1. Studg pictures A, B ond C betow.xxxxxxxxoF rcltlAxxxxxxxxHu0 .0 .20t 72. Ldentifg the ospects of Sociol Studies shown in the pictures obove.3. Shore gour findings in closs. F KeM pexfim sSociol Studies is o eorning oreq thot includes Historg, Geogrophg ond Citizenship. Picture A is Congo River showing on ospect of Geogrophg. Picture B ore BerberVitloges in Morocco, showing on ospect of Historg. Picture C is onidentitg cord showing on qspect of Citizenship.1Coreer ond EntrepreneuriolOpportunities in Sociot StudiesThe studg of Sociol Studies provides us with coreers ond entrepreneurio opportunities indifferent fields. Cqreers ore occupotions undertqken for o significont period of o person's ife ond with opportunities for progress in ife. For exomple,teoching ond engineering orecoreers. Entrepreneurship is the octivitg of setting up o business or toking on finonciolrisks with the hope of moking o profit. L. Studg the foltowing pictures.ldentifg the coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunities shown in the picturesShore gour findings in ctoss.1. Reod whot Corot ond John ore soqing obout the importqnce of Sociol Studies. Corol2.3.2' Socio Studies enobles us to solve present problemsond in certoin cqses, predict whot might hoppen infuture.'. Sociol Studies inspires potriotism ond notionotismomong citizens.lt enobtes people to oppreciote ondtoke pride in their notionol heritoge.'. Sociol Studies provides the eqrner with on openingto o we l-poging coreer in teoching, ow, business ondodministrotion.lmportonce of Sociol Studies for Personol Developmentond Service to Humonitg. Sociq Studies helps us to understond our noturotlenvironments such os ond, oir, woter ond climqte.. Socio Studies hetps us to oppreciote the eorth osthe homelond of humon kind..


Reod whot Corot ond John ore soqing obout the importqnce of Sociol Studies. Corol2.3.2' Socio Studies enobles us to solve present problemsond in certoin cqses, predict whot might hoppen infuture.'. Sociol Studies inspires potriotism ond notionotismomong citizens.lt enobtes people to oppreciote ondtoke pride in their notionol heritoge.'. Sociol Studies provides the eqrner with on openingto o we l-poging coreer in teoching, ow, business ondodministrotion.lmportonce of Sociol Studies for Personol Developmentond Service to Humonitg. Sociq Studies helps us to understond our noturotlenvironments such os ond, oir, woter ond climqte.. Socio Studies hetps us to oppreciote the eorth osthe homelond of humon kind.. lt helps us to understond our cutture.. Sociolstudies helps us to enhonce teodership skitls. John2. Using digitot devices or other resources, find out wogs in which Sociol Studies isimportont for personol development ond service to humonitg.3. Broinstorm on the importonce of Sociol Studies for personol devetopment ondservice to humonitg.4. Shore gour findings in closs.1. Grode 7 eorners ofTownship Junior Secondorg were osked to reseorch on theimportonce of Sociol Studies for: o personot development.


Broinstorm on the importonce of Sociol Studies for personol devetopment ondservice to humonitg.4. Shore gour findings in closs.1. Grode 7 eorners ofTownship Junior Secondorg were osked to reseorch on theimportonce of Sociol Studies for: o personot development. B service to humonitg. The tobte betow shows some of the points theg were qbte to find out:lmportonce of Sociol Studies forpersonoI developmentlmportonce of Sociol Studies forservice to humonitgaHelps one to understond the reolwortd oround us. Helps us to utitise the ovoilobleresources to serve humonitg. Helps us to become good citizens. Hetps us to oppreciote ond retotewetlwith other people.aHetps us to know the current offoirs.aaaaaaaaaaaComptete the toble bg finding out other wogs in which Socio Studies is importontfor personol development ond service to humonitg.ln which wogs do gou think the studg of Sociot Studies con help gou in: o persono development. B service to humonitg.3Coreer Opportunities Retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengoond GtobotlgUsing print or digitot resources,find out coreers in SociotStudies in Kengo ond globottg. Write down the coreers thot gou find out. Shore gour findings in closs.t 2.3.1.Studg the diogrom below on different coreer options reloted to Sociol Studies.2. Using the diogrom, cotegorise the coreer options into Historg, Geogrophg ondCitizenship. The first one hos been done for gou. GeogrophgHistorgCitizenshipLqnd economicsArchoeologgPubtic qdministrotion2. Discuss the professions gou would be interested in from the ones listed in the tobte.3. Hotd on open forum discussion on coreer choices in Sociot Studies.4.


Using the diogrom, cotegorise the coreer options into Historg, Geogrophg ondCitizenship. The first one hos been done for gou. GeogrophgHistorgCitizenshipLqnd economicsArchoeologgPubtic qdministrotion2. Discuss the professions gou would be interested in from the ones listed in the tobte.3. Hotd on open forum discussion on coreer choices in Sociot Studies.4. Moke summorg points on the sgmposio.4SOCIAL STUDIES-Ff KeM pes xtwSome of the coreers in Sociot Studies inctude working os o museum curotor, lond economist,towger, climototogist, urbon plonner, orchoeotogist, ecotogist, pilots, omong others. D 2- ldentifg the business octivities shown in the pictures o to d .3. Using digitotdevices,print medio or other resources,find out other entrepreneuriolopportunities for Sociql Studies in our societg4. Shore your findings in ctoss. KeS pointsSome of the entrepreneurio opportunities for Sociot Studies in our societg inctudepotterg, bosketrg, ecotourism, horticulture, ogroforestrg ond fishing omong others.5LEntrepreneurio Opportunities for Sociol Studies in theSocietg1. Studg the pictures.tk L. Reod oloud the messoges on the poster. RanchingFishingDairy farmingHorticultureoke o Poster on entrePreneuopportunies reloted totes tn oursocietg.3. Displog the posters ot q strqtegic ptoce in school. A is o cqreful pton or method of deoting with on issue. Is the stoteof being mote or femole in retotion to sociol ond culturol roles. Orefixed generol ideos or imoges thot ossume thot o person behoves in o porticulor wog. Stereotgpes limit ospirotions qnd devetopment of tolents. Theg creote gender differences. These differences ought to be oddressed using oppropriote strotegies.6Activitgpoirs1.


Displog the posters ot q strqtegic ptoce in school. A is o cqreful pton or method of deoting with on issue. Is the stoteof being mote or femole in retotion to sociol ond culturol roles. Orefixed generol ideos or imoges thot ossume thot o person behoves in o porticulor wog. Stereotgpes limit ospirotions qnd devetopment of tolents. Theg creote gender differences. These differences ought to be oddressed using oppropriote strotegies.6Activitgpoirs1. Studg the pictures below.iai!I2. Whot cqn Uou see in the pictures?3. Discuss how gender stereotgpes ore being oddressed in pictures o to d . Givereosons for gour onswers.d Ke P m sWe con oddress gender stereotupes in coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunitiesretoted to Sociq Studies through the fottowing strotegies:i Committing ond encouroging both moles ond femotes to toke o futl ronge ofcoreers ond business opportunities.ii Ensuring representotion of both genders in eodership.,,,. R Treoting both moles ond femoles equollg bg using texts ond curricutor thot doesnot promote gender bios.,. Ir Devetop poticies, lows ond decision moking processes thot represent both motesond femotes.7 r b ,c till lj; fGrode 7 eorners developed the fottowing rules thot discouroge gender stereotgpesin cqreer choices. Reod them oloud.2.Discuss ond moke rutes for gour grode to discourqge gender stereotgpes. Biologicot Differences Devoid of Stereotgpes in CoreerChoices ond Entrepreneuriol Opportunities in SociotStudiesThere ore biologicol differences between mole ond femqle people. For exomple, moleshove big muscles, hove brooder cheSts ond grow more hoir.


Givereosons for gour onswers.d Ke P m sWe con oddress gender stereotupes in coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunitiesretoted to Sociq Studies through the fottowing strotegies:i Committing ond encouroging both moles ond femotes to toke o futl ronge ofcoreers ond business opportunities.ii Ensuring representotion of both genders in eodership.,,,. R Treoting both moles ond femoles equollg bg using texts ond curricutor thot doesnot promote gender bios.,. Ir Devetop poticies, lows ond decision moking processes thot represent both motesond femotes.7 r b ,c till lj; fGrode 7 eorners developed the fottowing rules thot discouroge gender stereotgpesin cqreer choices. Reod them oloud.2.Discuss ond moke rutes for gour grode to discourqge gender stereotgpes. Biologicot Differences Devoid of Stereotgpes in CoreerChoices ond Entrepreneuriol Opportunities in SociotStudiesThere ore biologicol differences between mole ond femqle people. For exomple, moleshove big muscles, hove brooder cheSts ond grow more hoir. Femoles on the other hondhove ess developed muscles ond less hoir growth on their bodies. Using print or digitol resources, find out the biotogico difference between mqle ondfemole ond comptete the toble below. Femotes.,. We wit respect and listen to both bogs and girts in their coreer choices'.,. We shott protect the dignitg oJ evergone when theg choose o careerond entrepreneurlo opportunitg oJ their cholce',,, Weshat encour age each.other to toke up atttgpes oJ careers regardtessof one's gender.". We shatl not shout ot, insutt or shut down ongone when ctassmatesexpress interest in certain careers or buslnesses oJ their choice. We shatt shore new ideas thot dlscouroge gender stereotupes n careerond business cholces. Our Grode Seven Rutes81.:Moles1. Look qt the picture to gour right.2.


Femoles on the other hondhove ess developed muscles ond less hoir growth on their bodies. Using print or digitol resources, find out the biotogico difference between mqle ondfemole ond comptete the toble below. Femotes.,. We wit respect and listen to both bogs and girts in their coreer choices'.,. We shott protect the dignitg oJ evergone when theg choose o careerond entrepreneurlo opportunitg oJ their cholce',,, Weshat encour age each.other to toke up atttgpes oJ careers regardtessof one's gender.". We shatl not shout ot, insutt or shut down ongone when ctassmatesexpress interest in certain careers or buslnesses oJ their choice. We shatt shore new ideas thot dlscouroge gender stereotupes n careerond business cholces. Our Grode Seven Rutes81.:Moles1. Look qt the picture to gour right.2. Use the picture to exptoin whg gouthink gender stereotgpes ctre notgood for our societg.1. Reod whqt Engineer Jone qnd Chef John ore soging obout coreer choices andentrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociot Studies. Mg nome is Engineer Jone. I om qpetroleum engineer. I design onddevelop methods of extrocting oilond gos. Being s womon does notprevent development of mU cqreer osqn engineer.l love mg job. Mg nome is Chef John. I om q chef. I prepore o tgpes of foods, be itloco or exotic. I otso troin peoptein cotering services.


Being s womon does notprevent development of mU cqreer osqn engineer.l love mg job. Mg nome is Chef John. I om q chef. I prepore o tgpes of foods, be itloco or exotic. I otso troin peoptein cotering services. Being o mondoes not offect mU coreer os o chef. I love mg job.2.Discuss other wogs of recognising biologicol differences devoid of stereotgpes incqreer choices cnd entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studies. Shore gour ideos in ctoss.3.t 9.j rgl ' Keg pointsBiotogicol differences should never be o hindronce to one's coreer choice ond entrepreneuriol'opportunitie S;Aoth mcte qnd ffiglqiltpitd be given equolopportunities to pursue their:dresms. Demonstroting Respect for One's Gender ldentitg in Pursuitof Sociot Studies Coreers ond Entrepreneuriot OpportunitiesGender identitg is the personolsense of one's own gender. People mog express themselvesdepending on the gender identitg ossigned to them. Gender identitg is different from sex. For most peopte, gender identitg otigns with the gender on individuol wos ossigned ot birch.1. Reqd the messoges on the posters thot the teorners ore hotdingMy brothercolledPeter. He is o chief. Pefer loves his joband is respected byeveryone in thecommunity. Besides his job, heis also a husbandand a fother.2. Creote posters on respect for one's gender identitg in pursuitSociol Studiescoreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.3.


Reqd the messoges on the posters thot the teorners ore hotdingMy brothercolledPeter. He is o chief. Pefer loves his joband is respected byeveryone in thecommunity. Besides his job, heis also a husbandand a fother.2. Creote posters on respect for one's gender identitg in pursuitSociol Studiescoreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.3. Disptog the posters in closs ond oppreciqte eoch other's work. Keg BointsWe shoutd never discriminote ogoinst ongone becouse of gender. We con demonstroteresPect for one's gender identitg in pursuit of Sociol Studies coreers ond entrepreneuriolopportunities through the foltowing wous: o treoting eoch other with respect regordtess of gender ond choice of coreers orentrepreneuriol opportu n ities; b complementing the ochievements of others in their cqreers ond entrepreneurio opportunities; c being gender responsive bg toking octions to correct gender bios ond discriminqtion. D ensuring thot no one is mistreoted, morginolised or discriminoted ogoinst becouseof their gender.10.as,rf ScIA',,, it, :.i: ,,,,; refers to the strength of relotionships ond the sense of sotidoritgqmong members of o communitg lt is the extent of connectedness ond solidoritg omonggroups in societg. Sociol Studies ptogs o verg importont rote in promotion of sociotcohesion in our societg.1. Studg the fotlowing diogrom showing wogs in which Sociot Studies promotessociol cohesion. Role of Sociol Studies in Promoting Sociol CohesionPreservationof social andRespect forhumanrightsResolvingconflictspeacefully2. Discuss the messoges on the diogrom on how SociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion.3.


Sociol Studies ptogs o verg importont rote in promotion of sociotcohesion in our societg.1. Studg the fotlowing diogrom showing wogs in which Sociot Studies promotessociol cohesion. Role of Sociol Studies in Promoting Sociol CohesionPreservationof social andRespect forhumanrightsResolvingconflictspeacefully2. Discuss the messoges on the diogrom on how SociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion.3. Moke o closs presentotion. A KeU poin sSociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion in the foltowing woUS; o it enobles eorners to ocquire positive interpersonqt retotions thot enoble them toretote we with eqch other; b it enobles the leorners to develop o sense of belonging with communities, cutturo groups ond neighbours which promote unitg ond sotidority; . It enobles leorners to respect ond oppreciote humqn rights thus enhoncing socio cohesion.11Preservationof humanrightsof theEnhancespatriotismculturalidenti r. :, I : I.r1. Discuss with gour porents or guordions coreers ond entrepreneuriot qctivitiesthot people in gour communitg engoge in.2. List the coreers ond entrepreneuriol octivities in gour exercise book.3. Shore gour work with the rest of the closs. Sociol Studies mokes us owcre ond hetps to creote concern for the welfqre of others. We sre olso oble to protect ond conserve our environment thus promoting potriotism. Using the dictionorg, find out the meoning of the fotlowing words ond phroses: o Coreer b Socio cohesion c EntrepreneurioI opportunitg d Gender stereotgpes " Personoldevetopmentew wogn12s1. Exptoin the meoning of Sociol Studies.2. Ln which wogs does Sociol Studies help in: o personol devetopment, b service to humonitg3. Ldentify coreer opportunities retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengo ond globottg.4.


Exptoin the meoning of Sociol Studies.2.ln which wogs does Sociol Studies help in: o personol devetopment, b service to humonitg3.ldentify coreer opportunities retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengo ond globottg.4.Discuss the entrepreneuriol opportunities qvoiloble for Sociol Studies leonners inKengo.5.Hightight strotegies thot con be used to oddress gender stereotgpes ossocioredwith coreer choices ond entrepreneurio opportunities in Socio Studies.6.Discuss how one con recognise biologicql differences devoid of stereotgpes inchoosing coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studies.7.Exploin wogs in which one con show respect for on individuot's gender identitg inpursuit of Sociol Studies coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.8.ln which wogs does the studg of Sociol Studies promote sociol cohesion in thesocietg?9.How do coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities from Sociol Studies serve setfond humonitg?10.How con we demonstrote respect for one's gender identitg in pursuit of coreersond entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studiesl11.How con we qddress gender stereotgpes qssocioted with coreer choices ondentrepreneuriol opportunities in Socio Studies?


RATIONALIZED PRE-TECHNICAL STUDIES GRADE 7 NOTES Strand 1: FOUNDATION OF PRE-TECHNICAL STUDIES. 1.1-Introduction to Pre-technical studies Pre-technical studies is a series of learning areas written to provide practical experiences that support the acquisition of skills in technical areas derived from computer science and business studies. Components of Pre-technical studies. Pre-technical studies is a technical learning area comprising of: Pre-technical studies a learning area that involves acquiring practical skills and experience in technical area. Computer science the study of computers and how computer technology can be used to solve problems. Business study-involves study of activities that involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services aimed at making profits. The role of Pre-technical studies in day today life. It gives learners the skills they need to think critically and solve problems as well as preparing them for a technical digital future. Facilitates development of appropriate skills and knowledge gained from the learning areas such as computer science and business studies. Offers a wide range of careers in Pre-technical area such as in safety and material handling, in computer science such as programmers, software engineering and in business studies such as accountant, traders, manager, bankers and shopkeeper. Pre-technical studies promotes independence and self-learning through various skills enhancing chances of creating employment opportunities and self-employment in individual. It equips learners with skills to use when observing personal safety and safety in working environment. What is safety? Safety is a situation where one avoids causing harm, discomfort or sickness to self and to others when carrying out the daily activities. Examples of safety measures include: Wearing face mask to prevent spreading of airborne diseases or breathing in dirty air. Buckling a safety belt while in a vehicle to avoid falling off the seat in case of emergency brakes. Wearing hand gloves when working to avoid injury and dirt to the hands when working. Wearing gum boots to protect the feet from injury when working in areas with mud or sharp objects. Wearing an overall to guard against soiling clothes. Potential safety threats in a work environment. Potential safety threats in work environment can either be physical or online. Physical threats at workplaces. Physical safety threats include: Sharp edged tools and objects that can easily cut or poke someone.


Potential safety threats in a work environment. Potential safety threats in work environment can either be physical or online. Physical threats at workplaces. Physical safety threats include: Sharp edged tools and objects that can easily cut or poke someone. Disarranged rooms where one can easily tumble and fall. Naked electric wires that can easily cause electric shock. Poorly lit rooms where one can easily know oneself against objects. Poorly stored items on the shelves where they can easily fall off and hit someone. Working without protective gear where one can easily be hurt or injured. Rooms with wet slippery floors where one can easily slip and fall. Online threats at a workplace. Every online user should ensure they stay safe online by protecting themselves and others from online threats. Examples of online threats at work place include: Malware virus attack. Hacking. Data theft. Cyberbullying. Friend requests from unknown people. Phishing attacks. Ransomware-attempts to encrypt data and calling for ransom to release it or unlock code 1.2 - Safety in the work environment. Online safety rules and regulations in the work environment. Online safety is keeping safe from possible threats that a computer user may experience while engaging in activities through the internet. It includes: Protecting and managing personal information. Avoiding harmful or illegal content. To avoid online fraud, always buy online items from secure and trusted sites. Also, watch out for scams that come in form of messages and emails. Do not accept friend requests from strangers. Some strangers are hackers who might access your personal information and even take over your accounts. Phishing is an online fraud system used to steal private data such as login usernames and passwords. Use strong passwords that cannot be crashed easily in case your password is compromised. Consider changing it right away. Always back up your data and keep your computer security updated. Physical threats to digital devices. Physical threats to a computer include: Fluids such as water, milk and juice that can damage different parts of the devices. Theft.


Physical threats to digital devices. Physical threats to a computer include: Fluids such as water, milk and juice that can damage different parts of the devices. Theft. Damage caused by natural disasters, fire and impact of falls. Corrosion caused by excessive humidity and dampness. Exposed cables in the computer room. Hardware failure Ways of mitigating reducing physical threats to digital devices. To prevent physical threats, the following should be done. Do not carry water into the computer room or near the computer. Do not use old and loose power extension cables in a computer room. They produce sparks that can cause fire in the computer room. Replace loose power extension cables because they may lead to unstable power supply. Use voltage controllers to curb unstable power supply in the computer room. Equip computer rooms with fire extinguishers that do not use water, the computer room can be fit with automatic fire detectors that will detect fire or smoke and alert the personnel in charge for quick action. Tuck computer cables in trunks or carefully lay them down under the desks in order to prevent falls in the computer room. Place computers on strong furniture to prevent them from falling. Restrict access to computer rooms. Secure the computer room with strong windows and doors to control theft of computers. To increase the security level, you can install CCTV cameras and also employ security personnel. Use computer cable locks to control theft in the computer room. Use dehumidifiers to control excess humidity and dampness. Ensure there is enough ventilation or free circulation of air in the computer room. Fit window curtains and air conditioners in the computer room to control and filter dust particles from entering the room. Cover computers with dust covers when they are not in use. Ideas and practices on how to personal and sensitive data from the public when online: To keep personal and sensitive data from the public when online, the following can be done: Protect and manage personal information. Do not accept friend requests from strangers. Avoiding harmful or illegal content. Buy online items from secure and trusted sites. Installation of antivirus software. Backing up data. Use of strong passwords.


Installation of antivirus software. Backing up data. Use of strong passwords. Log out from your online accounts after using public internet to browse. Do not communicate with strangers online. Safety Rules and Regulations at Work. Safety rules and regulations exist in all workplaces. They are principles that govern the actions and procedures to keep the works property and the environment safe. Some of the general safety rules and regulations include: To ensure that you know how to safely perform the task. To ensure you know the hazards of the task and how to protect yourself. To wear the required personal protective equipment necessary for the task. To always work clear of suspended loads. To always keep your mind and eyes on the task at hand. To obey all warning signs and barricades. To inspect all tools and equipment to ensure they are not defective before using them. Do not perform a task under unsafe conditions and report any unsafe tools, equipment or hazardous conditions. All chemicals containers should be well labelled and covered. Maintain good housekeeping at workplace all the time. A computer is an electronic device that process or converts data into information. A computer receives, stores, organizes and processes data into information. The word computer came from Latin word computare which means to calculate. A computer uses programs that are sets of instructions which a computer follows to perform tasks. What is Data? Data refers to raw facts such as numbers, symbols, images and letters that are not processed and have no meaning to the user. Data is plural while in singular it is datum. Data is not meaningful to the user until it is processed. Examples of Data include: Texts. Images. Sound. Videos. What is information? Information refers to processed data that is meaningful to the user. Information is meaningful to the user. List the examples of computers used today. The following are examples of computers: Notebook. Desktop. Laptop. Tablets.


Examples of analogue computers include: speedometer and mercury thermometer. Digital computers. They included modern computers like laptops, tablets, desktops and smartphones. They are designed to perform calculations and logic operations at high speed. They accept the raw data as input and process it with programs stored in its memory to produce the desired output. Hybrid computers. They combined best features of the analogue computers such as speed and those of the digital computers such as internal memory. They are used in specialized applications where both analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. Examples of hybrid computers are fuel pump and the analogue blood pressureClassifying Computers According to Purpose 1. General purpose computers They are most common computers that can perform most common tasks such as word processing, calculations, draw, play music and send electronic mails. General purpose computers are mostly used in schools, hotels, hospitals and at homes. 2. Special purpose computers. They are computers designed to carry out specific tasks only. They are mainly used in manufacturing industries, traffic control systems, weather forecasting, robotic systems, satellites and ATM machines. Classifying Computers According to Purpose 1. Supercomputer. It is the biggest. It is the most expensive. It is the fastest and most powerful computer for big data processing. It is able to process many instructions in a second. It is mainly used in application requiring complex mathematical calculations such as in- flight simulation in aerospace, in weather forecasting and in satellite launching. 2. Mainframe computers. They are the largest and most expensive after super computers. They have a higher processing power which can handle thousands of connected peripheral devices or users at the same time. They store large amount of data, instructions and information. Most government institutions use mainframe computers to store data, calculate interest rates and customer balances. 3. Mini computers. They are smaller, less powerful and less expensive than main frame and super computers. They are more expensive and powerful than personal computers. They provide a centralized location for data, information and programs. They are also used to perform calculations and process business transactions. 4. Microcomputers. They are the least powerful, smallest and cheapest computers. They are also called personal computers.


Microcomputers. They are the least powerful, smallest and cheapest computers. They are also called personal computers. They are called microcomputers because their processing device is called a microprocessor. They are designed to be used by one person at a time. They are used in offices, schools, businesses, media houses or to keep records, prepare lesson plans and to browse. 2.1Fundamentals of communication. STRAND 2- COMMUNICATION Meaning of Communication. Communication is the process of sharing information through a channel from the sender to the receiver. Importance of communication in the work environment. Good communication ensures making decision is easier. Communication helps to build positive relationships, teamwork and trust at workplaces. Good communication helps to achieve greater goals. Communication enables managers shares goals with shareholders both inside and outside the organisation. It gives managers permission to stimulate behaviour changes in employees and suppliers and to inspire loyalty from the employees and customers. It allows managers to convince employees and unions to abandon counterproductive practices, managers persuade leaders to provide financing and it permits managers to calm angry customers and impress new ones. Preventing misunderstanding and conflicts. Improving customer services. Meeting goals and earning success. Promoting creativity and innovation. Advancing individual career prospects. ICT Tools in Communication. Emails-used to exchange information over the internet to other individuals. Mobile phones- allows calling and messaging in communication. Computers -computer provide various communication channels such as emailing, video calling etc. Videos and web conferencing- Video conferencing has a focus on face-to-face communication. Web conferencing has a focus on interaction and collaboration such as document sharing. Social networking - use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users. Online collaboration - using the internet and online tools to collaborate. Softwares like word processor are used to design letters and memos that are used to pass information in business. Social media is used to give immediate response to customer needs. Challenges of the internet. Ways of overcoming Internet challenges. Benefits and challenges of the internet. Internet enables communication worldwide through emails, chat services and video calls. Enable E-learning through video teachings and research has enabled learners and researchers to get information.


Benefits and challenges of the internet. Internet enables communication worldwide through emails, chat services and video calls. Enable E-learning through video teachings and research has enabled learners and researchers to get information. The internet is a source of entertainment where people listen to music, watch videos, sports and even play online games through the internet. Business flourish by using internet for online shopping and marketing of their products. Uploading, downloading and sharing data has been made easier with the internet. The banking sector has embraced online banking. Sending and receiving money is now faster and more convenient because of the internet. Some job seekers use the internet to find and apply for jobs online. Causes antisocial behaviour due to too much use or addiction. Causes laziness. Hacking and computer viruses are online threats associated with the internet. Some internet activities such as online gambling and posting of illicit photos and videos are indicators of moral decay. Personal data can be compromised through the internet and used to commit crimes such as fraud and cyber bullying. Sometimes the internet contains misleading and false information. Using updated software and antivirus programs to prevent data attacks by viruses. Having strong and different passwords that cannot be cracked also protect data from being compromised. Practising self-control through limiting the time spent on the internet and shutting down devices to avoid internet distractions. Always watching out for scam messages and emails in order to prevent online fraud. Parents, teachers and guardians monitoring all online activities done by their children and advising them on how to use the internet wisely. Not sharing personal information. Benefits of the Internet. Importance of Drawing as a means of Communication. Drawing are types of diagrams used for communication to show the shape and structure of a given idea or product. Technical fields use drawings to draw designs of different items before they are made. Types of drawing used in technical fields. Drawing involves making marks on a surface to create images of forms and shapes. Artistic drawing these are drawings that allows the communication of emotions, ideas or feelings.


Types of drawing used in technical fields. Drawing involves making marks on a surface to create images of forms and shapes. Artistic drawing these are drawings that allows the communication of emotions, ideas or feelings. Examples of artistic drawing include: Illustrations -drawings for people to visualize and understand the picture by picture rather than through text. Portraits-drawn pictures in which the face is dominant. Caricature drawing or painting in which features have been distorted and exaggerated in order to mock or satirize the subject e.g., cartoon Graffiti-drawings made in public spaces such as public walls or buildings using spray paints. Illustration. Portrait. 2.2 - Introduction to drawing. Differences between Artistic and Technical Drawings. Caricature. Graffiti. Technical drawings these are drawings made to scale to communicate specific idea on how a physical object function or is constructed. They are made to give a precise and detailed view of an object. They give information about how an object function or how it is constructed. Examples of technical drawings: Architectural drawings. Structural drawing. Mechanical systems drawings. Electrical drawings, Feature Technical drawings Artistic drawing 1 Purpose A technical drawing is used to provide accurate measurement of an object to scale. An artistic drawing is used to express one s ideas, to decorate or to give pleasing appearance to a surface. 2 Presentation The technical drawings are presented on a convenient. The artistic drawings are done on any material and in all sizes. 3 Dimensioning and precision. Technical drawing MUST be precise and accurate in dimension. The artistic drawing need not and do not obey the rules of dimensions, shape or proportion. 4 Emotions, feelings and sentiments The technical drawings do not take care of feelings or sentiments of a person. They are factual, functional, productive and result-oriented. The artistic drawings involve expression of feelings and sentiments. 5 Interpretation The technical drawings must be interpreted in the same way all over the globe regardless of the geographical boundaries, religions or nations The interpretation of the drawing is strictly left to the individual or the onlooker. Types of Lines used in drawing and their application.


The artistic drawings involve expression of feelings and sentiments. 5 Interpretation The technical drawings must be interpreted in the same way all over the globe regardless of the geographical boundaries, religions or nations The interpretation of the drawing is strictly left to the individual or the onlooker. Types of Lines used in drawing and their application. Drawing lines and shapes using drawing instruments Name of the line How the line is used in technical drawing Construction line A faint line used for sketching and drawing the initial details of a drawing Centre line used to show hole centres and centre positions of rounded features Hidden line how edges, surfaces and corners which cannot be seen. Phantom line long-short-short-long lines most often used to show the travel or movement of an object or a part in alternate positions Break line used to show where an object is broken to save drawing space or reveal interior features. Drawing line define the edges of a form Dimension line a thin, solid line that shows the extent and direction of a dimension Leader line A line that connects a data label and its associated data point Cutting line Type of line HorizontalVertical Diagonal Parallel Perdendicular Thick and thin CurvedZigzag Wavy Spiral Dotted ......................................................................................... Basic symbols and abbreviations used in drawing. Symbol Meaning 1 Diameter 2 Perpendicularity. 3 Centerline. 4 Radius 5 Square6 Basic abbreviations used in drawing. 1. DRG -means drawing. 2. A F means across flat. 3. A C means across corners. 4. I D means inner diameter. 5. O D means outer diameter. STRAND 3-MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION. Meaning and types of Economic Resources. Resources are all the materials available in our environment which are accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants. Economic resources are the resources used for carrying out economic activities. The main classes of economic resources are: Land. Labour. Capital. Entrepreneurship. Characteristics of Economic Resources used for production of goods and services. Uneven distribution-economic resources are not found in all places. Scarcity- these resources are not enough to satisfy all human wants. Economic resources have alternative uses. Usefulness-Economic resources have utility and they are useful. Mobility-They can be transported from one place to another.


Economic resources have alternative uses. Usefulness-Economic resources have utility and they are useful. Mobility-They can be transported from one place to another. Combinability-Economic resources can be combined to produce different goods and services. Monetary Value-Economic resources are measured in terms of money. Therefore, they have monetary value. They can change ownership. Classification and Types of economic resources in Kenya. There are example types of economic resources in Kenya. They include mountains, minerals, machineries, land, information, sunshine, rainwater, lakes, rivers, oceans, etc. There are three types of economic resources namely; Human-made resources Natural resources. Human resources. 1. Human-made economic resources. They are resources that are created by human beings through various productive activities. They include: Tarmac roads. Machineries. Dam Watch etc 3.1 Economic Resources. 2. Natural economic resources. -. They are resources that exists in nature. -. They are found in natural environment. -. They include: Mountains. Rivers. Lakes. Wind. Sun. Natural forests etc. 3. Human economic resources. -. They are also referred to as labour or people who provide human services. -. For example; Teachers. Drivers. Painters. Nurses. Differences between metallic and non-metallic materials as economic resources. Distinction between metallic and Non-metallic materials. Metallic materials Non-metallic materials Some rust They do not rust. They have definite shape. Liquids and air do not have a definite shape but solids have a definite shape. They produce a sharp loud sound on knocking. Sonorous . They produce a dull sound on knocking. They are more reflective. They are less reflective, except glasses. They are generally smooth. They are generally rougher when not polished. They heat up faster when put under the sun. They heat up slowly. They are hotter than non-metals when under the sun. They are cooler than metals when put under a shade. They cool faster when put under a shade. They cool slowly when put under a shade. They are colder than non-metals under cold weather. They are warmer than metals under cold weather.


They cool slowly when put under a shade. They are colder than non-metals under cold weather. They are warmer than metals under cold weather. They are not easy to break. They are easier to break than metals. 3.2 Metallic Materials. Sustainable ways of using economic resources. Reusing and saving resources. Avoid wastage and use of non-environmental pollutants. Safeguarding natural resources air, water, land etc.,. For the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management as appropriate. Adopting efficient technology. Investing in renewable energy sources. Reducing usage or consumption of economic resources through reusing and recycling. The capacity of the earth to produce important renewable resources must be maintained and whenever practicable, restored or improved. The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind. A metal is a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible and ductile. Metallic materials are materials that have properties of metal. They have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are mostly identified by the items made from them. The types of materials include: Metals include: Copper. Iron. Aluminium. Steel. Silver among others. A. Shiny metals such as copper, silver and gold for decorative arts, jewellery and coins. B. Iron and steel for structures like buildings, furniture and vehicle parts. Physical properties of Ferrous and non-ferrous metals. C. Copper for electric wires. D. Aluminium for cams, bottle tops and caps, household appliances and utensils, airplanes. E. Bronze for church and school bells. Ferrous metals are metals that consists mostly of iron and small amount of other elements. Some of the physical properties of ferrous metals include: Magnetism-ferrous metals are highly attracted to a magnet. Heat conductivity- ferrous metals are better conductors of heat than non-ferrous materials. 3.3 Non-metallic materials. Categorization of Non-metallic materials as either synthetic or natural. Appearance-ferrous metals have a silvery colour.


3.3 Non-metallic materials. Categorization of Non-metallic materials as either synthetic or natural. Appearance-ferrous metals have a silvery colour. Electricity conductivity ferrous metals are poor conductors of electricity than nonferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not have any iron in them at all. Some of the physical properties of non-ferrous materials include: Magnetism-non-ferrous metals are not magnetic. Heat conductivity- non-ferrous metals are poor conductors of heat than ferrous metals. Appearance- non-ferrous metals like gold have a more colourful appearance than ferrous metals. Electricity conductivity- non-ferrous metals like copper are better conductors of electricity than ferrous metals. Non-metallic materials found in the environment. Non-metals include: Wood. Stones. Textile. Soil. Glass. Leather. Plastic. Rubber. Water. Air among others Non-metallic materials can be categorized as synthetic or natural. Synthetic materials include plastics, manufactured glass, manufactured fibres, polythene, ink, paints and drugs among others. Natural non-metallic materials include plant and animal products such as wood, wool, bones and skin among others. They also include inorganic material such as stones, minerals, sand, clay and ballast among others. Physical state Non-metals can exist in all the three physical stats; solid, liquid and gaseous. Hardness Non-metals are generally soft. Some of the solid non-metals are quite soft. They can easily be cut with a knife. Brittleness Non-metallic materials are brittle because they break down into pieces on hammering. Decomposition Natural non-metallic decompose rot after sometime. Synthetic non- metallic materials do not decompose easily. Combustibility Non-metallic materials generally burn in fire, except earth and mineral products. Heat conduction Non-metallic materials do not conduct heat. This means that non-metals do not allow heat to pass through them. Shininess Natural non-metallic materials are dull. Synthetic non-metals appear a little shiny. Physical properties of non-metallic materials.


Shininess Natural non-metallic materials are dull. Synthetic non-metals appear a little shiny. Physical properties of non-metallic materials. STRAND 4- TOOLS PRODUCTION. A measuring tool is a device used to measure a physical quantity such as length, time, weight, angle, volume and temperature. A marking tool is a device used to indicate a point on a surface to obtain accurate size and shape. Common measuring and marking tools are: Steel rule-also called steel ruler. A flat metallic tool with a calibrated surface. Made from stainless steel. Can either be flexible or rigid with different thickness. Uses: Measure length of an object or distance between 2 points. To draw straight lines. To guide cuts. Fields in which ruler is used: geometry, welding and fabrication, technical drawing, architecture and construction. Tape measure-also called measuring tape. A flexible tool marked millimetres, centimetres and inches. There are different types of measuring tapes. Tape measure is made up of materials such as fiberglass, cloth, plastic, metal ribbon or strip. Uses: used to measure length of an item and distances between points. Measures a round curved object because it is flexible in nature. Fields it is used: Masonry, plumbing, electrical installation, surveying, crafts and woodworking. 4.1 - Measuring Marking Tools. Measuring tools. Square it is a measuring device that consists of two straight edges set at right angles to each other. There are different types of squares. Uses: used to measure and ensure that two perpendicular surfaces are at a right angle. Used in different fields to ensure that joints and corners of objects are truly square. Fields in which square is used: Woodwork, masonry, mechanical engineering and plumbing among others. Try square Mason s square Calipers - it is a measuring tool that consists of two adjustable jaws. There are different types of calipers. Uses: Use to measure thickness and ouside dinensions of an object like tennis ball or bottle. Used to measure the internal dimensions of hollow objects like a rectangular tube or cylindrical pipe. Fields in which callipers are used:science, woodwork, metalwork and other mechanical trades.


Uses: Use to measure thickness and ouside dinensions of an object like tennis ball or bottle. Used to measure the internal dimensions of hollow objects like a rectangular tube or cylindrical pipe. Fields in which callipers are used:science, woodwork, metalwork and other mechanical trades. Inside callipers Outside callipers Vernier calipers. Micrometer screw gauge - also called a micrometer. It is a measuring instrument with a G-frame with an adjustable spindle. Uses: Used to measure the diameter of wires and thickness of small sheets such as glass or plastic. Fields in which callipers are used:metal working and other mechanical fields. Spirit level-it is a tool consisting of a sealed glass tube partially filled with a liquid, containing an air bubble. Used to determine if a surface is vertical or horizontal. Uses: Used to indicate how horizontal or vertical a surface or an item is. Fields in which callipers are used:masonry, carpentry, surveyor, plumber, metalworker and other interior designers. Thermometer- it is an instrument that is used to measure the temperature. It can be digital or analogue. Uses: Used to measure the tempereture of solids like food, liquids like water or gas like air. Fields in which callipers are used: widely used in industry and technology, in medicine and in research. Plumb bob also called plummet. It is a weight with a pointed tip on the bottom, which can be suspended from a string to give a vertical line. Uses: Used in construction industry to ensure that a vertical installation such as a wall is perfectly vertical. Examples of real-life situations of uses of plumb bob include: -ensuring a wall is vertical when constructing. -ensuring fencing posts are vertical during fencing. Fixing a foor fram. Installation of ceiling lights or pot lights and hanging of pictures. Installing wallpapers. Fields in which callipers are used:construction, masonry. Measuring cylinder-a calibrated glass or plastic cylinder. Uses: Used to measure volume of liquids and to determine volume of a solid by measuring displacement of a liquid. Fields in which callipers are used: laboratories, veterinaery and human services to measure drugs, chemicals and medicines.


Measuring cylinder-a calibrated glass or plastic cylinder. Uses: Used to measure volume of liquids and to determine volume of a solid by measuring displacement of a liquid. Fields in which callipers are used: laboratories, veterinaery and human services to measure drugs, chemicals and medicines. Stop watch- a stop watch is a time measuring device with buttons, which you press at the beginning and at the end of a timed event. Uses: Used to measure the time interval of an event. Fields in which callipers are used: areas where accurate timing of events is required. Such as sports activities and laboratory experiments. Voltmeter-it is also known as a voltage meter. It is an electric measuring instrument with a letter V marked on the face. Uses: Used to measure voltage across the two terminals in an electrical circuit. Used by electrical technician s to chack input and output voltage of electrical equipment such as moter, batterries, medical equipment, electrical panel boards, plastic machinery and electrical devices. Ammeter-it is also known as ampere meter. It an electric measuring instrument with letter A marked on the face. Uses: Used to measure the amount of electric current in a closed circuit. Fields in which callipers are used:used by electrical technicians. Ohmmeter-it is an electric measuring instrument with a symbol marked on the face. Marking tools. Multimeter- it is a digital electric measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. Weighing balance- it is also called a weighing scale. It is an instrument that is used to determine the weight or mass of an object. They are of different types. Uses: Used to determine the weight of test materials and sampling amounts that require high degree of accuracy. Fields in which callipers are used:laboratories in pharmaceuticals, educational, food and beverage, chemical and industrial. Electronic weighing balance Spring balance Beam balance Pencil a thin piece of woof with a rod of black or coloured lead through the middle. Uses: Mark lines and centres for cutting or joining. Fields in which callipers are used:carpentry, tailoring, geometry etc. A pencil Scriber it is a metallic hand tool with hard sharpened ends. Uses: Mark line on metal or wood.


Fields in which callipers are used:carpentry, tailoring, geometry etc. A pencil Scriber it is a metallic hand tool with hard sharpened ends. Uses: Mark line on metal or wood. Can be used together with a straight edge or square. Fields in which callipers are used: woodwork, tiling, clay works and metalwork. Scriber Marking gauge it is also called scratch. It is a tool with a small pin. Uses: Used to mark aline parallel to the edge of the piece of work. Fields in which callipers are used:used in woodwork joinery and sheet metal operations to mark out lines for cutting or other operations. A marking gauge. Tailor s chalk it is a thin flat piece of hard chalk used by tailors and dressmakers. Uses: Used to mark guides on a fabric to indicate where it needs to be cut, folded or stitched. Field where it is used: tailoring Sliding bevel it is also called a bevel square. It is a tool with adjustable blade angles. Uses: Used to set an angle to be marked ob itens like timber, metal, tile or brick. Fields in which callipers are used: woodwork, tiling, clay works and metalworks. Punch a punch is a shard sharp ended tool. There are two types of punches. Centre punch and dot punch. Uses: Can be used to make indent in materials such as metal, leather, rubber, wood or plastics. It is used to showa point where a hole is to be drilled. Fields in which callipers are used: metalwork, woodwork and leatherwork. Centre punch Dot punch Marking knife it is also called a striking knife. It is a tool that is either single beveled or double beveled. Uses:Dual purpose measuring and marking tools. Used to make markings on workpieces. Used to cut a visible line that can then be used to guide a hand saw, chisel or plane when making woodworking joints and others operations, Fields in which callipers are used: woordworking. Single bevel Double bevel. Spacing wheel it is a leather marking tool with evenly spaced spikes pn a wheel.


Used to cut a visible line that can then be used to guide a hand saw, chisel or plane when making woodworking joints and others operations, Fields in which callipers are used: woordworking. Single bevel Double bevel. Spacing wheel it is a leather marking tool with evenly spaced spikes pn a wheel. Uses: Used in the leather industry to mark a line a long which stitching can be done, It is also used to mark points where holes can be punched. Fields in which callipers are used: leather work spacing wheel Odd-leg caliper -it is an instrument that consists of two curved, hinged legs. Uses: To measure and transfer thickness and distance to a workplace. Draw a line at a set distance from the edge of an object. Field where it is used: Woodwork, tiling, clay work and metal work. Divider -a divider is a measuring instrument of two straight adjustable legs hinged together and ending in sharp points. Uses: Used to mark off equal distances on a surface. Divide lines into equal parts. Mark arcs and circles on a surface. Fields area used: Surveying. Technical drawing. Engineering. Construction Trammel an instrument for drawing large arcs or circles on a surface. It consists of a beam with two sliding parts. Uses: Used to transfer measurements. To mark arcs. Lay out circles that are too big for normal compass or dividers. Fields area where It is used: Construction. Care for measuring and Marking tools. Caring for measuring and marking tools is the process of keeping them in good working condition even when they are not being used. Some of the ways of caring for measuring and marking tools include the following: - Clean the measuring and marking tools after every use. -. Lubricate instruments properly to avoid corrosion and wearing out of the moving parts. -. Ensure proper storage of the measuring and marking tools after use. The store should be cool and dry, well organised without staking tools directly on each other. -. Ensure proper handling of measuring and marking tools to avoid rough and sudden shocks that could damage the tools or lead to mis-calibration. -. Ensure measuring tools are only services by qualified and certified professionals.


The store should be cool and dry, well organised without staking tools directly on each other. -. Ensure proper handling of measuring and marking tools to avoid rough and sudden shocks that could damage the tools or lead to mis-calibration. -. Ensure measuring tools are only services by qualified and certified professionals. -. Use the measuring and marking tools for their right purposes only. What is the importance of measuring and marking tools in the work environment? They allow for the accurate determination of lengths, widths, diameters and other dimensions. By accurately and measuring and checking dimensions, workers can ensure that the items they make meet the required standard and specifications. This leads to improved quality and safety of the items produced. Measuring and marking tools enable workers to produce similar items with uniform size and capacity across the world. For example, vehicle parts, building components etc. Use of measuring and marking tools ensures safety in many practices e.g., in building construction where accurate measurements and marking of the components helps to ensure stability and loading capacity. Measuring and marking tools are useful in the designing and planning of different items. Architects, engineers and interior designers use these tools to measure spaces, create accurate drawings and mark locations for different items and ensuring they fit well. 4.2 Production of Goods Services. STRAND 4- TOOLS PRODUCTION Meaning of Production in the Community. -. Production is the creation of goods or provision of services to satisfy human needs and wants. -. It involves extraction, manufacturing, processing, construction, trade and service provision. Importance of Production. Goods and services are made available for members of the community through production. Production provides employment for people in the community. Workers who engage in production gain skills. The standard of living od people in the community improves. GOODS AND SERVICES. Meaning of Goods and Services. Goods are physical items or commodities that can be touched and felt and used to satisfy human wants. Services are intangible activities which cannot be touched and felt and do not deliver a tangible commodity. A market is a place where buyers and sellers meet or interact to buy goods and services such as food market, supermarket, the stock market and bond market. Human beings require goods and services to satisfy increasing human wants. Great services lead to better customer loyalty, higher revenues and lower costs. Types and importance of goods and services found in the local market.


Human beings require goods and services to satisfy increasing human wants. Great services lead to better customer loyalty, higher revenues and lower costs. Types and importance of goods and services found in the local market. Goods can be grouped into different types as follows. Free goods and economic goods. Free goods are goods that are naturally provided like sunshine, rain, oceans. Economic goods are commodities which have money value that can be used to satisfy human needs and wants. Producer goods and consumer goods. Producer goods are used in producing other goods. They include machines, equipment and tools. Consumer goods are final products that are bought and used by consumers. They include microwaves, fridges, t-shirts and candles. Perishable goods and durable goods. Perishable goods are goods that go bad easily unless stored using very special facilities. These goods include meat, milk and vegetable Durable goods are goods that are used for a long period of time for example radio, furniture or building among others. Public goods and private goods. Public goods are goods that are enjoyable by all citizens like roads, airports, rivers, public hospitals, public parks, railway or churches. Private goods are goods that are owned by individuals such as personal cars, private schools, private land among others. Distinguishing Characteristics between goods and services. GOODS SERVICES Goods are tangible Services are intangible. Goods can be separated from the seller. Services cannot be separated from the service provider. Goods can be stored for future use. Services cannot be stored for future use. Goods have a significant time gap between Services are purchased and consumed together. Production and consumption. Goods can be seen. In order to provide services, you need physical tools. Goods can be spoiled over time. Services are rendered directly by one person to another and they expire. Goods can be standardized. Quality of services can be standardized. Goods can be transported from one place to another. Services cannot be transported from one place to another. Factors of Production, Importance, Characteristics and Rewards for the factors of Production in the Community. Resources are used in production of goods and services. These resources are called factors of production. They payment for each factor of production is known as reward. There are four factors of production namely: Land. Capital. Labour. Entrepreneurship.


Capital. Labour. Entrepreneurship. Land It is defined as agricultural land, commercial real estate and natural resources such as oil, gas etc. Labour. It is made up of the individuals who are responsible for the development of goods and services. Capital goods. Such as tools, equipment and machinery are part of the capital category. Entrepreneurship. It includes visionaries and innovators who are behind the production process. Characteristics of Factors of Production. LAND. Land is limited. Therefore, it cannot be increased. Land is a natural resource. Productivity of land can be increased. Land production quality varies. Land cannot be moved from one place to another. LABOUR Labourers can move from one place to another. They have skills. Labour cannot be stored. Labour is a basic production factor. CAPITAL. It is a human-made resources. They reduce with time when used. They can be improved with technology. They can be moved from one place to another. ENTREPRENEURSHIP. They hire employees. They start and control the business. They pay for all other factors of production. They take all risks that cone with the business. Ethical and unethical practices in production of goods and services. Ethical practices: Transparency. Safety. Social and environmental responsibility. Fairness etc. Product quality. Unethical practices: Low quality of product-Poor quality products will lead to losing many customers. Low quantity of products -Giving consumers less products than what they paid for can lead to consumer concern. Overpricing -Putting higher prices to the commodities can lead to consumers concerns. Hoarding -In some occasions, outlet hide products to create a shortage so that prices can rise up. Therefore, affecting the price of goods and services. Safety of products. Consumers are concerned about the safety of the products that they buy. Outlets should ensure that goods and services that they produce are good for consumer use.


Safety of products. Consumers are concerned about the safety of the products that they buy. Outlets should ensure that goods and services that they produce are good for consumer use. Harmful ingredients-Ingredients used in production of goods and services should not be harmful to the consumers. STRAND 5- ENTREPRENEURSHIP. Meaning of entrepreneur, social entrepreneur and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneur -this is a person who identifies business opportunity and provides necessary resources to start and run the business. A social entrepreneur -this is an entrepreneur who pursues a project that has the potential to solve problems affecting people in a community. Entrepreneurship this is the process of identifying a business opportunity and providing the necessary resources to start and run the business with the aim of making a profit. Importance of entrepreneurship to an individual. Provides a career opportunity for the entrepreneur. Provides profit from the business activities leading to improved living standards. Creates a source of income for the entrepreneur. Importance of entrepreneurship to the community. It addresses the need of people by providing goods and services. Entrepreneurship results to creation of jobs and source of lively hoods for community members. Entrepreneurship leads to advancement in technology and better infrastructure through innovation. It leads to use or utilization of locally available resources hence creating revenue for the government. It contributes to taxes. It provides consumers with a variety of products leading to production of different products and improvement in quality of various products. Qualities of an entrepreneur in business. Risk taker-Have patience and dedication to work on an idea until it succeeds. Creative and innovative-they come up with ideas that are unique and can help solve problems. Have ability to make and follow a budget faithful. Curiosity-they keep looking for new business opportunities Are willing to adapt to changes to help sustain the business in the face of hardship and changing needs. Decisive-they make firm decisions in different situations and stand by them Focused-ensure their businesses remain successful in the long-term. 5.1-Introduction to Entrepreneurship. Sources and ways of generating idea of Business ideas for a business venture. A business idea is the thought that is in the mind of an entrepreneur concerning a potential business opportunity.


5.1-Introduction to Entrepreneurship. Sources and ways of generating idea of Business ideas for a business venture. A business idea is the thought that is in the mind of an entrepreneur concerning a potential business opportunity. Sources of business ides include the following: - Advertisements in media such as in newspapers, magazines, radios and television. The internet is a rich source of business ideas. One can get ideas from various internet sources such as blogs, websites and social media platforms. Hobbies- one can make money from what he or she does during their free time. Complaints- this is feedback given by unsatisfied customers. Attending exhibitions and trade fairs. Travelling it exposes a person to different ways of doing things. Family and friends they could suggest different business ideas, some of which are from their own experiences. Entrepreneurs observe the environment and identify the gaps that need to be addressed. Entrepreneurs pick ideas from personal experiences. Ways of generating business ideas. One can generate ideas for a business venture by: Consulting family and friends. Creating focus groups. Analysing quality of goods and services offered by other businesses. Talking with dissatisfied customers to know what they prefer. Building on professional training and skills. Evaluating a business opportunity to determine viability. Evaluating business opportunities refers to considering them against certain factors to determine if they are viable. A viable business opportunity is one that can be turned into a profitable business by an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur should evaluate strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of the business opportunity. Factors that an entrepreneur should consider to determine business viability include the following: Right skills to run a particular business venture. Knowledge about a product and the market. Profitability of the product. Competition from other businesses. Resources available to the entrepreneur. Availability of relevant technology to support the business. 5.2Money. Factors that enhance business success in the community. The following are factors that entrepreneurs should consider to enhance success in business: Understanding the customer needs. Fair pricing of products. Maintaining good relations with the customers. Keeping proper business records. Observing government laws and regulations.


Maintaining good relations with the customers. Keeping proper business records. Observing government laws and regulations. Choosing the right products. Having a clear business plan. Money is anything which is generally accepted as a medium of exchange. What are the uses of Money? Money serves as a medium of exchange and people use money to pay for goods and services. Money serves as a store of value. You do not need to spend it immediately because it will still hold its value the next day or year. Money serves as a unit of account, which means that it is used to measure and record financial transactions or buying and selling of goods and services. Money serves as a means of transfer of immobile properties. One can sell or buy immovable properties such as land by use of money. Features characteristics of Money For anything to serve as money, it must have the following characteristics: Acceptability: The item must be acceptable to everyone. Durability: The material used to make money must be able to last long without getting torn, defaced or losing its shape or texture. Divisibility: Money should be easily divisible into smaller units denominations but still maintains it value. Cognizability: The material used to make money should be easily recognized. This helps reduce chances of forgery. It also helps people to differentiate between various denominations. Homogeneity: Money should be made using a similar material so as to appear identical. This eliminates any risk of confusion and forgeries. Portability: - Money should be easy to carry regardless of its value. Stability in value: The value of money should remain fairly stable over a given time period. Liquidity: - it should be easily convertible to other forms of wealth assets . Scarcity: - It should be limited in supply. If it is abundantly available its value will reduce. Not easy to forge- money should not be easy to imitate. The new generation of Kenyan currency is divided into nine 9 denominations as follows.


If it is abundantly available its value will reduce. Not easy to forge- money should not be easy to imitate. The new generation of Kenyan currency is divided into nine 9 denominations as follows. -. 1 shilling - 5 shillings - 10 shillings - 20 shillings - 50 shillings - 100 shillings - 200 shillings - 500 shillings - 1000 shillings There are several special characteristics security features that make each Kenyan note unique. Security features on each not is identified by feeling, looking and tilting. The table below helps to identify these characteristics or security features on every Kenyan currency note. The security features when you Feel Look Tilt 1. Feel the word KENYA. 2. Feel the value 50 . 3. Feel 1 bar The watermark of a perfect lion s head, the text CBK and the value of the note 50 . The security thread appears as a continuous line. The security thread changes colour from red to green. The 200, 500 and 1000 notes have additional rainbow colours on the thread. The golden band on the note shows the value of the bank note 50 1. Feel the word KENYA. 2. Feel the value 100 . The watermark of a perfect lion s head, the text CBK and the value of the note The security thread changes colour from red to green. The 200, 500 and 1000 notes have Key Security features in the Kenyan Currency. Denomination 50 notes 100 notes 200 notes 500 notes3. Feel 2 bars. 100 . The security thread appears as a continuous line. Additional rainbow colours on the thread. The golden band on the note shows the value of the bank note 100 1. Feel the word KENYA. 2. Feel the value 200 . 3. Feel 3 bars. The watermark of a perfect lion s head, the text CBK and the value of the note 200 . The security thread appears as a continuous line. The security thread changes colour from red to green. Has additional rainbow colours on the thread.


The security thread appears as a continuous line. The security thread changes colour from red to green. Has additional rainbow colours on the thread. The golden band on the back of the note shows the value of the bank note 200 1. Feel the word KENYA. The watermark of a perfect lion s head, The security thread changes colour from red to green. Pg. 46 Themes and Symbols on the Kenyan currency. 1000 notes 2. Feel the value 500 . 3. Feel 4 bars. The text CBK and the value of the note 500 . The security thread appears as a continuous line. Has additional rainbow colours on the thread. The golden band on the back of the note shows the value of the bank note 500 1. Feel the word KENYA. 2. Feel the value 1000 . 3. Feel 4 bars. The watermark of a perfect lion s head, the text CBK and the value of the note 1000 . The security thread appears as a continuous line. The security thread changes colour from red to green. Has additional rainbow colours on the thread. The golden band on the back of the note shows the value of the bank note 1000 Denomination Note image The animal presentedpg. 47 50-shilling note BUFFALO 100-shilling note LEOPARDpg. 48 200-shilling note RHINO 500-shilling note LIONELEPHANT pe. 49pg.


47 50-shilling note BUFFALO 100-shilling note LEOPARDpg. 48 200-shilling note RHINO 500-shilling note LIONELEPHANT pe. 49pg. 50 Theme-Green energy Kenya has a lot of resources and potential when it comes to producing sustainable energy. One of the Africa s largest wind farms is located at Loyangalani in Kenya. Kenya has become a global pioneer in green energy production because of geothermal electric generation at Olkaria. Kenya hopes to live in a cleaner world. Theme-Agriculture. Maize tea and livestock. Agriculture is a key driver of the economy and a source of income for the majority of Kenyans, Kenya is known for its tea, coffee, horticulture and other crops. Livestock rearing is also part of many Kenyans culture. Theme-social services. Medical services-education-athletics. Kenya s social structure is both diverse and distinctive. Since independence, our athletes have kept Kenya on the map across the world. The government has made great efforts to improve the health of its population, particularly young people. Our education system has generated some of the world s top academics Theme-tourism. Beach-Parks-Simba Kenya is in the center of the world s tourist map. The country attracts millions of tourists who come to enjoy the sand, sun and parks. The Maasai Mara is one of the world s most well know parks. It is also famous for the annual wildebeest migrations, which is considered one of the world s natural wonders. Kenya is famous for having lions, known as Simba. Governance. Themes found on Kenyan currencypg. 51 5.3 Financial goals.


It is also famous for the annual wildebeest migrations, which is considered one of the world s natural wonders. Kenya is famous for having lions, known as Simba. Governance. Themes found on Kenyan currencypg. 51 5.3 Financial goals. National assembly. The concept of governance is deeply rooted in the Kenyan culture. National assembly is at the top of the pyramid, reflecting the people s will and exercising their power. The Republic of Kenya s legislative authority comes from the people and is vested in and exercised by Parliament. It is a key component of the country s functional government. Meaning and importance of setting goals as used in financial management. Financial management this is the process involving how an individual or an organisation plans, controls and monitors usage of money for defined purposes. Goal setting in financial management - is the process of coming up with targets on how to earn, have and spend. Pg. 52 Financial goals are categorized into three groups: Short-term financial goals. Medium-term financial goals. Long-term financial goals. Short-term financial goal is one accomplished in one year or less. A medium-term financial goal can take between 2 to 5 years. A long-term financial goal is one that can take more than 5 years to accomplish. Importance of setting up goals. Helps one to set priorities and focus on them. Provides motivation to keep moving forward even when faced with unexpected challenges. It provides how much money to save. Enables a person to tract progress towards the goals over time enhancing accountability. Helps to determine the best tools and methods that would support the efforts to achieve them. Financial discipline-this is the practice of making informed decisions about earning, spending and saving money. Importance of financial discipline. Enables one to achieve financial goals. Reduces stress and anxiety by giving one control over his or her finances. Helps one to build wealth by saving and making right investment decisions. It gives one a good credit score when one is able to make timely payments on loans and bills. This helps to avoid interests and penalties for late payment. Factors to consider when setting up financial goals.


It gives one a good credit score when one is able to make timely payments on loans and bills. This helps to avoid interests and penalties for late payment. Factors to consider when setting up financial goals. Apply SMART goal setting approach to know if the gal is Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound. Deciding what matters most-prioritise the needs and wants in order of importance. Know the period within which one wants to achieve the goals. Analyse obstacles or challenges that may be encountered. Monitor progress to make sure that you are meeting the targets. Searching for resources to search for information on setting up goals. You can find information on setting financial goals by using various sources such as: Visiting business sites on the internet. Reading business magazines and business news section in newspapers. Asking for information about setting personal goals from your parents. Talking to business people in your locality as resources persons. Formulating financial goals for individual development. Write a financial goal that is SMART. Create a timeline for the goal by defining whether is long-term, medium term or short- term. Determine how much money you need for the goal. Break it down into months or years. Write down what you need to do to help you achieve your goal. Implement and assess your financial goape.3.


JUNIOR SCHOOL2o24 GRADE 8 AGRICULTURE Oscar MwangiSOIL CONSERVATION: INTRODUCTION Soil provides the nutrients essential for plant growth, animal life, and millions of microorganisms. However, if soil becomes unhealthy, unstable, or polluted, the life cycle stops. Soil conservation refers to the protection and management of soil resources to prevent their degradation and promote sustainable land use practices. It is an important field of study and practice aimed at preserving the productivity, fertility, and health of soils for future generations. Soil is a vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting plant growth, water filtration, carbon storage, and providing a habitat for various organisms. Threats to soil conservation The primary threats to soil conservation are Chemical contamination The use of pesticides can contaminate the soil, as well as nearby vegetation and water sources, with harmful chemicals. In addition to contamination, chemicals used on crops can be toxic to important beneficial insects, such as bees, as well as fish and bird populations. A Good example is the growing use of pesticides, herbicides and toxic fertilizers. Slash and burn Slash-and-burn farming is the practice of burning and clearing forests to make way for farmland. This method kills plant species and displaces wildlife from their natural habitats. Land cleared using slash and burn is only used while it s productive for farming. Once it loses its fertility, another patch of forest is identified for clearing. This unsustainable process repeats endlessly, preventing soil from recovering sufficiently to support healthy ecosystems. Land overuse, overgrazing, etc. Overuse of land can limit soil s ability to play its part in the global climate cycle. For example, overcutting forests and woodlands for timber and overgrazing pastures can far outpace the natural regrowth of vegetation, subjecting soil to increased exposure to erosionImportance of Soil Conservation Soil conservation is of paramount importance due to the following reasons: Preserving Agricultural Productivity: Healthy and fertile soil is essential for sustaining agricultural productivity. Soil conservation practices help prevent soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and degradation, ensuring that the land remains productive for farming. By conserving soil, we can maintain high yields, improve food security, and support sustainable agriculture. Protecting Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Soil is a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems, supporting diverse plant and animal life. Soil conservation helps preserve natural habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands, which are home to a variety of species.


By conserving soil, we can maintain high yields, improve food security, and support sustainable agriculture. Protecting Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Soil is a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems, supporting diverse plant and animal life. Soil conservation helps preserve natural habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands, which are home to a variety of species. By protecting soil, we maintain the balance of ecosystems and safeguard biodiversity. Water Quality and Quantity: Healthy soil acts as a natural filter, purifying water as it infiltrates through the soil layers. Soil conservation practices reduce runoff and erosion, preventing sediment and pollutants from reaching water bodies. By preserving soil, we maintain water quality, prevent contamination, and ensure the availability of clean water resources. Climate Change Mitigation: Soils play a significant role in mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration. Healthy soils store organic carbon, helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. By practising soil conservation, such as promoting organic matter content and reducing soil disturbance, we enhance carbon storage and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. Mitigating Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is a natural process, but human activities can accelerate it to alarming levels. Erosion leads to the loss of topsoil, which contains essential nutrients for plant growth. Soil conservation practices, such as contour ploughing, terracing, and cover cropping, help control erosion and preserve valuable topsoil, ensuring long-term land productivity. Methods of Soil Conservation There are several effective methods and techniques for soil conservation. Here are some commonly used methods: Grassed waterways gr sometimes also called grass waterways are wide, shallow channels that are installed where water runoff usually concentrates in an agricultural field. They are planted with permanent vegetation, meaning they might be mowed, but the plants are never plowed or killed intentionally Stone lines are constructed along the contours to slow down the speed of runoff, reduce soil erosion, and enhance water infiltration. In addition, the stone barrier blocks and settles down the sediments transported from the upper slopes. Stone constructions are often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land Trash lines are ideally 0.5m to 1.0m wide and 0.5m high. Advantages of using trash lines They conserve top soil by trapping or reducing the speed of run-off. When they compose they turn into manure and boost soil fertility.


Stone constructions are often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land Trash lines are ideally 0.5m to 1.0m wide and 0.5m high. Advantages of using trash lines They conserve top soil by trapping or reducing the speed of run-off. When they compose they turn into manure and boost soil fertility. Trash lines increase soil water infiltration since they tend to hold the water longer Bund is an engineering measure of soil conservation, used for creating obstruction across the path of surface runoff to reduce the velocity of flowing water. It retains the running off water in the watershed and thus to helps to control soil erosion. Bunds are simply embankment like structures, constructed across the land slopeCrop rotation Instead of planting the same crop year after year on the same plot of land, crop rotation involves planning out growing seasons for different crops. This method of sustainable agricultureExternal link:open in new requires long-term planning, with crops changed every season. In addition to improving soil health and organic matter, crop rotationExternal link:open in new reduces the need for fertilizer and pesticides, lowering costs. It also helps prevent excess chemicals from entering water supplies, improving water quality. Contour Plowing: Plowing along the contour lines of the land helps to slow down water runoff, reduce erosion, and retain moisture in the soil. This technique involves creating furrows or ridges that follow the natural contours of the land. Terracing: Terracing is the construction of broad, level platforms on steep slopes. By creating terraces, water runoff is slowed down, allowing it to infiltrate the soil and reducing erosion. Terraces also help to retain moisture and provide flat areas for planting crops. Windbreaks: Windbreaks are rows of trees or shrubs planted along the edges of fields or across wind-exposed areas. They help to reduce wind speed, minimise wind erosion and protect the soil. Windbreaks also provide habitat for wildlife and contribute to biodiversity. Strip Cropping: Strip cropping involves planting different crops in alternating strips or bands across a field. This method helps to break up the flow of water and reduce erosion. The alternating strips of different crops also help to improve nutrient uptake and reduce pest and disease problems. Conservation Tillage: Conservation tillage practices involve reducing or eliminating the amount of soil disturbance during planting and cultivation. This includes techniques such as no-till, where seeds are planted directly into untilled soil, and reduced tillage, where minimal soil disturbance occurs.


Grey Water Recycling Grey water makes up roughly 60 of household waste water. This waste water is from baths, sinks, washing machines and dish washers. As the cheapest and simplest technique, capturing of the grey water is done in a bucket or drain, and used for the farm or garden. Contour Trenching Also known as the fanya juu technique, trench contouring entails digging of trenches along contour lines where water flows down the hill and soil thrown upslope to form an embankment which traps the run-off water and sediment, while still penetrating the soil below. Through this technique, though tedious in implementation and maintenance, crops can be grown in low rainfall seasons from the subsoil water reserve gathered. Example of Fanya juu technique Fog Harvesting Fog harvesting is best done at night and early mornings during the cold season in mountain faced regions or plains; e.g. Kajiado County and Coastal areas. Air is cooled to a point where it can no longer retain water vapour, hence forming ground level clouds. These clouds water droplets are captured in a synthetic plastic mesh net, that is hoisted with two posts planted in the ground which drain the water in a gutter; then transferred in tanks. This technique is easy to replicate, cheap and the level of technology and maintenance is simple. Groundwater Ponds Using an artificial pond laid a few meters below the ground, increases the chances of a better harvest of rain water runoff. This water can be used for irrigation and livestock drinking water. Compared to construction of a borehole, laying of a synthetic membrane on dug out grounds is cheaper, and traps the runoff water. These ponds vary in size depending on the size of the farm. They are easy to manage and are cost effective. Gutter Installation This roof catchment system has been used for decades as a traditional means of water harvesting technique. The water can be harvested in small scale or large scale for the purpose of irrigation, livestock, drinking or all of the fore mentioned. The size of the storage tank is dependent on the owners financial ability and water usage. With gutter installation, water runs down the strip iron sheets which are bent at an angle and nailed onto the roof, suspended with galvanized wires. The water is drained into a storage reservoir placed on the ground. SQUARE FOOT GARDENING Square foot gardening is the practice of dividing the growing area into small square sections, typically 1 foot 30 cm on a side, hence the name.


With gutter installation, water runs down the strip iron sheets which are bent at an angle and nailed onto the roof, suspended with galvanized wires. The water is drained into a storage reservoir placed on the ground. SQUARE FOOT GARDENING Square foot gardening is the practice of dividing the growing area into small square sections, typically 1 foot 30 cm on a side, hence the name. The aim is to assist the planning and creating of a small but intensively planted vegetable garden square allows you to get a high yield from a small area It's especially beneficial to gardeners who don't have much time or farm space. Square-foot gardening typically starts with a 4x4-foot raised garden bed filled with amended soil, then subdivided into 1-foot squares with markers like lattice strips. You then plant the appropriate number of plants in each square. You determine this by plant size. This method optimizes your space and reduces the effort needed to go from planting to harvest. Preparing square foot garden Follow this guide to square-foot gardening based on a grid of 1x1 foot squares and grow more vegetables than you can imagine with less work. Follow the steps below to start your square-foot garden. 1. Pick the Correct Location for Square-Foot Gardening As with most vegetable gardens, a square-foot garden must be where the ground is relatively flat and gets at least 6 to 8 hours of full sun daily. Avoid low areas that may turn into puddles after a hard rain. You may want to choose a spot near your house to make watering, weeding, harvesting, and other garden chores more convenient and harder to overlook. 2. Build a Raised Garden Bed The most common configuration for square-foot raised garden beds is 4x4 feet. At this size, most gardeners can reach the middle from any side. Plus, this size divides easily into a grid of sixteen 1x1-foot squares. Make your sides at least 6 inches deep. Growing root vegetables such as carrots call for sides that are 12 inches deep. To make a 6-inch-tall raised bed for square-foot gardening in a flash, buy four planter wall blocks which have 2-inch slots on four sides and four 4-foot-long 2x6s at your local home center. Set the blocks approximately 4 feet apart on level ground to form a square. Connect two blocks by sliding a 2x6 board into the respective 2-inch slots.


To make a 6-inch-tall raised bed for square-foot gardening in a flash, buy four planter wall blocks which have 2-inch slots on four sides and four 4-foot-long 2x6s at your local home center. Set the blocks approximately 4 feet apart on level ground to form a square. Connect two blocks by sliding a 2x6 board into the respective 2-inch slots. Repeat with the remaining boards and blocks to create a 4x4-foot frame in about 15 minutes. Use a more durable material such as pressuretreated lumber or cedar for a long-lasting frame. 3. Fill the Raised Garden Bed You've built the frame for a raised garden bed; now you need to fill it with soil. You may be wondering if you need special soil for square-foot gardening. You can use what you have as long as you amend it which is a good idea for any garden . First, loosen and aerate the ground soil. Then mix in enough compost and extra topsoil if needed to fill the frame. Work compost into the soil at the rate of one-third by volume such as a 2-inch layer of compost into 6 inches of soil . Soil Amendments Nutrients If you want to be more scientific about it, you should test your soil to determine its composition. Once you have that information, add the right amendments in the correct proportions to achieve the best-growing medium for a vegetable garden. Another option: Prepare the soilless mix advocated by Mel Bartholomew rather than amending your ground soil. Follow this formula: one-third compost, one-third peat moss, and one-third vermiculite. You'll need 8 cubic feet of it to fill a bed with 6-inch sides and 16 cubic feet to fill a bed with 12-inch sides. This mix is pricey, but it creates a weed-free bed that's high in nutrients and retains moisture. Blend the ingredients well whether you amend the existing soil or create a new soilless mix. Some gardeners use a portable concrete mixer plugged into a household outlet to get a uniform texture and distribution of particle sizes. No mixer? No problem. Blend all the ingredients on top of a tarp, then shovel the mixture into the frame. To get a speedier start on planting, skip the mixing and fill the frame with high-quality bagged garden soil from a nursery or gardening center.


No problem. Blend all the ingredients on top of a tarp, then shovel the mixture into the frame. To get a speedier start on planting, skip the mixing and fill the frame with high-quality bagged garden soil from a nursery or gardening center. Once the bed is filled and you've raked the soil or soilless mix smooth, create a square-foot garden grid using lattice strips, PVC pipes, or even string. Use nails or screws to attach the grid to the sides of the frame. Being able to see each square-foot section clearly simplifies planting. If you like, cover the prepared garden with a thin layer of fine mulch to conserve soil moisture and slow down the growth of weeds. 4. Plant Your Favorite Vegetables If you're building more than one raised square-foot garden bed, leave enough space between them to roll a wheelbarrow. The formula for planting is simple: one extra-large plant per 1x1-foot square; four large plants per square; nine medium plants per square; and 16 small plants per square. Here's an idea of what you can fit in each square: one vine tomato, pepper plant, sukumawiki or eggplant; four bush tomatoes, heads of cabbage, or heads of lettuce; nine onions or beets; or 16 radishes. Zucchini needs nine of the 16 squares for just one specimen, but you can plant other vegetables in the remaining seven squares. Vegetables or fruits that spread such as watermelons require a separate bed. Planting Seeds If planting seeds, plant one seed per hole spaced appropriately for the mature plant. Look on the back of the packet for instructions. Poke a finger through the mulch into the soil, drop in a small amount of vermiculite, then the seed, and cover it with more vermiculite a material that will help keep the seeds moist while it's sprouting . Mist the newly planted seeds daily, so the soil doesn't dry out. Once plants are established, water them approximately once a week. Transplanting Vegetables If you're transplanting vegetables from a nursery or gardening center, use the same spacing method mentioned earlier. Place plants in the dirt, leaving a shallow depression around each one to help hold water. You may want to shade newly planted vegetables to protect them from wilting. Water daily for a few days, and then remove the shade and water weekly. 5.


You may want to shade newly planted vegetables to protect them from wilting. Water daily for a few days, and then remove the shade and water weekly. 5. Maintain Your Garden Yes, square-foot gardening may take a little less work than traditional gardening, but you still have to pay attention to your produce. Watering Schedule You need to water when the soil feels dry, but you won't waste water on any exposed soil between traditional rows. Don't water from overhead. Instead, use a small container to water each plant individually pouring the water into the depressions you made when you planted them. Don't panic; it will still take less than 10 minutes to water a 4x4-foot garden this way. If your schedule permits, water in the morning. You'll need to water more often on days that are hot or windy because the soil will dry out faster. Weeding Your Garden Plan on weeding every week, but either pull weeds when they're small or use scissors to cut weeds off at the base instead of pulling them up by the roots or using a hoe. You don't want to disturb the roots of vegetables growing nearby. Make it easy on yourself by weeding every time you walk by the bed or only one square at a time. Because weedswon't compete with your vegetables for nutrients, you probably won't need to fertilize. Pest Control Inspect your garden daily to spot insect trouble early. Either hand-pick and destroy insects or spray the soft-bodied ones with insecticidal soap. Knock aphids off of plants by spraying them with a hose. CROP MANAGEMENT Crop pest A pest can be described as any organism capable of causing damage to crop plant. Types of Crop Pest. Important pests of crop plants are grouped into the following classes: i insect; ii birds; iii rodents; iv monkeys; v man; vi nematodesClassification of insect pests Insects pests can be classified into various groups based on their mode of feeding. These groups of insect pest include: 1. Biting and chewing insects; 2. Piercing and sucking insects; 3. Boring insects. 4. Biting and Chewing Insects: These insect mouth-parts which enable them to bite and chew plant Examples include: termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantis, locust, beetles, etc. 5.


4. Biting and Chewing Insects: These insect mouth-parts which enable them to bite and chew plant Examples include: termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantis, locust, beetles, etc. 5. Piercing and sucking insects: These insect pests possess strong mouthparts called proboscis stuck liquid from materials from plants tissues. Examples include aphids, cotton strainers, mealy bugs, scale insects, capsids or mirids, white flies, etc. 6. Burrowing insects: These insects including their larvae are capable of burrowing into plant parts and destroying the tissues of the plant or fruits or seeds. Examples include: bean beetles, stem burrowers, maize weevils and rice weevilsCrop pestsAphids ois Ogres ArT ForContig Pant Cut wormsCaterpillar Vegetables attacked by pests Kale Spinach... Tomatoes Onions ... Carrots ... etcEffects or economic importance of insect pests in crop production 1. Insects pest destroy crops in the field through their biting, chewing, boring, sucking and defoliation activities 2. They cause reduction in viability of stored produce 3. Spot of injuries by insets may predispose crops to disease attact. 4. They increase the cost of production during the course of controlling them 5. They render vegetables and fruits unattractive and unmarketable 6. Some are carriers or vectors of diseases. 7. The profits of farmers are reduced 8. They reduce the quality of produce either in the store or in the field 9. They generally reduce the yield of crops 10. They can also cause total death of crop plants. What you need to know about insects pests Not all insects are pests. Some bugs are beneficial to the garden. These good guys are known as beneficial insects, and they can greatly benefit your garden by consuming pest insects that would otherwise feast on your plants.