Why Anthropology Matters Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain the characteristics of anthropology that make it uniquely relevant today. Describe and give an example of anthropological values. Analyze the importance of anthropological skills. A Uniquely Relevant Discipline As you learned in What is Anthropology? , anthropology is a unique discipline. Not only does it study all aspects of what it means to be human across time, with a focus on evolution and how changes occur in our bodies and cultures, but it also examines the ways in which we adapt to different social and physical environments. This process of adaptation is a primary source of cultural and biological diversity. Anthropology is also holistic, examining the context of and interconnections between many parts of our lives and weaving together our biology, our traditions, and the diverse social and physical environments in which we live. The anthropological approach views humans as part of a wider system of meaning, as actors and change-makers within a dynamic environment populated by others. Across cultures, those others can include other species (plant and animal) and spirits as well as other human beings. It is the human ability to imagine and construct the universe in which we live that most interests anthropologists. In most four-field introductory classes, students are surprised at the breadth of anthropology, but this wide lens is the cornerstone of the discipline. Today, anthropologists increasingly approach the study of humans as a dynamic construct. We see humans as agents in motion, undergoing change as a normal state of being, rather than as objects in a petri dish, preserved and inert. This means that anthropological studies are by necessity messy and in flux, as our subject matter makes change. Because holism, adaptation, and adjustment are critical to anthropological studies, we bring an especially powerful lens to attempts to understand complex, large-scale global problems. Few of our challenges today are simple. Solving the climate crisis requires changes not just to our use of fossil fuels but also to the ways in which we produce food, bathe, heat and cool our houses, and travel. Each culture and each community must be aware of its power and potential to enact positive change. Both a scientific and a humanistic approach are needed to solve our current global challenges. Anthropological Values The anthropological perspective is grounded by principles and standards of behavior considered important to understanding other people and their ways of life. These include the value of all cultures; the value of diversities, biological and cultural; the importance of change over time; and the importance of cultural relativism and acknowledging of the dignity of all human beings. These anthropological values undergird our discipline. The study of culture intersects with each of the four subfields and highlights the importance of diversity. From the beginning, humans have used ingenuity to tackle problems and provide solutions to challenging circumstances. Anthropologists study and value this extraordinary process of human creativity, documenting it in living and past cultures, in our languages and symbol systems, and even in our bones, through cultural procedures such as elongating women’s necks (as is practiced by the Kayan people of Myanmar) or flattening/elongating people’s heads (practiced by the Chinookan peoples of North America). Even our diets, which are cultural artifacts of adaptation, are written on our bones. The consumption of corn, for example, is measurable as carbon isotopes in human bone. Anthropology celebrates this human uniqueness and diversity, understanding that different ways of being are humanity’s greatest legacy—a foundation embodied in the concept of the ethnosphere. Kayan women use neck rings from an early age to make their necks appear longer. The rings actually push down the clavicle and compress the rib cage. This is a sign of beauty among the Kayan. (credit: “IMG_0547” by Brian Jeffery Beggerly/flickr, CC BY 2.0) Anthropological studies produce documentation of immeasurable worth. Through anthropological research, we collect, preserve, and share the stories of living humans as well as human artifacts, sites, and bodies. Together, these documents form a valuable database. Field notes and artifacts from the earliest anthropologists document diversity that has since disappeared. Franz Boas taught his students how to make life masks of the people they were studying to document the physical diversity of different groups of people (A. Singer 1986). This vast collection of some 2,000 life masks is now preserved at the Smithsonian Institution as an archival resource for understanding environment, culture, and biological adaptations. Many masks document ethnic groups that are now extinct. Anthropology collections are of inestimable value for future research. The Council for the Preservation of Anthropological Records , or CoPAR , works with anthropologists, librarians, and archivists to obtain and preserve anthropological records and make them available both for the study of human diversity and as a record of the history of the discipline. The organization has two primary goals. The first is to educate anthropologists on the value and urgency of saving documents. The second is to help train archivists and information specialists in best practices for handling the sometimes very sensitive information within these documents while also facilitating them in making sure that the information is available to scholars anywhere (Silverman and Parezo 1995). Diversity is a product of adaptation and change over time. As cultural groups encountered different challenges in their environments, they used ingenuity and innovation to address these challenges, sometimes borrowing other cultures’ solutions when applicable. In the high Andes of South America, the steep mountainous inclines mean that there is little flat ground for growing food. In response to this challenge, Inca farmers used terrace farming , building steplike terraces into the hillside to create areas of flatter surfaces for growing crops (see ). Forms of terrace farming are found all over Asia and in parts of Africa, with cultures in each area adapting the use of terraces to meet specific climatic conditions and crop requirements (e.g., paddy rice cultivation requires small earthwork borders to allow for flooding). In short, there is no one way to do something; every solution is calibrated to particular needs. Today, with increasing urgency to minimize our carbon footprints, architects are designing homes to meet clients’ demands for net-positive houses —that is, houses that produce more energy than they consume through solar power and lower-energy appliances (Stamp 2020). As we work toward reducing our dependence on fossil fuels, the architectural and construction industries are beginning to adapt to these changing needs and demands. Adaptations: (left) By cutting these steplike terraces into the mountain, Andean farmers created more arable land for farming. (right) In this net-positive house in Australia, the solar panels, increased insulation, and lower-energy appliances all contribute to a “net zero” energy design. (credit: (left) “Peru Terrace Farming” by J. Thompson/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; (right) “The Zero-Emission House” by Keirissa Lawson, CSIRO/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0) Besides culture and diversity, anthropology is also about the human power to change. Through adaption, evolution, and even acclimatization (short-term adaptation to environmental change), the human body has evolved alongside human cultures to make us a species uniquely capable of adapting to almost any environmental or social conditions. Humans can survive even in such inhospitable environments as outer space (thanks to the human-designed technology that makes up the International Space Station) and the polar regions (where human-built structures and protective gear make habitation possible at McMurdo Station in Antarctica). And humans have survived health crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic and historical tragedies such as slavery and warfare. The ability to change, redirect, reassess, reimagine, and innovate has sustained our species across time. Diversity matters more today than ever. Where diversity is valued, there is greater potential for innovation and collaboration. A central value of anthropology, evident in both research and applied work across communities, is anthropologists’ focus not only on understanding other cultures and different ways of living but also on translating them—that is, communicating what is learned across cultures in order to share it more broadly. The most important anthropological value, however, is cultural relativism , or suspending judgment about other cultures until one gains a clear understanding of the meaning and significance of what those cultures do and believe. Cultural relativism requires us to understand the rationale, purpose, and meaning of cultural traditions and knowledge before we decide on their validity. And it provides significant advantages in better understanding others: It allows us to see the worth, dignity, and respect of all persons, allowing for initial exchange and collaboration between “us” and “them.” It reminds us to approach the study of other cultures without automatically judging them as inferior, thus minimizing ethnocentrism. It helps us keep an open mind about the potentials and possibilities inherent in our species. First formally introduced by Franz Boas , cultural relativism laid the groundwork for the discipline of anthropology, a science that would study what it means to be human in all its diverse forms. Boas and his students worked to apply cultural relativism across racial, ethnic, linguistic, and socioeconomic boundaries, documenting the rich cultural traditions of Indigenous peoples, minority communities, and immigrants. The concept, though, has undergone a great deal of debate since the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations. Is anything okay if a culture decides it is? Are there any boundaries to cultural relativism? Do we have to accept everything that a group does, or can an anthropologist ultimately judge that a practice is damaging, harmful, and not deserving of being respected and upheld? While these debates remain, anthropologists still value cultural relativism (and the worthiness of other peoples and cultures), although perhaps in a modified form that anthropologist Michael Brown calls cultural relativism 2.0 . As Brown states, cultural relativism 2.0 is “a call to pause before judging, to listen before speaking, and to widen one’s views before narrowing them” (2008, 380). In other words, first give people a chance . Anthropology is important today, perhaps even more than when it formally began some 150 years ago. As French anthropologist Maurice Godelier says: Anthropology—together with history—is one of the social science disciplines best able to help us understand the complexity of our now globalized world and the nature of the conflicts and crisis we are experiencing. In such a world, it would be irresponsible and indecent for anthropologists [to] stop trying to understand others. (2016, 75–76) values principles and standards of behavior that are considered important.

Social Sciences


What Anthropologists Can Do Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe the primary areas where the anthropological approach is relevant. Identify the ways that anthropologists are specifically trained for today’s challenges. Explain how anthropological skills can help address contemporary problems. What Anthropologists Do Today Anthropologists are at work now to make a difference in our lives. There are various ways in which anthropologists and those utilizing an anthropological lens or framework contribute critically needed skills and resources in the 21st century. Research . Sometimes referred to as pure or theoretical research, fieldwork is conducted in all kinds of settings in order to answer practical and theoretical questions that form the basis of anthropology. How do cultures change? How do artifacts and technology evolve within a culture? How do trade and exchange affect the development of cultures? Many of the chapters in this text feature stories about anthropological research and its importance in understanding what it means to be human. Each of the subfields engages in distinct types of field research as ways to test theories and advance our knowledge of human beings. Theoretical research is the backbone of academic anthropology. Research and development . Research and development are associated with practical applications, such as creating or redesigning products or services for governments or corporations. Anthropologists who work in research and development contribute what they know about human behavior and the world around us to projects that serve the interests of human organizations and the human community. Cultural anthropologist Genevieve Bell worked for 18 years in research and development for Intel Corporation, the world’s largest semiconductor chip manufacturer. Her focus at Intel was on user experience, researching how people use technology and apply it in their lives with the goal of designing more relevant and user-friendly products. Intel valued the way Bell’s deep knowledge of human behavior and human culture helped the company better anticipate their clients’ needs. Bell’s insights helped make Intel a more competitive corporation. She has described her job as “mak[ing] sense of what makes people tick, what delights and frustrates them, and . . . us[ing] those insights to help shape next generation technology innovations. I sit happily at the intersection of cultural practices and technology adoption” ( City Eye 2017). Anthropologist Genevieve Bell works with tech and engineering industries, applying anthropological concepts to make technology more user-friendly and better adapted to our everyday lives. (credit: “Genevieve Bell” by Kevin Krejci/flickr, CC BY 2.0) In a TED Salon talk titled “ 6 Big Ethical Questions about the Future of AI ,” Bell explains that the technological revolution of artificial intelligence is already in progress, affecting many aspects of our lives. She says that the challenge now is to use artificial intelligence “safely, sustainably, and responsibly.” Bell advocates for human-scale technology. Using skills and knowledge gained through her training as an anthropologist, she looks at the ways in which technology, culture, and environment interact. In her work today, she continues to use an anthropological approach: “It’s about thinking differently, asking different kinds of questions, looking holistically at the world and the systems” (Bell 2020). Bell left Intel in 2017 to serve as a distinguished professor at the Australian National University College of Engineering and Computer Science, where she serves as the director of the School of Cybernetics and continues to research the interface between culture and technology. Public policy . Anthropologists are involved in public policy making all over the world. Anthropological skills and outlooks are increasingly valuable to the development of principles and regulatory measures that increase public safety and resolve real-world problems. Applying a holistic approach to these issues allows government and nongovernment organizations to avoid some problems and better anticipate future challenges. The American Anthropological Association (AAA) has identified five public policy areas that would greatly benefit from an anthropological approach. In each of these areas, the AAA hopes to involve more anthropologists in public policy in the 21st century and to work collectively to message international, national, and local agencies about the importance of anthropological knowledge and involvement: Social and cultural aspects of health : identifying ways in which categories of race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and age hinder medical delivery. Culture and diversity in education : understanding the diversities that affect educational delivery and the gaps that exist in current educational policies due to such things as changing demographics and new information technologies. An interdisciplinary approach to the environment : focusing on the ways in which anthropological knowledge contributes to understanding the human dimensions of the environment and interfacing with federal agencies actively seeking to support this type of environmental research. Economic, social, and cultural aspects of the information revolution : examining the human dimensions of the information revolution and the impact that it is having on our work and personal lives. Globalization and its impact on public policy : specifically, focusing on issues of conflict and war and the effects of globalization on transnational communities. One of the challenges that anthropologists face is better educating governments and corporations about the skills they can bring to understanding and addressing contemporary problems. Working collaboratively within and beyond the discipline is important for advancing an awareness of the possibilities that anthropologists offer as public policy advocates. Gillian Tett 1967- British cultural anthropologist Gillian Tett is a journalist and the U.S. managing editor of the Financial Times . (credit: “Gillian Tett FT Autumn Party 2014 Crop” by Financial Times/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0) Personal History: Gillian Tett is a British author and journalist who trained in anthropology. She studied at Clare College, Cambridge University, where she earned her PhD in social anthropology after conducting doctoral research in Tajikistan, in what was then the Soviet Union. Tett intentionally chose to turn her anthropological gaze outside of the university setting, where she believed her training would have greater impact. Area of Anthropology and Importance of Her Work: Though is trained as a social anthropologist, Gillian Tett works for the Financial Times , a global daily newspaper, as chair of the editorial board and editor at large in addition to her role as a journalist. Her articles on finance, business, and political economy appear in the Financial Times and in various leading newspapers and media outlets. She forecast early warnings about the 2008 economic downturn, applying her anthropological knowledge and skills to understand emerging global economic patterns, and she participates frequently in conferences on finance and global economics. Tett also contributes to new directions in anthropology; at the joint 2019 American Anthropological Association and Canadian Anthropology Society/La société canadienne d’anthropologie Annual Meeting, she served as a discussant in a presidential session on the topic of breaking down silos in anthropology, Accomplishments in the Field: Tett has earned various commendations and awards in and outside of the field of anthropology, including the British Press Award for Business and Finance Journalist of the Year in both 2008 and 2009. She was awarded the President’s Medal of the British Academy in 2011, given in recognition of “academic-related service activity” beyond the academy. Her book Fool’s Gold: How Unrestrained Greed Corrupted a Dream, Shattered Global Markets, and Unleashed a Catastrophe (2009), which takes a cultural anthropological approach to analyzing the global economy and financial system, was a New York Times best seller and was chosen as the 2009 Financial Book of the Year by Spear’s magazine. In 2014, Tett received the Royal Anthropological Institute’s Marsh Award for Anthropology in the World, which “recognises an outstanding individual based outside academia, one who has shown how to apply anthropology or anthropological ideas to the better understanding of the world’s problems” (Royal Anthropological Institute 2021). Her latest book is Anthro-Vision: A New Way to See in Business and Life (2021), published by Simon & Schuster. Applied or practicing anthropology . Anthropologists are engaged in wide-ranging work on the ground in real-life situations, helping address numerous current and emerging needs in communities around the world. Many work within nongovernmental agencies. Some anthropologists are already engaged in efforts pertaining to the COVID-19 pandemic, gathering preliminary data and working to streamline access to treatment and preventative measures. In 2014, the WHO reached out to sociocultural anthropologists to help address an outbreak of the Ebola virus in Mali. They sought the help of these anthropologists as liaisons to connect with the local people and lessen their anxieties about the disease, help those recovering cope with the stigma of having had Ebola, and build a bridge between the community and the health system. They also sought anthropological direction on how best to interact with local people while respecting their culture and traditions. The WHO described some of the roles of the anthropologists who aided in this project: The social anthropologists have also helped train teams searching for Ebola patients and monitoring Ebola contacts, teaching them to make allowances for local culture and the rules of hospitality and politeness when visiting families. These factors are key to getting the message across and being heard by members of the community. (World Health Organization 2015) The global emergency of COVID-19 mobilized a number of anthropologists, especially those in the applied field of medical anthropology. Medical anthropologist Mark Nichter (2020), who has studied emerging diseases and global health for much of his career, was returning from fieldwork in India and Indonesia when COVID-19 cases started being diagnosed in the United States. He traveled from Asian countries, where people were wearing masks and showing a high level of concern for the disease, into Europe and then the United States, where there seemed to be little concern. These different attitudes prompted him to think about other pandemics he had experienced as a medical anthropologist and about how complex these global events can be. Deeply aware of issues of social inequality, he worried about the poor infrastructure conditions in so many countries and the dense populations in refugee camps. What would happen in water-insecure areas where accessing any kind of water, especially clean water for handwashing, was difficult? He wondered just how bad this was going to be as a global event. During lockdown in the United States, Nichter used his training as a medical anthropologist to create positive change within his community. He first developed a COVID-19 primer, explaining health concepts about COVID-19 and methods of slowing and preventing transmission in everyday terms to help professors and teachers educate themselves and their students. The primer quickly began circulating on campuses in the United States and around the world. Nichter also worked with fellow anthropologists in a special working group supported by the American Anthropological Association to identify research areas of critical need. Many of these research areas concerned structural threats and areas where mortality data were revealing disparities, indicating that certain populations were more vulnerable than others. Third, Nichter began advocating and working for COVID-19 testing resources, the development of contact tracing, and symptom monitoring to better contain outbreaks within communities. Lastly, he helped develop a health care worker support network with both online and grassroots resources, knowing that frontline workers would be those most taxed by the pandemic. Nichter advocates for what he calls anticipatory anthropology . In the context of medical anthropology, anticipatory anthropology acts to shore up the fault lines that have emerged in the global health system, working toward creating stronger resistance to the next health care emergency. “COVID-19 provides an opportunity to build alliances and momentum for significant health care reform” (Nichter 2020). Anthropological skills are increasingly vital to developing and communicating culturally relevant messages. While global health initiatives are very prominent within the field of applied and practicing anthropology, the range of interventions is wide. Applied anthropology projects might involve improved farming techniques and heirloom seed banks, better educational services, and even work on the front lines with persons displaced by war, migration, or climate emergencies. Anthropological Skills and Resources Anthropologists are trained to look at the larger context and understand how smaller, local environments fit into overarching forces. They aim to hold a multicultural perspective that represents various constituencies and to interact with people around them with the goal of better understanding where they are coming from and what things mean to them. Anthropologists gather and analyze data that reflects real life on the ground and in the streets . The central anthropological specialty is an unfettered interest in human beings. In 2020, career research and employment website Zippia interviewed a group of teaching and practicing anthropologists about the anthropological skills they believe are most valuable in today’s job market. The two quotes below illustrate the breadth of career preparation that anthropology provides: Organizations are looking for people who can articulate the value of their experiences. Anthropology provides a broad array of skills. Some [are] more general, such as critical thinking and written and oral communication and teamwork. Some skills are more specific, such as survey and excavation for archaeology positions, research design, data analysis skills (qualitative and quantitative), and familiarity with research ethics. — John Ziker Young graduates need to think quickly and with skepticism, read situations from multiple angles, and have openness to variable solutions. This means that they need skills in understanding pluralistic vantage points, judging where information comes from and who it benefits and who it hurts, and being gifted at recognizing and acknowledging their own biases. Anthropology teaches these skills as it prepares graduates for work in a wide array of fields. — Suzanne Morrissey (Stark et al. 2020) Anthropologists and anthropology students, undergraduate and graduate, fit into a wide array of careers and contribute valuable skills and resources to their communities everywhere. As people specialists, anthropologists understand how to approach diverse peoples, elicit information about and from them, and work with that information to understand broader situations. Some of the broadly applicable skills that different anthropologists have include interviewing; excavating; mapping; analyzing data using various types of methodologies, including mixed methods (combining qualitative and quantitative methods); applying ethics in difficult, emerging situations; and engaging with new technologies in the sciences. All of these are 21st-century skills and resources. However, the most advantageous of an anthropologist’s skills is an attitude of respect and dignity toward diverse peoples everywhere. In our global world, this may be the most important asset of all. As anthropologist Tim Ingold says, anthropologists “study ... with people” and “learn from them, not just about them” (2018, 32). How Anthropology Can Lead in the Future Career and employment trends today align with what anthropologists do, whether or not one is a full-time practicing anthropologist. Students heading into any fields that address the human condition, past or present, will benefit from studies in anthropology. Within colleges and universities across the world, there is a reemergence of transdisciplinary approaches that utilize methods and perspectives from multiple disciplines to study and propose solutions to complex problems. This educational model, sometimes called the matrix model (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineers, and Institute of Medicine 2005), has resulted in the development of new interdisciplinary degree programs such as the biomedical informatics program at Stanford University; the Indigenous food, energy, and water systems program at the University of Arizona; and the science, medicine, and technology in culture program at Union College. Training in anthropological holism is the ideal foundation for working in teams with multiple interests and a shared focus on the larger context. Specifically, the four-field approach in anthropology prepares researchers to apply a keen perception of the ways in which biology and culture interact and influence each other. With the increasing prominence of social media and grassroots communication across cultures, it is important that emerging leaders have the ability to interview people, elicit relevant information from them, and analyze what they think, do, and desire. Anthropologists are trained to interact with others, seek connections and patterns in what they observe, and analyze the symbolic significance of what they find. Anthropologists are also trained to work in the field, wherever and whatever the field may be , taking their offices and research labs into the communities in which they work and live. Accustomed to being flexible and adaptable to the needs of the situation and letting the field dictate how best to accomplish their work, anthropologists have the skills, technology, and experience to work well in a global community. In the 20th century, academia sought to become ever more specialized, constructing departments, specialties, and subspecialties to home in on very particular subjects such as a disease, a genre of literature, or a type of religion. This approach was an advance over the more generalist approach that was common in the 19th century, in which academics were trained in very broad fields such as medicine, ancient history, or culture. Now, in the 21st century, the shift is toward a more complex and multifaceted understanding of how we live and the challenges we face. Many anthropology programs today provide vocational skills and workplace training. There is a growing awareness that we need to develop the ability to think both generally and systematically (such as in an ecosystemic approach) while also seeking to understand the particularities of specific challenges. Anthropology, with its holistic approach, mixed methodology analyses, and deep, abiding appreciation of diversity and the dignity of all people, is situated at the crossroads of what comes next. This is how anthropology can guide us as we move into the future. As Geertz said, “We have turned out to be rather good at waddling in” (1985, 624). Anthropological skills are based on flexibility and adaptation to a changing world, open-mindedness and openness to new ideas, and a willingness to engage with complex issues in order to find solutions to problems facing our world today. The anthropological skillset is critical in the 21st century. You can read more about the important work of anthropologists today in the Profile features in each chapter. Through research and work such as the examples featured there, anthropologists are changing the world. Summary As a discipline, anthropology includes academic and applied aspects that focus on, respectively, developing new theories and solving practical problems. Today, we face a growing number of global problems, most of them linked to one another and to long-standing historical inequities and injustice. Many of the problems we experience in our local lives derive from these major issues, and every one of them intersects with and affects cultural traditions and contemporary social behaviors. In 2021, the United Nations identified 22 critical global issues that transcend national boundaries and affect people everywhere, with those who suffer various forms of injustice typically experiencing greater effects from these challenges than those living in more stable communities. Three of the challenges are major actions areas for philanthropic organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: climate change, gender inequality and gender-based violence, and global health. Intersecting with these global issues are the devastating losses we face in terms of biological, cultural, and linguistic diversity. The term ethnosphere , first coined by Canadian cultural anthropologist Wade Davis, refers to the sum total of all human knowledge across time—the human cultural legacy. The diverse ways in which we humans have solved or managed the challenges of our lives are a rich storehouse for our future. Too often, contemporary people feel we have little to learn from those who are different from us or who came before us, but the solutions to our current problems are founded upon this legacy. As globalization proceeds, conjoining our lives in myriad ways, it is important to remember that diversity is a storehouse of critical knowledge from the generations before us and the cultures around us, many of which are fighting today to survive. By preserving and valuing the ethnosphere’s diversity, we preserve ourselves, our children’s futures, and the hopes we have for our planet. The anthropological approach views humans as part of a wider system of meaning, as actors and change-makers within a dynamic environment populated by others. Across cultures, those others can include other species, plant and animal, and spirits as well as other human beings. It is the human ability to imagine and construct the universe in which we live that most interests anthropologists. The anthropological perspective is grounded by principles and standards of behavior considered important to understanding other people and their ways of life. These include the value of all cultures; the value of diversities, biological and cultural; the importance of change over time; the importance of cultural relativism; and an acknowledgment of the dignity of all human beings. These anthropological values undergird our discipline. Anthropological studies produce documentation of immeasurable worth. Through anthropological research, we collect, preserve, and share the stories of living humans as well as human artifacts, sites, and bodies. Today, anthropologists and those using an anthropological lens contribute to the 21st century in various ways, including through research, research and development, public policy, and applied or practicing anthropology. Career and employment trends today align with what anthropologists do, whether or not one is a full-time practicing anthropologist. Students heading into any field that addresses the human condition, past or present, will benefit from studies in anthropology. Critical Thinking Questions Global Challenges Choose three global challenges, and research more about them. Consider how these three global challenges are linked to one another and to long-standing historical inequities. Collect information on the current state of each problem in the United States and worldwide, what measures are being taken to mitigate the problem, and whether there are any local initiatives in your own community. Consider both campus and community organizations. Using what you have learned about anthropology, propose three anthropological skills that you could employ to help address each of these challenges. Bibliography Bass, Dina, and Bloomberg. 2020. “Bill and Melinda Gates Add Climate Change and Gender Equality to Their Foundation’s Focus.” Fortune , February 10, 2020. https://fortune.com/2020/02/10/bill-melinda-gates-foundation-climate-change-gender-equality-focus/. Bell, Genevieve. 2020. “6 Big Ethical Questions about the Future of AI.” Filmed October 2020. TED video, 14:39. https://www.ted.com/talks/genevieve_bell_6_big_ethical_questions_about_the_future_of_ai. Boss, Shira J. 2001. “Anthropologists on the Job.” Christian Science Monitor , January 2, 2001. https://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0102/p9s1.html. Brown, Michael F. 2008. “Cultural Relativism 2.0.” Current Anthropology 49 (3): 363–383. City Eye . 2017. “Genevieve Bell: A Cultural Anthropologist Studying Technological Innovations.” WeAreTheCity. September 22, 2017. https://wearethecity.com/genevieve-bell-anthropologist-technology/. Davis, Wade. 2001. Light at the Edge of the World: A Journey through the Realm of Vanishing Cultures . Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre. Davis, Wade. 2003. “An Interview with Anthropologist Wade Davis.” By Alex Chadwick. NPR. May 27, 2003. https://legacy.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2003/may/mali/davisinterview.html. Errick, Jennifer. 2015. “9 Wildlife Success Stories.” Park Advocate , National Parks Conservation Association. November 2, 2015. https://www.npca.org/articles/880-9-wildlife-success-stories. Geertz, Clifford. 1985. “Waddling In.” Times Literary Supplement , June 7, 1985, 623–624. Godelier, Maurice. 2016. “In Today’s World, Anthropology Is More Important Than Ever.” AIBR: Revista de Antropologia Iberoamericana 11 (1): 59–76. https://doi.org/10.11156/aibr.110104e. Harrell-Bond, B. E., and E. Voutira. 1992. “Anthropology and the Study of Refugees.” Anthropology Today 8 (4): 6–10. Henig, David. 2020. “Anthropology Has a Village Problem.” Etnofoor 32 (1): 139–144. Ingold, Tim. 2018. “Why Anthropology Matters.” British Academy Review , no. 32, 30–32. https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/publishing/review/32/why-anthropology-matters/. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineers, and Institute of Medicine. 2005. Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/11153/facilitating-interdisciplinary-research. Nichter, Mark. 2020. “Engaging the Pandemic.” Anthropology News , June 19, 2020. https://anthropology-news.org/articles/engaging-the-pandemic/. Redding, Terry, and Elizabeth K. Briody. 2020. “Breaking Down Silos in Anthropology.” Anthropology News , September 16, 2020. https://www.anthropology-news.org/articles/breaking-down-silos-in-anthropology/. Sandom, Christopher, Søren Faurby, Brody Sandel, and Jens-Christian Svenning. 2014. “Global Late Quaternary Megafauna Extinctions Linked to Humans, Not Climate Change.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281 (1787). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3254. Silverman, Sydel and Nancy J. Parezo. 1995. Preserving the Anthropological Record. 2nd ed. Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc. Singer, Andre, dir. 1986. The Shackles of Tradition: Franz Boas (1858–1942) . Video. London: Royal Anthropological Institute. Singer, Natasha. 2014. “Intel’s Sharp-Eyed Social Scientist.” New York Times , February 15, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/16/technology/intels-sharp-eyed-social-scientist.html. Stamp, Elizabeth. 2020. “How the Architecture Industry Is Reacting to Climate Change.” Architectural Digest , March 2, 2020. https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/climate-change-design-architecture. Sillitoe, Paul. 2007. “Anthropologists Only Need Apply: Challenges of Applied Anthropology.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13 (1): 147–165. Stark, Miriam, Brian Bates, John Ziker, Suzanne Morrissey, Amber VanDerwarker, Jeremy Spoon, Douglas Wilson, et al. 2020. “Experts Weigh In on Current Job Market Trends.” Zippia. December 13, 2020. https://www.zippia.com/anthropologist-jobs/trends/. United Nations. 2021. “Global Issues.” https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/. World Health Organization. 2015. “Anthropologists Work with Ebola-Affected Communities in Mali.” January 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20210121202145/https://www.who.int/features/2015/anthropologists-ebola-mali/en/.

Social Sciences


Preface About OpenStax OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit charitable corporation. Our mission is to make an amazing education accessible for all. Through our partnerships with philanthropic organizations and our alliance with other educational resource companies, we’re breaking down the most common barriers to learning. Because we believe that everyone should and can have access to knowledge. About OpenStax Resources Customization Introduction to Political Science is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 (CC BY-NC-SA) license, which means that you can non-commercially distribute, remix, and build upon the content, as long as you provide attribution to OpenStax and its content contributors, and distribute all derivatives under the same license. Because our books are openly licensed, you are free to use the entire book or select only the sections that are most relevant to the needs of your course. Feel free to remix the content by assigning your students certain chapters and sections in your syllabus, in the order that you prefer. You can even provide a direct link in your syllabus to the sections in the web view of your book. Instructors also have the option of creating a customized version of their OpenStax book. The custom version can be made available to students in low-cost print or digital form through their campus bookstore. Visit the Instructor Resources section of your book page on OpenStax.org for more information. Art Attribution In Introduction to Political Science , art contains attribution to its title, creator or rights holder, host platform, and license within the caption. For any art that is openly licensed, non-commercial users or organizations may reuse the art as long as they provide the same attribution to its original source. (Commercial entities should contact OpenStax to discuss reuse rights and permissions.) To maximize readability and content flow, some art does not include attribution in the text. If you reuse art from this text that does not have attribution provided, use the following attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Errata All OpenStax textbooks undergo a rigorous review process. However, like any professional-grade textbook, errors sometimes occur. In addition, the wide range of topics, data, and legal circumstances in political science change frequently, and portions of the textbook may become out of date. Since our books are web-based, we can make updates periodically when deemed pedagogically necessary. If you have a correction to suggest, submit it through the link on your book page on OpenStax.org. Subject matter experts review all errata suggestions. OpenStax is committed to remaining transparent about all updates, so you will also find a list of past errata changes on your book page on OpenStax.org. Format You can access this textbook for free in web view or PDF through OpenStax.org, and for a low cost in print. About Introduction to Political Science Introduction to Political Science introduces the broad scope of the political science discipline in a holistic manner via logically connected conceptual building blocks. Rather than discussing theory, comparative politics, and international relations in a purely siloed manner, Introduction to Political Science incorporates major themes from the various subfields of the discipline in a more inclusive fashion. The text focuses on actors, beginning with an examination of individual political actors and then moving on to discuss the actions and interactions of political groups, institutions, and states and international relations. Introduction to Political Science focuses on how and why political realities unfold, from the beliefs and behaviors of individuals to the policies and practices of states. Introduction to Political Science is designed so that students will see themselves as a part of the world of politics and political science, emphasizing the role that politics and government play in students’ lives and how students can further contribute to civil society. Rather than focusing exclusively on the United States, text chapters discuss politics and government within the United States as a part of a discussion of larger concepts that apply around the world. The text uses a diverse range of international examples to illustrate these concepts. It seeks to include a variety of perspectives and scholarship, including both widely accepted foundational ideas and prominent views from underrepresented, oppressed, and dissenting voices. The Changing Political Landscape features discuss topics such as the growing numbers of women in legislatures and on high courts around the world, changing family structures, and United Nations efforts to involve young people in the fight against racism. In addition to providing thorough explorations of traditional Western perspectives, Introduction to Political Science introduces students to feminism, indigenism, conservative populism, fusionism, and critical race and gender theory. Diversity concerns are inherent in much of the discussion, as the ways in which majorities and minorities interact are central to political decision-making and public policy. Because not all students who take an introduction to political science course will go on to major in political science, Introduction to Political Science makes connections to broad concepts that transcend course boundaries and emphasizes how the skills students build when learning about political science apply in other fields, in the workforce, and throughout life. Pedagogical Foundation Learning Outcomes Every module begins with a set of clear and concise learning outcomes that can guide instructors and students and that they can use to measure understanding. After completing the module, students should be able to demonstrate mastery of the learning outcomes. Key Features The Changing Political Landscape highlights and illustrates how changing demographics affect politics and political science. Where Can I Engage? provides specific ideas and connections to organizations involved in civic engagement. What Can I Do? outlines political science skills and “soft skills” connected to chapter material that are in demand in today’s job market, both within and outside the field of government and politics. Show Me the Data presents and dissects data visualizations to help students develop their data interpretation skills as well as their substantive knowledge of politics. Connecting Courses links chapter content and concepts to other courses in the general curriculum as well as to common electives. Meet a Professional introduces students to a diverse variety of professionals working in fields related to politics and political science. Section Summaries End-of-chapter summaries, broken down by chapter sections, distill the information in each chapter. Key Terms Key terms appear in bold and are followed by a definition in context. Key terms are also listed, with definitions, at the end of the chapter. Review Questions Multiple-choice review questions at the end of each chapter provide opportunities for students to apply and test the information they learn. Suggested Reading These curated suggestions offer students classic and contemporary resources for further learning. About the Authors The authors wish to express their deep gratitude to Terri Wise for her skillful editing and gracious shepherding of this manuscript. Senior Contributing Authors Mark Carl Rom, Georgetown University Dr. Mark Carl Rom is an associate professor of government and public policy at the McCourt School of Public Policy and the Department of Government. His recent research has focused on assessing student participation, improving grading accuracy, reducing grading bias, and improving data visualizations. Previously, Rom has explored critiques and conversations within the realm of political science through symposia on academic conferences, ideology in the classroom, and ideology within the discipline. He continues to fuel his commitment to educational equity by serving on the AP Higher Education Advisory Committee, the executive board of the Political Science Education section (ASPA), and the editorial board of the Journal of Political Science Education . Prior to joining McCourt, Rom served as a legislative assistant to the Honorable John Paul Hammerschmidt of the US House of Representatives, a research fellow at the Brookings Institution, a senior evaluator at the US General Accounting Office, and a Robert Wood Johnson Scholar in Health Policy Research at the University of California, Berkeley. His dissertation, “The Thrift Tragedy: Are Politicians and Bureaucrats to Blame?,” was the cowinner of the 1993 Harold Lasswell Award from the American Political Science Association for best dissertation in the public policy field. Rom received his BA from the University of Arkansas and his MA and PhD in political science from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1992. Masaki Hidaka, American University Masaki Hidaka has a master of public policy from the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where she wrote her thesis on media coverage of gaming ventures on Native American tribal lands. She completed her PhD at the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, where her dissertation examined the relationship between issue publics and the Internet. She is currently a professorial lecturer at the School of Public Affairs at the American University in Washington, DC, but has taught in numerous institutions, including the National University of Singapore, University College London, and Syracuse University in London. She also worked as a press aide for former San Francisco mayor Willie L. Brown Jr. (and she definitely left her heart in San Francisco). Rachel Bzostek Walker, Collin College A native of Fort Worth, Rachel Bzostek Walker is the associate dean of academic affairs at Collin College Technical Campus in Allen, Texas. She earned her PhD in political science from Louisiana State University and has a master’s in Israeli politics from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Her dissertation focused on the preemptive or preventive use of force, and she continues to research in this area as well as exploring the use of active learning in the classroom. She taught full-time for over 15 years at colleges and universities in Missouri, California, and Texas, teaching a wide variety of classes on subjects including international relations, American foreign policy, and Middle Eastern politics, as well as introductory classes in American and Texas government. Contributing Authors Emilia B. Carvalho, Lone Star College (Chapter 16) Rebecca Eissler, San Francisco State University (Chapter 9) Terri Susan Fine, University of Central Florida (Chapter 7) Cassandra Khatri, Lone Star College (Chapter 14) Timothy Lim, California State University, Los Angeles (General Contributor) Brenda Norton, Angelo State University (Chapter 11) Robert Postic, University of Findlay (Chapter 10) Joseph Prud’homme, Washington College (Chapters 3 and 13) Shyam Krishnan Sriram, Gonzaga University (Chapter 7) Victoria Williams, Alvernia University (Chapter 15) Reviewers Danny M. Adkinson, Oklahoma State University Maneesh Arora, Wellesley College Brittany Arsiniega, Furman University R. R. Asaadi, Portland State University Brian Blanchard, Collin College Shawna M. Brandle, City University of New York Mark D. Brewer, University of Maine Sharon Deubreau, Rhodes State College Brian Dille, Mesa Community College Kyle Estes, Occidental College Terri Susan Fine, University of Central Florida Leah Graham, University of North Alabama Margaret Hanson, Arizona State University Bill Joseph, Wellesley College Jared Larson, Texas A&M University-San Antonio Daniella Mascarenhas, Xavier University of Louisiana Jeffrey Moyer, visiting lecturer, Northeastern University Carolyn Myers, Southwestern Illinois College Todd R. Patterson, Northampton Community College Robert Postic, University of Findlay Jessica Roisen, St. Ambrose University Jacob Shively, University of West Florida Shyam Krishnan Sriram, Gonzaga University Joseph Stewart, Clemson University Harvey Strum, Russell Sage College Rosalinda Valenzuela, Collin College Francesca Vassallo, University of Southern Maine Answers to Questions in the Book The end-of-chapter Review Questions are intended for homework assignments or classroom discussion; thus, student-facing answers are not provided. The Instructor Manual includes answers to the Review Questions, questions within activities and for classroom discussion, which instructors may use with students at their discretion. The answers to these questions are typically open-ended and depend upon how the activities are used; for these questions, standard responses are not available. Additional Resources Student and Instructor Resources We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, an instructor’s manual, a test bank, and image slides. Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create your account on OpenStax.org. Take advantage of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book. Comprehensive instructor’s manual. Each component of the instructor’s manual is designed to provide maximum guidance for delivering the content in an interesting and dynamic manner. For each chapter, the instructor’s manual includes a chapter overview ideas for classroom activities with criteria for student success links to data resources and informational video clips discussion/recap questions Authored by Jeffrey Moyer, visiting lecturer, Northeastern University. Test bank. The 400 multiple choice and true/false questions in our test bank are correlated to the six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, allowing instructors to customize tests to support a variety of course objectives. The test bank is available in Word format. Authored by Shyam Krishnan Sriram, Gonzaga University. PowerPoint lecture slides. Using images, key terms, and examples, the PowerPoint slides outline the main points of each chapter, providing a starting place for instructors to build their lectures. Authored by Jeffrey Moyer, visiting lecturer, Northeastern University. Community Hubs OpenStax partners with the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME) to offer Community Hubs on OER Commons-a platform for instructors to share community-created resources that support OpenStax books, free of charge. Through our Community Hubs, instructors can upload their own materials or download resources to use in their own courses, including additional ancillaries, teaching material, multimedia, and relevant course content. We encourage instructors to join the hubs for the subjects most relevant to your teaching and research as an opportunity both to enrich your courses and to engage with other faculty. To reach the Community Hubs, visit www.oercommons.org/hubs/openstax. Technology Partners As allies in making high-quality learning materials accessible, our technology partners offer optional low-cost tools that are integrated with OpenStax books. To access the technology options for your text, visit your book page on OpenStax.org.

Social Sciences


Introduction Students attend a pro-EU rally in Kiev. (credit: “Students are shouting out for the EU” by Ivan Bandura/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) If you own a smartphone, you are involved with politics and it’s involved with you. Wherever you live, the political decisions your government makes are likely to affect what is on your phone and how you can use it. China has banned apps like Facebook and Google. Before the 2021 Ugandan election, the government simply shut down the internet entirely. “Uganda Blocks Social Media Ahead of Tense Election,” Africanews , January 12, 2021, https://www.africanews.com/2021/01/12/uganda-blocks-social-media-ahead-of-tense-election//. In India, the government distributes benefits directly to citizens through their phones. Alan Elb, Anit Mukherjee, and Brian Webster, Delivering Social Assistance during COVID with a “Digital-First” Approach: Lessons from India (London: Center for Global Development, July 22, 2021), https://www.cgdev.org/blog/delivering-social-assistance-during-covid-digital-first-approach-lessons-india. In the United States, government regulations—one type of rules that are created through political action—touch virtually every aspect of your phone’s production, sale, and communications. “Protecting Your Privacy: Phone and Cable Records,” Consumer Guides, Federal Communications Commission, https://www.fcc.gov/consumers/guides/protecting-your-privacy; “Cell Phones,” US Food & Drug Administration, content current as of May 13, 2021, https://www.fda.gov/radiation-emitting-products/home-business-and-entertainment-products/cell-phones. You can engage in politics through your phone, and politics can influence how your phone is designed and operated. (credit: “Mobile Phone” by Marco Verch Professional Photographer/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Your phone also enables you to engage in political action. You can use your phone to talk about politics or to call your local representative to express your views. You can organize a campaign through WhatsApp, share videos of police brutality or of peaceful protest, or Venmo contributions to your favorite political cause. Katie Moritz, “You Can Influence Lawmakers with Your Smartphone,” Rewire , August 15, 2017, https://www.rewire.org/influence-lawmakers-smartphone. You can use your phone to learn about politics, political engagement, and what politicians are doing at home and around the world. The political decisions of local and national governments and international organizations can affect the water you drink, the food you eat, the clothes you wear, and the dwelling you call home. Politics and policy can play a role in the most intimate details of your life, including your reproductive rights, marriage rights, and even how your body will be treated after you die. Politics is everywhere. Whether or not you care about politics, politics has an interest in you. When you develop a competent understanding of politics and political science, you are a better-prepared citizen, political actor, and job seeker. With a more sophisticated understanding of politics and political science, you can better understand questions of who gets what, when, how, and perhaps most important, why. The quality of our politics depends to a large degree on the quality of citizen engagement. Want a better government, with politicians who possess greater integrity and policies that more closely reflect the public interest? These things will not happen automatically or on their own. They will happen if informed citizens work together to make them happen. When you think like a political scientist, you seek evidence and carefully scrutinize that evidence—in politics as well as in other areas of your life. Doing so helps to inoculate you from misinformation and manipulation. When you are asked “Why did [this political event] happen?” or “What do you think will happen?” you are able to respond “The evidence suggests . . .” or “Research indicates . . .” or even “I do not know. But in similar circumstances. . . .” Scientific thinking enables you to navigate the complex political world. This chapter will introduce you to the world of politics and the systematic study of political science. You will learn some of the fundamental principles of politics as well as core concepts.

Social Sciences


Defining Politics: Who Gets What, When, Where, How, and Why? Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Define and describe politics from various perspectives. Identify what makes a behavior political. Identify and discuss the three core elements of any political event: rules, reality, and choices. Define and discuss varieties of constitutions. Politics has existed as long as humans have faced scarcity, have had different beliefs and preferences, and have had to resolve these differences while allocating scarce resources. It will continue to exist so long as these human conditions persist—that is, forever. Politics are fundamental to the human condition. Politics means different things to different people. Politics , and related terms like political and politician , can have both positive and negative connotations. The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that humans were “political animals” in that only by engaging in politics could humans reach their highest potential. Fred Miller, “Aristotle's Political Theory,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2017), ed. Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/. Yet often, the terms political and politician can be used in disparaging ways to refer to individuals using trickery or manipulation to obtain or preserve their status or authority. More formally, a politician is someone running for elective office or serving in it or as a person who is using the skills of a politician in other social interaction. A political actor is anyone who is engaged in political activity. Politics involves all the actions of government and all the people who work for, serve, or challenge it. This book takes the broadest view, adopting the guidance of political scientist Harold Lasswell , who defined politics as “who gets what, when, how.” Harold Dwight Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: P. Smith, 1950). Politics exists wherever people interact with one another to make decisions that affect them collectively. Politics exists within families. When parents decide where the family will live: politics. The family (who) gets a place to live (what) at the point of decision (when) based on the parents’ choice (how). When your school decides what tuition to charge: politics. When the government imposes taxes or funds education: politics. Most generally, politics is any interaction among individuals, groups, or institutions that seek to arrive at a decision about how to make a collective choice, or to solve some collective problem. Political science focuses primarily on these interactions as they involve governments. The sociology discipline, in contrast, concentrates on the study of social behavior and institutions outside of the government. Every political event is different. The mass protests in Hong Kong in 2020, inspired by those seeking to protect their political rights, were not exactly the same as the Black Lives Matter protests in the United States or the climate change actions animated by Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg . Yet as varied as political situations can be, there are commonalities across these events and over all political activities. Whenever you seek to understand a political event—whether an election in Tanzania, a protest in Estonia, or a public health program in Indonesia—it is useful to focus on the following: What are the most important rules ? What is the reality of the existing event or environment? What choices do the participants make? Political outcomes—for example, which candidate wins an election—are based on the interaction of these rules, realities, and choices. Rules The importance of rules in politics or in life cannot be overstated. In virtually every human endeavor, the most successful individuals are likely to have a keen knowledge of the rules and how to use (or break) the rules to the advantage of their cause. Ignorance of the rules makes accomplishing your goals more difficult. Rules can be highly precise or open to interpretation. In chess, for example, the rules are completely known to all players: each piece can move in certain directions but in no other ones. Each player takes a turn; that’s the rule. Although chess is highly complex, each player’s options at any given time are known. Chess champions—in fact, all champions—know how to use the rules to their advantage. College campuses have their own sets of formal and informal rules, and not all of them are as precise as those in chess. The de jure rules are the rules as they are written, the formal rules. The de facto rules are the ones actually practiced or enforced, the informal rules. For example: a sign might state that the ( de jure ) speed limit is 55 miles per hour, but if police do not give tickets to drivers unless they are driving 65 miles per hour, then that is the de facto rule. To thrive at college, it is useful to understand not only the formal rules but also the informal rules, which have been called “the hidden curriculum.” Rachel Gable, The Hidden Curriculum: First Generation Students at Legacy Universities (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2021). The de jure speed limit is on the sign, but the de facto speed limit is the speed at which the police are likely to pull you over. (credit: “Signage 55 speed limit” by David Lofink/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) The rules in any political environment affect who has power and how they can use it. Consider the rules that determine who can vote and how. These rules can be permissive or strict, making voting either easier or harder to do. The harder it is to vote, the fewer people will actually cast their ballots and vice versa. Voting rules influence who shows up to vote. Politicians who believe they have a better chance of success under permissive voting rules are likely to advocate for such rules, while politicians who believe they are more likely to prevail under restrictive voting rules will advocate for them instead. Rules might appear to be neutral—that is, they may seem fair and not designed to favor one group over another—but this is not entirely true. Until recently, to become a pilot in the US Air Force, a person had to be no shorter than 5 feet 4 inches and no taller than 6 feet 5 inches: the short and the tall were excluded from this opportunity. The rule might be in place for a good reason—in this case, to ensure that pilots can fit properly into their seats—but rules like these allocate opportunities and resources to some while withholding them from others. Because this rule excluded over 40 percent of American women from becoming pilots, it has been modified. “Air Force Pilot Height Qualifications and Waivers,” US Air Force, Air Education and Training Command, November 5, 2019, https://www.aetc.af.mil/News/Article/2009251/air-force-pilot-height-qualifications-and-waivers/. Rules are everywhere in politics. Your family has rules—even if the main rule is “no rules”—as does your school. Rules, such as Robert’s Rules of Order , Henry Martyn Robert and Will Eisner, Robert's Rules of Order (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1986). govern legislatures, and the criminal justice system, the tax system, and the national immigration systems are all based, at least in principle, on rules. Rules and institutions are closely related. The institution of marriage or the institution of the family, for example, are the sets of rules (rights, roles, and responsibilities) by which those within the marriage or family live. Alternatively, institutions can be organizations, which are groups of people working together for a common purpose whose actions are governed by rules. Perhaps the most important set of rules for any institution or organization is its constitution . The constitution affirms the most basic legal principles of a country or a state. These principles typically include the structure of the government, its duties, and the rights of the people. Constitutions can be quite general or extremely detailed. The Constitution of Monaco has fewer than 4,000 words, while the Constitution of India has nearly 150,000 words. Sophy Owuor, “Which Country Has the Shortest Written Constitution in the World?” World Atlas, December 21, 2018, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-country-has-the-shortest-written-constitution-in-the-world.html. Unlike the United States, some countries, including Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, do not have a single document they call the constitution but instead rely on other written and even unwritten sources. In most countries the constitution is called just that—the constitution—although Germany, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and a few other countries call their constitutions the basic law. Constitute, “Constitute: The World's Constitutions to Read, Search, and Compare,” accessed October 22, 2021, https://www.constituteproject.org?lang=en. What Is a Constitution? Constitutions define the relationship between people and their government. They give powers to and place limits upon the government and serve as the basis for any other laws or government activities. Constitutions are perhaps the most important set of rules in a country because, after all, they are just pieces of paper. The true importance of a country’s constitution depends on the politics of that country. In the United States, the Constitution is venerated almost as if it were a religious document. Most of the biggest conflicts throughout US history have involved disputes over what the Constitution requires, allows, or prohibits. When the US Supreme Court rules that a political action is unconstitutional, the violator—whether it be the president, the Congress, or any other group or individual in society—is expected to comply with the ruling and stop the action. For the US President, see, for example, David H. Gans, The President's Duty to Obey Court Judgments (Washington, DC: Constitutional Accountability Center, June 2018), https://www.theusconstitution.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Trump-Obey-Court-Judgments-Issue-Brief.pdf. But this is not always the case everywhere. Politicians in any country may be tempted to ignore their constitutions, especially when it comes to the rights they ostensibly guarantee, and whether those politicians prevail depends on whether other political actors are willing and able to uphold the constitution. Because rules affect the allocation of power and other scarce resources, political actors spend substantial time and effort fighting over them. In general, political actors seek to establish rules that benefit them and their allies. Rules are powerful, and those who set them have power. (credit: “Follow the Rules” by pocketcultures/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Reality Rules guide and constrain behavior, but the reality on the ground at any specific time also impacts political outcomes. Reality —facts—is not a matter of opinion, although people can dispute the nature of reality. Something is a fact , for example, when there is compelling evidence that an event has happened or a condition exists. The sun rises in the East: reality. The United Nations is an international organization: fact (reality). “About Us,” United Nations, accessed September 8, 2021, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/. Has the United Nations made the world a better place? That is a matter of opinion, although those who say “yes” or “no” can provide facts that support their views about reality. “Twelve Times the UN Has Failed the World,” TRT World , November 28, 2018, https://www.trtworld.com/americas/twelve-times-the-un-has-failed-the-world-21666; Kathy Calvin, “10 Ways the UN Made the World a Better Place in 2017,” United Nations Foundation blog, December 20, 2017, https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/10-ways-un-made-world-better-place-2017/. How candidates can raise and spend money on their electoral campaigns may be limited by campaign finance laws, but if one candidate raises twice as much money as the other candidate, that is an important fact. If one candidate is the incumbent —a politician already serving in office and running for reelection—and the other is not, that is an important fact. These are important facts because whether or not a candidate is an incumbent and how much campaign money they raise may affect their chances of winning the election. In US elections, for example, incumbents generally have a better chance of being elected (although the strength of this relationship has varied over time), while the impact of fundraising on electoral success is open to question. See, for example, Jamie L. Carson, Joel Sievert, and Ryan D. Williamson, “Nationalization and the Incumbency Advantage,” Political Research Quarterly 73, no. 1 (March 1, 2020): 156–168, https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912919883696; James N. Druckman, Martin J. Kifer, and Michael Parkin, “Campaign Rhetoric and the Incumbency Advantage,” American Politics Research 48, no. 1 (January 30, 2019): 22–43; Maggie Koerth, “How Money Affects Elections,” FiveThirtyEight , September 10, 2018, https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/money-and-elections-a-complicated-love-story/. In chess, the rules are constant, never changing during the game. The reality changes as play proceeds—at any moment each player has a specific number of pieces in particular places on the board. What happens then depends on the choices the players make. This is as true for politics as for any other game. A key difference between chess and politics is that, in politics, the players themselves can change the rules of the game while they are playing. Politics has many of the characteristics of a game. (credit: “Risk Board Game” by Rob Bertholf/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Politics can be thought of as having the characteristics of a game. The players—anyone involved in political action—make strategic choices, given the rules and the current conditions, in an attempt to “win” the game by obtaining their goals. Choices Rules provide constraints and opportunities. Reality presents resources and challenges. The choices participants make in the face of rules and reality determine political outcomes. Choice exists whenever political actors face options, which they always do. If there are two candidates in an election for a single position, the voter has to choose between them, not being able to vote for both. Even if there is only one candidate, the voter still has an option: to vote for the candidate or to abstain. In a democracy , the winning candidate wins because more voters chose to vote, and vote for that candidate, than for other options. The very definition of democracy is that it is a form of government in which the people have the ability to choose their leaders or, in some cases, the policies that they will adopt. Tom Christiano and Sameer Bajaj, “Democracy,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021), ed. Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/democracy/. Political outcomes are always contingent; they cannot be predicted with certainty in advance. That does not mean, however, that outcomes are completely unpredictable. By accounting for the rules, how human behavior works, and existing realities, it is possible to reasonably predict what is likely to happen and explain what does happen. Politics involves the activities of individuals who are cooperating or competing with others to resolve disagreements over scarce resources or different preferences. Politics is the means by which societies decide who gets what, when, and how. Anyone engaged in political activity is a political actor, while politicians are those running for elective office or serving in one. To understand political activity and outcomes, it is useful to focus on the rules that determine what the actors can and cannot do, the reality of the political environment, and the choices that the political actors make. constitution a collection of the most basic principles of a country (or state) democracy a system of government in which citizens elect their leaders fact something that is true because it can be verified by evidence institutions organizations with a set of rules and practices that inform their members about their relationships with one another and how they should interact politics “who gets what, where, when, and how”—the process for resolving disputes and allocating scarce resources reality the world as it is, as verified by observations and measurements rules instructions regarding what behaviors are required, forbidden, or allowed

Social Sciences


Public Policy, Public Interest, and Power Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Define public policy, public interest, and power. Define sovereignty. Distinguish among the terms country, state, nation, and nation-state. Define political conflict. Define the status quo . Identify three bargaining outcomes. Public policy is one of the main products of politics. Public policy includes all the decisions governments make to influence behavior. When a legislature enacts legislation, an executive issues an order, or a court announces a ruling, they are all making public policy . In making public policy, political actors typically invoke the public interest (also called the common good or the general welfare). The public interest is an amorphous concept, although it is generally defined as the well-being of the public. In fact, the Australian government has stated that “the public interest should not be defined.” Australian Law Reform Commission, “Meaning of Public Interest,” in Serious Invasions of Privacy in the Digital Era (Queensland, AU: Australian Law Reform Commission, March 30, 2014), accessed September 8, 2021, https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/serious-invasions-of-privacy-in-the-digital-era-dp-80/8-balancing-privacy-with-other-interests/meaning-of-public-interest/. It is invisible to our senses, and it is possible to maintain that it does not exist because there is no interest (or good or welfare) beyond what individuals want for themselves. Those who claim to seek the public interest typically believe that it is not just what people want, however, but what they should want. It would not be in the public interest, in this view, to create a society in which those in power can exploit others or one that legitimizes cruelty, even if a majority of the population wanted these things. It is in the public interest to create a good society, one with social justice, in which the government serves the people. Such a society would provide for the common good and promote the general welfare. Power, a fundamentally important term in the study of politics, can be defined as the ability to compel someone to do something that they would not otherwise choose to do. Robert A. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” Behavioral Science 2, no. 3 (1957): 201–215. doi:10.1002/bs.3830020303. Those with power are the ones who get to make public policy. Power cannot be counted, weighed, or photographed. Though it is invisible, the accoutrements of power—for example, being addressed as president of the United States or having people salute you—can often be seen. Some people have a lot of power, while others have very little. Power is not a constant force, as politicians sometimes increase their power, while at other times their power slips away. Power is, in part, a matter of belief: if you believe someone has power over you, they do, at least to the extent that you do what they want. Upon his arrival in Israel, Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro was greeted with many accoutrements of power, including military presence, flags, and a red carpet. (credit: “31/03/2019 Cerimônia Oficial de chegada” by Palácio do Planalto/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) The highest form of power is called sovereign power. If no other entity (person or institution) has authority over a state, that state is said to have sovereignty, and the supreme authority in that state is called the sovereign. Daniel Philpott, “Sovereignty,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020), ed. Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/sovereignty/. In many countries, the sovereign is the highest-ranking individual leader, such as the queen or king. In the United States and in other democracies, the people are sovereign, not their elected officials. The people elect their leaders, and the people can unseat them either by selecting others in the next election or by removing them—for example, through impeachment, a legal process for removing elected officials from their posts for misconduct. The power of any governmental institution depends on the de jure and de facto rules of the country. In Saudi Arabia, for example, the Consultative Assembly has neither the power to pass nor to enforce laws. Its members are appointed by the king, who is an absolute monarch (the sovereign), and he can remove them at his pleasure. “Government,” The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, accessed September 8, 2021, https://www.saudiembassy.net/government/?id=Skunk-3593-6229-42-4733. In the United States, as discussed in Chapter 9: Legislatures , the Congress has substantial powers: only it can approve the spending of governmental money or declare war. The president can veto legislation approved by Congress, but Congress has the power to override a president’s veto . Government and the Legitimate Use of Power The government is the most important institution in any discussion of politics because it is the only one with legal, legitimate authority to use coercive power to compel behavior within a defined geographic area. The government of a place typically exercises its powers over individuals who live within its borders or who are otherwise subject to its laws (for example, a citizen of the country who is currently living abroad). If you break your family’s rules, your family can punish you, but only your government can imprison you for breaking government laws. Your church may ask you to contribute money, but only the government can compel you to pay taxes. Your business can encourage you to uphold their rules and fight for their interests, but only the government can require you to serve in the military and sit on juries. A government is one of the four elements that, along with territory, population, and sovereignty, make up a state (or its synonym, country). The United States is a state, and so are the individual territories, from Alabama to Wyoming, within it. Afghanistan and Zimbabwe are states too, as are all the other 190 some countries between them alphabetically. Why did we not provide an exact number? Because there are disputes regarding whether a few political entities, such as Taiwan and Palestine, meet the definition of a state. State has other meanings that are also relevant to politics and political science. For example, a country might be called a police state. In a police state, the government uses force, often imposed by the military or the secret police, to repress dissent and maintain order. In a welfare state, the government provides extensive social benefits like child care, education, housing, and pensions. Countries are more or less police and welfare states, as all countries use a police force to maintain order and all countries offer their citizens some social benefits. North Korea, where the government monitors virtually every aspect of life and imprisons or executes those who oppose its leaders, is perhaps the most extreme example of a police state. Nordic countries, including Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden, are generally considered to be the most generous welfare states. The terms country , state , nation , and nation-state are sometimes used synonymously, but they are not at all identical. A country is a defined geographic territory with a sovereign government. The term state is often used to refer to a smaller area within a country, as in the case of the individual American states, which all together make up the United States of America, the country. The term state can also be used to refer to an entire country. For example, India is a state. A nation , in contrast, refers to a population connected by history, culture, and beliefs that generally lives in a specific area, such as Kurdistan in the Middle East, where the Kurdish are the dominant ethnic group even though they do not have a country to call their own. Erin Blakemore, “Today, the Kurds Are Spread Across Four Nations. Who Are They?” National Geographic , August 16, 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/who-are-kurds. A nation that also is a country is sometimes called a nation-state . The United States, France, Pakistan, China, and many others are generally considered simultaneously to be countries, states, nations, and nation-states. A government has authority when those subject to its power recognize that power. In a class, you accept your teacher’s power to give assignments and assign grades—or, at least, your school recognizes these powers. Authority is generally limited to specific circumstances and places where the authority is said to have jurisdiction. As a condition for passing this course, your teacher can require you to read this book but not to do their laundry. Your government can require you to pay your taxes—it has this authority—but it cannot require you to do things that are unlawful. Tom Christiano, “Authority,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020), ed. Edward N. Zalta, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/authority/. When authority is used in ways that are consistent with the duties or rules of the institution, that authority is said to be legitimate . If a police officer pulls your car over because you are speeding, that is a legitimate use of authority; if that officer pulls you over because you are “driving while black,” that would be an illegitimate use. David A. Harris, “The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why Driving While Black Matters,” Minnesota Law Review 84, no. 2 (1999): 265. Pulling over drivers because of their skin color is an illegitimate use of governmental authority. (credit: “Ride” by Krista Baltroka/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) In politics, there is a continual struggle over which uses of authority are legitimate and which are not, and, as discussed in Chapter 13: Governing Regimes , governments resolve these conflicts in different ways depending on how democratic they are. What can a government compel you to do, allow you to do, or prohibit you from doing? One possible answer is that if a government enacts a policy in accordance with its own rules, then that policy is legitimate. In this view, individuals could enslave others so long as governmental policy allowed this practice, as some countries have. Another answer is that some policies, such as slavery, are fundamentally illegitimate, even if they are lawfully enacted. Conflict and Bargaining Disagreement—that is, conflict —is fundamental to politics for two primary reasons. As long as there is desire and people want things they do not have, there will be conflict. Millions of people lack clean air, access to potable water, and even basic necessities such as food and shelter. Scarcity is not limited to human needs. Even if every family in the world was wealthy enough to buy as big a mansion as (they thought) they wanted, differences would still exist that would make some people want what others have—say a better view, a bigger lot, or proximity to certain amenities. In addition to desire, conflict will always exist because people have differing beliefs and preferences—that is, differing values. Should abortion be legal? A spectrum of passionate views on the subject exists, and there is no way one political decision will satisfy all individuals at every point along that spectrum. Should governments spend taxpayer money on bike trails, mass transportation, or roads? The answer might not be a matter of deep belief, but it still elicits differing preferences. Again, no one political action is likely to satisfy everyone. Throughout history, the resolution of conflicts has often involved brute force. Violence can resolve conflicts, at least temporarily, with the strong getting what they want through brutality. Politics is the process for resolving conflicts over scarce resources and differing values without resorting to violence. When violence is used to solve disputes, it represents the failure of politics, or at least the deep frustration of those whose aspirations are thwarted by politics. Politics can determine how scarce resources will be allocated and which values will prevail. Through political processes, a country can decide whether abortions will be allowed in all cases, some cases, or no cases. This does not mean that everyone will now agree on whether the policy is good or not; politics can resolve issues, but it cannot eliminate the underlying conflicts that cause them. In recent decades the world has gotten richer and more peaceful. Yngve Vogt, “The World HAS Become More Peaceful,” Apollon, February 15, 2019, https://www.apollon.uio.no/english/articles/2019/peace.html. That does not mean conflict is disappearing; several countries are experiencing open military conflict, and many other countries are experiencing high levels of violence. Even in countries without open, violent conflict, political polarization is increasing. Thomas Carothers and Andrew O’Donohue, “How to Understand the Global Spread of Political Polarization,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, October 1, 2019, https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/10/01/how-to-understand-global-spread-of-political-polarization-pub-79893. Political polarization occurs when groups—political parties as well as ethnic or religious groups—become divided (“polarized”) in ways that increase cohesion within the groups and also increase suspicion and distrust across the groups. The United States today is more polarized than it has been in many years. Carroll Doherty, “7 Things to Know about Polarization in American Politics,” Pew Research Center, June 12, 2014, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/06/12/7-things-to-know-about-polarization-in-america/. The greater the polarization, the greater the difficulty of resolving conflicts: polarization is a risk to peaceful politics. How does politics resolve conflicts? Most often, through bargaining . When parties involved in a conflict engage in negotiations concerning the status quo —that is, the existing set of circumstances involved in the conflict—they are bargaining. Political bargaining determines whether existing rules and reality will be changed. Bargaining at the market is like bargaining in politics: each participant wants a solution that benefits themselves. (credit: “Learning to Haggle at the Nubian Market” by Bonnie Ann Cain-Wood/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) In political bargaining, there are three likely outcomes. The first is that those bargaining simply cannot come to any agreement. When this happens, and it often does, the status quo prevails. Negotiations are almost certain to collapse when those bargaining are unwilling to give an inch because they have diametrically opposed goals. If one side seeks to raise taxes, for example, and the other to lower them, then there is no deal that would be acceptable to both sides. In this situation, those who favor the status quo are the winners, so those who favor the status quo have reason to prevent the negotiations from succeeding. This point bears repeating. Although you might see a world full of problems that obviously need to be fixed, you should always assume that there are those who benefit from the current circumstances who will work to thwart change. This bias in favor of the status quo is one of the reasons political change is often so difficult to achieve. Think of it this way: bargaining seeks to change the rules, and there are almost certainly those who benefit from those rules and want to keep them. The Importance of Political Compromise Compromise requires the ability to see gray areas and possible points of connection or overlap. It requires a willingness to accept partial progress toward a desired goal. Increasingly, everyday public discourse has moved in the direction of extremes and oversimplification (think of Twitter, Facebook, TikTok, and short online articles), exacerbating political polarization and making compromise increasingly difficult, both for individuals and for their representatives in government. A second possibility involves compromise , in which the various participants in a conflict give ground on what they seek in order to arrive at an agreement. Compromise is most likely to occur when those bargaining generally agree on the goals but have disagreements on the specific details. If some countries seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit global climate change while other countries seek faster economic growth that increases their emissions, the participants are seeking different goals and compromise is unlikely. However, if all countries want to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, they are in general agreement about their goals. In this case, compromise is more likely. If no country has the power unilaterally to set emission limits, the countries may have motivation to split the difference. If your country wants to lower emissions by 10 percent and my country wants to lower them by 5 percent, the two countries might make a deal and lower them by 7.5 percent. Each country gets part, but not all, of what they want. A third outcome results from what is called logrolling . If you have something I want and I have something you want, we each have something with which to bargain. For example, suppose you have a peach and an apple, as do I. We each like both fruits and want more of both—there is scarcity. But you really like apples and I really like peaches. Through logrolling, I give you my apple, and in exchange you give me your peach. This is not a perfect solution, as we both wanted more apples and more peaches. But in the end we each are better off than we were before the bargaining. The outcome of political negotiations depends again on the core principles of politics discussed earlier—the rules governing the negotiation, the reality at the time of the negotiation, and the strategic choices those involved in the negotiation make. Political negotiations are often a combination of high-minded principles and skullduggery. Negotiators will seek to persuade others and, if persuasion does not work, sometimes to bully or buy them. If any participants in a negotiation have the power to force the others to give ground, they very likely will use it. If the status quo prevails, those participants who sought change may be seen as weak and be blamed for their failure. If compromises are achieved, participants may be criticized for “selling out”—for compromising not only their policies but also their principles. Logrolling can create the impression of impropriety, of corrupt dealmaking, or of unseemly quid pro quo, as in “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.” Yet each outcome has an alternative explanation. If the status quo prevails, those who defended it will laud their accomplishments. When compromises succeed, each side can claim that “it is better to get half a loaf of bread than no loaf at all.” After a successful logroll, the negotiators can say, “We got what we valued most.” Negotiations can produce winners and losers, but they can also produce outcomes that leave the participants at least relatively satisfied with the outcomes. If all political power were concentrated in a single person, with the government proceeding by fiat , or command, and the supreme leader giving the orders, bargaining might seem unnecessary. Yet even in totalitarian countries the supreme leader will have advisors, and those advisors will negotiate among themselves and the ruler as they seek to influence how power is used. Public policy—all the actions that governments take that are designed to influence individual, group, institutional, or national behavior—is one of the main products of politics. Those seeking to make public policy typically invoke the public interest, claiming that the policies they seek will benefit the broader society (rather than merely their own self-interest). Policies are made by those with power. Power is fundamental to the study of politics, although it is impossible to accurately measure or observe. Power is the ability of one political actor to get other actors to do things they would not otherwise choose to do or not to take actions they otherwise would. The highest form of power is sovereign power, which means that the actor with sovereign power is ruled by no one else. Sovereign power is usually associated with a single person (an emperor), a national government, or in democracies, with the citizens themselves. A political actor has authority if they have the power to enforce rules, and that authority is seen as legitimate if the power is used in ways consistent with those rules. Disagreements over resource allocation and values are fundamental to politics. Bargaining is the attempt to resolve these conflicts. authority the entity (person or institution) holding legitimate power in a specific realm bargaining the process of negotiating with the goal of reaching agreement compromise in bargaining over a single issue, each participant agrees to move in the direction of those they are bargaining with (for example, the car seller lowers the price and the car buyer increases what they are willing to pay) conflict disagreements between individuals, groups, institutions, or states regarding the allocation of resources or the determination of values country a populated geographic area with a sovereign government government the set of institutions that make and implement decisions for a political collective, most often for a specific geographic area legitimate authority used in ways that are true to the rules nation a population connected by history, culture, and beliefs that generally lives in a specific area power the ability to compel someone to do something they would not otherwise choose to do public interest that which benefits a state and those who reside there public policy any decision by a government, such as a law, regulation, or ruling, that attempts to guide human behavior sovereign the entity (person or institution) that holds supreme authority over a domain state a defined geographic area with unified political authority status quo the existing state of affairs

Social Sciences