fluctuating body temperature. Nasal discharge. Control Keeping young animals in warm pens. Proper sanitation. Isolation of the affected animals. Treating using antibiotics. Viral Diseases Rinderpest. Foot and mouth disease FMD . New Castle Fowl pox Gumboro African swine fever Rinderpest Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game. Cause: virus. Symptoms For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 73 Harsh staring coat. Rise in temperature. Eye discharge Lachrimation Diarrhoea and dysentery. Ulcers in the mouth. Foot and Mouth Disease Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Cause: Virus . Symptoms Sharp rise in temperature. Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats. Loss of appetite. Control Vaccination. Quarantine nursing wounds with disinfectant. New Castle Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: Virus. Symptoms Difficulties in breathing. Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained. Birds become dull. The birds stand with eyes closed all the time. Anorexia loss of appetite. Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it. Birds walk with a staggering motion. Paralysis of wings and legs may occur. Birds have their beaks and wings down. Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. Control Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock.


Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. Control Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock. Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later. Quarantine. FowlPox Animals affected: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as avian fox. Symptoms For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 74 Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms. Cutaneous type Diptheritic type The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs: Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings. Loss appetite. The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms: Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and swallowing. Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid. Loss of appetite. Dullness. Emaciation. Control Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. Vaccinating remaining healthy birds. Gumboro It is also referred to as poultry AIDS. Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as Birma virus. Symptoms The glands above the vent bursa become swollen. Drop in egg production. Birds develop respiratory distress. Loss of appetite. Low water intake by birds. Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases. Control Vaccination. Administering vitamins and especially B12. African Swine Fever Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs. Cause: A virus known as Irido virus. Symptoms Fever. Loss of appetite. Depression dullness. Emaciation. Coughing. Nasal discharge. Diarrhoea in serious conditions. Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 75 Vaccination. Quarantine. Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses. Double fencing to keep wild animals away. Nutritional Diseases Disorders Milk Fever It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth.


Double fencing to keep wild animals away. Nutritional Diseases Disorders Milk Fever It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth. Causes: Due to low calcium levels in the blood. Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood. Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation. This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are getting from the diet. Symptoms Dullness. Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble. Staggering as the animals move. Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious. The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens. Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops. Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in. Loss of appetite. Treatment Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate ,60gms dissolved in 500cc of water. Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum. Giving fresh water. Note: The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the following reasons: It will not be able to swallow medicine. The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever. Control Partial milking for the first 10 days. High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium. Giving high doses of Vitamin D.Bloat Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep. Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 76 Symptoms The left side is blown up. Sudden death. Control Relieve by use of trocar and cannula. Chasing the animal around if noticed early. Drenching by use of stop bloat. Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush pastures. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.


Fish Farming Aquaculture : This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic organisms , in ponds. Bee Keeping Apiculture : This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as beehives. Poultry Keeping: This is the keeping of domesticated birds. Agricultural Economics It deals with the allocation of scarce resources land, labour, capital and management for agricultural production. Agricultural Engineering This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery and structures. Farming Systems A farming system is the organization of the various enterprises in a farm. It is determined by the following factors: Resources available land, labour, capital and management . Skills of the farmer. Environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography. Government policy. Farmer's choice and preference. Enterprise requirement. Social-cultural factors. The following are systems of farming: Extensive System: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke It is a system where a large piece of land with low investment of resources per unit area is carried out. Advantages It is cheap. Does not require high level of management. Requires less labour. Disadvantages Low profit per unit area. Cannot be practiced where land is limited. Low output per unit area. The land is under-utilized, Intensive Farming: This system utilizes the factors of production to the maximum and involves high level of management. Advantages Maximum utilization of the resources. Can be practiced even where land is a limiting factor. Results in high yields. Disadvantages Labour intensive. High capital investment is required. Requires high level of management. Can lead to high loses in case of poor management. Large Scale Farming Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares. It is used mainly for commercial purposes. The system is highly mechanized. Advantages Results in high yields. Due to economics of scale high profit is realized. Disadvantages Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions. High level of management is required. Heavy capital investment. Requires skilled and qualified manpower. Small Scale Farming Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods.


Requires skilled and qualified manpower. Small Scale Farming Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods. Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Advantages Requires low capital investment. Possible where land is a limiting factor. Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. Disadvantages Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size. Low production. Provides limited employment. Labour intensive. Difficult to specialize. Methods of Farming A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities. The following are the common methods of farming: Mixed Farming It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas. Advantages Mutual benefit between crops and livestock. Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops. Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer. The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year. There is maximum utilization of the resources. Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals. Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year. Disadvantages High initial capital. Lack of specialization. Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised. Requires high level of management for both enterprises. Nomadic-Pastoralism This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept. Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of: Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding. Efficient disease and parasite control measures. Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities. Extension services. Advantages Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities.


Advantages Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Disadvantages It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities. There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation. Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the control of good pastures and water. Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases. High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock. Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling from one place to another in search of pastures and water. High death rates as a result of walking for long distances. Shifting Cultivation It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline. The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left fallow to regain its fertility. Advantages Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility. No build up of pests and diseases. Soil structure is restored. The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Crop produce are chemical free. Disadvantages Not practical where land is a limiting factor. Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is 'not possible. It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement. Lack of soil conservation measures Not possible to grow perennial crops. Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods. Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed. Organic Farming It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agrochemicals. It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock. Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of production. Organically produced goods fetch high market prices. Advantages Cheap and cost effective. Make use of the locally available materials Useful in improving the soil structures. No side effects from the crops and livestock products. No environmental pollution.


Make use of the locally available materials Useful in improving the soil structures. No side effects from the crops and livestock products. No environmental pollution. Agro-Forestry For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke This is the practice of integrating trees and crops on the same piece of land. With land resources becoming more scarce, agroforestry is becoming more important. Examples of common agroforestry trees and shrubs include: Cajanus cajan Grevillea robusta Sesbania sesban Calliandra calothyrsus Casuarina equisetifolia Leucaena leucocephala Trees selected for agroforestry should have the following characteristics: Able to grow fast. Deep roots to minimize competition for nutrients. Should be preferably leguminous. Advantages Trees reduce soil erosion in a given area. Leguminous trees add nitrates into the soil thus improving the soil fertility. Some trees can be used as livestock fodder to provide a high level of proteins. They are important sources of wood fuel and timber. There is maximum utilization of land. Importance of Agriculture to the Economy of Kenya Provides food to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man to engage in other activities of farming. Provides employment. This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries. Source of raw materials for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry. Provides foreign exchange - through exporting agricultural produce. Provides market for industrial goods agriculture is a consumer of the finished goods from agro-based industries. Source of income - farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of agricultural produce and tax payment. Factors Influencing Agriculture Introduction Agricultural production is influenced by external factors: Human factors Biotic factors Climatic factors Edaphic factors. Human Factors For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. Level of education and technology: Skills Technological ad van cements . Human health HIV-AIDS: These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work.


Human Factors For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. Level of education and technology: Skills Technological ad van cements . Human health HIV-AIDS: These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work. HIV AIDS is the biggest threat to human health today and has long lasting effects on agriculture, such as; Shortage of farm labour. Loss of family support. Low living standards leading to despondency and hopelessness. Increased criminal activities. More time spent by the Government and NGO's in Carring for the sick. Economy; Stability in the countries' economy affect agricultural production. Government Policy: These are governmental laws which have been enacted to protect farmers, land and livestock. They include: Food policy Policies on control of livestock parasites and diseases. Policies on marketing of both local and export products and others. Transport and communication: For agricultural goods to move from the farm to the consumers. Cultural practices and religious beliefs: These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural development. Market forces: Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market. Biotic Factors These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. Pests - Destructive organisms which destroy crops. Parasites - These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. Decomposers - Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form manure. Pathogens - Micro-organisms which cause diseases. Predators - Animals that kill and feed on other animals. Pollinators - They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. Nitrogen fixing bacteria -They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants. Climatic Factors weather elements . Rainfall, Temperature, Wind, Relative humidity Light. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Weather - Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. Climate - weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years.


Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the earth to a stable substance. Weathering process is a combination of disintegration breakdown and synthesis build up process. Weathering process is continuous. Types of Weathering Physical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering Agents of Weathering Physical Agents of Weathering Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Wind - carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. Water - intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. Moving ice - has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. Extreme temperature cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their surface. Chemical Weathering Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock. Involves processes such as ; Hydrolysis, Hydration, Carbonation Oxidation. Hydration; The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration. Hydrolysis; The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it. Oxidation; For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily. Carbonation; The process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon dioxide, It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate. Biological Weathering This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks. Burrowing animals, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the surface exposing them to other agents of weathering. Big animals like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate. Earthworms take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles. Man's activities like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles. Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and splitting them. Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening them further. Plant remains-decompose adding humus into the soil.


Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and splitting them. Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening them further. Plant remains-decompose adding humus into the soil. Factors influencing soil formation Climate- rainfall, temperature and wind Biotic factors - living organisms. Parent material- Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is formed. Time - length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken place. Topography - influences the movement of disintegrated materials. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock. These layers are also referred to as horizons. The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour, texture and structure. The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material. Organic Matter Region First layer of the soil found on the surface. Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition. Some soil organisms may also be found here. Top Soil Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus. Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated. It is a zone of maximum leaching zone of eluviations Sub-Soil It is compact and less aerated. It is a zone of accumulation of leached material zone of aluviation from the top layers. Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region. Hard pans normally form in this layer For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Weathered Rocks It is also called substratum. Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone. Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock. Parent Rock It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered. It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. The water table is on the surface of this rock. Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ.


It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. The water table is on the surface of this rock. Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ. However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes. Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition. Soil Formed in Situ Soil Deposited l.Has the colour of the parent rock 1. Has the characteristics of when: it came from. 2. Shallower 2. Deeper 3. Less rich in plant nutrients 3. Richer in plant nutrients 4. Easily eroded 4. Not easily eroded 5. Less silty 5. More silty 6. Have the same chemical composition 6. Differ in chemical composition from the as that of the underlying parent rock. Underlying parent rock. Soil Depth This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile. It dictates root penetration and growth Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients. Have a larger surface are for root expansion. Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration. Soil Constituents Organic Matter - Dead and decaying plants and animal remains Living Organisms - Soil organisms and plant roots. Micro-organisms bacteria, protozoa and fungi Invertebrates -termites, Earthworms and molluscs. Higher animals - rodents and others. Inorganic or Mineral Matter Formed from the parent materials. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Supply plant nutrients Form the skeleton and framework of the soil. Air Found in the pore spaces of the soil. Used for root and organism respiration Used for germination of seeds. Helps in decomposition of organic matter. Regulates soil temperature. Regulates the movement of water through capillary action. Water Dissolves mineral salts Maintain turgidity in plants. Used for germination of seeds Used by soil organisms. Regulate soil temperature Dictates the amount of air in the soil.


Soil Textural Classes Sandy Soils Made up largely of sand particles. Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till light soils . Freely draining. Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily erodible. Clayey Soils Made up largely of clayey particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils . Poorly 'drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillary. Rich in plant nutrients. Loam Soils About equal amounts of sand and clay. Moderately good in both moisture and air retention. Fertile soils. Soil Colour This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter content. Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil pH This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions H or the hydroxyl ions OH in the soil solution. A pH of less than 7 means that the soil is acidic. A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline. As the hydroxyl ions OH in the soil increase the soil becomes more alkaline. Influence of Soil pH Crop Growth It determines the type of crop to be grown in a particular area. Most crops are affected by either very acidic or very basic soil pH. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops. At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants. Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms. Farm Tools and Equipment Introduction Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm. They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: Garden Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Panga Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes. Jembe hand hoe Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches.


They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: Garden Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Panga Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes. Jembe hand hoe Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches. Fork iembe Cultivation, digging out roots, harvesting of root crops. Rake Collecting trash, breaking large clods, levelling, removing stones from a seedbed and spreading organic manure. Spade Scooping and carrying of soil, sand, concrete mixture and manure. Spring balance Measuring weight. Trowel Scooping seedlings during transplanting and .digging planting holes for seedlings. Pruning hook Bending tall branches when pruning. Secateur Cutting young stems and pruning branches. 10. Tape measure Measuring distances. 11. Axe Cutting big trees and roots and splitting logs of wood. 12. Soil auger Making holes for fencing posts. 13. Mattock Digging hard soils 14. Sprinklers Overhead irrigation. 15. Watering can Watering plants in nursery bed. 16. Wheel barrow Transportation of soil, fertilizers, farm produce, tools and equipment. 17. Levelling board For levelling a nursery bed. 18. Pruning saw Cutting old wood stems and pruning big branches. 19. Hose pipe For conveying water from a tap to where it is need. 20. Knap sack sprayer Applying agro-chemical by spraying. 21. Garden shear Trimming hedges. 22. Pruning knife Removal of small shoots. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Livestock Production Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Drenching gun Administering liquid drugs to animals orally. Bolus gun dosing gun Administering solid drugs or tablets to animals orally. Wool Shears Cutting off wool from sheep. Hypodermic syringe Administering drugs by injection for example in vaccination. Stirrup bucket pump Application of acaricide by hand spraying. Thermometer Taking body temperatures of farm animals. Burdizzo Used in bloodless method of castration. Halter Rope designed to restrain the animal. Trimming knife Cutting short the overgrown hooves. Elastrator Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking of lambs. Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns.


Trimming knife Cutting short the overgrown hooves. Elastrator Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking of lambs. Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns. Nose ring Fixed into the nose of a bull to restrain it. Strip cup Detecting mastitis in milk products. Trocar and cannula Relieving a bloated animal of gases particularly ruminants. Hard broom For scrubbing the floor. Ear notcher Making ear notches in livestock. Bucket For holding milk during milking. Milk chum For holding milk after milking. Milk strainer sieve Removing foreign particles from milk for example hairs and sediments. Rope Tying or tethering animals. Milking stool Used by the milker to sit on while milking. Weighing balance Weighing milk after milking. Teeth clipper Removal of canine teeth of piglets soon after birth. Chaff cutter Cutting fodder into small bits. Dehorning wire Cutting grown horns. 23. Meter ruler Measuring distances. 24. Garden fork Shallow digging. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Workshop Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Spanner Tightening and loosening nuts and bolts. Pliers Cutting small wires and thin metal and gripping firmly. Files Sharpening tools, smoothening or shaping edges of metals, Rasps Smoothening and shaping of wooden structures. Chisels wood Making grooves in wood. Cold chisel Cutting and shaping metal. Screw drivers Driving screws in or out of wood or metal. Saws Cross cut saw Cutting across the grain of wood. Rip saw Cutting along the grain of wood. Hack saw Bow saw Cutting metals. Tenonlback saw Cutting branches of trees. Coping saw Cutting Joints on wood and fine sawing. Compass keyhole saw Cutting curves on thin wood. Cutting either along or across the grain of wood especially when cutting key holes. Tin snip Cutting metal sheets. Braces and bits. Boring holes in wood. ,. Drill and bits Boring holes in metal work and woodwork. Hammer Claw hammer Driving in, removing and straightening nails. Ball pein Driving in nails, rivets and straightening metal. Also used on cold chisel Mallet Hammering or hitting wood chisel. Jack plane Fine finishing of wood.


Soften the soil for easy planting. Operations in primary cultivation Hand digging ; Use of hand tools ; Jembes, Mattocks, Fork-jembes. Mechanical cultivation ; Use of mouldboard ploughs; Disc ploughs, Chisel ploughs, Subsoilers Rippers. Use of Ox-Ploughs ; Which can be drawn by; Oxen, Donkeys, Camels Depth of Cultivation Depends on: The type of crop to be planted size of seed. The implements available. The type of soil. Choice of Implement Determined by: The condition of land. The type of tilth required type of crop. Depth of cultivation. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Secondary Tillage These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation. It is also known as harrowing. Reasons for secondary Tillage: To remove the germinating weeds. To break soil clods to produce required tilth. To level the seedbed for uniform planting. To incorporate organic matter manure into the soil. Factors determining number of secondary cultivation: Soil moisture content. Size of the planting materials. Condition of the soil after primary cultivation. Slope of the land. Tertiary Operations: Ridging ; The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce a furrow and a bund ridge . It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water conservation. Rolling: It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil contact and prevents wind erosion. Levelling; Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting. Subsoiling: This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have developed. It is done for the following reasons:- To facilitate drainage. Bring up leached nutrients to the surface. Increase aeration of the soil. To improve root penetration. The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers. Minimum Tillage: This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil.


To improve root penetration. The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers. Minimum Tillage: This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil. Examples of which include: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Use of herbicides. Mulching and cover-cropping. Timely operations to prevent weed infestation. Strip cultivation. Uprooting and slashing of weeds. Reasons for Minimum Tillage To reduce cost of cultivation. To control soil erosion. To preserve soil moisture. To prevent root exposure and damage. To reconstruct destroyed soil structure. Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage Introduction Water is a very important natural resource. It is necessary for both crops and livestock. Uses of water in the farm; Cleaning equipment. Irrigation in dry areas. Processing farm produce, for example, coffee. Drinking by livestock and man. Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides. Providing power in water mills to grind grain crops. Cooling engines. Construction work. Sources of Water in the Farm Three major sources of water in the farm: Surface water: Includes water from; Rivers, Streams Dams. Ground water: Includes water from; Springs, Wells Boreholes. Rain water: This is water tapped in various ways such as; Rooftops Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Collection and Storage of Water Dams: These are structures constructed across rivers and channels. They collect and store water for use during the dry season. Weirs: These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy pumping. Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river. Water Tanks: These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics. They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. Pumps and Pumping of Water Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force.


They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. Pumps and Pumping of Water Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required for use or storage. Types of Water Pumps Used to lift water from its source. Centrifugal pumps Piston or reciprocating pumps Semi-rotary pumps and Hydram Conveyance of Water This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of storage to where it will be used or stored. Piping; This is where water is moved through pipes. The common types of pipes include: Metal pipes Plastic pipes Hose pipes Use of Containers: In this case water is drawn and put in containers . Drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets . Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehicles. Use of Canals: In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion. Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock. Water Treatment Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely: Physical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and smell. Chemical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical analysis. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Biological impurities: these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses and algae. Importance of Treating Water To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive in dirty water. To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human beings. To remove smells and bad taste. To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks. Methods of Treating Water Aeration: this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or bubbling of air. Sedimentation: this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom.


French drains. Cambered beds. Pumping out water from the soil. Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus. Water Pollution This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water. The harmful substance is referred to as a pollutant. Agricultural practices which pollute water include: Use of inorganic fertilizers. Use of pesticides. Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks. Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. Methods of Preventing Water Pollution Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion. Fencing off the water sources. Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using nonchemical techniques. Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers. Proper disposal of empty chemical containers. Soil Fertility I Organic Manures For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Introduction Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper proportions. Characteristics of a Fertile Soil Good depth - Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong anchorage. Good aeration - for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. Good water holding capacity - ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. Proper drainage - ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. Correct soil pH - different crops have different soil pH requirements. Adequate nutrients supply - it should supply the required nutrients in the correct amounts and in a form available to plants. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. How soil loses fertility Leaching: vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower horizons of the soil profile. Soil erosion - The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to another. Monocropping - This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece' of a land over a long time. Continuous cropping - crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are never returned. Growing crops continuously without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil infertile. Change in soil pH - changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well as the availability of soil nutrients.


Reasons why green manure is not commonly used limitations: Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops. Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture. Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manure. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Planting of the major crop is delayed. Farm Yard Manure FYM Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses. Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM The types of the animals used. Types of food eaten Types of litter used. Method of storage. Age of farmyard manure. Age of the animals used. Preparation of FYM Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings. Animals mix them through trampling. The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to decompose. After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed. It can then be used in the farm Compost Manure Is manure prepared from heaped composted organic materials. Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure: A well drained place. Direction of the prevailing wind. Size of the farm. Accessibility. Preparation of Compost Manure Two methods: Four heaps method Indore Method Pit Method Indore Method Pit Method Procedure ; Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field. Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m. Place the materials in the following order: Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to a depth of 30cm as a foundation A layer of grass, green weeds or leaves and kitchen wastes to 30cm. A well rotten manure poultry droppings. Wood ash and phosphatic fertilizers. A layer of topsoil to introduce microorganism for the decomposition of organic remains. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Note: Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition process and regulate temperatures. Four heaps method: Procedure Clear the site.


A layer of topsoil to introduce microorganism for the decomposition of organic remains. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Note: Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition process and regulate temperatures. Four heaps method: Procedure Clear the site. Level the site Four posts 2m high are fixed 1.2m apart from four corners of the heap. Fix wood planks on the sides. Materials are placed in two heaps as in the pit method, The two heaps make up heap 1. After 3-4 weeks, the decomposed material from heap 1 is transferred to heap II. After another 3 - 4 weeks the material is transferred to heap III. After 3-4 weeks it is ready for use in the farm. Indicators of well decomposed manure Absence of bad odour. Materials are lighter. Manure is brown in colour. Advantages of Compost Manure One does not have to own livestock in order to prepare it. A lot of manure can be produced within a short time. A variety of materials can be used in its preparation. Uses locally available materials thus cheaper than the artificial fertilizers. Improves the soil structure. Limitations of Compost Manure It releases nutrients slowly into the soil. Large quantities of compost manure are required to supply enough plant nutrients. Its preparation is labour intensive. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke It may induce soil-borne pests and diseases. Livestock Production: Common Breeds Introduction The term livestock is used to refer to all domesticated animals. These animals include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, rabbits, camels, bees, fish and donkeys. The importance of keeping livestock: Source of food. Source of income. Cultural values. Source of animal power. Provision of raw materials for industries. Farmyard manure from the animals is used in maintaining soil fertility. Cattle dung is used in the production of biogas. Cattle Breeds Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin. These are; Indigenous cattle. Exotic cattle.


Cattle Breeds Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin. These are; Indigenous cattle. Exotic cattle. Indigenous Cattle Zebus They are small in size and with a distinct hump and include: Nandi, Bukedi Maasai cattle. The Borana These are the cattle kept in the Northern parts of Kenya. They are larger than the Zebus. Indigenous cattle are hardy hence able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions in the tropics. They are the major suppliers of beef in Kenya. Exotic Cattle Foreign cattle from the temperate regions. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke They have distinct breed characteristics and are classified into various breeds. General characteristics: They have no humps. They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the Kenya highlands .. They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases. They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity. They are good producers of both meat and milk. They cannot walk for long distances. They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed. Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups: Dairy cattle breeds. Beef cattle breeds. Dual purpose breeds. Dairy Cattle Breeds They include; Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey Jersey. Characteristics of Dairy Cattle Wedge or triangular in shape. Large stomach. Docile with mild temperament. Large, well suspended udders and teats. Lean bodies. Lean and smooth neck. Large and long mammary milk wells and veins. Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats. Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder. Friesian-Holstein largest of all dairy breeds Origin: Holland Colour: Black and white Size: Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg. Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least butterfat content; 3.5 Ayrshire Origin: Scotland Colour: White with brown markings. Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg. Conformation: Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards.


Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least butterfat content; 3.5 Ayrshire Origin: Scotland Colour: White with brown markings. Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg. Conformation: Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Milk production is second to Friesian about 61OOkg per lactation with butter content of about 4 . Guernsey Origin: Guernsey Island off the coast of France. Colour: Yellowish brown to red with white legs, switch and girth .. Size: Bulls 540-770kg. Cow weighs 450- 500kgs Conformation: Udders are less symmetrical. Average milk production is about 5185kg per lactation with a butterfat content of 4.5 hence the yellow colour of milk. Jersey smallest of all the dairy breeds Origin: England Colour: Yellow brown with black muzzle and switch. Size: Bulls weigh 540-700kg. Cow weighs 350-450kgs Conformation: Dished forehead, have straight top-line and level rumps with sharp withers. Have protruding black eyes. Average milk production 1270kg per lactation of butterfat content 5 . They tolerate high temperatures. Beef Cattle Examples: Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, Shorthorns, Galloway, American Brahman, charolais Santa Getrudis. Characteristics of Beef Cattle Blocky or square conformation. Have thick muscles or are well fleshed. Early maturing. Deep chest and girth and short legs. Straight top and lower lines. AberdeenAngus Origin: North East Scotland. Colour: Black Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled. Size: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Mature bulls weigh 900kg. Mature cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in Timau area of Kenya Hereford Origin: England. Colour: Deep red and white-faced. Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg.


It is found in Timau area of Kenya Hereford Origin: England. Colour: Deep red and white-faced. Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg. Cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in areas such as Naivasha. Shorthorn Origin: England. Has easy fleshing ability Colour: Red, Roan or white Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep. It is polled. Size: Bulls weigh 700-900kg, cows weigh 545-630kgs. Galloway Origin: Scotland. Colour: Black Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya. Charolais Origin: France. Colour: Creamy white. Size: Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs. It is found in ranches in Laikipia District. Dual Purpose Breeds Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental. Sahiwal Origin: India and Pakistan .. Colour: reddish brown. Size: Bulls weigh 650kg, and cows 400kg. Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7 . It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily. It is therefore said to be a difficult milker. It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha. Red Poll Origin: England. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Colour: Deep red with a white nose. Conformation: Polled-deep girth and short legs. Kept in semi-arid areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio. Simmental Origin: Switzerland. Colour: Light red and white patches on the head. Conformation: It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth. It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats. Sheep Breeds: Purpose of Keeping Sheep; Meat mutton . Wool production. Exotic Sheep Wool breeds -for example merino. Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. Mutton breeds -for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers.


Exotic Sheep Wool breeds -for example merino. Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. Mutton breeds -for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers. Merino Origin: Spain Characteristics: It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour. Rams have horns which are spiral in shape. It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases. Corriedale Origin: New Zealand. Size: Rams 85 - 90kg. Ewes 60-- 85 kg This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs. It is hornless and hardy. Romney Marsh Origin: England. Size: Rams 100 - 115kg. Ewes 84- 100 kg It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips. It is average in prolificacy. It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation. Hampshire Down Origin: England. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Size: Rams 125kg. Ewes 80-100 kg It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific. Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres. Lambing percentage is 125-140. Dorper Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep. It is mutton breed. Dorset Horn Dual purpose breed of sheep. Indigenous Breeds of Sheep Their bodies are covered with hair. Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different tribes. Characteristics; Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa. Fat tailed such as Maasai sheep. Fat rumped sheep. Maasai Sheep Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Size: Ram 38kg, Ewe 20-30kg. Colour: Red and brown. These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns. Black Head Persian Sheep Origin: South Africa Colour: White with black head and neck. It is polled with a big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail..


Pigs wallow when it is hot due to absence of sweat glands. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke They breathe fast when it is hot. They have bristles instead of hair. Breeds Large White Origin: Britain Kept for bacon and pork production. Long, large and white in colour. Ears straight and erect. Has dished face and snout. Most prolific and with good mothering ability. Fairly hardy. Landrace Origin: Denmark White and longer than large white. Ears drooping. Good for bacon production. Very prolific with good mothering ability. Requires high level of management. Wessex Saddle Back Origin: England Colour: Black with white forelegs and shoulders. Straight snout and drooping ears. Good for bacon and pork. Good for keeping outdoors. Excellent mothering instincts. Other pig breeds include: Berkshire, Middle-white Duroc Jersey pig. Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses. Advantages of Crosses Increased litter size. Early maturing. Increase in body length. High proportion of lean meat to fat. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Poultry Breeds There are three types of chicken breeds: The light breeds kept for egg production. The heavy breeds kept for meat production. Dual purpose breeds - kept for both eggs and meat production. Characteristics of Light Breeds Never go broody hence poor sitters. Excellent layers over 220 eggs per year . Poor meat producers hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism. Hen's comb is large and bent over one eye and cock's comb is large with 5 - 6 serrations. Examples: Leghorns, Anconas, Silkies, Minorcas. Characteristics of Heavy Breeds Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers. Can go broody. Heavier and bigger in size. Grow fast. Examples: Light Sussex, Cornish Dark White. Characteristics of Dual-Purpose Breeds Go broody. Have good meat.


Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation. Capable of shedding the coat during spring. Terms used to describe livestock in different age, sex and use. Livestock Adult Replacement Stock Young Users Species Male Female Male Female One Cattle Bull Cow Bullock Heifer Calf Dairy - milk Beef-meat Sheep Ram Ewe Ram Hogget Lamb Mutton - meat Wool sheep -wool Goat Buck or Doe or Buck Doe Kid Dairy - milk Billy Nanny Mutton - meat For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Pigs Boar Sow Boar Gilt Piglet Pork - meat Bacon -cured Poultry Cock Hen Cockerel Pullet Chick Broilers - meat Layers - eggs Rabbits Buck Doe Buck Doe Kindling Meat Camel Bull Cow Bull Heifer Calf Pack, trained for riding, racing milk, meat, fur Agricultural Economics I Basic Concepts and Farm Records Introduction Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society. It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources Example; food, clothing shelter Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of time. These are; land, capital, labour management Basic economic Principles Scarcity Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand. This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to satisfy all his need or desires Choice Preference Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited. Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the resources available. Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first. This is called scale of preference. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Opportunity Cost Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative. It exists only where there are alternatives. Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero. Opportunity cost helps in decision making.


It exists only where there are alternatives. Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero. Opportunity cost helps in decision making. Farm Records Farm records are documents kept in the farm They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it. Uses of Farm Records Show the history of the farm Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss. Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm. Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets. Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation. Used as a guide in planning and budgeting. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships. Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will. Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker. Type of Farm Records Production Records - Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise. Inventory Records - A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm. Consumable Goods Inventory Date Commodity Quantity Date Issued to Quantity balallce Item Stock Field Operation Records - Show in details all field practices carried out together with the input used for all the crop enterprises. Breeding Records Show all the breeding activities in the farm. From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the infertile ones. Feeding Records A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their quantities. Health Records Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm. From these records it is possible to: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Select and cull animals on health grounds.


Feeding Records A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their quantities. Health Records Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm. From these records it is possible to: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Select and cull animals on health grounds. Encyclopedia For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Agriculture: General agrarian reform agricultural subsidies agriculture agronomy animal husbandry aquaculture aquaponics baler binder black earth bog lime bone meal catch crop calcareous soil chernozem clearcutting colter combine commune compost collective farm cover crop creamery cultivation cultivator dairying dip disk plow drainage dry farming ensilage fallow land farming fertilizer forestry Good Agricultural Practices Green Revolution grain guano harrow harvester hay baler hoe humus hydroponics For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke incubator irrigation kibbutz kolkhoz lariat lasso land reform liming lister loam loess manure market gardening marl middlebuster moldboard mower mulch organic farming pasture peat picker plant breeding planter plough plow podzol prairie soil rake ranch reaper reclamation of land root crop rotation of crops Rothamsted sericulture share sharecropping separator, cream silage silo silviculture soil soiling soilless gardening straw strip cropping superphosphate For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke terrace thrashing threshing tractor truck farming water gardening winnowing Plants Animals Agriculture and Horticulture Animals Biographies Botany Microbes, Algae, and Fungi Plants Zoology and Veterinary Medicine The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.


Encyclopedia For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Agriculture: General agrarian reform agricultural subsidies agriculture agronomy animal husbandry aquaculture aquaponics baler binder black earth bog lime bone meal catch crop calcareous soil chernozem clearcutting colter combine commune compost collective farm cover crop creamery cultivation cultivator dairying dip disk plow drainage dry farming ensilage fallow land farming fertilizer forestry Good Agricultural Practices Green Revolution grain guano harrow harvester hay baler hoe humus hydroponics For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke incubator irrigation kibbutz kolkhoz lariat lasso land reform liming lister loam loess manure market gardening marl middlebuster moldboard mower mulch organic farming pasture peat picker plant breeding planter plough plow podzol prairie soil rake ranch reaper reclamation of land root crop rotation of crops Rothamsted sericulture share sharecropping separator, cream silage silo silviculture soil soiling soilless gardening straw strip cropping superphosphate For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke terrace thrashing threshing tractor truck farming water gardening winnowing Plants Animals Agriculture and Horticulture Animals Biographies Botany Microbes, Algae, and Fungi Plants Zoology and Veterinary Medicine The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.


Table of ContentsUnit 1Verb MoodsPart A Indicative and Imperative6B Present Subjunctive10C Past Subjunctive14D Review TensesPart A Simple and Progressive Tenses 20B Perfect Tenses24C ReviewSubject-Verb AgreementPart A Recognizing Subjects30B Quantifiers34C Review ModalsPart A Ability, Permission, Polite Requests, and Suggestions40B Obligation, Prohibition, and Lack of Necessity44C Probability: Past, Present, and Future48D ReviewAdjectives and AdverbsPart A Collective Adjectives54B Adjective Clauses Restrictive and Non-restrictive 58C Adverbs and Adverb Order62D ReviewNouns and ArticlesPart A Uncountable Nouns and Quantity68B Indefinite Articles72C The Definite Article76D Generic Nouns80E Review 84Unit 7PronounsPart A Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns86B Interrogative Pronouns and Relative Pronouns as the Object of a Preposition90C Indefinite Relative Pronouns94D Review PrepositionsPart A Advanced Prepositions100B Verbs and Prepositions104C Phrasal Verbs108D ReviewDirect and Indirect SpeechPart A Verb Tense and Form114B Question Forms and Time Shifts118C Modals in Indirect Speech122D Review126Unit 10 Passive VoicePart A Passive Tenses128B Stative Passives132C Direct and Indirect Objects in the Passive Voice136D Passive Voice Clauses140E The Passive of Modal Auxiliaries144F ReviewIndex151Transcripts Answer KeyIndicative and ImperativePart AUnit 1 Verb MoodsVerb MoodsGrammar ExplanationPreviewVerb Moods: Indicative and ImperativeThe indicative mood is the most common verb mood in English. It is used to express facts and opinions,or to ask questions about them. The indicative mood is used in all verb tenses. The imperative mood is used to make requests or give orders and warnings. It is used only in the simple present and future tenses. I am going to visit Paris next week. You looked happy yesterday. My dog is barking at passing cars. Does she have my book?Do they study English on Tuesdays?The subject in the imperative mood is alwaysyou. In simple present tense, the you-subject isnot usually stated. In the simple future tense, the you-subject isusually stated.


The indicative mood is used in all verb tenses. The imperative mood is used to make requests or give orders and warnings. It is used only in the simple present and future tenses. I am going to visit Paris next week. You looked happy yesterday. My dog is barking at passing cars. Does she have my book?Do they study English on Tuesdays?The subject in the imperative mood is alwaysyou. In simple present tense, the you-subject isnot usually stated. In the simple future tense, the you-subject isusually stated. It is used to place strongeremphasis on a command. Pass me the salt, please. Don t walk near my vegetable garden. Look out for those bees!Finish your homework tonight. Command You will finish your homework tonight! Strong command Indicative Conjugation Simple Present :amwalkiswalksarewalkIHe She ItYou We TheyClass NoticeThere will be no computer class tomorrow aswe are upgrading the computer server. Thenew server is bigger and faster than the previousone. The classroom door will be locked all day,so do not attempt to enter. Use the time foryour private study and remember to collectyour new log-in password. Send me your emailaddress so I can give you some homework. Thework must be finished by Friday. Don t smoke. People use cars to drive around. Part A 71. Smoking is dangerous for your health. 2. Talking in the library is forbidden. 3. Walking alone downtown at night can be dangerous. 4. Eating a lot of fatty snacks can damage your heart. 5. It is not nice to lie to your parents and teachers. 6. Littering the streets makes the city dirty. Exercise 2Write negative imperative sentences based on the information given.1. 2. 3. 4. Exercise 3Look at the pictures. Write indicative sentences with the phrases in the box.1. Is Carlos from Spain? 2. Jack is cooking dinner. 3. Be careful of the hot stove. 4. Tell your sister to call me when she gets home. 5. When will you give me my allowance? 6. You will eat all your vegetables! Exercise 1Write indicative if the sentence is in the indicative mood or imperativeif the sentence is in the imperative mood.1.


Tell your sister to call me when she gets home. 5. When will you give me my allowance? 6. You will eat all your vegetables! Exercise 1Write indicative if the sentence is in the indicative mood or imperativeif the sentence is in the imperative mood.1. Drive around2. Call their friends3. Tell the time4. Stay dryPractice 1Brazil will beat Argentina in the soccer game tomorrow. Practice 2Verb MoodsExercise 5Write indicative sentences in the correct tense. Exercise 6Unscramble the imperative sentences.1. Brazil - beat - Argentina - soccer game - tomorrow 2. Snow - New York - last - Friday 3. James - go - Japan - on vacation - next summer 4. Kyle - study - science - library - now 5. How long - you - be - wait - for me? Exercise 4Listen and take notes. Then answer the following questions.1. What is wrong with Simon? 2. What did Simon s doctor tell him to do? 3. What should Simon avoid? 4. What do his parents have to do next week? 1. Turn lights off Please the later. 2. Be if Call me late. You going to are 3. Use cell phones the test. Your Don t during 4. The trash, Throw please. Papers these in Track 2Simon: - caught Doctor: - rest ,- take ,- avoid because Simon s parents: - bring Part A 9Grammar in UseExercise 7Underline the imperative sentences. Hiking through the Rocky Mountains can be a rewarding experience. Theclean air and breathtaking scenery attract tourists from all around the world. However, this area is also home to the grizzly bear. Because of the dangersassociated with grizzly encounters, hikers should heed the following safetyprecautions. Check with park rangers for information on bear activity beforechoosing a trail. Travel in large groups and make a lot of noise. Grizzliestend to avoid people and noise. Carry bearspray and keep it easily accessible.


Travel in large groups and make a lot of noise. Grizzliestend to avoid people and noise. Carry bearspray and keep it easily accessible. When thispepper spray gets into a bear s eyes, the bearwill usually retreat. Always remain alert. Thesooner you know a bear is near, the easier itwill be to avoid trouble!1. Where do grizzly bears live? 2. What would you tell a friend to do before going hiking in the Rocky Mountains? 3. What do grizzlies tend to avoid? 4. Why should hikers keep bear spray easily accessible? Exercise 8Answer questions about the passage. Principal: I am recommending that Mrs.Robinson stay home until after herbaby is born. Jenny:When is her baby due?Principal: Around September 15th. I requestedthat she return to school in January. Mark:Who is going to teach us until then? Principal: Ms. Shaw. I insist you be as respectfulto her as you are to Mrs. Robinson!Part BVerb MoodsGrammar ExplanationPreviewThe subjunctive mood is used to express uncertain actions or states. The present subjunctive is formed with the base form of a verb. It follows verbs, nouns, or adjectivesthat express suggestion, demand, or request. Words of suggestion used: determine,determination, propose, recommend,recommendation, suggest, suggestion,advise, advisable, critical, desirable,important, vital, urgeWords of demand used: demand, imperative, insist, necessary, order,require, requiredWords of request used: ask, beg, prefer,request, wishThe doctor suggested I sleep more. My recommendation is that he sleep more. The doctor s recommendation is that they sleep more. It is advisable that she sleep more. My parents demand that I be quiet at night. Your parents require that you be quiet at night. It is imperative that she not be noisy at night. I ask that you have more patience with the other students. The teacher requested that Nick have his project finished a day earlier. The term present refers to the form of the subjunctive verb base form rather than the time in which the action happens.