The United Nations and Global Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Define intergovernmental organizations and discuss their role in global governance. Discuss the purpose and history of the United Nations. Describe the structure of the United Nations. Explain the role of peacekeepers. Analyze the sources and limits of the power of the United Nations. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are groups made up of member states that are held together by formal agreement. The number of intergovernmental organizations has increased dramatically since World War II. IGOs help the international community focus on issues and coordinate actions even when individual states’ interests may push them to act in ways that are incompatible with common goals. Each member state’s government selects delegates to represent its interests at IGO meetings. There are dozens of IGOs. This section focuses on global IGOs—that is, IGOs whose membership is open to states around the world. The scope of global IGO activity varies widely, from technical organizations such as the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Hydrographic Organization to organizations with a specific, narrow focus, such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission . While some global IGOs have a relatively small number of members, 193 out of 195 recognized sovereign countries in the world are members of the largest global IGO, the United Nations , “Member States,” United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states. and 164 are members of the World Trade Organization . “Members and Observers,” World Trade Organization, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm. With its worldwide reach, the United Nations contributes to global governance more than any other IGO. Since its beginning in 1945, its membership has grown as the number of sovereign states has increased. The newest members are Montenegro and South Sudan. The Holy See and Palestine are nonvoting “observer” members. “Countries Not in the United Nations,” World Population Review, accessed January 25, 2022, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-not-in-the-un. The UN addresses every conceivable issue in international relations, from peace and security to migration and refugees, law, food, development, energy, and human rights, among others. Dozens of smaller global IGOs are housed within the UN framework. Virtual Tour of the UN If you can’t visit the UN in person, this video can take you on a virtual tour of the UN Headquarters in New York. Headquartered in New York City, the UN is a hub of international activity, with representatives from member countries participating in General Assembly and committee meetings and engaging in forums on issues of international concern. You can visit the UN , where tours are conducted in multiple languages. The Founding and Mission of the UN The United Nations was created after World War II to ensure international peace and stability. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles , which ended World War I, established a global IGO called the League of Nations . The purpose of the League was to facilitate good relations among countries of the world and to punish aggression. To deter aggression, the League used the principle of collective security , requiring member states to jointly retaliate against any aggressive action of another state. Because the United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, the United States did not join the League of Nations. Ultimately, the League was ineffective in punishing aggressive states, and expansionist powers Japan, Germany, and Italy all withdrew from the League prior to World War II. While some might view the outbreak of World War II less than 20 years after the conclusion of the First World War as a failure of the idea behind the League, the leaders of the WWII Allied states saw the outbreak as evidence of the need for an even stronger global organization, and in response they created the United Nations. United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt committed US membership and backing, and the US Congress agreed to join the United Nations. While the League had required unanimous agreement among its members to take action, the UN requires only a majority vote for most resolutions. A two-thirds majority was required for issues of peace and security, admission of new members, and budgetary matters. Initially, the United Nations had 51 member states, mostly from Europe. Because the United Nations was founded in part on the principle of the sovereignty of member states, it is not and cannot become a “world government” with ultimate authority over its members. UN decisions are not binding on member states without the consent of those states. Like international law, the UN contributes to global governance by setting obligations and rules of behavior for member states. The United Nations Charter recognizes the rights of sovereign states and their obligations as members of the international community while emphasizing the importance of multilateral cooperation as the cornerstone to peace and prosperity for all. Member states commit to use peaceful means to settle disputes and to uphold and support UN decisions. The Charter specifies that the UN may intervene to stop acts of aggression or threats to the peace and that member states are only to use force in self-defense. The UN website displays the organization’s slogan: “peace, dignity and equality on a healthy planet.” The three overarching goals of the United Nations are promoting peace, ensuring human rights, and achieving sustainable development with a focus on protecting the environment—all collective goods that can be elusive in a system of sovereign states each concerned only with its own survival and well-being. In service of the goal to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,” “United Nations Charter: Preamble,” United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter/preamble. the UN has been involved in peacekeeping activities in areas of interstate conflict since the late 1940s. In 1948, UN member states signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR), which lays out principles such as the right to freedom of religion, freedom of family choices, and freedom to travel. It became the foundational document for the protection of human rights worldwide. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , wife of US President Franklin Roosevelt, served as the chairperson for the delegation that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. “Women Who Shaped the Universal Declaration,” United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/en/observances/human-rights-day/women-who-shaped-the-universal-declaration#:~:text=ELEANOR%20ROOSEVELT&text=Truman.,Universal%20Declaration%20of%20Human%20Rights. (credit: “Eleanor Roosevelt holding poster of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (in English), Lake Success, New York. November 1949” by FDR Presidential Library & Museum/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Recognition of the dignity of each person and their inalienable rights sets the stage for many other UN activities. The UN’s ability to coordinate international solutions to problems and to marshal funds and expertise has helped many states, especially in the developing world, achieve better economic, educational, health, and environmental outcomes. How Is the UN Structured? The UN is organized into six main bodies: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice. In addition, dozens of related IGOs work on issues in conjunction with or under the auspices of the United Nations. “The UN System Organizations,” United Nations Global Marketplace, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.ungm.org/Shared/KnowledgeCenter/Pages/VBS_UNSystem. The International Court of Justice was discussed above. This section turns to the other five main UN bodies. The United Nations is organized into six main bodies. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA 4.0 license) The General Assembly Each of the 193 UN member states has equal representation, regardless of its size or wealth, in the primary deliberative organ of the United Nations, the General Assembly (GA). The GA serves as a venue for states to discuss the most pressing international challenges, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, armed conflict, illicit trade, poverty, and hunger, as well as systemic problems such as wealth inequality and intolerance. Every state in the world faces these troubles to varying degrees, and thus the quest for solutions is a quest to provide collective goods. At its annual meeting, GA members deliberate policies and goals for the international community, elect members to the Security Council, and discuss reports from other UN organs. The Security Council The Security Council performs the UN’s most crucial peacemaking work. Fifteen member states sit on the Security Council. Ten are elected by the General Assembly to two-year terms, while the other five seats, known as the Permanent Five (P5) , belong to the victors of World War II and the primary architects of the United Nations—the United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The P5 have veto power over any Security Council action. Even if the other 14 states on the Council agree with a given action, the veto of any one of the P5 will block the action. Admission to membership in the United Nations requires the affirmative vote of nine Security Council members and no vetoes from within the P5. Though the General Assembly has more than tripled in size, the structure of the Security Council has only changed once, when in 1965 the number of members was expanded from 11 to 15. There is ongoing discussion about increasing the size of the Security Council beyond 15 states, and some advocate for expanding the P5 since the Security Council has no permanent representative from Latin America, Africa, or the Middle East. The Security Council monitors international conflict, facilitates diplomatic resolutions to disputes, and may place sanctions on member states engaged in violence. To stop ongoing or impending conflict or violations of international law, the Security Council has authorized military intervention (e.g., in response to North Korea’s aggression against South Korea in 1950 and in response to Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait), levied sanctions (e.g., in 2006 against Iran for refusing to stop its uranium enrichment process in its quest for nuclear weapons), and imposed arms embargoes (e.g., against Serbia in 1998 for ongoing aggression against Kosovo). The Security Council also provides a space for multilateral discussion about transnational threats to international security such as terrorism, poverty, migration and refugees, and trafficking of goods and people. The Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is a primary driver of global governance policy aimed at dealing with the collective problems facing the world community. Former Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld explained, “While the Security council exists primarily for settling conflicts . . . the Economic and Social Council exists primarily to eliminate the causes of conflicts.” Quoted in “ECOSCO 75: Taking Action for a More Sustainable World,” United Nations, July 13, 2021, https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/events/2021/ecosoc-75-taking-action-more-sustainable-world. ECOSOC’s responsibilities span economic and social issues. Dozens of subagencies are housed under the ECOSOC umbrella, including regional development agencies and issue-specific organizations. In particular, ECOSOC focuses on “development,” or raising the standard of living for people around the world through economic expansion and improved access to resources common throughout wealthier states, such as electricity, sanitation, education, and health care. In recent years ECOSOC has focused on how to incorporate care for the environment in the drive for economic prosperity, a concept known as sustainable development . Since 2015, the United Nations has focused on helping member states achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) , a set of 17 objectives that broadly address “ending poverty, protecting the planet and improving the lives and prospects of everyone, everywhere.” “Sustainable Development,” United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/sustainable-development. These goals are part of the UN’s “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” ECOSOC coordinates the work on these goals and collects the data required to measure progress toward their achievement. The Secretariat The UN Secretariat performs administrative work. Upon the recommendation of the Security Council, the General Assembly elects the head of the Secretariat, the Secretary-General , for a five-year renewable term. The Secretary-General engages in leadership, diplomacy, and public outreach to promote the UN; to draw international attention to urgent issues; and to raise money for UN activities. The Trusteeship Council At the time of the founding of the UN in 1946, much of the world was under European colonial control. The Trusteeship Council was formed to allow the UN to administer the former colonial territories that had belonged to the defeated powers of World War II: Germany, Italy, and Japan. All territories placed in trust to the United Nations subsequently attained independence. While it still exists per the UN Charter, the Trusteeship Council is currently inactive. What Tools Does the UN Have to Help Keep Peace? The main mission of the UN is to keep the peace by enhancing transparency, providing countries with a forum in which to peacefully resolve disputes, and engaging in projects aimed at alleviating the causes of conflict. The Security Council can send UN representatives—troops, police, observers, and civilians—to conflict zones. UN peacekeepers are deployed at the request of the warring parties and with the authorization of the Security Council. Three guiding principles undergird the UN deployment of peacekeepers: 1) consent of the parties, 2) impartiality, and 3) non-use of force except in self-defense or in defense of a Security Council mandate. United Nations, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines. New York: United Nations, 2008, https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/capstone_eng_0.pdf UN Peacekeepers are often referred to as “blue helmets.” (credit: “Over 200 Nepalese peacekeepers arrive in Juba” by Isaac Billy/UN Photo, CC BY 2.0. Photo courtesy: USIP, www.usip.org) In 2020, there were approximately a dozen ongoing UN peacekeeping missions , mostly in the Middle East and Africa. The first UN peacekeeping mission was in 1948, monitoring the armistice between Israel and its Arab neighbors. In 1949, peacekeepers were sent to the border between India and Pakistan to monitor a ceasefire agreement in Kashmir. Both of those missions were small in scale—unarmed peacekeepers were sent to monitor an existing ceasefire. Both are still active. More than 3,000 UN peacekeepers from 120 countries have died in this service. “Our History,” United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed January 25, 2022, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/our-history. UN Specialized Agencies and Related IGOs Numerous IGOs work to address specific global issues. Some, like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), operate independently but share information with the UN and help support the UN’s mission. Global IGOs such as the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) are specialized agencies operating within the UN framework . These agencies act autonomously, with their own constitutions, leaders, headquarters, and bureaucratic organizations. highlights the mission, accomplishments, and goals of the three most significant global IGOs: the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Bank , and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Working on the collective good issues of global health, economic development, and international trade, respectively, these organizations provide guidelines for state behavior, encourage and enable countries to share information and data, and collaborate on policy making. Major Global IGOs IGO Primary Purpose Activities Notable Accomplishments Current Goals World Health Organization (WHO) To track and combat disease and improve health worldwide Public health education, immunization campaigns, data gathering, and coordination of international health initiatives such as pandemic response Elimination of smallpox, near-elimination of polio, dramatic reductions of malaria and yellow fever “Triple Billion” Goal: one billion more people benefiting from universal health coverage, one billion more people better protected from health emergencies, one billion more people enjoying better health and well-being “Triple Billion Dashboard,” World Health Organization, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.who.int/data/triple-billion-dashboard#:~:text=The%20Triple%20Billion%20targets%20are,measurement%20and%20a%20policy%20strategy. World Bank To create sustainable economic growth in the poorest countries by investing in human capital and ending extreme poverty “Who We Are,” The World Bank, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.worldbank.org/en/who-we-are. Funds projects designed to alleviate poverty and help people around the world have access to food, water, education, health care, sanitation, transportation, and energy Provided millions with access to health services, improved electric and water systems, improved highways, child immunizations, and teacher training “Themes/Topics,” International Development Association, The World Bank Group, accessed January 25, 2022, https://ida.worldbank.org/results. To end extreme poverty (decrease the percentage of people living on less than $1.90 a day to no more than 3% by 2030) and to promote shared prosperity (promote income growth of the bottom 40% of the population in each country) Amitava Chandra, “Ending Extreme Poverty and Promoting Shared Prosperity,” The World Bank, April 19, 2013, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/04/17/ending_extreme_poverty_and_promoting_shared_prosperity. World Trade Organization (WTO) To open trade worldwide and provide a forum for trade negotiations and to settle disputes “The WTO,” World Trade Organization, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/thewto_e.htm. Sets rules for global trade and helps countries avoid costly and dangerous trade wars Increased world trade and decreased average tariffs; increased income of members “The WTO’s 25 Years of Achievement and Challenges,” World Trade Organization, January 1, 2020, https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/dgra_01jan20_e.htm. To help trade flow smoothly, freely, and predictably The World Bank Open Data website provides free and open access to innovative visuals that tell the stories of global development data. You can explore a walkthrough of the 2020 Sustainable Development Goals at the World Bank Data blog , where you can see examples of these detailed and interactive data visualizations. What Constrains the Effectiveness of the UN and Global IGOs? In IGOs, sovereign states represent their own interests, bringing their own cultures and ideas to discussions of global governance, and IGOs are limited in their ability to intervene in the domestic affairs of member states. Although the purpose of IGOs is to help states work cooperatively, and though they strive to help states coordinate activities in pursuit of collective goods, in most circumstances, states place their own desires and interests above those of the broader international community. For example, ideally all states would work together to promote collective security by punishing aggressor states; in practice, states often cannot agree on what constitutes aggression or are unwilling to hold their allies accountable. Similarly, global poverty might be more easily eliminated if all countries worked together and pooled resources, but most countries are anxious to keep the gains of prosperity to themselves and dedicate only a small percentage of their wealth to help other countries. Countries that refused to lock down or promote vaccination might prolong the COVID-19 pandemic despite the actions of other states following WHO guidelines to control it. Funding is another limitation on the effectiveness of the United Nations. UN member states pay dues based on their wealth relative to other member states. The United States pays 22 percent of the operating expenses of the United Nations and almost 28 percent of its peacekeeping budget. China now pays the second highest amount toward the peacekeeping budget, at 15 percent. “Scale of Assessments, 1946–2021,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/ga/contributions/Scale%20of%20assessments_1946-2021.pdf; “How We Are Funded,” United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed January 25, 2022, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/how-we-are-funded. Let’s Talk WTO The World Trade Organization establishes rules governing international trade and provides a venue for trade negotiations between countries. Another limit on the UN is its inability to enforce its decisions or rules. In many ways, it is an aspirational body. The General Assembly passes resolutions, but often without any real expectation that they will be implemented and without the ability to impose consequences if they are not. Sometimes the Security Council or others working on treaties or building international law use those resolutions to help justify sanctions or other punitive measures against states. According to the United Nations, GA resolutions “have been a constant driver for the development of space law and international cooperation of Member States in their space activities . . . Many provisions of the General Assembly resolutions related to outer space have become widely accepted by the international space community.” “Space Law: Resolutions,” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/resolutions.html. The United Nations, a global IGO, coordinates the activities of states in areas of international security and economic development. IGOs like the UN help foster some degree of order and security, helping states work together toward common goals in the international system. collective security a broad alliance of states for the purpose of jointly opposing outside aggression Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) the organ of the United Nations responsible for forming and coordinating state policies on economic and social issues General Assembly the main deliberative body of the United Nations; each member country has one vote intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) organizations whose members are state governments League of Nations a global intergovernmental organization established after World War I; predecessor to the United Nations Permanent 5 (P5) the five states that have permanent membership on the United Nations Security Council: the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, China, and France Secretariat the administrative and bureaucratic organ of the United Nations, headed by the Secretary-General Secretary-General chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the Secretariat Security Council the organ of the United Nations responsible for peace and security, with 5 permanent members and 10 rotating members sustainable development development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs United Nations (UN) a global intergovernmental organization established after World War II and comprised of nearly every state in the world UN peacekeepers international troops operating under the auspices of the United Nations that can be deployed into conflict zones to help create conditions that favor lasting peace

Social Sciences


How Do Regional IGOs Contribute to Global Governance? Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain the purpose of regional IGOs and give examples. Differentiate between the missions of NATO and the EU. Explain how the missions of NATO and the EU have evolved over time. Describe causes of tension within regional IGOs. Discuss the ways regional IGOs contribute to global governance. Much of the work of global governance is done at the regional level. IGOs such as the Arab League , the Organization of American States (OAS), and the African Union (AU) have extended the UN model to regional affairs, and IGOs like the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR) , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) have extended it to subregional affairs. Regional IGOs work to improve the quality of life for people in a given region by encouraging economic development, facilitating trade, and/or enhancing security. They seek to lessen conflict by enabling cooperation and dialogue between neighboring states and by promoting common interests. Regional IGOs may become involved in any issue of common interest to states in the region, such as protection, trade, climate change, migration, or human trafficking. Military alliances focus on the coordination of military policy, while economic IGOs focus more on promoting trade and economic progress. IGOs composed of mostly democratic states can promote and reinforce democratic norms, punishing member states that stray from democratic practices. The African Union took just such steps when it responded to the 2013 military coup in Egypt by suspending Egypt’s membership in the IGO. Aaron Maasho, “African Union Suspends Egypt,” Reuters , July 5, 2013, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protests-africa/african-union-suspends-egypt-idUSBRE9640EP20130705. Over time, regional IGOs may broaden their scope, increasing the levels of cooperation between member states. The idea that cooperation on small, discrete policy areas such as coordinating postal services or air traffic control can create mutual trust and evolve into cooperation on larger, more complex issues is called functionalism . This is illustrated in the case of the European Union, where the original economic union evolved to include a multitude of domestic and foreign policy issues such as the environment, health, labor, security, and immigration. Ultimately, what began as a union of states concerned with individual and regional economic growth developed into an organization espousing common values and objectives that extended to a wide variety of issues traditionally within the sole purview of individual sovereign states. NATO The largest and oldest regional IGO is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) . Headquartered in Brussels, Belgium, NATO is the most powerful military alliance in the world, with 30 member states and combined forces of over two million troops. In 2019, NATO states accounted for 54 percent of global military spending. “Global Military Expenditure Sees Largest Annual Increase in a Decade—Says SIPRI—Reaching $1917 Billion in 2019,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, April 27, 2020, https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2020/global-military-expenditure-sees-largest-annual-increase-decade-says-sipri-reaching-1917-billion#:~:text=(Stockholm%2C%2027%20April%202020),growth%20in%20spending%20since%202010. In an anarchic system, security IGOs increase predictability by making public member states’ military commitments. Alliances are designed to serve as deterrents against attacks on any member states, as potential attackers know they would face the combined strength of the alliance in response. Alliances also coordinate policy responses to international events and to the foreign policy decisions of non-allied states, thus making accidental or impulsive military action less likely. NATO’s Purpose and Current Mission The United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal formed NATO in 1949 to safeguard US allies in Europe by deterring a Soviet attack. In 1952, Greece and Turkey joined NATO, and Germany joined three years later. Article 5 of the NATO Treaty promised collective defense, assuring members that “an attack on one or more of them . . . shall be considered an attack against them all.” “The North Atlantic Treaty,” North Atlantic Treaty Organization, last updated April 10, 2019, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17120.htm. The individual security concerns of each NATO country were subsumed by what they considered the shared existential threat of communist expansion or Soviet nuclear attack. US Secretary of State Dean Acheson signs the Washington Treaty creating NATO in 1949. (credit: “Secretary of State Dean Acheson signs the Washington Treaty, April 4, 1949. President Harry Truman and Vice President Alben Barkley are standing next to him,” by Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer/The US National Archives and Records Administration, CC0 1.0) The Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, creating 15 new states, the largest of which is Russia. Instead of dissolving in response, NATO expanded, ultimately including both many Eastern European states that had previously been allied with the Soviet Union and some former Soviet states. Part of NATO’s original purpose was to forbid “the revival of nationalist militarism in Europe through a strong North American presence on the continent” and to encourage “European political integration.” “A Short History of NATO,” North Atlantic Treaty Organization, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_139339.htm. Thus, after 1991 NATO offered membership to any state that could meet the political and financial obligations of membership. After the end of the Cold War , NATO’s mission shifted from fighting communism to preserving the general security of member states and the international community. With the addition of North Macedonia in 2020, NATO had 30 member states. As of this writing, three additional countries are seeking membership, and another 30, including most of the states of the former Soviet Union, have joined NATO’s “Partnership for Peace” program. Since its formation in 1949, NATO has expanded to include 30 member states. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA 4.0 license) NATO invoked the collective defense agreement of Article 5 for the first time following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States. In response to those attacks, the United States attacked the Taliban government in Afghanistan. The United Nations authorized a NATO-led peace-building force to establish a new government and stabilize the country. NATO can deploy a unified command military force to engage in armed conflict. Since the end of the Cold War, NATO has intervened in international crises, monitored security threats, trained security forces, and undertaken peace-building in Kosovo (since 1999) and Afghanistan (2003–2021). Seth Johnston, “NATO’s Lessons from Afghanistan,” Parameters 49, no. 3 (Autumn 2019): 11–26, https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/natos-lessons-afghanistan. What Kinds of Conflicts Exist within NATO? As with all IGOs, NATO’s primary challenge is managing the varied interests of its members and creating common policy acceptable to all. However, in security organizations like NATO, the influence of the most powerful state is more pronounced. Throughout the Cold War, NATO depended on the promise of US military force. The United States dictates NATO policy more than, say, Germany dictates what happens in the EU and more than the UK influences what happens at the United Nations. In the post-Soviet world, and with the addition of members outside Western Europe, US power in NATO has weakened as the organization has had to balance the needs and concerns of other member states. NATO allies do not always agree. Although NATO has insisted that it is not an “enemy” of Russia, Russia’s aggressive actions in Crimea and toward Ukraine have caused concern among many NATO member states, especially those with borders near Russia. In 2016, NATO called Russia a “challenge [to] the Alliance” and “a source of regional instability.” “The Warsaw Declaration on Transatlantic Security,” North Atlantic Treaty Organization, last updated July 9, 2016, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133168.htm. However, some members of NATO, including some larger Western European states, are reluctant to take any action that might be seen as aggressive toward Russia. Jonathan Masters, “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),” Council on Foreign Relations, last updated May 6, 2021, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/north-atlantic-treaty-organization-nato. Varying conceptions of security threats are natural given the differing size and geographic location of member states. These variations complicate the creation of unified policy priorities and responses. NATO Sends Ships, Planes to Eastern Europe as Ukraine Conflict Heats Up The Russian invasion of Ukraine threatened Europe and the prevailing world order. Because of those threats, and because of the potential direct threat to NATO countries like Poland that border Ukraine, NATO strengthened defenses in the area—even though Ukraine was not a member of NATO at the time. Another source of conflict is burden sharing , that is, how much each country should contribute to the funding and operations of the alliance. The two wealthiest NATO countries, the United States and Germany, each pay 16 percent of the operating costs, and each country is called to allocate 2 percent of its GDP to defense expenditures. Due to the size of the United States’ GDP and its allocation of 3.4 percent of its GDP to defense, in 2020 the United States’ spending on defense made up 69 percent of the overall NATO defense spending. John Haltiwanger, “Trump Keeps Criticizing NATO Allies over Spending. Here’s How NATO’s Budget Actually Works,” Business Insider , last updated December 2, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/how-nato-budget-is-funded-2018-7. Regional Security IGOs Since the Forming of NATO Many regional multipurpose IGOs, such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the African Union , have a security function within a broader framework of regional cooperation and promotion of the common good. Rodrigo Tavares, Regional Security: The Capacity of International Organizations, New York: Routledge, 2010. The United Nations has called upon regional organizations to support peacekeeping work both on their own and in cooperation with the UN. At an August 2015 summit, then-UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said, “The United Nations increasingly shares responsibility for peace and security with regional organizations. We should do everything possible to help them resolve regional problems and to include the states concerned in solutions. At the same time, regional organizations should continue contributing to United Nations peace and security efforts.” “United Nations Shares Responsibility for Peace with Regional Organizations, Says Secretary-General, Opening All-Day Security Council Debate,” UN Security Council, August 18, 2015, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc12011.doc.htm. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) calls itself “the world’s largest security organization.” “Factsheet: What Is the OSCE?” Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, December 5, 2019, https://www.osce.org/whatistheosce/factsheet#:~:text=With%2057%20participating%20States%20in,that%20makes%20a%20lasting%20difference. It works on a broad range of security initiatives, including arms control, terrorism prevention, preventative diplomacy, and peace building. It has offices in member countries that monitor current and potential zones of conflict. The African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) has supported the Somali National Army in its efforts to counter militant groups in the ongoing Somali Civil War. (credit: “On night operations with the African Union Mission in Somalia 11” by AMISOM Public Information/Flickr, Public Domain) Africa has been the most conflict-prone continent in the 21st century. The African Union , the largest and best-resourced regional organization on the continent, has a spotty regional security and peacekeeping record. In 2002, the AU ratified the African Peace and Security Architecture plan, which enlisted regional economic organizations and other partners to address security challenges on the continent. “The African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA),” African Union, last updated October 2, 2012, https://www.peaceau.org/en/topic/the-african-peace-and-security-architecture-apsa. Subregional economic organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States and the Southern African Development Community have played an increasingly prominent role in handling security issues, particularly in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Lesotho, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The European Union Headquartered in Brussels, Belgium, the European Union (EU) is the largest and most influential regional economic IGO. Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (a move referred to as “ Brexit ”) in January of 2020, the EU includes 27 countries across the European continent. The EU began as a small-scale economic organization, but its mission has expanded to promote peace and solidarity among European countries. Although it recognizes the sovereignty of its member states, including their right to withdraw from the organization, the EU has moved far closer to the union of countries than has any other IGO. Most EU countries have adopted the common currency, the euro, and most allow citizens to travel and work across borders within the 26 countries, made up of most EU countries and a few non-EU countries, known as the Schengen Area . Countries that apply for admission to the EU must meet certain entrance criteria, including an established free-market economy and a democratic government. Candidate countries must adopt national legislation that aligns with admission criteria; hence applications may take years to finalize. The Purpose of the EU In 1951, Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands formed the European Union to support their economic recovery from the devastation of World War II. Over the next four decades, the countries’ economies became increasingly integrated. The Maastricht Treaty of 1993, which introduced the common currency and a commitment to common security and foreign policies, established the current structure of the EU. EU member states commit to a common set of values, stated in Article 2 of the EU treaty and reinforced in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, that they consider central to European life: “a society in which inclusion, tolerance, justice, solidarity and non-discrimination prevail.” “Aims and Values,” European Union, accessed January 25, 2022, https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en. In addition to affirming human rights guarantees such as freedom of expression and freedom from torture, the Charter outlaws the death penalty, specifies the equality of the sexes, and protects cultural heritage. “EUR-Lex: Access to European Law,” European Union, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT. The Organizational Structure of the EU Five main bureaucratic and political organs oversee and help guide EU activities and policies. Leaders of European states sit on the European Council , which meets several times a year and, working with the European Parliament , sets the broad priorities of the EU. European citizens directly elect the 705 members of the European Parliament to five-year terms. These members represent seven political groups from left to right on the political spectrum. The European Parliament plays both policy-making and budget-oversight roles. A part of the EU executive branch, the European Commission , promotes EU interests. The European Parliament elects a president to head the 27-member College of Commissioners for a five-year term. The Commission implements EU legislation, represents the EU internationally, and allocates funding for EU projects. Member states nominate commissioners, who are then approved by the European Parliament and serve as the bureaucratic heads of various policy agencies within the EU. The Council of the European Union works more like the United Nations, where each member state represents its own interests to the whole. The Council of the EU is a policy-making body that, along with the European Parliament, discusses and passes laws for the EU. Its members are empowered to commit their home states to any decisions the Council makes. Located in Luxembourg, the Court of Justice of the EU settles disputes arising under the laws of the European Union. The Court can interpret, find countries in violation of, and sanction those who disobey that law. EU Priorities No issue is beyond the scope of the European Union. In many ways it functions as a state in the international system, for its members coordinate policies and share common positions on international issues. The EU develops economic, defense/security, foreign, immigration, and labor policies that apply to each member state. Independence of action in any of these areas would be a concern to the organization. Thus, while member states retain their sovereignty in some senses, the EU has the ability to interfere in domestic issues and to punish noncompliance. Annually, the European Parliament publishes a list of issues that will be on the EU agenda for the coming year. In 2021, the issues included pandemic-related topics such as access to the COVID-19 vaccine and helping economies recover, social and humanitarian issues such as access to food, issues of discrimination, cultural issues including the state of the performing arts, and “some of the big background changes shaping the world we live in today—the digital, environmental and geo-political challenges ahead, from Europe’s borders to its transatlantic relationship.” Étienne Bassot, Ten Issues to Watch in 2021 (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2021), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2021/659436/EPRS_IDA(2021)659436_EN.pdf. Because the primary mission of the EU is to ensure the peace and prosperity of Europe, anything that threatens that mission is an issue of importance for the organization. What Kinds of Conflicts Exist within the EU? When 27 countries, each with its own goals and ambitions, attempt to coordinate a unified response to common issues, tensions and conflicts are inevitable. Addressing the needs and desires of every EU member state and trying to reach agreement on a common policy is difficult, especially when the organization’s mission incorporates so many different policy areas. The economies, politics, and cultures of the EU states differ, and these variations complicate efforts to create a “European identity” beyond the identity of the member states. “Subject Dossier: Tensions within the European Union,” Institute for the World Economy, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.ifw-kiel.de/topics/tension-within-the-european-union/. The EU’s unification of so many traditional state functions, including economic and foreign policies, under a supranational umbrella has led to some backlash. Economic pressures on national governments can lessen the perceived benefit of being a part of the EU. Domestic constituents of wealthier states, who believe they are losing their sovereign identity and subsidizing poorer and weaker states, may become convinced that EU membership is no longer in their country’s best interest. Although only the United Kingdom has entirely withdrawn from EU membership, political groups in many member states include anti–European Union (“ Euroskeptic ”) sentiment in their platforms. The loss of the United Kingdom, a founding member and one of the wealthiest and most powerful states in the EU, represents a significant setback, and managing relations between the UK and the EU in the aftermath of Brexit is an ongoing challenge. UK-EU Post-Brexit Relationship: Rivals or Good Neighbours? The UK exit from the EU has necessitated a reimagining of the relationship between the UK and other European countries. Over time the EU has expanded to include states that have not traditionally displayed the strongest records on democracy or human rights. Democratic backsliding in member states Poland and Hungary and the rising strength of populist and nativist movements in other EU countries threaten democratic norms and institutions. The growth and aggressiveness of Russia and, to a lesser extent, China also pose foreign policy challenges to the EU. Prior to Brexit, some international relations literature discussed the EU as a unified great power capable of acting as a counterweight to Russia or China in international relations. Determining the appropriate role for the EU and how it should address different international relations challenges remains a vital task for the organization. Kristin Archick, “The European Union: Ongoing Challenges and Future Prospects,” EveryCRSReport.com, October 27, 2015–December 3, 2018, https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R44249.html. As former High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Javier Solana notes: “In order to be an international actor, the EU must act in unison and speak with one voice. If each member state acts individually, Europe will find itself relegated to the role of mere spectator in the arena of major world events, with neither the capacity nor the power to influence their outcome.” Javier Solana, “European Foreign Policy and Its Challenges in the Current Context,” in The Search for Europe: Contrasting Approaches (Madrid: BBVA, 2015), https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/european-foreign-policy-and-its-challenges-in-the-current-context/. Regional Economic Organizations Encouraged by the success of the European Union, almost every region in the world has formed an economic IGO and a regional economic development bank. These regional economic organizations (REOs) aim to improve cooperation and facilitate economic development by increasing transparency, funding projects, encouraging free trade, and reducing economic conflict. A handful of regional IGOs, such as the African Union and the Arab League , are more general in nature, but almost all have a substantial focus on economic development. Because the success of an REO depends upon the peace and stability of a region, REOs are often pulled into efforts to enhance regional security. The United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), the successor to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) , is the world’s largest free trade area. Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay established MERCOSUR , the Southern Common Market (Mercado Común del Sur), in 1991 to “accelerate sustained economic development based on social justice, environmental protection, and poverty reduction.” “The 10 Major Regional Trading Blocs in the World Economy,” Institute for Cultural Relations Policy, September 13, 2020, http://culturalrelations.org/the-10-major-regional-trading-blocs-in-the-world-economy/. In subsequent years, other countries in the region, including Venezuela and Bolivia, joined MERCOSUR as full or associate members. In 2017, MERCOSUR suspended Venezuela for failing to comply with democratic principles. Sarah DiLorenzo, “Mercosur Trade Bloc Suspends Venezuela on Democracy Concerns,” AP News , August 5, 2017, https://apnews.com/article/c0d58f7a1c224b4286fea93cc6db1391. In 2011, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru founded a new Latin American trading bloc, the Pacific Alliance. The Pacific Alliance has decreased tariffs in the participating countries and increased trade with the European Union and countries in Asia. Irene Mia, “The Pacific Alliance at 10: What’s Next?” International Institute for Strategic Studies, September 30, 2021, https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2021/09/the-pacific-alliance-at-10. In the Asia-Pacific region, the largest REO is ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations . Since Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand founded ASEAN in 1967, it has expanded to include Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. ASEAN has both security and economic priorities. It has become one of the largest free-trade areas in the world. Other Types of Regional IGOs Some regional IGOs, like the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Arab League, are organized around a common identity. Others, like the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) , are organized around shared economic interests. The 13 member countries of OPEC own approximately 75 to 80 percent of the world’s known oil reserves. OPEC is open to any oil-producing state, and only the most powerful oil-producing states, such as Russia, China, and the United States, have opted not to join the organization. OPEC seeks to “coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic, and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.” Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/. The organization helps its members coordinate oil supply and pricing, which can (but does not always) provide relative stability and predictability in the petroleum market and avoid contentious trade wars. OPEC Prepares for an Age of Dwindling Demand The actions and oil production levels of OPEC countries affect oil prices around the world. Decreasing oil consumption, technological advancements, and efforts to lessen dependence on OPEC oil have provided incentives for some countries to leave OPEC, as Ecuador did effective January 1, 2020. How Do Regional IGOs Contribute to Global Governance? From a realist perspective, which focuses on the primacy of states, IGOs are most important as tools states can use to their own advantage. No IGO can act independently of its member states, and the largest states typically have disproportionate influence over an organization’s actions. While realists might point to persistent war and poverty as evidence of the ineffectiveness of IGOs, liberal internationalists and constructivists tend to highlight how IGOs constrain state action, increase areas of cooperation, draw states together in unprecedented ways, and help alleviate the scourges of war and poverty, even if they have not yet eliminated them. For instance, both the number of people dying in war and the number of states engaged in war have dropped significantly since World War II. “Battle-Related Deaths in State-Based Conflicts, 1946 to 2016” Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/battle-related-deaths-in-state-based-conflicts-since-1946. Also, since they are most directly impacted by the events in their own region, regional IGOs are better able than outside observers to monitor the actions of member states. For instance, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recently held a meeting for regional IGOs to discuss the impact of COVID-19 on various cultural activities around the world and to elicit promises from the participants to monitor and support the cultural and creative sectors in their regions as countries recover from the economic impacts of the pandemic. “Regional Intergovernmental Organizations Pledge to Support Cultural Sector,” UNESCO, April 21, 2020, https://en.unesco.org/news/regional-intergovernmental-organizations-pledge-support-cultural-sector. IGOs that begin with a narrow scope are prone to expansion, particularly when member states see the benefits of working together. Organizations like the United Nations use language—like urging “global citizenship,” promoting “the good of all nations,” and being a member of an “international community”—to encourage states to rise above sovereign individualism and see themselves as contributing to and benefiting from membership in a valuable, cohesive group. The use of language reinforcing desired norms can change state behavior, reducing uncertainty and enhancing cooperation. Regional IGOs, such as the European Union, NATO, and the African Union, work on issues of concern to member states, helping maintain peace and promote prosperity in a given region. Because individual states are members of global and regional IGOs, these organizations are often held captive to the desires of the more powerful states. burden sharing the distribution among group members of the costs a group incurs European Union (EU) a treaty-backed organization of European states that promotes policy coordination, trade, and peaceful relations functionalism a theory of political integration based on the assumption that interstate cooperation on technical issues builds a foundation for cooperation and unification on larger, more complex issues North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) a US-led military alliance with Western European states, originally formed in 1949 to deter Soviet military aggression regional economic organization (REO) an intergovernmental organization with a mission to improve economic coordination, trade, and development in a region

Social Sciences


Non-state Actors: Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain different types and purposes of NGOs. Identify influential NGOs and their areas of emphasis. Discuss the role of NGOs in global governance. Evaluate the contributions of NGOs. While most people are familiar with the work of the largest IGOs like the UN, NATO, or the EU, they may be less familiar with how nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) contribute to global governance. NGOs operate independently of a government or state and are open to the citizens of various countries rather than to the countries themselves. NGOs engage in transnational relations, cross-border interactions that may happen with minimal or no government involvement. In some cases, NGOs collaborate with governments, but often the goals of NGOs and particular governments do not align, and their relationships become conflicted. The Union of International Associations lists over 8,500 NGOs worldwide; depending on how they are counted, that number may be in the tens of thousands. “The Yearbook of International Organizations,” Union of International Associations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://uia.org/yearbook; “Human Rights Activism and the Role of NGOs,” Council of Europe, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.coe.int/en/web/compass/human-rights-activism-and-the-role-of-ngos#Types_of_human. NGOs mobilize individuals around a common concern, and they help facilitate the work of the United Nations and other IGOs. In terms of global governance, NGOs are a part of the global civil society , that is, the arena in which groups come together to engage in collective action in the service of shared interests, values, and goals outside government or profit-based motivations. What Do NGOs Do? In most cases, NGOs are designed to address a transnational concern—like the environment, humanitarian issues, health care, economic development, or conflict cessation—that is important to all and necessitates cooperation across borders. Within these broad areas, the majority of NGOs focus on specific issues, such as saving endangered species, conducting anti-malaria programs in tropical zones, or providing small loans to local farmers in South Asia. Often NGOs are the result of a moral crusade of one or a small group of concerned citizens. For example, Henry Dunant founded the Red Cross in the mid-1800s to aid soldiers injured in war. Some other well-known NGOs include Doctors without Borders, Greenpeace, and the World Wildlife Fund. Some NGOs have thousands of members, while others have only a few hundred, and their budgets and scope of impact are similarly varied. The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) , with close to 100,000 people on staff, is the largest NGO in the world. Although NGOs exist in wealthy countries, most of the work of NGOs happens in the poorest and most conflict-torn areas of the world. In developing countries, NGOs often help fulfill needs that the government cannot, like providing access to adequate health care, nutrition, education, sanitation, or potable water. They also play an active role in the aftermath of natural disasters like hurricanes or floods and provide relief in emergency situations such as refugee or famine crises. What Is an NGO? Chris Nkuwatsibwe of the Uganda NGO Forum provides a basic explanation of NGOs. The work of NGOs is expensive. In 2015, the 50 largest humanitarian NGOs alone spent $18 billion annually. Tom Esslemont, “Exclusive: Which Aid Relief Charities Spend the Most on Fundraising?” Reuters , July 14, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-aid-business/exclusive-which-aid-relief-charities-spend-the-most-on-fundraising-idUSKCN0PP00F20150715. NGOs receive funding from a variety of sources, including member dues, grants from governments, development banks, and philanthropic foundations. Governments or IGOs may contract NGOs to do specific tasks in a broader development plan, and development, humanitarian, or disaster aid is funneled often through NGOs that have an established presence in the region. The World Bank estimates that over 15 percent of total overseas development aid is channeled through NGOs. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees allocates approximately 40 percent of its budget to over 800 partner NGOs. “Figures at a Glance,” UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/figures-at-a-glance.html. Like government aid agencies in other states, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) partners with NGOs to deliver aid and to implement programming. “Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs),” USAID, last updated December 9, 2019, https://www.usaid.gov/partnership-opportunities/ngo. People sympathetic to an organization’s mission provide the largest share of most organizations’ budgets. What Are Some Weaknesses of NGOs? NGOs can only work where governments accept their presence. Governments in strict authoritarian states like North Korea allow virtually no NGO activity, whereas governments in many other countries place almost no restrictions on NGOs. In recent years, however, more governments have placed restrictions on NGO activities in their states. “Global Assault on NGOs Reaches Crisis Point as New Laws Curb Vital Human Rights Work,” Amnesty International, February 21, 2019, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/02/global-assault-on-ngos-reaches-crisis-point/. In particular, human rights groups and religiously affiliated organizations meet with resistance in some countries that view them as undermining the government or “national unity.” Sampling of Major Nongovernmental Organizations NGO Scope of Operation Year Founded Issue Area Website Greenpeace 3 million members, offices in 40 countries 1971 Largest environmental organization in the world https://www.greenpeace.org/international Doctors without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières—MSF) Employs 30,000 and works in more than 70 countries 1971 Medical humanitarian assistance to victims of conflict, natural disasters, epidemics, or health care exclusion https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org / Mercy Corps Works in over 40 countries, reaching 50 million people 1979 Global aid agency, helping people survive crises, escape poverty, and transform communities https://www.mercycorps.org Open Society Foundation Works in 120 countries, spends over $1 billion each year 1993 Promotion of democracy around the world https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org Some criticize NGOs for being too narrowly focused on a specific issue rather than working on larger systemic problems. Some contend that NGOs should better coordinate with other actors rather than working in isolation and that reliance on Western donors leads NGOs to focus on projects that are more easily “sold” instead of those that are arguably more critical. NGOs may not be interested in or able to solve the root cause of a particular problem, and hence the solutions they provide may be temporary. Observers scrutinize NGOS, like many nonprofit organizations, for how much of their budgets go toward fundraising, advertising, and overhead rather than to directly helping their stated cause. What Role Do NGOs Play in Providing Collective Goods? NGOs have been a presence at the UN since its earliest days, when they successfully lobbied the UN to include the promotion of human rights as part of its mission in the UN Charter. Peter Willetts, “The Role of NGOs in Global Governance,” World Politics Review , September 27, 2011, https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/10147/the-growing-role-of-global-ngos-in-global-governance. Approximately 6,000 NGOs currently have “consultative status” with ECOSOC, which allows them to have input into policy discussions and to access UN documents. International treaties provide collective goods, and NGOs have had significant input into the formation of most contemporary treaties, including the Paris Agreement (climate change) and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child . NGOs often form groups that work together to advance common goals—for instance, religious NGOs created the Committee of Religious NGOs at the UN (RUN) , which has its own meetings and coordinates policies and responses to issues of common concern. “About,” Committee of Religious NGOs at the United Nations, accessed February 3, 2022, https://rngos.wordpress.com/. During the years of negotiations over the Rome Treaty, interested NGOs formed a group called the Coalition for the International Criminal Court to help draft and convince states to ratify the treaty. Two other NGO coalitions, the International Campaign to Ban Landmines and the Cluster Munition Coalition , were central in drafting and convincing states to join the Mine Ban Treaty (1997) and the Convention on Cluster Munitions (2010), respectively. NGOs have had the most success lobbying for the adoption of international human rights treaties. Jeffery Huffines, “The Role of N.G.O.S in U.S. Ratification of Human Rights Treaties,” ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law 3, no. 641 (1997): 641-652, https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51089202.pdf. In the 1960s, Peter Benenson formed the influential human rights NGO Amnesty International to pressure governments to release political prisoners. In 2007, Amnesty International protested the sixth anniversary of the arrival of detainees at the controversial US military prison at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. (credit: “Black Hood, Orange Jumpsuit, Bored Cop, ‘Authority of Law’ Statue by James Earle Fraser Outside The Third Guantanamo Hearing at The Supreme Court (Washington, DC)” by Takomabibelot/Flickr, Public Domain) Amnesty International has played an essential role in ensuring the adoption of at least three core international human rights treaties: the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (the “Torture Convention”) (1984), the Rome Treaty (2002), and the Arms Trade Treaty (2014). In 1997, Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize for its work. How Do NGOs Contribute to Global Governance? In addition to drafting and convincing states to sign international treaties, NGOs help IGOs and state-based development agencies. They engage in information sharing and advocacy efforts, assist in emergencies, and play a key role in reinforcing the legitimacy of global governance. “NGOs and the United Nations: Comments for the Report of the Secretary General,” Global Policy Forum, June 1999, https://archive.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/176-general/31440-ngos-and-the-united-nations.html#:~:text=NGOs%20seek%20the%20greatest%20possible,documents%20in%20Resolution%201996%2F31. NGOs also help monitor compliance with international treaties, often, as in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, under authority granted by the treaties themselves. Kal Raustiala, “The Role of NGOs in International Treaty-Making,” in The Oxford Guide to Treaties (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012), https://ssrn.com/abstract=1928937; Rachel Brett, “The Roles and Limits of Human Rights NGOs at the UN,” Political Studies XLIII (1995): 96–110, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1995.tb01738.x. As NGO expert Peter Willets noted, “were it not for NGOs, there would be no international law of human rights and no U.N. machinery to protect them.” Peter Willetts, “The Role of NGOs in Global Governance,” World Politics Review, September 27, 2011, https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/10147/the-growing-role-of-global-ngos-in-global-governance. Due to the nature of their work on the front lines in countries around the world, NGOs often have more information about what is happening in another country than a government or IGO has. This allows NGOs to serve as informal monitors of state behavior. By providing evidence and testimonies, NGOs can draw international attention to situations such as human rights abuses or worsening humanitarian or environmental conditions. Such pressure may cause governments to change their policies or provide critical aid to regions that may have been under-resourced. Sarah Stroup, NGOs’ Interactions with States (New York: Routledge, 2019), https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315268927-3. Unlike IGOs, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are able to exercise influence in given issue areas, improving lives of people around the world and not just within a given region or group of states. Because NGOs are not affiliated with particular states, they rely heavily on charitable funding and can only work directly in states that allow their presence. civil society organizations working for the common good outside the control of government or business interests nongovernmental organization (NGO) a transnational group or entity whose members are private citizens working together on a common interest transnational interactions across state boundaries

Social Sciences


Non-state Actors beyond NGOs Learning Outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to: Discuss different types of non-state actors beyond NGOs and their purposes. Discuss the role of non-state actors in international relations. Explain the factors contributing to the rise of non-state actors. Describe the sources of power for non-state actors. Analyze the ways nontraditional non-state actors present challenges for international relations and state sovereignty. Non-state actors beyond NGOs, like multinational corporations, national identity groups, religious groups, and transnational organized criminal groups, present challenges and opportunities for global governance. Multinational Corporations Multinational corporations (MNCs), also known as multinational enterprises (MNEs), are companies with headquarters in one country that have operations in at least one additional country. These transnational actors influence state policy and international politics, especially in the areas of trade, workers’ rights, and the environment. Because countries rely on the money and jobs multinational corporations generate, and because MNCs possess vast resources, they exert tremendous influence on international affairs. Examples of MNCs According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) , in 2006 almost 80,000 MNCs were active around the world. That number fell to 60,000 in 2018, even as the combined worth of active MNCs rose. Billy Cheung, “What Countries Are Most Multinational Corporations Based In?” Investopedia, last updated August 13, 2020, https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/021715/why-are-most-multinational-corporations-either-us-europe-or-japan.asp. MNCs account for half of global exports, nearly a third of the world’s wealth, and about a fourth of all global employment. In Song Kim and Helen V. Milner, “Multinational Corporations and Their Influence through Lobbying on Foreign Policy,” in Global Goliaths: Multinational Corporations in the 21st Century , eds. C. Fritz Foley, James R. Hines, Jr., and David Wessel (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2021), 497–536. Given the immense wealth and power of the largest MNCs, University of North Carolina instructor and former senior reporter for Foreign Policy David Francis has referred to them as “corporate nations.” Parag Khanna, “These 25 Companies Are More Powerful Than Many Countries,” Foreign Policy , March/April 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/03/15/these-25-companies-are-more-powerful-than-many-countries-multinational-corporate-wealth-power/. Apple, for example, is wealthier than 90 percent of the world’s countries. Paul Dughi, “Apple, Amazon Wealthier Than More Than 90% of the World’s Countries,” Stronger Content , March 29, 2021, https://medium.com/stronger-content/apple-amazon-wealthier-than-more-than-90-of-the-worlds-countries-17dbae8b98fe#:~:text=Now%20worth%20a%20cool%20%242.2,96%25%20of%20countries%20on%20Earth. The most profitable MNCs are in the tech, oil, and finance industries. Alex Gray, “These Are the World’s 10 Biggest Corporate Giants,” World Economic Forum, January 16, 2017, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/worlds-biggest-corporate-giants/. About 45 percent of MNCs are headquartered in the United States, including Exxon Mobile, Amazon, Coca-Cola, Walmart, Apple, and financial giant Berkshire Hathaway. US multinational enterprises employed 42.5 million workers worldwide in 2017, with the largest number of workers in China, the United Kingdom, Mexico, India, and Canada. Cheung, “What Countries.” In the globalized world, MNCs are less bound to remain headquartered in their state of origin. As international relations specialist Parag Khanna notes, MNCs “choose locations for personnel, factories, executive suites, or bank accounts based on where regulations are friendly, resources abundant, and connectivity seamless.” Parag Khanna, “These 25 Companies Are More Powerful Than Many Countries,” Foreign Policy , March/April 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/03/15/these-25-companies-are-more-powerful-than-many-countries-multinational-corporate-wealth-power/. What Are Some Criticisms of MNCs? By their very nature, MNCs prioritize private goods (profit) over public goods. While they have the power to do “good” in their host countries, they often choose to set up operations in those countries because the countries are too weak to prevent them from exploiting labor and resources. Many developing countries do not force MNCs to pay minimum wages, to provide health care, to follow labor laws, or to abide by environmental regulations. In fact, the enormous wealth of MNCs enables them to disregard any rules a weak state has in place or to lobby against the future implementation of such regulations. MNCs are notorious for seeking profit above social benefits or even benefits to their country of origin. Many of the largest and most profitable MNCs are structured to avoid taxation and regulation and will operate wherever profit margins are highest. What Is a Multinational? International law seeks to keep up with the actions of hugely influential multinational corporations. Do MNCs Contribute to Global Governance? Although they may not seem as political as IGOs and NGOs, the transnational activities of MNCs have transformed the nature of international trade and investment. Decisions MNCs make have enormous implications for a wide range of policy issues—like taxation, investment protection, and immigration—across many countries with different political and economic institutions. Song Kim and Helen V. Milner, “Multinational Corporations and Their Influence through Lobbying on Foreign Policy,” forthcoming in Multinational Corporations in a Changing Global Economy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution), https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/hvmilner/files/revised_manuscript_submission_2_march.pdf. MNCs do exert some positive influence over international relations. Because MNCs favor stable and secure environments, states looking to lure MNCs have a vested interest in maintaining stability and in settling disagreements diplomatically rather than through disruptive conflict. Because they benefit from seamless operations, MNCs facilitate transportation and communication across borders by building compatible infrastructures like phone lines, Internet access, and standardized pricing in countries around the world. Trade organizations like the WTO regulate MNCs, and trade treaties help determine the norms of behavior in trade and intellectual property. What's the Role of Multinational Companies in Fueling Conflicts? When multinational corporations invest in a country, they can be funding—either directly or indirectly—that country’s activities, including its military conflicts. Because they generate money, MNCs also have considerable clout with host governments and have the power to encourage states to uphold human rights and environmental protections. In addition to providing jobs for people in developing countries, MNCs can reinvest in local economies—for instance, by donating money for schools or hospitals or providing community services. MNCs can and often do partner with or donate to NGOs to benefit local populations in developing countries. In 2000, the United Nations created the Global Compact to address the way MNCs could play a role in global governance. Jonas Borgmeier, “Addressing the Global Governance Deficit—Contributions of Corporate Social Responsibility and the UN Global Compact,” November 16, 2020, https://jonasborgmeier.eu/posts/csr-ungc.html. The Global Compact asks companies to self-regulate by following set principles around human rights, the environment, and anti-corruption efforts. Almost 15,000 companies have joined the Global Compact, and businesses and states have committed to promoting development goals and sustainability. United Nations Global Compact, https://www.unglobalcompact.org/. National Identity Groups Members of national identity groups share a common ethnic, religious, or linguistic identity and object to the political or territorial status quo. Typically, these groups are struggling for greater autonomy or recognition. They may be clustered in a specific region of a country, and they often represent a minority in that region, with grievances stemming from real or perceived marginalization and oppression that has left the group at a disadvantage. Even when these groups are primarily located within one state (such as the Rohingya in Myanmar or Basques in Spain), migration and globalization have a way of internationalizing their concerns. These groups often demand more representation in government, the protection of linguistic or religious traditions, and the right to establish institutions distinct from those of the country in which they reside. National identity groups may seek regional autonomy (relative independence from a central government), secession (breaking away from a state), or irredentism (reclaiming land). Regional Autonomy Movements Groups seeking greater regional autonomy are among those that are least likely to directly impact international relations. Autonomous regions within states have considerable control over regional governance, including education, language, and local laws. Examples of autonomous regions include the Åland Islands (Finland), South Tyrol (Italy), Kosovo (the former Yugoslavia), Cordillera and Mindanao (the Philippines), Zanzibar (Tanzania), Greenland (Denmark), and Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (the UK). Regional autonomy is often a relatively peaceful solution to accommodate the demands of ethnic minorities. Secessionist Movements Some groups are not interested in regional autonomy or other concessions from the government but instead favor establishing an independent state. In democratic states, these secessionist movements may resolve nonviolently via a sovereignty referendum that asks members of the minority group to vote on whether they want independence. South Sudan, East Timor, and Montenegro gained independence following referendums. Other groups win independence through warfare. Such was the case in Eritrea, although that victory was followed by a referendum declaring the Eritrean public’s desire for independence. Other ethnic groups’ efforts to gain independence have been less successful. For example, the efforts of citizens of the Catalonia region of Spain and of the Kurds in Iraq, Syria, and Turkey have been met with silence or oppression. In 2020 there were 60 active secessionist movements, with only one or two expected to lead to independence. Ryan Griffiths, “60 or So Secessionist Movements around the World Want Independence in 2020. Guess Which One Might Succeed.” Washington Post , January 3, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/01/03/or-so-secessionist-movements-around-world-want-independence-guess-which-one-might-succeed/. Catalan separatists rally in support of independence from Spain in 2014. (credit: “Demanding to vote!” by Joan Campderrós-i-Canas/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) When independence movements are successful, a new state joins the world community (UN membership is considered the marker of an independent state), maps are redrawn, and new bilateral and multilateral agreements can be negotiated. Numerous states joined that community in the 1960s as colonialism fell around the world. Irredentist Movements A region under the political control of one country but ethnically tied to another is called an irredenta . Often, the ethnic group in the region constitutes a minority in the state where they live but a majority in a neighboring state. This particular configuration is ripe for conflict, either because people within the region want to leave their state to join their ethnic kin or because the country where the ethnic group is a majority wants to “reclaim” their lost territory and reunite the ethnic group. German Kim, “Irredentism in Disputed Territories and Its Influence on the Border Conflicts and Wars,” The Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies 3, no. 1 (2016): 87–101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26664127. For instance, during World War II Hitler claimed that he wanted “Germany for the Germans,” which gave him cause to expand German borders to include the Germanic people living in neighboring countries. More recently, Russian President Vladimir Putin used a similar excuse when he occupied the Crimea, a territory in the country of Ukraine that is heavily populated by ethnic Russians. As these examples suggest, irredentist rhetoric can be cover for a traditional political strategy of territorial expansion to gain power and influence. Crimea Four Years after the Russian Takeover Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea and its aftermath suggest Russia’s continuing cultural and territorial goals in the region. Religious Non-state Actors According to the Pew Research Center, approximately 84 percent of the population in the world identifies with a religion. There are thousands of different religious groups in the world, but 77 percent of the world’s religious adherents are part of one of the five largest religions: Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, or Judaism. “The Global Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center, December 18, 2012, https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/. Religious organizations or groups of adherents to a faith are known as religious non-state actors (RNAs) . RNAs include individuals motivated by religious beliefs, by specific churches, by religious-based NGOs, and even by the transnational nature of the religious beliefs themselves. The Catholic Church has historically played a prominent role in international relations, and the Holy See, the governing body of the Church, has observer status at the United Nations. Given that there are almost one billion Catholics worldwide, the Pope has tremendous global influence. “US Embassy Cables: Diplomat Reveals Vatican’s ‘Unhelpful’ Role in Middle East Peace Process,” The Guardian , July 3, 2001, https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/1792. RNAs can organize themselves or specific categories of their work into NGOs. The International Islamic Charitable Organization and Catholic Relief Services are examples of this type of NGO. Many religious groups use NGOs to help the marginalized and the impoverished, extending their reach far beyond their local community. The Transnational Nature of Religion Religious beliefs are transnational; there are few religions the adherents of which all reside in one state. Adherents to a given faith often feel a form of kinship or solidarity with others of that faith regardless of regional, linguistic, ethnic, or practical differences. Jews in the United States who have never visited Israel may feel a kinship with the Israelis. Muslims worldwide orient themselves toward Mecca to pray even if they have never been to Saudi Arabia. Terrorist attacks on religious groups, such as the bombings in Sri Lanka in 2019 on Christians celebrating the Easter holiday, are seen (and may in fact be intended) as an attack on the religion itself, not just on certain individuals. The Role of Religious Leaders Individual religious leaders can use their platform to comment upon and try to influence world affairs. Exiled religious cleric Ayatollah Khomeini instigated the Iranian Islamic revolution of 1979. The Dalai Lama of Tibet put forward a democratic constitution, based on Buddhist principles and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as a model for a future free Tibet. For his work in addressing collective problems including “international conflicts, human rights issues, and global environmental problems,” the Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. “The Nobel Peace Prize for 1989,” The Nobel Prize, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1989/press-release/ From the 1930s to the 1950s, Catholic Popes Pius XI and Pius XII condemned communism as antithetical to the Catholic faith and helped fuel anti-Soviet sentiment among Catholics worldwide. In 2020, Pope Francis urged governments around the world to use the COVID-19 pandemic to focus on “creating a fairer market economy, addressing the rapidly escalating dangers of climate change, and providing basic healthcare to their citizens.” Joshua J. McElwee, “Pope Exhorts World Leaders: Use Pandemic to Create Fairer Economy,” National Catholic Reporter , February 8, 2021, https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/pope-exhorts-world-leaders-use-pandemic-create-fairer-economy. A mural depicting Ayatollah Khomeini outside the former US embassy in Tehran reflects his lasting influence. (credit: “Imam Khomeini” by Kamyar Adl/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Violence in the Name of Religion Schisms within religions, such as between Catholics and Protestants in the Christian faith, between ultra-Orthodox and Reform movements in Judaism, or between Sunnis and Shiites in Islam, can lead to enduring conflict and even violence. Religious leaders can position threats to the faith from outside as a rallying or unifying force. Osama bin Laden, former leader of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization, issued a manifesto against “Christian invaders” in Muslim holy lands as a call to all Muslims, not just Sunni Muslims, to join his fight. Similarly, the 1948 establishment of the state of Israel and the subsequent displacement of Palestinian Muslims met with resistance from both Sunnis and Shiites. RNAs can form communities of the faithful to advocate for changes in far-flung corners of the world where they believe their “brothers and sisters” are persecuted or oppressed. Jayson Casper, “The 50 Countries Where It’s Hardest to Follow Jesus in 2022,” Christianity Today , January 19, 2022, https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2022/january/christian-persecution-2022-countries-killed-world-list.html. Although many RNAs advocate for peace and devote themselves to humanitarian missions, others engage in conflict “for the good”—that is, they believe their cause is so important that they are justified in using any means, including violence, to achieve it. This level of conviction propelled Catholic soldiers during the Crusades in the Middle Ages, and it motivates several notable religious groups today, including al-Qaeda and the militant Hindu nationalist group Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Lauren Frayer, “The Powerful Group Shaping the Rise of Hindu Nationalism in India,” NPR, May 3, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/706808616/the-powerful-group-shaping-the-rise-of-hindu-nationalism-in-india. Ethnic tribal militias like the Tuareg, pictured here, have joined with other militant Islamic groups in attempts to secure an independent homeland in Northern Mali. (credit: “Al-Qaeda draws Maghreb militants to Mali Al-Qaida rejoint par ses militants du Maghreb au Mali” by Magharebia/Flickr, CC BY 2.0) How Do RNAs Contribute to Global Governance? It is difficult to classify a particular RNA and that RNA’s role in global governance as “good” or “bad.” Some RNAs help reinforce norms and participate in conversations about the global good, but others promote violence and challenge global governance norms. The net contribution of a single RNA can be mixed. The Muslim Brotherhood provides a telling example. Although the Egyptian government considered the Muslim Brotherhood an illegal political movement and classified it as a terrorist organization, the Brotherhood provided goods and services like hospitals and schools to Egyptian neighborhoods where the government was not providing those services. During periods of Egyptian democracy, the Brotherhood ran candidates for office and participated in the legislature. Zachary Laub, “Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” Council on Foreign Relations, last updated August 15, 2019, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/egypts-muslim-brotherhood. Thus the Brotherhood has engaged in both humanitarian and politically democratic activities and illegal, antidemocratic, and violent ones. Violent Non-state Actors Transnational actors that flagrantly violate established laws and employ violence to achieve their goals are considered “illegitimate.” They endanger security, stability, and the rule of law and are condemned under international law as a threat to global governance. Neal A. Pollard, “Globalization's Bastards: Illegitimate Non-State Actors in International Law,” Low Intensity Conflict and Law Enforcement 11, no. 2–3 (2002): 210–238, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0966284042000279009?journalCode=flic20. Like RNAs, sometimes the lines between “legitimate” and “illegitimate” transnational actors are blurred. Some nationalist and religious groups may pose a threat to peace and stability only in particular regions or for particular groups. Sometimes whether a non-state actor is considered legitimate depends on who you ask—as a saying from the Cold War era goes, “One person’s terrorist is another person’s freedom fighter.” This discussion focuses on two main types of violent non-state actors: transnational organized crime (TOC) syndicates and terrorist organizations. These groups engage in various types of illegal activity including financial crimes, cybercrimes, and human rights violations. Their membership may be multinational, regional, or country-specific, but their crimes are transnational, involving activities across borders and in multiple states. They pose a significant threat to international and domestic security, and countering that threat requires a coordinated international response. Criminal networks flourish in weak states —those without functioning central governments, sophisticated criminal justice agencies, communications, or traditions of rule of law. Weak states often only nominally control certain regions of their countries, and in uncontrolled regions it is particularly easy to evade the rule of law. Violent NSAs also flourish under conditions of poverty and limited economic prospects, when people can be easily tempted by the potential for wealth or “revenge” against groups they believe have wronged them. Transnational Organized Crime Organized crime groups operate in almost every region of the world, and transnational organized crime (TOC) threatens international peace and security. “Transnational Organized Crime (TOC),” Office of the Director of National Intelligence, https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/NIC_toc_foldout.pdf. Some groups have stable and definable memberships; others are more loosely organized. The Sicilian Mafia and various transnational street gangs are among the most prominent TOC syndicates. “Transnational Organized Crime,” What We Investigate, The Federal Bureau of Investigation, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/organized-crime. TOCs engage in a variety of illicit activities, including smuggling, human trafficking, weapons trafficking, wildlife or artifacts trade, intellectual property theft, counterfeiting, cybercrimes, and money laundering, to fulfill their purpose: to make money. TOC syndicates rarely engage in only one illicit activity. International drug trafficking is the second largest source of TOC revenue, second only to counterfeiting, and drug trafficking organizations, many of which are affiliated with terrorist groups, are among the highest-profile TOCs. “Transnational Organized Crime: A Growing Threat to National and International Security,” National Security Council Archives, accessed January 25, 2022, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/nsc/transnational-crime/threat. How Somalia’s Pirates Make Money Poverty is a main cause of international crime, including piracy. This video explains how pirates make money in one of the poorest countries on Earth, Somalia. TOC activities contribute to government corruption. In weak states, TOC groups bribe or ally with government officials, jeopardizing economic development, undermining the rule of law, and threatening government stability. As the 2018 World Atlas of Global Issues puts it, “Corruption, trafficking, poverty, conflicts, and terrorism all sustain and reinforce one another.” “Transnational Crime,” World Atlas of Global Issues, 2018, https://espace-mondial-atlas.sciencespo.fr/en/topic-strategies-of-transnational-actors/article-3A13-EN-transnational-crime.html. Globally, TOCs test international law, make the expansion of democracy more challenging, and siphon money away from governments and people. Transnational organized crime represents a global governance problem that cannot be satisfactorily addressed by one government alone. Criminals are typically headquartered in one country, but their crimes cross state borders and break both domestic and international laws. Because TOC groups encourage and depend upon government and law enforcement corruption, and because they tend to flourish in states that lack strong domestic criminal justice organizations that could investigate and prosecute them, a coordinated international effort is needed to fight this type of crime. Domestic criminal justice organizations such as the FBI in the United States coordinate with comparable organizations in other states and with crime-fighting IGOs like the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime to stem the activities of TOC organizations. Neil Walsh, UN Expert on Cybercrime In this video, Neil Walsh, chief of the UN cybercrime team, talks about the role of the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime in battling international cybercrime. Terrorist Organizations Terrorism is the use or threat of violence by non-state actors to influence citizens or governments in the pursuit of political or social change. In the wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States, terrorism became a global security concern. Globalization and advances in technology have allowed terrorist organizations to access funding and recruits from far beyond the organization’s headquarters and to spread their message via social media. In an article published only weeks before the 9/11 attacks, Paul Pillar of the Brookings Institute said, “In today’s globalizing world, terrorists can reach their targets more easily, their targets are exposed in more places, and news and ideas that inflame people to resort to terrorism spread more widely and rapidly than in the past.” Paul R. Pillar, “Terrorism Goes Global: Extremist Groups Extend Their Reach Worldwide,” Brookings, September 1, 2001, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/terrorism-goes-global-extremist-groups-extend-their-reach-worldwide/. Like most other transnational issues, terrorism is a threat to all states, and it is impossible to envision a single-state solution. Terrorists are motivated by some combination of nationalism, ideology, and religion. Islamist terrorist groups like al-Qaeda, the Islamic State (ISIS or ISIL), and Boko Haram have been responsible for the deadliest terrorist acts in the 21st century. “Terrorism by the Numbers,” Global Era Issues, World 101, accessed January 25, 2022, https://world101.cfr.org/global-era-issues/terrorism/terrorism-numbers. Like other religious extremist groups, Islamist terrorists want to impose their version of their religion on all spheres of life, including the political state. The desire for national independence in places like Palestine and Northern Ireland, as well as extremist ideological beliefs such as White nationalism or neo-Nazism, can also motivate terrorist attacks. International cooperation is crucial to monitor and prevent terrorist activities. Following 9/11, the UN Security Council formed the Counter-Terrorism Committee, which coordinates international counterterrorism measures. United Nations Security Council, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/ctc/. In 2006, the General Assembly called on member states to focus on the underlying factors that contribute to terrorism, including weak institutions, ongoing conflict, and human rights violations. Most regional IGOs have counterterrorism programs. INTERPOL, the International Criminal Police Organization, is an IGO that coordinates the efforts of the police in countries around the world. NGOs contribute to counterterrorism activities as well. IGOs and NGOs work in tandem to help states implement global counterterrorism strategies. There are other non-state actors as well, some legitimate and some not. Corporations, religious groups, nationalist and ethnic groups, terrorists, and organized criminal groups all impact international relations. Adetula, Victor, Redie Bereketeab, and Cyril Obi, eds. Regional Economic Communities and Peacebuilding in Africa: Lessons from ECOWAS and IGAD . New York: Routledge, 2020. Barnett, Michael, and Martha Finnemore. Rules for the World: International Organizations and Global Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004. Bosco, David. Five to Rule Them All: The UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009. ____. Rough Justice: The International Criminal Court in a World of Power Politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014. Bradford, Anu. The Brussels Effect: How the European Union Rules the World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2021. Cambanis, Thanassis, Dina Esfandiary, Sima Ghaddar, Michael Wahid Hanna, Aron Lund, and Renad Mansour. Hybrid Actors: Armed Groups and State Fragmentation in the Middle East. New York: The Century Foundation Press, 2019. Davies, Thomas. NGOs: A New History of Transnational Civil Society. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014. Ellis, Stephen. This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organized Crime. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016. Hannay, David. New World Disorder: The UN After the Cold War—An Insider’s View . London: I.B. Tauris, 2008. Hurd, Ian. International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice. 4th ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2020. Keck, Margaret, and Kathryn Sikkink. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in Global Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998. Lessing, Benjamin. Making Peace in Drug Wars: Crackdowns and Cartels in Latin America . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2017. Oksamytna, Kseniya, and John Karlsrud, eds. UN Peace Operations and International Relations Theory. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2020. Park, Susan, and Jonathan Strand, eds. Global Economic Governance and the Development Practices of the Multilateral Development Banks . New York: Routledge, 2015. Sayle, Timothy Andrew. Enduring Alliance: A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019. Tanaka, Yoshifumi. International Law of the Sea . 3rd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019. Wright, Lawrence. The Terror Years: From Al-Qaeda to the Islamic State. New York: Vintage, 2017. multinational corporations (MNCs) companies based in one state but with operations in other states national identity groups groups that share a common language, ancestry, and culture and that seek political independence religious non-state actors (RNAs) transnational organizations or entities that promote a certain religion and engage in international politics on behalf of or in accordance with that religion’s views terrorism the use of violence by non-state actors against civilians in order to achieve a political goal terrorist organizations non-state organizations that use terrorism to achieve political goals transnational organized crime (TOC) groups that employ violence and corruption in for-profit criminal activity that crosses state boundaries weak states states that have difficulty fulfilling basic tasks such as managing the economy and enforcing laws

Social Sciences