| [ |
| { |
| "id": 1, |
| "passage": "Nuclear medicine (NM) images inherently suffer from large amounts of noise and blur. The purpose of this research is to reduce the noise and blur while maintaining image integrity for improved diagnosis. The proposed solution is to increase image quality after the standard pre- and post-processing undertaken by a gamma camera system. Mean Field Annealing (MFA) is the image processing technique used in this research. It is a computational iterative technique that makes use of the Point Spread Function (PSF) and the noise associated with the NM image. MFA is applied to NM images with the objective of reducing noise while not compromising edge integrity. Using a sharpening filter as a post-processing technique (after MFA) yields image enhancement of planar NM images.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 7, |
| "entity": "Nuclear", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 22, |
| "end": 28, |
| "entity": "images", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 69, |
| "end": 74, |
| "entity": "noise", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 79, |
| "end": 83, |
| "entity": "blur", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 241, |
| "end": 254, |
| "entity": "image quality", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 283, |
| "end": 298, |
| "entity": "post-processing", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 336, |
| "end": 362, |
| "entity": "Mean Field Annealing (MFA)", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 370, |
| "end": 386, |
| "entity": "image processing", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 484, |
| "end": 511, |
| "entity": "Point Spread Function (PSF)", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 668, |
| "end": 685, |
| "entity": "sharpening filter", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 241, |
| "end": 254, |
| "entity": "image quality", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 556, |
| "end": 559, |
| "entity": "MFA", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 691, |
| "end": 706, |
| "entity": "post-processing", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 724, |
| "end": 727, |
| "entity": "MFA", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 736, |
| "end": 753, |
| "entity": "image enhancement", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 644, |
| "end": 658, |
| "entity": "edge integrity", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 131, |
| "end": 136, |
| "entity": "noise", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 141, |
| "end": 145, |
| "entity": "blur", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 315, |
| "end": 320, |
| "entity": "gamma", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 164, |
| "end": 179, |
| "entity": "image integrity", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 321, |
| "end": 327, |
| "entity": "camera", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 2, |
| "passage": "Local sentences were introduced by J.-P. Ressayre who proved certain remarkable stretching theorems establishing the equivalence between the existence of finite models for these sentences and the existence of some infinite well ordered models. Two of these stretching theorems were only proved under certain large cardinal axioms but the question of their exact (consistency) strength was left open in [O. Finkel and J.-P. Ressayre, Stretchings, Journal of Symbolic Logic, Volume 61 (2), 1996, p. 563-585 ]. Here, we solve this problem, using a combinatorial result of J. H. Schmerl. In fact, we show that the stretching principles are equivalent to the existence of n-Mahlo cardinals for appropriate integers n. This is done by proving first that for each integer n, there is a local sentence phi_n which has well ordered models of order type alpha, for every infinite ordinal alpha > omega which is not an n-Mahlo cardinal.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 154, |
| "end": 167, |
| "entity": "finite models", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 214, |
| "end": 242, |
| "entity": "infinite well ordered models", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 308, |
| "end": 329, |
| "entity": "large cardinal axioms", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 545, |
| "end": 565, |
| "entity": "combinatorial result", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 667, |
| "end": 684, |
| "entity": "n-Mahlo cardinals", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 701, |
| "end": 711, |
| "entity": "integers n", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 757, |
| "end": 766, |
| "entity": "integer n", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 844, |
| "end": 849, |
| "entity": "alpha", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 861, |
| "end": 891, |
| "entity": "infinite ordinal alpha > omega", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 908, |
| "end": 924, |
| "entity": "n-Mahlo cardinal", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 117, |
| "end": 128, |
| "entity": "equivalence", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 636, |
| "end": 646, |
| "entity": "equivalent", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 362, |
| "end": 384, |
| "entity": "(consistency) strength", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 3, |
| "passage": "Ignition delay times of cyclohexane-oxygen-argon and cyclopentane-oxygen-argon mixtures have been measured in a shock tube, the onset of ignition being detected by OH radical emission. Mixtures contained 0.5 or 1 % of hydrocarbon for equivalence ratios ranging from 0.5 to 2. Reflected shock waves allowed temperatures from 1230 to 1800 K and pressures from 7.3 to 9.5 atm to be obtained. These measurements have shown that cyclopentane is much less reactive than cyclohexane, as for a given temperature the observed autoignition delay times were about ten times higher for the C5 compound compared to the C6. Detailed mechanisms for the combustion of cyclohexane and cyclopentane have been proposed to reproduce these results. The elementary steps included in the kinetic models of the oxidation of cyclanes are close to those proposed to describe the oxidation of acyclic alkanes and alkenes. Consequently, it has been possible to obtain these models by using an improved version of software EXGAS, a computer package developed to perform the automatic generation of detailed kinetic models for the gas-phase oxidation and combustion of linear and branched alkanes and alkenes. Nevertheless, the modelling of the oxidation of cyclanes requires to consider new types of generic reactions, and especially to define new correlations for the estimation of the rate constants. Ab initio calculations have been used to better know some of the rate constants used in the case of cyclopentane. The main reaction pathways have been derived from flow rate and sensitivity analyses.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 24, |
| "end": 35, |
| "entity": "cyclohexane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 36, |
| "end": 42, |
| "entity": "oxygen", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 43, |
| "end": 48, |
| "entity": "argon", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 53, |
| "end": 65, |
| "entity": "cyclopentane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 66, |
| "end": 72, |
| "entity": "oxygen", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 73, |
| "end": 78, |
| "entity": "argon", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 79, |
| "end": 87, |
| "entity": "mixtures", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 112, |
| "end": 122, |
| "entity": "shock tube", |
| "category": [ |
| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 164, |
| "end": 183, |
| "entity": "OH radical emission", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 218, |
| "end": 229, |
| "entity": "hydrocarbon", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 276, |
| "end": 297, |
| "entity": "Reflected shock waves", |
| "category": [ |
| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 306, |
| "end": 318, |
| "entity": "temperatures", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 337, |
| "end": 338, |
| "entity": "K", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 343, |
| "end": 352, |
| "entity": "pressures", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 369, |
| "end": 372, |
| "entity": "atm", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 424, |
| "end": 436, |
| "entity": "cyclopentane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 464, |
| "end": 475, |
| "entity": "cyclohexane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 492, |
| "end": 503, |
| "entity": "temperature", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 578, |
| "end": 589, |
| "entity": "C5 compound", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 606, |
| "end": 608, |
| "entity": "C6", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 652, |
| "end": 663, |
| "entity": "cyclohexane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 668, |
| "end": 680, |
| "entity": "cyclopentane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 787, |
| "end": 796, |
| "entity": "oxidation", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 800, |
| "end": 808, |
| "entity": "cyclanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 886, |
| "end": 893, |
| "entity": "alkenes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1159, |
| "end": 1166, |
| "entity": "alkanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1171, |
| "end": 1178, |
| "entity": "alkenes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 786, |
| "end": 808, |
| "entity": "oxidation of cyclanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1215, |
| "end": 1236, |
| "entity": "oxidation of cyclanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1474, |
| "end": 1486, |
| "entity": "cyclopentane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 185, |
| "end": 193, |
| "entity": "Mixtures", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 450, |
| "end": 458, |
| "entity": "reactive", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 21, |
| "entity": "Ignition delay times ", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 517, |
| "end": 541, |
| "entity": "autoignition delay times", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 985, |
| "end": 993, |
| "entity": "software", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1271, |
| "end": 1288, |
| "entity": "generic reactions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1125, |
| "end": 1135, |
| "entity": "combustion", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1139, |
| "end": 1145, |
| "entity": "linear", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1150, |
| "end": 1158, |
| "entity": "branched", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 638, |
| "end": 648, |
| "entity": "combustion", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 853, |
| "end": 862, |
| "entity": "oxidation", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 866, |
| "end": 881, |
| "entity": "acyclic alkanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 853, |
| "end": 881, |
| "entity": "oxidation of acyclic alkanes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 866, |
| "end": 874, |
| "entity": "acyclic ", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 866, |
| "end": 874, |
| "entity": "acyclic ", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 765, |
| "end": 779, |
| "entity": "kinetic models", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1003, |
| "end": 1011, |
| "entity": "computer", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1012, |
| "end": 1019, |
| "entity": "package", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1003, |
| "end": 1019, |
| "entity": "computer package", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1078, |
| "end": 1092, |
| "entity": "kinetic models", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1497, |
| "end": 1514, |
| "entity": "reaction pathways", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1374, |
| "end": 1396, |
| "entity": "Ab initio calculations", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1439, |
| "end": 1453, |
| "entity": "rate constants", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1552, |
| "end": 1572, |
| "entity": "sensitivity analyses", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1538, |
| "end": 1547, |
| "entity": "flow rate", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 137, |
| "end": 145, |
| "entity": "ignition", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 234, |
| "end": 252, |
| "entity": "equivalence ratios", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 128, |
| "end": 145, |
| "entity": "onset of ignition", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 994, |
| "end": 999, |
| "entity": "EXGAS", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1045, |
| "end": 1066, |
| "entity": "automatic generation ", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1101, |
| "end": 1120, |
| "entity": "gas-phase oxidation", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 4, |
| "passage": "Three-dimensional (3D) chromatin structure is closely related to genome function, in particular transcription. However, the folding path of the chromatin fiber in the interphase nucleus is unknown. Here, we systematically measured the 3D physical distance between pairwise labeled genomic positions in gene-dense, highly transcribed domains and gene-poor less active areas on chromosomes 1 and 11 in G1 nuclei of human primary fibroblasts, using fluorescence in situ hybridization. Interpretation of our results and those published by others, based on polymer physics, shows that the folding of the chromatin fiber can be described as a polymer in a globular state (GS), maintained by intra-polymer attractive interactions that counteract self-avoidance forces. The GS polymer model is able to describe chromatin folding in as well the highly expressed domains as the lowly expressed ones, indicating that they differ in Kuhn length and chromatin compaction. Each type of genomic domain constitutes an ensemble of relatively compact globular folding states, resulting in a considerable cellto- cell variation between otherwise identical cells. We present evidence for different polymer folding regimes of the chromatin fiber on the length scale of a few mega base pairs and on that of complete chromosome arms (several tens of Mb). Our results present a novel view on the folding of the chromatin fiber in interphase and open the possibility to explore the nature of the intra-chromatin fiber interactions.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 22, |
| "entity": "Three-dimensional (3D)", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 42, |
| "entity": "Three-dimensional (3D) chromatin structure", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 65, |
| "end": 71, |
| "entity": "genome", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 96, |
| "end": 109, |
| "entity": "transcription", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 144, |
| "end": 159, |
| "entity": "chromatin fiber", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 167, |
| "end": 185, |
| "entity": "interphase nucleus", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 281, |
| "end": 288, |
| "entity": "genomic", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 302, |
| "end": 312, |
| "entity": "gene-dense", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 345, |
| "end": 354, |
| "entity": "gene-poor", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 376, |
| "end": 387, |
| "entity": "chromosomes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 400, |
| "end": 409, |
| "entity": "G1 nuclei", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 427, |
| "end": 438, |
| "entity": "fibroblasts", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 599, |
| "end": 614, |
| "entity": "chromatin fiber", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 754, |
| "end": 760, |
| "entity": "forces", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 333, |
| "end": 340, |
| "entity": "domains", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 446, |
| "end": 480, |
| "entity": "fluorescence in situ hybridization", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 637, |
| "end": 644, |
| "entity": "polymer", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 552, |
| "end": 567, |
| "entity": "polymer physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 650, |
| "end": 669, |
| "entity": "globular state (GS)", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 937, |
| "end": 957, |
| "entity": "chromatin compaction", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "end": 986, |
| "entity": "genomic domain", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
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| "end": 1098, |
| "entity": "cellto- cell", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1127, |
| "end": 1142, |
| "entity": "identical cells", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1178, |
| "end": 1201, |
| "entity": "polymer folding regimes", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "end": 1224, |
| "entity": "chromatin fiber", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
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| "end": 1269, |
| "entity": "mega base pairs", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "end": 1309, |
| "entity": "chromosome arms", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "end": 1329, |
| "entity": "Mb", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "end": 1402, |
| "entity": "chromatin fiber", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
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| "end": 1505, |
| "entity": "intra-chromatin fiber interactions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 766, |
| "end": 782, |
| "entity": "GS polymer model", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 921, |
| "end": 932, |
| "entity": "Kuhn length", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 803, |
| "end": 820, |
| "entity": "chromatin folding", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 685, |
| "end": 722, |
| "entity": "intra-polymer attractive interactions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1033, |
| "end": 1056, |
| "entity": "globular folding states", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 281, |
| "end": 298, |
| "entity": "genomic positions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 124, |
| "end": 136, |
| "entity": "folding path", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 235, |
| "end": 255, |
| "entity": "3D physical distance", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 5, |
| "passage": "According to Two-Time Physics, there is more to space-time than can be garnered with the ordinary formulation of physics. Two-Time Physics has shown that the Standard Model of Particles and Forces is successfully reproduced by a two-time field theory in 4 space and 2 time dimensions projected as a holographic image on an emergent spacetime in 3+1 dimensions. Among the successes of this approach is the resolution of the strong CP problem of QCD as an outcome of the restrictions imposed by the higher symmetry structures in 4+2 dimensions. In this paper we launch a program to construct the duals of the Standard Model as other holographic images of the same 4+2 dimensional theory on a variety of emergent spacetimes in 3+1 dimensions. These dual field theories are obtained as a family of gauge choices in the master 4+2 field theory. In the present paper we deal with some of the simpler gauge choices which lead to interacting Klein-Gordon field theories for the conformal scalar with a predicted SO(d,2) symmetry in a variety of interesting curved spacetimes in (d-1)+1 dimensions. More challenging and more interesting gauge choices (including some that relate to mass) which are left to future work are also outlined. Through this approach we discover a new realm of previously unexplored dualities and hidden symmetries that exist both in the macroscopic and microscopic worlds, at the classical and quantum levels. Such phenomena predicted by 2T-physics can in principle be confirmed both by theory and experiment. 1T-physics can be used to analyze the predictions but in most instances gives no clue that the predicted phenomena exist in the first place. This point of view suggests a new paradigm for the construction of a fundamental theory that is likely to impact on the quest for unification.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 13, |
| "end": 29, |
| "entity": "Two-Time Physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 48, |
| "end": 58, |
| "entity": "space-time", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 113, |
| "end": 120, |
| "entity": "physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 122, |
| "end": 138, |
| "entity": "Two-Time Physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 158, |
| "end": 196, |
| "entity": "Standard Model of Particles and Forces", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 254, |
| "end": 283, |
| "entity": "4 space and 2 time dimensions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 299, |
| "end": 317, |
| "entity": "holographic image ", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 332, |
| "end": 341, |
| "entity": "spacetime", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 423, |
| "end": 440, |
| "entity": "strong CP problem", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 444, |
| "end": 447, |
| "entity": "QCD", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 504, |
| "end": 523, |
| "entity": "symmetry structures", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 594, |
| "end": 599, |
| "entity": "duals", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 631, |
| "end": 649, |
| "entity": "holographic images", |
| "category": [ |
| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 710, |
| "end": 720, |
| "entity": "spacetimes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 794, |
| "end": 807, |
| "entity": "gauge choices", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 934, |
| "end": 961, |
| "entity": "Klein-Gordon field theories", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1128, |
| "end": 1141, |
| "entity": "gauge choices", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1299, |
| "end": 1308, |
| "entity": "dualities", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1397, |
| "end": 1406, |
| "entity": "classical", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1411, |
| "end": 1418, |
| "entity": "quantum", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1455, |
| "end": 1465, |
| "entity": "2T-physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1527, |
| "end": 1537, |
| "entity": "1T-physics", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1798, |
| "end": 1809, |
| "entity": "unification", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 746, |
| "end": 765, |
| "entity": "dual field theories", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1173, |
| "end": 1177, |
| "entity": "mass", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 527, |
| "end": 541, |
| "entity": "4+2 dimensions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 662, |
| "end": 677, |
| "entity": "4+2 dimensional", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 724, |
| "end": 738, |
| "entity": "3+1 dimensions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 894, |
| "end": 907, |
| "entity": "gauge choices", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1049, |
| "end": 1088, |
| "entity": "curved spacetimes in (d-1)+1 dimensions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 345, |
| "end": 359, |
| "entity": "3+1 dimensions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1004, |
| "end": 1020, |
| "entity": "SO(d,2) symmetry", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 822, |
| "end": 838, |
| "entity": "4+2 field theory", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 229, |
| "end": 250, |
| "entity": "two-time field theory", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 607, |
| "end": 621, |
| "entity": "Standard Model", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1313, |
| "end": 1330, |
| "entity": "hidden symmetries", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 6, |
| "passage": "In this article, localized linear defect modes due to bandgap guidance in two-dimensional photonic lattices with localized or non-localized defects are investigated theoretically. First, when the defect is localized and weak, eigenvalues of defect modes bifurcated from edges of Bloch bands are derived analytically. It is shown that in an attractive (repulsive) defect, defect modes bifurcate out from Bloch-band edges with normal (anomalous) diffraction coefficients. Furthermore, distances between defect-mode eigenvalues and Bloch-band edges are exponentially small functions of the defect strength, which is very different from the one-dimensional case where such distances are quadratically small with the defect strength. It is also found that some defect-mode branches bifurcate not from Bloch-band edges, but from quasi-edge points within Bloch bands, which is very unusual. Second, when the defect is localized but strong, defect modes are determined numerically. It is shown that both the repulsive and attractive defects can support various types of defect modes such as fundamental, dipole, quadrupole, and vortex modes. These modes reside in various bandgaps of the photonic lattice. As the defect strength increases, defect modes move from lower bandgaps to higher ones when the defect is repulsive, but remain within each bandgap when the defect is attractive, similar to the one-dimensional case. The same phenomena are observed when the defect is held fixed while the applied dc field (which controls the lattice potential) increases. Lastly, if the defect is non-localized (i.e. it persists at large distances in the lattice), it is shown that defect modes can be embedded inside the continuous spectrum, and they can bifurcate out from edges of the continuous spectrum algebraically rather than exponentially.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 17, |
| "end": 46, |
| "entity": "localized linear defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 54, |
| "end": 70, |
| "entity": "bandgap guidance", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 74, |
| "end": 107, |
| "entity": "two-dimensional photonic lattices", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 637, |
| "end": 657, |
| "entity": "one-dimensional case", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1392, |
| "end": 1412, |
| "entity": "one-dimensional case", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 226, |
| "end": 253, |
| "entity": "eigenvalues of defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 501, |
| "end": 524, |
| "entity": "defect-mode eigenvalues", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 270, |
| "end": 290, |
| "entity": "edges of Bloch bands", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 529, |
| "end": 545, |
| "entity": "Bloch-band edges", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 823, |
| "end": 859, |
| "entity": "quasi-edge points within Bloch bands", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 403, |
| "end": 419, |
| "entity": "Bloch-band edges", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 796, |
| "end": 812, |
| "entity": "Bloch-band edges", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1486, |
| "end": 1502, |
| "entity": "applied dc field", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1703, |
| "end": 1722, |
| "entity": "continuous spectrum", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1769, |
| "end": 1788, |
| "entity": "continuous spectrum", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 483, |
| "end": 492, |
| "entity": "distances", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 669, |
| "end": 678, |
| "entity": "distances", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1619, |
| "end": 1628, |
| "entity": "distances", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1205, |
| "end": 1220, |
| "entity": "defect strength", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 587, |
| "end": 602, |
| "entity": "defect strength", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 712, |
| "end": 727, |
| "entity": "defect strength", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 443, |
| "end": 468, |
| "entity": " diffraction coefficients", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1255, |
| "end": 1269, |
| "entity": "lower bandgaps", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1164, |
| "end": 1172, |
| "entity": "bandgaps", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1338, |
| "end": 1345, |
| "entity": "bandgap", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 756, |
| "end": 776, |
| "entity": "defect-mode branches", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1180, |
| "end": 1196, |
| "entity": "photonic lattice", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1523, |
| "end": 1540, |
| "entity": "lattice potential", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1636, |
| "end": 1643, |
| "entity": "lattice", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 550, |
| "end": 579, |
| "entity": "exponentially small functions", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 683, |
| "end": 702, |
| "entity": "quadratically small", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1062, |
| "end": 1074, |
| "entity": "defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1663, |
| "end": 1675, |
| "entity": "defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
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| "end": 1244, |
| "entity": "defect modes", |
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| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 371, |
| "end": 383, |
| "entity": "defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 933, |
| "end": 945, |
| "entity": "defect modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1000, |
| "end": 1009, |
| "entity": "repulsive", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1014, |
| "end": 1032, |
| "entity": "attractive defects", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1083, |
| "end": 1094, |
| "entity": "fundamental", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1096, |
| "end": 1102, |
| "entity": "dipole", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1104, |
| "end": 1114, |
| "entity": "quadrupole", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1120, |
| "end": 1132, |
| "entity": "vortex modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1294, |
| "end": 1313, |
| "entity": "defect is repulsive", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1355, |
| "end": 1375, |
| "entity": "defect is attractive", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1568, |
| "end": 1591, |
| "entity": "defect is non-localized", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 901, |
| "end": 920, |
| "entity": "defect is localized", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 113, |
| "end": 122, |
| "entity": "localized", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 126, |
| "end": 147, |
| "entity": "non-localized defects", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 196, |
| "end": 215, |
| "entity": "defect is localized", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 340, |
| "end": 350, |
| "entity": "attractive", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 352, |
| "end": 361, |
| "entity": "repulsive", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 363, |
| "end": 369, |
| "entity": "defect", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1815, |
| "end": 1828, |
| "entity": "exponentially", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1127, |
| "end": 1132, |
| "entity": "modes", |
| "category": [ |
| "General" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 140, |
| "end": 147, |
| "entity": "defects", |
| "category": [ |
| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1789, |
| "end": 1802, |
| "entity": "algebraically", |
| "category": [ |
| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 7, |
| "passage": "Question: Block moving with constant velocity relative to another block beneath it, no friction If you have two blocks with masses $m $ and $M$, all surfaces being frictionless, and you give a sharp impulse to say, the upper block with mass $m$, so that it has a velocity $v$, will the lower block also start moving? I've seen many problems which ask for the velocity of the lower block, but I don't see how it could move in this case, as there is no force on it. A related case is where the upper block is a person instead, who moves (against any friction) maintaining a constant velocity $v$ with respect to the lower block. I can see here that the lower block should start moving with a speed $mv/(m+M)$ (ground reference) from momentum conservation, the force that causes the lower block to move being supplied by the person. However, in the previous case, I don't think there's any such force. I don't know what force is causing the lower block to move in the frictionless case, should it even move? Answer: Well if the question meant that even the surface between the 2 blocks is frictionless then there is no possibility of the lower block moving, even if the upper block is moving. However if friction should be present; that is the only way the lower block could gain velocity(Considering no other force exists). So if you had to find the velocity in such a case, you should remember that friction tends to oppose relative motion between the bodies. So the finally both the upper and lower block would be moving with the same velocity. (Note I am only considering that friction exists between the blocks) Hence with the above point and using your knowledge of physics (Momentum Conservation, etc depending on the situation) you can solve for the common velocity, which is the velocity of the lower block.", |
| "annotations": { |
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| "category": [ |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1678, |
| "end": 1699, |
| "entity": "Momentum Conservation", |
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| }, |
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| "end": 982, |
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| { |
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| "end": 206, |
| "entity": "sharp impulse", |
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| ] |
| } |
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| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 8, |
| "passage": "Question: Why does Nitrogen form N₂ (and not N₄) while but Phosphorus forms P₄ (and not P₂)? $\\ce{N2}$ is a gas $\\ce{P4}$ is a solid $\\ce{N}$ and $\\ce{P}$ are in the same group in the periodic table The bond enthalpies are: $\\ce{N#N}$ triple bond is $949~ \\mathrm{kJ/mol}$ $\\ce{P#P}$ triple bond is $490~ \\mathrm{kJ/mol}$ $\\ce{P-P}$ single bond is $200 ~ \\mathrm{kJ/mol}$ $\\ce{N-N}$ single bond is $159-296 ~ \\mathrm{kJ/mol}$ So why does $\\ce{P}$ go to $\\ce{P4}$ not $\\ce{P2}$ and why does $\\ce{N}$ go to $\\ce{N2}$ and not $\\ce{N4}$? Answer: Due to larger atomic size $\\ce{P}$ is unable to form pi bonds and so it is tetra-atomic in which each $\\ce{P}$ atom is linked with 3 other $\\ce{P}$ atoms by 3 sigma bond. But, due to smaller atomic size $\\ce{N}$ forms 1 sigma and 2 pi bonds i.e. triple bonds with other $\\ce{N}$ atom and exists as diatomic molecule. Reference: http://philmintz.tripod.com/Chemistry/page4.html", |
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| "end": 27, |
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| "end": 35, |
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| "end": 47, |
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| "end": 69, |
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| }, |
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| "end": 78, |
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| "Chemistry" |
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| ] |
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| "end": 369, |
| "entity": "kJ/mol", |
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| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 9, |
| "passage": "Question: Chloroplasts in an animal cell What would happen if we inject a chloroplast organelle into an animal cell? Will the animal cell destroy it? Or is it possible that the chloroplast will somehow survive, and even replicate? Could there be photosynthesis in such a cell, or will some of the necessary mechanisms be missing? Answer: To answer your bigger question: Yes, most of this is possible - under some conditions -, and animals and animal cells can acquire chloroplasts, and use them. E.g.: see Elysia chlorotica whose cells actively take up chloroplasts and use them, and keep them alive (though not replicating). - Though some genes of algae are also contained in the Elysia chlorotica genome - which may be considered as partial replication. Also there are salamanders that have replicating algae within them (since embryogenesis) - even algae (with chloroplasts) within animal cells - though here the algae might be rather understood as symbionts or \"cell types\", and the animal cells don't have the chloroplasts by themselves.", |
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| "end": 22, |
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| "end": 95, |
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| }, |
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| }, |
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| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
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| "passage": "Question: Modulo vs Scaling vs Capping when performing filters I'm currently taking a graphics course and we've recently covered cross-correlation with regards to using a filter matrix that is applied to a region of pixels in a sort of continual raster-type scan across a larger input image to produce some output image. The formula is denoted here: G is the output image, h is the kernel/box filter matrix, F is the input image The classic one that was introduced is a 3x3 box filter for blurring an input image. The box filter is a 3x3 matrix with each cell value being equally set to 1/9. We've been dealing primarily with grayscale images with values 0 (black) to 255 (white). In this case, the largest possible output pixel value would be if the 3x3 input image area contained all white pixels in which case we'd have: [(1/9) * 255 ] * 9 = 255 This is fine, but what if our kernel filter matrix instead had 9 cell values all equal to 0.5? Then the largest potential output value would be: [0.5 * 255] * 9 = 1147.5 Once we've completely finished producing our new output image matrix, how do we handle values above 255 and below 0? It seems like there are three possible approaches: Capping Cap all output values to 0 and 255. Any value below 0 is capped to 0, any value above 255 is capped to 255. Modulo Use modulo. In this case it would be 1147.5 % 255 = 125.5 rounded to 126. Scaling Take the highest output value and use it to scale all the values proportionally. If our example output image pixel values were 1147.5, 100, and 255, then we would perform the following operations: (1147.5 / 1147.5) * 255 = 255 (100 / 1147.5) * 255 = 22.2 = 22 (255 / 1147.5) * 255 = 56.6 = 57 I just don't get which one of these I'm supposed to be using for common graphics operations. I have the same question when combining images together (such as multiply, divide, screen, etc). Answer: When doing a filter operation such as a blur, in many cases the filter itself will be normalized so its values sum to 1.0, precisely to avoid this problem. In cases where out-of-range outputs do need to be handled, the most common way is what you called capping. In graphics it's more commonly known as clamping or saturating. This is the default behavior if, for instance, you run a pixel shader on a GPU and output out-of-range values. Renormalizing the output image might be necessary in some special cases depending on what you're doing. I can't think of anytime that I've seen the modulo behavior used—it would be a pretty weird operation to do on a visual image.", |
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| "passage": "Question: Reading full photocell range with ADC I am trying to use PDV-P8103 photocell as a sensor for LCD dimming circuit. The application requirements are to have comfortable brightness level from almost total darkness up to direct sunlight. The problem is that the cell swings between about 300 Ohm all the way to over 1M. Usual connection as part of voltage divider simply does not work, as depending on fixed resistor the ADC quickly saturates at either 0 or VCC. Is there a simple way to squeeze dynamic range of a photocell into something useful for reading by ADC? Note, that the precision is not important for this application, only the ballpark ambient light assessment. Here are some approaches I have considered: Adding OP-Amp in attenuator configuration; Powering the voltage divider from DAC output and use it to select range first before sampling ADC; Giving up on full range and picking fixed resistor for dark conditions, since human eyes adapt to darkness much better than to bright light. Neither of the above struck me as ideal solution, so any ideas are welcome. Answer: The PDV-P8103 is only specified to a maxium of 100 lux. Direct sunlight is ~100,000 lux. Extrapolating the graph to this illumination I get ~250 &ohm resistance, so the resistance range you need to measure is ~80k &ohm (at 1 lux) to ~250 &ohm. Resistance is inversely proportional to light intensity, so get a more linear response you should keep the voltage constant and measure current. This can be done by measuring the voltage across a small 'shunt' resistor in series. However this makes the output voltage rather small. If you don't mind a bit of non-linearity at high light levels then the shunt can be made larger, eg. 220 &ohm with a 3.3 V supply should give you ~9 mV at 1 lux, 88 mV at 100 lux, 711 mV at 10,000 lux and 1.5 V at 100,000 lux. This can be converted to a linear brightness control value using a lookup table and/or piecewise linear curve fitting.", |
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| "passage": "Question: When testing n items, how to cover all t-subsets by as few s-subsets as possible? This problem arose from software testing. The problem is a bit difficult to explain. I will first give an example, then try to generalize the problem. There are 10 items to be tested, say A to J, and a testing tool that can test 3 items at the same time. Order of items in the testing tool does not matter. Of course, for exhaustive testing, we need $^{10}C_{3}$ combinations of items. The problem is more complex. There is an additional condition that once a pair of items has been tested together, than the same pair does not need to be tested again. For example, once we executed the following three tests: A B C A D E B D F we do not have to execute: A B D because the pair A,B was covered by the first test case, A,D was covered by the second, and B,D was covered by the third. So the problem is, what is the minimum number of test cases that we need to ensure that all pairs are tested? To generalize, if we have n items, s can be tested at the same time, and we need to ensure that all possible t tuples are tested (such that s > t), what is the minimum number of test cases that we need in terms of n, s and t? And finally, what would be a good algorithm to generate the required test cases? Answer: The block designs you want (for testing 3 things at a time, and covering all pairs) are called Steiner triple systems. There exists a Steiner triple system with $\\frac{1}{3} {n \\choose 2}$ triples whenever $n \\equiv 1 \\mathrm{\\ or\\ } 3$ mod $6$, and algorithms are known to construct these. See, for example, this MathOverflow question (with a link to working Sage code!). For other $n$, you could round up to the next $n' \\equiv 1 \\mathrm{\\ or\\ } 3$ mod $6$, and use a modification of this triple system for $n'$ to cover all pairs for $n$. If you want the best construction for other $n$, the number of triples required is the covering number $C(n,3,2)$, and is given by this entry in the on-line encyclopedia of integer sequences. This links to the La Jolla Covering Repository which has a repository of good coverings. The online encyclopedia of integer sequences gives a conjectured formula for $C(n,3,2)$; if this formula holds, intuitively that means there should probably be good algorithmic ways of constructing these coverings, but since the formula is conjectured, it is clear that nobody currently knows them. For high covering numbers, good coverings are harder to find than for $C(n,3,2)$, and the repository will give better solutions than any known efficient algorithms.", |
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| "passage": "high calorie foods have the highest calorific value.", |
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| "passage": "the theory of the local class field of matter is based on quantum mechanics", |
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| "passage": "a phase diagram is a visual representation of the phases of an ion complex", |
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| "passage": "a bronchiole is a muscular tube that transports sand and other particles from one place to another place.", |
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| "passage": "the vector analysis of a ray of light reveals the direction of the ray in relation to the plane of the ray.", |
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| "passage": "what happens when a magnet is pushed against a magnet pole?", |
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| "passage": "the doline is the main unit of measurement for the dilution of liquids.", |
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| "passage": "the application of engineering principles to the production of products is called applied engineering.", |
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| "passage": "large deviation theory large deviation theory (ldt) is a type of physics that explains why a star appears red when it is actually blue.", |
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| "passage": "interstellar travel can be accomplished by using a spacecraft.", |
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| "passage": "wright gliders are gliders invented by william wright.", |
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| "passage": "the conversion of chemical energy of an object into electric energy of an object takes the form of an electric current.", |
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| "passage": "the greater the rolling resistance of a wheel , the lower its rolling resistance.", |
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| "passage": "it produces uranium and thorium.", |
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| "passage": "in mathematics , if a matrix is a series of numbers , the numbers can be arranged into a group and then multiplied to arrive at a new number.", |
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| "passage": "the circuit breaker in a house is protected by a circuit breaker panel.", |
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| "passage": "a pulse width modulation control ( pwm ) circuit controls the repetition of a circuit 's on-off-on rhythmic pulse.", |
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| "passage": "when a program is caught in an exception, the program is stopped and the exception handled.", |
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| "passage": "acceleration of a moving object changes the direction of the motion", |
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| "passage": "an axon is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries messages along a nerve pathway.", |
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| "passage": "a base is any chemical substance with a ph value of below 7. a base is typically a metal, such as sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium.", |
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| "passage": "some scientists have developed a method to clone organisms based on genes that are already present by a process called gene-editing.", |
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| "passage": "the photon is also known as a zeptosecond.", |
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| "passage": "the adsorption of an acid causes the acid to form a solid solution.", |
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| "passage": "the design of an electrical circuit is the most important aspect of electrical engineering.", |
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| "passage": "arthropods are animals that move by attaching themselves to another animal.", |
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| "passage": "when a frog's egg fertilises , its fertilised egg attaches to the frog 's ova.", |
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| "passage": "translation of genes is a primary function of the human body.", |
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| "passage": "an example of a callus is the callus that forms on the sole of a foot.", |
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| "passage": "a sweet liquid produced by plants is known as nectar.", |
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| "passage": "discrete geometry is an abstract mathematical area.", |
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| "passage": "large hadron colliders investigate the physics of atoms and ions.", |
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| "passage": "in the past , nanoimprinting was a way to create the atoms of an isotope in a molecule by using a stamp or punch , but the technology has moved to a much more", |
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| "passage": "a ctl is a control law", |
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| "passage": "nano-medicine is the use of nano-technology to improve the way patients are treated.", |
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| "passage": "glucocorticoids are produced by the adrenal gland.", |
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| "passage": "gluons are the subatomic particles in matter", |
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| "passage": "virtual machine is the most important concept in modern computers", |
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| "passage": "a thermal engineer would be interested in the design of a heat exchanger, a device to cool water by convection.", |
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| "passage": "metaheuristics are a type of computer simulation.", |
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| "passage": "after a piece of paper is drew on the diagram , the lines can be traced out with cr geometry.", |
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| "passage": "a vent fan for an engine will blow air into the engine to cool it.", |
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| "passage": "when cells are divided into two groups of cells by dna , rna, and microtubules , the new cells have a new genome.", |
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| "passage": "the iliac arteries are on the outside.", |
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| "id": 60, |
| "passage": "a technical drawing is produced to express an engineering design concept", |
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| "passage": "the engine of a motor vehicle converts mechanical energy into rotational energy and a magnetic field into electric energy.", |
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| "passage": "the denotation for the group of all the measurable parts of a complex matrix is the differential galois theory.", |
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| "passage": "when a mass is pushed, its momentum increases and its inertia decreases.", |
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| "passage": "the process in which eukaryotic cells migrate is known as translocation.", |
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| "passage": "in nanotechnology the term molecular assembly can refer to the assembling of molecules into structures", |
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| "passage": "then the temperature reaches a maximum strain if the atoms in the nucleus vibrate on a frequency f.", |
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| "passage": "alternator synchronization is necessary in a power plant in order to keep the equipment running and the engine running.", |
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| "passage": "in particle physics , muon neutrino physics , the muon neutrino is the most abundant part of the neutrino family.", |
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| "passage": "a mesophilic animal prefers the watery environment to that provided by a hygrophilic animal", |
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| "passage": "adenosine triphosphate is a nucleic acid that is found in the nucleus of an adenosine triphosphate synthesizer and is used by adenosine", |
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| "passage": "the voltage produced by the turbine can be used to regulate the flow of the water in the rectifier", |
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| "passage": "air conditioning systems are generally set to a maximum temperature of 85 °f (29 °c).", |
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| "passage": "combinatorial set theory has been used in the study of quantum theories.", |
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| "passage": "the value of an atom in an ionization spectrum is called the electron volts", |
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| "passage": "when a substance combines with another substance to become a compound , the change is called the reaction.", |
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| "passage": "in electrical engineering , an electrical current transformer is used to convert electric current to another form of electrical current", |
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| { |
| "start": 60, |
| "end": 73, |
| "entity": "micromachines", |
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| "Technology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 95, |
| "passage": "when a sphere is rotated at a slant, it will have lenz's law", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 7, |
| "end": 13, |
| "entity": "sphere", |
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| "Mathematics" |
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| "Physics" |
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| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 96, |
| "passage": "display is a device used in information technology to show information on a screen.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 7, |
| "entity": "display", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 13, |
| "end": 19, |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 28, |
| "end": 50, |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 76, |
| "end": 82, |
| "entity": "screen", |
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| "Technology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 97, |
| "passage": "in a chemical reaction , an endogenous variable is a substance that is directly added to the reaction mixture.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 5, |
| "end": 22, |
| "entity": "chemical reaction", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 53, |
| "end": 62, |
| "entity": "substance", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 93, |
| "end": 109, |
| "entity": "reaction mixture", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 98, |
| "passage": "a bacterium has a rudimentary cell wall and a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 2, |
| "end": 11, |
| "entity": "bacterium", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 46, |
| "end": 68, |
| "entity": "symbiotic relationship", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 18, |
| "end": 39, |
| "entity": "rudimentary cell wall", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 78, |
| "end": 87, |
| "entity": "bacterium", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 99, |
| "passage": "the erector spinae muscles are the main muscles that tighten the back vertebrae.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 26, |
| "entity": "erector spinae muscles", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 40, |
| "end": 47, |
| "entity": "muscles", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 65, |
| "end": 79, |
| "entity": "back vertebrae", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 100, |
| "passage": "in engineering, bearing capacity refers to the amount of force required to transmit the motion of a component.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 3, |
| "end": 14, |
| "entity": "engineering", |
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| "Engineering" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 16, |
| "end": 32, |
| "entity": "bearing capacity", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 57, |
| "end": 62, |
| "entity": "force", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 88, |
| "end": 94, |
| "entity": "motion", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 101, |
| "passage": "the displacement vector depends on the rotational eccentricity of the mass.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 23, |
| "entity": "displacement vector", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 39, |
| "end": 62, |
| "entity": "rotational eccentricity", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 70, |
| "end": 74, |
| "entity": "mass", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 102, |
| "passage": "on the other hand , the bending moment is in the direction of the axis of the beam.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 24, |
| "end": 38, |
| "entity": "bending moment", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 78, |
| "end": 82, |
| "entity": "beam", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 66, |
| "end": 70, |
| "entity": "axis", |
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| "General" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 103, |
| "passage": "the formula for planck's constant is", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 16, |
| "end": 33, |
| "entity": "planck's constant", |
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| { |
| "start": 4, |
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| "entity": "formula", |
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| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 104, |
| "passage": "in the process of engineering, a supply chain is also known as a manufacturing process.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 18, |
| "end": 29, |
| "entity": "engineering", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 33, |
| "end": 45, |
| "entity": "supply chain", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 65, |
| "end": 86, |
| "entity": "manufacturing process", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 105, |
| "passage": "a battery eliminator is a device that can be used to kill a battery.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 2, |
| "end": 20, |
| "entity": "battery eliminator", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 26, |
| "end": 32, |
| "entity": "device", |
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| "Technology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 60, |
| "end": 67, |
| "entity": "battery", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 106, |
| "passage": "in physics, klein geometry is defined as the way all of the atomic motion is described.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 12, |
| "end": 26, |
| "entity": "klein geometry", |
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| { |
| "start": 3, |
| "end": 10, |
| "entity": "physics", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 60, |
| "end": 73, |
| "entity": "atomic motion", |
| "category": [ |
| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 107, |
| "passage": "data sourcing is the process of collecting information about the environment.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 13, |
| "entity": "data sourcing", |
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| "Technology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 108, |
| "passage": "a scientific computing system is a computer system.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 2, |
| "end": 29, |
| "entity": "scientific computing system", |
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| "Technology" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 35, |
| "end": 50, |
| "entity": "computer system", |
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| "Technology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 109, |
| "passage": "globular proteins contain the non-coding parts of the amino acid sequence", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 17, |
| "entity": "globular proteins", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 54, |
| "end": 73, |
| "entity": "amino acid sequence", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 110, |
| "passage": "absolute programming is the mathematical method for solving problems that cannot be solved by other methods.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 28, |
| "end": 47, |
| "entity": "mathematical method", |
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| { |
| "start": 100, |
| "end": 107, |
| "entity": "methods", |
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| "General" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 111, |
| "passage": "combinatorial geometry is applied to find the smallest set of prime numbers.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 22, |
| "entity": "combinatorial geometry", |
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| "start": 62, |
| "end": 75, |
| "entity": "prime numbers", |
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| "Mathematics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 112, |
| "passage": "in classical mechanics , the unit circle is an example of a two-dimensional geometric figure.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 3, |
| "end": 22, |
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| "start": 29, |
| "end": 40, |
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| "Mathematics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 60, |
| "end": 92, |
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| "Mathematics" |
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| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 113, |
| "passage": "biotechnology aims to create artificial organisms that are able to reproduce in nature", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 13, |
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| "Biology" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 29, |
| "end": 49, |
| "entity": "artificial organisms", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 80, |
| "end": 86, |
| "entity": "nature", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 67, |
| "end": 76, |
| "entity": "reproduce", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 114, |
| "passage": "the construction of electrical equipment requires electrical insulation.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 20, |
| "end": 40, |
| "entity": "electrical equipment", |
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| "Engineering" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 50, |
| "end": 71, |
| "entity": "electrical insulation", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 115, |
| "passage": "using integral calculus , the fundamental theorem of calculus states that.", |
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| { |
| "start": 6, |
| "end": 23, |
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| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 116, |
| "passage": "the fractionation of liquids into gaseous states is used to calculate the concentration of ions and solvents in solutions.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 17, |
| "entity": "fractionation", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 21, |
| "end": 28, |
| "entity": "liquids", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 34, |
| "end": 48, |
| "entity": "gaseous states", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 74, |
| "end": 87, |
| "entity": "concentration", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 91, |
| "end": 95, |
| "entity": "ions", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 100, |
| "end": 108, |
| "entity": "solvents", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 112, |
| "end": 121, |
| "entity": "solutions", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 117, |
| "passage": "a tellegen theorem is a mathematical proof of a relationship between two numbers known as the kelvin numbers", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 24, |
| "end": 42, |
| "entity": "mathematical proof", |
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| "Mathematics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 73, |
| "end": 80, |
| "entity": "numbers", |
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| "Mathematics" |
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| }, |
| { |
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| "end": 108, |
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| "start": 2, |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 118, |
| "passage": "a product has a racemate in an equilibrating system", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 16, |
| "end": 24, |
| "entity": "racemate", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 31, |
| "end": 51, |
| "entity": "equilibrating system", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 119, |
| "passage": "a drawing of the arrangement of parts is called a drawing assembly", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 50, |
| "end": 66, |
| "entity": "drawing assembly", |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 120, |
| "passage": "the hormone progesterone is manufactured in the ovaries of mammals which is called testes.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 24, |
| "entity": "hormone progesterone", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 48, |
| "end": 55, |
| "entity": "ovaries", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 59, |
| "end": 66, |
| "entity": "mammals", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "start": 83, |
| "end": 89, |
| "entity": "testes", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 121, |
| "passage": "the voltage regulation allows for proper power in electrical circuits.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 22, |
| "entity": "voltage regulation", |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 41, |
| "end": 46, |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
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| "start": 50, |
| "end": 69, |
| "entity": "electrical circuits", |
| "category": [ |
| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 122, |
| "passage": "coulomb is the inverse of electric force.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 26, |
| "end": 40, |
| "entity": "electric force", |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 7, |
| "entity": "coulomb", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 123, |
| "passage": "cerebral nerves travel through the skull.", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 15, |
| "entity": "cerebral nerves", |
| "category": [ |
| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 35, |
| "end": 40, |
| "entity": "skull", |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 124, |
| "passage": "the thévenin's theorem states that the equator is the line connecting the poles of the earth.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 39, |
| "end": 46, |
| "entity": "equator", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 74, |
| "end": 79, |
| "entity": "poles", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 87, |
| "end": 92, |
| "entity": "earth", |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 22, |
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| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 125, |
| "passage": "hydrogen peroxide solution supersaturates the solution", |
| "annotations": { |
| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 26, |
| "entity": "hydrogen peroxide solution", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 27, |
| "end": 41, |
| "entity": "supersaturates", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 46, |
| "end": 54, |
| "entity": "solution", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 126, |
| "passage": "sunlight triggers the process of photosynthesis in plants", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "entity": "sunlight", |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 33, |
| "end": 47, |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 51, |
| "end": 57, |
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| "Biology" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 127, |
| "passage": "the quark is a particle that makes up the nucleus of most atoms and the fundamental building block of matter.", |
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| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 9, |
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| "Physics" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 42, |
| "end": 49, |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 58, |
| "end": 63, |
| "entity": "atoms", |
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| "Chemistry" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 102, |
| "end": 108, |
| "entity": "matter", |
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| "Physics" |
| ] |
| }, |
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| "passage": "microbes do not have cells and so are not living beings.", |
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| "passage": "direct current is used to power a light bulb in an electrical circuit", |
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| "passage": "computer scientists use programming languages to write computer programs", |
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| "passage": "the dynamics of the system was determined by using the dynamical systems theory and by a series of numerical examples.", |
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| "passage": "the kidney's zonular dialysis unit is also known as the glomerular.", |
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| "id": 133, |
| "passage": "crop circles are formed by using cr geometry.", |
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| "passage": "associative logic is a way of looking at the connections in an association with a computer program", |
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| "id": 135, |
| "passage": "a plane geometry is used to represent a surface", |
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| "passage": "conductivity relates to the ability of materials to conduct electric currents", |
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| "passage": "heterotrophs are those that eat other heterotrophs :", |
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| "id": 138, |
| "passage": "this method of analysis is called clifford analysis.", |
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| "passage": "the bellman equation is used to calculate the time taken to walk one mile.", |
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| "passage": "an experiment is done to gather data about a certain area of interest", |
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| "passage": "in physics the field of analytic combinatorics has a specialization of calculating the derivatives of functions.", |
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| "passage": "a functional group is a group containing one or more functional groups.", |
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| "passage": "the transfer factor describes the type of information contained in the wave.", |
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| "passage": "a servo mechanism is used to control a motor.", |
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| "passage": "aerial vehicles need a landing runway to take off from", |
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| "passage": "the friction of the metal braking system against the metal of the road causes energy to be lost.", |
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| "passage": "the boltzmann constant is the constant of temperature in kelvin.", |
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| "passage": "the thoracic branch of the radial artery attaches the anterior ossicles of the aorta to the brachioradialis.", |
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| "passage": "the airplane is an air vehicle that can carry large numbers of people for short periods of time.", |
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| "passage": "a fuse is a device that joins two metals together to produce an electrical current.", |
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| "passage": "mutagenesis is the process of altering the genetic code of an organism so that it can no longer reproduce.", |
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| "passage": "ac adapter is used for supplying ac power", |
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| "passage": "a model predictive control plan can be designed to take into account the unknowns.", |
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| "passage": "electrons behave in a schrodinger's equation.", |
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| "passage": "field effect transistors are known as field effect semiconductors.", |
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| "passage": "hadoop is a computer software that is a high speed database that is used for large scale computing projects", |
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| "passage": "an acid and a base are chemically equal but chemically different", |
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| "passage": "the filter must be transparent and able to recognize all forms of input data.", |
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| "passage": "a bicycle has momentum because it is moving faster.", |
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| "passage": "interplanetary travel is an engineering process in which a spacecraft, or spacecraft vehicle , travels on a medium-sized body beyond the earth.", |
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| "passage": "an antenna is used for electronic communication.", |
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| "passage": "if there is a large difference between the number of atoms in a molecule and the number of atoms in an anticyclic ring , it is called trouton's rule.", |
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| "passage": "molal concentration is the same as molecular weight.", |
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| "passage": "nanophase carbon materials are the most efficient catalysts.", |
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| "passage": "a syringe is an instrument used by doctors to extract tissue.", |
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| "passage": "in chemistry the unit molar mass was introduced.", |
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| "passage": "data governance is an issue that affects the management of information in a computing environment", |
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| "passage": "an example of haploid cells is the egg.", |
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| "passage": "this fat is made up of trans fatty acids and saturated fatty acids.", |
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| "passage": "computer scientists found that the emergence of a new technology had led to improvements in data automation.", |
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| "passage": "the continuous fourier transform is usually employed to estimate the power of an electric field.", |
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| "passage": "a system is considered to be a framework if it is a program.", |
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| "passage": "combinatorial group theory is a mathematical theory in which groups are grouped together in order to form new orders.", |
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| "passage": "the computer programs are simulated so the people do not experience how a new environment would feel", |
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| "passage": "the generative pretrained transformers provide an easy way of modeling the complexity of generative models", |
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| "passage": "hypercomplex analysis is a form of analysis that uses many different scientific methods to gather information.", |
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| "passage": "embryonic stem cells are called fiddleheads or follicular stem cells.", |
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| "passage": "the kutta–joukowski theorem describes how the momentum of a body is distributed when it rotates at an accelerating speed.", |
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| "passage": "a printed circuit board consists of semiconductors.", |
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| "passage": "the basic concept of cytogenetics is that of cell division", |
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| "passage": "some diatomic molecule is a compound with two or more atoms bonded together", |
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| "passage": "rhinophores are sensory organs on the wing of fish.", |
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| "passage": "when a metal is heated to a temperature below its melting point , the metal is said to be quenched.", |
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| "passage": "transcription is the process by which dna is copied from a mrna into a cdna molecule", |
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| "passage": "plants can be studied using tropical analysis.", |
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| "passage": "rna interference has been used to study the function of genes.", |
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| "passage": "in the case of air craft passengers cabins are pressurized to simulate the conditions in the real world", |
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| "passage": "data structures are often used to store information about variables that aren't usually explicitly identified.", |
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| "passage": "mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells", |
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| "passage": "applied electrochemical engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with materials that conduct electricity and magnetic field.", |
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| "passage": "non-coding dna contains a lot of information about the environment and helps regulate growth characteristics of plants.", |
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| "passage": "the kummer theory is a theory applied to the laws of physics.", |
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| "passage": "topos theory is used to explain the emergence of the universe", |
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| "passage": "global arithmetic dynamics is the study of mathematical processes that are governed by one or more global arithmetic dynamics.", |
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| "passage": "the efferent is the other end of the chain.", |
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| "passage": "since the backward chaining algorithms are based on the chained function , they are computationally efficient.", |
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| "passage": "this type of game theory uses a game to determine the correct answer", |
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| "passage": "butterworth filter in the field of engineering", |
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| "passage": "the stanford research institute problem solver is a computer program.", |
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| "passage": "a lung consists of bronchi, alveoli, and capillaries.", |
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| "passage": "an analog computer uses symbolic computation.", |
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| "passage": "the vibrations created by the oscillating turbine are transmitted into the liquid by the relaxation oscillator.", |
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| "passage": "the maxwell's equations describe the properties of light", |
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| "passage": "the solution of differential equations is a form of differential calculus", |
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| "passage": "a volcano contains many entry points and exit points.", |
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| "passage": "the flagellum is the ciliary body at the end of an elongated tube of protist tissue", |
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| "passage": "a distributed control system is a control system capable of controlling multiple elements in an environment.", |
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| "passage": "the ion has an antiproton and a proton.", |
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| "passage": "parasites can be divided into two groups : obligate and facultative.", |
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| "passage": "rydberg's formula and the equation for the recombination of carbon atoms have been used extensively.", |
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| "passage": "the r programming language is the fastest programming language for the scientific research community.", |
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| "passage": "depending on the speed of a moving object, the terminal velocity may be constant or variable.", |
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| "passage": "a two-quadrant converter is a computer program that converts one data range into another data range.", |
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| "passage": "stewart and harris developed a platform based on the arithmetic quotient model and the bounded interval model.", |
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| "passage": "genetic engineering bioengineering is the selective use of genetics to produce organisms with desired traits", |
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| "passage": "data meshes are used in the network topology.", |
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| "passage": "the record player is a source of electricity and a source of sound", |
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| "passage": "cfcs are the main component of the atmosphere", |
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| "passage": "many modern computers are designed for read-only memory.", |
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| "passage": "a statistical population is a data set that represents a group of individuals based on the same statistical procedures.", |
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| "passage": "this data carries the label of the type kr2 or kr & r symbol , that is the value of the corresponding binary digit when compared to the binary digit of the next following character", |
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| "passage": "memory is used to store information about the user and the application.", |
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| "passage": "the microlocal analysis of a slit with a diameter of , for example, a wavelength of , was described by the physicist", |
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| "passage": "calculus was the branch of mathematics and astrophysics", |
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| "passage": "a node is a node on a network", |
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| "passage": "a geometrical model is one in which the analytic geometry is a model and the analytical geometry is the model.", |
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| "passage": "most ketones are the fatty acid ketones of the molecule.", |
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| "passage": "the data was input into a comma separated values format", |
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| "passage": "serialization is used for data representation.", |
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| "passage": "in this example , the effective descriptive set theory is used to describe the relationship between two variables.", |
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| "passage": "the electron shell is one of the layers of an atom and has more electrons than protons.", |
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| "passage": "the key kl-one is a unique key for a computer system.", |
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| "passage": "because bacteria was not able to reproduce in the wild , scientists genetically modified the bacteria.", |
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| "passage": "vector calculus is the calculation of shapes.", |
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| "passage": "the stefan-boltzmann law states that the number of particles in a medium increases with the square of the wavelength.", |
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| "passage": "control theory is used for determining the optimum speed of a machine", |
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| "passage": "computer scientists are interested in artificial intelligence.", |
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| "passage": "some physics fields are known to be divided by partition theory.", |
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| "passage": "calcium dolomitate is usually denoted by the abbreviation dol.", |
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| "passage": "the difference between a joule and an ampere is an ounce , which is equal to 2.4496 grams and 0.1539 joules.", |
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| "passage": "the process of magnetoreception is a mechanism that allows animals to sense magnetic fields.", |
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| "passage": "the acid-base titration makes the concentration of acid and base the same.", |
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| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 307, |
| "passage": "using algebraic geometry, scientist reconstructed the formula for the total power.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 6, |
| "end": 24, |
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| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 308, |
| "passage": "base anhydride reacts with the strong acid to produce acidic anhydride.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 14, |
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| }, |
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| "end": 42, |
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| }, |
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| "end": 70, |
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| } |
| }, |
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| "id": 309, |
| "passage": "doppler effect is caused by the frequency of sound vibrations.", |
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| }, |
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| "id": 310, |
| "passage": "the combustion of gasoline is an example of using a combustible energy source.", |
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| "end": 14, |
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| { |
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| "id": 311, |
| "passage": "in a symmetric game, the player with a higher advantage has an advantage of power.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "id": 312, |
| "passage": "a pond is usually managed by a municipality or a environmental engineer.", |
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| "end": 71, |
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| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 313, |
| "passage": "electrical measurements are classified into the following classes of accuracy :", |
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| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 23, |
| "entity": "electrical measurements", |
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| "end": 77, |
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| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
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| "id": 314, |
| "passage": "computational synthetic geometry is often used to study complex matrices or to solve general equations", |
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| "start": 0, |
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| "id": 315, |
| "passage": "the vastus intermedius muscle is the front rotator cuff muscle.", |
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| "end": 29, |
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| ] |
| } |
| }, |
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| "id": 316, |
| "passage": "an electrical conductor is a metal tube through which electricity flows", |
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| "passage": "in aerodynamics , flight dynamics is applied to a model airplane to predict the motion of the airplane through the air", |
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| "id": 318, |
| "passage": "an ammeter is a device to measure the volume of liquid substances.", |
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| "end": 10, |
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| "passage": "the eluent was withdrawn by centrifugation", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 4, |
| "end": 10, |
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| "end": 42, |
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| "General" |
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| }, |
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| "passage": "in animal reproduction , progesterone acts as the dominant estrogen in the ovaries.", |
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| { |
| "start": 3, |
| "end": 22, |
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| "end": 67, |
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| }, |
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| } |
| ] |
| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 321, |
| "passage": "the cerebral cortex is the larger of the two parts of the brain, and is responsible for processing higher level thoughts.", |
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| "start": 4, |
| "end": 19, |
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| }, |
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| "id": 322, |
| "passage": "the voltampere reaction is the chemical reaction when an oxidation agent reacts with a base.", |
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| }, |
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| "passage": "entropy is measured in the form of increasing total heat energy.", |
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| }, |
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| "passage": "computational complexity theory is a mathematical modeling technique that helps scientists to calculate the total complexity of engineering problems.", |
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| "start": 0, |
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| }, |
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| "id": 325, |
| "passage": "this is because a valence electron is needed for an atom to have an oxidation state.", |
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| }, |
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| "passage": "buoyancy is a property of a liquid or gaseous.", |
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| { |
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| "passage": "nanotechnology involves the use of nanostructured materials , i.e., quantum metals and quantum dots.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
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| { |
| "id": 328, |
| "passage": "a neural network is a computer program that uses nlp to find the best solution to a given problem", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "id": 329, |
| "passage": "the abdominal cavity has no specialized organs.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "id": 330, |
| "passage": "optical fiber is a type of high-speed data transfer media.", |
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| "passage": "hydrofluoric acid is a white crystalline solid at room temperature that is very flammable.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 17, |
| "entity": "hydrofluoric acid", |
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| "passage": "the second circuit in a regenerative circuit is the rectifier circuit.", |
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| } |
| }, |
| { |
| "id": 333, |
| "passage": "hydrogen sulfide is a chemical that is an acid.", |
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| "result": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 16, |
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| "Chemistry" |
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| }, |
| { |
| "id": 334, |
| "passage": "a binary stub has a sign of big o ''.", |
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| "General" |
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| }, |
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| "id": 335, |
| "passage": "a constructive set theory is a mathematical tool for describing sets of objects that are mutually exclusive.", |
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| { |
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| "passage": "the edison effect is a phenomenon in which a moving medium causes another moving medium to appear to remain stationary", |
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| "id": 337, |
| "passage": "data visualization involves using a computer system to help us look at large amounts of data.", |
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| }, |
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| "id": 338, |
| "passage": "the new neurons are reprogrammed through neuroplasticity.", |
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| "id": 339, |
| "passage": "the software agent can perform the actual tasks that are required to implement a task.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "id": 340, |
| "passage": "this scale is a model of the real scale and the scale that is most important when working with models is the pilot scale.", |
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| "passage": "maxwell's equations was developed to describe the relationship between light and space.", |
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| "passage": "ethylene is another mercapto compound.", |
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| "passage": "this method can be used to derive the p-adic numbers.", |
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| "passage": "a datalog is a computer program for keeping a record of the data in a computer.", |
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| "passage": "in c*-algebra theory, many algebraic systems are equivalent and have no discrete point or a sub-detail.", |
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| "passage": "electromagnetic induction is used in the design of motors because it can generate magnetic fields that can be distributed.", |
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| "passage": "muscles are classified into a group based on their function", |
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| "passage": "an engine used to produce electricity is a maser.", |
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| "passage": "a square wave is a wave in the spectrum that has zero frequency and a frequency of 2hz.", |
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| "passage": "a computer program calculates the speed of a car moving in a field by using symbolic dynamics.", |
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| "passage": "if you run the digitizer, you run a series of numerical calculations on the device.", |
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| "passage": "the bone marrow contains red blood cell.", |
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| "passage": "the premise of intuitionistic type theory suggests that human beings are born with certain instincts that guide their lives.", |
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| "passage": "a catalyst increases the rate at which chemical reactions take place.", |
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| "passage": "minerals called oolites are found in veins, arteries, and gallbladder.", |
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| "passage": "a possibility theory is a theory which tries to explain the universe.", |
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| "passage": "for example based on the combinatorics discussed in the article, we can learn the following :", |
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| "passage": "the wire was made using magnet wire.", |
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| "passage": "an example of cable laced is a lace made of twine.", |
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| "passage": "information theory can be used in the design of electronics.", |
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| "end": 12, |
| "entity": "airplane", |
| "category": [ |
| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 33, |
| "end": 48, |
| "entity": "aero elasticity", |
| "category": [ |
| "Engineering" |
| ] |
| } |
| ] |
| } |
| } |
| ] |
