From the 23rd of September to the 23rd of December, it is autumn in the Northern hemisphere. Spring season begins from the 21st of March to 21st June in the Southern hemisphere. During this period, nights and days are equal. DAWN AND TWILIGHTDawn is a brief period between sunrise and full day. Twilight is the period between sunset and complete darkness. Internal structure of the earth in the solar systemThe earth s structure is made up of several layers. These layers consist of;The earth s crust or lithosphere, The mantle or the mesosphere and The core or the bryosphere. THE MAIN LAYERS OF THE EARTHThe Earth s Crust Lithosphere This is the outermost layer of the earth made up of solid hard rocks. Its thickness varies from 6km to 40km. It is divided into two layers. These layers are;Sial Continental crust Sima Oceanic crust SialA sial is the continental crust that moves up the continents. It is made up of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks with minerals such as silica and aluminum. It is lighter with an average density of 1.7. SimaThis is the oceanic crust that makes up the ocean floor. It is heavier with an average density of 3.0. It has mainly basaltic rocks with minerals such as silica and magnesium. The lighter continental crust seems to be floating on the denser oceanic crust. The Mantle Mesosphere The mantle is also called the mesosphere. It is much thicker and is about 2900km thick. It contains very dense rocks rich in magnesium and iron Fe . The rocks are in a molten state and a temperature of about 5000 C. This is the layer where magma is formed. The Core Bryosphere The core is the center of the earth and the hottest zone. It is about 6700km thick. This layer is below the mantle. It is also rich in iron and Nickel Ni . The core is subdivided in two parts. The outer core,The inner core. The outer core is in the molten state and the inner core is in the solid state and consist mainly iron Fe . These layers are separated from each other by boundaries called discontinuities.


The outer core,The inner core. The outer core is in the molten state and the inner core is in the solid state and consist mainly iron Fe . These layers are separated from each other by boundaries called discontinuities. WeatherElements of weatherThey include:TemperatureAir Atmospheric PressureWind Speed Direction HumidityPrecipitationVisibilityClouds Type Cover Sunshine DurationFactors considered when siting a weather stationThe area should be away from building trees tall objectsThe ground should be free from floodingThe area should have a wide view open spaceThe area should be secureThe ground should be gently slopingWeather and climate are very important to man and his environment, the most important benefit of weather and climate is that they bring rain, snow and other forms of precipitation. This precipitation or rain is what sustains all living things on the earth surface humans, plant, animal, and other microorganisms . Without a constant supply of water on the earth, it would be difficult to predict what sorts of crops could be cultivated in a given region. If a change in climate were to alter the weather so that it produced too little or too much water, it will still have a major impact on agriculture and livestock. Weather and climate affect the distributions of plants and animals across various biomes of the world. For instance, the tundra biome the Antarctica tundra is characterized by a cold and dry climate, it supports very little species of plants and animals, while the marine biome is colder at the pole, but warmer at the equator- it supports various species of plants and animals. However, both biomes are constantly sharpened by the changes in atmospheric conditions. The natural ecosystem is constantly influenced by the activities of weather and climate, hence, places with extreme dry climate desert environments are the best locations for mining of minerals and metals that are used for many production industries such as electronics. On the other hand, the rain forest environment, which receives much rainfall, is a home to various plant species in which some are known for their pharmaceutical benefits. The study of weather and climate is obviously important to man as it helps one to determine future climatic changes in some specific parts of the world. Weather and climate are very important aspects of mans natural environment; they create awareness as to what might happen on daily or yearly basis.


On the other hand, the rain forest environment, which receives much rainfall, is a home to various plant species in which some are known for their pharmaceutical benefits. The study of weather and climate is obviously important to man as it helps one to determine future climatic changes in some specific parts of the world. Weather and climate are very important aspects of mans natural environment; they create awareness as to what might happen on daily or yearly basis. Such awareness helps us to prepare ahead of the upcoming disasters that may occur in the future and also to find possible ways to adapt to such situations. Such phenomena are, for example hail, heavy rainfall, sleet, ice, etc. Weather forecast are also important as they warn us about the dangers of some natural occurrences or disaster that may occur in our natural environment in the future, such disasters include fire risk, hurricane, snows, hail, thunderstorm, tornadoes, etc. Weather and climate directly or indirectly affect many of our activities; the weather specifically helps us to decide on the type of crops to cultivate, the cloth to wear, and the kind of food to eat, lastly, it determines where and the nature of houses we live in. Constructing weather instrumentsLearners to construct the following instruments in reference to their learner s book: Materials should be sourced locally. Rain gaugeWind vaneWindsock HISTORICAL INFORMATIONSources of Historical InformationHistorical sources of information are classified into three categories:Written they include:BooksArchivesJournalsNovelsPaintingsMagazinesDiariesConstitutionsPeriodicalsUnwritten- they IncludeOral tradition- this is the passing of information from one generation to the other by word of mouth. Archaeology is the study of human remains and artefacts. Anthropology- it is the study of man s past culture, beliefs and economic activitiesLinguistic is the language and its variations across many cultures as well as similarities. Genetics - Genetics is the study of heredity in general and of genes in particular. Paleontology - scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks.


Anthropology- it is the study of man s past culture, beliefs and economic activitiesLinguistic is the language and its variations across many cultures as well as similarities. Genetics - Genetics is the study of heredity in general and of genes in particular. Paleontology - scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks. Electronic SourcesMicrofilmsFilmsVideosRadioTelevisionComputer databasesDifference between Primary and Secondary sources of Historical informationA primary source is an original document containing a firsthand account of the event being studied, created at or about the time the event occurred. For example:LettersJournals DiariesMapsGovernment Documents StatisticsPhotographs or FilmAutobiographiesNews AccountsA secondary source is a secondhand account, or a history of the event that was created at some point after the event occurred, or a source created by parties who were not personally involved in the event. For example:TextbooksRetrospective magazine articlesScholarly journal articlesResearch books on topicWebsitesWays of preserving sources of Historical informationPreservation involves maintaining an object or information in a format that ensures the continued use and accessibility of the information provided. It includes developing criteria for selecting materials that have cultural or historical importance and assessing their preservation needs; halting the deterioration of materials by providing a stable environment and proper supplies and equipment for storage; developing and implementing policies for the safe use of materials; and providing the resources necessary to engage in an on-going preservation program committed to the continued existence of valued materials. Preservation also includes preparing for potential disasters such as floods, fires, tornadoes, and earthquakes. Ways include:The use of paper that is acid-free serves as a long-term solution for preserving information. In addition to environmental controls, papers containing valuable information should not be subjected to direct sunlight, ultraviolet rays, or fluorescent light, all of which can weaken paper and fade writing. Also, paper should not be handled while eating or drinking, as food and drink near books can attract insects and rodents that may damage the paper. As with all types of media that contain valuable information, paper should not be stored in attics, basements, or places where mold and mildew may develop or already be present. Books should be stored on metal shelves or sealed wooden shelves and should be shelved upright.


Also, paper should not be handled while eating or drinking, as food and drink near books can attract insects and rodents that may damage the paper. As with all types of media that contain valuable information, paper should not be stored in attics, basements, or places where mold and mildew may develop or already be present. Books should be stored on metal shelves or sealed wooden shelves and should be shelved upright. Photos should be stored in an environment that does not have high temperature and high humidity or excessive fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Do not scratch of damage surfaces of computer disks. Spread Awareness: The most important way to preserve sources of history is to spread awareness about the historic importance of the architecture and scriptures etc. By this method people may be able to volunteer in the preservation. Conduct Research: Research of historical resources would not only help discover new sources but also preserve older ones. Establish Museums: Museums can preserve and portray the historical resources. Conduct Workshops: Workshops can be held among people on how to conduct research and lead preservation projects. Influence Government: Government can fund preservation projects. Influencing them is very important. Establish Preservation Department: A government of the country must establish a governmental depart that takes care of the preservation of historical sources. It must fund projects and lead them too. Donate in the Field: People who give importance to history and know its significance must donate for the preservation projects etc. Initiate Event: Events related to preservation must be conducted in order to motivate people to work for the preservation. Encourage Students: Students of history and architecture should visit these sites in order to increase their interest in preservation of the sites etc. Importance of sources of Historical InformationThey include:They help in future research on different culturesThey can help in predicting the futureThey help us understand our pastThey help in understanding the dynamics in society i.e. politicsThe help in understand how communities, races interact. PEOPLE AND POPULATIONHuman OriginTraditional stories of human originOrigins of Human BeingsA number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of human beingsThe creation theory. The mythical traditional theoryAmong African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God. Some examples include;Among the Agikuyu, their God Ngai created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi.


The mythical traditional theoryAmong African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God. Some examples include;Among the Agikuyu, their God Ngai created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga. One of the myths among the Nandi state that the first two people, male and female came from the knees of a giant man, when the knees began swelling and later burs for the two to come out from each of the either knees. Religious stories about the origin of Human KindThe Creation theoryThe Jews, Christians and Muslims recognize the creation story as narrated in the first book of Bible and in Qur an. It says that the whole universe was created by God. That God also created man, woman and all living things and all non-living creatures. Man was created in God s own image and woman created to provide man with companionship. Factors proving that africa is the cradle of mankindSeveral archeological sites have been found in AfricaPresence of savannah grassland where man could hunt and gather foodWarm tropical climate, ideal for early man's existenceAfrica is centrally located geographically, making it possible for early man to migrate to other regions as the continents were driftingSeveral tools and weapons remains have been discovered in the continent. Ways of recording traditional stories about the origin of human kind in the societyThrough memoryThrough computersWritten in booksThrough videosThrough songsThrough drawingsEarly CivilizationState, Kingdom and empireEmpireKingdomAn empire is a sovereign state consisting of several countries or peoples subject towards the authority of a single person often an emperor or empress. A kingdom consists of land from the same region or area head under the nominal rule of king or queen. An empire is always ruled by a singular authority, in this case, being the emperor empressA kingdom can have more than one ruler at a time. In the event it has two kings it is known as a diarchy and a kingdom ruled by many kings is known as an oligarchyAn empire grows larger by expanding and absorbing individual states and nations. For better administration, a representative of the emperor, who acts as the governor of the region will carry out day-to-day administrative functions.


An empire is always ruled by a singular authority, in this case, being the emperor empressA kingdom can have more than one ruler at a time. In the event it has two kings it is known as a diarchy and a kingdom ruled by many kings is known as an oligarchyAn empire grows larger by expanding and absorbing individual states and nations. For better administration, a representative of the emperor, who acts as the governor of the region will carry out day-to-day administrative functions. A kingdom will transition into an empire when it absorbs other city-states through conquest until it grows more than its original size. Usually, an emperor or empress is the absolute authority who makes critical decisions regarding the empire, but in certain setups, the voice of powerful aristocrats are also heeded. A king or queen is the absolute authority, but in the case of a constitutional monarchy, its authority may be limited by a parliament or any other ruling body of ministers. State: a political organization of society, or the body politic, or, more narrowly, the institutions of government. Ancient kingdoms includeEgyptGreat ZimbabweKingdom of KongoAncient EgyptAncient Egypt can be thought of as an oasis in the desert of northeastern Africa, dependent on the annual inundation of the Nile River to support its agricultural population. The country s chief wealth came from the fertile floodplain of the Nile valley, where the river flows between bands of limestone hills, and the Nile delta, in which it fans into several branches north of present-day Cairo. Between the floodplain and the hills is a variable band of low desert that supported a certain amount of game. The Nile was Egypt s sole transportation artery. Ancient Egypt has come to be regarded as man's first civilization. This history of ancient Egypt began some 10. 000B.C. when North Africa experienced a drier climate which corresponded with the end of the last Ice Age in the world. In about 7000B.C some hunters entered the valley of the River Nile in search of animals for food and also fish for food. Later, these hunters settled in large numbers and started an agricultural revolution. As towns grew, the people became more organized. The leaders of the first Egyptian settlements were said to have religious powers with which they could control the floods of the River Nile and also rainfall. Because of this, the priests were influential people in Ancient Egypt and with their help, the first Egyptian kingdom was established in about 3500B. C.


The leaders of the first Egyptian settlements were said to have religious powers with which they could control the floods of the River Nile and also rainfall. Because of this, the priests were influential people in Ancient Egypt and with their help, the first Egyptian kingdom was established in about 3500B. C. From that date till 332B. C. thirty 30 dynasties reigned and ruled in Ancient Egypt. The manifestation of Ancient Egyptian civilization under these rulers pharaohs of the various dynasties is the main subject of this chapter, But before delving into the various aspects of organization in Ancient Egypt, it is necessary to know the factors that favoured the rise and growth of Ancient Egypt and its civilization. Factors that led to the Rise of Ancient EgyptThe existence of River Nile- these served to help in the following functions:It served to protect against predators and attack from other kingdomsIt provided a mean of transport for the peopleIt provided water for agriculture. Basin irrigation was majorly used to water farms. It had also fish which used as food as well sold for economic gainthe Nile helped to unite people on the east and west banks, making trade and exchanges between the villages, towns and cities possible. The Nile River had a religious significance and even had a god of its own, called Osiris. Egypt's geographical position at the center of the Middle East has always given it an edge. It was considered a channel of knowledgebetween Europe and africa as well Mesopotamia. In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. They were the first to introduce mummification, medicine, agriculture, fermentation, engineering and architecture. The ancient Egyptians were pioneers in astronomy: their expertise played an important role in determining the annual flooding of the Nile, and aligning the pyramids towards the pole star. Good leaders: Ancient Egypt was also fortunate to have very able and wise leaders, especially during the years of the first dynasties. The influence of other civilizations: Following the creation of the state of Ancient Egypt, contacts were made with othercivilizations as time passed. Some of these contacts helped to greatly enrich the civilization of Egypt. For example, theAncient Egyptians learned to fight war on horseback from the Hyksos, people from Asia who conquered Egypt in 1730B. c. Ancient Egypt also learned much from the Sumerians, The Hebrews and Babylonians from Asia.


For example, theAncient Egyptians learned to fight war on horseback from the Hyksos, people from Asia who conquered Egypt in 1730B. c. Ancient Egypt also learned much from the Sumerians, The Hebrews and Babylonians from Asia. They also borrowed from the Greek and Roman civilizations from Europe. These peoples also borrowed much from Ancient Egypt's civilization. Religion: The worship of gods like those of the Nile, the sun and many others helped to bring the people of Ancient Egypttogether. This unity was very helpful to the construction of Egypt's rich civilization. Existence of fertile lands that led to rise of productivityExistence of a bigger population that provided labour to the farms as well as market for goods. The existence of good transport network that ensure delivery of crop produce. The knowledge of weather and climatic conditions also ensured their success in agriculture. Introduction and adoption of iron technology in Africa by 1000AD, which enabled the Egyptians to make and use iron tools like ploughs, which made farming more efficient. Availability of food crops that had already become indigenous to Egypt, e.g. wheat and barley. Availability of many tamable animals in Egypt e.g. goats and sheepGreat ZimbabweGreat Zimbabwe is the name for the stone remains of a medieval city in southeastern Africa. It is composed of three parts, including the Great Enclosure shown here . It is believed to have been a royal residence or a symbolic grain storage facility. Great Zimbabwe is the name of the stone ruins of an ancient city near modern day Masvingo, Zimbabwe. People lived in Great Zimbabwe beginning around 1100 C.E. but abandoned it in the 15th century. The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which was a Shona Bantu trading empire. Zimbabwe means stone houses in Shona. Great Zimbabwe was part of a large and wealthy global trading networkFactors leading to the rise of the Great Zimbabwe EmpireThe decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change. This was a neighboring kingdom. The greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. Due to its marketability, it attracted many traders. The existence of trading activities e.g. Cattle, gold, copper coins with as far as China. The existence of good leadership also contributed to its faster rise.


The existence of trading activities e.g. Cattle, gold, copper coins with as far as China. The existence of good leadership also contributed to its faster rise. Kingdom KongoKongo, former kingdom in west-central Africa, located south of the Congo River present-day Angola and Democratic Republic of the Congo . According to traditional accounts, the kingdom was founded by Lukeni lua Nimi about 1390. Originally, it was probably a loose federation of small polities, but, as the kingdom expanded, conquered territories were integrated as a royal patrimony. Soyo and Mbata were the two most powerful provinces of the original federation; other provinces included Nsundi, Mpangu, Mbamba, and Mpemba. The capital of the kingdom was Mbanza Kongo. The capital and its surrounding area were densely settled more so than other towns in and near the kingdom. This allowed the manikongo king of Kongo to keep close at hand the manpower and supplies necessary to wield impressive power and centralize the state. Factors leading to the rise of Kingdom of KongoIt is generally acknowledged that alliances and military conquest contributed to the rise of the Kingdom of Kongo. Alliances between tribes were solidified through intermarriage, mutual agreements, and cooperation under one centralized monarch or "nkani". The kingdom of Kongo prospered in trade - this was in Ivory, copper, salt, cattle hides and slaves. Existence of a working population - the kingdom produced its own goods via specialised groups of craftworkers such as weavers who produced the famous raffia fabrics of Kongo , potters, and metalworkers. The existence of shell currency- the spiral nzimbu shells which originally came from Luanda, an offshore island located some 240 km away. Initially used as a means of storing wealth and as a standardmeasure of the value of other goods, the shells came to be used like coins to pay for goods and labour. The existence of a highly centralized rule by a single monarch or nkani who appointed regional governors throughout his territory. These governors, in turn, appointed local officials and collected tribute such as ivory, millet, palm wine, and leopard and lion skins from local chiefs, which were passed on to the king at Mbanza Kongo. Tributes were paid at lavish annual ceremonies which involved much feasting and beer-drinking.


The existence of a highly centralized rule by a single monarch or nkani who appointed regional governors throughout his territory. These governors, in turn, appointed local officials and collected tribute such as ivory, millet, palm wine, and leopard and lion skins from local chiefs, which were passed on to the king at Mbanza Kongo. Tributes were paid at lavish annual ceremonies which involved much feasting and beer-drinking. In return for their offerings, chiefs and officials received the king's favour, military protection, and some material rewards such as food delicacies and clothing. The existence of Congo river- this provided a means of transport as well as water for agriculture among other things. The existence of rich mineral minerals like copper which were extracted and exported by traders who came from middle east. Contributions of Early Civilization to the modern world. The early civilization contributed to the modern world in the following ways. Expansion and modernization of modern agriculture- this involved use of irrigation methods and mechanization. Modification of seeds was also a result of early civilization. E.g. Basin Irrigation in Egypt. In the field of medicine- it contributed to various inventions likemummification preservation of the dead , treatment of fractured bones as well as development of vaccines. E.g. In EgyptExpansion of knowledge- this was done through dissemination of information in books, patches, scrolls as well as establishment of learning institutions. Like early education institutions were found in Egypt. Fermentation in modern day dates back to early civilization in Egypt. Use of currency in trade in modern day to day dates back to early civilization e.g. the use of shell currency in Kingdom Kongo. In the field of Engineering early civilization enabled construction of buildings by use of Angles E.g. Construction of Pyramids in Egypt. In architecture this involved aligning the pyramids towards the pole star and also know the level of flooding during flooding seasons of the Nile. Inventions in the transport system was as a results of early civilization. E.g. two wheeled, four wheeled hard carts. In politics- early civilization contributed a lot in establishment of various states and countries as well other modern Kingdoms. This was further enhanced by constitutions or by-laws that guided the early civilization governments. Social Organization of selected African Communities up to the 1900Social organization revolves around way of life for the following selected African communities.


In politics- early civilization contributed a lot in establishment of various states and countries as well other modern Kingdoms. This was further enhanced by constitutions or by-laws that guided the early civilization governments. Social Organization of selected African Communities up to the 1900Social organization revolves around way of life for the following selected African communities. The Ogiek - The Okiek Ogiek , sometimes called the Ogiek or Akiek although the term Akiek sometimes refers to a distinct subgroup , are a Southern Nilotic ethnic group native to Tanzania and Southern Kenya in the Mau Forest , and Western Kenya in the Mount Elgon Forest a hunter-gatherer society, living in western KenyaThe Zulu - are a Nguni ethnic group native to Southern Africa. The Zulu people are the largest ethnic group and nation in South Africa, with an estimated 10 12 million people, living mainly in the province of KwaZulu- Natal. They originated from Nguni communities who took part in the Bantu migrations over millennia. As the clans integrated together, the rulership of Shaka brought success to the Zulu nation due to his improved military tactics and organization. Zulus take pride in their ceremonies such as the Umhlanga, or Reed Dance, and their various forms of beadwork. The art and skill of beadwork takes part in the identification of Zulu people and acts as a form of communication and dedication to the tribe and specific traditions. The men and women both serve different purposes in society in order to function as a whole. Today the Zulu people predominantly believe inChristianity, but have created a syncretic religion that is combined with the Zulu's prior belief systems. 3 Ahsante - The Asante were one of the Akan-speaking peoples who settled in the forest region of modern Ghana between the 11th and 13th centuries. The separate Asante chiefdoms were united by Osei Tutu in the 1670s and in 1696 he took the title of Asantehene king and founded the Asante empire. In Asante, the family line is matrilineal - inheritance passes from the mother to her children. The Golden Stool is also passed down matrilineally, to one of the king's maternal nephews.


During Shaka s reign, however, circumcision was abolished. Marriage was restricted until one served in the army for a period of 40 years. At this age, the military men could be retired at the same time with the females of an appropriate age for marriage. The Zulu were divided in social classes called clans, traditionally the royal clan provided kings and chiefs while warrior come from the class of commonersThe Zulu worshiped their gods and the most important was the god of the war. The king controlled all social affairs and was the biggest social figure. Polygamy was common among the ZuluSocial Organization of the Asante up to the 1900The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language. The Asante were organized in clansMarriage between members of the same clan was prohibitedInheritance of property was matrimonial. The community was bound together by the Golden stoolThere was an annual cultural festival odwira held at kumasi to honour the ancestors. The society was divided into social classes stratificationThe kings were regarded as semi-divine religious tradersThe Asante were polytheists worshipped many gods and goddessesThe ancestors mediated between god and the peopleThe Asante had a supreme God called NyameSimilarities in the social organization of the Ogiek, Zulu and AhsanteAll were organized into clansAll had a belief in a supernatural being in different ways. They all believed in the existence of ancestral spiritsThey all had ceremonies at different times of the year. All practiced Marriage. Differences in the social Organization of the Ogiek, Zulu and AhsanteHuman Diversity and inclusionDiversity recognizes that, though people have things in common with each other, they are also different many ways. Inclusion is where those differences are seen as a benefit, and where perspectives and differences are shared, leading to better decisions. Personality differences that differentiate peopleWhile personality shows what you are outside or what you are to the world, character reveals what you are inside. As these are directly related to a person s attitude and behaviour, most people get confused between these two easily. Personality refers to the combination of qualities, attitude and behaviour, that makes a person distinct from others.


Personality differences that differentiate peopleWhile personality shows what you are outside or what you are to the world, character reveals what you are inside. As these are directly related to a person s attitude and behaviour, most people get confused between these two easily. Personality refers to the combination of qualities, attitude and behaviour, that makes a person distinct from others. Personality implies Who we seem to bePersonality is a set of personal qualitiesThe personality is the mask or the identity of a personPersonality is subjectivePersonality is the outer appearance and behaviour of a person. The personality of an individual may change with time. Personality, does not need validation and support of the societythe Personality attributes that differentiates us include:AuthenticityAuthenticity relates to how genuine you are. You may show this by providing honest answers and being true to yourself in your interview. When you're working, you may demonstrate authenticity by showing howyou truly feel each day. It's also important to act and treat others professionally. ConfidenceConfidence in your abilities, education and qualifications may distinguish you from other candidates. They may help you better explain how an organization could benefit from hiring you. Aim to present yourself confidently in your interview without seeming like you're bragging. CuriosityCuriosity is a beneficial attribute in the workplace because it encourages you to continue to acquire new skills and knowledge. This may help you learn more about new industries or clients, or motivate you to try new things. DiligenceDiligence encompasses various soft skills, such as attention to detail and organization. It fosters a commitment to success and ensures everything in a project is accurate. One way to demonstrate diligence is to follow all directions specifically, showing your comprehension skills and ability to do what's asked of you. EmpathyEmpathy refers to the ability to relate to others and understand their emotions. It's a crucial attribute to help employees understand each other and work well as a team. GenerosityGenerosity involves helping others, especially when you may not benefit from the situation. This may help your co-workers appreciate you more and create a more positive and supportive work environment. While you may show generosity by offering to help a co-worker with their tasks, it may also be as simple as complimenting someone on their achievements or providing them with constructive feedback to improve their future performance. HonestyHonesty is essential for creating trust among co-workers.


This may help your co-workers appreciate you more and create a more positive and supportive work environment. While you may show generosity by offering to help a co-worker with their tasks, it may also be as simple as complimenting someone on their achievements or providing them with constructive feedback to improve their future performance. HonestyHonesty is essential for creating trust among co-workers. It helps show that you can be trusted with your responsibilities. IntegrityIntegrity relates to how well you represent and follow your morals. This involves acting as a good role model for others, speaking truthfully and behaving honourably. KindnessKindness refers to your compassion and forgiveness of others. PerseverancePerseverance shows your ability to remain motivated to succeed in any circumstances. PositivityPositivity may help you remain committed to your work and create a pleasant work environment. SociabilitySociability is important because it helps ensure conducive environment for everyone. Some roles may require more social skills than others. Engaging others in conversation and encouraging them to talk may help show your sociability. TransparencyTransparency, like honesty, relates to being open about your experience and qualifications. Desirable and undesirable personality attributes in a multi-cultural Societymulticulturalism: A characteristic of a society that has many different ethnic or national cultures mingling freely. Desirable characteristics: These are characteristics such as being hardworking, or displaying honesty and integrity. Undesirable characteristics: These are ones such as lying and stubbornness. Desirable characteristics are known as qualities and undesirable characteristics are known as personality defects. Characteristics have been grossly grouped in these two categories. Qualities bring about general well-being and have an overall positive effect on the person and one s interactions. Defects on the other hand bring mental anguish both to the person having them and the people he interacts with. Undesirable personality attributesManipulative and deceptive practicesFind yourself unable of asking for what you want and need, instead bending others to your will in order to get what you want and need? Why you believe you are doing the correct thing is understandable. Even if you want something badly enough, it may be difficult to simply come out and say so. One who is preoccupied with himself herselfYou re out with your friends, and you re the kind of person that spends the whole time talking about yourself. Quick to JudgeWhen you have a negative opinion of someone, it is one thing.


Even if you want something badly enough, it may be difficult to simply come out and say so. One who is preoccupied with himself herselfYou re out with your friends, and you re the kind of person that spends the whole time talking about yourself. Quick to JudgeWhen you have a negative opinion of someone, it is one thing. When youreally tell them, that s another story. No one wants to be in the company of someone who is always criticizing them for their appearance, their diet, or their words. Negative and gloomy. What if you re one of those people who sees the glass as half-empty? In our world, there are many different types of people that believe in different things. Being one of these people is completely OK. This becomes an issue when you cause everyone else in your immediate vicinity to fall along with you. The PerfectionistsWhat exactly is wrong with being a perfectionist? This is a question that only a perfectionist would ask. Despite the fact that there is nothing wrong with wanting things to go smoothly, when your life gets too concerned with the little details, it becomes a major issue. Not just for yourself, but also for others in your immediate vicinity. The pursuit of perfection is then mirrored in the eyes of your friends and others in your immediate vicinity. And no one will ever be able to live up to such expectations. At the end of the day, they are forgotten. Different components of Human identify in a multi-cultural societyOthers include:Race ethnicityClassAgeWays of applying inclusion in day to day interactionsMindful communication: listen more, talk carefullyCommunication is the first aspect to work on. Often, if used inappropriately, our words can express wrong intentions or create misunderstandings. Here are some examples:When addressing a group, avoid using gender-specific words such as ladies , dudes , men , guys . Especially in the presence of gender non-conforming or mixed gender individuals, appellations may turn out to be misplaced, cause miss gendering, and cut off group members. Avoid assertive language and words: Introduce your contribution with In my opinion or According to my experience or Based on what I ve read and learned . Leave space for questions and replies, make sure you do not lecture when you get involved in a conversation.


Especially in the presence of gender non-conforming or mixed gender individuals, appellations may turn out to be misplaced, cause miss gendering, and cut off group members. Avoid assertive language and words: Introduce your contribution with In my opinion or According to my experience or Based on what I ve read and learned . Leave space for questions and replies, make sure you do not lecture when you get involved in a conversation. Challenge stereotypesUnconscious biases, prejudices, lack of information, influence of the media, and teachings coming from our cultural and social beliefs may all impact the way that we interact with others. For example, we are often informed by the beliefs and value systems we are exposed to, includingthrough our family and friends and the things we learned at school. These deeply ingrained belief and value systems can also lead to actions and reactions that can sometimes be exclusive and unfair. Avoid assumptionsOne of the most common mistakes in everyday interactions is to make assumptions. Assumptions are a difficult starting point because they take for granted that our audience shares the same requirements and experiences as we do. Although assumptions are often developed unconsciously, it is important to recognize the moment when we apply them in our interactions with others. For example, it is important to avoid assumptions about the gender of the person or groups we are speaking with and always try to use gender inclusive language. If you meet a disabled person, do not assume what they are able or not able to do something. Be aware of your privilegesTalking about privileges can be difficult and often very uncomfortable. However, being aware of our own privileges is a crucial first step to adapting a more inclusive attitude. A privilege can be defined as a right, license, or exemption from duty or liability granted as a special benefit, advantage, or favor Privileges are social, political, and cultural constructions that are translated into hierarchical relationships in our everyday and professional lives. Part of a broader system, these constructions are solidified through structural and institutional dynamics, and they serve to reinforce fabricated societal divisions based on perceived or constructed divisions and or pretenses. Peace and Conflict resolutionPeace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict such as war and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. Conflict is simply differing ideas or actions, often related to the selfish pursuit of needs known and unknown that end in a state of unrest.


Peace and Conflict resolutionPeace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict such as war and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. Conflict is simply differing ideas or actions, often related to the selfish pursuit of needs known and unknown that end in a state of unrest. It is a necessary and permanent part of life. The important thing to remember is that conflict is natural. It can be a slight conflict that causes no harm or an egregious conflict that results in irreparable damage. Contribution of personal peace to a responsible citizenPersonal Peace is often referred to as intrapersonal peace or inner peace. It means peace with oneself. When you have personal peace, it means you accept yourself the way you are, no matter how you look outside, or what you think about yourself: spirit, soul, and body. This also comes as a result of a deep and better personal understanding. Its helps in avoiding conflicts between individuals It helps improve work place and home relationships It helps in understanding others betterIts helps us to assist others without much strainIts helps us develop desirable personality attributes that can help us achieve much. It helps be accommodative of others despite our varied opinion and actionsPersonal characteristics that express a state of peaceAll suffering is a result of imbalance physically, mentally or spiritually. Being charitableBeing self-disciplineStraightforwardCompassion for all creaturesAbsence of greedRadiance of characterForgivenessPatienceFreedom from hateApproaches that can promote one s inner peaceControlling your stressTaking a mental health day, morning or momentReading spiritual literatureChanging our perspective - Much turmoil and anguish come from sticking to your own personal perspective. You may get bent out of shape when the other person cannot see things the way you do. You can expend a lot of time and energy trying to get someone to see your point of view, and leave yourself exhausted and frustrated. Practice Non-JudgmentFocus on serving - People prone to worry have the what if syndrome. You let worry and anxiety overtake your every thought. What if I don t make enough money? What if I lose my job? What if the person I love doesn t love me back? With each thought, your mind spirals into chaos. When you place your focus on helping and serving, somehow the anxiety goes away.


What if the person I love doesn t love me back? With each thought, your mind spirals into chaos. When you place your focus on helping and serving, somehow the anxiety goes away. As you become more relaxed, you ll notice that many of the things you were worried about disappear. Every time you start the what ifs, replace them with the phrases, How can I help? And How can I serve? Importance of enhancing PeacePeace makes sure that you do not go on the medicines to run your life. Peace helps you keep mentally and physically fit. Peace ensures that you are aware of yourself. Peace helps you take better decisions. Peace gives you strength and you stay calm when things go unexpectedly. Peace gives you the freedom to do experiments in your life. Peace helps you put things in order. Peace enlightens you. Peace helps you see things as they are. Peace makes you intelligent and increases your EQ. Peace connects you better with other people. Peace helps you understand the surroundings. Peace to the mind is like base to the home, roots to the tree. F. Slavery and Servitudeforms of slavery and servitude in Traditional African SocietySlavery is when someone actually owns you like a piece of property. Servitude is similar to slavery - you might live on the person s premises, work for them and be unable to leave, but they don t own you. These forms include. Human Trafficking: Human Trafficking sees people being forcibly moved and recruited using violence or threats in order for them to be exploited for labor, prostitution, marriage, etc. Forced Labour: Forced Labour is where someone is forced toundertake work against their will and threatened with violence. Debt bondage: Debt bondage is where those trapped in poverty are forced to borrow money from others and can then be forced to work in order to pay back this debt. This is one of the most common types of slavery. Forced and early marriage: Forced and or early marriage is wheresomeone has been forced to marry against their will and or with the threat of violence consequences. Domestic servitude The Indian Ocean TradeThe Indian Ocean trade routes connected Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa, beginning at least as early as the third century BCE. This vast international web of routes linked all of those areas as well as East Asia particularly China .


Forced and early marriage: Forced and or early marriage is wheresomeone has been forced to marry against their will and or with the threat of violence consequences. Domestic servitude The Indian Ocean TradeThe Indian Ocean trade routes connected Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa, beginning at least as early as the third century BCE. This vast international web of routes linked all of those areas as well as East Asia particularly China . Long before Europeans "discovered" the Indian Ocean, traders from Arabia, Gujarat, and other coastal areas used triangle-sailed dhows to harness the seasonal monsoon winds. Domestication of the camel helped bring coastal trade goods such as silk, porcelain, spices, in cense, and ivory to inland empires, as well. Enslaved people were also traded. The Indian Ocean trade was a world of Islamic merchants ferrying porcelain from China to the Swahili Coast, ivory to India, cotton to Indonesia, spices to Arabia, and so on. Regional cultures, politics, religions, and entire histories were exchanged through the Indian Ocean Trade. Factors leading to the development of Indian Ocean slave TradeAvailability of items of trade encouraged traders to come to the coastThe high demand for goods trade items from the Kenyan coast by consumers in The outside world led to increased tradeThe existence of local trade among the Africans along the coast provided a base upon which the Indian Ocean trade developed. The Monsoon winds facilitated the movement of vessels ships to and from the coast thus enabling the merchants to take part in the trade. The Indian Ocean provided access to traders from Asia and Europe. The relative peace political stability provided conducive environment for trade. The availability of credit facilities from Indian Banyans money lenders enabled many people to take part in tradeExistence of enterprising merchants at the coast foreign lands promoted trading links enabled trade to flourish. The natural harbors along the coast ensured safe docking of ships for loading and unloading of items of tradeAdvancement in ship boat building led to better sailing vessels thus increased trading activities to and from the coast. Availability of slavesOrganization of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in 15th CenturyThe Indian Ocean Trade began with small trading settlements around 800 A.D., and ended in the 1500s when Portugal invaded and tried to run the trade for its own profit. As trade intensified between Africa and Asia, powerful city-states flourished along the eastern coast of Africa.


The natural harbors along the coast ensured safe docking of ships for loading and unloading of items of tradeAdvancement in ship boat building led to better sailing vessels thus increased trading activities to and from the coast. Availability of slavesOrganization of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in 15th CenturyThe Indian Ocean Trade began with small trading settlements around 800 A.D., and ended in the 1500s when Portugal invaded and tried to run the trade for its own profit. As trade intensified between Africa and Asia, powerful city-states flourished along the eastern coast of Africa. These included Kilwa, Sofala, Mombasa, Malindi, and others. The city-states traded with inland kingdoms likeGreat Zimbabwe to obtain gold, ivory, and iron. These materials were then sold to places like India, SoutheastAsia, and China. These were Africa s exports in the Indian Ocean Trade. These items could be sold at a profit because they were scarce in Asian countries. At the same time, the East African city-states were buying items from Asia. Many residents of the city-states were willing to pay high prices for cotton, silk, and porcelain objects. These items were expensive because they were not available in Africa at the time. These were Africa s imports in the Indian Ocean Trade. The city-states along the eastern coast of Africa made ideal centers of trade. An important attraction was the gold obtained from inland kingdoms. The gold was needed mainly for coins, although it was also used for works of art, ornamentation on buildings, and jewelry. And, the city-states were easy to reach from Asia by ship because of the favorable wind and ocean currents. Ships had no trouble docking at the excellent ports and harbors located on the coasts of the city-states, making it easy to unload and load cargo. And ,merchants, tired after their long overseas journey, enjoyed the fine restaurants, lodging, and entertainment offered by the port cities. Finally, East Africa was a peaceful region, and the few conflicts that did occur were small and brief. All of these factors created an ideal setting for import-export companies to conduct business. Many of the merchants from the Arabian peninsula, India, and Southeast Asia stayed in the city-states of East Africa. Interracial marriages were not uncommon, and gradually over the centuries, a new and distinct ethnic group developed, known as the Swahili.


All of these factors created an ideal setting for import-export companies to conduct business. Many of the merchants from the Arabian peninsula, India, and Southeast Asia stayed in the city-states of East Africa. Interracial marriages were not uncommon, and gradually over the centuries, a new and distinct ethnic group developed, known as the Swahili. Today millions of Swahili people live in the nations of East Africa, where the Swahili language is widely spoken. You can take Swahili courses at many colleges here in the U.S. The Swahili language is a mixture of the Arabic, Hindi, and Bantu languages. The Swahili city-states steadily grew and prospered, and were a major world economic power by the 1400s. Although the city-states were famous throughout Africa and Asia, no European countries knew of them. You can imagine the surprise, then, of Portuguese captain Vasco da Gama when, in 1498, he came upon the bustling port cities of Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, and Malindi as he sailed up the eastern coast of Africa. He and his crew were welcomed by each of the cities he visited, although neither his ships nor the European itemsthey attempted to trade were of much interest to the Swahili governments. Social Injustices committed on the Africans during Indian Ocean Slave trade in the 15th CenturyIt fueled conflict between the communities as demands for slaves increased leading to insecurityIt created class through emergence of wealthy merchants who displayed high standards of living. African religion was downtrodden as intermarriages between Arabs and Africans led to rise of Swahili speakers which were converted to ChristianityIt led to erosion of African culture this because as the interaction with arabs continued African culture was bound to diminish. Slavery reduced African dignity as they were just seen as dogs to be in chainsMany were thrown into waters if they had no valueAfrican women working as domestic workers we mistreated through bodily harm and sexual harassment. Many children remained orphans as the fathers and mothers were taken as slaves during the trade. It led change of roles as the fatherless children were now forced to seek means of survival. It led to destruction of African families and homes through torturing and separation of the bond that tied these familiesIt led to rise in many orphan children and widows as the able men were taken captives as slaves.


Many children remained orphans as the fathers and mothers were taken as slaves during the trade. It led change of roles as the fatherless children were now forced to seek means of survival. It led to destruction of African families and homes through torturing and separation of the bond that tied these familiesIt led to rise in many orphan children and widows as the able men were taken captives as slaves. Geographical regions covered by Indian ocean trade in AfricaPopulation Distribution in AfricaPopulation distribution means the pattern of where people live. World population distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. Places which are densely populated contain many people. Factors influencing Population distribution in Africa ClimateAreas which experience conducive climates especially adequate and reliable rainfall together with mild and moderate temperature attract a dense population than desert and semi desert lands with low and unreliable rainfall. ReliefThe nature of relief greatly influences population by either attracting or discourage settlement. For example, in extremely high relief regions, the temperatures are too cold for human settlement and the ruggedness too hinder construction of homes and communication lines. On the other hand, gently rolling slopes attract dense settlement because they are easy to construct communication lines and settlement. VegetationDense forests such as those in the Congo basin, hinder rapid population settlement because they are very difficult to clear, water logged and contain vectors that cause diseases to man and there are wild animals which are dangerous to human life. On the other hand, savannah grasslands are densely populated because they are easy to clear and their climate is conducive for human survival. Government policyThe government policy may either attract or discourage settlement. Some areas may be gazette by law for example national parks, Game reserves or forest reserves. Government may also encourage settlement by establishing settlement schemes and resettle people from densely populated areas. Utilization of natural resourcesThe exploitation of natural resources for example minerals may attract human settlement while seeking for employment. UrbanizationThe growth of towns and cities is also a very important facilities influencing population distribution in Africa. Urban centres provide a good number of functions which attract people to them. For example cheap power, trading activities, good accommodation, good medical care, cheap and constant transport, clean water, higher institutions of learning, government offices, recreation centres, and the like. Political stabilityAreas that are unstable and insecure have got low populations e.g. Karamoja where there is a lot of cattle rustling compared to areas that are generally politically stable and secure hence attracting dense settlementse.g.


For example cheap power, trading activities, good accommodation, good medical care, cheap and constant transport, clean water, higher institutions of learning, government offices, recreation centres, and the like. Political stabilityAreas that are unstable and insecure have got low populations e.g. Karamoja where there is a lot of cattle rustling compared to areas that are generally politically stable and secure hence attracting dense settlementse.g. Towns like Kampala and Mombasa. Densely and sparsely populated areas in AfricaSettlement patterns in Africanucleated settlement:Nucleated settlements are ones where the houses are grouped closely together, often around a central feature like a church, pub or village green. Linear settlements are settlements where the buildings are constructed in lines, often next to a geographical feature like a lake shore, a river or following a road. Where linear settlements follow a road, the road often predates the settlement. Dispersed settlement:Dispersed settlements are ones where the houses are spread out over a wide area. They are often the homes of farmers and can be found in rural areas. FIELD WORKField work is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures, and natural environment s. Types of field workField Excursion-Visiting an area near or far from the school to see geographical phenomena then note down and discuss later in class. AimReinforce what has been learnt in classGain more geographical knowledgeIdentify and appreciate geographical featuresIdentify problems of geographical interestField Research-Systematic problem solving done by experts in which scientific methods of collecting, recording and analyzing data are used. Field Study-Study conducted within a neighbourhood in which one theme is pursuede.g. A study of a local farm . Methods of data collection and recording in field workSurveys and QuestionnairesSurveys and questionnaires, in their most foundational sense, are a means of obtaining data from targeted respondents with the goal of generalizing the results to a broader public. Almost everyone involved in data collection, especially in the business and academic sector relies on surveys and questionnaires to obtain credible data and insights from their target audience. InterviewsAn interview is accurately defined as a formal meeting between two individuals in which the interviewer asks the interviewee questions in order to gather information. An interview not only collects personal information from the interviewees, but it is also a way to acquireinsights into people s other skills.


Almost everyone involved in data collection, especially in the business and academic sector relies on surveys and questionnaires to obtain credible data and insights from their target audience. InterviewsAn interview is accurately defined as a formal meeting between two individuals in which the interviewer asks the interviewee questions in order to gather information. An interview not only collects personal information from the interviewees, but it is also a way to acquireinsights into people s other skills. ObservationsThe observation method of data collection involves seeing people in a certain setting or place at a specific time and day. Essentially, researchers study the behavior of the individuals or surroundings in which they are analyzing. This can be controlled, spontaneous, or participant-based research. Methods of data analysis and presentation in field workLearners to refer to their bookChallenges and solutions in carrying out field workPhysical obstructions i.e. tall buildings, hills, trees hence may hinder one from observing certain features or accessing some areas. Abrupt weather changes e.g. rainy, fog, misty, windy. Avoid mentioning sunshine. Language barrierInadequate toolsObsolete tools outdated toolsHostile respondentsGetting biased and exaggerated information. Procedures in carrying out field workIdentify and acquire researchers of the fieldIt is essential to acquire researchers who are specialized in the field of research. Moreover, their experience in the field will help them undergo the further steps of conducting the field research. Identify the topic of researchPost acquiring the researcher, they will work on identifying the topic of research. The researchers are responsible for deciding what topic of research to focus on based on the gaps observed in the existing research literature. Identify the right method of researchAfter fine tuning the research topic, researchers define the right method to approach the aim and objectives of the research. Visit the site of the study and collect dataBased on the objectives, the observations begin. Observers Researchers go on field and start collecting data either by visual observation, interviews or staying along with the subjects and experiencing their surroundings to get an in-depth understanding. Analyze the data acquiredThe researchers undergo the process of data analysis once the data is collected. Communicate the resultsThe researchers document a detailed field study report, explaining the data and its outcome. Giving the field study a suitable conclusion. RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIESEarly AgricultureAreas where early agriculture was practiced in selected geographical regions.


Communicate the resultsThe researchers document a detailed field study report, explaining the data and its outcome. Giving the field study a suitable conclusion. RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIESEarly AgricultureAreas where early agriculture was practiced in selected geographical regions. They included:RiftvalleyEgyptNubiaCrops grown and animals kept Crops in rift valleyMilletMaizebeans,cassava,sorghum,pigeon peasAnimals keptCowsGoatsSheepDogsCrops grown in Egyptemmer a wheat-grain ,chickpeas and lentils,lettuce,onions,garlic,sesame,wheat,barley,papyrus, Animals kept in Egyptcattle,goats,pigs,ducks,cows, and geese. Crops grown in Nubiagrains,peas,lentils,dates, and possibly melons Animals kept were mainly cows. Method of irrigation used in ancient EgyptBasinEgyptians developed and utilized a form of water management known as basin irrigation. This practice allowed them to control the rise and fall of the river to best suit their agricultural needs. A crisscross network of earthen walls was formed in a field of crops that the river would flood. When the floods came, the water would be trapped in the basins formed by the walls. This grid would hold water longer than it would have naturally stayed, allowing the earth to become fully saturated for later planting. Once the soil was fully watered, the floodwater that remained in the basin would simply be drained to another basin that was in need of more waterShadoofThe shadoof is used to lift water from a water source onto land or into another waterway or basin. The mechanism comprises a long counterbalanced pole on a pivot, with a bucket attached to the end of it. It is generally used in a crop irrigation system using basins, dikes, ditches, walls, canals, and similar waterways. CanalThese were constructed along the farms to transport water to others regions. NilometerA nilometer was used to predict flood levels. This instrument was a method of marking the height of the Nile over the years. Nilometers were spaced along the Nile River.


NilometerA nilometer was used to predict flood levels. This instrument was a method of marking the height of the Nile over the years. Nilometers were spaced along the Nile River. They acted as an early warning system, alerting these early people that waters were not as high as usual, so they could prepare for drought or for unusually high floodwaters. Contribution of the Nile valley agriculture to world civilizationThe Nile River is one of the most well-known rivers in the world. The Nile River Valley was vital to the success of several ancient civilizations. The Nile River allowed the earliest civilizations to flourish in spite of the surrounding harsh desert climate. The Nile River Valley includes not just the river, but the surrounding banks and low lands that benefit from the river flooding. For ancient civilizations, the Nile River Valley was a source of food and income. When the water crested in October, the land was prime for planting crops such as wheat, barley, and papyrus. Ancient civilizations developed irrigation systems to redirect water and enhance the growing season. In addition, the river was plentiful with fish, which could be sold or traded. The Nile River served as a mode of transportation. Ancient civilizations were able to maneuver the waters to trade between the cities along the banks. The mobility encouraged growth in villages along the river. Ancient Egyptians greatly valued the Nile River; it was the center of their existence. The Nile River was celebrated in paintings and myths. The cycle of the Nile marked the change of season. Egyptian beliefs were interwoven with the Nile River. The Egyptians viewed the Nile River Valley as a gift from the gods; it was a portal between humans and gods. To Egyptians, the river was part of their identity and showed great reverence for it. It led to inventions in the field of agriculture like methods of irrigation and agricultureIt led to development of transport system that ensured transportation of crop produce. It led to the development of methods of food storage in order to be used for long of for the future. It also contributed to the invention in the field of medicine like perseveration of the dead, healing fractured bones. The knowledge of weather forecast in Egypt also contributed in the modern day weather forecast. The knowledge of mathematics in agricultural daily activities also contributed to modern day mathematics like Pythagoras. There was increased production, hence food supply was regular. Sufficient and nutritional foods led to increase in population. Surplus agricultural production resulted to trade, e.g., food was exchanged with pots and tools.


There was increased production, hence food supply was regular. Sufficient and nutritional foods led to increase in population. Surplus agricultural production resulted to trade, e.g., food was exchanged with pots and tools. There was invention of writing, arithmetic and geometry due to the need to keep records. The writings were referred to as Hieroglyphics. Shadoof irrigation methods were developed that put more land into use. Urban centres emerged, e.g., Memphis, Thebes. Farmers settled more permanently and improved their living standards. Religion developed, e.g., god was associated with farming, offering to gods was practised. As a result of the agriculture practised along the banks of the Nile, people settled there. Those settlements grew in size and became urban centres within the ancient Egyptian Kingdom. -Importance of domestication of plants and animals in africa Domestication is the process of hereditary reorganization of wild animalsand plants into domestic and cultivated forms according to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. The first attempts at domestication of animals and plants apparently were made in the Old World during the Mesolithic Period. Dogs were first domesticated in Central Asia by at least 15,000 years ago by people whoengaged in hunting and gathering wild edible plants. The first successful domestication of plants, as well as goats, cattle, and other animals which heralded the onset of the Neolithic Period. Domestication of vegetatively reproducing plants, such as those with tubers, probably preceded domestication of the seed plants cereals, legumes, and other vegetables. There are a number of factors that made it necessary for human beings to discover agriculture. These were:There were climatic changes that caused the animals to migrate farther from their previous locations. Due to an increase in human population, the natural environment could not provide adequate food. Thus, there was a need for a regular supply of food. People and animals competed for food leading to scarcity of food. This forced people adopt cultivation. Similarly, over hunting on the part of man depleted the stocks of animals that he could rely on for food. Natural disasters such as floods or forest fires would kill the animals and vegetation making it necessary for human beings to domesticate plants and animals. Hunting and gathering had become an insecure source of food as man would occasionally return empty handed having failed to catch game.


Similarly, over hunting on the part of man depleted the stocks of animals that he could rely on for food. Natural disasters such as floods or forest fires would kill the animals and vegetation making it necessary for human beings to domesticate plants and animals. Hunting and gathering had become an insecure source of food as man would occasionally return empty handed having failed to catch game. Figure 3.1 shows some of the areas along the Nile Valley where early agriculture was practised. Hunting as well as gathering would sometimes be hindered by unfavourable weather conditions, e.g., snow or rain that would make it uncomfortable for man to go and hunt. Hunting and gathering was tiring and streneous due to the constant movement that was required as man followed the animals during their migration. Besides food, man also domesticated animals and crops because of their economic value. For instance, animals provided him with clothing, i.e., from their hides and skins. Man domesticated animals for other purposes like their use in transport. Some animals like the dog assisted him in hunting and provided him with security. Domestication has the following importance sDomestication of plants and animals ensured steady supply of food. Products like skin were used for clothing and beddings hence keeping man warm. Bones were used to make ornaments and needles hence decorating man. Animals like donkey, horses and oxen were used as a means of transport and for pulling ploughs this was later used much in agriculture to make cultivation easier. The dog gave man companionship and security. Animals were traded for other items. Economic Organization of selected African communities up to 1900Economic organization of the OgiekThey were farmers as they kept bees and were known as beekeepers and also they grew vegetables. They were also hunters and gathers. They hunted and trapped wild animals. Various tools were used, including: clubs, spears, bows and arrows. They also practiced trade with the honey they had harvested. They also practiced traditional craft like basketry, weaving among othersThey were also skilled iron workers as they made tools using ironEconomic organization of the ZuluThey participated in the local trade where they exchanged commodities such as fish, salt and cloth with their neighbours, Goan and Go. They participated in the long distance trade as middlemen between traders from North Africa and those from the South. Their main commodities of trade were salt, gold kolanuts and slaves.


They also practiced traditional craft like basketry, weaving among othersThey were also skilled iron workers as they made tools using ironEconomic organization of the ZuluThey participated in the local trade where they exchanged commodities such as fish, salt and cloth with their neighbours, Goan and Go. They participated in the long distance trade as middlemen between traders from North Africa and those from the South. Their main commodities of trade were salt, gold kolanuts and slaves. They grow crops such as kolanuts and grain kept animalsThey practiced crafts especially the manufacture of items such as baskets and pots. They practiced iron working and made tools like hoes, bangles and arrowsThey practiced hunting and gathering of fruits and roots. They practiced mining activitiesThey practiced fishingEconomic organization of The AhsanteThey participated in the local trade where they exchanged commodities such as fish, salt and cloth with their neighbours, Goan and Go. They participated in the long distance trade as middlemen between traders from North Africa and those from the South. Their main commodities of trade were salt, gold kolanuts and slaves. They grow crops such as kolanuts and grain kept animalsThey practiced crafts especially the manufacture of items such as baskets and pots. They practiced iron working and made tools like hoes, bangles and arrowsThey practiced hunting and gathering of fruits and roots. They practiced mining activitiesThey practiced fishingSimilarities in economic activities practiced by selected African communitiesThey all practiced tradeThey were all hunters and gatherersThey all practiced iron workingThey all practiced traditional craftThey also practiced farmingDifference in economic activities practiced by selected African communitiesInternal Dynamics and Transformation In AfricaInternal dynamics in Africa has to do with changes that are taking place in Africa that greatly affect how people relate and behave. Transformation - a complete change in the appearance or character of something or someone. In Africa it s the complete change in the appearance of African continentTransformation brought by introduction of money in africaimpacts of the introduction of money economy in traditional african societyINTRODUCTIONMoney was introduced to Africa by the EuropeansBefore colonial period, Africans practiced barter tradeactual goods exchanged with other goods e.g.


They practiced mining activitiesThey practiced fishingSimilarities in economic activities practiced by selected African communitiesThey all practiced tradeThey were all hunters and gatherersThey all practiced iron workingThey all practiced traditional craftThey also practiced farmingDifference in economic activities practiced by selected African communitiesInternal Dynamics and Transformation In AfricaInternal dynamics in Africa has to do with changes that are taking place in Africa that greatly affect how people relate and behave. Transformation - a complete change in the appearance or character of something or someone. In Africa it s the complete change in the appearance of African continentTransformation brought by introduction of money in africaimpacts of the introduction of money economy in traditional african societyINTRODUCTIONMoney was introduced to Africa by the EuropeansBefore colonial period, Africans practiced barter tradeactual goods exchanged with other goods e.g. animals would be exchanged with food grains, millet, sorghum, cow-peas, children exchanged for food during famineTrade merchants from Asia had introduced into Africa forms of currency such as the cowrie shells, gold and the Indian rupeesEuropeans introduced currency still used todayECONOMYCareful management of resources, finances, income and expenditure of a family, a business enterprise, community or a country. The economy of a country is to be well managed if it has the ability to meet the social economic needs of her members. Development - it s measured by the healthy of its economy in the provision of health, education, housing, sanitation, employment longevity of life, decrease of maternal and child mortality. MONEY ECONOMYUse of money as a means of exchange in economic activities e.g. banking, investment, insurance, payment of goods and services. REASONS FOR MONEY INTRODUCTIONColonization brought a lot of changes such as unoccupied land declared Crown land for colonialistsTax introduction Africans were supposed to pay taxes to the government. Taxes were paid in form of moneyIntroduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of moneyIntroduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using moneyEmergence of new lifestylesConverts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money.


Taxes were paid in form of moneyIntroduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of moneyIntroduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using moneyEmergence of new lifestylesConverts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money. IMPACT OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MONEY ECONOMY IN AFRICAIntroduction of wage labourBreak up of family ties as people migrated from rural to urban areas in search of employmentAfrican land taken by the colonialists, reducing people to squatters hence need to workThere was creation of a gap between people the rich and the poor Emergence of vices e.g. corruption, bribery, prostitution, robbery Deterioration of cherished African values e.g. bride wealth has become commercialized, customs lost etcLoss of African human dignity. Africans had to pay taxes to the colonial government. They were forced to work in European farms so as to get money. They worked under dehumanizing conditionsProduction of traditional food crops declined replaced by cash crops Individual ownership of land was emphasized. Land could be sold at willThere was increase of rural urban migration leaving the rural people less educatedExploitation of the poor by the rich poor wages, overcharging prices on foods. Destruction of the natural environment to create room for building projects, urban centresThe cost of living increased. Almost everything is acquired by money. Uses of money in economy tradeMoney as medium of exchange solves the barter s problem of lack of double coincidence of wants as money has separated the acts of sale and purchase. You can sell goods for money to whosoever wants it and with this money you can buy goods from whosoever wants to sell them. Money as measure unit of value or a unit of account solves the barter s problem of absence of common measure unit of value. Money serves as a unit of value or unit of account and acts as a yardstick to measures exchange value of all commodities. The value of each good or service is expressed as price i.e. money units which guides both consumer and producer to make a transaction. Thus money makes keeping of business account possible. Money as store of value solves the barter s problem of difficulty in storing wealth or generalised purchasing power .


Money units which guides both consumer and producer to make a transaction. Thus money makes keeping of business account possible. Money as store of value solves the barter s problem of difficulty in storing wealth or generalised purchasing power . Moreover, money in convenient denominations like Indian coins of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 paise and currency notes of 2, 5, 10, 100, 500, and 1,000 solves the barter s problem of absence or lack of divisibility. Coins of less than 50 parcent are no longer in use now. Money as standard of deferred payments helps to solve the barter problem of lack of standard of deferred payment. Again, it helps to make contracts which involve future payments. Doubtlessly money helps in removing the difficulties of barter system. Money helps in maximizing consumers satisfaction and producers profit. It helps and promotes saving. Money promotes specialization which increases productivity and efficiency. It facilitates planning of both production and consumption. Money can be utilized in reviving the economy from depression. Money enables production to take place in advance of consumption. It is the institution of money which has proved a valuable social instrument of promoting economic welfare. The whole economic science is based on money; economic motives and activities are measured by money. Comparison in the use of money in currency trade and barter trade in africaThe primary difference between barter and currency systems is that a currency system uses an agreed-upon form of paper or coin money as an exchange system rather than directly trading goods and services through bartering. Both systems have advantages and disadvantages, although currency systems are more widely used in modern economies. Bartering systems were used within the local community, but advances in technology and transportation make it possible for modern society to barter on a global level. Bartering has its limitations, which led to the creation of currency systems. Currency serves as a medium of exchange, resolving mismatched demands associated with the barter system. In early civilizations, common agreed-upon goods, such as animal skins or salt, served as a currency that individuals could exchange for goods and services. Most nations use fiat currency in a monetary currency system.


Currency serves as a medium of exchange, resolving mismatched demands associated with the barter system. In early civilizations, common agreed-upon goods, such as animal skins or salt, served as a currency that individuals could exchange for goods and services. Most nations use fiat currency in a monetary currency system. Sustainable use of resourcessustainable use of natural resources means the use of renewable natural resources at a rate that does not exceed the resource s capacity for regeneration, does not impair the resource s ecological functions and services, and does not jeopardize the ability of future generations at the same location to enjoy the resource in equal abundance. Sustainable use of resources includes:Regulation of all kinds of pollution air, land, water Creating public awareness on the use of resources and the importance of conserving. Using sustainable ways in agriculture to conserve the environment. Avoid use of chemicals. Using alternative sources clean and renewable sources of energy that conserve the environment. Recycling wastes to avoid waste accumulation in the environment that would in return destroy the environment. Reduce, reuse, and recycle. Cut down on what you throw away. Follow the three "R's" to conserve natural resources and landfill space. Planting trees - Trees provide food and oxygen. They help save energy, clean the air, and help combat climate change. POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCEa. Political development in africa up to 1900. Political Organization of the Ogiek community up to 1900The political system was based on the lineage family system. Two or more related families formed a lineage. The lineage was responsible for enforcing traditional laws and order. The eldest person in the lineage acted as the spokesperson. The smallest unit was the family headed by the father. Political Organization of the Zulu community up to 1900The kingdom was highly centralized with the king as the head and traditional chiefs under him. The king was assisted by the traditional chiefs and military Indunas for effective control of the society. The traditional council of elders played an important role in Zulu society. They advised the king on the important matters of the state. However, during the time of Shaka, their role declined. The king had powers to appoint and to dismiss any of his officials. They were there answerable to him. Zulu kingdom had a strong standing army with the king acting as the commander in chief. The arm was well-trained, equipped and ready to fight at any time.


They were there answerable to him. Zulu kingdom had a strong standing army with the king acting as the commander in chief. The arm was well-trained, equipped and ready to fight at any time. The army was on alert to defend or offend the Zulu enemies. The army lived in barracks called settlements and this among other included the settlement of Bulawayo. The army was divided into age regiments each under a military commander called an Induna. Each military settlement had a section of royal women headed by senior women and acted as spies for the king on the Indunas. The Indunas were not allowed to hold meetings without consent and permission from the king. This was to stop any conspiracy against the king. Succession to the Zulu throne was hereditary. That is the king s eldest son could inherit the Zulu throne. The conquered area formed the outer provinces of the Zulu state. Each province was under the military Induna and assisted by the chief. Political Organization of the Ahsante community up to 1900The Asante Empire was centralized state divided into three divisions namely. The nucleaus Kumasi states outside Kumasi Amatoo and the conquered states. The overall ruler of the Empire was Asantahene. Kimasi was under the direct control of the Asantahene. The conquered states were ruled by their kings but treated as provinces of Asante. Asantahene appointed representatives in each conquered sate. The Asantahene ruled with the help of a confederacy of Kings Omanhene . Confederacy council. They took an oath of allegiance to ensure Loyalty to the Asantahene. The Omanhene represented the Asantahene in the conquered states Omanhene, Sone autonomy but were expected to pay tribute to the Asantahene and contribute soldiers in times of war. The Empire had a standing army which defended conquered other states and maintained law and order in the Empire. Religion played an important army which defended conquered other states and maintained law and order in the Empire. The sacred Golden stool which was introduced in the 18th century by Asantahene Osei. Tutu strengthened unity in the Empire. It was kept at the headquarters, Kumasi. Each Omanhene was given a symbolic black stool to signify unity of purpose in the province. The empire had a well-established judicial court system based at Kumasi and was headed by the Asantahene.


It was kept at the headquarters, Kumasi. Each Omanhene was given a symbolic black stool to signify unity of purpose in the province. The empire had a well-established judicial court system based at Kumasi and was headed by the Asantahene. The Omanhene were given powers to try minor cases at the provinces. The empire has a strong economic base that depended mainly on taxes and profit derived from the long distance trade. This strong economy aimed the empire. The concept of scramble and partition of africaThe Scramble and Partition of Africa - the Scramble for Africa also called the Partition of Africa, or the Conquest of Africa was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during a short period known to historians as the New Imperialism between 1881 and 1914 . Various European Groups that came to AfricaFactors that led to the presence of Europeans in Africa Economic factorsDue to the industrial revolution in Europe in the 19th century, they required:Markets for their manufactured goodsRaw materials to feed their industriesAreas to invest their surplus capitalEuropean traders sought protection from their home countries when faced with competitionNeed for agricultural land in Africa to grow food cropsNeed for cheap labour from Africa to produce raw materialsSpeculation about the availability of minerals in Africa. Political FactorsBismarck and the rise of GermanyRise of nationalismThe proof of a country s prestige superiority was through acquisition of colonies. A country that did not acquire colonies would open the gates to political decadence. Strategic factorsThe Egyptian question It revolved around the ownership of the Suez Canal Both Britain and France had economic interests in Egypt Their clash culminated in the British occupation of Egypt in order to protect the River Nile and British interests in India. French activities in West Africa and the Congo It accelerated the scramble for the search for colonies in Africa. King Leopold's of Belgium activities in the Congo King Leopold created the 'Congo Free State in 1884 This precipitated a crisis in Africa which culminated in the convening of an international conference in 1884-1885 i.e. the Berlin Conference. Social factorsThe Missionary FactorThe missionaries came to Africa to spread Christianity, civilize the Africans, abolish slave trade and encourage legitimate trade.


King Leopold's of Belgium activities in the Congo King Leopold created the 'Congo Free State in 1884 This precipitated a crisis in Africa which culminated in the convening of an international conference in 1884-1885 i.e. the Berlin Conference. Social factorsThe Missionary FactorThe missionaries came to Africa to spread Christianity, civilize the Africans, abolish slave trade and encourage legitimate trade. In case of problems, they sought for protection from their mother countries. Public OpinionMajority of people in Europe favoured acquisition of colonies. Rise of RacialismEuropeans felt they were a superior race to others since they were industrialized. They had a duty to civilize AfricansCecil Rhodes once remarked we are the first race in the world and the more of the world inhabit, the better it is for the human race. Growth of European PopulationThey needed their colonies to act as outlets for their surplus produceHumanitarian factorHumanitarian groups in Europe who had campaigned against slave trade urged their home governments to occupy Africa to facilitate effective abolition of slavetrade. African countries and their colonizersBritain East Africa - Kenya, Uganda Central Africa - Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, southern Rhodesia North East Africa - British Somaliland Southern Africa - Bechuanaland, Swaziland, Basutoland, Union of South Africa. North Africa - Egypt, Sudan West Africa - Gold Coast, Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone. France North East Africa - Eritrea, French Somaliland West Africa - Senegal, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Volta, Guinea, Mali, Belgium, Niger, Mauritania. Central Africa - Chad, French Central Africa, French Congo North Africa - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. Germany East Africa - Tanganyika Central Africa - Rwanda, Burundi West Africa - Togo, Cameroon South West Africa.


These rules help the country to execute its policies and procedures without any disputes or issues. These provisions aid the nation to evade the possibilities of threats related to a civil war breakdown. Forms the fundamental structure of the governmentAnother advantage of the constitution is that it describes all the cultural and legal aspects under which governmental institutions and people s bodies will be regulated. This becomes very significant when there arefrequently occurring overseas communications by international organizations in the personal affairs of the nation. Grants the right to the people to choose their governmentThe constitution gives the power to the citizens to choose the government of their choice. Based on their performance and contribution in the development of the nation, people can decide the best government official to serve the nation. Protects the right of the individualThe constitution safeguards the rights of the citizens in terms of self- expression, religious practice, non-discriminatory treatment, fair criminal procedures and more. It states that the government is answerable to the people via conducting free and regular elections. Governs the distribution of powerThe Constitution states the power and authority of every governing body. Doing this, it enables every entity that is related to the country to learn about the power that the legal body and the government holds. The information that the constitution states also help to define the duties of the parties involved. It could be a governmental institution, a firm or the masses of the nation. The Constitution administers the relation between the people and the government so that none of the parties can misuse the power in any manner. Superior to all regulations and rules of the countryThe constitution is supreme of all the other laws and regulations of the country. This implies that for any provision to circulate in the nation, it has to be approved by the constitution. It also implies that every law enacted by that government needs to be in conformism with the Constitution. Specifies the objectives of a nationAnother important role of the constitution is that it mentions the strategic, political, and other objectives of the nation. These goals are what a country is focusing to accomplish in the coming years. It could be related to democracy, socialism, national integration, and secularism. Grants fundamental rights to peopleIt is the constitution of a nation that assures provision and rights for any individual or a set of people to ensure their overall well-being and dignity in society. The constitution aids the people to avail the fundamental rights that they are entitled to.


It could be related to democracy, socialism, national integration, and secularism. Grants fundamental rights to peopleIt is the constitution of a nation that assures provision and rights for any individual or a set of people to ensure their overall well-being and dignity in society. The constitution aids the people to avail the fundamental rights that they are entitled to. These rights include the right to life, right to freedom, right to property, and right to engage freely in the existing democratic system. All these fundamental rights are safeguarded by the Constitution. Controls power transferBesides the welfare of its citizens, and regulating the tasks of the country, the constitution has the power to transfer the supremacy of the nation during a national emergency. This power of the constitution is exercised in those situations when there is a threat to the nation regarding its resources. It has a very important role to play in situations of a disaster that can cause severe destruction to a specific area of the nation or civil war breakdown. National Values as enshrined in the constitution of Kenyapatriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of power, the rule of law, democracy and participation of the people;human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, non-discrimination and protection of the marginalized;good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability; andsustainable development. Ways of upholding and protecting the constitution of KenyaThey include:Defending the rights of every individualObeying the rights and privileges of every individualObeying court orders. Participating on National elections. Holding our leaders to account and uphold adherence to the constitutionObeying the laws stated in the constitution. Electing leaders who obey the rule of law. DemocracyDemocracy is a system of government in which laws, policies, leadership, and major undertakings of a state or other polity are directly or indirectly decided by the people, Characteristics of democracyLegitimacy: A legitimate government is one put in place, accepted and recognized by the people, it is a major feature of a democratic system of government that power vests in the people of the state. Therefore, a government in place without the approval of the people is not a legitimate government and as such cannot claim to be a democracy.


Electing leaders who obey the rule of law. DemocracyDemocracy is a system of government in which laws, policies, leadership, and major undertakings of a state or other polity are directly or indirectly decided by the people, Characteristics of democracyLegitimacy: A legitimate government is one put in place, accepted and recognized by the people, it is a major feature of a democratic system of government that power vests in the people of the state. Therefore, a government in place without the approval of the people is not a legitimate government and as such cannot claim to be a democracy. Rule of law: the rule of law is the supremacy of the law of a state overevery citizen or any other person residing in that state, this means that nobody is above the law no matter his status in the society. This is important in a democracy especially a representative democracy to act as a form of check and balance in the powers of the elected representatives so that they do not develop any illusions of being better than the people who elected and thereby empowered them. Public opinion: public opinion has to do with the aggregate of the individual point of view as regards a particular matter by a significant population of a community or state as the case may be. Since democracy is a government of the people, the opinion of the said people cannot be overemphasized in determining issues in the government that will be to their benefit or detriment. Periodic and transparent elections: For the people to be an active partof their government especially in a representative democracy, provisions must be made for a periodic, free and fair election which will be conducted after sufficient political education to the people so as to aid them in making informed choices in electing their representatives at the poll on the election day. Separation of powers: In a direct democracy, the decision resides in every member of the community and in the representative democracy where the people elect leaders to handle the affairs of the state, thereis separation of powers into different arms of government so as to allow for necessary checks and balances in the powers and administration of the separate arms of government. Fundamental human right: In a democracy, the fundamental human rights of the citizens like right to life, right to fair hearing, right to dignity of the human person, right to personal liberty and others must be upheld according to the constitution of such country based on the major constituent of democracy which is the people.