More often than not, this wastes are buried in landfills. In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution. By reusing and recycling things, we would ensure that lesser wastes are dumped in these landfills, and this, in turn, would reduce soil pollution. Promote Use of Natural Manure - Natural manure is one of the best sources of nutrients for the soil. It is harmless and completely organic. It adds essential nutrients to the soil and restores the health of the soil. It has no harmful by-products that could harm the soil or the environment in any way. Create awareness - In order to ensure that a problem like soil pollution is solved, it is essential that every individual must get involved. It is with their involvement that things can work out better. Awareness programs could be designed so that people understand soil pollution better. If people are aware, they will help, even subconsciously. Safe farming practices that prevent soil pollutionDifferent types of soil conservation methods ensure long-term usage of land and keep it productive for future generations. Let s consider their benefits in regard to soil conservation. Conservation Tillage - The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water erosion by covering the earth with vegetation either crops or their residues and limiting the number of tilling operations. Another significant aspect is to choose the proper time for field operations, depending on the soil types. For example, clay ones are better to till after harvesting while other types are better to plow before seeding. Contour Farming - The soil conservation method proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species along the contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents while rows along the contour restrain it. An impact of terracing is similar: it also helps to conserve soil and reduce its degradation processes. Strip Cropping - In this case, farmers combine high-growing crops with low-growing ones for the sake of wind protection, like when corn grows in strips with forage crops. The strip cropping practice works even better when high-growing crops are intensified in the sides where winds blow most frequently. An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops. Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows.


An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops. Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows. Depending on the number of rows, we can distinguish windbreaks properly up to five rows and shelterbelts six and more . Crop Rotation - Crop rotation vs. mono-cropping farming suggests changing agro species instead of planting one and the same for many subsequent seasons. Farmers applying this soil conservation method reap numerous benefits. Crop rotation helps them improve the earth structure with diverse root systems, to mitigate pest establishments, and to add nitrogen to the land with legumes known as nitrogen-fixing plants. Cover Crops - This soil conservation technique is another way to avoid bare soils and additionally benefit from planting cover crops secondary species in-between growing cash crops for different reasons like to:produce forage and grazing material for cattle;provide green manure;assist in weed control;retain moisture;ensure a natural environment for microorganisms and minor animals;balance nitrogen concentration either releasing or accumulating it with certain plants . Buffer Strips - These are trees and bushes on the banks of water bodies to prevent sediment, water wash offs. Their roots fix the soil to avoid slumping and erosion, canopies protect from excessive sunlight to water inhabitants and falling leaves are a source of organic matter and food of minor aquatic animals. Integrated Pest Management - Pests are a great nuisance to agriculturalists and have been a major issue to tackle while chemicals poison nature leaking to water and the atmosphere. It is important to eliminate synthetic herbicides replacing them with organic ones or establishing biological enemies of pests whenever possible, rotating crop species to minimize increasing pest populations in the same field for years, and using alternative techniques in complex. Benefits of Soil ConservationHumankind in general and farmers in particular benefit from numerous advantages of soil conservation. This agricultural practice contributes to sustainability in a number of ways:Boosts earth quality and productivity. Maintaining the natural environment for earth-dwelling organism s increases fertility and reduces the necessity of chemical fertilizing, thus boosting yields and saving costs at the same time. Mitigates erosion. Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile. Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs.


Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile. Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs. conventional plowing affects soil moistureby reducing cracking and evaporation as well as rising the infiltration rate. Aids air and water purification. The importance of soil conservation relates to water supplies, and the earth functions as a natural filter to purify water. Soil conservation mitigates the concentration of pollutants and sediments. In its turn, water is the basic condition to dissolve nutrients for plants. Soil carbon sequestration and reduced chemical applications contribute to air purity, too. Gives food and shelter for wildlife. Land with growing vegetation is a living environment for animals; it is not only the source for nourishment but their home as well. When the well is dry, we know the worth of water. Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard s Almanack for 1733Water conservation methods in farmingMulch - We cannot overemphasize the importance of mulching. Mulch is something laid on the surface of the soil to protect the soil from the air, water and the sun. To mulch, first weed the soil then spread a thick layer of organic mulch on the soil. Examples of organic mulches are:Chopped leavesStrawGrass clippingsWood chipsShredded barkPine needlesMulching helps save time and labour as it discourages weeds and pests and conserve water through reduced evaporation. Irrigate early morning or dusk - At the hottest and driest time of the year it is most efficient to water your crops in the morning or in the evening. This avoids water loss from evapotranspiration water evaporating from the land and leaves of plants . Evaporation happens most in the midday sun. Don t over-water - It s a common misconception that plants would be happy with lots of water all of the time. But often farmers are over-watering crops unnecessarily. Save water! Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration. Check for leaks and damage - If you ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks.


Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration. Check for leaks and damage - If you ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks. Thoroughly check your equipment for leaks and repair them so that all the water you have gets to the crops. Drip Irrigation - Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to a plant s roots, reducing the evaporation that happens with spray watering systems. Timers can be used to schedule watering for the cooler parts of the day, further reducing water loss. Importance of water conservation in farmingIt minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages. By reducing the amount of water we use, we can better protect against future drought years. It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources. It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources. Water retention structures to conserve surface runoffWater Retention Structures means a structure designed to retain a large volume of waterThere are various methods of water retention to conserve surface runoff, this include:Water retention Ditches -Ditches are man-made waterbodies that are used mainly to drain the land. Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single pointWater retention pits is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design. Minimum tillage practices that conserve water in farmingTillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc.


Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single pointWater retention pits is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design. Minimum tillage practices that conserve water in farmingTillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc. Some of the minimum tillage practices include: Use of herbicides;Uprooting slashing;Use of cash crops;Limiting cultivation to the point planting;Proper timing of cultivation;MulchingThere are other different tillage practices distinguished are:Conservation tillageConventional tillageZero tillageConservation tillage can include the following systems:Strip tillage or zonal tillage refers to a system where strips 5 to 20 cm in width are prepared to receive the seed whilst the soil along the intervening bands is not disturbed and remains covered with residues. The system causes more soil disturbance and provides less cover along the rows than zero tillage. Tined tillage or vertical tillage refers to a system where the arable land is prepared with equipment which does not invert the soil and which cause little compaction. For this reason, the surface normally remains with a good cover of residues on the surface. Ridge tillage is a system of ridges and furrows. The ridges may be narrow or wide and the furrows can be parallel to the contour lines or constructed with a slight slope, depending on whether the objective is to conserve moisture or to drain excess moisture. The ridges can be semi-permanent or be constructed each year which will govern the amount of residue material that remains on the surface. Conventional tillageRefers to the arable land treated by conventional tillage which involves inversion of the soil, normally with a moldboard or a disc plough as the primary tillage operation, followed by secondary tillage with a disc harrow. Zero tillageRefers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control.


Zero tillageRefers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control. AgroforestryIt s the cultivation and use of trees and shrubs with crops and livestock in agricultural systems. Characteristics of AgroforestryWhile selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable characteristics should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable characters are not found in a single species, but their multiple uses are taken care of. Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moistureTree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water requirementShould not compete with main agricultural crops for water. Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water from deep strata of the soil. Tree species should not compete for plant nutrientsTree species should not utilize more plant nutrientsThey should help in building soil fertility,Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots should be prefered. The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to exploration of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by agricultural crops. Tree species should not compete for sunlightTree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops. Tree species should be light branching in their habit. Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better crop, pasture growth and yield. Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it possess dense canopy. Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishmentTrees species should have high survival percentage,Leave little or no gaps after transplanting. Hardy tree species are easy to establish. They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily. Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy managementTree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,Rapid growth, especially in the early years,Tree should have short rotation the period between planting and final harvesting Fast growing speciesTree species should have wider adaptabilityA tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability.


They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily. Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy managementTree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,Rapid growth, especially in the early years,Tree should have short rotation the period between planting and final harvesting Fast growing speciesTree species should have wider adaptabilityA tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability. Tree species should have high palatability as a fodderMost of the Indian farmer s rear livestock separately and cut and carry method of fodder production is quite prevalent. Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are palatable to livestock and had a high digestibility. Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributesSome tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability, are especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock. Tree species should have capability to withstand management practicesMany agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the trees in order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be able to withstand such treatment without drastically restricting growth rate. Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation attributesWithin an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling nutrients, leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from weathering parent material such as rocks and sediments. These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many returning to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds which slowly decompose on the surface, or are eaten by animals. Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the soil through recycling. Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of leaves on the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level of litter fall throughout the year. Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots. The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant. The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil.


Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots. The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant. The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil. Tree species should have thin barkSpecies selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark regularly but it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates unhygienic conditions for under-ground crop. Tree species should be free from chemical exudationsThe species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from chemicals as these chemicals affect the growth of under-ground crops. Tree species should have easily decomposable leavesThe suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen leaves decompose with fast rate. The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose quickly and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients to the soil. Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should not be preferred for agroforestry system. They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for decomposition. Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants, block their photosynthetic activities. Tree species should have their multiple usesThe selected tree species should have multiple uses. The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf fodder, edible fruit, edible flower and fibre. Tree species should have high yield potentialHigh yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree species for agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more output per unit area. Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source. Suitable tree species for agroforestry Leucaena leucocephala Gravillea robusta Calliandra catothrysus Mangifera indica Sesbania sesban Lantana camara Cajanus cajanCHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FOR AGROFORESTRYa Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing. B They should be at least partially tolerant to shade.


Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source. Suitable tree species for agroforestry Leucaena leucocephala Gravillea robusta Calliandra catothrysus Mangifera indica Sesbania sesban Lantana camara Cajanus cajanCHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FOR AGROFORESTRYa Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing. B They should be at least partially tolerant to shade. C Most of them should belong to Leguminous family. D They should respond well to high density tree planting. E They should bear some adverse conditions, like water stress and or excess of watering;f Crops should return adequate organic matter to soil through their fallen leaves, root system, stumps, etc. G Crops should appropriately be fitted in intensive or multiple cropping system. Advantages Importance of agroforestrySaves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and treesGives higher combined yieldProvide wide variety of agricultural produceReduces the risks of total failureCrops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees. Trees help in holding the soil firmlySome trees act as livestock fodder. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce. Disadvantages of AgroforestryMechanization is difficult. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesSTRAND TWOCROP PRODUCTIONPreparation of planting sitePreparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul. There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive.


Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesSTRAND TWOCROP PRODUCTIONPreparation of planting sitePreparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul. There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive. One-Time TillingMulch AloneSheet MulchingDouble DiggingSolarizingAnimals focus on chickens and pigs Crop establishmentCategories of planting materialsTypes of Planting Materials Seeds seasoning herbs, legumes, corn Seedlings most vegetable crops Cuttings cassava, potato, yam, ginger, dasheen, tannia, eddoes Suckers banana, plantain Budded grafted plants fruit trees Certain Factors need to be considered when you are choosing planting matter or seedlings from nurseries or plant shop. Environmental Factors The surroundings should be free from overgrown bushes, generally clean, no waterlogged conditions Seedlings should be in conditions that are free from excess shade. If seedlings have too much shade they do not harden off and they have difficulties when they are transplanted. Seedling CharacteristicsThe seedlings should:1. Be of the appropriate age seedlings with 4-6 healthy green leaves 2. Be free from pests and diseases3. Have healthy white roots good root development, with no balling of roots 4. Show vigorous, healthy growth5. Be of uniform appearance6. Have the proper Shoot to Root ratio 2:1 Methods of planting various cropsBroadcasting: Generally, the seeds are broadcast-sown and later planked. This method of sowing is easier and area coverage is quick. However, uniform population cannot be maintained since the seeds are not placed in uniform depth and germination may not be uniform. The skill of the labour is important to sow the seeds evenly covering the entire field. Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing. Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation.


Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing. Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation. Seeds are dropped in the furrow opened during ploughing and subsequently covered while the next adjoining furrow is formed. Bold seeded crops like groundnut are sown by this method in drylands. It is important to take up sowing at the appropriate soil moisture so that the depth of sowing is uniformly maintained. Drill sowing or drilling: Drill sowing is one of the best methods that provides uniform plant population since seeds are uniformly dropped in the furrows. Animal drawn or power operated seed drills are used for this purposes; seed cum fertilizer drill can also be used. By this way, depth of sowing can be maintained; fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. Pelleting of small sized seeds may reduce the risk of irregular dropping. Since sowing is taken up in lines, intercultural operations can be easily practiced. It is possible to take up sowing of intercrops also. Dibbling: In the method, a seed or few seeds are put in a hole and covered. Under irrigated condition, seeds are dibbled in lines or on the sides of the ridges maintaining optimum intra- row spacing, e.g. maize and cotton. Though this method is laborious and time consuming, it gives rapid and uniform germination and the requirement of seed is less than in broadcasting. Methods of Plant PropagationCuttingThis is cutting the vegetative part of the plant leaf, stem, and root and then planting it again to regenerate the whole plant. The three types of cutting are named after the plant part being detached cut:Stem cuttingLeaf cuttingRoot cutting2. DivisionThis is a suitable technique for perennials plants that live for more than two years . It involves dividing the plant by digging and moving it to an already prepared site. This helps the plant to rejuvenate and reduce water and nutrient competition. 3. LayeringIn this technique, the attached and bent branch of the plant is covered with soil and allowed to root. After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called layering . 4.


After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called layering . 4. GraftingThis involves cutting a twig of one plant and joining it with the stem of another plant in such a manner that they form a unit and function as one plant. It is a bit of a complex process but allows you to bring the desired character to your plant. However, be sure to sterilize your hands and tools to make sure you don t transfer any infections during the process. 5. BuddingIn this method, a cut is made in the rootstock and a single bud with little or no wood is inserted into it in such a way that they unite and grow as a new plant. Time of planting depends on the following factorsSoil and weather conditionsThe kind of crop to be planted. The time the produce is desired. CROP MANAGEMENTAdoption of best crop management practices improves crop productivity and can contribute to greater yields with improved quality. Crop management is the set of agricultural practices performed to improve the growth, development and yield of crops. It begins with a seedbed preparation, sowing of seeds and crop maintenance; and ends with crop harvest, storage and marketing. The timing and sequence of agricultural practices depend upon several factors, such as winter or spring crops; harvested products such as grain, hay and silage; sowing methods-broadcast and row-crops; and, plants age, soil, climate and weather conditions. Physical methods of weedingManual controlManual control is the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with. An advantage of manual control is that it minimizes soil disturbance, and decreases the likelihood of erosion and seed germination. Hand pullingHand pulling aims to remove the entire plant, including its roots, from the soil. This method is useful for small-scale infestations. It is best to hand-pull weeds after rain, when soil is moist. Sturdy gloves should be worn to avoid prickles, blisters or sap burns to the skin. It is not appropriate for all weed species, such as those with underground bulbs. Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds such as bulbs that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife.


Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds such as bulbs that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife. Grubbing or chippingThis method requires weeds to be dug out using a mattock or chip hoe. Depending on the plant, it may be important to expose the root system, and remove the crown. In some cases, the mattock or chip hoe is used to cut the stem of the plant below the ground. This method is useful when the ground is hard. Gloves should be worn to avoid blisters. Mechanical controlMechanical control is the use of powered tools and machinery to manage weeds and is best suited to larger infestations. Care should be taken to minimise soil disturbance. Slashing, mowing, dozing, pushing and fellingAt times, controlling weeds using mechanical methods is preferred. However, care should be taken when machinery is used in the process. Disturbing the soil with mechanical control can:increase the likelihood of seed germinationdamage native vegetation. Bulldozers and chainsaws can be used on woody and tree weeds where they are pushed or felled and finally snigged dragged away . These methods are only suitable in certain situations, as they create high levels of soil and vegetation disturbance. Also, shoots and seedlings require follow-up attention. Grading or scalping the top layer of soil is an effective method of removing a seedbank. As this method greatly disturbs the soil, it is best suited for areas that are to undergo complete rehabilitation. Earth UpEarthing up refers to the act of heaping soil around the root zone of the potato plant. It is one of the primary production practices that must be done to increase the potato yield. Advantages of earthing upimproves tuber formation expansion roots pods formationImproves drainage around the cropConserves water soilFacilitates harvesting of tuber cropsRoot protectionManaging plant spacesThinningWhen the young seedlings are too close to each other, they do not grow well. They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop. Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning.


They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop. Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning. When you take out the seedlings that are small, diseased or misshapen, be very careful not to damage the seedlings which remain in the beds. At the end, pack down the earth around the base of the plants and water them. StakingVegetables with long and weak stems, for example beans and tomatoes, need stakes. A stake is a stick firmly embedded in the earth. It is best to use hard wood, which does not rot. PruningCertain vegetables, like tomatoes, beans, eggplant, need pruning. Nip off surplus buds. Then there will be more fruits and they will be bigger. GappingWhen the seeds fail to germinate, empty spaces are seen within the rows. This if left unfilled can make the farmer incur losses as a result of low yields. The filling up of these spaces or the replacement of ungerminated seeds is called gapping. Advantages of thinning and gappingBoth thinning and gap filling ensures ideal plant population and optimum utilization of sunlight, space, nutrients, moisture and other inputs which ultimately increases yield. Crop hardeningHardening, or "hardening off," is the process of allowing a plant to transition from a protected indoor or greenhouse environment to the harsh outdoor conditions of fluctuating spring temperatures, wind, and full sun exposure. A gradual introduction of these outdoor stresses will cause the plant to accumulate carbohydrates, to trigger more root development, to reduce the amount of freeze-prone water in the plant, and to actually thicken its cell walls. Plant growth will change from soft and supple to much firmer and harder. Hardening TimetableStart the process of moving plants outdoors about two weeks before the weather will be favorable enough for the particular plant to live outdoors. Check seed package instructions or inquire where you purchase seedlings as to when the plant can tolerate outdoor conditions. Keep in mind that air temperature is often warmer than soil temperature. This Vegetable Planting and Transplanting Guide provides guidance for when some popular crops can be planted outdoors. Hardening ProcessWhen temperatures are at least 45-50 , move plants outdoors to a shady, protected spot. Initially place in the shaded, sheltered location for two to three hours.


Demand stricter laws for the protection of animals. ... Shelter an animal in need. Importance of Human treatment of animalsImproved levels of animal health and care will deliver better animal welfare, more efficient livestock production, safer animal-sourced foods and healthier, improved livelihoods. Animals that are well fed and watered, kept in clean and comfortable conditions, and that are handled well with opportunities to express important behaviours are less likely to die prematurely or show poor growth than less well cared for animals. They are more productive with more efficient use of resources such as time, labour and feed for livestock production bringing benefits including improved food security and greater income. Furthermore, avoiding stress before slaughter reduces contamination of meat with harmful bacteria and affects the quality, and value of the meat. Animal welfare is therefore also environmental protection. However, it is not only animals in stables or private households that need to be protected, but also animals in the wild. There they need above all plenty of space, clean water, fresh air, and sufficient food and shelter. General Management of PetsCharacteristics of petsDependent on Humans to Live A pet needs to be given food, water, and shelter by its owner. Being domesticated means the animal depends on its owner for all of its care. Lives in a Home A pet lives in a home. Some pets such as parakeets and hamsters live in cages. Alternatively, dogs and cats wander freely around a home and may have their own bed to sleep in. Needs a Veterinarian s Care Pets need care from a veterinarian. The type of healthcare a pet needs depends on what type of pet it is. An iguana and a beagle need completely different types of vet care! Some Pets Can Be Trained A dog can learn how to sit, stay, and heel in a course of obedience training. Parrots can be taught to talk, and some cats can be taught by humans to do tricks. Devoted to Its Owner Pets are often devoted to their owners. They can establish a trust with their owner over time. In fact, some pets want to be with their owners 24 7! Provides Companionship A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner. Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner.


Provides Companionship A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner. Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner. The dog responds by trying to get the person to a safe place. Alternatively, a pet is there strictly as a companion. Different from a Farm Animal A cow or a chicken living on a farm serves a specific purpose. A cow provides milk while a chicken lays eggs to be eaten or sold. This makes farm animals a little different than traditional pets. Can Be Common or Uncommon When you think of a pet you probably picture a dog, a cat, a bird, a fish, or a gerbil. Those are common choices for pets. Some people prefer less common or exotic pets such as snakes, iguanas, spiders, and ferrets. As long as an owner can offer appropriate care, many animals can live happily as pets. Cannot Survive in the Wild One of the main characteristics separating pets from other animals is a pet can t survive in the wild. It has been domesticated or raised under a person s care. So, releasing a pet snake into the wild doesn t mean it will know how to find food or shelter. In fact, it will likely die. Different types of pets reared in the communityA pet is a domesticated animal that lives with an individual or family. There are popular, well-known pets like dogs and catsDogsCatRodentsFishBirdsTurtlesSnakeFactors to consider when selecting a pet for rearingChoose a pet that will suit your lifestyle and surroundings. For instance:How often are you home? If you work long hours, a dog may not be a good choice of pet, as all dogs require lots of companionship. In this case, pets such as fish might be more suitable. How large is your backyard, and do you have good fencing? If you have a small backyard or poor fencing, then a dog may not be a good choice. You could consider a pet such as a cat that lives indoors with you. Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy. How much money can you afford to spend on your pet?


Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy. How much money can you afford to spend on your pet? All pets are expensive even animals that are cheap to purchase, like fish, birds and guinea pigs, can cost a lot of money when it comes to buying and setting up tanks, cages and hutches. Some dog breeds will cost more to keep than others. Large dogs need more food, some breeds of dogs need regular clipping of their coats. Are you renting? Your landlord may not let you to own a cat or a dog. You may want to consider other pets such as fish. Do you live in an apartment? Some birds, such as parrots, can be very noisy, and may attract complaints from neighbours. You may want to consider a quiet pet such as a cat, or fish. Do you have young children? Some types of pets tolerate children better than others. Are you prepared to have your pet inside with you? Dogs should not be left in the backyard all day they need to spend time inside the house with you, in order to remain happy and healthy. Does your council require cats to be confined to your property? If so, you must be prepared to have your cat live inside with you, or to buy or build cat proof fencing or a cat enclosure. How much time do you have to exercise your pet? Dogs need daily walks. Some breeds of dog are more energetic than others and may need longer or more frequent walks. How much time do you have to train your pet? Dogs, particularly puppies or young dogs, need time spent on toilet training and basic obedience training. Puppies and kittens also require lots of socialization, and regular small meals throughout the day, during the first 6 months of life. You may be better off adopting an adult dog or cat, who is already house trained and socialized. Acquiring a pet for rearingAdoption is the best choiceAdoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them.


Acquiring a pet for rearingAdoption is the best choiceAdoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them. The benefit of rehoming from a reputable animal shelter is that the animals will have been assessed both in terms of their health and behaviorallyBrokers,pet stores,neighbors,professional breeders,commercial kennels,puppy mills, and animal sheltersManagement practices in rearing of petsColostrum feedingWeaningDisbudding - Arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the bud stage is called disbudding. Ear taggingCastrationVaccination schedule for adult animalsDisinfectionQuarantineIsolation of sick animalsInsuring the animalsDisposal of carcassRecord maintenancePreparation of Animal productsDifferent animal products include:meat and meat products, poultry products meat and eggs , fish, shellfish, dairy products milk and cheese , and non-food products such as fiber wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather Factors to consider when grading eggsThe grade is determined by theinterior quality of the eggthe appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight size . Weight or VolumecleanlinessSize,ColourFactors considered in detecting defects when grading eggsblood spot,meat spot,mold,stuck yolk,addled egg andembryonic growthProcessing raw honeyThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days.


Ear taggingCastrationVaccination schedule for adult animalsDisinfectionQuarantineIsolation of sick animalsInsuring the animalsDisposal of carcassRecord maintenancePreparation of Animal productsDifferent animal products include:meat and meat products, poultry products meat and eggs , fish, shellfish, dairy products milk and cheese , and non-food products such as fiber wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather Factors to consider when grading eggsThe grade is determined by theinterior quality of the eggthe appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight size . Weight or VolumecleanlinessSize,ColourFactors considered in detecting defects when grading eggsblood spot,meat spot,mold,stuck yolk,addled egg andembryonic growthProcessing raw honeyThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:Honey Harvest1 beekeepers suite - mesh helmet and folding veil would do it, with some layers of clothes2 smoker with fuel dry branches, leaves, etc. And a lighter3 frame super - where frames with honey combs will be put for transportation4 sting resistant gloves5 hive tool - to move the frames, scrape wax, etc. Honey Extraction1 heated knife - to unseal honey cells2 uncapping fork - to unseal honey cells missed by the heated knife3 tub for wax honey4 extractor! -. Fancy cylindrical piece of equipment, used to extract honey5 food-grade bucket - to catch honey out of the extractor6 double sieve - catches wax and impurities as honey is poured from extractor7 containers - final destination of honey before consumptionThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:HarvestingLight the smoker. Use dry branches, hay or newspaper. The smoke dulls the bees' receptors, and prevents them from releasing the alarm odor, a volatile pheromone. The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies themPrepare SupersThe frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them.


The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies themPrepare SupersThe frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them. Open SesameUsing the hive tool, lift the hive lid and blow some smoke in the hive. Open lid slowly. Our bees were pretty calm, but that is not always the case! Honey Frame InspectionPull the frames out of the super and inspect the honey combs. Depending on how busy the bees were, how warm it was and if the hive didn't swarm you will know how much honey you have. ExtractionNow the best part! Take the frame of capped honey. Mount the frame above the tub for wax and honey. Use the heated knife to unseal the cells. Lean the heated knife on the edges of the frame and under 30 degree angle and move "fast" - don't linger too long, it burns the honey! Repeat for both sides of the frame. The heated knife takes off most of the caps. For the leftover ones, use the uncapping fork and gently shave off the caps. Pour Out Slowly! Place your food-grade bucket under the extractor spigot. Use a double sieve to catch the wax and impurities as the honey starts pouring out of the extractor. Prepare ContainersWash your jugs, jars or whatever containers you will put the honey in. Air dry. Extracting honey without a honey extractorFor small apiaries, harvesting honey without an extractor can be a fun and inexpensive option. We ll cover two methods that do not require an extractor: the crush and strain method, and the cut comb method. Both of these extraction methods sacrifice comb, meaning your bees will need to draw out new comb before they can produce more honey which can mean a smaller harvest the next year. This may factor into your decision about which method you use. The crush and strain method is a low-cost honey processing technique. You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives.


You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives. The honey will move more quickly in a warm room, and you may be able to get more honey if you stir the crushed combs a few times and scrape large wax flakes off of the inside of the strainer. Cut comb honey is an elegant way to package and use your harvest. There are tools available for cutting and packaging comb, but a good-quality kitchen knife does the job nicely, as well. This method works only for frames that contain wireless wax foundation or no foundation you cannot use this method with frames that use plastic foundations, and wired wax foundation will limit the sizes and shapes of combs you can cut. Choose frames that are fully capped and sealed this indicates that the honey will have the right amount of moisture to prevent spoiling. Importance of sorting and grading eggsSorted eggs bring more money to the investor than unsorted. It reduces wastage. Separates eggs into grades of quality. A bad egg can be dangerous to consume and negatively affect someone's health. Importance of processing raw honeyimproves the honey's appearance,increases its shelf-life, andkills yeast cells that can affect the taste of the honey. It can prevent fermentation. It delays crystallization. Removes impurities. STRAND FOURAGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGYoff season cropping techniquesOff season cultivation refers to the production outside of their typical cropping cycle. The main objective of off season cultivation is to produce and supply to the market during their lean period. Importance Advantages of off season croppingIt helps in the more effective and efficient use of land and farm resources. The per-unit result of off-season planting is excellent. Consumers nowadays prefer fresh veggies even when they are not in season, and off-season vegetable cultivation can meet this need. It is sometimes feasible to gain foreign exchange by exporting fresh veggies. It is a great source of preventive food that also contributes to nutritional security. It's a good choice for seed production. Technologies for off season croppingDrip irrigationCrop yields can increase through improved water and fertility management and reduced disease and weed pressure. When drip irrigation is used with polyethylene mulch, yields can increase even further.


Construction of suspended garden designRefer to learner s bookVALUE ADDITION TECHNIQUESValue-added agriculture generally focuses on production or manufacturing processes, marketing or services that increase the value of primary agricultural commodities, perhaps by increasing appeal to the consumer and the consumer's willingness to pay a premium over similar but undifferentiated products. Benefits include:increased income,employment creation,improved food safety,food security,nutritional benefits andgreater consumer confidence. There are four major ways that value is added to crops along the value chain:product transformation, e.g. frying, dryingdistribution,storage, andadded service. The value of farm products can be increased by cleaning, cooling, cooking, combining, churning, culturing, grinding, extracting, drying, handcrafting, packaging and distributing, as well as by adding information, education or entertainment,Adding value to groundnutsApart from just eating them raw or cooked, groundnuts can be used to produce oil, paste, flour or sauce used in cakes and cookies obtained by grinding nuts, and peanut butter. Adding value to PotatoesThis can be done through boiling, frying, smashing. Learners to check on how to add value on other productsImportance of addition on crop produce explained Increased revenue. Any addition adds a percentage of increased financial value to the produce and has the effect of improving the incomes of the local farmers. Value addition allows the farmer to focus on the consumer while producing and through meeting expectations, he can create a loyal market around the product. Increased shelf life is a benefit any farmer would want. The longer the product can stay without getting spoilt, the more the guarantee one has of a product selling at their preferred price and time. Milk for instance, hardly lasts over 24 hours but with boiling, it can last more days while with further processing into ghee, the same milk can last months. With value addition comes increased bargaining power. Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers. Value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborersWastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products.


Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers.value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborersWastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products. This helps to ensure zero waste and protect the environment.


GRADE 8 RATIONALIZED AGRICULTURE AND NUTRITION LESSON NOTESSTRAND 1-CONSERVING AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT1.1 -Soil Conservation Measures. Soil conservation measures refers to a combination of practices done or taken to prevent the loss of soil through soil erosion. Reasons Importance for Soil conservation. To keep top soil in its place. To maintain fertility in the soil. To maintain soil productivity. Helps to increase agricultural production promotes food security. Methods of soil conservation in agricultural environment. Strip cropping. Grassed water ways. Stone lines. Trash lines. Soil bunds. A. Strip cropping. It is the growing of crops in a way that crops that have little soil cover like maize are grown in alternating strips with those that have good ground cover such as sweet potatoes. Permanent vegetation such as grass can also be used as strips. The role of strip crop is it prevents loss of soil through surface runoff. B. Grassed water ways. Grassed waterways are natural or man-made shallow channels in which excess rain water flows. Grass and other vegetations are planted to grow in the channels. When surface run off is directed in the channels, the vegetation in the channels lower the speed of run off and also traps eroded soil. C. Stone lines. These are stones of different sizes heaped in a line along the contour to prevent loss of soil down the slope through run off. Stone lines reduce speed of run off increasing water infiltration especially in semi-arid areas. Water infiltration is the downward entry of water into the soil from the surface. Stone lines are suitable in gently slopes. D. Trash lines. Trash lines are plant materials or crop residues remains arranged along the contour in a cultivated field. Trash lines help to reduce runoff hence preventing loss of soil from land. They also increase water infiltration into the soil. Trash line should be 1 m wide and 0.5 m high. E. Soil bunds. A bund refers to a heap of compacted soil made along the contours. Grasses can be grown on top of the bunds to hold soil together firmly. Bunds help to reduce the volume of water flowing downwards in a cultivated field after rain fall. Bunds enhance water infiltration. NOTE:Most structures constructed to conserve the soil are made along the contour line. Therefore, it is very important to establish the contour lines first before construction of the structures.


Bunds enhance water infiltration. NOTE:Most structures constructed to conserve the soil are made along the contour line. Therefore, it is very important to establish the contour lines first before construction of the structures. Contour lines are established to guide the position of the soil conservation measures. Contour farming is the farming carried out across the slope rather than up and down. Therefore, contour lines run across the slope and not up and down. A farm layout is a drawn plan that shows various farm enterprises and where they are placed in the farm. A farm layout is a plan of how various farm components enterprises are arranged and set up on the farm. A farm model guides the farmer to locate various farm activities and structures for convenience. What is the importance of Farm layout? It helps in maximum utilization use of land. Farm enterprise are orderly arranged. Local available material that can be used to make a farm model in school include: Cartons. Cardboards. Soil. Papier mache. 1.2 -Water Harvesting and StorageIn rainy season, a lot of water goes in waste. This water can be harvested and stored then used for farming purposes. Methods of harvesting and storing water for farming purposes. There are various methods used to harvest and store water for farming purposes. Use of rooftops. Use of diversion channels. Directs water into water ponds and water tanks. Water ponds. Shallow water pans. Tanks. Shallow water pansGrass should be planted around the shallow water pan to:Control soil erosion. Control sedimentation. Constructing Shallow water pan. Measure desired size of the structure. -. Dig out soil to the desired length and width with depth between 1 to 3 metres. Make conveyor or small channels that directs surface runoff to the structure. Water pondConstruction of a water pond. Mark desired measurements on ground. Dig out the soil. Place a polythene liner evenly covering the sides and the base. Reinforce the liner by placing soil in the upper part around the pond. Plant grass around the pond to control erosion and sedimentation. Make channels to transfer surface runoff. Water tanks. Water tanks can be used to collect surface runoff or water from the rooftops. Ensure water flow into the tank by removing any materials such as gravel, sediments from the sieve entrance of the tank. Gutters should be fixed around the house to collect water when it rains and direct it to the tank through pipes for storage.


Water tanks can be used to collect surface runoff or water from the rooftops. Ensure water flow into the tank by removing any materials such as gravel, sediments from the sieve entrance of the tank. Gutters should be fixed around the house to collect water when it rains and direct it to the tank through pipes for storage. Underground water tank Elevated water tankFactors to consider when setting up a water harvesting and storage unit at home or at school. Location. Accessibility. Type of crop to be irrigated using water. Size of the farm. Dimension of the storage unit. The slope of the land. The cost of the work. Importance of harvesting and storing water. Harvesting and storing water helps to supplement other sources of water. It provides water during shortage and in dry seasons. Water is available through out. Reduces cost of farming. Excess water from the rain is utilized. Helps to prevent destruction of infrastructures such as buildings and roads by surface runoff. Maintenance of water harvesting and storage structures. Plant grass around the water pans and water ponds to control soil erosion and sedimentation and to stabilize the embankments. Remove foreign material in water found in water pans, ponds and tanks. Structures such as water pans and water pons should be fenced. Water tanks should be cleaned and foreign materials such as gravel, twigs, leaves sieved out during water entry. Clean the gutters to remove accumulated materials. Uses of water harvested and stored on the farm. Watering irrigating crops. Watering animals. Domestic uses such as washing, cleaning items etc. Types of water storage tanks. Water tanks can be:Plastic. Metallic. Concrete. They can also be elevated placed on top of the ground or underground. STRAND 2- FOOD PRODUCTION PROCESSES2.1 Kitchen and Backyard Gardening. Food security is an important aspect of a healthy society. To promote food security, household should embrace kitchen gardens. A kitchen garden ensures regular and ready supply of fresh vegetables, fruits and herbs. Food security exists only when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preference for healthy living. Kitchen garden is any convenient size of a plot, space or structure located in a home where a variety of crops are grown mainly for family consumption. The role of a kitchen garden in food and nutrition security. To produce safe, fresh food that is accessible to the family.


Kitchen garden is any convenient size of a plot, space or structure located in a home where a variety of crops are grown mainly for family consumption. The role of a kitchen garden in food and nutrition security. To produce safe, fresh food that is accessible to the family. It is a reliable source of green leafy vegetables, herbs, fruits, legumes and cereals for home consumption. Growing of both seasonal and off-season crops that ensures steady supply of nutritious food. Help family to meet their nutritional needs and promotes healthier lifestyles. Generates income from sale of surplus excess produce. Helps to save family income direct towards purchase of vegetables, fruits and others. Provide alternative when staple foods are not in stock. Helps to increase food production. Some form of kitchen gardening use recycled materials like plastics hence contributes to environmental conservation. Innovative technologies for kitchen garden. Increase in population and urbanization has led to limited space that can be used to establish large gardens. Innovative technologies ensure proper use of the small available space for maximum production. The main aim of innovative gardening is to maximize the small available space with proper water conservation, measures in crop production. Examples of innovative kitchen gardens include:Container. Wick. Hanging pots. Tyre. Multistore gardens. Simple drip. Organic sack garden. Most of the kitchen gardens focus on vertical gardens which keeps the crops off the ground as compared to horizontal gardening. Benefits of innovative gardens. Use locally available materials. Requires little amount of water. Easy to manage because less labour is required. Makes good use of little space. Some are portable-can be moved from one area to another. High productivity or yields. Aesthetic value around the compound. Ideal for urban areas and congested homesteads. 2.2 Poultry Rearing in a Fold. Poultry rearing is the keeping of domesticated birds such as chicken, ducks, turkeys, geese, pigeons, guinea fowls and ostriches. Poultry are kept for production of meat, eggs and other products. Poultry folds. Structural appearance of a poultry fold. A fold is a portable structure used for rearing poultry in an open piece of land where they can access sunlight, vegetation to supplement their feeds and can also exercise. Feed and water troughs are placed inside the folds. The fold can be moved from one place to another for the birds to eat fresh vegetation. Poultry folds are portable triangular shaped structures.


Feed and water troughs are placed inside the folds. The fold can be moved from one place to another for the birds to eat fresh vegetation. Poultry folds are portable triangular shaped structures. A fold has two sections, one is roofed and the other is left open but fitted wih wire mesh to secure the birds. The fold has a door fitted on one side. Materials used in the Construction of a poultry fold. Poultry folds are constructed using locally available materials. This makes it cheap and easy to construct them. Materials for constructing a poultry fold include:NOTE:Smaller folds have rollers and wheels that helps to move them from place to place. Some folds structures have wire mesh at the base to allow droppings to pass through to the ground. Fencing staples can be used instead of nails. The size of the fold depends on the number and type of poultry reared. Rearing practices of poultry in a fold. There are various practices which are carried out when rearing poultry in a fold. These rearing practices includes: Moving the fold to new sites regularly for the birds to feed on fresh vegetation. Ensure birds are provided with clean water. Ensure hygiene is maintained in the poultry fold. The fold should be strong enough to secure birds and kept in a safe place. The fold should be sheltered from the rain to avoid wetness. It should be placed in such a way that the open side is away from direct winds to avoid drought. How to rear Poultry in a fold. Sitting. Where to place your fold Ensure the fold is placed in an area: Protected from rain and direct wind. With enough security. That can be easily accessible. With enough vegetation. Stocking the folds. Place chicks into the fold carefully in the early hours of the day for them to familiarize with the environment. Place the right number of birds in the fold to avoid overcrowding which encourages diseases. Feeding. Provide enough feed depending on the stages of growth. Place feed in the feeding troughs. Move fold unit from one place to another to enable birds to eat fresh vegetation. Watering. Provide clean water in waterers. Sanitation. Maintain high standards of hygiene in the folds by cleaning the waterer, feed troughs and poultry folds. Vaccination.


How fresh fish is processed. Fresh fish need to be processed immediately after being harvested from water to prevent spoilage. Various processes are carried out to prepare fresh fish for transportation, storage and consumption. Fish is prepared after harvesting by:Scaling-removal of scales. Gutting-removal of gut or the alimentary canal. Cleaning-washing the fish with clean water. These processes usually slow down the growth of micro-organisms and keep it fresh before use. Procedure followed when processing fresh fish. Specific methods of processing fish for consumption, storage and transportation are as follows:Inspect and select fresh fish for processing. Start the process as follows. A. Scaling. Rinse fish to remove slime. Place fish on a chopping board or tray with absorbent paper. Hold fish firmly by the tail and use a fish scaling tool or back of a knife to scrape off the scales moving from the tail to head on both sides Rinse the fish in clean water to remove any loose scales. Run your fingers over the fish skin to make sure that all scales have been removed. B. Gutting. Lie the fish on its side on either a chopping board or a tray. Make a cut in the belly of the fish at the tail-end and cut through the skin to the head. Insert your fingers into the belly through the cut opening and remove internal organs by easily pulling them out. Place them on a separate plate or tray. Rinse the inside of the fish with cold water until the water becomes clear. Use a kitchen paper or towel to dry the fish. Cleaning. Clean the fish thoroughly before and after gutting. Use cold water when cleaning fish. Salting. Use the fish that have been well prepared by scaling, gutting and properly cleaned. Place the fish on a flat clean surface or tray where they will remain after salting. Sprinkle layers of salt on all the parts of the fish. Leave the fish in layers of slat for at least 2 days. Keep the salted fish in a cool dry place. Frying fish Select a clean well-prepared fish. Heat oil in a saucepan and dip the fish to cook for 4 to 5 minutes.


Keep the salted fish in a cool dry place. Frying fish Select a clean well-prepared fish. Heat oil in a saucepan and dip the fish to cook for 4 to 5 minutes. Remove the fish from the oil using a draining spoon. Place the fish on a mesh tray to drain excess oil. NOTE: Processing fish should be carried out in a hygienic environment to prevent contamination. Cold water should always be used when cleaning fish to remove all the blood. This prevents deterioration due to multiplication of bacteria. Gutting fish may sometimes include the complete removal of the gills and the fins. Salting draws water from the fish increasing its shelf life. How to dress poultry carcass. Quality of poultry products can be linked to a variety of factors such as handling at slaughter. Poultry dressing procedures should be done in a hygienic manner in order to produce products fit for human consumption. When dressing poultry carcass, some parts can be detached and packed separately. However, the whole carcass can be packed with the parts attached. Poultry thighs poultry gizzardsDressing a poultry carcass. The following practices are carried out to dress the poultry carcass. Beheading-restrain the poultry well and cut the neck muscles with a sharp knife. Defeathering-scald the bird into hot water of a temperature of 550 C for about 2 minutes to loosen the feather. Remove and pluck off loose feathers completely. Singeing-hold the defeathered bird over a flame for a few minutes to burn the hair like structures left on the skin. Washing-wash the whole bird in clean cold water to remove the surface dirt. Prepare the poultry carcass for various purposes as follows. Place the carcass on its back on a clean surface or chopping board. Remove oil gland with a knife. Remove the offals by:Make a cut above the vent but avoid cutting too deep. Press on the breast and insert fingers through the cut made on the vent. Grab the visceral and pull them out avoiding too much pressures to prevent puncturing the gall bladder. Slit the neck skin to remove the crop, trachea and Oesophagus. Place the internal organs on a separate plate. Cutting the carcass into various pieces.


Slit the neck skin to remove the crop, trachea and Oesophagus. Place the internal organs on a separate plate. Cutting the carcass into various pieces. Cut joints between thigh and the body and separate the thigh and the leg at the joint. Cut the joint between the wings and the body and then separate the wings. Cut the breast into two parts by separating the muscle in front of the keel. Cut the backbone and neck strip into 3 pieces each. Separate the gizzard, liver and the heart from the other internal organs. Cut open the wall of the gizzard lengthwise to the lining to remove hard grit and then peel out the lining. Wash these organs in cold water and then pack them. Pack all the pieces in clean storage bags as required. NOTES: High hygiene standards should be maintained when handling raw poultry meat to avoid contamination which can lead to food poisoning. Complete bleeding of carcass prevents discolouration of the meat due to formation of clots in the muscles. The clots attract micro-organisms. Care should be taken not to burst gall bladder as this makes the meat bitter. Pieces from poultry carcass are packed separately and sold at different prices. What is the importance of processing fresh fish and dressing poultry carcass? It adds value to the meat. Keeping quality of both fish and poultry products is increased hence prolonged shelf life. Packing poultry pieces separately enables selling at a higher price than the whole carcass. 2.5 Preserving Meat and Milk. Animals gives products such as milk, meat, eggs, honey, hides and skin. Some of the products easily go bad, hence they should be preserved to increase their shelflife. Methods of preserving milk and meat in the locality. Milk and meat deteriorate in quality with time. They should be well preserved to prolong their shelf-life and availability. Food preservation is the process of preventing food from spoilage. There are various methods of preserving milk and meat. Methods used in preserving milk include:Boiling. Fermentation. Methods used to preserve meat include:Sun drying. Smoking. Salting. Preservation of Milk and Meat at household level. Common methods of preserving milk are:Fermentation-Fermentation of milk produces certain acid that preserves milk. Boiling or pasteurization of milk-boiling milk kills micro-organisms by exposing them to high temperatures at the milk boiling point.


Preservation of Milk and Meat at household level. Common methods of preserving milk are:Fermentation-Fermentation of milk produces certain acid that preserves milk. Boiling or pasteurization of milk-boiling milk kills micro-organisms by exposing them to high temperatures at the milk boiling point. This method preserves fresh milk. Common methods of preserving meat are:Sun drying-it removes moisture from meat making the action of micro-organism difficult. Meat is cut into small pieces, sundried and then packaged. Smoking-meat is covered with a layer of smoke which stops action of micro-organisms. Salting-salt is applied on the surface of pieces of meat or dipped in a highly concentrated salt solution know as brine. This salt solution dehydrates removes water the micro-organisms and stops their action on meat. What is the importance of preserving milk and meat? It increases the shelf-life of both milk and meat. It makes the two products available for a longer period of time hence enhancing food security. Strand 3 -HYGIENE PRACTICES. 3.1-Cleaning the Kitchen. Methods of removing dirt from the kitchen surfaces. Food should be prepared and cooked in a clean and orderly environment. A dirty kitchen can be a breeding place for other harmful living things such as pests and flies which can lead to health hazards. There are may ways of removing dirt from kitchen surface. The methods depend on types of dirt found on the surfaces. Methods of removing dirt from kitchen surfaces. Sweeping-Done using a broom, brush and dustpan. Dusting-it is done after sweeping a room. It ensures any dust that may have been blown in the air and deposited on the surface is removed. Wiping -it is used to remove fixed dirt on the surfaces that can be damaged by scrubbing. Surfaces that are wiped include furniture, ornaments, walls and windows. Scrubbing-this is where warm soapy water is used to together with a hard scrubbing brush. Vacuum cleaning-a vacuum cleaner is used to remove loose dirt from the surfaces which is sucked into a dirt bag attached to the vacuum cleaner and it is disposed of after cleaning. Mopping-this is the removal of fixed dirt from a surface by using a mop, bucket, water and detergents. State the reasons for cleaning the Kitchen. A kitchen must be kept clean at all times. Frequency of cleaning depends on type of fuel used and amount of cooking done.


State the reasons for cleaning the Kitchen. A kitchen must be kept clean at all times. Frequency of cleaning depends on type of fuel used and amount of cooking done. Therefore, cleaning the kitchen is necessary for the following reasons:To preserve clean kitchen appearance. To prolong life of a surface, dirt can destroy the surface if allowed to accumulate. Psychological satisfaction of the user. To cut down cost of cleaningTypes of leaning for a kitchen. Daily cleaning. It is the removal of loose dirt from the kitchen surfaces on daily basis. It involves the following methods:Sweeping. Brushing. Dusting. Suction cleaning. Weekly cleaning. Involves the removal of both loose and fixed dirt. It involves:Sweeping. Dusting. Scrubbing. Wiping. Special cleaning. This is the thorough cleaning that is done occasionally when it is necessary. For example,Cleaning the chimney to remove soot,Painting the walls. Cleaning different kitchen surfaces. Strand 4- PRODUCTION TECHNIQUEStogether in position with stitches. This has to be done neatly and securely for the item to look presentable and to last long. A seam is any part of the garment or clothing article where two or more pieces of fabric are joined together using permanent stitches. Seam line is also referred to as the stitching line, construction line or fitting line. It is the line where permanent stitches are worked. Seam allowance is the distance between the seam line and the cutting line. It is usually1.5cm wide. Seam turning is the amount of fabric between the cutting line and the seam line. Types of Seams used in clothing construction. There are many types of seams used in clothing construction. The type of seam used depends on the desired outlook and stitching effects required. Open seam. Plain seam. Overlaid seam French seam. Machine fell seam double stitched Run and fell seam. Factors to consider when choosing seams in clothing construction. Type of garment-Frequent laundered garments are preferably made using a plain seam because the turnings of the plain seam are neatened together making it to remain closed during laundering. Type of fabric- heavy fabrics require seams that are not bulky to prevent the seam from becoming too thick, for example, an open seam can be used for heavy fabrics because it is not bulky. Position of the seam on the garment- some seams are more suitable for some areas of garment than others.


Type of garment-Frequent laundered garments are preferably made using a plain seam because the turnings of the plain seam are neatened together making it to remain closed during laundering. Type of fabric- heavy fabrics require seams that are not bulky to prevent the seam from becoming too thick, for example, an open seam can be used for heavy fabrics because it is not bulky. Position of the seam on the garment- some seams are more suitable for some areas of garment than others. For example, a plain seam is more suitable for the armhole seam as compared to open seam. The effect desired-when a decorative effect is required, seams such as machine fell and overlaid seams that are constructed show on the right side of fabric when used. Qualities of A well-made seam. A well-made seam should have some specific qualities as follows. Should be firmly stitched. Should be accurately stitched on the fitting line. Should be neatly stitched. Should be properly matched where two or ore seams meet. Should be of appropriate width. Should be well-pressed and flat. MAKING SEAMS. The most commonly used seams in garment construction are the open and plain seam. They lie flat when finishing pressed or ironed and can be used in most types of articles. Open Seam. An open seam is a simple seam that has been stitched and pressed open. STUDENT ACTIVITIES GUIDED BY THE TEACHERMaking an open seam. Requirements. 2 pieces of cloth 10 cm by 1o cm . A pair of scissors. Tape measure. Tailor s chalk. Hand sewing needle. Sewing thread. Pins. A table and well threaded sewing machine. Method. I. Measure 1.5 cm seam allowance from the top edge of each fabric. Mark the stitching line. Ii. Place the two pieces right side facing each other. Match the stitching lines and the raw edges. Pin the two pieces together at intervals to hold them firmly. Take along the stitching lines. Vi. Remove the pins. Machine stitch along the stitching line and remove the tackling stitches. Press the seam open on both the wrong side and the right side. Open Seams. A plain seam is a simple seam that has been stitched and pressed to one side. Plain sea, is a flat seam which is used in most clothing and articles.


Open Seams. A plain seam is a simple seam that has been stitched and pressed to one side. Plain sea, is a flat seam which is used in most clothing and articles. It is made the same way as an open seam but unlike the open seam which is neatened by opening and finishing each seam turning separately, the plain seam is neatened by stitching the edges of the seam turnings together. Making a plain seam. Requirements. 2 pieces of cloth 1ocm by 10cm A pair of scissors. Tailor s chalk. A tape measure. Hand sewing needle. Thimble. Sewing thread. Pins. A table. A well threaded sewing machine. Method. Measure 1.5 cm seam allowance from the top edge of each fabric. Mark the seam line. Place the two pieces of fabric right sides facing. Match the fitting lines and the raw edges. Pin the two pieces of fabric together at intervals along the seam line to hold them firmly. Tack on the seam line and remove the pins. Remove the tacking stitches. Press the seam flat on the wrong side. 4.1 Innovative Waterer Project. Water is an essential requirement in animals just like in plants. Animals should drink clean and adequate water every day. Providing enough and clean water is a challenge for human beings and animals. Therefore, innovative economical ways of using available water to take care of domestic animals. Types of animal waterer used by the community. Domestic animals are provided water in containers called waterers. Different domestic animals use different types of waterers. Some waterers are left open for the animals to drink water directly while others are automatic. The types of waterer used for watering animals in the community depends on the type of domestic animals kept. Large animals such as cattle, camel. Donkeys, sheep, goat and pigs use open containers and troughs constructed as part of their houses. Small animals such as rabbits and poultry use small containers cutout from jerrycans and hanged on the walls of their cages. Challenges of the existing animal waterers used by domestic animals in the community. Use of poorly constructed waterers-leads to inadequate water intake by the animals. Lack of skills in handling the waters. Poor placement of the waters. Poor usage by the animals leading to spillage and contamination of water. Provision of water to animals is a tiresome process discouraging community members from keeping domestic animals. Provision of less spacious waterers for large number of animals.


Poor usage by the animals leading to spillage and contamination of water. Provision of water to animals is a tiresome process discouraging community members from keeping domestic animals. Provision of less spacious waterers for large number of animals. Uses of innovative waterers. An innovative waterer is an equipment that is designed to improve the ease and efficiency at which drinking water is provided to an animal. It can be used to solve challenges of the existing waterer in the community. The type of innovative waterer depends on the farmers preference and the skill to use the waterer. The community household can be assisted to innovate and construct better waterer for their animals. Waterer should be made with materials that are durable, easily available and affordable. Containers for any type of chemical should nor be used for waterers, unless they are cleaned thoroughly with detergent before use. Innovative techniques for watering small domestic animals. An innovation means an idea generated in the mind and then created into reality. We can improve the existing waterer in the community to solve the challenges of watering animals or create new better waterer. Different groups can create their own innovations and select the innovation that has less cost. Requirements for functionality of Waterers. Should be workable. Should be easy to use. Should be easy to clean. Should have efficient overflow control system to prevent spillage. Should have a mechanism of adding water easily to avoid time wasting. Should be heavy enough to prevent animals from toppling it off the ground. Provision of Water to animals using the innovative waterer constructed. If waterer are placed at a higher point ,water remain clean for a long time. Waterer contaminated with feeds should be changed immediately. Accidental water spillage increases humid conditions in animals houses and should be controlled. Importance of using innovative waterer in animal rearing. Innovative waterer are made with locally available materials to suit needs of the farmer and of particular animals. They are economical and affordable. They are easy to operate and maintain. 4.3- ICT In Agricultural Support Services. ICT stands for Information Communication and Technology. ICT had become an important tool in agriculture when carrying out agricultural practices. ICT devices such radio, televisions, phones, computer softwares are used together with other applications to improve agricultural activities by accessing important information. Agricultural support services. Farmers need agricultural services which supports farming operations. The services can be obtained from ICT.


Agricultural support services. Farmers need agricultural services which supports farming operations. The services can be obtained from ICT. Examples of agricultural support services that farmers can obtain from field officers, print media through the use of ICT devices include:Weather forecasting-information on weather to help farmers make decisions related crop growth, irrigation, time of fertilizer application, pest and diseases control etc. Input supply ICT devices provide input and information on seeds, pesticides, soil testing, crop spraying, fertilisers and herbicides. Extension services use of radios, televisions, mobile phones and videos can help farmers access useful agricultural information instead of having to visit or visited by an extension officer. Market information farmers use ICT tools to access information on demand, supply and pricing of various agricultural commodities. ICT helps farmers to reach out to potential buyers who offer higher prices for their products. Banking services farmers can use ICT tools to compare various services offered by different financial institutions to make an informed decision on which to adopt. Accessing Agricultural support services using ICT. Agricultural support services can be accessed using available ICT search engines. ICT tools such as radios, television, computers, mobile phones, data projectors, software programs, printers and scanners can be used to get agricultural support services. The internet plays a greater role in enabling farmers access such information. Ethical and Security considerations in use of ICT platforms. ICT platforms should be used with precautions and responsibly. This ensures privacy personal data and information about companies involved. It also ensures ICT data is not erased or interfered with. When using ICT platforms, only concentrate on the target information to enhance efficiency in agricultural practices. The following are some of the ethical issues in ICT:Personal privacy. Refers to protection of personal data that is linked to other information about an individual causing emotional distress and harm such as physical, financial and professional to such an individual. Access right. Refers to permission granted to a user to perform a particular operation on a computer. Access rights restricts the user to specific operations only. Harmful actions. These are actions that can lead to loss of information, property and ownership. These damages cause security concerns to the user from the public. Copyright issues. Refers to legal rights given to investor for a fixed number of years to print, publish, perform, film or record literacy, artistic, or musical material. It allows inventors only to reproduce such work. Piracy. Refers to using unlicensed copies of software for operations by producing more copies than is licensed for.


It allows inventors only to reproduce such work. Piracy. Refers to using unlicensed copies of software for operations by producing more copies than is licensed for. Security Threats to ICT.Computer viruses-are malicious programs that interferes with normal functioning of the computer by causing damage to data softwares. Unauthorised access-gaining access without permission to a network, computer system, an application, data or other resources. Data loss-refers to intentional or unintentional destruction of information caused by a person or a process from within or outside the organization. Cyber-crime-refers to criminal activities carried out by means of computer or the internet. Examples include compromised IoT devices, stolen credit card information, hacking into government website, theft of user accounts etc.


GRADE 8 PRE- TECHNICAL STUDIES RATIONALIZED LESSON NOTESSTRAND 1: FOUNDATION OF PRETECHNICAL STUDIES1.1 FIRE AND DATA SAFETYImportance of safety in a work environment. Reduces financial losses needed to repair damaged property. Increases business rating because of customer and worker satisfaction. Reduces job losses that comes from permanent injuries. Reduces financial losses needed for medical expenses. Reduces damage to property because of lower number of accidents at workplaces. Reduces cases of injury because of lower number of accidents at workplaces. It improves productivity. Causes of fire in a work environment. Some of the possible causes of fire outbreak in the work environment include:Faulty equipment such as extension cables in places such as kitchens, offices, workshop or warehouses. Fires when performing tasks such as welding, flame cutting or grinding. This work generates heat, sparks or flames to cause fire. Improper storage of flammable and combustible materials such as flammable liquids or charcoal in workplace. Human errors such as using equipment such as electric cooker incorrectly, not reporting faulty machinery as well as leaving cooking food unattended may lead to fire accidents. Injuries caused by fire at work places. Injuries caused by fire occurs when you get in contact with open fire or burning objects. Some of the injuries caused by fire in a work environment include:Burns-where fire raises temperature of the skin and tissues causing the tissues and cells to die. Smoke chocking- where the victim suffers obstructed breathing, seizures and comas. Chemical poisoning from inhaling poisonous fumes such as carbon monoxide. Shock where a victim develops abnormal heart rhythm and becomes unconscious. Prevention of fire outbreaks in a work environment. Ways of preventing fire outbreak in the environment include:Providing enough safety and security at work premises. Keeping a work environment clean and orderly. Being cautious when performing activities using open fire. Having all equipment well services and maintained. Allowing for easy access to electrical switches and fire alarm equipment. Storing and handling flammable materials and liquids with care. Types of fire injuries and their first aid requirements. Different types of fire injuries require different First aid approaches. The first aid for different fire injuries are as follows:Performing First Aid for fire burns. Assess find out the situation to ascertain your own safety. Immediately get the person away from the heat sources to stop the burning.


The first aid for different fire injuries are as follows:Performing First Aid for fire burns. Assess find out the situation to ascertain your own safety. Immediately get the person away from the heat sources to stop the burning. Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm running water for 20 minutes. Remove any clothing or jewellery that is near the burnt area of the skin. Do not move anything stuck to the skin. Make sure the person keeps warm using a warm cover such as blanket, but take care not to rub it against the burnt area. Cover the burn by placing a layer of cling film over it. If the injury is on the face, sit up as much as possible, rather than lying down. This helps to reduce swelling. Performing First Aid for smoke choking. Remove casuality from smoke or toxic exposure to a safe and more ventilated open space. Sit casuality upright and loosen clothing around the neck and airways. If the casuality has breathing difficulties, call for assistance to take him or her to the hospital. Performing First Aid for smoke poisoning. Move the casuality or victim to a safer place with fresh air if you can. Sit the person or lay them down on their side, not their back. If the victim has breathing difficulties, get emergency help to take him or her to hospital. Performing First Aid for shock. Lay the person down, and if possible, elevate their feet about 30cm unless the head, neck or back is injured or you suspect broken hip or leg bones. Do not raise the person s head or turn the person on the side if they are vomiting or bleeding from the mouth. Keep the person warm and comfortable. If the victim has breathing difficulties, get emergency help o take him or her to the hospitalFire fighting methods at work environment. There are four fire fighting methods applicable in a work environment. These are:Cooling method. This is where the temperature of the burning materials is reduced to slow down the burning. A suitable example is where cold water is used to put out a fire. Smothering method. This is where the supply of oxygen to the burning object is cut out to slow down the burning process. An example is covering a burning object with a fire blanket or sand. Starving method. This method involves the following activities:Removing combustible items from the vicinity of the fire. Removing the parts of the burning material from the mass of burning material.


1.2 -Computer Hardware. Computer hardware are the physical parts of the computer that are tangible. The physical parts of the computer make up the computer hardware. Computer hardware is made up the following categories of:Central processing unit. Input devices that are also subcategorized into keying, pointing, scanning, voice input, touch screen, digitizer, digital cameras. Output devices subcategorized into softcopy output devices and hardcopy output devices. Storage devices subcategorized into fixed and removable devicesCategories of the computer hardware. The computer hardware is grouped into the following categories:Input devices. Output devices. Storage devices. Central processing unit. CPU They include; mouse, keyboard, touchpad, joystick, scanner, camera, microphone and stylus. CPU-it processes the data entered into the computer according to the instruction given by the computer user. It is the brain of the computer and it is also called the processor. It is made up of Arithmetic Logic Unit. ALU , Control Unit and the registers. It retrieves and executes instructions by coordinating and processing all the functions of a computer. Output device-they are used to give out information from the computer. Examples of output devices include monitor, speakers, plotter, headphones, projectors and printer. Storage devices-they are used to store data and information. They save data, information, computer softwares and running operations. Examples of storage devices include hard disk, memory card, flash disk and external hard disks. Selecting Appropriate Hardware for different situations. Different computer hardware components are used in different situations depending on the tasks to be performed. Examples. For a taxi driver to communicate with his client he as to use a phone. To accurately capture item prices in a super market a scanner is used. During presentations a speaker and projector are required alongside a computer. Input devicesA computer works faster after receiving data. The data is entered in the computer system using input devices. Therefore, the work of input devices is to enable a computer user to enter data that needs to be processed and the instructions on how to process it. Categories of Input device. Input devices are categorized according to how they are used to enter data into the computer. They are hardware components that help in providing data and instructions to a digital device. The categories are as follow:Pointing input devices- they control a pointer or cursor on the screen. They include mouse, touchpads, joystick, light pen, mice and trackballs.


They are hardware components that help in providing data and instructions to a digital device. The categories are as follow:Pointing input devices- they control a pointer or cursor on the screen. They include mouse, touchpads, joystick, light pen, mice and trackballs. Keying input devices- they help in entering data by pressing the keys on them. They include keyboard, keypads, and television remotes. Scanning input device- they capture data directly from the source and convert it into a form a computer can understand. They include barcode readers, optical character readers, optical mask readers, magnetic stripe reader and magnetic ink character readers. Voice input devices-they enter data and instructions into a computer in form of speech. The microphone is an example of a voice input device. Touch screen input devices -they enter data into a device by touching the screens that have electronic keyboards such as touch screen keypads. Digitizers they are also called graphic tables or drawing tablets. They convert analog touch input into digital signals that the device s processor can understand. This allows users to interact with the device through touch, tapping, swiping and pinching. They are devices that allows you to input drawings, sketches and handwritten notes into a computer. They consist of a flat surface and a stylus or pen-like instrument that you use to draw or write on the surface. Others Input devices categoriesGaming controller-they are used when playing computer games. Example includes joystick and steering wheel. Visual and imaging devices-They include digital camera, image scanner and video recorders. Appropriate input devices for different situations. Factors to consider when selecting input devices. User needs-the device should meet the need of the user. Type of data to be input. Available space for the input devices. Volume of the data to be input. Accuracy of the input devices. Cost of the input devices-the device shot be affordable. Compatibility-it is the ability of the input devices to work with the existing computer hardware. The device should be able to work together with other available devices in the computer. Reusing Input devices to minimize wastage. Input devices that are in good condition can be reused to minimize waste. Computers keyboards can be used to make: book covers, pencil holders, key holders, rings and fridge notes. A computer mouse can be used to make toys, soap dishes, toothbrush holders and Christmas tree decorations. Obsolete and dysfunctional input devices can be sent to recycling facility where they will be recycled to make new products. Output Devices.


A computer mouse can be used to make toys, soap dishes, toothbrush holders and Christmas tree decorations. Obsolete and dysfunctional input devices can be sent to recycling facility where they will be recycled to make new products. Output Devices. Processed data can be given out in form of audio, text, pictures, graphics or videos. Output devices are used to give out information from the computer. Output devices of a computer. Output devices are peripheral devices that give out information from a computer to the user. Examples of output devices are: monitors, printers, actuators, plotters, speakers, earphones and projectors. Functions of Output devices. MonitorIt displays data in text and graphics. Speakers. Gives information in form of sound or audio. Headphones earphones. Produce audio information. Printers. Produce text or picture on paper. Projectors. Gives visual information by projecting it on a flat smooth like wall or a white board. Plotters. Produces digital created graphics and drawings. A plotter uses a pen to draw lines on paper. Actuators. A part of a device or machine that helps to create physical movement using signals from a computer. Braille embosser. A device that presses dots onto paper for people with visual impairment to read using their fingers. Categories of Computer Output devicesSoftcopy output devices. They give intangible output in form of text, audios and videos. These devices include; monitors, speakers and projectors. Hardcopy output devices. They give tangible output that is in form of printed text or graphics. Examples of hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters. Advantages and disadvantages of Softcopy and Hardcopy output. Advantages of hardcopy Disadvantages of hardcopyIt is considered permanent data as editing It is expensive to produce as it requires and changing is not easy. Paper, ink and printer. It does not need electricity, special devices It is not easy to move from one place to or software to display show another. When properly stored it is not easily lost It requires a lot of physical storage space. It is not subjected to data stealing and cyber It can be stolen or destroyed through wearattacks and tear or be subjected to factors such asfire and water. Advantages of softcopy Disadvantages of softcopyIt is easy to move from one place to It is vulnerable to cyber and data stealing. Another.