Work-Related Attitudes How can managers and organizations develop a committed workforce? When we apply the concept of attitudes to work settings, we have to specify which attitude we are concerned with. Although a variety of work-related attitudes can be identified, the one receiving the most attention is job satisfaction. As this is one of the most widely studied concepts in organizational behavior, we will examine it here in some detail. Job Involvement and Organizational Commitment First, however, we should introduce two job attitudes that should also be recognized: job involvement and organizational commitment. Job involvement refers to the extent to which a person is interested in and committed to assigned tasks. This is not to say that the person is “happy” (or satisfied) with the job, only that they feel a certain responsibility toward ensuring that the job itself is done correctly and with a high standard of competence. Here the focus of the attitude is the job itself. T. Lodahl and M. Kejner, “The Definition and Measurement of Job Involvement,” Journal of Applied Psychology , 1965, 49 , pp. 24–33. Organizational commitment , on the other hand, represents the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in an organization. R. T. Mowday, L. W. Porter, and R. M. Steers, Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Employee Commitment, Absenteeism and Turnover (New York: Academic Press, 1982). Commitment can be characterized by three factors: (1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values, (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization. When viewed this way, commitment represents something beyond mere passive loyalty to the company. Instead, it involves an active relationship with the organization in which individuals are willing to give something of themselves in order to help the company succeed and prosper. A careful reading of the research on keys to the success of many Japanese firms will highlight the importance played by a committed work force. Now we turn to the third work attitude of job satisfaction. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction may be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.” E. A. Locke, “The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction,” in M. D. Dunnette, ed., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976). It results from the perception that an employee’s job actually provides what they value in the work situation. Several characteristics of the concept of job satisfaction follow from this definition. First, satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. It can be fully understood only by introspection. As with any attitude, we cannot observe satisfaction; we must infer its existence and quality either from an employee’s behavior or verbal statements. Second, job satisfaction is perhaps best understood in terms of discrepancy. Several writers have pointed to the concept of job satisfaction as being a result of how much a person wants or expects from the job compared to how much they actually receive. L. W. Porter and R. M. Steers, “Organizational, Work, and Personal Factors in Employee Turnover and Absenteeism,” Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 80, pp. 151–176. People come to work with varying levels of job expectations. These expectations may vary not only in quality (different people may value different things in a job), but also in intensity. On the basis of work experiences, people receive outcomes (rewards) from the job. These include not only extrinsic rewards, such as pay and promotion, but also a variety of intrinsic rewards, such as satisfying coworker relations and meaningful work. To the extent that the outcomes received by an employee meet or exceed expectations, we would expect the employee to be satisfied with the job and wish to remain. On those occasions when outcomes actually surpass expectations, we would expect employees to reevaluate their expectations and probably raise them to meet available outcomes. However, when outcomes do not meet expectations, employees are dissatisfied and may prefer to seek alternative sources of satisfaction, either by changing jobs or by placing greater value on other life activities, such as outside recreation. Dimensions of Job Satisfaction. It has been argued that job satisfaction actually represents several related attitudes. So, when we speak of satisfaction, we must specify “satisfaction with what?” Research has suggested that five job dimensions represent the most salient characteristics of a job about which people have affective responses. These five are: Work itself . The extent to which tasks performed by employees are interesting and provide opportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility. Pay . The amount of pay received, the perceived equity of the pay, and the method of payment. Promotional opportunities . The availability of realistic opportunities for advancement. Supervision . The technical and managerial abilities of supervisors; the extent to which supervisors demonstrate consideration for and interest in employees. Coworkers . The extent to which coworkers are friendly, technically competent, and supportive. Although other dimensions of job satisfaction have been identified, these five dimensions are used most often when assessing various aspects of job attitudes in organizations. Measurement of Job Satisfaction. Probably the most common attitude surveys in organizations today focus on job satisfaction. Satisfaction is considered by many managers to be an important indicator of organizational effectiveness, and therefore it is regularly monitored to assess employee feelings toward the organization. By far the most common means of assessing satisfaction is the rating scale. Rating scales represent direct verbal self-reports concerning employee feelings; they have been widely used in companies since the 1930s. Several job satisfaction scales exist. One of the most popular is the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). This instrument uses a Likert-response format to generate satisfaction scores on 26 scales, including satisfaction with compensation, promotion opportunities, coworkers, recognition, and so forth. You can assess your scoring on a short version of this instrument in the assessment section of this chapter. The MSQ and similar rating scales have several advantages for evaluating levels of job satisfaction. First, they are relatively short and simple and can be completed by large numbers of employees quickly. Second, because of the generalized wording of the various terms, the instruments can be administered to a wide range of employees in various jobs. It is not necessary to alter the questionnaire for each job classification. Finally, extensive normative data (or norms) are available. These norms include summaries of the scores of thousands of people who have completed the instruments. Hence, it is possible for employers in other organizations to determine relative standings. However, although rating scales have many virtues compared to other techniques, at least two drawbacks must be recognized. First, as with any self-report inventory, it is assumed that respondents are both willing and able to describe their feelings accurately. As noted by several researchers, B. M. Staw, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (Morristown, N. J.: General Learning Press, 1976). people often consciously or unconsciously distort information that they feel is damaging and enhance information that they feel is beneficial. For example, it is possible that employees who think their supervisors may see the results of their questionnaire may report overly favorable job attitudes. A second problem with rating scales is the underlying assumption that questionnaire items mean the same thing to all people. There may, in fact, not be a common interpretation across individuals. Even so, rating scales have proved to be helpful in assessing satisfaction in various aspects of the job situation. Managers can use the results to identify potential problem areas and to generate discussions and action plans of how to correct aspects of jobs or the organization that are causing unacceptable levels of dissatisfaction. How Satisfied Are Employees? If you’ve ever flown on Southwest Airlines, you can tell something is different just from the first interaction with their employees. From the flight attendants, to the pilot’s announcements, and even to their customer service representatives, they have a cheerful disposition, and contrary to popular belief, this isn’t an act. In 2017, Southwest Airlines announced that it would be sharing their $586 million in profits with its 54,000 employees, given them a bonus of approximately 13.2 percent on average. This doesn’t account for the extra $351 million that they contributed to the employee’s 401(k) plans either. This is just one of the many ways that Southwest has given back to their employees in a day and age when minimum wage for even qualified candidates seems like a fight. Southwest CEO Gary Kelly reflects that “Our people-first approach, which has guided our company since it was founded, means our company does well, our people do really, really well. Our people work incredibly hard and deserve to share in Southwest’s success.” With this attitude, it is no wonder the employees on and off your flight are showing their satisfaction in their everyday attitudes. The year 2017 was the 43rd year that Southwest shared its profits with their people. While compensation ranks among one of the most attributed traits of a company to help with employee satisfaction, it goes much deeper than that to keep motivation high. At Southwest, they rank employees first and customers second. They create a culture of fun and inclusive core values that help to give their employees a sense of community and belonging. When their employees are motivated and take pride in what they do, they are able to give their best to their customers every day, which accounts for their highly ranked customer satisfaction results on surveys each year. Sources: Dahl, Darren, “Why do Southwest Employees Always Seem so Happy,” Forbes , July, 28, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/darrendahl/2017/07/28/why-do-southwest-airlines-employees-always-seem-so-happy/#3cba8dbc59b0; Martin, Emmie, “A major airline says there's something it values more than its customers, and there's a good reason why,” Business Insider , July 29, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com/southwest-airlines-puts-employees-first-2015-7; Ramdas, Shreesha, “The Southwest Way to Employee Satisfaction: Flying High Like the High Flier,” Customer Think , May 12, 2018, (http://customerthink.com/the-southwest-way-to-employee-satisfaction-flying-high-like-the-high-flier/. Questions: Oftentimes it is hard to stay at the top. What considerations should Southwest take to maintain their employee satisfaction and keep improving? Not all companies can share profits. What would you suggest to a new company that is just starting off to help gain high employee satisfaction? How can organizations foster positive job involvement and instill positive attitudes in their employees? What are the dimensions of job satisfaction? How can managers and organizations develop a committed workforce? Job involvement refers to the extent to which an individual is interested in his or her assigned tasks. Organizational commitment refers to the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization. Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience. Chapter Review Questions Describe how the basic perceptual process works. Why should managers understand this process? How can variations in social perception affect everyday work behavior? Provide an example to illustrate. What can managers do to reduce the incidences of stereotyping in the workplace? How does the attributional process work? Provide an example to show why this process is so important in understanding organizational behavior. How do attributional biases work? What can managers do to reduce such biases? What are the differences between job involvement, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction? Are all three influenced by the same factors? What are the major reasons for job satisfaction? What are the primary consequences of dissatisfaction? Explain. Managerial Skills Application Exercises In order to understand how response salience works, you may want to complete this self-assessment. Read the passage, and rate it on its comprehensibility. Does it make sense to you? Next, look at the appropriate frame of reference given in Appendix B . Now read the passage again, and rate it for its comprehensibility. Does it make more sense now that you have a specific frame of reference? Can You Understand This Passage? Instructions: The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. Adapted from “Contextual Prerequisites for Understanding: Some Investigations of Comprehension and Recall” by John D. Bransford and Marcia K. Johnson, in Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, December 1972, p. 722. Comprehensive Scale Very incomprehensive Neutral Very comprehensive 1 2 3 4 5 How Do You Feel About Women Executives? Instructions: This instrument focuses on your attitudes toward women in executive positions. For each item, circle the number that best represents your feelings concerning women executives in organizations. Be completely honest with yourself in responding. For a scoring key, refer to Appendix B . Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree It is high time we had more women in executive positions. 1 2 3 4 5 Women make just as good managers as men. 1 2 3 4 5 Women often fail to have the same level of technical competence as men. 1 2 3 4 5 Women executives should receive the same respect and trust as their male counterparts. 1 2 3 4 5 Men tend to be better suited for managerial positions than women. 1 2 3 4 5 Women are too emotional to succeed in top-level management. 1 2 3 4 5 Women have a hard time supervising the work of male subordinates. 1 2 3 4 5 I would prefer not to work for a female manager. 1 2 3 4 5 Success as an executive has nothing to do with one’s gender. 1 2 3 4 5 Many women executives get to the top either because of affirmative action pressure or connections. 1 2 3 4 5 Examples of the MSQ for two scales (compensation and recognition) can be seen in this self-assessment. If you wish to complete this sample questionnaire, simply refer to a (paid or unpaid) job that you have had and answer the questionnaire. To score the instrument, refer to Appendix B . Are You Satisfied with Your Job? Instructions: Answer each of the ten questions by circling the numbers that best describe how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with the particular item. Then sum your results for questions 1–5 and 6–10 separately. Adapted from David J. Weiss, Rene V. Dawis, George W. England, and Lloyd H. Lofquist, Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Minneapolis: Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota). Very Dissatisfied Very Satisfied The way I am noticed when I do a good job 1 2 3 4 5 The way I get full credit for the work I do 1 2 3 4 5 The recognition I get for the work I do 1 2 3 4 5 The way they usually tell me when I do my job well 1 2 3 4 5 The praise I get for doing a good job 1 2 3 4 5 The amount of pay for the work I do 1 2 3 4 5 The chance to make as much money as my friends 1 2 3 4 5 How my pay compares with that for similar jobs in other companies 1 2 3 4 5 My pay and the amount of work I do 1 2 3 4 5 How my pay compares with that of other workers 1 2 3 4 5 Managerial Decision Exercises You remember from your Organizational Behavior class that several assessments to increase one’s self-awareness, like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory that you read about in this chapter and is profiled in the Managerial Skill Application Exercises of this chapter, were very beneficial for you as an understanding of your emotional intelligence, values, cognitive style, and ability to cope with change. You have been assigned to a team that will interview both internal and external candidates for a new sales manager position for the California region, which is a position at the same level organizationally as your present position. During the initial orientation meeting, one of the team members—the manager of a distribution center for the organization—says, “I like to use the results of the Myers-Briggs Types Indicator assessment to screen applicants for this position, and since sales managers should be extroverts and should possess sensing, thinking, and judging skills, we should only consider ESTJ types.” Your boss, the national sales manager, asks you to write a report on whether the selection process should only consider ESTJ types and to provide it to the team for discussion. Write a report and share it for discussion with a team of students in this class who will assume the role of the hiring interview team. Recall a meeting that you recently had, such as a team presentation of a case analysis. What were your impressions of what happened in the planning of the presentation and how things like the assignment of roles and timetables for subsequent meetings and deliverables unfolded. What were the behaviors of the others at the meeting, and why do you think they acted as they did? Finally, how do you think that others perceived your behavior at the meeting? After you have recorded these recollections, meet with another attendee of that meeting. Ask them these questions, and record what they say happened at that meeting and what they thought of the behavior of the participants, including you. Let them know that this is for your class and you want them to be as honest as possible. As they are answering, record their recollections and do not interrupt or offer possible corrections. Finally, compare your recollections and notes with those of the interviewee and use the knowledge from this chapter to assess the differences and similarities in perception and attribution. As a way to measure job satisfaction, ask someone at a local business the following questions: What is your job title, and what do you do in your own words? How do these match up to tasks, duties, and responsibilities in your job description? Are you satisfied with the work that you do? How satisfied are you with the training and supervision that you receive? How satisfied are you with the people that you work with? Are you happy with your salary? Are you happy with the benefits that are offered as part of the job? Do you see any possibilities for advancement in the organization? What are your general feelings about your employer? Do you have any additional comments regarding how you feel about your job? Write an assessment of this individual’s job satisfaction and what a supervisor and organization could do to improve the lever of job satisfaction for their employees. Critical Thinking Case Stereotypes at Pitney Bowes Many times, we think of stereotypes or discrimination only being an issue when it comes to things like gender, race, or religion. However, at Pitney Bowes Inc., the toughest stereotype to overcome is age. Brigitte Van Den Houte starts her day in the normal way; however, she has taken a keen focus on persuading employees in their 20s that they have a future at Pitney Bowes. For almost 100 years, Pitney Bowes, founded in 1920, has been all about commerce. But as the world turned to technology, the definition of what that meant for the traditional postage-meter equipment company had to change as well. One of the biggest challenges of this ever-changing technological world is how the generations of employees can step aside from their stereotypes and understand one another to better work effectively. At Pitney Bowes, their proactive approach puts younger colleagues with older colleagues in a mentoring situation. This is not the typical older mentor to younger mentor setup, however. Every few months, Houte arranges for the younger employees to spend the day with a seasoned executive with the plan of sharing experiences and ideas and offering advice. Houte states, “the old way of working no longer works,” and she’s right. With over one-third of the workforce aging to 50 or older and millennials (young people aged 22–37) being the largest workforce group, it is imperative to put stereotypes aside and learn to work together. One big mistake for a manager would be to focus on the age difference rather than on what skills each person individually can bring to the table. Stereotypes such as “older individuals don’t know about technology” or “millennials are constantly job hopping and feel entitled” are put aside at Pitney Bowes in order to get the job done. With a more proactive approach, the range of variables within each generation can be utilized in the most effective way possible for an organization. Sources: Hymowitz, Carol, “The Tricky Task of Managing the New, Multigenerational Workplace,” The Wall Street Journal , August 12, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-tricky-task-of-managing-the-new-multigenerational-workplace-1534126021?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=9; Ault, Nicole, “ Don’t Trust Anyone Over 21,” The Wall Street Journal , August 22, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/dont-trust-anyone-over-21-1534977740?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=1. Questions: What are other ways that a company can utilize a multigenerational team to their advantage? What challenges does a multigenerational team pose for management? What should the company and management team consider when attracting new employees of all generations? Job involvement Refers to the extent to which a person is interested in and committed to assigned tasks. Job satisfaction A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience. Organizational commitment Represents the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in an organization.

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Introduction (JD Kirk/ flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)) Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions: How do organizations offer appropriate rewards in a timely fashion? What are the best practices that organizations utilize to train employees in new job skills? How do managers and organizations reduce undesirable employee behavior while reinforcing desirable behavior? How can employees be trained to assume more responsibility for self-improvement and job performance with the goal of creating a work environment characterized by continual self-learning and employee development? The Google Way to a Culture of Continued Learning Google is great at many things—attracting top talent, maintaining employee satisfaction, and encouraging creativity, to name a few. According to the Association of Training and Development (ATD), companies that offer comprehensive training programs have 218 percent higher income per employee than companies without formalized training. Not only that, but companies that have required programs for their employees see a much higher profit margin than those that don’t. Investing in people and promoting a self-learning environment is the right plan for companies that are looking to keep employees’ behavior in check, train for new skills, and increase employee development. Spending millions of dollars is not necessary to create a culture that promotes learning. Google follows the simple principles that gives their employees purpose and a career path. They provide information that is relevant and important to their employees. They know that in order to get this information to stick, it must be pertinent and presented at the right time, and in the right format. They also archive important information, which empowers employees to access this information at any and all times. Instead of providing gateways that impede learning, they open the doors. Secondly, they share “dumb questions.” This may seem like a silly tactic, but encouraging employees to share their questions and opinions allows for sharing of information and learning on all levels. Google also employs the values of celebrated failure, which allows for the teams to learn from their mistakes and their failures. Then they can move on to the next project with newly found valuable information to get better each time. Lastly, formalized plans for continued learning are employed for “informal and continuous learning” to occur. Examples of these events can be allowing employees to pursue their own interests, utilizing coaching and support tools, and then training being requested at various times. With these tactics, the cultivation of learning can be expressed throughout the company. Google is at the forefront of this pursuit, but other companies can learn from their methods to get ahead and get their employees on track as well. Sources: Ault, Nicole, “Don’t Trust Anyone Over 21,” The Wall Street Journal , August 22, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/dont-trust-anyone-over-21-1534977740?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=1; and Gutierrez, Karla, “Mind-blowing Statistics that Prove the Value of Employee Training and Development, Shift, August 22, 2017, https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/statistics-value-of-employee-training-and-development. Questions: What considerations should Google take into account when creating formalized training for their employees? Name three reasons why training and continued learning can be important for a company’s success. Why is encouraging and celebrating failure an important thing for a company to promote? A major responsibility of managers is to evaluate and reward their subordinates. If managers are to maximize the impact of available (and often limited) rewards, a thorough knowledge of reinforcement techniques is essential. We shall devote this chapter to developing a detailed understanding of learning processes in organizations. We begin by looking at basic models of learning.

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Basic Models of Learning How do organizations offer appropriate rewards in a timely fashion? Learning may be defined, for our purposes, as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. That is, a person is said to have learned something when they consistently exhibit a new behavior over time. Several aspects of this definition are noteworthy. Rose E. Spielman, Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett, and Marion Perlmutter, Psychology (Houston: OpenStax, 2015). First, learning involves a change in an attitude or behavior. This change does not necessarily have to be an improvement, however, and can include such things as learning bad habits or forming prejudices. In order for learning to occur, the change that takes place must be relatively permanent. So changes in behavior that result from fatigue or temporary adaptation to a unique situation would not be considered examples of learning. Next, learning typically involves some form of practice or experience. For example, the change that results from physical maturation, as when a baby develops the physical strength to walk, is in itself not considered learning. Third, this practice or experience must be reinforced over time for learning to take place. Where reinforcement does not follow practice or experience, the behavior will eventually diminish and disappear (“extinction”). Finally, learning is an inferred process; we cannot observe learning directly. Instead, we must infer the existence of learning from observing changes in overt behavior. We can best understand the learning process by looking at four stages in the development of research on learning (see ). Scientific interest in learning dates from the early experiments of Pavlov and others around the turn of the century. The focus of this research was on stimulus-response relationships and the environmental determinants of observable behaviors. This was followed by the discovery of the law of effect, experiments in operant conditioning, and, finally, the formulation of social learning theory. The Development of Modern Behavioral Learning Theory (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is the process whereby a stimulus-response (S-R) bond is developed between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response through the repeated linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. This process is shown in . The classic example of Pavlov’s experiments illustrates the process. Pavlov was initially interested in the digestive processes of dogs but noticed that the dogs started to salivate at the first signal of approaching food. On the basis of this discovery, he shifted his attention to the question of whether animals could be trained to draw a causal relationship between previously unconnected factors. Specifically, using the dogs as subjects, he examined the extent to which the dogs could learn to associate the ringing of a bell with the act of salivation. The experiment began with unlearned, or unconditioned , stimulus-response relationships. When a dog was presented with meat (unconditioned stimulus), the dog salivated (unconditioned response). No learning was necessary here, as this relationship represented a natural physiological process. Classical versus Operant Conditioning (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Next, Pavlov paired the unconditioned stimulus (meat) with a neutral one (the ringing of a bell). Normally, the ringing of the bell by itself would not be expected to elicit salivation. However, over time, a learned linkage developed for the dog between the bell and meat, ultimately resulting in an S-R bond between the conditioned stimulus (the bell) and the response (salivation) without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus (the meat). Evidence emerged that learning had occurred and that this learning resulted from conditioning the dogs to associate two normally unrelated objects, the bell and the meat. Although Pavlov’s experiments are widely cited as evidence of the existence of classical conditioning, it is necessary from the perspective of organizational behavior to ask how this process relates to people at work. Ivancevich, Szilagyi, and Wallace provide one such work-related example of classical conditioning: An illustration of classical conditioning in a work setting would be an airplane pilot learning how to use a newly installed warning system. In this case the behavior to be learned is to respond to a warning light that indicates that the plane has dropped below a critical altitude on an assigned glide path. The proper response is to increase the plane’s altitude. The pilot already knows how to appropriately respond to the trainer’s warning to increase altitude (in this case we would say the trainer’s warning is an unconditioned stimulus and the corrective action of increasing altitude is an unconditioned response ). The training session consists of the trainer warning the pilot to increase altitude every time the warning light goes on. Through repeated pairings of the warning light with the trainer’s warning, the pilot eventually learns to adjust the plane’s altitude in response to the warning light even though the trainer is not present. Again, the unit of learning is a new S-R connection, or habit. J. M. Ivancevich, A. D. Szilagyi, and M. Wallace, Organizational Behavior and Performance (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1977), p. 80. Although classical conditioning clearly has applications to work situations, particularly in the area of training and development, it has been criticized as explaining only a limited part of total human learning. Psychologist B. F. Skinner argues that classical conditioning focuses on respondent, or reflexive, behaviors; that is, it concentrates on explaining largely involuntary responses that result from stimuli. B. F. Skinner, “Operant Behavior,” American Psychologist, 1963, 18, pp. 503–515. More complex learning cannot be explained solely by classical conditioning. As an alternative explanation, Skinner and others have proposed the operant conditioning model of learning. Operant Conditioning The major focus of operant conditioning is on the effects of reinforcements, or rewards, on desired behaviors. One of the first psychologists to examine such processes was J. B. Watson, a contemporary of Pavlov, who argued that behavior is largely influenced by the rewards one receives as a result of actions. J. B. Watson, Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1914). This notion is best summarized in Thorndike’s law of effect . This law states that of several responses made to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to occur; those that are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (punishment) will be less likely to occur. E. L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence (New York: Macmillan, 1911), p. 244. In other words, it posits that behavior that leads to positive or pleasurable outcomes tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that leads to negative outcomes or punishment tends to be avoided. In this manner, individuals learn appropriate, acceptable responses to their environment. If we repeatedly dock the pay of an employee who is habitually tardy, we would expect that employee to learn to arrive early enough to receive a full day’s pay. A basic operant model of learning is presented in . There are three important concepts of this model: Drive. A drive is an internal state of disequilibrium; it is a felt need. It is generally believed that drive increases with the strength of deprivation. A drive, or desire, to learn must be present for learning to take place. For example, not currently being able to afford the house you want is likely to lead to a drive for more money to buy your desired house. Living in a run-down shack is likely to increase this drive compared to living in a nice apartment. Habit. A habit is the experienced bond or connection between stimulus and response. For example, if a person learns over time that eating satisfies hunger, a strong stimulus-response (hunger-eating) bond will develop. Habits thus determine the behaviors, or courses of action, we choose. Reinforcement or reward. This represents the feedback individuals receive as a result of action. For example, if as a salesperson you are given a bonus for greater sales and plan to use the money to buy the house you have always wanted, this will reinforce the behaviors that you believed led to greater sales, such as smiling at customers, repeating their name during the presentation, and so on. A stimulus activates an individual’s motivation through its impact on drive and habit. The stronger the drive and habit (S-R bond), the stronger the motivation to behave in a certain way. As a result of this behavior, two things happen. First, the individual receives feedback that reduces the original drive. Second, the individual strengthens his or her belief in the veracity of the S-R bond to the extent that it proved successful. That is, if one’s response to the stimulus satisfied one’s drive or need, the individual would come to believe more strongly in the appropriateness of the particular S-R connection and would respond in the same way under similar circumstances. An example will clarify this point. Several recent attempts to train chronically unemployed workers have used a daily pay system instead of weekly or monthly systems. The primary reason for this is that the workers, who do not have a history of working, can more quickly see the relationship between coming to work and receiving pay. An S-R bond develops more quickly because of the frequency of the reinforcement, or reward. Operant versus Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning can be distinguished from classical conditioning in at least two ways. F. Luthans, et. al., Organizational Behavior 13 th Edition (Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2016). First, the two approaches differ in what is believed to cause changes in behavior. In classical conditioning, changes in behavior are thought to arise through changes in stimuli—that is, a transfer from an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, on the other hand, changes in behavior are thought to result from the consequences of previous behavior. When behavior has not been rewarded or has been punished, we would not expect it to be repeated. Second, the two approaches differ in the role and frequency of rewards. In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus, acting as a sort of reward, is administered during every trial. In contrast, in operant conditioning the reward results only when individuals choose the correct response. That is, in operant conditioning, individuals must correctly operate on their environment before a reward is received. The response is instrumental in obtaining the desired reward. Social Learning Theory The last model of learning we should examine is noted psychologist Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. Social learning theory is defined as the process of molding behavior through the reciprocal interaction of a person’s cognitions, behavior, and environment. A. Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977). This is done through a process that Bandura calls reciprocal determinism . This concept implies that people control their own environment (for example, by quitting one’s job) as much as the environment controls people (for example, being laid off). Thus, learning is seen as a more active, interactive process in which the learner has at least some control. Social learning theory shares many of the same roots as operant conditioning. Like Skinner, Bandura argues that behavior is at least in part controlled by environmental cues and consequences, and Bandura uses observable behavior (as opposed to attitudes, feelings, etc.) as the primary unit of analysis. However, unlike operant conditioning, social learning theory posits that cognitive or mental processes affect our response to the environmental cues. Social learning theory has four central elements: attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives. Before someone can learn something, they must notice or pay attention to the thing that is to be learned. For example, you probably would not learn much as a student in any class unless you paid attention to information conveyed by the text or instructor. Retention is the process by which what you have noticed is encoded into your memory. Reproduction involves the translation of what was recorded in your mind into overt actions or behaviors. Obviously, the higher the level of attention and the greater the retention, the better the reproduction of what was learned. Finally, incentives can influence all three processes. For example, if you are rewarded (say, praised) for paying attention, you will pay more attention. If you are rewarded for remembering what you studied (say, good grades), you will retain more. If you are rewarded for reproducing what you learned (say, a promotion for effectively motivating your subordinates), you will produce that behavior more. Central to this theory is the concept of vicarious learning. Vicarious learning is learning that takes place through the imitation of other role models. That is, we observe and analyze what another person does and the resulting consequences. As a result, we learn without having to experience the phenomenon firsthand. Thus, if we see a fellow employee being disciplined or fired for being disruptive in the workplace, we might learn not to be disruptive ourselves. If we see that gifts are usually given with the right hand in the Middle East, we might give gifts in that manner ourselves. A model of social learning processes is shown in . As can be seen, three factors—the person, the environment, and the behavior—interact through such processes as vicarious learning, symbolic representations, and self-control to cause actual learned behaviors. A Basic Model of Social Learning Source: Adapted from “A Social Learning Approach to Behavioral Management: Radical Behaviorists ‘Mellowing Out,’ ” by Robert Kreitner et al. Organizational Dynamics. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Major Influences on Learning. On the basis of this work, it is possible by way of summary to identify several general factors that can enhance our learning processes. An individual’s desire to learn, background knowledge of a subject, and the length of the learning period are some of the components of a learning environment. Filley, House, and Kerr identify five major influences on learning effectiveness. A. Filley, R. J. House, and S. Kerr, Managerial Process and Organizational Behavior (Glenview, III.: Scott, Foresman, 1975). Drawn largely from behavioral science and psychology literature, substantial research indicates that learning effectiveness is increased considerably when individuals have high motivation to learn . We sometimes encounter students who work day and night to complete a term paper that is of interest to them, whereas writing an uninteresting term paper may be postponed until the last possible minute. Maximum transfer of knowledge is achieved when a student or employee is motivated to learn by a high need to know. Considerable evidence also demonstrates that we can facilitate learning by providing individuals with feedback on their performance. A knowledge of results serves a gyroscopic function, showing individuals where they are correct or incorrect and furnishing them with the perspective to improve. Feedback also serves as an important positive reinforcer that can enhance an individual’s willingness or desire to learn. Students who are told by their professor how they performed on an exam and what they could do to improve next time are likely to study harder. In many cases, prior learning can increase the ability to learn new materials or tasks by providing needed background or foundation materials. In math, multiplication is easier to learn if addition has been mastered. These beneficial effects of prior learning on present learning tend to be greatest when the prior tasks and the present tasks exhibit similar stimulus-response connections. For instance, most of the astronauts selected for the space program have had years of previous experience flying airplanes. It is assumed that their prior experience and developed skill will facilitate learning to fly the highly technical, though somewhat similar, vehicles. Another influence on learning concerns whether the materials to be learned are presented in their entirety or in parts— whole versus part learning . E. J. McCormick and D. Illgen, Industrial Psychology 8 th edition (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984). Available evidence suggests that when a task consists of several distinct and unrelated duties, part learning is more effective. Each task should be learned separately. However, when a task consists of several integrated and related parts (such as learning the components of a small machine), whole learning is more appropriate, because it ensures that major relationship among parts, as well as proper sequencing of parts, is not overlooked or underemphasized. Stop sign in Quebec Would your prior learning lead you to come to a full stop while driving in Quebec, just north of New York State? (Credit: Joe Schlabotnik/ flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)) The final major influence on learning highlights the advantages and disadvantages of concentrated as opposed to distributed training sessions. Research suggests that distribution of practice —short learning periods at set intervals—is more effective for learning motor skills than for learning verbal or cognitive skills. B. M. Bass and J. Vaughn, Training in Industry: The Management of Learning (Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1966); G. Wexley and G. P. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations , Third Edition (Pearson: 2002); and G. P. Latham, “Human Resource Training and Development,” in M. Rosenzweig and L. W. Porter, eds., Annual Review of Psychology (Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1988), pp. 545–581. Distributed practice also seems to facilitate learning of very difficult, voluminous, or tedious material. It should be noted, however, that concentrated practice appears to work well where insight is required for task completion. Apparently, concentrated effort over short durations provides a move synergistic approach to problem-solving. Although there is general agreement that these influences are important (and are under the control of management in many cases), they cannot substitute for the lack of an adequate reinforcement system. In fact, reinforcement is widely recognized as the key to effective learning. If managers are concerned with eliciting desired behaviors from their subordinates, a knowledge of reinforcement techniques is essential. Learning to Be Effective Overseas General Motors has learned by experience that it pays not to have managers learn only by experience how to function effectively while working in foreign countries. Managing expatriate assignments in difficult locations was brought to life by the experiences of Richard Pennington, General Motors’ head of global mobility for the EMEA (Europe, Middle East, and Africa) region. He knows from experience some of the things that tend to go well, as well as some of those that don’t, and has learned lessons from moving employees to places like Uzbekistan. This became important when the company took on a new engine manufacturing operation in the capital, Tashkent, as well as an existing manufacturing plant in Andijan. The objectives were the same as for most global mobility projects: to get the right people to the right place at the right time for the right cost. The general approach was Action—Plan—Do—Check. Pennington urged potential relocation candidates not to be overreliant on the Internet and, if possible, to go and see for themselves. “Nothing beats going to a location—particularly a harsh location—yourself,” he says. Pennington also emphasizes the importance of selecting suppliers on the ground carefully, even if you already have a network of existing suppliers. Strong relationships in the host location are of paramount importance. In difficult locations, it is particularly important that the local HR, finance, and legal staff work with you proactively, as making payments at the right time can be critical. Equally, cultural training and language providers are essential. These training programs involve a wide variety of teaching methods. Factual information may be conveyed through lectures or printed material. More subtle information is learned through role plays, case studies, and simulations. The research on cross-cultural training suggests that the more involved participants are in the training, the more they learn, and that the more they practice or simulate new behaviors that they need to master in the foreign environment, the more effective they will be in actual situations. The results for GM have been impressive. Most companies that do not provide cross-cultural training for their employees sent on international assignments experience failure rates of about 25 percent, and each failure or early return costs the company on average $150,000. GM has a failure rate of less than 1 percent. Also, in GM’s case, the training has been extended to the manager’s family and has helped reluctant spouses and children more readily accept, if not embrace, the foreign assignment. Sources: F. Furnie, “International assignments: Managing change and complexity,” Relocate Global , September 23, 2015, https://www.relocatemagazine.com/articles/4697international-assignments-managing-change-and-complexity; J. Lublin. “Companies Use Cross-Cultural Training to Help Their Employees Adjust Abroad.” Wall Street Journal, August 4, 2004 p. B1. How can learning theory be used to change behaviors? Define classical conditioning, and differentiate it from operant conditioning. What is social learning theory? How do organizations offer appropriate rewards in a timely fashion? People learn through both direct experience and vicarious experience. What is retained and produced as behavior is a function of the positive and negative consequences either directly experience by individuals or observed as the result of the actions of others. Often, managers and trainers underestimate the power of vicarious learning. Also, keep in mind that reinforcement that has some variability in its application (variable ratio or interval) has the strongest and longest-lasting impact on desired learned behaviors. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Thorndike’s law of effect notes that behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that is punished is unlikely to be repeated. Operant conditioning can be distinguished from classical conditioning in two ways: (1) it asserts that changes in behavior result from the consequences of previous behaviors instead of changes in stimuli, and (2) it asserts that desired behaviors result only when rewards are tied to correct responses instead of when unconditioned stimuli are administered after every trial. Social learning is the process of altering behavior through the reciprocal interaction of a person’s cognitions, previous behavior, and environment. This is done through a process of reciprocal determinism. Vicarious learning is learning that takes place through observation and imitation of others. Learning is influenced by (1) a motivation to learn, (2) knowledge of results, (3) prior learning, (4) the extent to which the task to be learned is presented as a whole or in parts, and (5) distribution of practice. Classical conditioning The process whereby a stimulus-response bond is developed between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response through the repeated linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response The process of conditioning through the repeated linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Drive An internal state of disequilibrium; it is a felt need. It is generally believed that drive increases with the strength of deprivation. Habit The experienced bond or connection between stimulus and response. Law of effect States that of several responses made to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to occur; those that are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (punishment) will be less likely to occur. Operant conditioning Measures the effects of reinforcements, or rewards, on desired behaviors. Reciprocal determinism This concept implies that people control their own environment as much as the environment controls people. Social learning theory The process of molding behavior through the reciprocal interaction of a person’s cognitions, behavior, and environment. Unconditioned response From classical conditioning, a response to an unconditioned stimulus that is naturally evoked by that stimulus. Vicarious learning Learning that takes place through the imitation of other role models.

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Reinforcement and Behavioral Change What are the best practices that organizations utilize to train employees in new job skills? A central feature of most approaches to learning is the concept of reinforcement. This concept dates from Thorndike’s law of effect, which, as mentioned earlier, states that behavior that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that is not reinforced will tend not to be repeated. Hence, reinforcement can be defined as anything that causes a certain behavior to be repeated or inhibited. Reinforcement versus Motivation It is important to differentiate reinforcement from the concept of employee motivation. Motivation, as described in the next chapter, represents a primary psychological process that is largely cognitive in nature. Thus, motivation is largely internal—it is experienced by the employee, and we can see only subsequent manifestations of it in actual behavior. Reinforcement, on the other hand, is typically observable and most often externally administered. A supervisor may reinforce what is considered desirable behavior without knowing anything about the underlying motives that prompted it. For example, a supervisor who has a habit of saying “That’s interesting” whenever she is presented with a new idea may be reinforcing innovation on the part of the subordinates without the supervisor really knowing why this result is achieved. The distinction between theories of motivation and reinforcement should be kept in mind when we examine behavior modification and behavioral self-management later in this chapter. Strategies for Behavioral Change From a managerial standpoint, several strategies for behavioral change are available to facilitate learning in organizational settings. At least four different types should be noted: (1) positive reinforcement; (2) avoidance learning, or negative reinforcement; (3) extinction; and (4) punishment. Each type plays a different role in both the manner in which and extent to which learning occurs. Each will be considered separately here. Positive Reinforcement. Positive reinforcement consists of presenting someone with an attractive outcome following a desired behavior. As noted by Skinner, “A positive reinforcer is a stimulus which, when added to a situation, strengthens the probability of an operant response.” B. F. Skinner, Science and Human Behavior (New York: Macmillan, 1953), p. 73. A simple example of positive reinforcement is supervisory praise for subordinates when they perform well in a certain situation. That is, a supervisor may praise an employee for being on time consistently (see ). This behavior-praise pattern may encourage the subordinate to be on time in the future in the hope of receiving additional praise. Strategies for Behavioral Change (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) In order for a positive reinforcement to be effective in facilitating the repetition of desired behavior, several conditions must be met. First, the reinforcer itself (praise) must be valued by the employee. It would prove ineffective in shaping behavior if employees were indifferent to it. Second, the reinforcer must be strongly tied to the desired behavior. Receipt of the reinforcer by the employee must be directly contingent upon performing the desired behavior. “Rewards must result from performance, and the greater the degree of performance by an employee, the greater should be his reward.” W. C. Hamner, “Reinforcement Theory,” in H. L. Tosi and W. C. Hamner, eds., Organizational Behavior and Management: A Contingency Approach (Chicago: St. Clair, 1977), p. 98. It is important to keep in mind here that “desired behavior” represents behavior defined by the supervisor, not the employee. Thus, for praise to be a reinforcer, not only must it be valued by the employee, but it must directly follow the desired behavior and should be more intense as the behavior is closer to the ideal the supervisor has in mind. Praise thrown out at random is unlikely to reinforce the desired behavior. Third, there must be ample occasion for the reinforcer to be administered following desired behavior. If the reinforcer is tied to certain behavior that seldom occurs, then individuals will seldom be reinforced and will probably not associate this behavior with a reward. For example, if praise is only provided for truly exceptional performance, then it is unlikely to have a powerful impact on the desired behavior. It is important that the performance-reward contingencies be structured so that they are easily attainable. Avoidance Learning. A second method of reinforcement is avoidance learning , or negative reinforcement. Avoidance learning refers to seeking to avoid an unpleasant condition or outcome by following a desired behavior. Employees learn to avoid unpleasant situations by behaving in certain ways. If an employee correctly performs a task or is continually prompt in coming to work (see ), the supervisor may refrain from harassing, reprimanding, or otherwise embarrassing the employee. Presumably, the employee learns over time that engaging in correct behavior diminishes admonition from the supervisor. In order to maintain this condition, the employee continues to behave as desired. Extinction. The principle of extinction suggests that undesired behavior will decline as a result of a lack of positive reinforcement. If the perpetually tardy employee in the example in consistently fails to receive supervisory praise and is not recommended for a pay raise, we would expect this nonreinforcement to lead to an “extinction” of the tardiness. The employee may realize, albeit subtly, that being late is not leading to desired outcomes, and she may try coming to work on time. Punishment. Finally, a fourth strategy for behavior change used by managers and supervisors is punishment. Punishment is the administration of unpleasant or adverse outcomes as a result of undesired behavior. An example of the application of punishment is for a supervisor to publicly reprimand or fine an employee who is habitually tardy (see ). Presumably, the employee would refrain from being tardy in the future in order to avoid such an undesirable outcome. The most frequently used punishments (along with the most frequently used rewards) are shown in . Frequently Used Rewards and Punishments Rewards Punishments Pay raise Oral reprimands Bonus Written reprimands Promotion Ostracism Praise and recognition Criticism from superiors Awards Suspension Self-recognition Demotion Sense of accomplishment Reduced authority Increased responsibility Undesired transfer Time off Termination (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) The use of punishment is indeed one of the most controversial issues of behavior change strategies. Although punishment can have positive work outcomes—especially if it is administered in an impersonal way and as soon as possible after the transgression—negative repercussions can also result when employees either resent the action or feel they are being treated unfairly. These negative outcomes from punishment are shown in . Thus, although punishment represents a potent force in corrective learning, its use must be carefully considered and implemented. In general, for punishment to be effective the punishment should “fit the crime” in severity, should be given in private, and should be explained to the employee. Potential Negative Consequences of Punishment (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Detracting a Workplace Bully Studies showcase that nearly 50 percent of employees in the U.S. workforce face bullying at one point in time. All types of bullying, not just discrimination or harassment, are important to consider. Angela Anderson was working for a law school administration council and experienced bullying firsthand. Often her manager would yell at her in front of other coworkers, and it was clear to Angela that she was not well-liked. Unfortunately it was not just Angela who felt the wrath of this manager, who often handled interactions with other employees the same way. Many of the employees, including Angela, attempted to appease their bullying manager, but nothing would help. One day Angela was threatened by her manager, and before Angela could reach the HR department, she was fired. This example is an extreme case, but being able to take recourse against unwanted and disruptive employee behavior is an important action for any workplace manager. Questions: What steps can you take to ensure that your company can detract from employees’ bullying behavior? What actions should an employee take if they are experiencing unwanted behaviors from another employee or manager? What other departments should be involved when developing a plan and policies for how to handle unacceptable workplace behavior? Sources: Acceptable and Unacceptable Behaviours, University of Cambridge website, accessed January 15, 2019, https://www.hr.admin.cam.ac.uk/policies-procedures/dignity-work-policy/guidance-managers-and-staff/guidance-managers/acceptable-and; Hedges, Kristi, How to Change Your Employee’s Behavior,” Forbes , March, 4, 2015, https://www.forbes.com/sites/work-in-progress/2015/03/04/how-to-change-your-employees-behavior/#c32ad4b6732a; and Kane, Sally, Workplace Bullying: True Stories, Statistics and Tips, The Balance Careers , January 29, 2019, https://www.thebalancecareers.com/bullying-stories-2164317. In summary, positive reinforcement and avoidance learning focus on bringing about the desired response from the employee. With positive reinforcement the employee behaves in a certain way in order to gain desired rewards, whereas with avoidance learning the employee behaves in order to avoid certain unpleasant outcomes. In both cases, however, the behavior desired by the supervisor is enhanced. In contrast, extinction and punishment focus on supervisory attempts to reduce the incidence of undesired behavior. That is, extinction and punishment are typically used to get someone to stop doing something the supervisor doesn’t like. It does not necessarily follow that the individual will begin acting in the most desired, or correct, manner. Often students have difficulty seeing the distinction between avoidance and extinction or in understanding how either could have a significant impact on behavior. Two factors are important to keep in mind. The first we will simply call the “history effect.” Not being harassed could reinforce an employee’s prompt arrival at work if in the past the employee had been harassed for being late. Arriving on time and thereby avoiding the past harassment would reinforce arriving on time. This same dynamic would hold true for extinction. If the employee had been praised in the past for arriving on time, then arrived late and was not praised, this would serve to weaken the tendency to arrive late. The second factor we will call the “social effect.” For example, if you see others harassed when they arrive late and then you are not harassed when you arrive on time, this could reinforce your arriving at work on time. Again, this same dynamic would hold true for extinction. If you had observed others being praised for arriving on time, then not receiving praise when you arrived late would serve to weaken the tendency to arrive late. From a managerial perspective, questions arise about which strategy of behavioral change is most effective. Advocates of behavioral change strategies, such as Skinner, answer that positive reinforcement combined with extinction is the most suitable way to bring about desired behavior. There are several reasons for this focus on the positive approach to reinforcement. First, although punishment can inhibit or eliminate undesired behavior, it often does not provide information to the individual about how or in which direction to change. Also, the application of punishment may cause the individual to become alienated from the work situation, thereby reducing the chances that useful change can be effected. Similarly, avoidance learning tends to emphasize the negative; that is, people are taught to stay clear of certain behaviors, such as tardiness, for fear of repercussions. In contrast, it is felt that combining positive reinforcement with the use of extinction has the fewest undesirable side effects and allows individuals to receive the rewards they desire. A positive approach to reinforcement is believed by some to be the most effective tool management has to bring about favorable changes in organizations. Schedules of Reinforcement Having examined four distinct strategies for behavioral change, we now turn to an examination of the various ways, or schedules , of administering these techniques. As noted by Costello and Zalkind, “The speed with which learning takes place and also how lasting its effects will be is determined by the timing of reinforcement.” T. W. Costello and S. S. Zalkind, Psychology in Administration: A Research Orientation (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p. 193. Thus, a knowledge of the types of schedules of reinforcement is essential to managers if they are to know how to choose rewards that will have maximum impact on employee performance. Although there are a variety of ways in which rewards can be administered, most approaches can be categorized into two groups: continuous and partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedules. A continuous reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior every time it occurs. For example, a manager could praise (or pay) employees every time they perform properly. With the time and resource constraints most managers work under, this is often difficult, if not impossible. So, most managerial reward strategies operate on a partial schedule. A partial reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior at specific intervals, not every time desired behavior is exhibited. Compared to continuous schedules, partial reinforcement schedules lead to slower learning but stronger retention. Thus, learning is generally more permanent. Four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules can be identified: (1) fixed interval, (2) fixed ratio, (3) variable interval, and (4) variable ratio (see ). Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement Effects on Behavior When Applied Effects on Behavior When Terminated Example Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis Leads to average and irregular performance Quick extinction of behavior Weekly paycheck Fixed ratio Reward consistently tied to output Leads quickly to very high and stable performance Quick extinction of behavior Piece-rate pay system Variable interval Reward given at variable intervals around some average time Leads to moderately high and stable performance Slow extinction of behavior Monthly performance appraisal and reward at random times each month Variable ratio Reward given at variable output levels around some average output Leads to very high performance Slow extinction of behavior Sales bonus tied to selling X accounts, but X constantly changes around some mean (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Fixed-Interval Schedule. A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule rewards individuals at specified intervals for their performance, as with a biweekly paycheck. If employees perform even minimally, they are paid. This technique generally does not result in high or sustained levels of performance because employees know that marginal performance usually leads to the same level of reward as high performance. Thus, there is little incentive for high effort and performance. Also, when rewards are withheld or suspended, extinction of desired behavior occurs quickly. Many of the recent job redesign efforts in organizations were prompted by recognition of the need for alternate strategies of motivation rather than paying people on fixed-interval schedules. Fixed-Ratio Schedule. The second fixed schedule is the fixed-ratio schedule. Here the reward is administered only upon the completion of a given number of desired responses. In other words, rewards are tied to performance in a ratio of rewards to results. A common example of the fixed-ratio schedule is a piece-rate pay system, whereby employees are paid for each unit of output they produce. Under this system, performance rapidly reaches high levels. In fact, according to Hamner, “The response level here is significantly higher than that obtained under any of the interval (time-based) schedules.” Hamner, op. cit., p. 105. On the negative side, however, performance declines sharply when the rewards are withheld, as with fixed-interval schedules. Variable-Interval Schedule. Using variable reinforcement schedules, both variable-interval and variable-ratio reinforcements are administered at random times that cannot be predicted by the employee. The employee is generally not aware of when the next evaluation and reward period will be. Under a variable-interval schedule, rewards are administered at intervals of time that are based on an average. For example, an employee may know that on the average her performance is evaluated and rewarded about once a month, but she does not know when this event will occur. She does know, however, that it will occur sometime during the interval of a month. Under this schedule, effort and performance will generally be high and fairly stable over time because employees never know when the evaluation will take place. Variable-Ratio Schedule. Finally, a variable-ratio schedule is one in which rewards are administered only after an employee has performed the desired behavior a number of times, with the number changing from the administration of one reward to the next but averaging over time to a certain ratio of number of performances to rewards. For example, a manager may determine that a salesperson will receive a bonus for every 15th new account sold. However, instead of administering the bonus every 15th sale (as in a fixed-interval schedule), the manager may vary the number of sales that is necessary for the bonus, from perhaps 10 sales for the first bonus to 20 for the second. On the average, however, the 15:1 ratio prevails. If the employee understands the parameters, then the “safe” level of sales, or the level of sales most likely to result in a bonus, is in excess of 15. Consequently, the variable-ratio schedule typically leads to high and stable performance. Moreover, extinction of desired behavior is slow. Which of these four schedules of reinforcement is superior? In a review of several studies comparing the various techniques, Hamner concludes: The necessity for arranging appropriate reinforcement contingencies is dramatically illustrated by several studies in which rewards were shifted from a response-contingent (ratio) to a time-contingent (interval) basis. During the period in which rewards were made conditional upon occurrence of the desired behavior, the appropriate response patterns were exhibited at a consistently high level. When the same rewards were given based on time and independent of the worker’s behavior, there was a marked drop in the desired behavior. The reinstatements of the performance-contingent reward schedule promptly restored the high level of responsiveness. In other words, the performance-contingent (or ratio) reward schedules generally lead to better performance than the time-contingent (or interval) schedules, regardless of whether such schedules are fixed or variable. We will return to this point in a subsequent chapter on performance appraisal and reward systems. Two additional approaches to learning are found in the work of David Kolb and Mel Silberman. Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the bases’. The Four stages are achieved when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences. Silberman in his book Active Training , identified eight qualities of an effective and active learning experience. The eight qualities are: a moderate level of content; a balance between affective, behavioral, and cognitive learning, a variety of learning approaches, opportunities for group participation, encouraging participants to share their expertise, recycling concepts and skills learned earlier, advocating real-life problem solving, and allowing time for re-entry. David Kolb, Experiential Learning , 2nd Edition, (Pearson FT Press: New York, 2015) and Mel Silberman, Elaine Beich and Carol Auerbach, Active Training , (Wiley: New York, 2016). Shaping a Salesperson’s Behavior Sharon Johnson worked for a publishing company based in Nashville, Tennessee, that sold a line of children’s books directly to the public through a door-to-door sales force. Sharon had been a very successful salesperson and was promoted first to district and then to regional sales manager after just four years with the company. Sales bonuses were fixed, and a fixed-dollar bonus was tied to every $1,000 in sales over a specific minimum quota. However, there was a wide variety of rewards, from praise to gift certificates, that were left to Sharon’s discretion. Sharon knew from her organizational behavior class that giving out praise to those who liked it and gifts to those who preferred them was an important means of reinforcing desired behavior, and she had been quite successful in implementing this principle. She also knew that if you reinforced a behavior that was “on the right track” to the ideal behavior you wanted out of a salesperson, eventually you could shape their behavior, almost without their realizing it. Sharon had one particular salesperson, Lyle, that she thought had great potential, yet his weekly sales were somewhat inconsistent and often lower than she thought possible. When Lyle was questioned about his performance, he indicated that sometimes he felt that the families he approached could not afford the books he was selling and so he did not think it was right to push the sale too hard. Although Sharon argued that it was not Lyle’s place to decide for others what they could or could not afford, Lyle still felt uncomfortable about utilizing his normal sales approach with these families. Sharon believed that through subtle reinforcement of certain behaviors she could shape Lyle’s behavior and that over time he would increasingly use his typical sales approach with the families he thought could not afford the books. For example, she knew that in the cases of families Lyle thought could not afford the books, he spent only 3.5 minutes in the house compared to 12.7 minutes in homes of families he judged able to afford the books. Sharon believed that if she praised Lyle when the average time he spent in each family’s home was quite similar that Lyle would increase the time he spent in the homes of families he judged unable to afford the books. She believed that the longer he spent in these homes, the more likely Lyle was to utilize his typical sales approach. This was just one of several ways Sharon thought she could shape Lyle’s behavior without trying to change his mind about pushing books onto people he thought could not afford them. Sharon saw no ethical issues in this case until she told a friend about it and the friend questioned whether it was ethical to utilize learning and reinforcement techniques to change people’s behavior “against their will” even if they did not realize that this was happening. Source: This ethical challenge is based on a true but disguised case observed by author J. Stewart Black. What is reinforcement, and how can it be applied to motivation? What are the four strategies to use for behavioral change? What is the significance of schedules in changing behavior? What are the best practices that organizations utilize to train employees in new job skills? Reinforcement causes a certain behavior to be repeated or inhibited. Positive reinforcement is the practice of presenting someone with an attractive outcome following a desired behavior. Avoidance learning occurs when someone attempts to avoid an unpleasant condition or outcome by behaving in a way desired by others. Punishment is the administration of an unpleasant or adverse outcome following an undesired behavior. Reinforcement schedules may be continuous or partial. Among the partial reinforcement schedules are (1) fixed interval, (2) fixed ratio, (3) variable interval, and (4) variable ratio. Avoidance learning Refers to seeking to avoid an unpleasant condition or outcome by following a desired behavior. Continuous reinforcement Rewards desired behavior every time it occurs. Extinction The principle that suggests that undesired behavior will decline as a result of a lack of positive reinforcement. Partial reinforcement Rewards desired behavior at specific intervals, not every time desired behavior is exhibited. Positive reinforcement Consists of presenting someone with an attractive outcome following a desired behavior. Punishment The administration of unpleasant or adverse outcomes as a result of undesired behavior. Reinforcement Anything that causes a certain behavior to be repeated or inhibited.

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Behavior Modification in Organizations How do managers and organizations reduce undesirable employee behavior while reinforcing desirable behavior? When the above principles and techniques are applied to the workplace, we generally see one of two approaches: behavior modification or behavioral self-management . Both approaches rest firmly on the principles of learning described above. Because both of these techniques have wide followings in corporations, we shall review them here. First, we look at the positive and negative sides of behavior modification. Behavior modification is the use of operant conditioning principles to shape human behavior to conform to desired standards defined by superiors. In recent years, behavior modification has been applied in a wide variety of organizations. In most cases, positive results are claimed. There is interest in the technique as a management tool to improve performance and reduce costs. Because of its emphasis on shaping behavior, it is more appropriate to think of behavior modification as a technique for motivating employees rather than as a theory of work motivation. It does not attempt to provide a comprehensive model of the various personal and job-related variables that contribute to motivation. Instead, its managerial thrust is how to motivate, and it is probably this emphasis that has led to its current popularity among some managers. Even so, we should be cautioned against the unquestioned acceptance of any technique until we understand the assumptions underlying the model. If the underlying assumptions of a model appear to be uncertain or inappropriate in a particular situation or organization, its use is clearly questionable. In Japan’s Hell Camp There is a saying in Japan that “the nail that sticks up gets hammered down.” This means that in corporate Japan employees are supposed to act together and move in unison. Individuality is not encouraged. Although Japanese companies use many techniques to train their employees to work hard and overcome adversity as a group, one rather notable approach that is used by many companies is known as Hell Camp. The purpose of Hell Camp is to develop employees so they can “concentrate under difficulty.” Representing something of a blend of Outward Bound and assertiveness training, Hell Camp is designed to toughen employees by putting them through numerous humiliating exercises (e.g., making them shout their company song outside the local train station). If they pass each exercise (for example, if they shout loud enough and with sufficient emotion), they are allowed to remove one of several “badges of shame.” Criteria for removing a badge are left vague, so, in essence, the program uses a variable-ratio reinforcement system. The employee never quite knows when the trainer will say she has succeeded; therefore, the most likely level of performance that will result in the removal of shame badges is that at the higher end of the spectrum of performance. If the employee succeeds during the week-long program in removing all of the badges and shows her sincerity and commitment, she graduates. If not, she must repeat the program. Far from the trust-building exercises and fun runs of modern corporate retreats, Japan’s executive Hell Camps were run with the discipline and intensity of military basic training. The goal was to whip into shape underperforming middle-management types, as well as give them the assertiveness the Japanese felt they lacked in dealing with Western competitors. It is estimated that over 50,000 Japanese managers have gone through the program. Companies like it because they see it as a way to keep managers from getting soft. As one executive notes, “Companies have been getting very soft, very weak in their way of demanding excellence.” It is thought that the harassment received during Hell Camp and the reinforcement following satisfactory task accomplishment instill character, and Japanese companies show no sign of losing interest in the program. Sources: Richarz, Allan, “ The Intense Corporate ‘Hell Camps’ of 1980s Japan,” Atlas Obscura, May 30, 2017, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/hell-camp-japan-80s; Phallon, R., “Hell Camp,” Forbes, June 18, 1984; Neill, Michael and Lustig, David, “ A 13-Day Japanese Boot Camp Shows U.S. Executives How to Succeed in Business Through Suffering,” People, May 30, 1988, https://people.com/archive/a-13-day-japanese-boot-camp-shows-u-s-executives-how-to-succeed-in-business-through-suffering-vol-29-no-21/. Assumptions of Behavior Modification The foundation of behavior modification as a technique of management rests on three ideas. B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Knopf, 1971). First, advocates of behavior modification believe that individuals are basically passive and reactive (instead of proactive). They tend to respond to stimuli in their environment rather than assuming personal responsibility in initiating behavior. This assertion is in direct contrast to cognitive theories of motivation (such as expectancy/valence theory), which hold that individuals make conscious decisions about their present and future behaviors and take an active role in shaping their environment. Second, advocates of behavior modification focus on observable and measurable behavior instead of on unobservable needs, attitudes, goals, or motivational levels. In contrast, cognitive theories focus on both observable and unobservable factors as they relate to motivation. Social learning theory, in particular, argues that individuals can change their behavior simply by observing others and noticing the punishments or rewards that the observed behaviors produce. Third, behavior modification stresses that permanent changes can be brought about only as a result of reinforcement. Behaviors that are positively reinforced will be repeated (that is, learned), whereas behaviors not so reinforced will diminish (according to the law of effect, discussed earlier). Designing a Behavior Modification Program If behavior modification techniques are to work, their application must be well-designed and systematically applied. Systematic attempts to implement these programs typically go through five phases (see ). Steps in Implementing a Behavior Modification Program (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) Establishing Clear Behavioral Criteria. First, management attempts to define and clearly specify the behavioral aspects of acceptable performance. Management must be able to designate what constitutes acceptable behavior in terms that employees can understand, and this specification must be in objective, measurable terms. Examples of behavioral criteria include good attendance, promptness in arriving for work, and completing tasks on schedule. Sometimes it is difficult to determine suitable objective indicators of successful performance. For instance, as a training director of a major airline asked, “How do you quantify what a flight attendant does?” Even so, there are many situations and work behaviors that do lend themselves to clear specification. Conducting a Performance Audit. Once acceptable behavioral criteria have been specified, a performance audit can be done. Because management is concerned about the extent to which employees are successfully meeting the behavioral criteria, the audit is aimed at pinpointing trouble spots where desired behaviors are not being carried out. For instance, a review of attendance records of various department may reveal a department in which absenteeism or tardiness is unusually high. Action can then be taken to focus on the problem area. In short, the performance audit aims to identify discrepancies between what management sees as desired or acceptable behavior and actual behavior. Setting Specific Behavioral Goals. Third, specific behavioral goals must be set for each employee. Failure to specify concrete behavioral goals is a primary reason for the failure of many behavior modification programs. Examples of such goals are decreasing absenteeism or tardiness, reducing product defects on an assembly line, and meeting production schedules. The goals should be both realistic (that is, reasonably achievable by the employees) and acceptable to the employee. Otherwise, the goals lack relevance, and resulting effort will diminish. Evaluating Results. Next, employees and supervisors keep track of the employee’s performance record as compared to the preset behavioral criteria and goals. Discrepancies are noted and discussed. For example, the record could provide employees with continuous feedback concerning the extent to which they are on target in meeting their defect reduction goals. Administering Feedback and Rewards. Finally, on the basis of the assessment of the employee’s performance record, the supervisor administers feedback and, where warranted, praise. For example, praise could strengthen the employees’ efforts to reduce defects (positive reinforcement). The withholding of praise for defect levels deemed less than adequate or below established goals could cause employees to stop behavior that was contributing to defects or work harder to reduce defects (extinction). Central to this phase of the process is the notion of shaping . Shaping is the process of improving performance incrementally, step by step. Suppose that an employee is absent 30 percent of the time during one month. To improve attendance, we would set a goal of being absent only 5 percent of the time. After implementing the above procedure, we find that absenteeism falls to 20 percent in the second month. Although this is not at goal level, it is clearly an improvement and, as such, is rewarded. The next month, absenteeism falls to 15 percent, and, again, we reward the incremental improvement. Hence, by this incremental approach, the employee gets ever closer to the desired level of behavior. In other words, we have “shaped” her behavior. Behavior Modification in Practice There are many ways to see how the principles of behavior modification can be applied in organizational settings. Perhaps one of the best examples can be found in a classic study carried out by Luthans and Kreitner. F. Luthans and R. Kreitner, Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond (Glenview, III.: Scott, Foresman, 1985), pp. 150–159. These researchers carried out a field experiment in a medium-sized light manufacturing plant. Two separate groups of supervisors were used in the study. In one group (the experimental group—see Appendix A ), the supervisors were trained in the techniques of behavior modification. This program was called “behavioral contingency management,” or BCM. Included here were ten 90-minute lectures conducted over 10 weeks on behavioral change strategies. The second group of supervisors (the control group) received no such training. Following this, the trained supervisors were asked to implement what they had learned among their groups; obviously, the control group supervisors were given no such instructions. After 10 weeks, group performance was examined for all groups. Two types of data were collected. First, the researchers were interested in any possible behavioral changes among the various workers in the experimental groups (compared to the control groups) as a result of the behavior modification efforts. Significantly, the following changes were noted for these groups in areas that were targeted for change: (1) the frequency of complaints among group members declined, (2) the scrap rates declined, (3) group quality indicators increased, and (4) the frequency of individual performance problems declined. No such changes were recorded for the control groups not exposed to behavior modification. The second measure taken focused on the overall performance rates for the various groups. This was calculated as a measure of direct labor effectiveness for each group. Again, overall group performance—that is, labor effectiveness ratings—improved significantly in the experimental groups but remained unchanged in the control groups. This can be seen in . The researchers concluded that the introduction of the behavioral modification program led to substantive improvements in factory performance. Intergroup Comparison of Performance using BCM (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA-NC-SA 4.0 license) What is behavior modification? What is a performance audit, and what are the components? How do managers and organizations reduce undesirable employee behavior while reinforcing desirable behavior? Behavior modification is the use of operant principles to shape human behavior to conform to desired standards as defined by superiors. A behavior modification program follows five steps: (1) establish clear objectives, (2) conduct a performance audit, (3) set specific goals and remove obstacles, (4) evaluate results against preset criteria, and (5) administer feedback and praise where warranted. Behavior modification The use of operant conditioning principles to shape human behavior to conform to desired standards defined by superiors. Behavioral criteria Defining what constitutes acceptable behavior in terms that employees can understand in objective, measurable terms. Behavioral self-management The use of operant conditioning principles to shape your own behavior to conform to desired standards defined by superiors. Performance audit Aims to identify discrepancies between what management sees as desired or acceptable behavior and actual behavior. Shaping The process of improving performance incrementally, step by step.

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