diff --git "a/psychology/query.jsonl" "b/psychology/query.jsonl"
new file mode 100644--- /dev/null
+++ "b/psychology/query.jsonl"
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+{"query":"Can our beliefs change without reassessment or new evidence?\n\nI think the strength of our beliefs can change, say from 90-95% as the day wore on. But do people, people with or without psychosis, start and stop believing things without reasons?\n\nSuppose when I stop and think I always know something is impossible. Does that mean, even in the throes of some irrational behaviour (I sleep with my cheating wife again), I know it is, at least without encountering new evidence to the contrary?","reasoning":"To verify a claim, we need to find convincing evidence, e.g., scientific paper; To disprove it, we need to find counter-examples. The document provides a counter-example that can show beliefs can change without reassessment or new evidence.","id":"0","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338.txt","change_belief\/Listofcognitivebiases.txt","confirmation_bias\/seeds_model.txt"],"gold_ids":["confirmation_bias\/seeds_model_11.txt","confirmation_bias\/seeds_model_12.txt","confirmation_bias\/seeds_model_9.txt","confirmation_bias\/seeds_model_10.txt","confirmation_bias\/seeds_model_13.txt","confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338_8.txt","confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338_7.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAnyone can choose to change their beliefs without reassessment or new evidence\nat any time.\n\nThese choices can be made without reasons, assessment and reassessment but at\nthe same time, they **can** involve reasons, assessment and reassessment.\nAgain, there is a choice on whether to assess and\/or reassess.\n\nThere are many [ cognitive biases and heuristics which can be in play\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#Belief,_decision-\nmaking_and_behavioral) .\n\nAs an example, you can be presented with evidence contradicting preconceived\nideas and initially change your beliefs. But, if you later apply, say, [\nconfirmation bias ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confirmation_bias) \u2014\n\n> The tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in\n> a way that confirms one's preconceptions\n\nbecause you maybe don't want to believe the opposite, you may stick with the\nprevious beliefs and go on the search for evidence to back up your\npreconceptions.\n\nSee the full list of [ cognitive biases and heuristics which can be in play\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#Belief,_decision-\nmaking_and_behavioral) because:\n\n> Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and\/or\n> rationality in judgment.\n\nAbove all, you cannot change your beliefs without wanting to.\n\nFor example, a devout Christian would not want to disbelieve something written\nin the Bible. But, if they were presented with contradictory evidence, they\nhave a choice.\n\nDo they just shrug it off and disbelieve that false information is in the good\nbook? Or, do they at least start to doubt it's accuracies?\n\nIf they start to doubt the Bible, do they look at the evidence and believe it,\nor do they try to discredit it with stronger evidence, which backs the\nbiblical account?\n\nIf they don't find it, what do they believe?\n\nThere may be unconscious biases in play with some beliefs ( [ Marcelin, et al.\n2019 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiz214) , [ Fiarman, 2016\n](http:\/\/files.partnership-\nacademy.net\/200002623-049ce0690e\/Unconscious%20Bias_Educational%20Leadership.pdf)\n, [ Page, 2009\n](https:\/\/ecollections.law.fiu.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1379&context=faculty_publications)\n) but, ultimately there are choices involved.\n\n##  References\n\nFiarman, S. E. (2016). Unconscious bias: When good intentions aren\u2019t enough.\n_Educational Leadership, 74_ (3), 10-15. [ http:\/\/files.partnership-\nacademy.net\/200002623-049ce0690e\/Unconscious%20Bias_Educational%20Leadership.pdf\n](http:\/\/files.partnership-\nacademy.net\/200002623-049ce0690e\/Unconscious%20Bias_Educational%20Leadership.pdf)\n\nMarcelin, J. R., Siraj, D. S., Victor, R., Kotadia, S., & Maldonado, Y. A.\n(2019). The impact of unconscious bias in healthcare: how to recognize and\nmitigate it. _The Journal of infectious diseases, 220_ (Supplement_2), S62-S73\n[ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiz214\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jiz214)\n\nPage, A. (2009). Unconscious bias and the limits of director independence.\n_University of Illinois Law Review_ , 237-294. [\nhttps:\/\/heinonline.org\/HOL\/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals\/unilllr2009&div=9&id=&page=\n](https:\/\/heinonline.org\/HOL\/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals\/unilllr2009&div=9&id=&page=)"}
+{"query":"Why can't MEG distinguish EPSPs and IPSPs?\n\nI see this fact stated in many places that discuss the basis of the MEG signal but it's never been made completely clear why MEG can't distinguish IPSPs and EPSPs. Please could someone elaborate?\n\nThanks","reasoning":"We need to understand how the MEG works and the nature of IPSPs","id":"1","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["meg\/Shuntinginhibition.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography.txt"],"gold_ids":["meg\/Magnetoencephalography_4.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_9.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_18.txt","meg\/Shuntinginhibition_4.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_23.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_15.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_17.txt","meg\/Shuntinginhibition_3.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_12.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_14.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_16.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_21.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_22.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_10.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_19.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_3.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_8.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_13.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_20.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_7.txt","meg\/Shuntinginhibition_5.txt","meg\/Magnetoencephalography_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nTwo reasons:\n\nFirst, currents create a magnetic signal that is measured by MEG; from the\nperspective of the MEG, there isn't any meaning to whether ions are moving\ninto cells or out of them, or whether the ions moving are positive or\nnegative, just that there is some net charge moving a particular direction.\nSame for EEG. If you can connect a particular waveform to a particular event\nin the brain through other means, though, you may be able to infer that a\ngiven signal is primarily excitatory or inhibitory, but not directly from MEG\nitself. The Wikipedia article on MEG talks a bit about how this all works and\nhow some level of synchrony is necessary for MEG to work: [\nhttps:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetoencephalography\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetoencephalography) Mostly, it works\nbecause of the orientation of neurons and flow within dendrites rather than\nacross membranes. Here's a paint-quality diagram:\n\n[ ![Current flow](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/pghGx.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/pghGx.png)\n\nOn the left, positive ions enter a dendrite (black arrows). This causes a net\npositive flow down the dendrite (red solid arrow). On the right, negative ions\nenter a dendrite somewhere else (black arrows). This causes a net positive\nflow in the same direction. MEG is measuring synchronous red solid arrow\ncurrent flow over many many of these parallel dendrites.\n\nSecond, most IPSPs in the brain are [ shunting inhibition\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shunting_inhibition) ; they don't create much\nnet current or voltage change at all, rather they help to maintain membrane\npotential near the chloride reversal which is near a typical rest potential.\n\nIn any event, the things that MEG or EEG measure are typically rhythmic brain\nactivity, and we know this sort of activity results from a combination of\ninhibition and excitation anyways. So, while it's true that one can't directly\nmeasure EPSPs or IPSPs, that's not at all what these techniques measure. It's\nsort of like saying that a scale can't tell you how tall you are."}
+{"query":"Why do fNIRS devices commonly use two different frequencies?\n\nOne of the most common techniques used for functional neuroimaging nowadays is functional near infra-red spectroscopy (fun fact: IIRC Natalie Portman worked on a research paper involving fNIRS as the modality), which shines near infrared light into the brain from a source to a detector (both called optodes) in a \"banana\" shape.\n\nIt's not uncommon to read that most of these devices, be they continuous wave (CW) or one of the two kinds that involve fast modulation, frequency domain (FD) or time domain (TD), require two separate frequencies to be emitted. For instance, NIRx explains it as follows on their website:\n\n\"For neuro-imaging applications it is by far most common to illuminate with two discrete wavelength, which is the minimum requirement to assess relative variations of both oxygenation states of the hemoglobin molecule independently.\"\n\nWhy is that the case?\n\nI haven't delved into the intricacies of it, but no reason immediately jumps out at me. For instance, in the case of CW, the relative difference in intensity is all that matters, so why do we need two frequencies?","reasoning":"In solving the matrix equation of measurements for HbO2 and Hb in a dual wavelength system, we will need the two frequencies.","id":"2","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["fnir\/Functionalnearinfraredspectroscopy.txt"],"gold_ids":["fnir\/Functionalnearinfraredspectroscopy_10.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nBasically, you have two unknowns, so you need two equations.\n\nFrom [ Wikipedia ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_near-\ninfrared_spectroscopy) :\n\n> Using a dual wavelength system, measurements for HbO2 and Hb can be solved\n> from the matrix equation\n\n[ ![fnirs matrix equation](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/8SGx6.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/8SGx6.png)\n\nWith just one measurement, you could still describe relative changes in the\nsignal over time, but you wouldn't be able to measure the ratio of the two.\nThat might be sufficient within a given experiment, but wouldn't result in\nnumbers that you could compare to other recordings. Each recording is going to\nhave a distinct signal-to-noise ratio based on things like the amount of\ntissue you're imaging through: most of the light is going to be lost no matter\nwhat the signal is."}
+{"query":"What are the biological reasons for hearing loss?\n\nI recently stumbled upon an interesting online hearing test on YouTube, and it got me thinking about the root causes of hearing loss. I'm curious about the main contributing factors behind the loss of our hearing range as we age.\n\nIs this degradation primarily linked to the loss of gray or white matter in our brains, indicating a neurological issue, or is it predominantly associated with the wear and tear of some other biological input mechanisms within our auditory system?","reasoning":"The hearing loss is likely to be related to the inner\/outer hair cells","id":"3","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["hear_loss\/innerandouterhaircells.txt"],"gold_ids":["hear_loss\/innerandouterhaircells_153.txt","hear_loss\/innerandouterhaircells_154.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n**Short answer**  \nAge-related hearing loss is caused by the loss of hair cells in the inner ear,\ni.e., in the peripheral nervous system.\n\n**Background**  \nHearing declines with age and, typically, high frequencies are affected first\n( [ Kujawa & Liberman, 2006\n](http:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/26\/7\/2115.full.pdf+html) ). **Age-related\nhearing loss** is progressive: it starts at the higher frequencies and\nprogresses over the years to lower frequencies as a person ages. The decline\nin hearing sensitivity is mainly caused by the **[ loss of hair cells\n](https:\/\/www.bcm.edu\/healthcare\/specialties\/ear-nose-and-throat\/for-\npatients\/how-ear-works\/inner-and-outer-hair-cells) ** . Hair cells are sensory\ncells in the inner ear that convert acoustic vibrations into electrical\nsignals. These signals are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve.\nBecause of this, age-related hearing loss is a type of **sensorineural hearing\nloss** .\n\nBecause of the **tonotopic organization** of the inner ear (the _cochlea_ )\none can conclude that age-related HL develops from the basal to apical region.\nThe following schematic of the cochlea from [ Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc.\n](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/inner-ear) nicely shows the cochlear\ntonotopy (i.e., high frequencies in the base, low frequencies in the apex);\n\n![cochlea](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/ERAIB.jpg)\n\nWhy the basal regions are more sensitive is a topic of debate. It may be that\nsounds enter there first, or because toxins are more readily absorbed basally\nthan apically.\n\nIf hearing loss persists over the course of years, the associated secondary\nneurons in the auditory nerve may slowly degenerate [ (Stronks _et al_ .,\n2011)\n](https:\/\/www.google.com.au\/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCkQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FHuib_Versnel%2Fpublication%2F47660604_Effects_of_electrical_stimulation_on_the_acoustically_evoked_auditory-\nnerve_response_in_guinea_pigs_with_a_high-\nfrequency_hearing_loss%2Flinks%2F0c96053cd1c55581f2000000&ei=JYe8VJjTO-\nPPmwX_4oGQCA&usg=AFQjCNHO_pbdR5L3pW2btsnZGDdtEo-\niLA&sig2=S1nw5B9anvl__Iwy7eNgLA&bvm=bv.83829542,d.dGY) and accordingly,\nbecause of neural plasticity, the deafferented cortical areas may be recruited\nfor other purposes (e.g. vision).\n\nSo in case of age-related hearing loss, it is the peripheral hair cells that\nare lost first. There are other types of hearing loss where the degenerative\nprocesses become apparent first in the auditory nerve, such as [ auditory\nneuropathy\n](https:\/\/www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au\/health\/conditionsandtreatments\/hearing-\nloss-auditory-\nneuropathy#:%7E:text=Auditory%20neuropathy%20is%20a%20rare%20type%20of%20hearing%20loss.,ranges%20from%20mild%20to%20severe.)\n.\n\n**References**  \n**-** [ _Encyclopedia Brittanica_ The-analysis-of-sound-frequencies-by-the-\nbasilar-membrane ](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/inner-ear)  \n**-** [ Kujawa & Liberman, _J Neurosci_ 2006; 26:2115-23\n](http:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/26\/7\/2115.full.pdf+html)  \n**-** [ Stronks et al, Hear Res 2011; 272:95-107\n](https:\/\/www.google.com.au\/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCkQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FHuib_Versnel%2Fpublication%2F47660604_Effects_of_electrical_stimulation_on_the_acoustically_evoked_auditory-\nnerve_response_in_guinea_pigs_with_a_high-\nfrequency_hearing_loss%2Flinks%2F0c96053cd1c55581f2000000&ei=JYe8VJjTO-\nPPmwX_4oGQCA&usg=AFQjCNHO_pbdR5L3pW2btsnZGDdtEo-\niLA&sig2=S1nw5B9anvl__Iwy7eNgLA&bvm=bv.83829542,d.dGY)"}
+{"query":"What is the term for the inability to see past one's own current emotional state?\n\nI'm looking for a specific latin or greek word that describes something like the inability to empathize with emotions that are not in line with one's current affective state. It could probably be described as a temporary or permanent deficit in affective perspective-taking that occurs when a person feels that their current emotional state is the only possible state, and that it is permanent.\n\nFor example, when someone is experiencing negative affect for some reason and then proceeds to act as if their day, or even life, is ruined, and that this negative affective state is the new norm. Or when someone is experiencing positive affect for some reason and then naively believes that \"it will always be like this,\" perhaps getting very distraught when the positive feelings eventually go away but at the same time not being able to see this pattern from the outside or take long-term steps to prevent this type of roller coaster dynamic from continuing to manifest.\n\nI have consulted various psychology resources and literature online but have not been able to, again, find the term which accurately captures this concept. I've found the following terms, \"emotional myopia\", \"emotional reasoning\", \"anosognosia\", \"presentism\", \"presentist bias\", and \"egocentrism\", which I feel are fairly close. But, apart from \"emotional myopia\" and perhaps \"affective presentism\", I feel the concepts I have found are either too general (egocentrism, emotional reasoning) or incorrect (alexithymia, affective agnosia).\n\nThe specific term I have previously seen is a single greek or latin word and is very specific, like the term \"anosognosia\". As a caveat, it might be worth saying that the description and example of the phenomena above might be slightly, but not vastly, out of sync with the term I am looking for.","reasoning":"This is related to hot-cold empathy gap and influences of visceral drives","id":"4","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["hot_cold\/Hotcoldempathygap.txt"],"gold_ids":["hot_cold\/Hotcoldempathygap_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis sounds like [ hot-cold empathy gap ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot-\ncold_empathy_gap) :\n\n> For example, when one is angry, it is difficult to understand what it is\n> like for one to be calm, and vice versa; when one is blindly in love with\n> someone, it is difficult to understand what it is like for one not to be,\n> (or to imagine the possibility of not being blindly in love in the future).\n\nThis is a type of intrapersonal (self-oriented) affective [ empathy gap\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empathy_gap#Cognitive_empathy_gaps) :\n\n> One's ability to perspective-take may be limited by one's current emotional\n> state. ... People may either fail to accurately predict one's own\n> preferences and decisions (intrapersonal empathy gaps), or to consider how\n> others\u2019 preferences might differ from one's own (interpersonal empathy\n> gaps)."}
+{"query":"Are social anxiety disorder and selective mutism classified as communication disorders?\n\nI've been trying to figure this out for a long time, but I don't understand much about classification of disorders and I feel uncertain after looking at the definitions. Based on what I've read, I think these don't qualify as communication disorders, but are instead anxiety disorders.\n\nI've looked at this: https:\/\/www.asha.org\/policy\/rp1993-00208\/ and this https:\/\/www.medicalnewstoday.com\/articles\/communication-disorders\n\nIf I look at the the second one, it first gives this:\n\nCommunication disorders affect a person\u2019s ability to detect, receive, process, and comprehend the concepts or symbols necessary for communication. It can affect hearing, language, and speech. Causes include neurological damage due to a stroke.\n\nBut then it gives this definition:\n\nCommunication disorders are a group of conditions involving problems with receiving, processing, sending, and comprehending various forms of information and communication.\n\nOn the surface, selective mutism and social anxiety disorder would seem to meet the criteria for involving \"sending\" information, even if they don't meet the other conditions.\n\nAnd it would seem to me that articulation disorders also do not meet every criteria either, but are included.\n\nAn articulation disorder is the atypical production of speech sounds characterized by substitutions, omissions, additions or distortions that may interfere with intelligibility.\n\nIf I look at the ASHA definition, I can almost understand that social anxiety disorder would be excluded.\n\nA communication disorder is an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems. A communication disorder may be evident in the processes of hearing, language, and\/or speech. A communication disorder may range in severity from mild to profound. It may be developmental or acquired. Individuals may demonstrate one or any combination of communication disorders. A communication disorder may result in a primary disability or it may be secondary to other disabilities.\n\nI can sort of understand why it would be useful to separate anxiety disorders from these, but I'm not very knowledgeable in psychology, so I was hoping someone could verify what the answer is.","reasoning":"One thing to remember is that classification systems, especially in the field of psychology, are not absolute. All human brains search for patterns and attempt to label them in a way that makes it easier for us to understand a phenomena and talk about it with others. However, research indicates that this categorical diagnostic system is actually not even close to how psychological disorders present in reality. We want to put people into boxes (for example, \"your symptoms are a communication disorder!\", \"yours are an anxiety disorder!\") but reality doesn't care about our little boxes. So moral of my ramblings, I'd encourage you not to get too hung up on sorting these concepts into distinct boxes.","id":"5","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["anxiety_disorder\/thetrans.txt"],"gold_ids":["anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_16.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_14.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_11.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_18.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_19.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_9.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_10.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_17.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_12.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_20.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_13.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_8.txt","anxiety_disorder\/thetrans_15.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nOne thing to remember is that classification systems, _especially_ in the\nfield of psychology, are not absolute. All human brains search for patterns\nand attempt to label them in a way that makes it easier for us to understand a\nphenomena and talk about it with others. However, research indicates that this\ncategorical diagnostic system is actually not even close to how psychological\ndisorders present in reality. We want to put people into boxes (for example,\n\"your symptoms are a communication disorder!\", \"yours are an anxiety\ndisorder!\") but reality doesn't care about our little boxes. So moral of my\nramblings, I'd encourage you not to get too hung up on sorting these concepts\ninto distinct boxes. Heres a little article from NAMI that touches on this\nissue: [ https:\/\/www.nami.org\/Blogs\/NAMI-Blog\/August-2021\/The-Transdiagnostic-\nDimensional-Approach-Another-Way-of-Understanding-Mental-Illness\n](https:\/\/www.nami.org\/Blogs\/NAMI-Blog\/August-2021\/The-Transdiagnostic-\nDimensional-Approach-Another-Way-of-Understanding-Mental-Illness)\n\nTo hopefully actually address your question, there is no physical or\nneurological issue preventing an individual from detecting, processing, or\nproducing language in selective mutism or social anxiety. That is because the\nlack of speech is not due to a problem with the sensory or communication parts\nof the nervous system. The problem lies in anxiety. Kids with selective mutism\nare perfectly capable of detecting, understanding, and producing speech. Many\nof them won't talk at all in one setting, but will be little chatterboxes in\nother settings, so long as they feel safe and comfortable there. It's the\nanxiety that prevents them from speaking. If we remove anxiety, we remove the\ncommunication difficulties.\n\nHOWEVER, that's not to say that there can't be some co-occurring problem that\nimpacts speech IN ADDITION to the anxiety. Lots of kids with selective mutism\ndo also have some actual neurobiological communication difficulties.\nTechnically a diagnosis of a communication disorder rules out selective\nmutism, but they can definitely co-occur, so long as you determine that the\nanxiety is also a contributing factor (which kinda brings me back to my first\npoint about diagnoses. We see soooo much overlap between \"different\"\ndisorders, yet we consider them different disorders).\n\nHere are a few scientific articles on issues with categorical classification\nand diagnosis: [ https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2008-11035-001\n](https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2008-11035-001) [\nhttps:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2017-12889-001\n](https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2017-12889-001) [\nhttps:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/mpr.284\n](https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/mpr.284)\n\nHere are a few on selective mutism and social anxiety etiology and\ncomorbidities: [ https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2861522\/\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2861522\/) [\nhttps:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0005796716301115\n](https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0005796716301115) [\nhttps:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11920-011-0201-7\n](https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11920-011-0201-7)"}
+{"query":"Where exactly do Emotions and Feelings arise in the human body?\n\nTraditionally, the heart region was always associated with emotions and feelings in humans. But in one recent philosophy lecture I watched on Youtube, the orator said that the right brain is, in fact, the origin of emotions and the heart is just for pumping the blood.\n\nIn Yoga and many other traditional Eastern disciplines, the Chakra Theory is quite prevalent and the Anahata or the Heart chakra\/meridian is quite strongly associated with emotions.\n\nWhat is the stance of modern medical science on this? Can the source of all emotions be explained completely in the right hemisphere of the brain through neuroscience? Or is there any scientific backing for the linkage of Heart to emotions? Or such a discovery might be possible in future?","reasoning":"This is related to somatic marker hypothesis which suggests there is a two-way interaction between brain and body for emotional experiences.","id":"6","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["emotion_heart\/Somaticmarkerhypothesis.txt"],"gold_ids":["emotion_heart\/Somaticmarkerhypothesis_8.txt","emotion_heart\/Somaticmarkerhypothesis_7.txt","emotion_heart\/Somaticmarkerhypothesis_6.txt","emotion_heart\/Somaticmarkerhypothesis_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAs far as we know, all the \"thinking parts\" are in the brain\/central nervous\nsystem. That includes emotions and feelings, which are labels for certain\ncognitive experiences. Definitely not the \"right brain\", though, that's some\nfoolishness that seems to persist in pop science without any evidence. I\nwouldn't recommend learning about the brain from someone who repeats those\nmyths.\n\n[ Brain Right hemisphere is random and left hemisphere is linear? really?\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/q\/16096\/14382)\n\n[ About the left and right side of the brain\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/q\/6521\/14382)\n\nThe closest thing to what you mention about the heart in modern psychology or\nneuroscience would be the [ somatic marker hypothesis\n](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Somatic_marker_hypothesis) which suggests\nthere is a two-way interaction between brain and body for emotional\nexperiences. For example, the brain causes an increased heart rate (among\nother things) when presented with threatening stimuli, and part of the\nexperience of the emotion of anxiety includes feeling that faster heart rate.\nIt isn't that the emotion is _generated in_ the heart, though, it's still an\nemotion in the brain, but what leads to experiences of emotion can include\ninfluences of the body."}
+{"query":"What is the mechanism that makes people more likely to act when provided with proof of non-new (and often trivial) information?\n\nIs there a name for the psychological mechanism according to which a person is more likely to act when provided with proof of information they are already convinced about? Information which is often also trivial: e.g., smoking causes cancer. In fact, some studies find that graphical warning labels in cigarette packages affect implicit smoking attitudes (especially among the new smokers). Although comparatively smaller, text labels (compared to no labels) are also shown to have a similar effect.","reasoning":"This is related to availability heuristic: people tend to make decisions based on information that is most readily accessible\/recent.","id":"7","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["available_heuristic\/Availabilityheuristic.txt"],"gold_ids":["available_heuristic\/Availabilityheuristic_5.txt","available_heuristic\/Availabilityheuristic_4.txt","available_heuristic\/Availabilityheuristic_1.txt","available_heuristic\/Availabilityheuristic_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nProbably best considered as an example of the [ availability heuristic\n](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability_heuristic) : people tend to\nmake decisions based on information that is most readily accessible\/recent.\n\nIn plainer terms, the label is just a reminder."}
+{"query":"Is it unethical for a psychiatrist to invite a patient and her husband to a social function?\n\nSuppose Emma is a patient of psychiatrist Dr. Jones, in New York State. In the course of their visits, Emma mentions that part of the stress and anxiety she feels is because of the pressure her husband puts on her and his intense personality.\n\nDr. Jones wishes to explore this more so he invites Emma to bring her husband to a local art gallery exhibit opening where Dr. Jones plans to attend as well, so he could meet them and observe Emma's husband and his interactions with her.\n\nAre there any clear ethical issues with Dr. Jones invitation?","reasoning":"We should find code and principles to decide whether this is ethical.","id":"8","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["psych_code\/collegereportcr186pdfsfvrsn15f49e842.txt"],"gold_ids":["psych_code\/collegereportcr186pdfsfvrsn15f49e842_2.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYes, there is a clear ethical issue. If Dr. Jones wants to observe Emma's\nhusband, he should obtain informed consent from him beforehand.\n\nVarious associations of psychiatrists have a code of ethics in which these\ntypes of principles are recorded. See for instance this code of the Royal\nCollege of Psychiatrists: [ https:\/\/www.rcpsych.ac.uk\/docs\/default-\nsource\/improving-care\/better-mh-policy\/college-reports\/college-report-\ncr186.pdf?sfvrsn=15f49e84_2 ](https:\/\/www.rcpsych.ac.uk\/docs\/default-\nsource\/improving-care\/better-mh-policy\/college-reports\/college-report-\ncr186.pdf?sfvrsn=15f49e84_2) .\n\nPrinciple 5: Psychiatrists shall seek valid consent from their patients before\nundertaking any procedure or treatment.\n\nHowever, if both Emma and her husband agree, after being adequately informed\nabout what this observational research entails, I would see no problem.\n\nEdit: Besides the consent issue, there is another ethical issue. By asking\nEmma to bring her husband to observe him, he is making her complicit, which\ncould further damage their relationship."}
+{"query":"Term for how one's self-image improves when something they associate with, like a sports team or politician, does well?\n\nI'm trying to understand the phenomenon of how one's self-image, self-confidence, or personal regard goes up because something they affiliate themselves with \"does well.\" For example, someone whose confidence and self-regard goes up when their team wins, or a character they relate to in a movie succeeds, or a politician they like says something clever.\n\nWhat is this called?","reasoning":"This is related to Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing), where an individual associates themselves with known successful others such that the winner's success becomes the individual's own accomplishment.","id":"9","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory.txt"],"gold_ids":["basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_6.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_7.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_10.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_4.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_3.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_8.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_11.txt","basking\/Baskinginreflectedglory_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is called BIRGing - [ Basking in reflected glory\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basking_in_reflected_glory) :\n\n> Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) is a self-serving cognition whereby an\n> individual associates themselves with known successful others such that the\n> winner's success becomes the individual's own accomplishment. ... The\n> individual does not need to be personally involved in the successful action.\n> ... Examples of BIRGing include anything from sharing a home state with a\n> past or present famous person, to religious affiliations, to sports teams.\n\nAlthough BIRGing is a useful general term, social psychologists typically\nstudy more specific examples, particularly in [ social identity\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_\\(social_science\\)) , where [ in-\ngroup affiliation ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In-group_and_out-group) with\na sports team, political party, nation, etc, influences self-image, social\nstatus, and out-group derogation; or [ impression management\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Impression_management) , where affiliation\nwith successful entities influences the perceptions of others."}
+{"query":"Is it a cognitive bias: \"if you guess what I think you do, then what I think of you is true\"\n\n\"If you've guessed what I am thinking (that you do \/ you have done \/ you will do \/ you are), then what I'm thinking of you is True\"\nIs this considered a cognitive-bias ? And if not what is it ?\n\nWithout enough knowledge in Psychology, I tend to think it is close to something like \"dementia\" \/ \"paranoia\" \/ \"psychosis\"\n\nAny pointers ?","reasoning":"This is related to confirmation bias, when someone seeks out \u2014 or in this case interprets \u2014evidence in a way that \u201cconfirms\u201d for them what they already believe to be true.","id":"10","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338.txt","change_belief\/Listofcognitivebiases.txt"],"gold_ids":["confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338_8.txt","confirmation_bias\/cphpg861448p6298338_7.txt","change_belief\/Listofcognitivebiases_66.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt sounds like you\u2019re talking about [ confirmation bias\n](https:\/\/lib.taftcollege.edu\/c.php?g=861448&p=6298338) . This is when someone\nseeks out \u2014 or in this case _interprets_ \u2014evidence in a way that \u201cconfirms\u201d\nfor them what they already believe to be true. I would avoid ascribing this to\npathology (such as dementia or psychosis) as these are clinical terms that\nrefer to specific states or disorders, whereas all humans are subject to\nconfirmation bias; it can certainly be annoying when someone behaves this way\nbut usually it is not pathological. Cognitive biases which act as development\nor maintenance factors for a disorder are usually referred to as [ cognitive\ndistortions ](https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/blog\/how-to-recognize-and-tame-\nyour-cognitive-distortions-202205042738) . I would suggest maybe adding an\nexample next time as the scenario you\u2019ve posed is a bit convoluted. Hope this\nhelps!"}
+{"query":"Is there a standardised test for focus?\n\nNot affiliated with psychology in any way, so my knowledge is essentially zero. I am looking for a way to measure change in my ability to focus during a fast. This is simply for a personal experiment. I had a look online and could not find a standardised tests used in research.\n\nAny help in finding one is appreciated. Thanks\n\nEDIT: edited to clarify that I am not looking for life advice. I am looking for a standardized test used in psychology research to measure my ability to focus (concentration a task?).","reasoning":"Eye tracking + Posner queuing is an option for focus testing.","id":"11","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["focus_testing\/full.txt"],"gold_ids":["focus_testing\/full_15.txt","focus_testing\/full_12.txt","focus_testing\/full_6.txt","focus_testing\/full_20.txt","focus_testing\/full_9.txt","focus_testing\/full_22.txt","focus_testing\/full_7.txt","focus_testing\/full_17.txt","focus_testing\/full_16.txt","focus_testing\/full_19.txt","focus_testing\/full_21.txt","focus_testing\/full_18.txt","focus_testing\/full_14.txt","focus_testing\/full_10.txt","focus_testing\/full_8.txt","focus_testing\/full_13.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nEye tracking + Posner queuing seems to predict it decently well\n\n[ https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00205\/full\n](https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00205\/full)\n\n> Numerous studies conducted within the recent decades have utilized the\n> Posner cuing paradigm for eliciting, measuring, and theoretically\n> characterizing attentional orienting.\n\nExample of study:\n\n[ https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32984203\/\n](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32984203\/)\n\n> To elicit endogenous and exogenous shifts of attention, we thus used a\n> modified version of Posner's cueing task. We compared oculomotor performance\n> measured by an eye tracker in a group of 31 children with ADHD (mean age =\n> 9.1 \u00b1 1.3 years) and age-, sex-, and IQ-matched typically developing\n> children [...]"}
+{"query":"Is there a special name for rejection of extremes in the list of cognitive biases?\n\nIs there a special name for the cognitive bias that causes a person choose a compromise solution even the extreme solutions are better or causes person prefer a middle value even the extreme values are more suitable?","reasoning":"This is related to Extremeness aversion, which is the tendency of choice makers to avoid extreme options and choose an intermediate option.","id":"12","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["reject_extreme\/s4062201801975.txt"],"gold_ids":["reject_extreme\/s4062201801975_17.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is called [ extremeness aversion\n](http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/s40622-018-0197-5) :\n\n> Extremeness aversion is the tendency of choice makers to avoid extreme\n> options and choose an intermediate option.\n\nThis appears to be a well-replicated robust effect - see meta-analysis by [\nNeumann, B\u00f6ckenholt, & Sinha (2016)\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcps.2015.05.005) ."}
+{"query":"How can someone enjoy something without dopamine?\n\nAndrew Huberman says people and even animals with depleted dopamine levels can still enjoy stuff.\n\nHow does one enjoy without dopamine? Isn't it the pleasure chemical?\n\nCan serotonin, oxytocin etc. contribute to pleasure experience like dopamine?","reasoning":"It is oversimplifying things that a single compound mediates complex human behavior. To nuance things a bit, we need to understand what is Dopamine. There are more neurochemicals mediating pleasure, such as serotonin, Endorphins and oxytocin, to which we also need more information. In addition, absence of pleasure, is likely to be related to anhedonia, which is not simply due to an absence of dopamine, but may be one of the possible symptoms of depression and other mental illnesses, like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.","id":"13","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone.txt","dopamine\/endorphinsthebrainsnaturalpainreliever.txt","dopamine\/serotoninthenaturalmoodbooster.txt","dopamine\/dopaminethepathwaytopleasure.txt","dopamine\/whatisanhedonia.txt"],"gold_ids":["dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_7.txt","dopamine\/serotoninthenaturalmoodbooster_7.txt","dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_9.txt","dopamine\/serotoninthenaturalmoodbooster_6.txt","dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_6.txt","dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_8.txt","dopamine\/endorphinsthebrainsnaturalpainreliever_6.txt","dopamine\/dopaminethepathwaytopleasure_6.txt","dopamine\/whatisanhedonia_1.txt","dopamine\/dopaminethepathwaytopleasure_7.txt","dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_10.txt","dopamine\/serotoninthenaturalmoodbooster_8.txt","dopamine\/oxytocinthelovehormone_5.txt","dopamine\/endorphinsthebrainsnaturalpainreliever_7.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt is oversimplifying things that a single compound mediates complex human\nbehavior. To nuance things a bit, there are more neurotransmitters and\nmodulators that mediate feelings of pleasure, as you already indicate.\n\n  * [ **Dopamine** ](https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/mind-and-mood\/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure) , indeed, is associated with feelings of pleasure, and most notably that in response to reward. It also mediates reinforcement, and unfortunately the euphoria associated with addictive dopaminergic psychoactive drugs, like heroine and cocaine. \n  * But there are more neurochemicals mediating pleasure, such as [ **serotonin** ](https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/mind-and-mood\/serotonin-the-natural-mood-booster) , that is increased after working out ('runner's high') and after exposure to sunlight, for instance. \n  * [ **Endorphins** ](https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/mind-and-mood\/endorphins-the-brains-natural-pain-reliever) are a group of protein neuromodulators with a diverse set of functions, from killing pain to the feelings of bliss after sex. \n  * Lastly, there is [ **oxytocin** ](https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/mind-and-mood\/oxytocin-the-love-hormone) , the 'love' hormone. We produce oxytocin when we\u2019re excited by our sexual partner, and when we fall in love. So there is more to pleasure than dopamine alone. \n\nWhat you are referring to, an absence of pleasure, is referred to as [\n**anhedonia** ](https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/depression\/what-is-\nanhedonia#:%7E:text=Anhedonia%20is%20the%20inability%20to,life%20to%20make%20them%20happy.)\n, this is not simply due to an absence of dopamine, but is one of the possible\nsymptoms of depression and other mental illnesses, like schizophrenia and\nbipolar disorder. It can even show up with Parkinson's disease, diabetes,\ncoronary artery disease, and in substance abuse. While schizophrenia and\nParkinson's are intimitely linked to dopamine, others are, apparently, not."}
+{"query":"What disorder might be considered opposite of the Histrionic Personality Disorder?\n\nIf a person might be considered the opposite of Narcissistic or having a Histrionic Personality disorder, what might it be called?\n\nFor example, a person who feels a need to be unnoticed.\n\nOf course, I mean \"disorder\" in the sense that these qualities are \"disruptive\" to a healthy lifestyle...\n\nMaybe some sort of insecurity disorder? Can anti-social disorders somehow fit? What about situations perhaps stemming from PTSD?\n\nDon't be a target!\" -Every military branch, (except maybe the Army).","reasoning":"We can look at a chart where the categorical system maps onto scores in the dimensional system. ","id":"14","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["personality_disorder\/Personalitydisorder.txt"],"gold_ids":["personality_disorder\/Personalitydisorder_135.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nDiagnosis of [ personality disorders\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_disorder) in general is moving\naway from a categorical system (patient does or does not have the disorder),\nto a [ dimensional system\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensional_models_of_personality_disorders)\n(patient scores extreme on personality traits). In this system, labels such as\nHPD and NPD will eventually be deprecated.\n\nThe categorical system maps onto scores in the dimensional system as\nillustrated by [ this chart\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_disorder#Versus_normal_personality)\n(based on the DSM-IV-TR, an older version of the standard diagnostic manual in\nNorth America):\n\n[ ![enter image description here](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/d9bjJ.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/d9bjJ.png)\n\nTo find the \"opposite\" (counterpart) of a personality disorder using this\nchart, just look for a disorder that is red (low) where the counterpart is\ngreen (high), and vice versa. For HPD, it looks like AvPD ( [ Avoidant\nPersonality Disorder\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Avoidant_personality_disorder) ) is a close\nmatch."}
+{"query":"What does it mean if a neuron is \"expressing\" something?\n\nSorry for the simple question, not a neuroscientist just trying to understand a paper for school. In a study with mice, there was 2-photon calcium imaging done, and part of it read:\n\nWe used single- and multi-plane imaging approaches to record the activity of populations of excitatory neurons and two inhibitory classes, Somatostatin (Sst) and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (Vip) expressing interneurons, across multiple cortical depths and two visual areas (VSIp and VISl)\n\nFirst I thought this meant that SST & VIP were inhibitory neurons. But when I Google it says they're hormones.\n\nSo is this saying they recorded activity from inhibitory interneurons that were ... releasing? producing? ... SST & VIP ? What does \"expressing\" mean in this sense.","reasoning":"\"Expressing\" refers to gene expression - in biology we say a cell is \"expressing\" a gene when the products of that gene are present. ","id":"15","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["gene_express\/Geneexpression.txt"],"gold_ids":["gene_express\/Geneexpression_37.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_38.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_26.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_42.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_14.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_34.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_25.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_4.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_19.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_5.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_28.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_18.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_36.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_10.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_33.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_21.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_16.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_11.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_30.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_20.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_40.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_39.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_44.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_32.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_41.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_6.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_13.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_35.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_12.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_31.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_15.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_29.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_43.txt","gene_express\/Geneexpression_17.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n##  Gene Expression\n\n\"Expressing\" refers to [ gene expression\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_expression) \\- in biology we say a cell\nis \"expressing\" a gene when the products of that gene are present. \"Sst-\nexpressing cell\" is a way of saying \"cell that has somatostatin protein\npresent\", or at least \"has mRNA present for producing somatostatin protein\" -\nbiologists are not always explicit about whether they mean they measure mRNA\nor protein when they talk of expression, and in modern days often a \"Sst-\nexpressing cell\" is identified by producing some reporter protein like green\nfluorescent protein (GFP) under a somatostatin promoter (or, most likely,\ndependent on a strain of mouse that uses Cre-recombinase to only produce GFP\nin cells where Cre is produced under a Sst promoter).\n\n##  Classifying Interneurons\n\nThere are lots of different interneurons; they are difficult to classify. Here\nare a couple papers to read:\n\n[ Markram, H., Toledo-Rodriguez, M., Wang, Y., Gupta, A., Silberberg, G., &\nWu, C. (2004). Interneurons of the neocortical inhibitory system. Nature\nreviews neuroscience, 5(10), 793-807.\n](https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrn1519)\n\n[ DeFelipe, J., L\u00f3pez-Cruz, P. L., Benavides-Piccione, R., Bielza, C.,\nLarra\u00f1aga, P., Anderson, S., ... & Ascoli, G. A. (2013). New insights into the\nclassification and nomenclature of cortical GABAergic interneurons. Nature\nReviews Neuroscience, 14(3), 202-216.\n](https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrn3444)\n\nOne way to classify some of these interneurons is by their expression of\nparticular genes. Using that scheme, it then becomes common for, say,\n\"Parvalbumin-expressing cells\" (=cells that have parvalbumin protein\/mRNA) to\nget shortened into just \"Parvalbumin cells\" or \"Parvalbumin interneurons\" or\n\"PV+ cells\", etc.\n\nIt's not necessary that these proteins that are used to name cell types are\nparticularly crucial to their function; for PV cells, it seems like it is,\nbecause one feature of PV cells is that they have very fast\nelectrophysiological kinetics, and some of those fast kinetics are assisted by\nthe calcium binding of parvalbumin. For somatostatin interneurons, it's less\nclear; somatostatin is certainly an important gut hormone, but it's not\nparticularly clear why somatostatin-expressing neurons form a particular\nimportant subclass of cells in the brain, as most known functions of\nsomatostatin are restricted to development or the gut.\n\n##  Back to the Question\n\n> So is this saying they recorded activity from inhibitory interneurons that\n> were ... releasing? producing? ... SST & VIP ? What does \"expressing\" mean\n> in this sense.\n\nThey're saying they recorded activity from inhibitory interneurons that have\nbeen grouped in the past according to their production of SST and VIP mRNA or\nprotein. They aren't necessarily interested in either SST protein or VIP\nprotein, but these have served as markers\/names for particular cell\npopulations. The primary neurotransmitter that brain SST and VIP interneurons\nproduce is neither somatostatin nor vasoactive intestinal peptide; the primary\nneurotransmitter for both is [ GABA\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%CE%93-Aminobutyric_acid#Neurotransmitter) .\nYou'd be able to find out a lot more about those cell populations by reading\nother papers containing terms like \"Sst interneuron\" or \"VIP interneuron\"."}
+{"query":"What part of brain learns\/controls finger motion?\n\nI am learning instruments and am sometimes amazed at how hard a seemingly simple thing like raising two different sets of fingers after one another can be.\n\nI wonder how the brain learns this? Is it the cerebellum and the motor cortex where the \"cortical homonculus\" is or is it a cooperation between even more brain regions?","reasoning":"The sensory-motor learning and control loop which processes sensory inputs to determine which motor action to perform next is perhaps one of the most basic functions of any nervous system including ours. We need more information about motor control and basal ganglia (BG).","id":"16","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["finger_motion\/Basalganglia.txt","finger_motion\/Motorcontrol.txt"],"gold_ids":["finger_motion\/Motorcontrol_8.txt","finger_motion\/Basalganglia_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe sensory-motor learning and control loop which processes sensory inputs to\ndetermine which motor action to perform next is perhaps one of the most basic\nfunctions of any nervous system including ours, and from Wikipedia source of [\nmotor control ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Motor_control) we know in\naddition to cerebellum and motor cortex, it at least also involves basal\nganglia and other cortex areas.\n\n> Mammalian model systems like mice and monkeys offer the most straightforward\n> comparative models for human health and disease. They are widely used to\n> study the role of higher brain regions common to vertebrates, including the\n> cerebral cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia and deep brain medullary and\n> reticular circuits for motor control.[17]... The organization of arthropod\n> nervous systems into ganglia that control each leg as allowed researchers to\n> record from neurons dedicated to moving a specific leg during behavior.\n\nAnd from the same WP source of [ basal ganglia (BG)\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basal_ganglia) we know BG acts the critical\n_action selection_ role in motor control via its striatum stripes within which\ndifferentially indexed units representing either direct \"Go\" or indirect\n\"NoGo\" action selection pathways.\n\n> Popular theories implicate the basal ganglia primarily in action selection \u2013\n> in helping to decide which of several possible behaviors to execute at any\n> given time. In more specific terms, the basal ganglia's primary function is\n> likely to control and regulate activities of the motor and premotor cortical\n> areas so that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly.[2][5]\n> Experimental studies show that the basal ganglia exert an inhibitory\n> influence on a number of motor systems, and that a release of this\n> inhibition permits a motor system to become active. The \"behavior switching\"\n> that takes place within the basal ganglia is influenced by signals from many\n> parts of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, which plays a key role\n> in executive functions.\n\n> The basal ganglia have a limbic sector whose components are assigned\n> distinct names: the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and ventral\n> tegmental area (VTA). There is considerable evidence that this limbic part\n> plays a central role in reward learning as well as cognition and frontal\n> lobe functioning, via the mesolimbic pathway from the VTA to the nucleus\n> accumbens that uses the neurotransmitter dopamine, and the mesocortical\n> pathway... The direct pathway, originating in the dorsal striatum inhibits\n> the GPi and SNr, resulting in a net disinhibition or excitation of the\n> thalamus. This pathway consists of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) that express\n> dopamine receptor D1, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4, and adenosine\n> receptor A1.[27] The direct pathway has been proposed to facilitate motor\n> actions, timing of motor actions, gating of working memory, and motor\n> responses to specific stimuli.[26] The (long) indirect pathway originates in\n> the dorsal striatum and inhibits the GPe, resulting in disinhibition of the\n> GPi which is then free to inhibit the thalamus. This pathway consists of\n> MSNs that express dopamine receptor D2, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor\n> M1, and adenosine receptor A2a.[27] This pathway has been proposed to result\n> in global motor inhibition(inhibition of all motor activity), and\n> termination of responses. Another shorter indirect pathway has been\n> proposed, which involves cortical excitation of the subthalamic nucleus\n> resulting in direct excitation of the GPe, and inhibition of the thalamus.\n> This pathway is proposed to result in inhibition of specific motor programs\n> based on associative learning.[26]\n\nThus essentially with input from motor cortex and other possible cortical\nareas (parietal, prefrontal, temporal) basal ganglia acts as a gating motor\nand other cognitive _action selection_ system with _feedback_ from the\ndopaminergic reward system if reward prediction error is large.\n\nFinally with BG's action decision making, the cerebellum further uses\nsupervised learning to shape the performance of the selected action so that it\nis accurate and well-coordinated. From its WP source:\n\n> Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show, above all, problems\n> with motor control, on the same side of the body as the damaged part of the\n> cerebellum. They continue to be able to generate motor activity but lose\n> precision, producing erratic, uncoordinated, or incorrectly timed movements.\n> A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the\n> finger for a target at arm's length: A healthy person will move the\n> fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory, whereas a person with cerebellar\n> damage will reach slowly and erratically, with many mid-course corrections."}
+{"query":"Seminal Books of fMRI\n\nI would like to know what books about fMRI do people consider as key or seminal. I am very familiar with a great amonut of MRI techniques, but I am sort of looking for a book in fMRI that really considers the root of the technique (as for teaching material). As a guideline, I consider the book of Diffusion MRI by Derek Jones as being the gold standard: mathematical, physics, biological and clinical considerations. So I guess that the question is what would you consider the fMRI equivalent to Derek's exhaustive book. Maybe even some reviews that you consider important and you yourselfs are (co-) authors.\n\nBest and thanks!\n\n","reasoning":"One relevant book could be Human Brain Function by J. Ashburner, W. Penny and K. Friston. ","id":"17","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["fmri\/hbf2.txt"],"gold_ids":["fmri\/hbf2_0.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI think one book that many people hold in high regard is Human Brain Function\nby J. Ashburner, W. Penny and K. Friston. It is old but it covers the\nprinciples nicely. It is also freely available online: [\nhttps:\/\/www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk\/spm\/doc\/books\/hbf2\/\n](https:\/\/www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk\/spm\/doc\/books\/hbf2\/)\n\nI guess you will be most interested in material from section 2 onwards."}
+{"query":"What work has been done studying methodological reforms in psychology after the replication crisis?\n\nCan anyone point me to academic work that systematically studies how standards and methods have changed in psychology as a response to the replication crisis? Thanks.","reasoning":"We need to find papers that study some Organization Behaviour journals over the last decade","id":"18","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["methodology\/osopdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["methodology\/osopdf_3.txt","methodology\/osopdf_0.txt","methodology\/osopdf_1.txt","methodology\/osopdf_5.txt","methodology\/osopdf_4.txt","methodology\/osopdf_2.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nOk, I came across \"Open science and reform practices in organizational\nbehavior research over time (2011 to 2019)\" (Tenney et al. 2021), a paper\nwhich studies some Organization Behaviour journals over the last decade and\nconcludes that there hasn't been widespread adoption of research practice\nreforms. This paper isn't as comprehensive as I was hoping, but it does help\nto partially answer my question.\n\nSource: [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.obhdp.2020.10.015\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.obhdp.2020.10.015)"}
+{"query":"What causes this motion illusion?\n\nThere are some questions here about various optical illusions. I stumbled upon this one and would like to find out where does it belong. Wikipedia has a page about illusory motion that mentions several types; peripheral drift seems to be closest, but I am not sure about it.","reasoning":"We will first need to understand Peripheral drift illusions. This is also related to Similar images that generate illusory motion in the center of the visual field.","id":"19","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["illusion\/VSJ04whtml.txt","illusion\/Peripheraldriftillusion.txt"],"gold_ids":["illusion\/VSJ04whtml_1.txt","illusion\/Peripheraldriftillusion_4.txt","illusion\/Peripheraldriftillusion_3.txt","illusion\/VSJ04whtml_0.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Peripheral drift illusions\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peripheral_drift_illusion) , as their name\nsuggests, create the illusion of motion in the periphery of the visual field.\nSimilar images that generate illusory motion in the center of the visual field\nhave been termed [ central drift illusions\n](http:\/\/www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp\/%7Eakitaoka\/VSJ04w.html) . Both of these types\nof illusions use high contrast \"luminance gratings\" - repeating patterns of\nhigh and low brightness - to generate illusory motion.\n\nPeripheral drift illusions can be used to generate an illusion of expansion,\nas demonstrated by the \"Active Volcano\" image (a) below (from [ Seno, Kitaoka,\n& Palmisano, 2013 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068%2Fp7511) ):\n\n[ ![enter image description here](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/cpThl.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/cpThl.png)\n\nThe control image (b) does not generate the illusion. The only difference\nbetween the images is their luminance grating pattern.\n\nMany examples of expansion (and contraction) illusions can be found [ here\n](http:\/\/www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp\/%7Eakitaoka\/expcont17e.html) . Here is a\nparticularly powerful example called [ Fujiwara's black hole illusion\n](http:\/\/www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp\/%7Eakitaoka\/saishin62e.html) :\n\n[ ![enter image description here](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/0nx7O.jpg)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/0nx7O.jpg)"}
+{"query":"What term can describe the feeling that a job just does itself?\n\nIs there a term that can describe that a job, however exhausting it might be, just does itself? Meaning, for example, that all doubt concerning how you're doing a job, whether or not you should do the job instead of something else, or any doubt of the value you're creating is just not there?\n\nAs an example, I saw an interview where an author was asked how much effort it took to write a particular book. The answer was \"No effort at all, the book wrote itself\", which is of course not literally true, because it takes reasearch, time, dedication and long hard hours in front of a PC to write a book. Still, I understand what they mean by this, when looking back to certain efforts I've made myself. But I don't know if this can be described in full by a certain term.\n\nI'm surprised how hard it was to find anything about this just googling, so any suggestions would be great!","reasoning":"This is related to a mental state called flow, in which mental focus is fully taken by one task. In the case of flow, the usual focus on a particular goal is replaced by focus on the task itself, losing both oneself and the future by entering fully into the moment and the action itself. In a way, one's state of being merges with the action, so as to become the action. We need more information about the flow.","id":"20","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["psycho_flow\/Flowpsychology.txt"],"gold_ids":["psycho_flow\/Flowpsychology_15.txt","psycho_flow\/Flowpsychology_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThere is a mental state called [ flow\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_\\(psychology\\)) , similar in ways to [\ntrance ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trance) and [ absorption\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absorption_\\(psychology\\)) , in which mental\nfocus is fully taken by one task. In the case of flow, the usual focus on a\nparticular goal is replaced by focus on the task itself, losing both oneself\nand the future by entering fully into the moment and the action itself. In a\nway, one's state of being merges with the action, so as to become the action.\nFrom [ Wikipedia ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_\\(psychology\\)) :\n\n> In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as being in\n> the zone, is the mental state in which a person performing some activity is\n> fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and\n> enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence, flow is characterized\n> by the complete absorption in what one does, and a resulting transformation\n> in one's sense of time.\n\nEnjoyment of the activity stems from the experience itself, rather than from\nwhat one expects to gain as a result of the action. As such the activity is\nsaid to be _intrinsically_ rewarding. Basically one has transcended worry and\nself-reflection, fully engrossed without question. From my experience,\nquestioning the task can break the flow. From [ Wikipedia\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_\\(psychology\\)) :\n\n> Some of the challenges to staying in flow include states of [ apathy\n> ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apathy) , [ boredom\n> ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boredom) , and [ anxiety\n> ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anxiety) . The state of apathy is\n> characterized by easy challenges and low skill level requirements, resulting\n> in a general lack of interest in the activity. Boredom is a slightly\n> different state that occurs when challenges are few, but one's skill level\n> exceeds those challenges causing one to seek higher challenges. A state of\n> anxiety occurs when challenges are high enough to exceed perceived skill\n> level, causing distress and uneasiness. These states in general prevent\n> achieving the balance necessary for flow."}
+{"query":"Human\/social behavior when one emphasizes their own superior achievements over others'\n\nI'm looking for a name\/category\/definition of (personality?) disorder(s) that can be described with the following traits in one's (imaginary person) social\/human behavior:\n\nthis person brings up and emphasizes his own, (according to him) superior achievements whenever another person around him mentions their own success\/results\/etc. (relevant fact: this person's statements about his own achievements are usually true, so there is no or little exaggeration);\nstill, this person does this in a way that likely hurts other's feelings or self-esteem (this person does this regardless of who's the other half, like friends\/partner\/family), maybe even permanently;\nwhen this person has to do something with the achievements of others, he also emphasizes his own role behind the success of the other half (may even claim that the other person would not have been able to achieve their results without his assistance\/inspiration);\nfinally, though this may be a bit further from the previous points, this person may also inspire other people to start doing the same things that he's already started earlier (through which he may have an edge in terms of performance, quicker results, etc.) - e.g., a hobby or a sport.\nI'd be also interested in the origin of such a situation\/traits (like how one would develop such a behavior, e.g. through childhood events or parental issues).\n\nMy research so far: tried to look for an answer online by summarizing the main points and got to \"Narcissistic personality disorder\" which (according to this site) is a mental condition in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration.\n\nHowever, I'm not 100% sure that the above traits completely match this definition since they emphasize one's superior results\/role in other's success and usually are combined with mean\/humiliating remarks. Also, this person rarely steers a conversation etc. in a way so that he'll have the attention\/focus.","reasoning":"We need to first understand Human perception of location, which may include use of interaural time differences. We also need more information about sound localization mechanisms in auditory system, e.g., they may use time difference and level difference.","id":"21","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["sound_local\/Soundlocalization.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference.txt"],"gold_ids":["sound_local\/Soundlocalization_8.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_5.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_18.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_16.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_23.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_17.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_8.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_19.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_22.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_14.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_21.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_6.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_26.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_7.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_9.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_10.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_5.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_6.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_3.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_11.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_15.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_20.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_13.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_7.txt","sound_local\/Interauraltimedifference_4.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_12.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_24.txt","sound_local\/Soundlocalization_25.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nHuman perception of location in azimuth of low frequency sounds (or low\nfrequency envelopes of higher-frequency sounds) includes use of [ interaural\ntime differences ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaural_time_difference)\n\\- this is the phase coding you're talking about. There is some rather\nspecialized circuitry in the auditory brainstem to perform those calculations.\nYour description of how predatory birds accomplish it is the same as is done\nin humans - this is an evolutionarily conserved trait in land vertebrates.\n\nAt higher frequencies, the time between waves is too fast to estimate phase\nlags, but the head is better at attenuating sound so intensity differences are\nused. Wikipedia has a [ fairly informative page on sound localization\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sound_localization) which would be a good\nstarting point for further reading."}
+{"query":"Are there results on the null hypothesis of the \"surgeon operating on my son\" question?\n\nThere is a common question used to demonstrate the power of implicit assumptions about gender roles in our society.\n\nIncluding it here for reference: A man and his son had a terrible car accident and were rushed to the hospital. The man died on the way, but the son was still barely alive. When they arrived, a surgeon was called in to operate. Upon seeing the young boy, the surgeon said, \u201cI can\u2019t operate \u2013 this is my son.\u201d\n\nMost people have difficulty thinking of the possibility that the surgeon is the son's Mother.\n\nThis riddle strikes me as having elements of the priming experiments whereby subjects primed with certain words perform better\/worse in word-stem completion tests, intermixed with the social expectations of our culture. Here the \"priming\" would be using the male \"father\", \"boy\", and \"son\" throughout the question but asking for a female \"mother\" as the answer.\n\nI was trying to find results on some sort of \"control group\" experiment to try and isolate the societal expectations element. Something like subjects being asked the same riddle but with a mother and daughter in a crash and the father a surgeon, or where it's the father and daughter in a car crash.\n\nThe only alternative I've seen is about \"mother and daughter in crash, father is nurse\" which is again combining the two effects.\n\nN.b. I'm expect the priming effect is probably small, I just wanted to know by how much.","reasoning":"This is associated with implicit association test. We can take a reference of Balanced-identity research design.","id":"22","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["surgeon_son\/Implicitassociationtest.txt"],"gold_ids":["surgeon_son\/Implicitassociationtest_21.txt","surgeon_son\/Implicitassociationtest_5.txt","surgeon_son\/Implicitassociationtest_13.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe [ implicit-association test ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implicit-\nassociation_test) is a larger example of the same phenomenon. Words are paired\nthat are congruent or incongruent with societal expectations; incongruent\npairs take most people longer to match.\n\nA caution on this test it is often used to measure bias in individuals and for\nsome as a surrogate for bigotry. However, it does not account for intentional\nmethods to avoid biased action, it only measures the \"automatic\", involuntary\nbiases imposed by exposure to culture. It should be instructive to test-takers\nhow the results might shape their behaviors in every day life, but shouldn't\nbe taken as a measure of \"how sexist\" or \"how racist\" someone is. It is also\nnot apparent that _individual_ results are informative; population-level\nresults trend with population-level biases, but individual performance on the\ntest is not a valid way to find \"who is more biased\" or anything like that."}
+{"query":"What is the inverse of anthropomorphism?\n\nAnthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. However, one often can observe the inverse happening as well. Namely the attribution of non-human entities\u2019 traits, emotions, or intentions to human entities. For example the biography book about Winston Churchill is called \u201cThe Last Lion\u201d or professional boxers being nicknamed \u201cPitbull\u201d, \u201cTiger\u201d,\u201dThe Hammer\u201d, etc.\n\nOr would this be just an extension of anthropomorphism in which humans attribute human traits, emotions, or intentions onto non-human entities and then relate them back to humans again? Because, in order to attribute non-human entities\u2019 traits, emotions, or intentions onto humans, one would first need to attribute human traits, emotions, or intentions onto non-human entities?","reasoning":"This is related to the case that imagines humans as non-human animals, e.g., The sphinx from the \"Oedipus Rex\" by Sophocles.","id":"23","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["anthropo\/Zoomorphism.txt"],"gold_ids":["anthropo\/Zoomorphism_6.txt","anthropo\/Zoomorphism_7.txt","anthropo\/Zoomorphism_5.txt","anthropo\/Zoomorphism_3.txt","anthropo\/Zoomorphism_8.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWikipedia explains [ zoomorphism ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zoomorphism)\n,\n\n> Contrary to anthropomorphism, which views animal or non-animal behavior in\n> human terms, zoomorphism is the tendency of viewing human behavior in terms\n> of the behavior of animals."}
+{"query":"On talking people out of delusions\n\nOne psychatrist I know recently wrote, offhand: \"I remember when I was a student I tried so hard to convince someone that they weren't royalty, hours of passionate debate, and it just did nothing.\"\n\nThis got me thinking - are there published descriptions of what it feels like to try and convince a person with a grandiose delusion that it's wrong? When this fails, what are their responses to arguments, etc.? I feel like I've read fictional descriptions of this scenario plenty of times in various fiction books, but maybe in reality it looks different and now like I'd imagine?","reasoning":"We first need to know how to support someone suffering from delusions.","id":"24","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["delusion\/communicatingpsychosisaspx.txt"],"gold_ids":["delusion\/communicatingpsychosisaspx_25.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThere is surprisingly little information, publicly, on how you should support\nsomeone suffering from delusions, but there is a good set of information from\nAustralia's New South Wales Government website at [\nhttps:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/mentalhealth\/psychosocial\/strategies\/Pages\/communicating-\npsychosis.aspx\n](https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/mentalhealth\/psychosocial\/strategies\/Pages\/communicating-\npsychosis.aspx)\n\n2 key points relevant to your query are that you **should not** state any\njudgements about the content of the person\u2019s beliefs and experiences; and you\n**should not** argue, confront or challenge someone about their beliefs or\nexperiences.\n\nLet's say someone believes they\u2019re the Queen of Denmark, and not [ Queen\nMargrethe II ](https:\/\/denmark.dk\/people-and-culture\/monarchy) . Your telling\nthem they\u2019re crazy will result in them still believing they\u2019re the Queen of\nDenmark \u2014 but now also believing you\u2019re crazy for disagreeing. Attacking\nsomeone with a clinical delusion almost always causes them to put up their\ndefences and retreat further into their beliefs.\n\nEqually, feeding into their delusion will only give them more reason to think\ntheir beliefs are justified.\n\nAustraila's Queensland Government have also published [ some guidelines (PDF)\n](https:\/\/www.health.qld.gov.au\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0033\/444597\/delusions.pdf)\non how to help someone suffering delusions."}
+{"query":"Whether \"group polarization\" and \"social segregation\" is the same?\n\nIn a paper of (Murase, 2019) use both terms \"group polarization\" and \"social segregation\".\n\nThe \"group polarization\" is explained here, and the author also documents about the \"social segregation\" as\n\nThe relationship between homophily and segregation has been recognized long ago.(...)In another approach to social segregation, opinion dynamics is used so that similar people can influence each other\n\nI am wondering whether these two terms \"group polarization\" and \"social segregation\" are the same?","reasoning":"We need to figure out the definition of Social segregation and Group polarization.","id":"25","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["polarization\/segregation.txt","polarization\/0146167219833389.txt"],"gold_ids":["polarization\/segregation_1.txt","polarization\/0146167219833389_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nSocial segregation and group polarization are different concepts.\n\nSocial segregation, (i.e. racial segregation, residential segregation, sex\nsegregation) is defined as \" [ the separation or isolation of people or other\nentities so that there is a minimum of interaction between them\n](https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/segregation) \"\n\nGroup polarization refers to when an individual's attitude or opinion changes\nafter the influence of a group, to be more extreme (or polarized) than prior\nto being exposed to the group [ (Sieber & Ziegler, 2019)\n](https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full\/10.1177\/0146167219833389) .\n\n**References**\n\nSieber, J., & Ziegler, R. (2019). Group Polarization Revisited: A Processing\nEffort Account. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(10), 1482\u20131498.\n[ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0146167219833389\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0146167219833389)\n\nAPA Dictionary of Psychology: [ https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/segregation\n](https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/segregation)"}
+{"query":"Why a \"weak homophilic relationships\" can be amplified by \"cumulative advantage\"\n\nMurase, 2019 has a sentence that\n\nThus even a relatively weak preference for homophilic relationships would tend to be amplified over time, via a cumulative advantage\n\nBasically, they mean that weak homophilic relationship (relationship between people having no common acquaintance) can be amplified over time due to cumulative advantage. However, they did not explain why it happen, could you please help me to explain it?\n\nI did a search about \"cumulative advantage\" but I still cannot not link the concept to this situation\n\nCumulative Advantage states that once a social agent gains a small advantage over other agents, that advantage will compound over time into an increasingly larger advantage. The effect is well known and is embodied in \"the rich get richer and the poor get poorer\".","reasoning":"We need to understand the definition of homophilic relationship","id":"26","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["homophily\/Homophily.txt"],"gold_ids":["homophily\/Homophily_7.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nA homophilic relationship is: [ \"the tendency of individuals to associate and\nbond with similar others\" ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homophily)\n\nI'd re-write\n\n> \"the rich get richer\"\n\nin this context (or vice-versa) as:\n\n> \"those with weak homophilic relationships get more homophilic relationships\"\n\nin the context of this paper. Basically, because this structure of\nrelationship is conducive to forming more homophilic links, its presence tends\nto encourage more homophilic groups, even if the extent of homophily starts\nout weak.\n\nYou can think of a strong community structure where everyone in an in-group is\nfriends with everyone else; anyone introduced to the group is going to end up\nwith a relationship with everyone in the group.\n\nThe authors are saying the same is true even if the links are initially weak."}
+{"query":"What is the name of this bias or phenomenon?\n\nHe lied.\n\nYou changed your mind.\n\nI reconsidered my decision.\n\nWhat is the name for this type of cognitive bias where you are easier on yourself when you describe your behavior, but harder on the second person and hardest on others? It's similar to the justification of your actions in certain situations e.g., when someone cuts you off in traffic, he's a jerk. But if you cut someone off it's because you are really in a hurry and it's justified.\n\nBut what I'm specifically looking for is the name of the phenomenon where the same behavior\/quality of the first, second and third person are described by decreasing levels of charitability.","reasoning":"This is related to the idea of Russell Conjugation, we need more information to understand this concept.","id":"27","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["russell\/27181.txt"],"gold_ids":["russell\/27181_20.txt","russell\/27181_18.txt","russell\/27181_23.txt","russell\/27181_24.txt","russell\/27181_17.txt","russell\/27181_19.txt","russell\/27181_28.txt","russell\/27181_25.txt","russell\/27181_27.txt","russell\/27181_26.txt","russell\/27181_22.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nRussell Conjugation (or emotive conjugation).\n\nThe tendency of people to regard their own characteristics more charitably\nthan those of others, and to rank others according (at least in part) to\nproximity to earshot:\n\n> I am firm, you are obstinate, he is a pig-headed fool.\n>\n> I am righteously indignant, you are annoyed, he is making a fuss over\n> nothing.\n>\n> I have reconsidered the matter, you have changed your mind, he has gone back\n> on his word.\n\n[ Eric Weinstein expands: ](https:\/\/www.edge.org\/response-detail\/27181)\n\n> Russell Conjugation (or \u201cemotive conjugation\u201d) is a presently obscure\n> construction from linguistics, psychology and rhetoric which demonstrates\n> how our rational minds are shielded from understanding the junior role\n> factual information generally plays relative to empathy in our formation of\n> opinions.\n>\n> I frequently suggest it as perhaps the most important idea with which almost\n> no one seems to be familiar, as it showed me just how easily my opinions\n> could be manipulated without any need to falsify facts.\n>\n> Historically, the idea is not new and seems to have been first defined by\n> several examples given by Bertrand Russell in 1948 on the BBC without much\n> follow up work, until it was later rediscovered in the internet age and\n> developed into a near data-driven science by pollster Frank Luntz beginning\n> in the early 1990s.\n\n[ Luntz ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frank_Luntz#Use_of_language) , a US\npolitical and communications consultant:\n\n> Luntz frequently tests word and phrase choices using focus groups and\n> interviews. His stated purpose in this is the goal of causing audiences to\n> react based on emotion. \"80 percent of our life is emotion, and only 20\n> percent is intellect. I am much more interested in how you feel than how you\n> think. ... If I respond to you quietly, the viewer at home is going to have\n> a different reaction than if I respond to you with emotion and with passion\n> and I wave my arms around. Somebody like this is an intellectual; somebody\n> like this is a freak.\""}
+{"query":"Using multilevel modeling to assess gender differences in intervention effects of an RCT, and how to look at mechanisms of change\n\nI'm looking for some help here - so I'm a grad student and stats newbie (but trying to move on from newbie status!) and attempting to figure out how to conduct the analyses I'm interested in but I'm feeling very lost.\n\nI'm looking to do MLM with a large RCT (N=434) with the active treatment vs. services as usual (i.e., 2 treatment conditions), and I have four total timepoints - baseline, posttreatment, 6 months follow-up, and 12 months follow-up. The main purpose of the study is to look at gender as a moderator of treatment outcomes, and a secondary goal is to look at whether there are differences in mechanisms\/mediators of treatment effects by gender as well. I spoke with a professor in the quant psychology department about my project and he mentioned that the strength of my project is that I have follow-up data with such a large sample (and high retention rates) with a marginalized, hard-to-reach population - so he suggested using MLM. Typically, when I've used MLM in the past, I've done it with looking at clusters or within\/between individual change across multiple timepoints. But is there a way to use MLM to address my research questions - 1) to look at gender as a moderator of intervention outcomes in this large-scale RCT, and 2) to look at whether hypothesized, female-specific mediators of change are indeed more predictive of improved treatment outcomes for females relative to males? I'm feeling a little lost as to what would be my level 1 vs level 2 variables here.\n\nAny help would be greatly appreciated!! Thank you so much!!","reasoning":"This is related to mixed effects models. We need to first figure out the terminological difference.","id":"28","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["multilevel_modeling\/multilevelhierarchicalmixedmodelsterminology.txt"],"gold_ids":["multilevel_modeling\/multilevelhierarchicalmixedmodelsterminology_3.txt","multilevel_modeling\/multilevelhierarchicalmixedmodelsterminology_4.txt","multilevel_modeling\/multilevelhierarchicalmixedmodelsterminology_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt doesn't make sense to use MLM merely because you have a lot of data, you\nuse it because you have data with variance at different levels. That said, I\nvery much prefer the terminology of \"mixed effects models\" rather than\n\"multilevel\" models for the sort of question you're asking, where you actually\ndon't seem to be interested in variance at different hierarchical levels, but\nrather about the fixed effects. I'd recommend reading about mixed effects\nmodeling and starting from there, though if you are familiar with MLM you will\nprobably quickly discover they are exactly the same thing. There are also\nblogs out there talking about the terminology\/approach differences that you\nmight find helpful, like here: [ https:\/\/www.theanalysisfactor.com\/multilevel-\nhierarchical-mixed-models-terminology\/\n](https:\/\/www.theanalysisfactor.com\/multilevel-hierarchical-mixed-models-\nterminology\/)\n\nIn your case, it sounds like you have repeated measures in some subjects;\ntherefore, it would make sense to have a random effect for subject, otherwise\nyour data are violating assumptions of independence. However, your research\nquestions are all about the fixed effects of gender and gender interactions\nwith other parameters. The random effects here would seem to be more of a\nnuisance parameter that you include in your model but aren't likely to discuss\nat all.\n\nI can't give you a complete answer of how you should structure your models\nwith the information provided (and don't think I really should, unless you\nwant to collaborate and give authorship - setting up the model to answer\nquestions like this is pretty much the main intellectual effort for a project\nlike this), and there's a whole separate world of mediation analysis, but I\nthink this should be enough to get you working towards a solution."}
+{"query":"What is verbal memory useful for?\n\nA friend of mine did the Verbal Memory Test at http:\/\/humanbenchmark.com\/ and got an extremely high score (almost 300 words). English is not his first language and he knew the meaning of only about two thirds of the words (if that's something to take into account).\n\nAbout the test\n\nThis test measures how many words you can keep in short term memory at once.\n\nThe number of words you need to remember grows continually, until you can't keep them in your head anymore.\n\nGo as long as you can. You have 3 strikes until game over.\n\nYour score is how many turns you lasted.\n\nDoes this have any practical use or influence in other areas of cognition?","reasoning":"This is related to word\/memory span test. We need to first understand its definition and check how this can be used, e.g., prediction of some ability.","id":"29","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["verbal_memory\/02687030701803788.txt","verbal_memory\/Memoryspan.txt"],"gold_ids":["verbal_memory\/02687030701803788_3.txt","verbal_memory\/02687030701803788_6.txt","verbal_memory\/02687030701803788_5.txt","verbal_memory\/02687030701803788_4.txt","verbal_memory\/Memoryspan_3.txt","verbal_memory\/02687030701803788_2.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is one of several variations of the _word span_ test, used in many\nstudies of working and short-term memory. It is a type of [ memory span\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_span) test:\n\n> ... memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back\n> in correct order immediately after presentation ... Items may include words,\n> numbers, or letters.\n\n[ Short-term memory ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Short-term_memory) is a\ncognitive capacity that is a component of [ verbal intelligence\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verbal_intelligence) . However, the simple\nword span is [ not a great measure\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_span#From_simple_span_to_complex_span)\nof verbal intelligence:\n\n> ... memory span with digits and words is only weakly related to performance\n> in complex cognitive tasks such as text comprehension, which are assumed to\n> depend on short-term memory.\n\nPerformance on verbal memory tests can vary substantially based on the\nparameters of the test, the effect of practice and training, and the testing\nenvironment.\n\nNonetheless, research suggests that strong performance on the word span task -\nin particular, the non-word span variation which uses \"pseudowords\" that sound\nlike real words but aren't - is indicative of superior **secondary language\nacquisition** capability ( [ Juffs & Harrington, 2011\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0261444810000509) ). There is also some evidence\nthat word span may be predictive of ability to follow complex instructions ( [\nKim, Bayles, & Beeson, 2008 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02687030701803788) ; [\nJaroslawska et al, 2016 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13421-015-0579-2) ). Of\ncourse, these results may not be applicable to the word span recognition\nvariation of the task."}
+{"query":"Deflection of the basilar membrane\n\nThe basilar membrane becomes thicker and heavier from the basal end to the apical upper end - this is why high frequencies are perceived in the lower range and low frequencies in the upper range.\n\nBut why? Why does the traveling wave of the membrane reach its maximum amplitude at high frequencies at the bottom and at low frequencies at the top? How is this related to the width, stiffness and mass of the basilar membrane?","reasoning":"The wide, slack composition of the basilar membrane (BM) in the apex and the narrow, stiff characteristics at the base are among the factors that underlie the tuning of the BM. Slack, wide structures vibrate at low harmonic frequencies, stiff and narrow structures at high frequencies, just like the strings of a guitar. The apex of the cochlea transduces low frequencies, the base high.","id":"30","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["basiler_membrane\/function.txt"],"gold_ids":["basiler_membrane\/function_6.txt","basiler_membrane\/function_2.txt","basiler_membrane\/function_7.txt","basiler_membrane\/function_8.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe wide, slack composition of the basilar membrane (BM) in the apex and the\nnarrow, stiff characteristics at the base are among the factors that underlie\nthe tuning of the BM. Slack, wide structures vibrate at low harmonic\nfrequencies, stiff and narrow structures at high frequencies, just like the\nstrings of a guitar. The apex of the cochlea transduces low frequencies, the\nbase high. [ Cochlea.eu ](http:\/\/www.cochlea.eu\/en\/cochlea\/function) has an\naccessible explanation this. What also adds to this is that the hair cells in\nthe apex are longer, and in the base they are shorter. Basically, the BM\nallows a standing wave to form, where each place on the BM resonates at a\ntypical harmonic frequency that increases from apex to base. The harmonic\nfrequency is governed by the physical properties and is sharpened by the outer\nhair cells [ (Purves _et al_ ., 2001)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK10946\/) .\n\n[ ![cochlea](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/WhdWa.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/WhdWa.png)  \nFig. 1. Cochlear structures with a focus on the frequency tuning of the\nbasilar membrane. source: [ Purves _et al_ . (2001)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK10946\/)\n\n**Reference**  \n**-** [ Purves _et al_ ., eds. _Neuroscience_ , 2  nd  ed. Sunderland (MA):\nSinauer Associates; 2001 ](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK10946\/)"}
+{"query":"Has there ever been a split brain pianist?\nAsked 2 years, 6 months ago\nModified 2 years, 5 months ago\nViewed 634 times\n0\n\nHas there ever been a split brain pianist?\n\nI was thinking about this yesterday and it occurred to me that a split brain pianist might have an advantage over a non-split brain pianist; they could potentially read the bass and treble clef lines independently and thus process the lines independently. Perhaps this advantage would be meaningless at the professional level, but it surely could have the potential to make it easier for beginner pianists. I spent some time searching but was unfortunately unable to find any case studies of this.\n\nI did, however, find a case study of a ex-professional pianist with alien hand syndrome whose symptoms were exacerbated when playing the piano, but it wasn't what I was looking for.\n\nI'd also be interested in any examples of split brain patients who were able to play any instrument at all \u2013 I'd find the outcomes fascinating.","reasoning":"We need to know what is split-brain, the cuase, the mechanism and its symptom, e.g., what patients will behave.","id":"31","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["brain_pianist\/splitbrainsyndrome.txt"],"gold_ids":["brain_pianist\/splitbrainsyndrome_8.txt","brain_pianist\/splitbrainsyndrome_7.txt","brain_pianist\/splitbrainsyndrome_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYour hypothesis that those suffering from split-brain syndrome\n\n> could potentially read the bass and treble clef lines independently and thus\n> process the lines independently. Perhaps this advantage would be meaningless\n> at the professional level, but it surely could have the potential to make it\n> easier for beginner pianists.\n\nis flawed. That is because communication between the two brain hemispheres is\nrequired in order to learn to play the piano.\n\nEncyclopaedia Britannica [ points out that\n](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/split-brain-syndrome)\n\n> **Split-brain syndrome** , also called **callosal disconnection syndrome** ,\n> [is a] condition characterized by a cluster of neurological abnormalities\n> arising from the partial or complete severing or lesioning of the [ corpus\n> callosum ](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/corpus-callosum) , the bundle\n> of nerves that connects the right and left hemispheres of the [ brain\n> ](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/brain) .\n>\n> **[...]** *\n>\n> The primary cause of split-brain syndrome is intentional severing of the\n> corpus callosum, partially or completely, through a surgical procedure known\n> as corpus callosotomy. Rarely performed in the 21st century (having been\n> replaced largely by drug treatments and other procedures), this operation is\n> reserved as a last measure of treatment for extreme and uncontrollable forms\n> of [ epilepsy ](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/epilepsy) in which\n> violent seizures spread from one side of the brain to the other.\n\nWith regard to playing a piano with the corpus callosum completely severed,\nEncyclopaedia Britannica [ also points out that\n](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/split-brain-syndrome) (emphasis mine)\n\n> Many patients with split-brain syndrome retain intact memory and social\n> skills. Split-brain patients also maintain motor skills that were learned\n> before the onset of their condition and require both sides of the body;\n> examples include walking, swimming, and biking. They can also learn new\n> tasks that involve either parallel or mirrored movements of their fingers or\n> hands. **They cannot, however, learn to perform new tasks that require\n> interdependent movement of each hand, such as learning to play the piano,\n> where both hands must work together to produce the desired music** .\n\nSo therefore, beginner pianists will not be able gain any more abilities with\nplaying the piano, and pianists will not be able to learn any new pieces of\nmusic as it will involve learning how to coordinate each hand with the notes\nwithin the piece.\n\nThe anterior half of the corpus callosum is significantly larger in musicians\n( [ Schlaug, et al. 1995 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0028-3932\\(95\\)00045-5) ),\n@AliceD points out in the excellent [ answer to **Unilateral vision in split\nbrain subjects** ](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/a\/21155\/7604)\n\n>   * The corpus callosum is not necessary for low-level visual processing;\n>   * Both eyes project to both hemispheres; the left visual hemifield of both\n> eyes is projected to the left hemisphere, the right hemifield to the right.\n>\n\nand [ Chappell (1999) ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0265051799000340) also points\nout that;\n\n> It is argued that in terms of brain usage, technical skills and note-reading\n> are based largely in the left-hemisphere, while the less used skills of\n> improvisation, memorisation and internalisation are based in the right-\n> hemisphere.\n\n##  References\n\nChappell, S. (1999). Developing the complete pianist: A study of the\nimportance of a whole-brain approach to piano teaching. _British Journal of\nMusic Education, 16_ (3), 253-262. [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0265051799000340\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0265051799000340)\n\nSand, R. (n.d.). Split-brain syndrome: Pathology _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ [\nhttps:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/split-brain-syndrome\n](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/split-brain-syndrome)\n\nSchlaug, G., J\u00e4ncke, L., Huang, Y., Staiger, J. F., & Steinmetz, H. (1995).\nIncreased corpus callosum size in musicians. _Neuropsychologia, 33_ (8),\n1047-1055. [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0028-3932(95)00045-5\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0028-3932\\(95\\)00045-5)"}
+{"query":"Can you use harmful addictions to build good habits?\n\nI am reading the Pavlov's dog experiments, from it I learn that associating a dopamine high event with a neutral event will lead to later that neutral event triggering the same receptors in absence of the dopamine high event. I thought about this and wondered... what if I started doing some harmful addictions like cigarettes and smokes before studying something I may not be interested in... does this mean I would later associate studying with the kicks of these two harmful habits?\n\nP.S: I am not saying to do these illicit substances in excess, just a mild amount where your brain can still function.\n\nThe above was the motivation, now is the real question: Has there been human trials based on this principle using illicit substances to train the mind in a positive way? Was it succesful..?","reasoning":"Smoking is highly related to nicotine. We need to see some study results and analyses to understand the impact of nicotine.","id":"32","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["habit_addiction\/PMC3151730.txt"],"gold_ids":["habit_addiction\/PMC3151730_3.txt","habit_addiction\/PMC3151730_4.txt","habit_addiction\/PMC3151730_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAlthough smoking is highly addictive and should never be started just because\nyou feel like it enables you to learn something you are not particularly\ninterested in [ Heishman et al. (2010)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3151730\/) note that:\n\n> The significant effects of nicotine on motor abilities, attention, and\n> memory likely represent true performance enhancement because they are not\n> confounded by withdrawal relief. The beneficial cognitive effects of\n> nicotine have implications for initiation of smoking and maintenance of\n> tobacco dependence.\n\nNote that tobacco smoking is not only addictive because of nicotine, but also\nbecause tobacco smoke contains potent MAO inhibitors which are speculated to\npotentiate the effects of nicotine. [ Berlin & Anthenelli (2001)\n](https:\/\/watermark.silverchair.com\/4-1-33.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAsUwggLBBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggKyMIICrgIBADCCAqcGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMezGRNW4qQDPOzxBOAgEQgIICeDHUGcLTucxMdWmPu9fIS9agdfpzeIljHgK-\ngShT0EwX0_vEjW6FIQGasR9XL6MFS5k32D_0THoXqyImMTSZi5OlHkJbYB0hZJJsDYxhQF9l2hZ56aOI5HePRggp-K7y0w_SVKV7DYCS0Ij_hHfqOpjLWgym4IBIfCIu30gnJf64Xg9qMpHUbPRKK1c9C_0vGGj4zhv6xrIQaSayF7xGantNvnfvQQzy_f5ATGF-\nTKmCnEhad0WyMT1pn33o3YrqbCrWFtIS7ypdhty9dncmt635ctlK1349uYRzdehE4xz386-5ytwFFxNS8hFR3Qv2mFr427UL3n_lSjAhIWp3KWdTSmIelMcOHckmQeRm7SLspwZWRuMwnPkU2ju4xQOaV4dkCQqVYseNmPGeOBrQUhe-6xemXZRxIvB2J4RoE-\nrZelVNGCIzcUhxtGjIglFJTuzbAmrtFH7CWXA5ofxgN2xlMsw7kvzbgWpwrOYT6Z-qSTe7WsSXeevnNzmz1EyYsZ_LqG8nzR_YB7i20syUrpALDz54tCkt29pme_WZWZGrm1iuyXdKlgazLzqUHHZyt4eAw2SMugcVz10XYaoAUjLt6ZeAiZEBODDDK-S30ikXFWK1dGj55dubhalOMrs7URga10f9pnAKlHamjSicyyIJzvOqHediGogl7h_INtg76NkNKE3zrpMKobo5tDf9z340mMJ-\nKvZiADxYN-\nPfNf_Ub3M2IKCohJJ7kD2Ixjv0PLPjvVqLd4i6SL3yKpF2b__RSxfj5hPaVwdfYhbzjvX34L867d9Zfs3u6SP5BH_8buT-\ngpGK78Xtel4nzHBM2ioPlek_Xvxo) note that:\n\n> We examine the hypothesis that chronic habitual smoking can be better\n> understood in the context of two pharmacological factors : nicotine and\n> reduced MAO activity. We speculate that MAO inhibition by compounds found in\n> either tobacco or tobacco smoke can potentiate nicotine\u2019s effects\n\nThus if you want to try nicotine your last choice should be smoking. There is\n[ snus ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snus) or buy nicotine gum. Also\nconsider talking to a professional so (s)he can recommend medication like [\nmethylphenidad ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methylphenidate) or similar\nmedication.\n\nLet me give you another suggestion to start micro-dosing caffeine (-powder). [\nSholey et al. (2008)\n](https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0195666308000196) note\nthat:\n\n> Cognitive performance, mood, autonomic activity and salivary caffeine were\n> assessed pre-dose and at 1, 3, 6 and 9 h post-dose. Compared with placebo,\n> performance was impaired by 2.5 mg, whilst 5 mg had negative effects on mood\n> and mixed effects on performance and 10 mg improved performance.\n\nAnother paper about microdosing caffeine reports:\n\n> This study measured the effects of 0, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 mg caffeine on\n> cognitive performance, mood and thirst in adults with low and moderate to\n> high habitual caffeine intakes.Effects on performance and mood confirmed a\n> psychostimulant action of caffeine. All doses of caffeine significantly\n> affected cognitive performance, and the dose-response relationships for\n> these effects were rather flat. [ Rogers & Smit (2000): Effects of low doses\n> of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher\n> caffeine consumers\n> ](https:\/\/idp.springer.com\/authorize\/casa?redirect_uri=https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s002130000506&casa_token=4uoqOueuEW8AAAAA:9P5TrKWNJJvC9fPZq5SDR5F8s2AuhBlFJ2xAlGX2pugXAqRnPkMX1-30ziDKWo1gvN_IYhf55IGRdY3hGPs)\n\nThe effects of caffeine can be enhanced by L-theanin as found in tea (camellia\nsinensis). A meta-analysis of the combined effects of caffeine and L-theanin\nnotes that:\n\n> Evidence of moderate e\ufb00ect sizes in favor of combined ca\ufb00eine and L-theanine\n> in the \ufb01rst 2 hours postdose were found for outcome measures Bond-Lader\n> alertness, attentional switching accuracy, and, to a lesser extent, some\n> unisensory and multisensory attentional outcomes. Moderator analysis of\n> ca\ufb00eine and L-theanine doses revealed trends toward greater change in e\ufb00ect\n> size for ca\ufb00eine dose than for L-theanine dose, particularly during the \ufb01rst\n> hour post dose. [ Camfield et al. 2014\n> ](https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nutritionreviews\/article\/72\/8\/507\/1919604?login=false)\n\nAlso note that what you describe in the first paragraph is very likely to\nhappen: You will find it increasingly harder to study a subject you do not\nparticularly like without the help of chemical helpers. This does not\nnecessarily have to be detrimental. The very prolific mathematician [ Erd\u00f6s\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Erd%C5%91s) used amphetamines for a\nsignificant proportion of his life. Just be warned that smoking tobacco might\nbe the most detrimental chemical aid..."}
+{"query":"Name for the effect where people cause others to fulfill their expectations\n\nI recall hearing a social cognition lecture a number of years ago in which the lecturer described a particular idea that centered around the role of self-fulfilling prophecies in relationships. For example, if I believe that x is a hostile jerk, I'll tend to treat them in a way that makes them more hostile. (A good example of a book that subscribes to this type of a view is Feeling Good Together by David Burns; I'm not sure if he subscribes to the exact theory that I'm trying to remember, though).\n\nI'm pretty sure that there was a specific name for this, but I don't recall what it was.\n\nCan someone help me identify which theory or term this is?","reasoning":"This is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area and low expectations lead to worse.","id":"33","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["pygmalion\/Pygmalioneffect.txt"],"gold_ids":["pygmalion\/Pygmalioneffect_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI believe what you might be referring to is the [ Pygmalion effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pygmalion_effect) , an effect in social\npsychology where high expectations lead to improved performance in a given\narea: a sort of self-fulfilling prophecy.\n\nAn interesting idea, but one which has sparked a lot of criticism over the\nyears. I won't go as far as saying it has been debunked, but you might want to\nhave a [ look for yourself\n](https:\/\/thenewstatistics.com\/itns\/2018\/04\/03\/weve-been-here-before-the-\nreplication-crisis-over-the-pygmalion-effect\/) ."}
+{"query":"Why are there so few women in math and science Olympiads?\n\nWhy are there so few women in math olympics (IMO and etc)? If this is also related to the low participation of women in the Olympics compared to men, I would like to know.\n\nWhy Are There Still Only Few Women in Science An interesting article you can find on Nytimes about why low number of women in science\n\nI also found some studies that try to explain why women's participation in math olympics is low. They have shown that many women also believe the stereotype that women are bad at math. Women who hold this belief may be reluctant to compete in math competitions, so it probably makes up for this effect.\n\nWomen and Mathematics: Stereotypes, Identity, and Achievement Both Genders Think Women Are Bad at Basic Math\n\nI sent some studies that I read and found relevant.","reasoning":"This could also be related to the different interests between men and women.","id":"34","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["men_women_science\/19883140.txt"],"gold_ids":["men_women_science\/19883140_128.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is my first answer here, so bear with me. Suggestions on how to make this\nanswer better are welcome.\n\nThere are several studies that indicate that men are more interested in things\nand women are more interested in people.\n\n  * [ https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19883140\/ ](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19883140\/)\n  * [ https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00189\/full ](https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00189\/full)\n\nIn Scandinavia where genders are the most equal there is a bigger gap between\nmen and women in the STEM fields. Which suggests that the interest in people\nor things is biological and not perse social or cultural.\n\n  * [ https:\/\/www.telenor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/The-Gender-Gap-in-Technology-in-Scandinavia_Full-report.pdf ](https:\/\/www.telenor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/The-Gender-Gap-in-Technology-in-Scandinavia_Full-report.pdf)\n\nTo compete in the math olympics you need to be really good in what you do. Or\nfor the sake of argument to be a high level engineer or any other high level\nposition in the STEM field.\n\nYou will have more men than women. Because there are less women to begin with.\n\nPlus women excel in verbal skills. So they have more options outside STEM\nfields only.\n\n  * [ https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4270278\/ ](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4270278\/)"}
+{"query":"How long does an area clean-up help it stay clean?\n\nSometime in middle or high school I remember coming across this popular thinking of, when an area or neighbourhood has some trash, it makes people think it's ok to litter there themselves, and the more trash there is, the more of an unspoken 'norm' littering becomes. However, the hope was that the reverse is also true, and if a neighbourhood's cleaned up, then it signals to people that littering is the anti-norm here.\n\nBut I have gone on trash cleaning walks around my neighbourhood in the past few months, and I can't say that that hope is totally founded. The street by my apartment building has trash reemerge with a vengeance within a week. It makes me think there's some discrepancy in how this is thought about. Like, it's harder to see during night-time, so it absolves you from confronting the results of trash on the grass, and the like.\n\nAre there long-term studies around (various) neighbourhoods that study this behaviour, and detangle and clarify the different factors at play here? Other studies are good too.","reasoning":"The central question is to find studies with convincing evidence about the hypothesis that: trash encourages litering while clean places become cleaner.","id":"35","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_8.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_16.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_13.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_7.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_12.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_10.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_11.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_0.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_5.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_3.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_15.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_14.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_1.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_4.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_6.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_2.txt","vengeance\/p8418n91jpdf_9.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nResearch indeed demonstrates that littering is significantly more frequent\nwhen there is existing litter - for reviews, see [ Huffman et al (1995)\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0013916595272003) , and [ Geller et al (1982. pp\n84-97) ](https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=RuBSAAAAMAAJ) .\n\nA more recent review by [ Vos et al (2018)\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/JFM-06-2017-0025) summarizes:\n\n> Among researchers, there is a general consensus that littering is\n> significantly more likely to occur in a littered setting than in a litter-\n> free setting.\n\nThe authors discuss a number of other factors known to reduce littering\nbehaviour, including the presence of others, existing litter being in piles,\nseeing other people picking up trash, and the scent of cleanser. Factors that\nincrease littering include lack of trash cans, and the [ broken windows effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broken_windows_theory) .\n\nAs for long-term observational studies, your best bet is probably [ Schultz et\nal (2013) ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0013916511412179) :\n\n> Findings are reported from coded observations of the littering behavior\n> among 9,757 individuals at 130 outdoor public locations\n\nSome interesting findings from this study:\n\n> ... of all 8,990 individuals that were observed moving through a diverse\n> range of sites, 4% littered.\n>\n> ... the large majority (85%) of littering behavior results from individual-\n> level variables (e.g., age, gender, attitudes, and motivation) ... 15% of\n> the variance in observed littering behavior was due to some aspect of the\n> context (e.g., existing litter, lack of convenient receptacles, etc.).\n>\n> ... for every unit increase in the amount of existing litter (from 0-10),\n> the observed littering rate increased by 2%.\n\nLots more detail in the paper."}
+{"query":"Can a person be persuaded to become gay?\n\nCan a person become gay? Can a person be persuaded to become one? I heard that gayness is correlated with some genetic characteristics so, I figured, laws against \"gay propaganda\" (e.g. in Russia) are anti-science, aren't they (in addition to being discriminatory)?","reasoning":"We need to find related information about the genetic variants associated with same-sex sexual behavior.","id":"36","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf_0.txt","gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe article you linked ( [ Hamer, et al. 1993\n](https:\/\/www.mun.ca\/biology\/scarr\/Hamer_et_al_1993_Science_261-321.pdf) [Open\nAccess PDF]) was cited in [ Mills (2019)\n](https:\/\/finchwrangler.com\/download\/mills-2019.pdf) [Open Access PDF] which\nstates,\n\n> Work in the 1990s isolated a relationship with the Xq28 region on the X\n> chromosome (5 [ [Hu, et al. (1995)] ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ng1195-248) ,\n> 6 [ [Hamer, et al. 1993]\n> ](https:\/\/www.mun.ca\/biology\/scarr\/Hamer_et_al_1993_Science_261-321.pdf) ).\n> Subsequent studies found similarity in the sexual orientation of identical\n> twins, with genetics explaining 18% (for women) and 37% (for men), with the\n> remainder accounted for by directly shared environments (such as family or\n> school) and nonshared environments (such as legalization or norms regarding\n> same-sex behavior) (7 [ [ L\u00e5ngstr\u00f6m, et al. (2010)\n> ](https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Niklas-\n> Langstroem\/publication\/5320571_Genetic_and_Environmental_Effects_on_Same-\n> sex_Sexual_Behavior_A_Population_Study_of_Twins_in_Sweden\/links\/0fcfd50f9451e0a08a000000\/Genetic-\n> and-Environmental-Effects-on-Same-sex-Sexual-Behavior-A-Population-Study-of-\n> Twins-in-Sweden.pdf) Open Access PDF]). Many of these studies could not be\n> replicated, and although twin and family studies found a genetic basis, they\n> could not isolate variants associated with same-sex orientation at specific\n> genetic loci.\n\nMills (2019) also reports that,\n\n> On page 882 of this issue, Ganna et al. (3 [ [ Ganna, et al. (2019)\n> ](https:\/\/www.votvsa.org\/uploads\/1\/2\/7\/0\/127040057\/large-\n> scale_gwas_reveals_insights_into_the_genetic_architecture_of_same-\n> sex_sexual_behavior.pdf) Open Access PDF]) report the largest study to date,\n> comprising almost half a million individuals in the United Kingdom and\n> United States, identifying genetic variants associated with same-sex sexual\n> behavior. They provide evidence that genetic variation accounts for a small\n> fraction of same-sex sexual behavior and uncover a relationship to the\n> regulation of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen as well as sex-\n> specific differences. They also reveal complexity of human sexuality.\n\nThere is also a comment on this study ( [ Hamer, et al. 2021\n](https:\/\/scholar.archive.org\/work\/zs7s6zstpnew7a2lvbtwztioyq\/access\/wayback\/https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/sci\/371\/6536\/eaba2941.full.pdf)\nOpen Access PDF) and response ( [ Ganna, et al. 2021\n](https:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/371\/6536\/eaba5693.full) Open Access)\nis also available for your review.\n\nWith all this in mind, in review of Hamer et al. (1993) you linked to, the [\nanswer ](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/a\/26858\/7604) to the question [\nCan hocd change sexual orientation?\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/q\/26851\/7604) still stands that,\n\n> [N]othing and nobody can make you homosexual, bisexual or heterosexual\n\nThe thing is, genetics has nothing to do with persuading someone to be gay\nother than the fact that if genetics were involved, persuasion cannot be\neffective.\n\nSo with that in mind, reviewing the rest of the [ answer\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/a\/26858\/7604) to the question [ Can\nhocd change sexual orientation?\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/q\/26851\/7604) , it still stands that,\n\n> [N]othing and nobody can make you homosexual, bisexual or heterosexual\n\n##  References\n\nGanna, A., Verweij, K. J., Nivard, M. G., Maier, R., Wedow, R., Busch, A. S.,\n... & Zietsch, B. P. (2019). Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the\ngenetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. _Science, 365_ (6456). [\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aat7693\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aat7693)\n\nGanna, A., Verweij, K. J., Nivard, M. G., Maier, R., Wedow, R., Busch, A. S.,\n... & Zietsch, B. P. (2021). Response to Comment on \u201cLarge-scale GWAS reveals\ninsights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior\u201d. _Science,\n371_ (6536). [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aba5693\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aba5693)\n\nHamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N., & Pattatucci, A. M. (1993). A\nlinkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation.\n_Science, 261_ (5119), 321-327. [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.8332896\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.8332896)\n\nHamer, D., Mustanski, B., Sell, R., Sanders, S. A., & Garcia, J. R. (2021).\nComment on \u201cLarge-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of\nsame-sex sexual behavior\u201d. _Science, 371_ (6536). [\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aba2941\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aba2941)\n\nHu, S., Pattatucci, A. M., Patterson, C., Li, L., Fulker, D. W., Cherny, S.\nS., ... & Hamer, D. H. (1995). Linkage between sexual orientation and\nchromosome Xq28 in males but not in females. _Nature genetics, 11_ (3),\n248-256. [ https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ng1195-248\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ng1195-248)\n\nL\u00e5ngstr\u00f6m, N., Rahman, Q., Carlstr\u00f6m, E., & Lichtenstein, P. (2010). Genetic\nand environmental effects on same-sex sexual behavior: A population study of\ntwins in Sweden. _Archives of sexual behavior, 39_ (1), 75-80 [\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10508-008-9386-1\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10508-008-9386-1)\n\nMills, M. C. (2019). How do genes affect same-sex behavior?. _Science, 365_\n(6456), 869-870. [ http:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aay2726\n](http:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aay2726)"}
+{"query":"What is the neurobiological mechanism behind masochism?\n\nI tried to search in textbooks and papers but barely found any concrete answer to which exact mechanism is behind non-intuitive transition from pain to pleasure. Does it have something to do with:\n\njust the effect of dopamine (once the pain is administered, endorphins inhibit GABA and increase dopamine release)?\ninitially decreased levels of beta-endorphins in the brain, so that pain increases DA release as in (1) and even this small release is enough to feel the pleasure? And, as in people who are prone to self-harm, is it some kind of a \"desperate attempt to artificially set the body to survival mode in order to mobilize the last reserves of the endogenous opioid system\"?\nlower sensitivity (to pain?) in such people?\nsome other explanations?\nIf someone have the answer or ran into papers addressing this question, I would be grateful!","reasoning":"We need to find studies about how pain and pleasure change in masochists.","id":"37","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["masochism\/PMC4795098.txt"],"gold_ids":["masochism\/PMC4795098_25.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_17.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_11.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_20.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_19.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_3.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_24.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_14.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_23.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_42.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_4.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_9.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_27.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_35.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_39.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_38.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_8.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_15.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_18.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_29.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_12.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_28.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_16.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_5.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_41.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_43.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_36.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_13.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_22.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_32.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_26.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_40.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_44.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_31.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_6.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_37.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_21.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_34.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_30.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_33.txt","masochism\/PMC4795098_10.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe first paper I found was this one:\n\n[ Kamping, S., Andoh, J., Bomba, I. C., Diers, M., Diesch, E., & Flor, H.\n(2016). Contextual modulation of pain in masochists: involvement of the\nparietal operculum and insula. Pain, 157(2), 445.\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4795098\/)\n\nThey note:\n\n> Masochists reported substantially reduced pain intensity and unpleasantness\n> in the masochistic context compared with controls but had unaltered pain\n> perception in the other conditions\n\nThe context-dependence of this effect suggests to me to favor a \"top-down\"\nmodulation explanation, rather than a \"bottom-up\" neurochemical one involving\nendorphins and dopamine.\n\nThe authors continue:\n\n> The masochists compared with the controls displayed attenuated functional\n> connectivity of the parietal operculum with the left and right insulae, the\n> central operculum, and the supramarginal gyrus. Masochists additionally\n> showed negative correlations between the duration of interest in masochistic\n> activities and activation of areas involved in motor activity and affective\n> processing. We propose that the parietal operculum serves as an important\n> relay station that attenuates the affective-motivational aspects of pain in\n> masochists.\n\nSo indeed, their results suggest that the higher-order perception of pain is\ndifferent in masochists during masochistic activities. It's difficult to make\ncausal conclusions from these data, however in general this isn't something\nthat's going to be easy to study causally. I'm not aware of any model of\nmasochism in model organisms, so approaches are going to be fairly limited to\nobservational studies of humans."}
+{"query":"Whats the term used to describe a situation where one does not finish the work as he is always looking for a better solution?\n\nI read somewhere about a psychological phenomenon where one is not able to finish a task in time as the entire time is spent in looking for a better or optimum version of a solution - but can't remember the term now.\n\nCan someone please suggest whats it called?","reasoning":"This is the situation where people overanalyze or overthink a situation. It can cause forward motion or decision-making to become \"paralyzed\".","id":"38","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["analysis_paralysis\/Analysisparalysis.txt"],"gold_ids":["analysis_paralysis\/Analysisparalysis_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Analysis Paralysis ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analysis_paralysis) :\nAnalysis paralysis is when the fear of either making an error or forgoing a\nsuperior solution outweighs the realistic expectation or potential value of\nsuccess in a decision made in a timely manner."}
+{"query":"Neurologically, how does a thought terminate?\n\nWhat prevents my brain from holding the same thought forever, like a frozen computer?\n\nHow do neurons terminate a firing pattern and move onto the next?","reasoning":"If this is modeled as an attractor in a dynamical system of a circuit or network of neurons, we need to look into the concept of \"chaotic itinerancy\".","id":"39","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy.txt"],"gold_ids":["thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_34.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_55.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_45.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_38.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_53.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_43.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_50.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_40.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_57.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_52.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_33.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_32.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_13.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_12.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_56.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_25.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_54.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_47.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_30.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_51.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_31.txt","thought_terminate\/Chaoticitinerancy_41.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI'm not sure if the neuroscientific community has reached a consensus on what\na \"thought\" is, but it seems you're using it here as synonymous with a\nneuronal firing pattern.\n\nIf one models this as an attractor in a dynamical system of a circuit or\nnetwork of neurons, then I would look into Ichiro Tsuda's concept of \"chaotic\nitinerancy\" [ http:\/\/www.scholarpedia.org\/article\/Chaotic_itinerancy\n](http:\/\/www.scholarpedia.org\/article\/Chaotic_itinerancy) which gives a\nformalization for how attractors transition to chaos then to [usually new]\nattractors.\n\nAn important intuitive notion is that attractors dissipate when they become\nunstable.\n\nIf a sensory stimulus or a memory or imagination creates a stable pattern of\nneurons that fire in association with it, then what initiated the firing\npattern in the first place seems like it should have something to do with how\nit destabilizes. There is a causal connection between stimulus and neuronal\nactivity. I believe attention would affect what fires and for how long, and\nKarl Friston's \"free energy principle\" seems like a good formalization of how\nthat happens, but I haven't fully studied it myself.\n\nThere is a counterintuitive observation where neurons adjacent to those of the\nreceptive fields of a sensory stimulus can keep firing for up to 3 hrs after\nthe stimulus (cf. \"Plasticity of Receptive Fields in Early Stages of the Adult\nVisual System\" U.T. Eysel, in \"Perceptual Learning\", M. Fahl & T. Poggio,\neds), so maybe the neuronal substrate of thoughts last longer than they\nconsciously appear to. My guess is they would only last forever if there was\nnothing else to think about"}
+{"query":"Why there are tomboy but no Tomgirls?\n\nTomboys are girls who behave like men but most of them are not transgender and lesbian.\n\nBut why there are no tomgirls, boys who behave like girls but are not transgender and homosexual?\n\nWhat is the the reason?","reasoning":"Tomgirl isn't the term used, but I am sure there are straight men who have feminine traits out there. It should be called called effeminacy.","id":"40","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["tomboy\/Effeminacy.txt"],"gold_ids":["tomboy\/Effeminacy_44.txt","tomboy\/Effeminacy_42.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWho said there aren't? Tomgirl isn't the term used, but I am sure there are\nstraight men who have feminine traits out there. I think this is called\n**effeminacy** . Here's the Wikipedia link for that: [\nhttps:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Effeminacy\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Effeminacy) ."}
+{"query":"How Sexual fluidity works?\n\nCan a heterosexual male that doesn't have any attraction towards male become gay without any attraction towards females.\n\nOr will he become bisexual because he was heterosexual before.","reasoning":"The sexual orientation is related to gene. We need to understand whether it is possible to change and the fliudity in people from some survey.","id":"41","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["sex_fluid\/s105080129913y.txt","gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["sex_fluid\/s105080129913y_21.txt","gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf_0.txt","gay_genetic\/mills2019pdf_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nSexuality is thought to be mostly fixed (and certainly does not respond to\nactive interventions to change it), but sometimes self-descriptions shift.\nIt's unclear to what extent these shifts are changes in sexuality itself\nversus changes in how people _identify_ . More broadly speaking, people aren't\nalways good at describing their own wants\/desires\/feelings, and social and\ncultural factors can have a strong influence. Individuals may have experiences\nthat make them rethink how they see themselves, or they may be more or less\ncomfortable expressing a view that is outside perceived norms at different\ntimes.\n\nSavin-Williams et al 2012 studied a group of young adults longitudinally and\ncompared self-reported sexual orientation during two study waves, one when\nparticipants were 18-24 and later when they were 24-34.\n\nOut of 5204 men who reported being \"100% heterosexual\" in the first wave, the\nvast majority, 5064, said the same in the second wave. 105 said \"mostly\nheterosexual\", 11 said \"bisexual\", 24 said \"homosexual\". Other categories were\nsomewhat more fluid, as was sexuality among women, and you can see the whole\nstudy linked below.\n\n* * *\n\n[ Savin-Williams, R. C., Joyner, K., & Rieger, G. (2012). Prevalence and\nstability of self-reported sexual orientation identity during young adulthood.\nArchives of sexual behavior, 41(1), 103-110.\n](https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10508-012-9913-y)"}
+{"query":"Is it possible to get good hallucination while suffering from schizophrenia?\n\nSchizophrenia : A disorder that affects a person's ability to think, feel and behave clearly. The exact cause of schizophrenia isn't known, but a combination of genetics, environment and altered brain chemistry and structure may play a role.\n\nSo basically you get hallucination in Schizophrenia. I watched a Video about Schizophrenia and it say something like this .\n\nPeople who suffer from Schizophrenia have hallucination like :\n\nFishes are swimming all around them.\n\nBooks are melting.\n\nStrange voices are ordering them to to something.\n\nBut can anyone have hallucination like :\n\na woman is loving them(sexually and romantically) .\n\nThey have many good friends\n\nThe voice in the head are telling them answers in an exam.\n\nSo basically can anyone get hallucination that they will enjoy.","reasoning":"The positive symptoms of schizophrenia, in this case, hallucinations, often vary in how they appear to the subject. One of the keys to how one might react to the manifestation of hallucinations has to do with their culture. Changing perspective on the hallucinations in a more positive direction might help cope or manage the symptoms. Cultural background needs to be considered, as there may not be a need for an intervention or help if the individual's culture does not view the hallucinations as bizarre or abnormal.","id":"42","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["schizophrenia\/1874317.txt"],"gold_ids":["schizophrenia\/1874317_4.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_31.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_32.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_2.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_21.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_14.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_24.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_6.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_5.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_35.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_28.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_22.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_34.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_3.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_13.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_27.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_30.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_26.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_17.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_12.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_9.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_19.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_16.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_20.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_15.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_23.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_10.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_18.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_11.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_29.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_8.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_7.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_25.txt","schizophrenia\/1874317_33.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe short answer appears to be yes, to a certain degree, though there seems to\nbe a need for more research in this area of viewing hallucinations as a boon,\nrather than a curse.\n\nThe positive symptoms of schizophrenia, in this case, hallucinations, often\nvary in how they appear to the subject. Some argue that one of the keys to how\none might react to the manifestation of hallucinations has to do with their\nculture.\n\n[ Lar\u00f8i et al (2014) ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbu012) , shows that\nchanging perspective on the hallucinations in a more positive direction might\nhelp cope or manage the symptoms, they emphasize that cultural background\nneeds to be considered, as there may not be a need for an intervention or help\nif the individual's culture does not view the hallucinations as bizarre or\nabnormal.\n\nA great example would be the way people claim to be able to see or talk with a\ndeity that has proliferated throughout the culture they inhabit. It becomes\nsomething that might be giving them those answers to an exam or that the\nhallucination is in love with them. It should also be noted that not everybody\nwho has hallucinations is going to show up in a clinical setting, so we still\nhave do not have much data on how these symptoms manifest in different\ncultures. Something which Lar\u00f8i et al mention in their article.\n\nReference:\n\nLar\u00f8i, F., Luhrmann, T. M., Bell, V., Christian Jr, W. A., Deshpande, S.,\nFernyhough, C., ... & Woods, A. (2014). Culture and hallucinations: overview\nand future directions. _Schizophrenia bulletin, 40_ (Suppl_4), S213-S220. [\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbu012 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbu012)"}
+{"query":"What is the scientific term for the tendency to see familiar patterns in things, that are actually something completely different?\n\nWhat is the scientific term for the tendency to see familiar patterns in things, that are actually something completely different? One of the most common examples of this bias, is the perception of human faces in clouds, cars and all kinds of other objects.\n\nWhat I am looking for is a lower level misperception, which people are usually aware of on a higher, cognitive level. I.e., people either are, or can easily become aware of the fact that they are not actually seeing a face (or another familiar pattern).","reasoning":"This is the tendency for perception to impose a meaningful interpretation on a nebulous stimulus where there is none.","id":"43","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["pareidolia\/Pareidolia.txt"],"gold_ids":["pareidolia\/Pareidolia_7.txt","pareidolia\/Pareidolia_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Pareidolia ](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pareidolia) is the term you are\nlooking for. It is often used for the specific case you mention of seeing\nfaces in other objects, but it's actually a more general concept that covers\nother types of patterns and even other (non-visual) modalities.\n\nA search of [ Google Scholar\n](https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C50&q=pareidolia&btnG=)\nreturns many relevant results."}
+{"query":"Bias distrusting area of expertise while implicitly trusting other domains?\n\nI've run across descriptions of this bias before, but cannot find it right now... I checked Wikipedia's list of cognitive biases to no avail.\n\nBasically, people working in some domain and having expertise in it, naturally tend to notice the problems in that area, such as incompetence of other people working in their field, bad policies and poor management decision making, etc, resulting in a disproportionate distrust of their own field of expertise. For example, healthcare workers are more likely to be vaccine hesitant because they distrust their own industry more than most due to personal experience with incompetence, mismanagement, politics, and corruption within their field.\n\nHowever, this distrust does not carry over to other domains. So for example, watching a movie that portrays something you have domain knowledge in, you will quickly notice the inaccuracies and misrepresentation, but portrayals of domains outside your expertise will naturally be believable and perceived as accurate. Similarly, reading news stories about topics that you have expertise in, you will notice inaccuracies and bias immediately, but fail to recognize that the same level of inaccuracy and bias must exist in domains outside your area of expertise, implicitly treating such news stories as accurately reported.\n\nWhat is this bias called?","reasoning":"This is related to the Gell-Mann Amnesia Effect, where people recognize the unreliability of media when it comes to topics they're familiar with, while still trusting the media for information on other topics","id":"44","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["trust_expert\/TheGellMannAmnesiaEffect.txt"],"gold_ids":["trust_expert\/TheGellMannAmnesiaEffect_26.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI found what I was looking for. It's called the [ Gell-Mann Amnesia\n](https:\/\/www.epsilontheory.com\/gell-mann-amnesia\/) effect:\n\n> ... You open the newspaper to an article on some subject you know well. ...\n> you read with exasperation or amusement the multiple errors in a story, and\n> then turn the page to national or international affairs, and read as if the\n> rest of the newspaper was somehow more accurate about Palestine than the\n> baloney you just read. You turn the page, and forget what you know.\n\nThat quote is attributed to Michael Crichton, who named the effect after his\nphysicist friend Murray Gell-Mann, who discovered it.\n\nThis effect is not studied in psychology as far as I can tell, so it may not\nbe real, but having a name for it helps learn at least that much."}
+{"query":"What is the difference between recurrent and feedback synapses?\n\nIn the paper proposing recurrent convolutional neural networks (RCNN), \"Recurrent Convolutional Neural Network for Object Recognition\", it is stated that \"recurrent synapses typically outnumber feed-forward and top-down (or feedback) synapses\".\n\nUp to this point, my understanding was that top-down processing and recurrent connections refer to the same thing... What is the difference between the two?","reasoning":"We need to know the definition of Recurrent synapses in the cortex and Feedforward and feedback neurons.","id":"45","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["recurrent_synapes\/recurrentprimerpdf.txt","recurrent_synapes\/PMC3219532.txt"],"gold_ids":["recurrent_synapes\/recurrentprimerpdf_1.txt","recurrent_synapes\/PMC3219532_2.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe different types of connections can be histologically identified and\nseparated on the basis of their connectivity in the cortex.\n\nRecurrent synapses in the cortex can be defined as [ (Douglas & Martin, 1995)\n](https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/82111916.pdf) :\n\n> [...] connections between layer 2 and 3 pyramidal cells, in which a target\n> neuron projects back to its source neuron in a tight positive feedback loop\n\nFeedforward and feedback neurons can be histologically defined as [\n(Berezovskii _et al_ ., 2011)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3219532\/) :\n\n> In general, feedforward (FF) projections originate in the superficial layers\n> of the cortex and terminate in layer 4, while feedback (FB) connections\n> originate in the superficial and deep layers, and their axon terminals tend\n> to avoid layer 4.\n\nThe cortical layers and their functions are schematically depicted in Fig. 1.\n\n[ ![cortex](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/MKdRo.png)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/MKdRo.png)  \nFig. 1. Schematic of the cortex showing recurrent connections (rc) in layer\n2\/3 and feedforward and feedback connections that avoid layer 4. source: [\nRolls & Mills (2017) ](https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/156785162.pdf)\n\n**References**  \n**-** [ Berezovskii _et al_ ., _J Comp Neurol_ (2011); **519** (18): 3672\u201383\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3219532\/)  \n**-** [ Rolls & Mills, _Neurobiol Learn Mem_ (2017); **145** : 205\u201321\n](https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/156785162.pdf)"}
+{"query":"Are there \"place cells\" for temporal encoding?\n\nFirst of all, I have to say I am not a neuroscientist but I like to learn about neuroscience. I understand there are sets of neurons called \"place cells\" and \"grid cells\" which encode spatial information in the brain.\n\nMy question is simple: Is there a structure in the brain known to encode temporal information analogous to place cells? Is anyone aware of some references or experiments on this subject?","reasoning":"The perception of time seems to be distributed across many places in the brain. There are a variety of brain structures relating to the perception of time, including areas in the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum and hippocampus.","id":"46","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363.txt"],"gold_ids":["temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_12.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_5.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_11.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_9.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_4.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_8.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_2.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_1.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_7.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_3.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_10.txt","temporal_encoding\/PMC4830363_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt seems the topic of time perception is quite complicated. In contrast to the\nplace and grid cells in the hippocampus [ (Moser _et al_ ., 2015)\n](https:\/\/cshperspectives.cshlp.org\/content\/7\/2\/a021808.full) , the perception\nof time seems to be distributed across many places in the brain. A review by [\nFontes _et al_ ., 2016)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4830363\/) cites 158 papers\nwritten between 1980 to 2015 that describe a variety of brain structures\nrelating to the perception of time, including areas in the **frontal cortex,\nparietal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum and hippocampus** . It indeed seems\nto be a [ highly distributed system\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_perception#Neuroscientific_perspectives)\nin the brain. The proximity of time cells and place and grid cells in the\nhippocampus is interesting and is an [ active area of research\n](https:\/\/www.ntnu.edu\/how-your-brain-experiences-\ntime#:%7E:text=Researchers%20at%20the%20Kavli%20Institute,experience%2C%20says%20Professor%20Edvard%20Moser.)\n.\n\n**References**  \n**-** [ Fontes _et al_ ., _Neurol Int_ (2016); **8** (1): 59392016\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4830363\/)  \n**-** [ Moser _et al_ ., Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol (2015); **7** :\na021808 ](https:\/\/cshperspectives.cshlp.org\/content\/7\/2\/a021808.full)"}
+{"query":"Are we different or same?\n\nI don't know if this is the right site to ask this, if not sorry for that I am new here......\n\nI am wondering if two childs from different parents from different regions are kept in a completely empty room, do they behave same or different and for why(for the genes? and they are just children, like pure children without any experience because if it will not they must behave differently for environmental experiences, right?)?\n\nIf my question sounds silly, sorry......","reasoning":"that is a question which is heavily debated in Psychology. It all boils down to the nature vs nurture or nature vs environment shaping behaviour.","id":"47","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture.txt"],"gold_ids":["natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_17.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_13.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_15.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_7.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_12.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_14.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_5.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_6.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_18.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_3.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_9.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_19.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_4.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_1.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_10.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_2.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_16.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_11.txt","natural_nurture\/naturevsnurture_8.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWelcome to Psychology.SE.\n\nWhen you ask\n\n> if two childs from different parents from different regions are kept in a\n> completely empty room, do they behave same or different\n\nthat is a question which is heavily debated in Psychology. It all boils down\nto the [ nature vs nurture or nature vs environment\n](https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/naturevsnurture.html) shaping behaviour.\n\nYour question is definitely not silly and as it stands, the answer is very\nmuch open to opinion but you can get some information on the debate from the\nlink provided above.\n\nSee also:\n\n  * [ https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_versus_nurture ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_versus_nurture)\n  * [ https:\/\/behavioralscientist.org\/the-end-of-nature-versus-nurture\/ ](https:\/\/behavioralscientist.org\/the-end-of-nature-versus-nurture\/)\n  * [ https:\/\/www.goodtherapy.org\/blog\/psychpedia\/nature-versus-nurture ](https:\/\/www.goodtherapy.org\/blog\/psychpedia\/nature-versus-nurture)\n  * [ https:\/\/www.softschools.com\/examples\/science\/nature_vs_nurture_examples\/482\/ ](https:\/\/www.softschools.com\/examples\/science\/nature_vs_nurture_examples\/482\/)\n  * [ https:\/\/www.verywellmind.com\/what-is-nature-versus-nurture-2795392 ](https:\/\/www.verywellmind.com\/what-is-nature-versus-nurture-2795392)"}
+{"query":"What is the scientific term for the erroneous inversion of cause and effect?\n\nWhat is the correct scientific term for the - erroneous - inversion of cause and effect?","reasoning":"This is related to a tendency to attribute what is actually the cause to the effect (reversed).","id":"48","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["cause_effect\/reversecausality.txt"],"gold_ids":["cause_effect\/reversecausality_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAccording to a [ dictionary of psychology\n](https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0uxnglHzYaoC&pg=PA844) this is simply\ncalled \"reverse causality\"\n\n> In attempting to understand the relationship between cause and effect, a\n> tendency to attribute what is actually the cause to the effect. For example,\n> does the ingestion of lead paint cause a lower intelligence quotient (IQ) or\n> is it that children with lower IQs tend to eat lead paint?"}
+{"query":"Name of the psychological effect that make us see correlation that may not exist\n\nAfter 51 years, the \"Z-340\" cypher text from \"Zodiac\" serial killer has been solved: https:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/2020\/12\/11\/us\/zodiac-killer-cypher-340-code-trnd\/index.html\n\nNow that we have the problem and the solution, when I'm watching the cypher text again I'm like \"Ho.. look, look, it's so obvious! The sign must mean this and that and the following letter is transposed according to the sign and if you like at this and that there is a clear relationship between the age of the captain and whatever this thing mean!! Ha! It must be!\"\n\nEven knowing that it's just wishful thinking, I'm still willing it to be true: \"Yeaaah, it's probably, 99.99% sure, just me imagining things.. BUT! That 0.01% doubt, I want it to be true anyway.\"\n\nThere is a name for this effect. I don't think it's the Barnum effect, it may or may not be a \"confirmation bias\". What is this effect called?","reasoning":"This is related to the situation where people perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were, and feel that the solution is obvious.","id":"49","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["hindsight_bias\/Hindsightbias.txt"],"gold_ids":["hindsight_bias\/Hindsightbias_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe feeling that the solution is obvious after it is provided is called [\nhindsight bias ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hindsight_bias) (aka the \"knew-\nit-all-along phenomenon\").\n\nThis feeling is informed by the metacognitive sense of surprise, which itself\nis a form of [ processing fluency\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Processing_fluency) . Basically, when the\nsolution to a problem is first given, it is surprising (lacks fluency), and\nhence judged as difficult. However, when the solution is known or provided\nagain, it is no longer surprising (has fluency), and hence judged as easy.\nPeople often underestimate the difficulty (or predictability) of solutions (or\nevents) after knowing the outcome, due to this bias.\n\nIn the example provided in the question however, it is not clear that you\nactually know the solution, only that you feel that you know the solution\nafter it was solved by someone else. In this case, you really do have a case\nof [ wishful thinking ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wishful_thinking) ."}
+{"query":"Is fasting an effective method to overcome substance addictions?\n\nI recently watched a testimony of a man who reports the results of a 40-day water\/juice fast (no food). The individual claims to have been addicted to drugs for 22 years, including marijuana, cocaine, mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy, prescription pain pills and alcohol. He went cold turkey, abstaining from both food and addictive substances during the 40-day fast. After the fast, he reports complete freedom and no relapses.\n\nThis particular case raised my interest in the potential benefits of fasting in the addiction recovery arena. After a quick search I found this site which claims that:\n\nFasting is by far the most sophisticated willpower workout available. If you get good at fasting, you can learn to control every other aspect of your life. If you get good at fasting, you can overcome any addiction, not matter how deeply imbedded. Medically, fasting has been found to rapidly dissipate the craving for nicotine, alcohol, caffeine and other drugs.\n\nIs it true that any addiction can be overcome with the skills learnt by fasting? Are there studies on the effectiveness of fasting for overcoming substance addictions or any other addiction for that matter?","reasoning":"Different people have different levels of craving for food and other pleasurable substances. This is related to how addition to drugs influence Nutritional status and eating habits.","id":"50","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["fasting_workout\/5911317.txt"],"gold_ids":["fasting_workout\/5911317_31.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_27.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_32.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_6.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_45.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_7.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_1.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_49.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_9.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_28.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_57.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_43.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_51.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_35.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_24.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_17.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_14.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_20.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_11.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_13.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_25.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_44.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_40.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_42.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_38.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_26.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_15.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_5.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_36.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_54.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_12.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_0.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_56.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_58.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_21.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_41.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_37.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_3.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_16.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_55.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_10.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_8.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_22.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_52.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_2.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_34.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_19.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_46.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_4.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_23.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_39.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_29.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_53.txt","fasting_workout\/5911317_18.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n> Is it true that any addiction can be overcome with the skills learnt by\n> fasting?\n\nPerhaps for some people, but different people have different levels of craving\nfor food and other pleasurable substances. [ And drugs may further influence\nthis ](https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nutritionreviews\/article\/79\/6\/627\/5911317)\n\n> Substances like heroin may compete with food in the brain activating reward\n> pathways and increasing dopamine receptor\u2019 availability, thus suppressing\n> the appetite and leading to lower body weight.\n\nAs a personal anecdote, I can easily water fast for many days, but I find\ngoing a full day without cannabis or other addictive substances to be\nextremely challenging, so this is definitely not true for all people. [ Drug\naddicts tend to be skinnier\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2837874\/) than the general\npopulations, [ consume less food and have lower appetite\n](https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nutritionreviews\/article\/79\/6\/627\/5911317) .\n\n> In the short term, opiates cause anorexia, decreased food consumption, and\n> reduced gastrointestinal motility, all leading to malnutrition and increased\n> risk of infections in the long term.\n\nAnd stimulant users such as meth addicts can easily go days without eating due\nfrom simply being too focused on other things to even think about food."}
+{"query":"Is it possible to memorize the sound of a certain pitch?\n\nThose how have an absolute pitch can name the note when they hear it. For those who don't have this ability is it possible to remember a pitch of at least one note?","reasoning":"We need to find examples and check whether humans can identify notes by practice.","id":"51","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["perfect_pitch\/identifyingnoteswithoutperfectpitch.txt"],"gold_ids":["perfect_pitch\/identifyingnoteswithoutperfectpitch_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYes, it seems like this ability can be acquired with practice.\n\nIn [ Identifying Notes without Perfect Pitch ](http:\/\/www.paulheinz.com\/paul-\nheinz-blog\/2019\/12\/17\/identifying-notes-without-perfect-pitch) , the author\npicked twelve familiar songs, each of which started on one of the twelve\npitches of the chromatic scale. Once he memorized the song-pitch association,\nhe was able to recognize 10 out of of 12 pitches.\n\nSome users of [ Music Stack Exchange\n](https:\/\/music.stackexchange.com\/questions\/4061\/able-to-recall-music-in-its-\ncorrect-key-but-dont-have-perfect-pitch-what-is) mention similar results. For\nexample, one person says they can remember the pitch of their tuning fork, and\nanother suggests the song approach: \"If hearing a note instantly reminds you\nof a song, then I think you _are_ identifying that note, just by the song\nname, not the note name (that you may or may not happen to know).\""}
+{"query":"What is the scientific term for the expectation, that a personal experience positively deviates from what first- or second-hand experience suggests?\n\nWhat is the scientific term for the tendency of people to believe, that their expected experience positively deviates from what their first- or second-hand experience suggests?\n\nAn example for this effect would be an older European Lady dating a young African man and - despite knowing that many such relationships are dominated by asymmetric economical and romantical interests - believes, that her own relationship will be different. Another example are people who are educated and experienced enough to know how cults work, yet fail to identify the cult they themselves are currently involved in.\n\nGenerally, I would say it is a form of self-delusion, or hope, if you want to give it a positive spin - but I am looking for a more specific term for this particular type of self-delusion.","reasoning":"This is related to the situation that people believe that we are less likely to suffer from misfortune and more likely to attain success than reality would suggest.","id":"52","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["optimism\/whatistheoptimismbias2795031.txt"],"gold_ids":["optimism\/whatistheoptimismbias2795031_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAre you referring to the **optimism bias** from a social psychology\nperspective?\n\n> Your brain has a built-in optimism bias. The phenomenon is also often\n> referred to as \"the illusion of invulnerability,\" \"unrealistic optimism,\"\n> and a \"personal fable.\"\n>\n> This bias leads us to believe that we are less likely to suffer from\n> misfortune and more likely to attain success than reality would suggest.2\ufeff\n> We believe that we will live longer than the average, that our children will\n> be smarter than the average, and that we will be more successful in life\n> than the average. But by definition, we can't all be above average.\n\nSource: [ VeryWellMind ](https:\/\/www.verywellmind.com\/what-is-the-optimism-\nbias-2795031)"}
+{"query":"Term for the tendency to relate events that occurred in proximity?\n\nWhat is the correct scientific term for the tendency to wrongfully relate arbitrary observations to a significant event, just because they occurred in temporal or spatial proximity?\n\nMost recently I have observed this error in a discussion about an unsolved killing, where a participant was quite sure that her observation of a black van in a far away town was related to the killing, for the single reason that it occurred around the same time.","reasoning":"This is related to the situation when people develop the belief that there is a causal connection between two events that are actually unrelated, which is a kind of illusion.","id":"53","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["causality_illusion\/full.txt"],"gold_ids":["causality_illusion\/full_82.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is informally referred to as the [ illusion of causality\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00888) :\n\n> Illusions of causality occur when people develop the belief that there is a\n> causal connection between two events that are actually unrelated. Such\n> illusions have been proposed to underlie pseudoscience and superstitious\n> thinking, sometimes leading to disastrous consequences in relation to\n> critical life areas, such as health, finances, and wellbeing.\n\nThis is a cognitive error in the way humans [ infer cause and effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Causal_reasoning#Inferring_cause_and_effect) .\n\nThe example that I'm most familiar with is in medical quackery. Suppose\nsomeone is experiencing constipation. They try some advice from friends: Go\nfor a long walk, eat some prunes, massage their stomach, use magnesium\nsupplements. Then they try more questionable solutions: Probiotics, colon\nhydrotherapy, acupuncture, herbal medicines. At some point during the process,\nthe constipation is relieved, and the patient naturally concludes that\nwhatever treatment immediately preceded this event must have been the cure.\nThey \"swear by this treatment\" from then on, failing to consider that prior\ntreatments may have needed more time to take effect, that other activities not\nconsidered treatments may have affected the results (eg, regular exercise,\ndietary changes), or simply the mere passage of time."}
+{"query":"IQ-EQ oscillation\n\nI know a guy who was very smart in school and university and had a high IQ. For example, in middle school he used to read high school science and math books like they're nothing but he had low EQ and low emotion control (probably because he had no father figure). Now this guy is in his late 30s and he say he's not as smart as he was, he has trouble understanding some of what he wrote or read 15 years ago, but he now understand emotions better which is clear when you see him interact with other people.\n\nHe used to analyze people logically which led him to many awkward moments and many confrontations (especially with girls) when he explained the inconsistencies in their arguments but now he really can read people emotions from their body language, their voice, their words.... which led him to wonder if some of his IQ became EQ. Suppose that he decides to live far from people and study his favorite subjects again, will his EQ decrease and become IQ?","reasoning":"This is about the correlation between the two kinds of intelligence.","id":"54","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["iqeq_oscillation\/Theoryofmultipleintelligences.txt"],"gold_ids":["iqeq_oscillation\/Theoryofmultipleintelligences_25.txt","iqeq_oscillation\/Theoryofmultipleintelligences_20.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIQ\" is a very broad and full of misconceptions. While it may be the most\npopular form for measuring intelligence, it has been debated a lot of it's\nscientific properties and accuracy.\n\nIn the case you explain,the individual in question has high understanding of\nmathematics and logic and low emotional intelligence. If we are following the\nfamous interpretation of [ Gardner's\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Howard_Gardner) of intelligence with the [\nTheory of Multiple intelligences\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences) , **there is\nno direct correlation between the two** ; but, by logic and human limitations,\nnot everyone can have high intelligence in all its different encarnations. It\ncan be perfectly normal to be considered a genius in some area but \"average\"\nin others.\n\nAs we understand this, it is no secret that an emotional unstable person may\nhave difficulties getting their thoughts in order and may have poor\nperformance by stressful factors formed by their disruptive psyche. I feel\nobligated to note that to be unstable by your emotions, you need to first\nrecognize and acknowledge them, and to do that you need to develop some tools\nprovided by emotional intelligence.\n\nAnd as well, there are many theories that as we grow old if not maintained and\nreinforced, our intelligence may start to [ deteriorate\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malleability_of_intelligence) , and that many\nfactors that increase this process are tied to psychological stress.\n\nThere is definitely endless variables that can not be determined by the lack\nof details in the case proposed, but this is just a broad interpretation and\nshould not be taken as absolute truth and be used to explain every person that\nmay fit this case.\n\nIf you want to research more on your own, the previously mentioned Garner's [\nMultiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice\n](https:\/\/rads.stackoverflow.com\/amzn\/click\/com\/0465047688) is a must read to\nunderstand one of the most prominent theories of intelligence.\n\nEmotional intelligence can be studied in much more detail in the work of [\nGoleman ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Goleman) in Emotional\nIntelligence.\n\nAnd while it can be a heavy read, any serious book on neuroplascity can be\nhelpful to understand the ever changing brain and it's functions and\n\"agility\". For example, [ Neuroplasticity\n](https:\/\/rads.stackoverflow.com\/amzn\/click\/com\/0262529335) by Mohed\nConstandi.\n\nHope this answer helps you."}
+{"query":"What's the behaviour of downplaying the importance of something you wanted but didn't get called?\n\nI've seen this phenomenon in various pieces of media, but recently observed it in real life and I'm wondering what it's called.\n\nBasically, when you want something but don't get it, you downplay the importance of that thing.\n\nI've mostly seen it depicted as \"moody teens\" using responses like \"I didn't want to go to that party anyway\", or \"you can keep your stupid X, I didn't want it anyway\".","reasoning":"This is related to the fox and grape story where he states that grapes are undesirable when he cannot get them, rather than admitting defeat.","id":"55","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["sour_grape\/TheFoxandtheGrapes.txt"],"gold_ids":["sour_grape\/TheFoxandtheGrapes_7.txt","sour_grape\/TheFoxandtheGrapes_5.txt","sour_grape\/TheFoxandtheGrapes_4.txt","sour_grape\/TheFoxandtheGrapes_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIn general, [ rationalization\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationalization_\\(psychology\\)) is:\n\n> ... a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are\n> justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid\n> the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable\u2014or even admirable\n> and superior\u2014by plausible means.\n\nThe specific case mentioned in the question is one of [ Sour Grapes\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Fox_and_the_Grapes) , from Aesop's fables:\n\n> The story concerns a fox that tries to eat grapes from a vine but cannot\n> reach them. Rather than admit defeat, he states they are undesirable.\n\n\"Defense mechanism\" however, is a psychoanalytic (Freudian) construct, which\nis generally considered pseudoscience or outdated. The more modern theory of [\ncognitive dissonance ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_dissonance) now\nsubsumes what was previously thought of as rationalization:\n\n> In practice, people reduce the magnitude of their cognitive dissonance ...\n> by changing the conflicting cognition [or] Ignore or deny information that\n> conflicts with existing beliefs."}
+{"query":"Identify kind of descriptive role playing game for self-discovery\n\nThere's a comic book called \"Knights of the Dinner Table\" about a bunch of rpg players.\n\nIn one issue, the only girl at the table GM's some kind of self-discovery game she learnt in her psychology class. She describes some situations and asks for details from the players, giving an example herself.\n\nAt one point, for example, she says:\n\nOk, so you continue your journey down your own personal path. Soon you come to a large bear! What do you do? My bear turns out to be very tame and I'm able to hand feed it and befriend it! He decides to accompany me on my journey.\n\nAt the end, she explains what each thing symbolizes:\n\nThe bear represents adversity and how you deal with it\n\nSupposedly this is (loosely) based on a real exercise for self discovery. I would like to know more about the real exercise in which this is based, but I don't know how to start.\n\nAny idea how this exercise is called, or how can I find more information about something similar?\n\nThanks.","reasoning":"This is related to looking into persons' emotional world, reveal fear, etc.","id":"56","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["forest_test\/theforesttestanditsplaceinpsychoanalysis.txt"],"gold_ids":["forest_test\/theforesttestanditsplaceinpsychoanalysis_5.txt","forest_test\/theforesttestanditsplaceinpsychoanalysis_3.txt","forest_test\/theforesttestanditsplaceinpsychoanalysis_2.txt","forest_test\/theforesttestanditsplaceinpsychoanalysis_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI finally found it, apparently it's called [ The Forest Test\n](https:\/\/exploringyourmind.com\/the-forest-test-and-its-place-in-\npsychoanalysis\/)\n\n> Hindrances and annoyances that take away our happiness, entrenched fears,\n> values \u200b\u200bthat govern our choices and behavior. The forest test tries to\n> clarify and interpret many of these issues based on the approach from which\n> it was designed: relational psychoanalysis. According to this theory, our\n> psychological suffering is rooted in underlying issues that we must bring to\n> light in order to heal the hurts and move forward.\n>\n> For those who have not heard about this relational test, we should first say\n> that it isn\u2019t in any way conventional. The forest test doesn\u2019t have enough\n> reliability and validity to be part of normal clinical practice. However, we\n> cannot rule out its relevance within the context and the theoretical\n> framework from which it was created. It is, without a doubt, worth taking\n> into account.\n>\n> The forest test is a projective test which can reveal the fears, hindrances\n> and deepest interests of each patient."}
+{"query":"Revenge attitude: is it innate or acquired in human\n\nI am trying to understand what is the root cause for revenge? I understand anger is caused by the gap between expectation\/anticipation and the reality. But as to revenge, I am not satisfied just with identity related or social order maintenance or reciprocity. While resources pointing to the direction of getting started, any valuable input, views, opinions and research outcomes would be very much helpful.","reasoning":"We need multi-level perspectives in understanding the psychological properties of revenge.","id":"57","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["revenge_multi\/annurevpsych010418103305pdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["revenge_multi\/annurevpsych010418103305pdf_1.txt","revenge_multi\/annurevpsych010418103305pdf_0.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nOpen access sources from Google Scholar:\n\nJackson, J. C., Choi, V. K., & Gelfand, M. J. (2019). Revenge: A multilevel\nreview and synthesis. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 319-345. [\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-010418-103305\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-010418-103305)\n\nLambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., & Hanson, E. J. (2019). Anger and its\nconsequences for judgment and behavior: Recent developments in social and\npolitical psychology. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 103-173.\n[ https:\/\/psyarxiv.com\/svcux\/download?format=pdf\n](https:\/\/psyarxiv.com\/svcux\/download?format=pdf)"}
+{"query":"What keywords to learn more about sense pleasing?\n\nThe article What Makes Something Aesthetically Pleasing? | Simple Minded lists some way to pleasing your senses:\n\nVision: balance, emphasis, rhythm, proportion, pattern, unity and contrast. Along with the visual elements: color, line, shape, value, texture\nHearing: loudness, pitch, beat, repetition, melody, pattern, noise\nTouch: texture, shape, weight, softness, temperature, vibration, sharpness\nSmell: sweet, fruity, fragrant, pungent, chemical, woody, minty\nTaste: umami, sweetness, sourness, bitterness, texture, pungency\nIf I want to learn more about sense pleasing, where should I start? Which subfields within psychology or neuroscience research about this? The Wikipedia page of Sensation doesn't contain the keyword pleasing. Searching on Google Scholar with the keyword sense pleasing doesn't yield anything. Two other fields relevant to this are aesthetics and design, but they are just applications of this concept.","reasoning":"This is related to reward system involving pleasure as a core component.","id":"58","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["reward_stimuli\/Rewardsystem.txt"],"gold_ids":["reward_stimuli\/Rewardsystem_12.txt","reward_stimuli\/Rewardsystem_4.txt","reward_stimuli\/Rewardsystem_6.txt","reward_stimuli\/Rewardsystem_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt seems to me is that sense pleasing is better recognized by the term \" **[\nrewarding ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reward_system) stimuli ** \":\n\n> stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or\n> as something to approach\n\nObviously rewarding stimuli isn't necessarily about sensual stimuli, but that\nwould be a good start."}
+{"query":"Why use a quasi experimental design when you can do an experiment?\n\nI read about quasi-experimental design and the variations it has such as pre-test post-test non-equivalent groups, and also experimental designs. Having compared these two, I ascertained that the difference between this variation of quasi-experimental design(pre-test post-test non-equivalent groups) and experimental design is randomization. However, what I couldn't understand was:\n\nWhy should quasi-experimental design even exist when we can do randomization easily and the randomization has more benefits than matching the participants?\n\nHonestly, I search for the answer but I couldn't find any, and obviously that is why I'm asking a question, yet if you find any alike question I would be happy if you refer me to it. I genuinely appreciate it if you refer me to at least one resource as well. The reference book for the discrimination between these two designs: Introduction to Research Methods and Data Analysis in Psychology, Third Edition by Darren Langdridge and Gareth Hagger-Johnson","reasoning":"We need to find advantages of quasi experiments.","id":"59","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["quasi_experiment\/PMC5036994.txt"],"gold_ids":["quasi_experiment\/PMC5036994_2.txt","quasi_experiment\/PMC5036994_3.txt","quasi_experiment\/PMC5036994_7.txt","quasi_experiment\/PMC5036994_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe first paper I found searching for \"advantages of quasi-experimental\ndesign\" was this one:\n\n[ Schweizer, M. L., Braun, B. I., & Milstone, A. M. (2016). Research methods\nin healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship\u2014quasi-experimental\ndesigns. Infection control & hospital epidemiology, 37(10), 1135-1140.\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5036994\/)\n\nMost of the benefits are pragmatic: less cost, potential for retrospective\nanalysis, bypassing ethical considerations that present barriers to randomized\ntrials, etc.\n\nAn example of the type of quasi-randomized design I've often been involved in\nmyself is when the data have already been collected in normal medical\npractice. Sometimes these patients are difficult if not impossible to consent:\nan intensive-care unit population, for example. Those patients are very sick\nand their imminent needs are live-saving care; there may not be time to obtain\nconsent for a randomized trial. However, if practices and policies change over\ntime or are different in different facilities, you can use a quasi-\nexperimental design to determine whether those changes or differences in\nstandard of care have an important impact or not."}
+{"query":"Doubt on definition of emotion\n\nI am currently reading Psychology and Life by Richard J. Gerig, where emotions are defined as\n\nA complex pattern of changes, including physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive processes, and behavioral reactions, made in response to a situation perceived to be personally significant.\n\nI am not able to understand why anything other than feelings should be part of emotion. Isn't physiologica arousal, behavioral reactions and cognitive processes side effects of emotions rather than being part of emotion itself? For e.g. when you feel angry your heart rate increases. Why including factors (other than feeling) in definition make sense? I think this is also related to unlearning what has been already wrongly learnt where I am treating emotion just as feeling but nothing more.","reasoning":"We need to find more contemporary research on Interoception and emotion.","id":"60","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["emotion_definition\/S2352250X17300106via3Dihub.txt"],"gold_ids":["emotion_definition\/S2352250X17300106via3Dihub_4.txt","emotion_definition\/S2352250X17300106via3Dihub_2.txt","emotion_definition\/S2352250X17300106via3Dihub_3.txt","emotion_definition\/S2352250X17300106via3Dihub_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYou are asking some very important questions. And your skepticism is a sign of\na **scholar** in my book. ;o)\n\nI agree with you that the definition provided by your textbook falls short.\n\nEmotion is a huge topic. It might help to narrow the scope of your question.\n\nI also suggest carefully defining a word like \"feelings\". For example, how are\n_feelings_ and _emotion_ different? (if they are).\n\nHere is an article that will give you an introduction to contemporary research\non emotion:\n\nCritchley, Hugo D. and Sarah N. Garfinkel. \" [ Interoception and emotion\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.04.020) .\" _Current Opinion in\nPsychology_ 17 (2017): 7\u201314. [Open access]\n\n> **Abstract** : Influential theories suggest emotional feeling states arise\n> from physiological changes from within the body.\n>\n> Interoception describes the afferent signalling, central processing, and\n> neural and mental representation of internal bodily signals. Recent progress\n> is made in conceptualizing interoception and its neural underpinnings. These\n> developments are supported by empirical data concerning interoceptive\n> mechanisms and their contribution to emotion.\n>\n> Fresh insights include description of short-term interoceptive effects on\n> neural and mental processes (including fear-specific cardiac effects), the\n> recognition of dissociable psychological dimensions of interoception, and\n> models of interoceptive predictive coding that explain emotions and selfhood\n> (reinforced by structural anatomical models and brain and experimental\n> findings).\n>\n> This growing grasp of interoception is enriching our understanding of\n> emotion and its disorders.\n\nWikipedia has a good article on [ interoception\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoception) ."}
+{"query":"Why does IQ have a truncated normal distribution?\n\nI know that the IQ statistic is designed to give it a mean of 100 and that you'll certainly never find someone with an IQ below 1 or above 300, but that tells us very little about the variance or general shape of the distribution. So why is it that every graph of IQ scores that I've seen appears to be a truncated normal distribution? Is it some property of the test design, some property of the test subjects, or some deep theorem in statistics that I've overlooked?","reasoning":"There is probably normalization. We need to check how the current tests are performed.","id":"61","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["iq_normal_dist\/Intelligencequotient.txt"],"gold_ids":["iq_normal_dist\/Intelligencequotient_15.txt","iq_normal_dist\/Intelligencequotient_33.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ IQ isn't _normal_ , it's _normalized_\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_quotient) to have mean 100 and\nstandard deviation 15, usually via a percentile method.\n\nThe reason IQ looks roughly normal is because intelligence (however it is\ndefined) is a complex trait. Complex traits are predicted to have a roughly\nnormal distribution based on the [ central limit theorem\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_limit_theorem) : a sum of many\nindividual factors (including genetic and environmental ones) will tend to be\ndistributed normally in a population, even if the underlying factors\nthemselves are not normal.\n\nThere is no real concrete measure \"IQ\": it isn't measuring a real-world\nphysical property the way you measure mass or length. Instead, you use tests\nintended to get some measure of that abstract trait, and then normalize\nindividuals based on the group statistics. Actual tests administered to\nmeasure IQ will have a minimum and maximum score: you can at worst get every\nquestion wrong, at best get every question right."}
+{"query":"I am looking for the name of a phenomenon where people blindly follow others when they sense a threat\n\nSo I am composing a post and I am looking for a name of the behaviour among people that they start running when they see two or more people running in opposite direction sensing a potential threat or when two or more people are looking upwards, others also start looking upwards. Such phenomena is recorded in various funny videos compilations and I would like to know if there is any name of such phenomena or any description of such phenomena that I can refer to in the post?","reasoning":"This id related to the the tendency for people\u2019s behavior or beliefs to conform to those of the group they belong to.","id":"62","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["herd_mentality\/Herdmentality.txt"],"gold_ids":["herd_mentality\/Herdmentality_40.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Herd mentality ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herd_mentality) (aka mob\nmentality) involves people following others without (deliberate) thinking -\nie, impulsively or blindly:\n\n> ... describes how people can be influenced by their peers to adopt certain\n> behaviors on a largely emotional, rather than rational, basis.\n\nMost experiments in herd mentality involve strangers. There are other terms\nfor non-impulsive behaviors (Wikipedia lists group intelligence, crowd wisdom,\ngroupthink, deindividuation, and decentralized decision making).\n\nThat is contrasted with [ swarm behavior\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_behaviour) . Herd mentality usually\nrefers to individuals conforming to or blindly following others, whereas swarm\nbehavior does not involve individuals doing the same thing:\n\n> ... it is an emergent behaviour arising from simple rules that are followed\n> by individuals and does not involve any central coordination.\n\nRather, in swarm behavior, individuals make different decisions depending on\nwhat others around them are doing, such as avoiding predators based on the\nreactions of others. Confusingly, \"herding\" is swarm behavior (in insects it's\ncalled swarming; but fish school, birds flock, and mammals herd)."}
+{"query":"How can humans tell when something diverges from the norm\n\nWith this I mean the notion of humans being able to, for example, look at a painting and tell that something doesn't belong in there. For example sun glasses on the Mona Lisa, without prior knowledge of the painting. I just find it easier to spot or add things to something that are wrong than to add something that fits in perfectly.\n\nI found some pointers to Gestalt Theory but I couldn't find anything there yet. I'll keep looking but maybe someone here knows what I'm trying to convey. Thanks.","reasoning":"This is related to predictive coding in brain functions. We need to know the theory and inference mechanism behind.","id":"63","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding.txt"],"gold_ids":["divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_13.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_15.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_10.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_14.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_7.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_11.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_16.txt","divergent_norm\/Predictivecoding_12.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe [ predictive coding ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_coding)\nmodel of brain function suggests that the entire function of the brain is to\nupdate an internal model of the world.\n\nThis process occurs by generating predictions based on the current model, and\ncomparing these predictions to sensory information. The difference between the\npredictions and the actual information is the _prediction error_ : this is the\nstuff that the brain has to work harder on, because it is these errors that\nrequire further action to update the models and make better predictions in the\nfuture.\n\nBased on this model, **unexpected things are highly salient** , because they\ngenerate large prediction errors. In contrast, _expected_ things are boring,\nand can mostly be ignored. This is a mechanism to filter the massive amount of\nsensory information we are capable of taking in at any given moment.\n\nAs of now, predictive coding is still just a model, and there is a lot of work\nbeing done towards finding evidence for predictive coding in the brain. That\nsaid, it explains the phenomenon you are describing fairly well.\n\n* * *\n\nSome references for further reading:\n\nBastos, A. M., Usrey, W. M., Adams, R. A., Mangun, G. R., Fries, P., &\nFriston, K. J. (2012). Canonical microcircuits for predictive coding. Neuron,\n76(4), 695-711.\n\nKok, P., & de Lange, F. P. (2015). Predictive coding in sensory cortex. In An\nintroduction to model-based cognitive neuroscience (pp. 221-244). Springer,\nNew York, NY.\n\nMelloni, L., van Leeuwen, S., Alink, A., & M\u00fcller, N. G. (2012). Interaction\nbetween bottom-up saliency and top-down control: how saliency maps are created\nin the human brain. Cerebral cortex, 22(12), 2943-2952.\n\nRao, R. P., & Ballard, D. H. (1999). Predictive coding in the visual cortex: a\nfunctional interpretation of some extra-classical receptive-field effects.\nNature neuroscience, 2(1), 79-87.\n\nSpratling, M. W. (2012). Predictive coding as a model of the V1 saliency map\nhypothesis. Neural Networks, 26, 7-28.\n\nYuille, A., & Kersten, D. (2006). Vision as Bayesian inference: analysis by\nsynthesis?. Trends in cognitive sciences, 10(7), 301-308."}
+{"query":"What measures are available for calculating big 5 congruence with a collection of profiles?\n\nSay there is a group of OCEAN profiles. How do I calculate how well another profile fits into this group of profiles?\n\nIs https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congruence_coefficient the way to go or are there alternatives?","reasoning":"We need to find similarity measures that quantify the similarity between two profiles.","id":"64","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["cosine_similarity\/Similaritymeasure.txt"],"gold_ids":["cosine_similarity\/Similaritymeasure_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAs [ https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Similarity_measure\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Similarity_measure) states:\n\n> [ Cosine similarity ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cosine_similarity) is a\n> commonly used similarity measure for real-valued vectors, used in (among\n> other fields) information retrieval to score the similarity of documents in\n> the vector space model. In machine learning, common kernel functions such as\n> the RBF kernel can be viewed as similarity functions\n\nAlso see: [ Congruence coefficient\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congruence_coefficient)\n\nOther measures: [ Euclidean distance\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Euclidean_distance)"}
+{"query":"Thinking about What Others Think of You\n\nWhen a mind develops, it goes through numerous stages of awareness, such as (not necessarily in order)\n\nAwareness of others\nAwareness of self\nAwareness of other's thoughts (this may not be a discrete stage)\nWhat do you call the awareness of other's awareness of you (and the logical deduction of what they believe you're thinking)?\n\nI believe this should be the stage before meta-gaming is possible.\n","reasoning":"This is a capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them.","id":"65","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind.txt"],"gold_ids":["theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind_14.txt","theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind_13.txt","theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind_12.txt","theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind_11.txt","theory_of_mind\/Theoryofmind_10.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis sort of thinking is called [ theory of mind\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_mind) (not to be confused with\ntheories of how the mind works).\n\nIt's not entirely clear whether theory of mind is a discrete ability or a\nspectrum, but tasks requiring higher-order theorizing tend to be more\ndifficult and are more likely to be lost to dysfunction:\n\n> Cognitive theory of mind is further separated into first order (e.g., I\n> think she thinks that\u2026) and second order (e.g., he thinks that she thinks\n> that\u2026)\n\nI'm not aware of a specific term that distinguishes second-order theory of\nmind when the second-order person is in fact the first-person rather than a\nthird-person (e.g., \"she thinks that I think that...\")."}
+{"query":"Attractiveness bias, based on political views\n\nI've noticed that if I agree with the political\/cultural\/religious views of a person, then he looks sort-of beautiful (physical appearance), even if he (or she) happens to be ugly.\n\nI've also noticed that if people disagree strongly with a person's political views, they think he or she is ugly (as an example, think of the many caustic comments on the looks of Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump).\n\nMy question is: What is the name of this phenomenon?\n\nI know that \"Attractiveness bias\" is a term describing the opposite phenomenon: if a person looks beautiful, we think he's wise.\n\nBut I'm asking here about the opposite direction: if a person is wise (according to our subjective opinion, of course), then we think he looks beautiful. I tried googling this but couldn't come up with any discussion of this.","reasoning":"In broader sense, this is the situation where people's perception of another is unduly influenced by a single negative trait.","id":"66","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["horn_effect\/Horneffect.txt"],"gold_ids":["horn_effect\/Horneffect_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt is a negative\/reverse [ halo effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halo_effect) , aka a [ horns (or devil) effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn_effect) ."}
+{"query":"Taking Control of Your Dream \n\nThis question already has an answer here:\nDoes individual understanding or perception, determine dream lucidity? (1 answer)\nClosed 4 years ago.\nI experienced a weird situation a while back wherein I was dreaming hut was pretty sure I was in a dream and could control it to my wishes. I even had a break in my sleep and immediately went back to sleep and was again in the same situation. Can someone try to go in this state by planning or is it purely random?","reasoning":"This is a phenomenon where people realize that they are dreaming whilst dreaming","id":"67","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["lucid_dream\/Luciddream.txt"],"gold_ids":["lucid_dream\/Luciddream_6.txt","lucid_dream\/Luciddream_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe term for this phenomenon is [ \"lucid dreaming\"\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lucid_dream) . It is common to have some lucid\ndreaming experiences, but different people have different occurrence rates of\nlucid vs non-lucid dreams, and the level of \"control\" varies as well.\n\nA previous [ SE Q&A\n](https:\/\/psychology.stackexchange.com\/questions\/12532\/does-individual-\nunderstanding-or-perception-determine-dream-lucidity) addresses some of the\npossible influences on lucid dreaming including the potential to learn to have\nmore lucid dreams as a skill."}
+{"query":"Do humans really feel that a $99 price tag is significantly lower than a $100 one?\n\nDo humans really feel that a $99 price tag is significantly lower than a $100 one?\n\nIs there a name for this phenomenon and research supporting it?","reasoning":"This is related to psychological pricing, where retail prices are often expressed as just-below numbers and create a psychological impact to make people feel lower.","id":"68","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["psychology_pricing\/Psychologicalpricing.txt"],"gold_ids":["psychology_pricing\/Psychologicalpricing_10.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe Wikipedia page of [ Psychological Pricing\n](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychological_pricing) giving this chart:\n\n![image description](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/JpWUs.png)\n\nWhy?\n\n> Kaushik Basu used game theory in 1997 to argue that rational consumers value\n> their own time and effort at calculation. Such consumers process the price\n> from left to right and tend to mentally replace the last two digits of the\n> price with an estimate of the mean \"cent component\" of all goods in the\n> marketplace.\n\nAlso related on UX Stack Exchange: [ Is there any advantage in marketing my\nproduct for \u00a399.99 instead of \u00a3100?\n](https:\/\/ux.stackexchange.com\/q\/42649\/52226)"}
+{"query":"Impaired verbal communication, but normal reading and writing skills?\n\nIs there any cognitive disability or disfunction that impairs both speech production and listening comprehension, while reading and writing skills are at a normal level or better?","reasoning":"One general term for disorders that affect some language modalities and not others, when the cause is psychological rather than physical (ie, not deafness, muscle weakness, paralysis, etc), is aphasia","id":"69","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["aphasia\/Aphasia.txt"],"gold_ids":["aphasia\/Aphasia_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nJust a reminder that Stack Exchange is not an appropriate place to get a\ndiagnosis; a vague description of symptoms may indicate a variety of possible\noutcomes. See a doctor instead. That said:\n\nOne general term for disorders that affect some language modalities and not\nothers, when the cause is psychological rather than physical (ie, not\ndeafness, muscle weakness, paralysis, etc), is [ aphasia\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aphasia) :\n\n> To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's speech or language must be\n> significantly impaired in one (or several) of the four communication\n> modalities following acquired brain injury or have significant decline over\n> a short time period (progressive aphasia). The four communication modalities\n> are auditory comprehension, verbal expression, reading and writing, and\n> functional communication.\n\nAphasia is most commonly associated with stroke or dementia, and several [\nsub-types ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aphasia#Classification) involve both\nspeech production and verbal comprehension difficulties, while not necessarily\naffecting reading or writing abilities.\n\nOther diagnoses are also possible, as [ language disorders\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_disorder) may consist of a\ncombination of a variety of possible aspects of language ability, while not\naffecting others. For example, children with both receptive (comprehension)\nand expressive (speech) delays may be diagnosed with [ specific language\nimpairment (SLI) ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specific_language_impairment)\n:\n\n> ... diagnosed when a child's language does not develop normally and the\n> difficulties cannot be accounted for by generally slow development, physical\n> abnormality of the speech apparatus, autism spectrum disorder, apraxia,\n> acquired brain damage or hearing loss.\n\nThough relatively rarely, it is possible for literacy to be largely unaffected\nby SLI.\n\nAdditionally, [ comorbidity ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comorbidity) is\nalso possible, such as a combination of speech [ agnosia\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Auditory_verbal_agnosia) and [ apraxia\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apraxia_of_speech) , and if other symptoms are\npresent, then yet other diagnoses would apply, such as [ autism\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autism_spectrum) , where again, it is possible\nfor some language skills (such as verbal communication) to be impaired while\nothers (such as literacy) are largely unaffected.\n\nFor a general overview of the field, see [ speech and language impairment\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_and_language_impairment) and [\ncommunication disorder ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_disorder)\n. A summary of technical terminology used to classify symptoms can be found [\nhere ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_language_disorders) ."}
+{"query":"What is the term for the rhetorical, \"How hard could it be?\"\n\nI looked through the wikipedia page listing cognitive biases looking for a bias that describes the tendency to assume a poorly understood problem must be simple. Planning fallacy is kind of in the right ballpark; it gets the underestimation part, but I am associating the behaviour with a snap decision more than a plan. Is there another that fits better?\n\nI really thought it would be easy to find this term on wikipedia. I mean, how many psychological terms could there possibly be?","reasoning":"The Illusion of control is related, which is about the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events.","id":"70","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["illusion_control\/Illusionofcontrol.txt"],"gold_ids":["illusion_control\/Illusionofcontrol_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI believe the closest match is the [ illusion of control\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_control) :\n\n> ... the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events;\n> for example, it occurs when someone feels a sense of control over outcomes\n> that they demonstrably do not influence. ... people base their judgments of\n> control on \"skill cues\". ... When more of these skill cues are present, the\n> illusion is stronger.\n\nThis bias only operates when a plausible case can be made for one's skill or\nintent influencing outcomes - such as a programming task given to a\nprogrammer. In such instances, how well the task or problem is understood, its\nactual level of difficulty, and the actual level of control over outcomes are\noverestimated or ignored.\n\n[ Positive illusions ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Positive_illusions) \\-\nbiases that describe how people overestimate their own abilities, success, and\ncontrol - are the broader category that contains the illusion of control, and\nthe [ planning fallacy ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Planning_fallacy) ,\namong others. These biases typically go away when estimating the success of\nothers instead of one's self.\n\nThere is another bias worth noting here, called the [ hard-easy effect\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard%E2%80%93easy_effect) :\n\n> ... a tendency to overestimate the probability of one's success at a task\n> perceived as hard, and to underestimate the likelihood of one's success at a\n> task perceived as easy. ... \"Hard tasks tend to produce overconfidence but\n> worse-than-average perceptions,\" ...\n\nThis bias also ignores how well understood a problem is, but it suggests that\na problem perceived as hard (whether or not it actually is) is more likely to\nresult in overestimating success. This bias is not as robust or widely\naccepted as the former."}
+{"query":"How to improve working memory in adults?\n\nThink Better on Your Feet: How to Improve Your Working Memory in: A Man's Life, Money & Career\n\nBrett and Kate McKay \u2022 September 20, 2016, Last updated: October 17, 2018 https:\/\/www.artofmanliness.com\/articles\/think-better-feet-improve-working-memory\/\n\nTraining Working Memory: Why and how Make your working memory work for you. William R. Klemm Ph.D. https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/us\/blog\/memory-medic\/201203\/training-working-memory-why-and-how\n\nKlemm makes the claim IQ is not fixed. He claims IQ improves dramatically in the early school years in all children. Moreover, a recent study shows that both verbal and non-verbal IQ can change (for better or worse) in teenagers. The recent study is cited in the above psychology today web link.\n\nIs it a fact or a neuromyth to claim IQ is not fixed for adults? Processing speeds slow down as we get older, and working memory steadily deteriorates\/declines as we get older, too. Are we doomed to get slower and have poorer working memories as we get much older (50, 60s, 70s, 80s)?\n\nOr can we maintain our intelligence, working memory, and processing speeds for a longer period of time if we do physical exercise, keep physically fit, and live healthy lives?","reasoning":"The intelligence or IQ is likely to be related to education. We need to find studies that discuss about how education influences cognitive development.","id":"71","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["working_memory\/PMC4445388.txt"],"gold_ids":["working_memory\/PMC4445388_32.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_10.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_28.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_9.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_18.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_17.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_34.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_2.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_27.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_8.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_19.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_14.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_35.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_36.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_33.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_24.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_26.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_16.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_6.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_12.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_39.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_23.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_15.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_11.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_7.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_5.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_30.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_4.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_25.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_22.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_21.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_29.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_38.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_37.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_13.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_3.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_31.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_20.txt","working_memory\/PMC4445388_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIQ is not the same as working memory (either visual or non-visual). IQ is\ndeprecated in favor of the term general intelligence (g).\n\nEducation improves g, but not by much; only about one point per year of\neducation ( [ https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4445388\/\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4445388\/) ), where about 15\npoints are a standard deviation.\n\nMany things affect general intelligence negatively, such as lead exposure or\ninadequate nutrition. However, once basic good conditions are experienced,\ncognitive decline is not avoidable. The good news is that while g decreases in\nolder adults, semantic memory (knowledge) can continue increasing, such that\nreal-world performance on many tasks need not suffer.\n\nBeware a huge range of companies and hucksters promoting activities to slow\ncognitive decline: to my knowledge, none of them have much validation nor a\nconsensus of scientists without conflicts of interest (e.g., financial)."}
+{"query":"task-fMRI to determine TMS site (online stimulation with that same task)?\n\nI am planning an experiment whereby rTMS would be administered to subjects while they perform a language task, with the hopes of improving performance on this task as compared to sham stimulation.\n\nDue to the novel nature of this task, it is difficult to predict the most optimal region which to choose as a stimulation site. Someone in our group suggested to run this task in the scanner, and choose as the stimulation site the main cluster that the task activates, in other words the cluster that comes out of the fMRI contrast relevant for this task.\n\nThis however seems to me excessively data-driven, as well as somehow circular (though it would not be correct to quite call it double dipping).\n\nDoes this approach make sense at all?","reasoning":"This question is asking the feasibility of the approach. We need to find studies that also fMRI to generate TMS targets.","id":"72","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113.txt"],"gold_ids":["fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_22.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_23.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_17.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_2.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_25.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_15.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_10.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_20.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_18.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_8.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_5.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_19.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_14.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_24.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_3.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_6.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_9.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_16.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_7.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_4.txt","fmri_tms\/pnas1522551113_21.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is not a circular question. In fact, using fMRI to create targets is\nuseful to determine TMS targets outside of the motor cortex or visual cortex.\nSee the study here that used fMRI during a task to generate TMS targets, and\nthen applied theta burst stimulation to those targets: [\nhttps:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/113\/21\/6059\n](https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/113\/21\/6059)\n\nBOLD contrasts are very useful when using TMS to target sites outside of motor\ncortex, visual cortex and frontal eye field, where TMS can be validated\nfunctionally using motor evoked potentials (MEPs), phosphenes or saccadic eye\nmovements, respectively. Brainsight TMS Navigation enables BOLD contrasts (or\npeak MNI co-ordinates derived from BOLD contrasts) to be entered as targets\nfor TMS."}
+{"query":"Is there a specific term for the notion of storing \"algorithms\" in human memory?\n\nIt seems to me that there is a pretty sharp distinction between storing a \"fact\" like \"Chickens are birds\" and storing an algorithm or routine like \"how to multiply two 3-digit numbers\". I find the latter idea to be very interesting, and I'd like to read more on what has been written on this subject, but I don't know how people in psychology\/ cognitive science denote this specific aspect (if they even make such a distinction at all).\n\nI'm familiar with the ideas of episodic and semantic memory, and it seems that memorizing an algorithm like the one mentioned above, falls into the overall domain of \"semantic memory\", but within that area, I'm not finding the term(s) that deal with representation\/ storage of this kind of algorithmic\/ routine based knowledge (as opposed to \"simple facts\").\n\n\"Sequence memory\", as used by Hawkins in this paper seems to come close to capturing some of the spirit of what I mean, but that doesn't seem to be exactly right either.","reasoning":"This is related to the memory that guides the performed processes and execution of the integrated procedures.","id":"73","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["procedual_memory\/Proceduralmemory.txt"],"gold_ids":["procedual_memory\/Proceduralmemory_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis is called [ procedural memory\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procedural_memory) .\n\nIn textbooks, memory is often broken down into a hierarchy of types. Note that\nthis taxonomy is primarily a guide to language use - ie, how types of memory\nare labelled or referred to, not how memory is actually organised in the\nbrain. In standard hierarchies, recalling a mathematical formula would fall\nunder [ semantic memory ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_memory) ,\nwhile the process of applying the formula would be stored in procedural\nmemory.\n\n[ ![Memory breakdown](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/fiEKk.jpg)\n](https:\/\/i.sstatic.net\/fiEKk.jpg)\n\nProcedural memory is considered [ implicit (unconscious) memory\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implicit_memory) , and is most often\nassociated with motor skill or [ muscle memory\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muscle_memory) , but includes any learned\nprocedure or process. Notably, the [ process of learning\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procedural_memory#Acquisition_of_skill) a\nmotor skill (such as riding a bike) mirrors that of learning a cognitive skill\n(such as playing chess), in that initially, the process can be acquired\nconsciously (explicit), but with practice, it becomes unconscious (implicit)."}
+{"query":"Difference between Psychology & Neuroscience in lay man terms?\n\nI am electronics engineer by profession But i am confused in difference between Psychology & Neuroscience? Please explain in lay man terms?","reasoning":"To explain the difference in layman terms, we need to find discussions of both topics from informal sources, e.g., interview, blog, which may include jokes, analogies, etc.","id":"74","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["psycho_neuro\/neuroscience.txt"],"gold_ids":["psycho_neuro\/neuroscience_12.txt","psycho_neuro\/neuroscience_11.txt","psycho_neuro\/neuroscience_13.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThis will be a little contrived (you asked in layman's terms), but basically\npsychologists don't care about neurons. They care more about a higher-level\nview of how the brain works.\n\nThere's even a joke about psychologists having a [ \"neuron envy\"\n](https:\/\/www.apa.org\/monitor\/2008\/06\/neuroscience) . As for an example:\n\n> The problem is that you can have an explanation in biology at two different\n> levels. One is a \"black box,\" or non-reductionist approach. An example of\n> this is behaviorism, which gives you a model of what's going on at the same\n> level as the phenomenon you are studying.\n\nAnd as an analogy\n\n> In biology, for example, Mendelian genetics--where you have pea plants and\n> genes--could only get you so far. Sooner or later, you need to open it up\n> and see what's inside. You have to discover the structure of the DNA\n> molecule--an advance that gave birth to modern biology, because it told you\n> about enzymes; it told you about ... the machinery underlying cell\n> physiology.\n>\n> In psychology, the nearest thing to that happening is neuroscience."}
+{"query":"Getting upset from the creation of your own imagination [closed]\n\nLets say I got angry at someone who did\/said something wrong. Even after this angry interaction with this person is finished, I noticed I continue to express my negative reaction in my head creating some imaginary situation where this specific person is doing\/saying something wrong (which they didn't do\/say in real life; it's totally in my head, a creation of my negative imagination). It wastes my time, mental energy, breaks my focus\/concentration at productive work, and definitely it's long term effect on my mental health cannot be good.\n\nI just wanted to know -\n- What this problem\/issue is known as (just so I can do a little more research online)?","reasoning":"This is a kind of focused attention on one's distress","id":"75","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["rumination\/Ruminationpsychology.txt"],"gold_ids":["rumination\/Ruminationpsychology_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYes, this is a common experience. I often see people walking around gesturing\nand talking quietly but intensely to themselves; amusing that we not only have\nthese imaginary conversations, but can hardly resist moving our faces and\nbodies in concert with those thoughts. Broadly speaking, humans often engage\nin counterfactual reasoning: imagining things that aren't. This has been\nproposed as one of the most unique features of human cognition relative to\nother animals.\n\nA key related concept is rumination [\nhttps:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rumination_(psychology)\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rumination_\\(psychology\\)) , which are\nnegative and often repeated thoughts without new insight.\n\nThis is also related to mindfulness\u2014awareness of what is currently\nhappening\u2014which is a tool to recognize when one gets lost in thought. It is\nnot trivial just to realize that it is thought, rather than something that is\nactually happening.\n\nAlso see the psychology term [ https:\/\/psychcentral.com\/lib\/what-is-\ncatastrophizing\/ ](https:\/\/psychcentral.com\/lib\/what-is-catastrophizing\/) :\n\"Catastrophizing is an irrational thought a lot of us have in believing that\nsomething is far worse than it actually is. Catastrophizing can generally can\ntake two different forms: making a catastrophe out of a current situation, and\nimagining making a catastrophe out of a future situation.\""}
+{"query":"How do we know what colors animals perceive?\n\nHumans have three kinds of photoreceptors corresponding to different wavelength-spectra:\n\nIf say photons with wavelengths of around 530 nanometers hit the human retina, this would lead to the perception of the color conventionally called \"green\". The color \"green\", however, is subjective in the sense that it is bound to a certain cortical physiology.\n\nSo my question is: Given that we don't have access to how animals perceive color, as we can't infer such qualitative properties purely from physical stimulus properties, how can we conclude that some animals are, say, perceiving ultra-violet colors given certain items or wavelengths? What if they would perceive entirely different colors than known to us?","reasoning":"we can test: (1). what wavelengths animals perceive (simple behavioral tests, e.g. training & testing them to distinguish a certain wavelength); (2). inspect their cones to determine what wavelengths they could perceive. The latter doesn't necessarily imply that if an animal has say 4 different cones, it has tetrachromatic vision, because there's some degeneracy in some species, which unlike in humans (which have 3 types of cones and trichromatic vision) don't really use all their cones. We can find studies about specific animals, e.g., chicken.","id":"76","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["chick_vision\/jexbiopdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_1.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_7.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_8.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_0.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_4.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_9.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_5.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_11.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_6.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_10.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_2.txt","chick_vision\/jexbiopdf_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThere are some levels of confusion in this in question, but basically we can\ntest\n\n  * what wavelengths animals perceive (simple behavioral tests, e.g. training & testing them to distinguish a certain wavelength) \n  * inspect their cones to determine what wavelengths they could perceive. The latter doesn't necessarily imply that if an animal has say 4 different cones, it has tetrachromatic vision, because there's some degeneracy in some species, which unlike in humans (which have 3 types of cones and trichromatic vision) don't really use all their cones. \n\nTo give you a nearly random example of such a paper (this species doesn't have\ndegeneracy), a (freely available) [ paper on chicks' vision\n](http:\/\/jeb.biologists.org\/content\/jexbio\/202\/21\/2951.full.pdf) :\n\n> The colour vision of domestic chicks (Gallus gallus) was investigated by\n> training them to small food containers decorated with tilings of grey and\n> coloured rectangles. Chicks learn to recognise the colour quickly and\n> accurately. Chicks have four types of single-cone photoreceptor sensitive to\n> ultraviolet, short-, medium- or long-wavelength light. To establish how\n> these receptors are used for colour vision, stimuli were designed to be\n> distinguished only by specific combinations of receptors. We infer (1) that\n> all four single cones are used, and (2) that their outputs are encoded by at\n> least three opponency mechanisms: one comparing the outputs of ultraviolet-\n> and short-wavelength-sensitive receptors, one comparing the outputs of\n> medium- and long-wavelength receptors and a third comparing of the outputs\n> of short- and long- and\/or medium-wavelength receptors. Thus, the chicks\n> have tetrachromatic colour vision. These experiments do not exclude a role\n> for the fifth cone type, double cones, but other evidence suggests that\n> these cones serve luminance-based tasks, such as motion detection, and not\n> colour recognition.\n\nIf you want to get philosophical qualia discussions, akin to [ whether all\nhumans describe the same color with same language\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate)\n, that's a whole different kettle of fish. I don't know of any studies like\nthat in the absence of language. I'm guessing you might be familiar with [ the\ndress ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_dress) ."}
+{"query":"What is it called to attack a person then say something uplifting?\n\nSay a manager emailing the people under her in a way that to them feels degrading, and putting down. But at the end of the email its encouraging\/uplifting type saying I know you are intelligent and capable people.\n\nSo is there a name of this type of behavior to attack\/degrade then at the end say something nice?","reasoning":"This is related to the situation where people give negative feedback together with positive ones, like the shape of sandwich.","id":"77","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["sandwich_technique\/25792.txt"],"gold_ids":["sandwich_technique\/25792_0.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt sounds like a variant on the [ **sandwich technique**\n](https:\/\/www.findlay.edu\/blog\/feedback-sandwich-approach) , which is\nadvocated by some as the preferred way to deliver critical feedback to a\nperson, like a student or employee. The sandwich technique can be defined as:\n\n> ...offer[ing] a piece of negative feedback \u201csandwiched\" between two positive\n> ones, thus easing the blow of the critique.\n\nNote that this technique is criticized, because people might not remember the\ncrucial middle critical part of the message, because of the **[ recency effect\n](https:\/\/psychology.iresearchnet.com\/social-psychology\/decision-\nmaking\/recency-effect\/) ** : our brains are hardwired to remember the first\nand last bits of a conversation whilst glossing over the middle part (source:\n[ WeQ ](https:\/\/www.weq.io\/post\/why-the-sandwich-feedback-doesnt-work-and-\nwhat-to-do-instead) )."}
+{"query":"Is there a proper name of learning by experience (i.e. feeling something subconsciously)?\n\nWe all know about these two ways of learning:\n\nRote learning (by mechanically repeating something to remember it).\nLearning by understanding (by understanding the logic behind something).\nBut I strongly believe, that one more way of learning exists - learning by feeling. But do we have a term or some explanation for this type of learning?\n\nSome examples:\n\nyou can learn the formula for least-count of device by:\nrepeating it to remember it whenever required;\nunderstanding it to derive it whenever required;\nby feeling it, i.e. using the device for some time, to enable us to put that formula in our subconscious mind;\n(better example) in chemistry, we can learn the effect of \ud835\udc41\ud835\udc422\n on benzene, the following ways:\nrepeating it;\nunderstanding its chemical nature, its structure and then concluding the results;\nby seeing examples of its reactions and feeling that that is its behavior, to happen like this.\n","reasoning":"In this kind of learning, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess, and the knowledge is difficult to express or extract; difficult to transfer to others by means of writing it down or verbalizing it.","id":"78","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["tacit_knowledge\/Tacitknowledge.txt"],"gold_ids":["tacit_knowledge\/Tacitknowledge_7.txt","tacit_knowledge\/Tacitknowledge_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nMaybe what you are looking for is [ tacit knowledge\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tacit_knowledge) :\n\n> Tacit knowledge is the kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to\n> another person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. For example,\n> that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of explicit knowledge that\n> can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient. However,\n> the ability to speak a language, ride a bicycle, knead dough, play a musical\n> instrument, or design and use complex equipment requires all sorts of\n> knowledge that is not always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners,\n> and which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to other people.\n\n> With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they\n> possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit\n> knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction\n> and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a\n> particular context and transmitted through social networks. To some extent\n> it is \"captured\" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a community of\n> practice.\n\nAnother word that may suit your description is [ intuition\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intuition#Modern_psychology) :\n\n> Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or\n> conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was\n> acquired. Different writers give the word \"intuition\" a great variety of\n> different meanings, ranging from direct access to unconscious knowledge,\n> unconscious cognition, inner sensing, inner insight to unconscious pattern-\n> recognition and the ability to understand something instinctively, without\n> the need for conscious reasoning.\n\n> Instinct is often misinterpreted as intuition and its reliability considered\n> to be dependent on past knowledge and occurrences in a specific area. For\n> example, someone who has had more experiences with children will tend to\n> have a better instinct about what they should do in certain situations with\n> them. This is not to say that one with a great amount of experience is\n> always going to have an accurate intuition."}
+{"query":"Term\/phrase for remembering the negative over the positive\n\nI work in UX (user experience) which involves a lot of psychological principles to various degrees and came across an interesting thought about bad experiences.\n\nMy question is, is there some kind of common term or phrase for a person that remembers past negative situations more clearly than positive ones?\n\nI was thinking of the example of news reports about plane crashes. The percentage of negative incidents across the world is minute but since people only hear about the negative, this is how they perceive the majority. Therefore their memory of the bad news stories will outweigh their memory of their last successful flight. This can cause people to see air travel as dangerous.\n\nThere are probably better examples of this but I hope that makes sense.","reasoning":"This is a kind of bias when positive or neutral things of equal intensity occur, things of a more negative nature have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes.","id":"79","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["negative_bias\/Negativitybias.txt"],"gold_ids":["negative_bias\/Negativitybias_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThere isn't a name (that I am aware of at least) for a _person_ who has this\nexperience, but the concept is referred to as [ negativity bias\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Negativity_bias) .\n\nNegativity bias is a general phenomenon, though certainly individuals can vary\nas to how strongly they are influenced by negative rather than positive\nevents\/information."}
+{"query":"What is the term for learning to group objects\n\nI've been googling this for a few days now but haven't come across what I'm looking for.\n\nScenario: A child has to learn how to identify species. When first learning, they might mistake a cat for a dog. They both have four legs and a tail. However, as they are shown more and more examples of cats and dogs, they build up a more detailed definition of what a dog is and what a cat is ... specifically by being shown many many examples (different examples at all ends of the spectrum ... big and small) of these two species.\n\nI was reading about this area of cognitive psychology a few years back (quite a few years back). I wanted to refresh and study up on this some and read what I can about it, but can't because I'm not googling the correct terminology. Any direction would be greatly appreciated. Thanks.","reasoning":"This is related to conceptual differentiation between characteristics of objects. People need the abstraction and differentiation of aspects of experience by sorting and distinguishing between groupings, through classification or typification.","id":"80","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["categorization\/Categorization.txt"],"gold_ids":["categorization\/Categorization_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI would suggest you start with the Wikipedia articles on [ Categorization\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Categorization) and more specifically [\nPrototype theory ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prototype_theory) .\n\nWhile the Categorization article gives a number of branching points for you to\ndrill down on and hone in and\/or prime your thinking for further searches, the\nPrototype theory topic is where my mind went upon first reading your question\n\nEven though the focus of prototype theory is on the shared artifact of\nlanguage which you may or may not have been thinking of when you posed the\nquestion. I would expect any further reading you did on the topic to have\nplenty to say about the individual language user\/learner also.\n\n...\n\nAs a follow up I also found the [ following article\n](https:\/\/psychology.iresearchnet.com\/developmental-psychology\/cognitive-\ndevelopment\/categorization\/) which is from the perspective of Developmental\nPsychology."}
+{"query":"Asking for illogical things to make extreme views normal?\n\nA couple of months back I was reading an article about how politicians were asking to make decisions that are way beyond possible (name it unreasonable, unacceptable, illogical) just as a medium of getting extreme views to become (to be seen as) normal and\/or acceptable. What is the name of this effect?","reasoning":"This looks like there\u2019s a \u201cwindow\u201d of acceptable ideas and policy proposals in public discourse, and considering extreme ideas can help to move the window.","id":"81","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["illogical_things\/strikethroughhowtrumpovertonwindowextremenormal.txt"],"gold_ids":["illogical_things\/strikethroughhowtrumpovertonwindowextremenormal_7.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt is a concept called \" [ Overton Window\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overton_window) \". I finally found the [\narticle ](https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2017\/12\/21\/16806676\/strikethrough-how-trump-\noverton-window-extreme-normal) . It is not an effect though:\n\n> There\u2019s a concept in political theory developed by Joseph P. Overton which\n> suggests that there\u2019s a \u201cwindow\u201d of acceptable ideas and policy proposals in\n> public discourse. Everything inside the window is normal and expected, while\n> everything outside the window is radical, ridiculous, or unthinkable. And\n> Overton argued that the easiest way to move that window was to force people\n> to consider ideas at the extremes, as far away from the window as possible.\n> Because forcing people to consider an unthinkable idea, even if they\n> rejected it, would make all less extreme ideas seem acceptable by comparison\n> -- it would move the \u201cwindow\u201d slowly in that direction."}
+{"query":"Are there any significant alternatives to the theory that the mind exists?\n\nAre there any psychological models which do not presuppose the existence of the mind?\n\nIn the same way that there are theories of physics which do not presuppose the existence of a luminiferous aether, is the sort of thing that I mean.\n\nCan there be, or is it impossible by definition?","reasoning":"The opposite of the theory that mind exists is materialism, where describes the world using phisical, chemical or biological terms.","id":"82","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["materialism\/Eliminativematerialism.txt"],"gold_ids":["materialism\/Eliminativematerialism_5.txt","materialism\/Eliminativematerialism_4.txt","materialism\/Eliminativematerialism_30.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThe denial of mind is called Eliminative Materialism or \" [ Illusionism\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Illusionism_\\(consciousness\\)&redirect=no)\n\":\n\n> Eliminative materialism is the claim that people's common-sense\n> understanding of the mind (or folk psychology) is false and that certain\n> classes of mental states that most people believe in do not exist. ...\n> modern physicists are eliminativist about the existence of luminiferous\n> aether. Eliminative materialism is the relatively new (1960s\u20131970s) idea\n> that certain classes of mental entities that common sense takes for granted,\n> such as beliefs, desires, and the subjective sensation of pain, do not\n> exist.\n\nAlthough not denying the mind, [ Methodological Behaviorism\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behaviorism#Varieties) (or the Watson school),\none of the more popular psychological approaches in the first half of the 20th\ncentury, rejects introspection as a useful methodology for studying it:\n\n> Methodological behaviorism: Watson's behaviorism states that only public\n> events (behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed, and that\n> therefore private events (thoughts and feelings) should be ignored.\n\nThe modern behavior analysis that emerged from this school of thought, and is\nstill very active today, remains based on a [ logical behaviorism\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_behaviorism) premise that the study of\nbehavior should not reference the mind:\n\n> Logical behaviorism is a theory of mind that mental concepts can be\n> explained in terms of behavioral concepts."}
+{"query":"Why do we forget what we try to remember?\n\nAlmost everybody has had an experience where someone asks them what their favorite book is, and they immediately forget every single book they have ever read. This infuriating consequence of attempting to dig into memory is mysterious enough by itself. Why does this happen? Why do our memories suddenly disappear when provoked?\n\nI have searched for this and this, but the results don't provide a direct and suitable enough answer.","reasoning":"This is related to failure to recall words or sentences from the memory, and we need to check the causes and explanations to it.","id":"83","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue.txt"],"gold_ids":["tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_8.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_10.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_13.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_11.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_28.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_12.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_30.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_27.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_9.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_4.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_26.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_25.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_14.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_7.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_21.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_29.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_31.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_19.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_22.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_24.txt","tipoftoungue\/Tipofthetongue_23.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWhat you are describing may be the [ tip of the tongue\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tip_of_the_tongue) (TOT) phenomenon.\n\nThere are two major explanations for this: the direct-access view and the\ninferential view.\n\n  * The **direct-access view** : the memory strength is just not strong enough to recall the item, but strong enough to trigger the recall \n  * The **inferential view** : \n\n> It claims that TOTs aren't completely based on inaccessible, yet activated\n> targets; rather they arise when the rememberer tries to piece together\n> different clues about the word. **Emotional-induced retrieval often causes\n> more TOT experiences than an emotionally neutral retrieval** , such as\n> asking where a famous icon was assassinated rather than simply asking the\n> capital city of a state.\n\nThe second view is interesting, because frustration is an emotion by\ndefinition. So when you are frustrated for not remembering the word, your\nfrustration by itself narrows down your ability to retrieve it. This loop goes\non until you yell \"fuck it. I quit\".\n\nSo while emotion plays an important role in memorizing a piece of information,\nit also may hindrance you to recall it back. But if you can devote a lot of\ncognitive resource (thinking it hard) without being frustrated, then you can\nstill retrieve it.\n\nTOT is seemingly a very important topic in memory research.\n\n  \n\nSources: [ Tip of the tongue\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tip_of_the_tongue) , [ Recall (memory)\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recall_\\(memory\\))"}
+{"query":"Is it possible to effect both positive and negative reinforcement through the same action?\n\nConsider the following scenario: a rhesus monkey is being put under severe duress somehow (isolation, sense of physical threat, whathaveyou). It is desired that a behavior, like pressing a lever, is increased. Let's say administration of a CNS depressant as a reward is used to try to get this outcome. This could possibly be seen as positive reinforcement (due to euphoriant effects in themselves) and as negative reinforcement (because stress is being taken away). Is it possible to model both sides of this picture and is this done in practice?","reasoning":"We need to find association or classification between positive and negative reinforcement.","id":"84","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf.txt"],"gold_ids":["positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_9.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_10.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_11.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_3.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_5.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_6.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_0.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_8.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_7.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_4.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_2.txt","positive_negative_reinforce\/behavan000020003pdf_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nYes.\n\nIn fact, [ the modern view\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2755378\/) of positive and\nnegative reinforcement is that they are essentially synonyms. They are\ndifferent ways of looking at the same thing, like describing a glass of water\nbased on how full or how empty it is:\n\n> In this paper, we reconsider the issue from the perspective of 30 years.\n> However, we could not find new evidence in contemporary research and theory\n> that allows reliable classification of an event as a positive rather than a\n> negative reinforcer.\n\n[ Wikipedia\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement#Further_ideas_and_concepts) as\nwell:\n\n> Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not\n> always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added and how it\n> is being removed or added will determine the nature of the reinforcement."}
+{"query":"Is \"not going to doctor because of fear of illness\" a psychological disorder?\n\nSome people don't like to go to the doctor because they are afraid of being diagnosed sick in medical examinations or being diagnosed exacerbated when they have an illness even they know if they don't treat the illness it will get worse.\n\nA really large population of these kind of people exists, especially in Asia.\n\nIs it a subtype of hypochondria? Or it is another psychological abnormality or even is normal?","reasoning":"This is a behavior that avoids dealing with people that cause stress to protect themselves.","id":"85","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["avoidance_coping\/Avoidancecoping.txt"],"gold_ids":["avoidance_coping\/Avoidancecoping_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWhat you are describing is most likely **[ avoidance\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Avoidance_coping) ** , which in itself isn't a\ndisorder.\n\nPeople are most likely afraid of the illness in itself, and so not going to\nthe doctor means that they don't have to confront the possibility of having\nthat illness. This avoidance is a _mechanism_ that maintains hypochondria or\nhealth anxiety (however you wish to call it) by _negative reinforcement_ : 'I\ndon't go to the doctor, I'm not told if I'm sick or not, so I'm less anxious'.\n\nThe reduction in fear or anxiety is usually short lived and only makes it\nworst over time. This coping mechanism is not adaptive, and may aggravate\nhealth anxiety, but in itself, is not a disorder.\n\n**Sources**  \n**-** [ David Veale's website ](http:\/\/www.veale.co.uk\/resources-\nsupport\/public-information\/health-anxiety\/)  \n**-** [ Centre for Clinical Interventions\n](https:\/\/www.cci.health.wa.gov.au\/~\/media\/CCI\/Consumer%20Modules\/Helping%20Health%20Anxiety\/Helping%20Health%20Anxiety%20-%2007%20-%20Challenging%20Avoidance%20and%20Safety%20Behaviours.pdf)  \n**-** [ Psychology Today ](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/intl\/blog\/in-\npractice\/201303\/why-avoidance-coping-is-the-most-important-factor-in-anxiety)"}
+{"query":"What's the psychological reason for the fascination with gossiping or scandalous life?\n\nWhy do people find fascination in a tabloid magazine, paparazzi magazine, gossiping or whether prince and kings are dating or not or if actors, actresses, singers having any scandalous affairs or not?\n\nI find gossiping similar to character assassination.\n\nI have no business in their lives.\n\nSo what's the psychological reason for the fascination with gossiping or scandalous life?","reasoning":"The central question is to ask why do we need gossiping\/its function. It has influence on society and people.","id":"86","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629.txt"],"gold_ids":["gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_10.txt","gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_9.txt","gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_7.txt","gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_12.txt","gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_11.txt","gossip\/gossipisasocialskillnotacharacterflaw51629_8.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nOnly evolutionary psychology seems to have something to say about the \"why\"\nhere. And (somewhat predictably) the [ hypothesis advanced\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gossip#Evolutionary_view) has something to do\nwith social information in ever larger groups:\n\n> From Dunbar's evolutionary theories, gossip originated to help bond the\n> groups that were constantly growing in size. To survive, individuals need\n> alliances; but as these alliances grew larger, it was difficult if not\n> impossible to physically connect with everyone. Conversation and language\n> were able to bridge this gap. Gossip became a social interaction that helped\n> the group gain information about other individuals without personally\n> speaking to them. It enabled people to keep up with what was going on in\n> their social network. It also creates a bond between the teller and the\n> hearer, as they share information of mutual interest and spend time\n> together. It also helps the hearer learn about another individual\u2019s behavior\n> and helps them have a more effective approach to their relationship. Dunbar\n> (2004) found that 65% of conversations consist of social topics.\n>\n> Dunbar (1994) argues that gossip is the equivalent of social grooming often\n> observed in other primate species. Anthropological investigations indicate\n> that gossip is a cross-cultural phenomenon, providing evidence for\n> evolutionary accounts of gossip.\n\nFYI: depending who you ask, [ it's a social skill and not a character flaw\n](https:\/\/theconversation.com\/gossip-is-a-social-skill-not-a-character-\nflaw-51629) .\n\n> When disparaging gossip, we overlook the fact that it\u2019s an essential part of\n> what makes the social world tick; the nasty side of gossip overshadows the\n> more benign ways in which it functions. [...]\n>\n> In the workplace, [ studies have shown\n> ](http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socnet.2012.07.002) that harmless gossiping\n> with one\u2019s colleagues can build group cohesiveness and boost morale.\n>\n> On the flip side, the awareness that others are likely talking about us can\n> keep us in line.\n>\n> Studies of California cattle ranchers, Maine lobster fishers and college\n> rowing teams confirm that gossip is used in a variety of settings to hold\n> individuals accountable. In each of these groups, individuals who violated\n> expectations about sharing resources or meeting responsibilities became\n> targets of gossip and ostracism. This, in turn, pressured them to become\n> better members of the group.\n>\n> For example, lobstermen who didn\u2019t respect well-established group norms\n> about when and how lobsters could be harvested were quickly exposed by their\n> colleagues. Their fellow lobstermen temporarily shunned them and, for a\n> while, refused to work with them.\n>\n> Belgian psychologist [ Charlotte de Backer\n> ](https:\/\/www.uantwerpen.be\/en\/staff\/charlotte-debacker\/) makes a\n> distinction between strategy learning gossip and reputation gossip.\n>\n> Indeed, de Backer discovered that our interest in celebrities may feed off\n> of this [latter] thirst for learning life strategies. For better or for\n> worse, we look to celebrities in the same way that our ancestors looked to\n> role models within their tribes for guidance. [...] From an evolutionary\n> standpoint, \u201ccelebrity\u201d is a recent phenomenon, due primarily to the\n> explosion of mass media in the 20th century. Our ancestors, on the other\n> hand, found social importance in the intimate details of everyone\u2018s private\n> life, since everyone in their small social world mattered. [...]\n>\n> [Additionally, in a highly mobile, industrial society] Because of the\n> familiarity we feel with celebrities, they can serve an important social\n> function: they may be the only \u201cfriends\u201d we have in common with new\n> neighbors and coworkers. They\u2019re shared cultural touchstones that facilitate\n> the types of informal interactions that help people become comfortable in\n> new surroundings. Keeping up with the lives of actors, politicians and\n> athletes can make a person more socially adept during interactions with\n> strangers and even offer inroads into new relationships.\n\nI.e., it's a matter of degree and content whether it greases the wheels of\nsociety enough to make them spin well (rather than slip).\n\nA couple of peered-reviewed refs for the latter quote (from that research\ngroup):\n\n  * De Backer, C., Nelissen, M., Vyncke, P., Braeckman, J. & McAndrew, F. (2007). Celebrities: From Teachers to Friends. A Test of Two Hypotheses on the Adaptiveness of Celebrity Gossip. Human Nature, 18(4), 334-354. (IF2007: 1.814) \n\n  * De Backer, C. J., Larson, C., Fisher, M. L., McAndrew, F. T., & Rudnicki, K. (2016). When Strangers Start to Gossip: Investigating the Effect of Gossip on Cooperation in a Prisoner\u2019s Dilemma Game. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1-10. \n\nThe [ latter paper\n](https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40806-016-0063-7) concludes that:\n\n> gossip may spark initial relations, yet is insufficient to ignite a social\n> bond sustained by cooperative action among complete strangers.\n\nAnd [ the former ](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26181311) :\n\n> The Learning Hypothesis explains interest in celebrity gossip as a by-\n> product of an evolved mechanism useful for acquiring fitness-relevant\n> survival information. The Parasocial Hypothesis sees celebrity gossip as a\n> diversion of this mechanism, which leads individuals to misperceive\n> celebrities as people who are part of their social network. Using two\n> preliminary studies, we tested our predictions. [...] In support of the\n> Learning Hypothesis, age proved to be a strong predictor of interest in\n> celebrities. In partial support of the Parasocial Hypothesis, media\n> exposure, but not social isolation, was a strong predictor of interest in\n> celebrities. The preliminary results support both theories, indicate that\n> across our life span celebrities move from being teachers to being friends"}
+{"query":"Kinetic synesthesia evoked by abstract thoughts?\n\nCan the experience of movement when mentally visualizing the network\/structure of the code of a complex application, and the information that flows through the network as a programmer be a kind of synesthesia experience, or is there something else at play? Movement akin to being drawn in different directions or tilting forward, as a result of experiencing the structure.","reasoning":"We need to figure out what is Synesthesia, in particular, its association with researcher, programmers, etc.","id":"87","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["synes\/home.txt"],"gold_ids":["synes\/home_1.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n**Short answer**  \nNo.\n\n**Background**  \nThe definition of **[ synesthesia ](https:\/\/www.synesthete.org\/) ** is\ngenerally as follows:\n\n> ... a perceptual condition of mixed sensations: a stimulus in one sensory\n> modality ( _e.g._ , hearing) involuntarily elicits a sensation\/experience in\n> another modality ( _e.g._ vision). Likewise, perception of a form ( _e.g._ ,\n> a letter) may induce an unusual perception in the same modality ( _e.g._ a\n> color).\n\nThe most common form of synesthesia is thought to be colored hearing: sounds,\nmusic or voices seen as colors. Most synesthetes report that they see such\nsounds internally, in \"the mind's eye.\" Only a minority see visions as if\nprojected outside the body, usually within arm's reach (source: [ APA\n](http:\/\/www.apa.org\/monitor\/mar01\/synesthesia.aspx) ).\n\nMost of the discussions I've had with peers in that field reported to work\nwith people that see letters and numbers to have a particular color. Indeed [\nWebMD ](https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/brain\/what-is-synesthesia#1) reports that\n\n> One of the most common responses [of synesthetes] is to see letters,\n> numbers, or sounds as colors.\n\nHence, I think that synesthesia often (but see the [ APA site\n](http:\/\/www.apa.org\/monitor\/mar01\/synesthesia.aspx) ) manifests itself\nthrough relatively 'simple' visuals brought about by relatively 'simple'\nstimuli. The number '4' appears to be green _etc_ . In contrast, the highly\ncognitive complex associations you are envisioning seem unlikely to occur.\nFurther, synesthesia is mostly coupled to the senses of vision and hearing,\nand not to motor functions. So, to answer your question, no I don't think so."}
+{"query":"What is the name of the phenomenon that would make me choose A over B because I was influenced by a trend?\n\nI've looked at these 1,2,3 and I don't think they answer my question fully.\n\nLet's say it's election time and I'm on the fence about who to vote for. I see some survey on the news and seeing party A has more vote intentions, it tends to sway my decision towards party A.\n\nCloser to home, I see a question or answer on SE and I may feel swayed to vote +1 or -1 if there are pre-existing votes that have been cast.\n\nWhat would this phenomenon be called (if there is a name for it other than simple influence or conformity)? Also, can there be a bias for going against what the current trend is?","reasoning":"This is the behavior where people to adopt certain behaviors, styles, or attitudes simply because others are doing so, somewhat related to trend-following.","id":"88","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["bandwagon\/Bandwagoneffect.txt"],"gold_ids":["bandwagon\/Bandwagoneffect_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Bandwagon effect ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bandwagon_effect) :\n\n> The bandwagon effect is a phenomenon whereby the rate of uptake of beliefs,\n> ideas, fads and trends increases the more that they have already been\n> adopted by others. In other words, the bandwagon effect is characterized by\n> the probability of individual adoption increasing with respect to the\n> proportion who have already done so. As more people come to believe in\n> something, others also \"hop on the bandwagon\" regardless of the underlying\n> evidence.\n\nAnd the reason why you were not completely happy with the other questions you\nfound (mostly on social pressure) is that there's perhaps not a single source\nof \"bias\" for the bandwagon effect. Depending on the actual phenomenon\nstudied, social pressure or [ information cascades\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_cascade) make more sense as an\nexplanation for a given instance of the bandwagon effect. At least with\nrespect to SE voting patterns, probably the latter makes a bit more sense. The\ntwo causes are probably not mutually exclusive."}
+{"query":"What is the learning\/memory type which requires active contribution called?\n\nI observed I best memorize information when I actively compile it into meaningful hierarchy. That encompasses creating PowerPoint presentations, explaining the topic to someone or writing summaries. I think my active contribution is what matters here.\n\nFor a while, I used the term social memory but I've learned it refers rather to obervational learning. So is there a term for it?","reasoning":"This is a process to engage in the active learning.","id":"89","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["active_learning\/activelearning.txt"],"gold_ids":["active_learning\/activelearning_6.txt","active_learning\/activelearning_7.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n**Short answer**  \nThis type of engaged learning is referred to as active learning.\n\n**Background**  \nIn contrast to the traditional, mostly passive ways of teaching (one-way\nlecturing), nowadays there's a trend to [ **active learning**\n](https:\/\/cei.umn.edu\/active-learning) .\n\n> Active learning is any approach to instruction in which all students are\n> asked to engage in the learning process. Active learning stands in contrast\n> to \"traditional\" modes of instruction in which students are passive\n> recipients of knowledge from an expert.\n\n[ Markant _et al_ (2016)\n](https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/mbe.12117) explain in a\nreview article that active learning leads to better outcomes than passive\nforms of instruction. They summarize that the opportunity to control the\ninformation while learning leads to improved memory. Mechanisms involved in\nthis effect include the formation of **sensorimotor associations** , adaptive\nselection of material and metacognitive monitoring.\n\nActive control over a learning situation results in large areas of the brain\nbeing recruited and interconnected during active exploration (source: [ Psych\nCentral ](https:\/\/psychcentral.com\/news\/2010\/12\/06\/how-active-learning-\nimproves-memory\/21563.html) ). For example, active exploratory behavior during\nthe observation of objects enhances memory recall [ (Voss _et al_ ., 2011)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21102449) , resulting in enhanced\nactivity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the cerebellum and the\nhippocampus is higher and more coordinated after active learning (source: [\nIllinois News Bureau ](https:\/\/news.illinois.edu\/view\/6367\/205467) ).\n\n**References**  \n**-** [ Markant _et al_ Mind, Brain, and Education Society (2016); **10** (3):\n142-52 ](https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/mbe.12117)  \n**-** [ Voss _et al_ ., _Nat Neurosci_ (2011); **14** (1): 115-20\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21102449)"}
+{"query":"How does Kohlberg's moral reasoning work, can I measure it myself?\n\nIs there any way I can work out what stage Kohlberg would claim I was operating at?\n\nI do refer, when thinking about what is best, permissible, etc., to laws and other people's opinions, punishment etc., but not as conclusive judgments on what is right or wrong etc., only as one aspect of how to try to make that judgment myself. And while my actual judgments I would claim apply to anyone, not just myself, they are also provisional, and subject to revision, reappraisal.\n\nWith some exceptions:\n\nMy happiness is often more valuable than other's, maybe just because I'm especially well set to work on that. Likewise I wouldn't be obliged to martyr myself for any reason, e.g. to save a million lives, though I would say the same of anyone. And certain actions are always and unequivocally wrong, for anyone, they are that heinous.\n\nI think enough and loosely enough about morality to say that I'm probably post conventional, and perhaps that's all that really does matter. But I wondered if I could learn more!","reasoning":"The moral assessment is complicated. It may be inconsistent among people, e.g., in difficult dilemmas where drinking, driving or business is involved.","id":"90","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["Kohlberg\/LawrenceKohlberg27sstagesofmoraldevelopment.txt"],"gold_ids":["Kohlberg\/LawrenceKohlberg27sstagesofmoraldevelopment_17.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nThat can't be answered with one particular stage [ because\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development)\n:\n\n> Another criticism of Kohlberg\u2019s theory is that people frequently demonstrate\n> significant inconsistency in their moral judgements.[26] This often occurs\n> in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations\n> where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically\n> using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e. stage two) than authority\n> and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e. stage four).[26][27]\n> **Kohlberg\u2019s theory is generally considered to be incompatible with\n> inconsistencies in moral reasoning.** [...] [ Krebs and Denton\n> ](https:\/\/www.sfu.ca\/psyc\/faculty\/krebs\/publications\/Toward%20a%20More%20Pragmatic%20Approach%20to%20Morality.pdf)\n> have also attempted to modify Kohlberg\u2019s theory to account for a multitude\n> of conflicting findings, but eventually concluded that the theory is not\n> equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral\n> decisions in their everyday lives.\n\nHaving said that Wikipedia also mentions that some tests have been developed\nbased on Kohlberg\u2019s theory anyway, e.g. [ DIT\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defining_Issues_Test) (presumably averaging\nreasoning over a number questions), so you could try to take some of those\ntests.\n\nAs far as I can tell from their description(s), the [ DIT tests\n](http:\/\/ethicaldevelopment.ua.edu\/about-the-dit.html) only involve abstractly\nreasoning about some scenarios that don't involve sellf-interest of the test-\ntaker, so they don't quite seem to address the criticism, and they probably\nwon't capture your exceptions in that area either, e.g \"My happiness is often\nmore valuable than other's\". Krebs and Denton found that [ self-serving bias\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-serving_bias) affects most people when it\ncomes to moral judgements:\n\n> Self-serving biases. In contrast to the third-person moral judgments evoked\n> by Kohlberg\u2019s test, most real-life moral judgments are made in the first\n> person and second person. As examples, people say such things as \u201cI was\n> wrong; I should never have done that\u201d and \u201cYou should do your share.\u201d Krebs\n> and Laird (1998) found that first-person moral judgments made by\n> participants about transgressions they had committed were significantly more\n> lenient than the third-person judgments they made about transgressions\n> committed by others, especially when others\u2019 transgressions were committed\n> against them"}
+{"query":"Is there a formal name for the compulsive and recurrent urges to pick one's nose in order to remove perceived imperfections?\n\nUnder which formal category does the following condition fall?: the condition of experiencing frequent and compulsive urges to pick one's nose searching for any possible perceived imperfections (be they wet snot, dry snot and even scabs) in order to remove them or \"smooth them out\" by means of scratching, in a sort of endless pursuit for a sensation of perfect smoothness within one's nose (endless because the sensation of perfect smoothness is never quite achieved and usually the scratching itself leads to bleeding and scabs which paradoxically become the fuel for future nose picking sessions, in an endless cycle). References are very welcomed.","reasoning":"In general, this is the repeated urge or impulse to pick at one's own skin.","id":"91","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["picknose\/Excoriationdisorder.txt"],"gold_ids":["picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_4.txt","picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_9.txt","picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_7.txt","picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_6.txt","picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_8.txt","picknose\/Excoriationdisorder_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n[ Excoriation disorder ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Excoriation_disorder)\n(ED) formerly known as dermatillomania, and more popularly as Skin Picking\nDisorder (SPD):\n\n> a mental disorder characterized by the repeated urge to pick at one's own\n> skin, often to the extent that damage is caused.\n\nThe status as a separate disorder is somewhat controversial, because of high\ncomorbidity:\n\n> There has been controversy over the creation of a separate category in the\n> DSM-5 for excoriation (skin picking) disorder. Two of the main reasons for\n> objecting to the inclusion of excoriation disorder in the DSM-5 are: (1)\n> that excoriation disorder may just be a symptom of a different underlying\n> disorder, e.g. OCD or [ BDD\n> ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Body_dysmorphic_disorder) , and (2) that\n> excoriation disorder is merely a bad habit and that by allowing this\n> disorder to obtain its own separate category it would force the DSM to\n> include a wide array of bad habits as separate syndromes, e.g., nail biting\n> and **nose-picking** .\n\nYour case seems to be one of those overlapping ones.\n\nThere's also a [ 2017 neuroimaging study\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5604737\/) which concludes:\n\n> data offer partial support for the view that sub-cortical structures\n> contribute to the pathophysiology of SPD, both supporting its categorization\n> as an OC-Related Disorder in DSM-5 and suggesting that there exists a\n> pathophysiological difference between SPD and OCD.\n\nWikipedia has a lot to say about various treatments even though\n\n> Knowledge about effective treatments for excoriation disorder is sparse\n> despite the prevalence of the condition.\n\nThe usual suspects have been tried: SSRIs, anti-psychotics, anticonvulsants,\nglutamatergic agents (used to treat drug addictions) etc. As well cognitive-\nbehavioral psychotherapies. It's not clear from there what might be most\neffective.\n\nWikipedia aside, there's been a [ \"preliminary meta-analysis\"\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jocrd.2013.02.003) published in 2014, but its [\nreview at CRD notes\n](http:\/\/www.crd.york.ac.uk\/crdweb\/ShowRecord.asp?LinkFrom=OAI&ID=12013022819)\n:\n\n> Authors' conclusions:  \n>  Both pharmacological and psychological interventions appeared to be\n> effective in reducing the severity of pathological skin picking;\n> psychological interventions could have a larger effect.\n>\n> CRD commentary:  \n>  The authors did not report a quality assessment, so it is difficult to know\n> how reliable the results of the individual studies were. Many of the studies\n> had designs prone to bias. Details about the comparator interventions, in\n> the studies with control groups, were not reported. Given the heterogeneity\n> across the studies, the limited reporting of study details and the unknown\n> quality of the included studies, it seems inappropriate that the results\n> were statistically synthesised, particularly for pharmacological and\n> psychological interventions, for pathological skin-picking severity.\n\nSo I wouldn't put too much stock on it.\n\nA [ more recent (2016) meta-analysis\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4930073\/) has basically the\nsame conclusions; this one was not reviewed at CRD, but it relies basically on\nthe same small number of studies. Its conclusions were similar to the\n\"preliminary\" one: psychotherapy seems to work better than medication based on\nthe limited data available. It only looked at SSRIs and lamictal for\nmedication though.\n\nThere's also a [ 2016 RCT on N-acetylcysteine\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27007062) , published in a high-impact\njournal, concluding:\n\n> N-acetylcysteine [NAC] treatment resulted in significant reductions in skin-\n> picking symptoms and was well tolerated.\n\nThe result was [ fairly unsurprising\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5325313\/) given that NAC was\npreviously found effective for trichotillomania (TTM -- hair pulling) as well;\nboth studies with NAC were conducted by the same research group. But there\nwere a few more interesting comments on those papers:\n\n> In striking contrast with what we know about OCD, SSRIs have not been proved\n> to be superior to placebo in TTM treatment. As for ED, the evidence\n> regarding the efficacy of SSRIs is still scarce. **So far, there are no US\n> Food and Drug Administration\u2013approved treatments for ED** and TTM. The\n> divergent results of the trials testing either SSRIs or NAC for ED\/TTM and\n> OCD suggest that treatments may not be used interchangeably between OCD and\n> related disorders.\n>\n> In addition, results from genetic studies also suggest that the neurobiology\n> of pathological grooming may not be necessarily related to OCD. It had been\n> demonstrated that Sapap3 knockout mice groomed themselves excessively.\n> However, using family-based association analyses, [ Bienvenu et al\n> ](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19051237) found that variation within\n> the human equivalent of the Sapap3 gene appeared associated with ED\/TTM, but\n> not with OCD. The conflicting results regarding the efficacy of NAC for\n> ED\/TTM and OCD, in addition to the findings of translational studies,\n> suggest that the neural basis of repetitive behaviors observed in patients\n> with these disorders might not be the same. So far, similarities between\n> ED\/TTM and OCD do not seem to go beyond the characterization by repetitive\n> behaviors and some degree of familial aggregation.\n\n(But note that this last statement appears somewhat incorrect in view of the [\n2017 neuroimaging study\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5604737\/) \\--some overlap with\nOCD seems to exist after all.)\n\nNHS Choices also has consumer-oriented page on [ \"Skin picking disorder \"\n](https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/skin-picking-disorder\/) which doesn't say much\nI haven't told you already except for some behavioral tips. YMMV."}
+{"query":"My Mind Shows Me My Future [closed]\n\nWhen I sleep, I can see some phenomenon as a dream. After some days or months or years that phenomenon happens in my life and forthwith my mind reminds me of that earlier dream that I saw. There are simple things such as for example getting down pen from my hand like wise.\n\nMy problem is how can this happen? I have heard this happens to others also. What kind of situation is this in the mind? Is it normal or abnormal?","reasoning":"This is a situation where people experience something they have already dreamed. We need to check whether this situation is normal or not.","id":"92","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["already_dream\/dejareve.txt"],"gold_ids":["already_dream\/dejareve_6.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_7.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_4.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_5.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_9.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_8.txt","already_dream\/dejareve_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIt's a phenomenon called [ d\u00e9j\u00e0 r\u00eav\u00e9 ](https:\/\/curiosity.com\/topics\/deja-reve-\nis-even-weirder-than-deja-vu-curiosity\/) , the French for \"already dreamed\":\n\n> If you've ever felt like you predicted something in a dream, you might have\n> felt it wise to keep that feeling to yourself so that others don't think\n> you're as out-there as an ancient oracle. Well, good news: you don't need to\n> be so secretive about your psychic dreams. They're actually a well-\n> documented phenomenon called d\u00e9j\u00e0 r\u00eav\u00e9 \u2014 but they don't actually mean you\n> can see the future. [...]\n>\n> According to a new study that looked back on the medical reports of\n> epileptic patients from 1958 to 2015, d\u00e9j\u00e0 r\u00eav\u00e9 experiences are common after\n> electric brain stimulation, a pretty standard treatment method for epileptic\n> symptoms. It suggests that the \"already dreamed\" feeling is the result of\n> something happening physiologically in the brain, and that in turn could\n> point to a better understanding of how dreams work. [...]\n>\n> If you experience d\u00e9j\u00e0 r\u00eav\u00e9, take comfort in knowing that it's totally\n> normal \u2014 the feeling is just a harmless quirk of your brain.\n\nAnd there's is actually a [ 2017 paper\n](http:\/\/www.ingentaconnect.com\/contentone\/imp\/jcs\/2017\/00000024\/F0020007\/art00008)\n, on the occurrence in the general population; it looks like it happens to\nmost peple at least some times:\n\n> Deja reve ('already dreamed') has been hypothesized as a cause for various\n> forms of d\u00e9j\u00e0 experience. With deja reve one has the distinct impression\n> that the uncanny familiarity one is sensing has come from a preceding dream,\n> but one not usually remembered until the experience is taking place. In this\n> exploratory investigation, 2,492 respondents filled out online\n> questionnaires in which they were queried about the incidence of their deja\n> reve experiences, about dream frequency, and about their attitudes to\n> dreams. The Big Five personality factors were also measured using a\n> separate, standardized questionnaire. **Nearly 80% claimed to have had such\n> experiences** and the associated frequencies are presented. Age was\n> negatively correlated with the incidence and there was little gender\n> dependence. The results of the Big Five personality factors are also\n> presented.\n\nStudies of d\u00e9j\u00e0 r\u00eav\u00e9 aren't very numerous however. The [ \"new study\"\n](https:\/\/www.brainstimjrnl.com\/article\/S1935-861X\\(18\\)30079-2\/fulltext)\nmentioned in that first popsci article distinguishes d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 from [ d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu) (basically d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9\nelicits some specific dream\/memory content, not mere impression of having seen\nsomething before) and proposes a further sub-classification:\n\n> D\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 appears to be different from d\u00e9j\u00e0-vu\u2014the two must not be confused.\n> By construction, all d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 episodes we collected had content, which is\n> not the case for d\u00e9j\u00e0-vu. Furthermore, d\u00e9j\u00e0-vu and d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 never involved\n> the same bipolar contacts in the instances when both could be induced by EBS\n> [electric brain stimulation] in the same patient. These results are critical\n> since they support the idea that d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 is a true phenomenon, different\n> from d\u00e9j\u00e0-vu.\n>\n> Moreover, d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 is a generic term for distinct entities: recollection of\n> a specific and detailed dream similar to an episodic memory, reminiscence of\n> a vague dream or elements of dream(s) which feels familiar, and finally\n> experiences that resemble or feel like what happens during dreams. Explicit\n> content with mental imagery referring to a previous dream exists in the\n> first two types, but the exactness of the details and contextual elements\n> vary. In the third type, the content of the experience is not at the\n> foreground, but the subject has the feeling of a known sensation or a state\n> of consciousness similar to night dreaming. Only the first two types should\n> be called d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9, while the last type should be referred to as \u201cdreamy\n> state\u201d.\n\nThey also discuss why d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 is apparently not simply a hallucination,\nbasically because of the association of the phenomenon with electrode\nplacement in memory- and dream-related brain regions:\n\n> It may be disputed that we cannot be sure that d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 (episodic-like or\n> familiarity-like) are linked to true previous dreams. EBS could simply\n> produce a random combination of visual and auditory elements, creating\n> phantasmagoric and unrealistic experiences similar to dreams. However, EBS-\n> inducing d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 were all located in the temporal lobes, although\n> extratemporal brain areas were commonly stimulated [4]. They were also\n> exclusively induced by medial temporal lobe EBS in our database. Thus, like\n> other subtypes of experiential phenomena, specific locations of EBS seem to\n> correlate with d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 subtypes. This suggests it is improbable the d\u00e9j\u00e0-\n> r\u00eav\u00e9 we reported here are pure hallucinations, otherwise patients would have\n> reported similar phenomena after stimulation of other brain areas.\n> Furthermore, the brain regions implicated in d\u00e9j\u00e0-r\u00eav\u00e9 include structures\n> involved in long-term memory (especially in episodic memory and familiarity\n> processes) [27, 28, 29], in memory formation during sleep [29], in normal\n> dreaming [30,31] and probably in dream recall [32]."}
+{"query":"Saying things to shock others\n\nIs it strange or categorically bad to say things that shock others knowingly, and enjoy their reaction?\n\nI have a close friend who partakes in such behavior, and I want to understand his motivation a bit better.\n\nSome context\n\nI am not speaking about an attention aspect, per se, since this satisfaction from saying \"shocking things\" would be usually in a personal relationship context, whether that be friendship, intimate, or familial.\n\nPerhaps the idea stems from hurting others as a coping mechanism?\n\nFurther, the satisfaction is not sexual at all, but merely a satisfaction from the reaction to whatever was said.\n\nI am currently investigating this idea, as I have seen my friend partake in such behavior, and often at that. This behavior is private, so I am doubtful that it is for attention.","reasoning":"To break it down, it suggests that actions taken out to seek attention are a coping mechanism that have their roots in early neglect by the family. Since attention is an important social need, if it is not readily available as a child, the brain wires itself to go to extreme lengths to receive it.","id":"93","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction.txt"],"gold_ids":["excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction_5.txt","excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction_3.txt","excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction_7.txt","excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction_6.txt","excessive_shock\/excessiveattentionseekinganddramaaddiction_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nIf I understand the question correctly, [ this article\n](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/intl\/blog\/obesely-speaking\/201411\/excessive-\nattention-seeking-and-drama-addiction) might interest you.\n\nTo break it down, it suggests that actions taken out to seek attention are a\ncoping mechanism that have their roots in early neglect by the family. Since\nattention is an important social need, if it is not readily available as a\nchild, the brain wires itself to go to extreme lengths to receive it.\n\nIn the case you mentioned, saying inflammatory things to enjoy a reaction\nfulfills that need for attention. According to the article, this releases\nendorphins that reduce the anxiety that accompanies not receiving adequate\nattention."}
+{"query":"Is there a term for the desire to maintain a level of anxiety?\n\nAs a war veteran who has\/had PTSD, I've noticed in myself a desire to maintain a level of anxiety and stress closer to what I was used to.\n\nYou've probably also heard\/seen this type of behavior from other veterans who engage in High Risk Behavior after separation from service.\n\nI've also known former incarcerated individuals and PhD graduates who do the same.\n\nIs there an official term for this behavior? Further reading on the topic?","reasoning":"This is related to sensation seeking, where people pursue experiences and feelings, that are \"varied, novel, rich and intense\".","id":"94","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking.txt"],"gold_ids":["sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_7.txt","sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_8.txt","sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_9.txt","sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_4.txt","sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_6.txt","sensation_seeking\/Sensationseeking_5.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nWith \"normal\" risk taking related to \"thrill seekers\" what you could be\ntalking about can be\n\n  * **Sensation Seeking** ( [ Zuckerman, 2007 ](http:\/\/www.apa.org\/pubs\/books\/4317124.aspx) ) \n\n> Risky behavior can be an expression of a normal, genetically influenced\n> personality trait, sensation seeking. Its expression in risky behaviors such\n> as extreme and risky sports, vocations, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and\n> crime, among others, is the topic of this fascinating and accessible book.\n\nor\n\n  * **Disinhibition** ( [ Wikipedia ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disinhibition) ), which is a lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment. \n\nIn the case of PTSD (or other mental health problems) causing the behaviour,\nit is **Negative Urgency** ( [ Cyders & Smith, 2008\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2705930) ), which is the\ntendency to engage in rash action in response to extreme negative affects\n(experiences of negative emotions, [ poor self-esteem and\/or poor self-concept\n](https:\/\/www.qub.ac.uk\/sites\/media\/Media,366009,en.pdf) )\n\n[ Cyders & Smith (2008)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2705930) believe there is\n\n> striking circumstantial evidence that positive and negative urgency play an\n> important role in adolescence. It seems likely that the normative adolescent\n> experience involves a developmentally limited increase in levels of urgency,\n> and also that there are important individual differences in the urgency\n> traits during these years.\n\nA study conducted by [ James, Strom & Leskela (2014)\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7205\/MILMED-D-13-00241) looked at the risk-taking\nbehaviours and impulsivity among veterans with and without PTSD. They also\ncompared the results with those who not only suffered PTSD, but also mild\nTraumatic Brain Injury (mTBI).\n\n> [A] 42-item scale developed for the study permitted the assessment of a wide\n> range of behaviors that are not captured in existing risk-taking measures\n> but tend to be common and problematic among veterans (e.g., risky driving\n> practices). Items were derived from a review of relevant literature.\n> Participants reported how frequently they engaged in each of the behaviors\n> using a 5-point [ Likert-type scale\n> ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Likert_scale) ranging from 0 (never) to 4\n> (very often). Total scores range from 0 to 63. In addition to the total\n> score, scores on four subscales (substance abuse, aggression, risky sexual\n> practices, and thrill seeking) were also evaluated **[...]**\n>\n> As expected, the co-occurring PTSD + mTBI group endorsed significantly more\n> risk-taking behaviors and Negative Urgency than the control group and\n> significantly more risky substance use, aggressive behavior, and Negative\n> Urgency than the mTBI group. An identical pattern was found for the PTSD\n> group compared to the control group and the mTBI group. Counter to\n> expectations, the co-occurring PTSD + mTBI group did not endorse\n> significantly more impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors than the PTSD\n> group. That is, individuals with PTSD, regardless of TBI status (i.e., PTSD;\n> PTSD + mTBI), tended to engage in more risky behaviors and more impulsive\n> behaviors in the context of negative affective states than controls and\n> those with mTBI only. The control group and mTBI group did not significantly\n> differ from each other. Across all four groups, thrill-seeking behaviors\n> were the most frequently reported risk-taking behaviors. There were no group\n> differences in Sensation Seeking.\n\nNot surprising, considering the nature of PTSD and its effects, the study also\nfound other highly problematic behaviours\n\n> Notably, both theoretical and empirical works also link disinhibition, or\n> the highly related construct of impulsivity, to suicide-related behaviors.\n> In the present study, the PTSD groups (i.e., PTSD, PTSD + mTBI) were not\n> only characterized by greater levels of the Negative Urgency facet of\n> impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors than the mTBI and control groups but\n> were also more likely than the control group to have thought about suicide\n> and purposely driven a vehicle into another object. Thus, premorbid\n> disinhibition may place people on a track toward later involvement in risky\n> or other highly problematic behaviors that ultimately result in\n> psychopathological and self-destructive outcomes.\n\n(See also, [ Cyders & Smith (2008)\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2705930) about urgency and\npsychopathology)\n\n**Due to risks involved with Negative Urgency, therapy needs to be sought with\nregard to this too.**\n\n##  Therapy Available\n\nWhen receiving psychological help for PTSD, it is best to highlight the fact\nthat you have a desire to maintain a level of anxiety and stress closer to\nwhat you are now used to compared to the past. That way, the best form of help\ncan be ascertained via your therapy provider.\n\nYour therapist may be able to incorporate therapy for this using the same\ntechniques they use for your PTSD, or they may tweak the sessions to\nincorporate other techniques such as Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) or\nDialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; see [ Linehan, 1993\n](https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method\/links\/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf) or\n[ Lynch, et al., 2007\n](https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder\/links\/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf) )\n\n> One main focus of DBT is teaching individuals to respond adaptively to the\n> experience of extreme emotional states, referred to in this treatment as\n> Distress Tolerance Skills.\n\n##  References\n\nCyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based Dispositions to Rash\nAction: Positive and Negative Urgency. _Psychological Bulletin_ , 134(6),\n807\u2013828. PMCID: [ PMC2705930\n](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2705930) DOI: [\n10.1037\/a0013341 ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0013341)\n\nJames, L. M., Strom, T. Q., & Leskela, J. (2014). Risk-taking behaviors and\nimpulsivity among veterans with and without PTSD and mild TBI. _Military\nmedicine_ , 179(4), 357-363. DOI: [ 10.7205\/MILMED-D-13-00241\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7205\/MILMED-D-13-00241)\n\nLinehan, M. (1987). Dialectical-behavioral treatment of borderline personality\ndisorder: Theory and Method. _Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic_ , 51(3),\n261\u2014276  \nFree ResearchGate PDF: [\nhttps:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method\/links\/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf\n](https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method\/links\/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf)\n\nLynch, T. R., Trost, W. T., Salsman, N., & Linehan, M. M. (2007). Dialectical\nbehavior therapy for borderline personality disorder. _Annual Review of\nClinical Psychology_ , 3, 181-205. DOI: [\n10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095229\n](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095229)  \nFree ResearchGate PDF: [\nhttps:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder\/links\/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf\n](https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Marsha_Linehan\/publication\/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder\/links\/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9\/Dialectical-\nBehavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf)"}
+{"query":"People who climb the social hierarchy\n\nWe know that people on top of the social hierarchy have (at least in developed countries) 30 or more years average life expectancy , more stable marriages, happier life and so on. So my question is for people who managed to get from the bottom to the top, what is their expected divorce rate, life expectancy and so on. It is more like the bottom or more like the top. Any research would help.","reasoning":"This is related to Life Course Social Mobility, and we need to know how does it affect life expectancy, marriages and life happiness.","id":"95","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["social_status\/climbing_the_social_mobility.txt"],"gold_ids":["social_status\/climbing_the_social_mobility_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI think you want the term Life Course Social Mobility. Try searching for it\nand the outcomes of interest, e.g., life expectancy:\n\n  * [ Climbing the social mobility ladder: where does health fit in? ](https:\/\/www.health.org.uk\/blog\/climbing-social-mobility-ladder-where-does-health-fit) on \"The Health Foundation\" blog by Hannah Jones. \n\n> [ [The UK] Social Mobility Commission\n> ](http:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/569410\/Social_Mobility_Commission_2016_REPORT_WEB__1__.pdf)\n> also touched upon the idea that health and wellbeing play a role in an\n> individual\u2019s social circumstances and, thus, their mobility. For example,\n> the report concluded that those in social housing are less likely to find\n> employment as they are more likely to have a mental health condition,\n> disability or other health condition.\n\n  * Heller, R. F., McElduff, P., & Edwards, R. (2002). [ Impact of upward social mobility on population mortality: analysis with routine data. ](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.325.7356.134) Bmj, 325(7356), 134. \n\n> 16% of the reduction in deaths between 1970\u20132 and 1991\u20133 among men in\n> England and Wales was attributable to increases in the proportion of men in\n> higher social classes\n\nIt is difficult to summarize across many different outcomes, and it also\ndepends on a) the starting and ending classes as well as b) the life stage\nwhen the transition occurs and c) the speed of the transition.\n\nSo I think the question as originally phrased, whether they appear more like\nthe bottom or the top, cannot be answered in the general case. It is generally\ngoing to be in-between."}
+{"query":"Is it possible to over burden yourself?\n\nIf someone thinks a lot about their future like what are they going to do 1 year down the line or how will the live the rest of their lives and some of these ideas can be really extreme like taking a vow of celibacy in their thoughts. Can they end up over-burdening themselves. Also what are the symptoms of such a man\/woman?\n\nThanks in advance!","reasoning":"Any overburden with enough time can lead to burnout. We need to find definition, signs, and symptoms for the burnout.","id":"96","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["burnout\/thetelltalesignsofburnoutdoyouhavethem.txt"],"gold_ids":["burnout\/thetelltalesignsofburnoutdoyouhavethem_3.txt","burnout\/thetelltalesignsofburnoutdoyouhavethem_4.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nAs indicated in my comment, it is possible to \"overburden\" yourself, and there\nare different degrees of effects from overburdening depending on severity and\ntimescales. Any overburden with enough time can lead to burnout ( [ Carter,\n2013 ](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-women\/201311\/the-\ntell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them) ). Other names for burnout include [\n\"mental breakdown\" or \"nervous exhaustion\/breakdown\"\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mental_breakdown) . Another form of burnout,\nbut essentially the same thing is Compassion Fatigue ( [ Carter, 2014\n](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-women\/201407\/are-you-\nsuffering-compassion-fatigue) )\n\n##  Definition of Burnout\n\nBurnout is a state of chronic stress that has led to extreme physical and\nemotional exhaustion, which in turn can lead to cynicism, detachment, and\nfeelings of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment.\n\n[ Carter (2013) ](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-\nwomen\/201311\/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them) has given a good\nrundown of the problem, but I would suggest subsituting the section header\n**Signs of Ineffectiveness and Lack of Accomplishment** with **Feelings of\nIneffectiveness and Lack of Accomplishment can lead to...**\n\n##  Prevention\/Remedy for Burnout\n\nThis can be a huge subject, but to narrow it down in a nutshell, as burnout is\ncaused by chronic stress, the only way to prevent it or remedy it is to do\nwhatever relieves stress for you and incorporate it into your day, **every\nday** . Burning the candle at both ends along with the midnight oil every day\nis going to lead to burnout.\n\n##  References\n\nCarter, S. B. (2013). The Tell Tale Signs of Burnout ... Do You Have Them?\n_PsychologyToday_ [Online]  \nRetrieved from: [ https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-\nwomen\/201311\/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them\n](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-women\/201311\/the-tell-\ntale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them)\n\nCarter, S. B. (2014). Are You Suffering from Compassion Fatigue?: What to do\nwhen showing compassion feels like a burden _PsychologyToday_ [Online]  \nRetrieved from [ https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-\nwomen\/201407\/are-you-suffering-compassion-fatigue\n](https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/gb\/blog\/high-octane-women\/201407\/are-you-\nsuffering-compassion-fatigue)"}
+{"query":"Is there research to prove that humans achieve more when challenging ourselves or when we challenge others?\n\nGiven that there is a single player game, let's say, Tetris. I play the game for 5 days and my friend is also playing the game for 5 days. At the end of the 5 days we would like to see who has the highest score and that person wins some prize.\n\nIs it better that we see the scores of our opponent and try to better it, or is better that I do not see my friend's score and focus on just constantly beating my own score?\n\nWhich of the 2 scenarios is likely to yield the higher score at the end of the 5 days? And why?\n\nI'm doing some research on gamification and how competition can help us progress a skill.","reasoning":"This is related to a social phenomenon in which being in the presence of others affects individual performance. We need to see more studies, analysis, etc.","id":"97","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation.txt"],"gold_ids":["social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_29.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_24.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_17.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_8.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_7.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_12.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_26.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_19.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_10.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_15.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_18.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_22.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_32.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_30.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_14.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_13.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_21.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_27.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_5.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_11.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_16.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_25.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_23.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_9.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_31.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_28.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_33.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_20.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_34.txt","social_facilitation\/Socialfacilitation_6.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nGenerally, being observed raises performance on simple tasks and can hinder\nperformance on complex tasks: [\nhttps:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_facilitation\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_facilitation)\n\nFor trivia, notice that the experiment widely regarded to be the first in\nsocial psychology was of observed vs. unobserved cycling. Being watched made\npeople cycling faster: [ https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Social-\nFacilitation.html ](https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Social-Facilitation.html)\nexcerpt:\n\n> \"According to Cottrell (1968), it\u2019s not the presence of other people that is\n> important for social facilitation to occur but the apprehension about being\n> evaluated by them. We know that approval and disapproval are often dependent\n> on others\u2019 evaluations and so the presence of others triggers an acquired\n> arousal drive based on evaluation anxiety.\""}
+{"query":"Is there a name for the phenomenon of perceived repeated interruption?\n\nIs there a documented name for the phenomenon of repeated social interruptions. It's something I've discussed with others who seem to share the observation that often, when one is alone in a public space, others will consistently run into them.\n\nOne example is in single stall bathrooms. This is one that I've discussed with others, to much amusement: it seems that whenever I find an unattended public restroom, even in a secluded space away from population, more often than not someone will approach and knock within seconds.\n\nAnother would be driving along a typically empty road late at night, and having someone follow every single turn you take up until you get home, where they turn around and go from whence you both came, making seemingly no sense.\n\nObviously, this is a cognitive bias of some sort and likely not truly indicative of some social behavior. It reminds me of the spotlight effect, but the spotlight effect is defined as heightened self awareness, no? This seems to happen regardless of that, like there are people just waiting around to stumble upon oneself at the most inopportune times.\n\nParanoia might be one word for it, but talking with others anecdotally, it seems like most people have had this thought before.","reasoning":"These are 'every day' actions you describe. They are not very memorable. In contrast, when encountering such interruptions during these otherwise 'normal' actions they become more memorable and stick with you.\n\nConsequently, this then leads to a selection bias: only the interrupted actions come to mind immediately. If you were to systematically count how many times this occurs it would be less frequent than it seems.","id":"98","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["selection_bias\/Selectionbias.txt"],"gold_ids":["selection_bias\/Selectionbias_3.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_5.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_7.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_9.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_4.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_8.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_11.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_6.txt","selection_bias\/Selectionbias_10.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\nI would classify this as a [ _cognitive bias_\n](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases) . Specifically, [\n**selection bias** ](https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selection_bias) :\n\n> Selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of individuals,\n> groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not\n> achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of\n> the population intended to be analyzed.\n\nThese are 'every day' actions you describe. They are not very memorable. In\ncontrast, when encountering such interruptions during these otherwise 'normal'\nactions they become more memorable and stick with you.\n\nConsequently, this then leads to a selection bias: only the interrupted\nactions come to mind immediately. If you were to systematically count how many\ntimes this occurs it would be less frequent than it seems."}
+{"query":"Opposite of White Bear principle?\n\nIs there any phrase\/term to describe the opposite of White Bear principle (also known as ironic process principle)? I'm looking for a word to describe the process where something eludes you the more you try to think of it (or remember it). I think I may have come across a term to describe this phenomenon but I'm not sure if such a phrase\/term exists.","reasoning":"This is like, the more you think, the worse it is, and can be related to implicit and explicit memory.","id":"99","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance.txt"],"gold_ids":["overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_30.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_36.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_31.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_37.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_28.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_35.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_34.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_32.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_27.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_33.txt","overthinking\/overthinkingcanbedetrimentalhumanperformance_29.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n**Short answer**  \n**[ Over-thinking ](http:\/\/www.news.ucsb.edu\/2013\/013593\/overthinking-can-be-\ndetrimental-human-performance) **\n\n**Background**  \n**[ Unconscious recall of information ](https:\/\/qz.com\/113458\/want-to-\nremember-something-forget-it\/) ** can be more effective than conscious recall\nof that same information. Disruption of the activity of the **[ dorsolateral\nprefrontal cortex\n](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex) ** (by TMS)\nimproved image-recall in healthy subjects (source: [ UC Santa Barbara\n](http:\/\/www.news.ucsb.edu\/2013\/013593\/overthinking-can-be-detrimental-human-\nperformance) ). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is associated with\nexecutive functions including working memory and selective attention [ (Lehner\n_et al_ ., 2016) ](https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/book\/9780128001059) .\nThe effect over paying too much attention in an attempt to remember something\nhas been referred to as [ over-thinking ](https:\/\/qz.com\/113458\/want-to-\nremember-something-forget-it\/) .\n\n**Reference**  \n**-** [ Lehner _et al_ ., _Genomics, Circuits, and Pathways in Clinical\nNeuropsychiatry_ , 1  st  ed. Elsevier (2016)\n](https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/book\/9780128001059)"}
+{"query":"What is the term for the \"knowing what you think but can't explain it\" phenomenon?\n\nI think we all experience this phenomenon once in a while, and I am experiencing it right now. It's the feeling that whatever word one tries to say it seems to be wrong (for them) or confusing (for the listeners), and would require a period of time to think out the right word that they have already known. If severed, it can lead to frustration, but it's not really about feeling insecurity.\n\nWhat is the word for that?","reasoning":"This is an inability to continue with words even with thoughts in mind.","id":"100","excluded_ids":["N\/A"],"gold_ids_long":["mentalblock\/Mentalblock.txt"],"gold_ids":["mentalblock\/Mentalblock_3.txt"],"gold_answer":"$\\begingroup$\n\n#  [ Mental block ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mental_block)\n\n> A mental block is an uncontrollable suppression, or repression of painful or\n> unwanted thoughts\/memories. Also can be an inability to continue or complete\n> a train of thought, as in the case of writer's block. In the case of\n> writer's block, many find it helpful to take a break and revisit their\n> topic.\n\nYou can also check out [ a list of synonyms and related words for \"forgetful\nand forgetfulness\" ](https:\/\/www.macmillandictionary.com\/thesaurus-\ncategory\/british\/forgetful-and-forgetfulness) ."}